Systems
ITU Management Faculty
Management Information Systems
Nihan YILDIRIM
Definitions
 Ackoff: “A system is a set of two or more elements
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that satisfies the following conditions:
The behaviour of each element has an effect on the
behaviour of the whole
The behaviour of the elements and their effect on the
whole are interdependent
However subgroups of elements are formed, each
has an effect on the behaviour
of the whole and none has an independent effect on
it”
Or, more simply:
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Weinberg: “A system is a way of looking at the world”
Systems don’t really exist!
Just a convenient way of describing things (like ‘sets’)
What is a system?
 Basic Principles:
 Everything is connected to everything else
 You cannot eliminate the observer
 Most truths are relative
 Most views are complementary
 Defining Systems
 Elements of a system description
 Example systems
 Purposefulness, openness, hardness, …
 Describing systems
 Choosing a boundary
 Describing behaviour
System Lifecycle
The period extending from inception of development activities, based on an
identified need or objective, through decommissioning and disposal of the
system.
Retirement,
Disposal &
Replacement
Define
Concept
Requirements
Development
Operation,
Operation
Maintenance
,
&
& Evaluation
Evaluation
Integration
Deployment
& Test
Requirements
Investigate
Alternatives
Development
The system
life cycle
Integration
Verification
& Test
Design&
Development
System
Implementation
Production
There is no single life cycle model. The system life cycle is different for
different industries, products and customers.
Elements of system
Elements of system
Definition of the System
 different than a group or a collection
 an entity which maintains its existence
through the mutual interaction of its parts.
 component, interaction, goal – input, process, output

A set of elements or components that work together and
interact to accomplish goals (at least 2 elements directly or
indirectly dependent on others)
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A combination of components working together
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A Windows system is a personal computer running the Windows operating
system. A desktop publishing system is a computer running desktop
publishing software.
Components can be subsystems
a computer system includes both hardware and software.
An organization or methodology

The binary numbering system, for instance, is a way to count using only two
digits.
 Simple Definition
 A system is a construct or collection of interrelated elements,
attributes and relationships that together produce outputs not
obtainable by the elements alone.
 The outputs include system level qualities, properties,
characteristics, functions, behavior and performance.
System
Products
Input
System
Elements
People
Output
Processes
System Elements
•
•
System is composed of elements that satisfy one or more
requirements.
System Elements
–
People
• Personnel
–
Products
•
•
•
•
•
–
Hardware
Software
Facilities
Data
Materials
Processes
• Services
• Techniques
Ref: MIL-STD-499B
System
Open systems
ENVIRONMENT
 Aim- Goals – the need for the system
System
Common Goal
OBJECT A
OBJECT B
(Sub-system?)
Attributes
Attributes
Interactions
Boundaries
maintains the system
A system is an entity which maintains its
existence through the mutual interaction
of its parts.
Hard to draw
 objects – the parts, elements, or variables
within the system. These may be physical or
abstract or both, depending on the nature of
the system.
 attributes – the qualities or properties of the
system and its objects.
 internal relationships among its objects.
 Environment
System > A+B
 A system, then, is a set of things that affect
one another within an environment and form
a larger pattern that is different from any of
the parts.
System
 Something beyond cause and effect.

Rather than simply A affects B, there is an implication that B
also affects A. (Ex. particle, atom, molecule, cell, organ, person,
community, state, nation, world, solar system, galaxy, and
universe, in increasing levels of complexity).
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In truth there is only one system, "the Universe," and all other
systems are really just sub-systems of this larger system.
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The relevant question has to do with where one chooses to
draw boundaries
System Components and
Concepts
 System Environment
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Elements and the relevant attributes of the systems that are not
part of the system, but can affect the system when changed
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Variables that can affect the state of the system (the relevant
attributes of the system)
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Ex: Logic is the environment of mathematics
 System boundary
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Defines the system and distinguishes it from everything
else
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Systems are not independent. They are a part of their environments.
Information systems: generally integrated and interact with other
systems.
But they are not open ended
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Defining Environments
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Systems and their environments are objectively defined. BUT:
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The definition and scope depends on the goal of the research.
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Systems and environments can vary from one observer to another
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EX: Architect: The building is a system including electrical, heating,
water systems
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Mechanical Engineer: Heating system is a system, building is its
environment
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Social psychologist: Family is the system. House is the environment
(not interested in heating etc.
System
The fundamental systems-interactive
paradigm of organizational analysis
features the continual stages of
-input,
-throughput (processing),
-and output,
which demonstrate the concept of
openness/closedness
Example:
 Organization is made up of many
administrative and management
functions, products, services, groups and
individuals.
 If one part of the system is changed, the
nature of the overall system is often
changed, as well –
 By definition then, the system is systemic,
meaning relating to, or affecting, the
entire system.
System Example
Elements
System
Inputs
Movie
Actors, director,
staff, sets,
equipment
Processing
elements
Filming,
editing,
special
effects,
distribution
Goal
Outputs
Finished film
delivered to
movie studio
Entertaining
movie, film
awards,
profits
System Components and
Concepts
 System and its Environment – System Perspective Model
System Components and
Concepts
 State of the system:
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Total of relevant attributes of the system
within a time
period.
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All systems have unlimited attributes.
The “goal” of the research defines the relevant attributes
State of the environment:
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Set of relevant attributes in the environment of a system in a specific
period of time
 System boundary
System Components and
Concepts
 System Event:
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occurs within the system or in its
environment in a specific period of time
Changes the structural attributes of the
system and environment
Changes the state of the system
System Components and
Concepts
 Act of the system:
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Not necessary nor obligatory for the system
Autonomous events of the systems –
proposed by the system itself
Internal changes in the status of the system
elements are necessary and obligatory
Organic changes
System Components and
Concepts
 System Reaction:
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A system event (with an expected system reaction time)
Necessarily caused by another event (consciously) in the system or in systems
environment – Cause is sufficient for reaction
All events may not cause the same reaction
All reactions may not have the same causes (events)
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Turning the key : motor stars
 System Response:
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A system event
Essentially caused by another event in the system or in its environment stimulus factor - Cause is necessary but not sufficient for response
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Turning on the lights : response to dark
 System Behaviour:
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A system event
Necessarily and essentially causes another event in the system
or in its environment.
Changes in the system that starts another event
Causes of the acts, reactions and responses are important- Results/effects of the
behaviour is important.
System Behaviour
Behavior is perceived by the an external observer (usually
user or external entity).
Behaviour
=
Functionality
.....
What functions the system performs
.....
How Well the functions should
perform
+
Time-Related
Performance
Since behavior is defined by both functionality and performance, always define the
functionality with associated performance criteria !
System characteristics
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wholeness and interdependence (the whole is more than the sum
of all parts),
correlations,
perceiving causes,
chain of influence,
hierarchy,
suprasystems and subsystems,
self-regulation and control,
goal-oriented,
interchange with the environment,
inputs/outputs,
the need for balance
change and adaptability (morphogenesis)
System Types
 Simple vs. complex
 Simple systems
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possible to define system outputs from known inputs
Does not require high level system analysis and review
Chair, with not moving parts
A Complex System
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Multitude of parts and relationships
involves a number of elements, arranged in structure(s)
which can exist on many scales.
go through processes of change that are not describable
by a single rule nor are reducible to only one level of
explanation, these levels often include features whose
emergence cannot be predicted from their current
specifications. Ex: Genetic Algorithms, Neural Networkslearn by example.
Requires high system analysis and review
System Types
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Open vs. closed :
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Open system
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regularly exchanges feedback with its external environment
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porous boundaries through which useful feedback can readily be
exchanged and understood.
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continuously exchange feedback with their environments,
analyze that feedback, adjust internal systems as needed to
achieve the system’s goals, and then transmit necessary
information back out to the environment.
Closed system:
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have hard boundaries through which little information is
exchanged. (nearly no interaction with environments)
Do not interact with an environmental element.
Organizations that have closed boundaries often are
unhealthy. Examples include bureaucracies, monopolies
and stagnating systems.
orgs-open-systems.pdf
System Types
 Adaptive vs. nonadaptive
 Adaptive system:
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Adoptive to environment
agents (which may represent cells, species,
individuals, firms, nations) acting in parallel,
constantly acting and reacting to what the other
agents are doing.
ability to recognize the shape of a problem and
tailor its responses, changes its behavior based on
its environment.
handle complex problems
Non-adaptive System
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Fail to adopt to environment
Steady
System Types
 Stable vs. dynamic
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Dynamic systems :
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Stable/ Static Systems:
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Multi-state: events, changes in structure in time
Fluctuate rapidly
Such systems have the capacity of ‘remembering’ what it had
been subjected to previously, or has some memory built into it.
Described by dynamic equations or differential equations of
appropriate type.
Boundaries can be difficult to identify when systems can be
very dynamic.
One state system – no event, no change
In equilibrium (steady state) with no significant changes taking
place.
Described in simple mathematical terms by a set of algebric
equations.
Classification can depend on the observer/goals of the system

Building: Stable for residents, dynamic for engineer (corrosions
etc)
System Types
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Deterministic vs. Stochastic
 Deterministic:
 Stochastic:
inputs
predictable in every detail
Behaviour is affected by random
System Variables and
Parameters
 System variable
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A quantity or item that can be controlled by
the decision maker
E.g. the price a company charges for a
product
 System parameter
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A value or quantity that cannot be
controlled by the decision maker
E.g., cost of a raw material
Systems Principles
Some principles that are common to systems, many of which help us to better
understand organizations.
 The system's overall behavior depends on its entire structure (not the sum of its
various parts).
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The structure determines the various behaviors, which determine the various
events. Too often, we only see and respond to the events. That's why,
especially in the early parts of our lives, we can be so short-sighted and
reactionary in our lives and in our work. We miss the broader scheme of things.
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Too often in organizations we think we can break up the system and only have
to deal with its parts or with various topics apart from other topics. Systems
theory reminds us that if you break up an elephant, you don't have a bunch of
little elephants.
 There is an optimum size for a system.
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If we try to make the system any larger, it'll try to break itself up in order to
achieve more stability. Too often in our organizations, we continually strive to
keep on growing -- until the reality of the system intervenes. At this point, we
again only see the events, not the behaviors or the structures that cause them.
So we embark on short-sighted strategies to fix events, often only causing
more problems for ourselves and others.
 Systems tend to seek balance with their environments
 A circular relationship exists between the overall system and its parts.
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Organizations may experience the same kinds of problems over and over
again. The problems seem to cycle through the organization. Over time,
members of the organization come to recognize the pattern of events in the
cycle, rather than the cycle itself.
System Modelling
 System modeling helps the analyst to understand the
functionality of the system, and models are used to
communicate with other related parties
 Different models present the system from different
perspectives
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Context Models - External perspective: system’s context
or environment:
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Behavioral Models - perspective: behavior of the system:
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process, activity, inter-system data-flow
Data-flow, data-processing, state machine
Logical/Structural Models - perspective: the system or
data architecture
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Entity-relation, object
Modeling a System
 Model
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An abstraction or an approximation that is
used to represent reality
 Types of models
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Narrative (descriptive)
Physical
Schematic
Mathematical
System Performance and
Standards
 Efficiency
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A measure of what is produced divided by what is
consumed
 Effectiveness
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A measure of the extent to which a system
achieves its goals
 System performance standard
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A specific objective of the system
Types of systems
Information Systems
Control Systems
Purpose and Behaviour
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Types of behaviours:
Reaction to a stimulus in the
environment
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Systems can be:
•
state-maintaining
•
The stimulus is necessary and
sufficient to cause the reaction
Response to a stimulus in the
environment
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•
The stimulus is necessary but not
sufficient to cause the response
•
•
Goal-directed
•
Autonomous act:
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A system event for which a
stimulus is not necessary
•
•
System can respond differently to similar events in its
environment and can act autonomously in an
unchanging environment to achieve some predetermined goal state
E.g. an autopilot, simple organisms
Purposive
•
•
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System reacts to changes in its environment to
maintain a pre-determined state
E.g. thermostat, some ecosystems
System has multiple goals, can choose how to pursue
them, but no choice over the goals themselves
E.g. computers, animals (?)
Purposeful
•
•
System has multiple goals, and can choose to change
its goals
E.g. people, governments, businesses, animals
Purpose and Behaviour
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Choosing the boundary
Distinction between system and environment depends on
your viewpoint
Choice should be made to maximize modularity
Examples:
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Telephone system - include: switches, phone lines,
handsets, users, accounts?
Desktop computer - do you include the peripherals?
Tips:
Exclude things that have no functional effect on the
system
Exclude things that influence the system but which cannot
be influenced or controlled by the system
Include things that can be strongly influenced or
controlled by the system
Changes within a system should cause minimal changes
outside
More ‘energy’ is required to transfer something across the
system boundary than within the system boundary
• System boundary
should ‘divide
nature at its
joints’
• Choose the
boundary that:
• increases
regularities in
the behaviour of
the system
• simplifies the
system behavior
Example System: ITU SIS
Example System: ITU SIS
YOK Higher Education Council of Turkey System
ITU SYSTEMS
Advisor Id
İTU Personnel
System
Profile
İTU SİS
İTU
Student
System
Student
Id
Grade
s
CRN Class list
Advisor Inst.
authorization
Services
BTP
Graduation
Project
system
Ninova
Facilit
y
Plann
ing
Syste
m
Example System: ITU SIS
 Choosing the boundary : ITU Ecosystem – Not valid for othe Universities
 Distinction between system and environment depends on your viewpoint:
 Viewpoint: INSTITUTION
 Choice should be made to maximize modularity
 Exclude things that have no functional effect on the system : NINOVA, ITU
Şenlikçi, ITUPortal, Graduation Project Management Systems
 Exclude things that influence the system but which cannot be influenced or
controlled by the system : YOK System, TELECOM system, OSYM System, TC
Id system, E-mail, Facility Planning
 Include things that can be strongly influenced or controlled by the system: Course
Registration, Course Plan, Grades, Advisory,

Example System: ITU SIS
 USER ID: IMPORTED DATA
 PIN: SYSTEM DATA
 MAIN MODULES- Sub Systems Level 1
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Kişisel Bilgiler /Personal İnformation – PROFILE
(Exists in every system almost)
Öğretim Üyesi Servisi /Instructor Services
ARE THESE MODULES OF ITU
SIS? NO
SOME ARE OUTPUT SCREENS,
SOME ARE SUBSYSTEMS
Dönem Seçme
Term Selection
CRN Seçme
CRN Selection
Ayrıntılı Çizelge
Faculty Detail Schedule
Gün Bazında Çizelge
Faculty Schedule by Day and Time
Ayrıntılı Sınıf Listesi
Detail Class List
Sınıf Listesi
Summary Class List
Final Sınav Programı
Final Exam Schedule
Final Notlar
Final Grades
Mazeret Notu Girişi
Makeup Exam Grades
Öğrenci Menüsü
Student Menu Display student
information; View a student's schedule;
Process a student's registration.
Danışmanlar Menüsü
Advisor Menu View advisee list,View a
advisee's transcript; View advisee's
grades.
Final Giremez Listesi
Final Giremez Listesi
Öğrenci Listesi
Student List for Course
Not Dağılımı
Grade Distribution
Bitirme Projesi Listesi
Graduation Project List
Output Systems: ITU SIS
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Faculty Detail Schedule
Detail Class List
Summary Class List
Final Exam Schedule
Display student information; View a student's
schedule;
View advisee list,View a advisee's transcript; View
advisee's grades.
Student List for Course
Grade Distribution
Graduation Project List
Example Output
Dönem Seçme
Term Selection
CRN Seçme
CRN Selection
Ayrıntılı Çizelge
Faculty Detail Schedule
Gün Bazında Çizelge
Faculty Schedule by Day and Time
Ayrıntılı Sınıf Listesi
Detail Class List
Sınıf Listesi
Summary Class List
Final Sınav Programı
Final Exam Schedule
Final Notlar
Final Grades
Mazeret Notu Girişi
Makeup Exam Grades
Öğrenci Menüsü
Student Menu Display student
information; View a student's schedule;
Process a student's registration.
Danışmanlar Menüsü
Advisor Menu View advisee list,View a
advisee's transcript; View advisee's
grades.
Final Giremez Listesi
Final Giremez Listesi
Öğrenci Listesi
Student List for Course
Not Dağılımı
Grade Distribution
Bitirme Projesi Listesi
Graduation Project List
Process Screens: ITU SIS
 Final Grades
 Makeup Exam Grades
 Approval form for Advisor
Example Processing Module: Approval Form for
Advisor