CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL, CULTURAL AND LEGAL/ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Early Antecedents China -Test and testing programs first came into China as early as 2200BC -The purpose is in the means of selecting who, of many applicants which obtain government jobs Han Dynasty (206 B.C.E. to 220 C.E.) -test batteries were quite common -tests related to such diverse topics as civil law, military affairs, agriculture, revenue, and geography Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 C.E.) -a national multistage testing program involved local and regional testing centers equipped with special testing booths Song Dynasty -emphasis was placed on knowledge of classical literature Ancient Greco-Roman -Attempts to categorize people’s personality types in terms of bodily fluid Charles Darwin and Individual Differences Charles Darwin -“Higher forms of life evolved partially because of differences among individual forms of life within a species” -“Those with the best or most adaptive characteristics survive at the expense of those who are less fit and that the survivors pass their characteristics on to the next generation” Francis Galton -Classify people according to their natural gifts and to ascertain their deviation from an average -Pioneered the use of a statistical concept central to psychological experimentation and testing: the coefficient of correlation Experimental Psychology and Psychophysical Measurement Wilhelm Wundt -First experimental psychology laboratory, founded at the University of Leipzig in Germany James Mckeen Cattell -Coined the term “mental test” Students of Wundt Charles Spearman -originating the concept of test reliability -building the mathematical framework for the statistical technique of factor analysis Victor Henri -suggest how mental test could be used to measure higher mental process Emil Kraeplin -word association techniques as a formal test Lightner Witmer -little known writer of clinical psychology and school psychology The Evolution of Intelligence and Standardized Achievement Test 1895 – Binet and Henri published several articles in which they argued for the measurement of abilities such as memory and social comprehension 1905 – Binet and Simon published 30-item measuring scale of intelligence designed to help identify mentally retarded Paris school children 1939 – David Wechsler introduced a test designed to measure adult intelligence (Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (W-B)) World War 1 – Group Intelligence tests came into being in the United States in response to the military’s need The Measurement of Personality World War 1 -Robert Woodworth developed Personal Data Sheet (measure of adjustment and emotional stability) -Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory (first widely self-report test of personality) Projective Test -an individual is assumed to project into some ambiguous stimulus his or her own unique needs, fears, hopes and motivation -Rorschach Inkblots (best known projective test) Culture and Assessment Culture -the socially transmitted behavior patterns, beliefs and products of work of a particular population, community or group of people. Henry Goddard -used interpreters in test administrator, employed a bilingual psychologist and administered mental tests to selected immigrants-mentally-retarded -written excessively on the genetic nature of mental deficiency, but he did not summarily conclude that these findings were the result of hereditary Some Issues regarding Culture and Assessment Verbal Communication -the examiner and the examinee must speak the same language Non-verbal Communication and behavior -facial expressions, finger and hand signs and shifts in one’s position in space may all convey messages Test User Qualifications Level A: Tests or aids that can adequately be administered, scored and interpreted with the aid of the manual and a general orientation to the kind of institution or organization in which one is working (for instance, achievement or proficiency tests) Level B: Tests or aids that require some technical knowledge of test construction, use of supporting psychological, educational fields- statistics, individual differences, psychology of adjustment, personnel psychology, guidance (aptitude tests and adjustment inventories applicable to normal populations). Level C: Tests and aids that require substantial understanding of testing and supporting psychological fields together with supervised experience in the use of these devices (for instance, projective tests, individual mental tests). Testing People with Disabilities 1. Transforming the test into a form that can be taken by test taker 2. Transforming the responses of test taker so that they are score-able 3. Meaningfully interpreting the test data The Rights of Test Takers 1. The Rights of Informed Consent - Testtakers have a right to know why they are being evaluated, how the test data will be used and what (if any) information will be release to whom - If a testtaker is incapable of providing an informed consent to testing, such consent may be obtained from a parent or a legal representative ● (a) do not use deception unless it is absolutely necessary ● (b) do not use deception at all if it will cause participants emotional distress ● (c) fully debrief participants 2. The Rights to be informed of test findings - Testtakers have a right to be informed, in language they can understand, of the nature of the findings with respect to a test they have taken - They are also entitled to know what recommendations are being made as consequence of the test data - Testtakers have the rights also if the test results are voided 3. The Right to Privacy and Confidentiality - Privacy - freedom of the individual to pick and choose for himself the time, circumstances, and particularly the extent to which the he wishes to share or withhold from others his attitudes, beliefs, behavior, and opinions - Privileged – it is information that is protected by law from disclosure in a legal proceeding - Confidentiality – protects client’s from disclosure outside the courtroom 4. The Right to the least stigmatizing label - The Standards advise that the least stigmatizing labels should always be assigned when reporting test results.
