KARABÜK VBISIIY
CHOOL Of FORB LANGUAGES
LEVEL 3
GRAMMAR PACK
2022-2023
UNIT 1 - PRONOUNS AND DETERMINERS
1.1 REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
Before You Read
What do you think self-talk is? Read this article from a psychology magazine.
Self-talk is the way we explain a problem to ourselves. It can affect how we feel and how we act.
Take the case of Tom and Sara. They both got laid off from their jobs at the same company, but
their reactions were totally different. Sara frequently talked on the phone with her friends,
continued her free-time activities, and kept herself fit. Tom, on the other hand, spent all his time
by himself, didn't allow himself to have a good time, and gained 10 pounds.
Why were their reactions so very different from one another? They both lost their jobs, so the
situation itself can't explain Tom's problems. The main difference was the way Tom and Sara
explained the problem to themselves. Sara told herself that the problem was temporary and that
she herself could change it. Tom saw himself as helpless and likely to be unemployed forever.
Tom and Sara both got their jobs back. Their reactions when they talked to each other were,
again, very different. For his part, Tom grumbled, "Oh, I guess they were really desperate." Sara,
on the other hand, smiled and said, "Well! They finally realized that they need me!"
After You Read
Who did the following things? Check the correct answers.
Tom
Sara
1. Stayed in good physical condition
______
______
______
2. Spent a lot of time alone
______
______
______
3. Thought the problem was temporary
______
______
______
4. Felt helpless
______
______
______
______
______
______
5.
Had a conversation back at work
Tom and Sara
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Grammar Presentation
REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
Reflexive Pronouns
Subject
Pronoun
Reflexive
Pronoun
I
myself
You
yourself
He
himself
She
herself
It
looked at
in the mirror.
itself
We
ourselves
You
yourselves
They
themselves
Reciprocal Pronouns
Subject Pronouns
We / You / They
Reciprocal Pronouns
looked at
Grammar
1. Use reflexive pronoun when the subject
and object of a sentence refer to the same
people and things.
2. In imperative sentences with
reflexive pronouns, use:
yourself when the subject is singular
yourselves when the subject is plural
each other / one another
Example
Subject = Object
* Sara looked at herself in the mirror.
(she looked at on her own face.)
Subject = Object
*They felt proud of themselves.
(They were proud of their own actions.)
Subject = Object
*My office light turns itself off.
(It turns off automatically.)
“Don’t push yourself so hard, TOM, ”
Sara said. (talking to one friend)
“Don’t push yourselves so hard, guys”
Sara said. (talking to several friends)
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REMEMBER: in imperative sentences,
the subject is you, and you can be either
singular or plural.
3. Use a reflexive pronoun to emphasize a Tom was upset when he lost his job.
noun. In this case, the reflexive pronoun The job itself was not important to him but
he needed the money.
usually follows the noun directly.
4. By + a reflexive pronoun means alone Sara lives by herself. (Sara lives alone)
or without any help.
We finished the job by ourselves. (no one
helped us)
Be + a reflexive pronoun means act in the Just be yourself at your interview.
usual way.
5. Use a reciprocal pronoun when the subject Subject = object
and object of a sentence refer to the same
people, and these people have a two-way Tom and Sara met each other at work.
relationship.
(Tom met Sara, and Sara met Tom).
*Use each other for 2 people.
*Use one another for more than two people.
We all told one another about our jobs.
(Each person exchanged news with every
other person)
USAGE NOTE: Many people use each other Sara and Tom talked to each other OR they
and one another in the same way.
talked to one another.
BE CAREFUL! Reciprocal pronouns and Fred and Jane blamed each other.
plural reflexive pronouns have different (Fred blamed Jane and Jane blamed Fred)
meanings.
Fred and Jane blamed themselves.
(Fred blamed himself and Jane blamed
herself)
6. Reciprocal pronouns have possessive
forms: each other’s, one another’s
Tom and Sara took each other’s number.
(Tom took Sara’s number and Sara took
Tom’s number.)
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Exercise 1: Read the rest of the article about self-talk. Underline the reflexive pronouns once
and the reciprocal pronouns twice. Draw an arrow to the words that these pronouns refer to.
Positive self-talk can make the difference between winning and losing. Top athletes not only
compete against one another, but they also compete against themselves when they want to
improve their performances. Many athletes use self-talk to help themselves reach new goals. For
example, golf pro Jack Nicklaus used to imagine himself making a winning shot just before he
played. Olympic swimmer Summer Sanders prepares herself for a race by smiling.
One sports psychologist believes that Olympic athletes are not very different from one another­
they are all the best in their sports. When two top athletes compete against each other, the winner
is the one with the most powerful positive "mental movies". Psychologists say that ordinary people
themselves can use these techniques as well. We can create "mental movies" to help ourselves
succeed in difficult situations.
Exercise 2: Tom and Sara's company had an office party. Choose the correct reflexive or
reciprocal pronouns to complete the conversations.
1. A: Listen, guys! The food and drinks are over. Please, come and help yourselves/
themselves.
B: Thanks. We will.
2. A: Isn’t that the new head of the accounting department over there?
B: I think so. Let’s go over and introduce himself/ ourselves.
3. A: I am really nervous about my date with Nicole after the party. I cut herself/ myself
twice while shaving, and then I lost my car keys.
B: Come on. This is a party. Just relax and be yourself/ yourselves.
4. A: What are you giving your boss for the holidays this year?
B: We always give ourselves/ each other the same holiday gifts. Every year I give him
a book, and he gives me a box of candy.
5. A: What do you think of the new computer program?
B: I am not sure. In our department, we are still teaching ourselves/ themselves how
to use it.
6. A: Jessica looks upset. Didn’t she get a promotion?
B: No, and she keeps blaming herself/ himself. I will lend her that article about self-talk.
7. A: The Aguayos are going to Japan on vacation this year.
B: Are they going by each other/ themselves or with a tour group?
8. A: This was a great party.
B: Yeah. We really enjoyed ourselves/ myself.
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Exercise 3: Read the interview with George Prudeau, a high school French teacher.
Complete the interview with the correct reflexive or reciprocal pronouns.
INTERVIEWER: How did you become a teacher?
GEORGE: When I got laid off from my 9.00-5.00 job, I told 1_________ “Here is my chance to
do what I really want.” One of the greatest things about teaching is the freedom I have. I run
the class by 2___________-just the way I want to. I also like the way my students and I learn
from 3________. My students teach me a lot.
INTERVIEWER: What about discipline? Is that a problem?
GEORGE: We have just a few rules. I tell my students, “Keep 4____________busy. Discuss
the lessons, but do not interfere with 5____________’s work”.
INTERVIEWER: What do you like to teach best?
GEORGE: I love French, but the subject 6______________really isn’t all that important. A
good teacher helps the students learn by 7______________and encourages them not to give
up when they have problems. For instance, John, one of my students, just taught
8_____________how to bake French bread. The first few loaves were failures. I encouraged
him to use positive self-talk, and in the end he succeeded.
INTERVIEWER: What teaching materials do you use?
GEORGE: Very simple ones. I pride 9__________on the fact that I can teach anywhere, even
on a street corner.
INTERVIEWER: What do you like least about your job?
GEORGE: The salary. I teach French culture, but I can’t afford to travel to France. I have to
satisfy 10________________with trips to French restaurants!
Exercise 4: Read this woman’s diary. There are seven mistakes in the use of reflexive
pronouns and reciprocal pronouns. The first mistake is already corrected. Find and correct
six more.
Jan’s birthday was Wednesday, and I forgot to call him. I reminded
myself
me all day, and then I
forgot anyway! I felt terrible. My sister Anna said, “Don’t be so hard on yourselves,” but I didn’t
believe her. She prides herself on remembering everything. Then, I remembered the article on
self-talk. I think that people can change the way they explain problems to theirselves. Well, I
listened to the way I talked to me, and it sounded really INSULTING – like the way our school
math teacher used to talk to us. I thought, Jan and I are good friends, and we treat each others
well. In fact, he forgave myself for my mistake right away. And I forgave him for forgetting our
dinner date two weeks ago. Friends can forgive themselves, so I guess I can forgive myself.
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Exercise 5: The Memory Game
Work with a partner. First, look at the picture carefully for 30 seconds. Then shut your looks
and do the following.
1. Write down as many things as you can remember about what the people in the picture
are doing.
2. Then compare your notes. Use reciprocal and reflexive pronouns in your description.
Example: A: Two men are waving at each other.
B: No, I think the people waving at each other are women.
When you are finished, open your books and check your answers. Who remembered the
most? What did you leave out?
What are they thinking?
With your partner, imagine the self-talk of some of the people at the party.
Examples: The man at the mirror: "I will never give myself a haircut again."
The woman on the couch: "I don't know many people here. Should I introduce myself?"
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1.2 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
We use indefinite pronouns to talk about a person, thing, or place, when we don’t know who or
what they are, or it is not important.
People
Things
Someone/somebody something
Anyone/anybody
anything
Everyone/ everybody everything
No one/ nobody
nothing
Places
somewhere
anywhere
everywhere
nowhere
* We use indefinite pronouns with some in positive sentences:
Someone will help you. (it doesn't matter who.)
My wallet is somewhere in this room. (I don't know where exactly.)
We can also use them in requests, offers or suggestions:
Shall we order something to drink?
* We usually use indefinite pronouns with any in questions and negative sentences:
It’s very dark - can you see anything? There isn't anyone at home.
* We use indefinite pronouns with every to mean 'all people/things/places':
I've met everyone in the company now. Everything is ready. Have you looked
everywhere for your glasses?
* We use indefinite pronouns with no with positive verbs, but the meaning is negative:
There was no one in the hotel who could help me.
NOTE: We don't use two negatives: X No one wasn't there. ✓ No one was there.
Indefinite Pronouns + Verb
Indefinite pronouns take a singular verb when they are the subject of a sentence:
Someone's waiting outside. Something smells good! What are you cooking?
Has anyone got a menu? 'What would you like to drink?' 'Anything is fine. I'm really
thirsty.
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Exercise 1: Complete the review with the words from the box.
Anything
everyone
Nothing
nowhere
everything
somebody
everything everywhere
something
Review of the week – Harrods Food Hall
(0) Everything I had heard about this place was good. So on the last day of our trip to London, my wife
and I visited this famous store. Well, we couldn’t believe it! We have been (1) ___________ in the world
but (2) _________ was as good as this! My wife wanted to buy (3) ________special for some friends,
and there were so much to choose from. Harrods sells (4) ___________from seafood to chocolates. Of
course, the only problem is that (5)_______is cheap. Still, we wanted to eat at Harrods - (6) _______,
it didn’t matter what - so we had an ice cream, and it was fantastic! The staff are so good, too; we asked
(7) _______in uniform for some information and she was very helpful. My only real criticism was that it
was very crowded – it seemed that (8) ________in London was in Harrods that day!
Exercise 2: Read the article about bullying and underline the correct words.
Bullying: Don’t Be a Victim
If you are being bullied, there is always 1. something / anything you can do to stop it.
Bullying is not just a problem at school- it can happen 2. anywhere / somewhere. You can
be bullied at home, at school or even at work. Bullying can happen 3. nowhere /
anywhere, so it is very important that you learn how to react to it now.
Arguing or fighting back against a bully will only make the situation worse – a bully will look
for a big reaction from you, so stay calm and if possible, don’t say or do 4. anything /
something. If there is no reaction, it makes attacking you less fun for the bully. Even if you
are scared, don’t show that you are, but don’t do 5. nothing / anything to provoke the
bully.
Of course, some situations are more serious, and you need to tell 6. someone / everyone
about it. Go to an older person you can trust like your parents or a teacher. Keep telling
people until you find 7. everyone / someone who will help.
Finally, remember that 8. nobody / everybody deserves to be bullied. Never think that it is
your fault. You are a great person, so put a stop to the bullying now.
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Exercise 3: Rewrite sentences 1-4. Use an indefinite pronoun to replace the underlined
words. Then rewrite sentences 5-8. Use an indefinite pronoun + adjective/else or to + verb.
0. I know I left my keys in a place in this room.
I know I left my keys somewhere in this room.
1. Not one person came to the school open day.
__________________________________________
2. Jelena had no belongings at all when she came to this country.
__________________________________________
3. They searched the sea for survivors, but they didn't find any person at all.
__________________________________________
4. The police searched all the rooms in the building but didn’t find the murderer.
__________________________________________
00. I am bored with toast. I want a different breakfast this morning.
I want something else this morning.
5. I don’t feel like a hot drink. Have you got a cold drink?
__________________________________________
6. All these cameras are too expensive. Do you have a cheaper one?
__________________________________________
7. I’d rather not see Mr. Knightley. Can I see a different person?
__________________________________________
8. Can I have a book or magazine that I can read?
__________________________________________
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1.3 DETERMINERS
The Rules of Chess Boxing
If you already know the rules of chess and boxing, then the rules of chess boxing are simple.
1. Both opponents are required to box and play chess over eleven rounds.
All contests start with a round of chess which is followed by a round of
boxing.
2. Every round of chess is four minutes long and every round of boxing
lasts three. There is a one-minute pause between each of the rounds to
put the gloves on or take them off.
3. Each contestant can win either by checkmate or by a knockout. If
neither person wins, the referee makes the final decision based on the
number of punches in the ring and pieces left on the board.
All
* We usually use all with a plural noun and verb.
All students are expected to arrive on time.
* In the expressions all day, all night, all the time, the noun is singular.
* In the expression all (of) the ... we can replace the by a possessive adjective (my etc.).
All (of) the tickets for the match had been sold.
All (of) my friends have bikes.
* We can use not + all.
Not all students have bikes.
Not all (of) my friends have bikes.
* We can use all as a pronoun at the beginning of a sentence.
All I want is some peace and quiet!
All I need is £400! All I have is £50!
NOTE: All is not normally used as a single-word object. Instead, we use everything.
Tell me everything that happened on your holiday.
(NOT Tell me all that happened…)
Some
* We usually use some with a plural noun and verb, and we can say some of the ....
* We do not use some with not.
Some students are expected to help.
Some of the tickets for the match had been sold.
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No
* Use no with a singular noun or a plural noun.
No students arrived on time for the last lesson!
No student arrived on time for the last lesson!
NOTE : If there is another negative word, we use any (not no).
I didn’t see any students arriving on time for the last lesson.
None
* Use none of the + noun, or none on its own.
None of the guests are here yet.
‘Were there any letters for me?’ ‘Sorry, none for you.’
NOTE: In the first example there is a plural verb ‘are. This is more common, although a singular
verb is possible.
* We do not use no of ... or no the....
* Use none at all, or not one, or not a ... to add emphasis.
‘How many people were surfing?’ > ‘None at all!’
‘How many people were surfing?’ > ‘Not one!’
‘How many people were surfing?’ > ‘Not a single one!’
Other examples:
Not one person has done any homework! I haven't had a single call today.
Each, every
* The meaning of each and every is similar and either word may be possible. They are
both followed by a singular noun.
Each / Every person in the room was wearing a hat.
* We use each when we think of the members of a group separately, one by one.
She spent some time talking to each person in the room.
* Each is often used with one.
There were ten people in the room. Each one was wearing a hat.
Each of ... can be used: Each of you can carry one parcel.
* Each can be used after the subject, or at the end of a sentence.
My sisters each have their own room.
My uncle gave my brother and me $50 each. (= gave $50 to each of us)
* We use every when we think of all the members of a group together.
Every box was wrapped in colored paper.
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* We cannot say every of.
We cannot use every after the subject, or at the end of a sentence.
Both, either, neither
* Both + plural noun + plural verb refers to two things and means ‘the one and the other’
Both people / Both the people / Both of the people in the room were wearing hats.
The people in the room were both wearing hats.
There were two people in the room. Both (of them) were wearing hats.
Both of you can help me. You can both help me.
* Either + singular noun and singular verb or either of the + plural noun means ‘this one or the
other one’
We can paint it green or blue. Either color matches the walls.
Either of the books / Either book will be very useful.
* Neither means ‘not this one or the other one’ and we generally use it with singular nouns.
We can't paint it green or blue. Neither color matches the walls.
There are trees on neither side of the street. Neither of these books will be useful.
Exercise 1: Underline the correct option. Both answers are possible in one sentence.
1. All/ Every player on our team wants to play in the World Cup.
2. Every/Each performer appears in front of three judges.
3. Every/Each of the players wears a helmet in ice hockey.
4. All/Both halves in a football match are 45 minutes long.
5. This is a close match. Both / Either competitor could win.
6. A: Do you ever watch golf or bowls? B: No, I'm not interested in either / neither.
Exercise 2. Look at the verbs in these sentences. Tick the correct verbs and change the
incorrect verbs.
1. Each person on the team has a number. ✓
2. Each of them are allowed five shots at the goal. (is)
3. All of the information were helpful.
4. All the managers were at the meeting.
5. Every athlete need a medical inspection before the event.
6. Both answers are correct.
7. Either contestant is a potential world champion.
8. Neither of us have played this game before.
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Exercise 3: Choose the correct options to complete the article.
The Rules of Football-Tennis
The Court
All / Each / Every football-tennis matches are played on a court.
All / Every / Both court must be the same size as a standard
doubles tennis court. The court is divided into two halves by the
net.
The Teams
Each / All / Both team has a total of five players, with three players on the court. Each / Both /
Neither team is allowed to make more than two substitutions per game, but they can make more
over the whole match.
The Match
Either/ Every / All match is decided every three games or when either / every / all of the teams
has won two games. The winner of neither / each / both game must score 15 points. There is a
three-minute break between all / both / every game.
Other Rules
A team can pass the ball three times but then has to kick or head it over the net. Neither / Either /
Both the player's hand nor arm can touch the ball.
Exercise 4: Rewrite each sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence and
contains the word in bold.
1. All the dogs in the garden were barking. (every)
...Every dog in the garden was barking.........................................
2. Nobody at all came to the meeting. (single)
...........................................................................................................
3. Not one of my friends has got a car. (none)
...........................................................................................................
4. This chair is not comfortable, and nor is the other one. (neither)
...........................................................................................................
5. There weren’t any boys in the class. (no)
...........................................................................................................
6.We only want to try our new computer game. (all)
...........................................................................................................
7. The two books are interesting. (both)
...........................................................................................................
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Exercise 5: Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence.
1. These books aren’t interesting.
None ..................................................................................................................
2. You have only ten minutes left.
All........................................................................................................................
3. The hotels were both unsuitable.
Neither................................................................................................................
4. No one replied to my letter.
Not a...................................................................................................................
5. Paul and his brother David are ill.
Both....................................................................................................................
6. Nobody in the team played badly.
All.......................................................................................................................
7. Not all the questions in the test were easy.
Some...................................................................................................................
Exercise 6: Complete these sentences about sport so that they are true for you.
1 In my country, all children learn to play either __________ or __________ at school.
2 All my friends like watching _____________________________________________.
3 I'm not interested in either ____________________ or ____________________.
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1.4 PRONOUNS ONE/ONES, ANOTHER/ THE OTHER (ONE)
one / ones
* We can use one / ones to replace a noun:
SINGULAR l'd like a color printer but I can't
afford one. (a color printer)
PLURAL We've got lots of red apples on the tree,
but I prefer green ones. (apples)
!!! We use one, not it to mean 'one of many':
I need a stamp for this letter. Have you got it?
Have you got one? ✓
* We don't use one or ones to replace an
uncountable noun: I prefer brown rice to white one. I prefer brown rice to white (rice). ✓
this one, the + adjective + one(s)
* We use this/that/these/those + one(s) to talk about particular things, and which one(s) to ask
about them:
'Which ones would you like? These ones with fruit on top?'
* We can use a/an/the/some + adjective + one(s):
The train was full, so we decided to catch a later one.
The best computer games are the most powerful ones.
Dark trousers make me look thinner so l'd better get some black ones.
!!! If we add a phrase after one to describe it, we don't use a/an before it:
I'm looking for a new TV. I'd like a one with a built-in DVD.
✓ I'd like one with a built-in DVD.
But if we use an adjective before one, then we do use a/an:
✓ I'd like a big one with a built-in DVD.
another (one) / (singular noun), the other (one(s)) / (noun(s))
* We use another (one) to talk about one more thing of the same type:
That game was really good fun. Let's play another (one).
I've appeared on one chat show, and I'll never do another (one)!
* We can also use another (one) for a different thing of the same type:
'I don't like this blue jumper.' 'Well, exchange it for another one. There were lots of different
colors in that shop.
!!! We don't use another one with a noun: I’d like another one coffee.
* We use the other(s) / the other one(s) for the second of two that are the same:
I'll take this box. Can you take the other one? (= the second of two boxes)
Some of the students are in the gym and the others / the other ones are waiting in the hall.
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!!! We can put the others ones in the car. We can put the other ones in the car. ✓
* Other means ‘additional or extra’, or ‘alternative’, or ‘different types of’. We can use other with
singular uncountable nouns and with plural nouns:
The embassy website has general information about visas. Other travel information can be
obtained by calling the freephone number. (additional or extra information)
Some music calms people; other music has the opposite effect. (different types of music)
What other books by Charles Dickens have you read, apart from ‘Oliver Twist’? (additional or
extra books)
* When other as a pronoun refers to more than one person or thing, it takes the plural form:
others:
Some scientists think we should reduce the number of flights to prevent global warming; others
(other scientists) disagree.
Exercise 1: Choose the correct words in italics. In three places, both answers are possible.
1. The local aerobics class is full, so I’ll have to find another / another one.
2. ‘Would you like a cup of tea?' 'No, thanks. l've just had one / ones.
3. 'How did you do in the exam?' 'Which one / ones? I took six exams.'
4. lf you miss the morning ferry; you can travel on a later / a later one.
5. These grapes are really sweet. Do you want to try one / it?
6. These paintings are for exhibition only, but all the others / other ones are for sale.
7. Would you prefer black pepper or white / white one on your meal?
8. I've packed two bags. Can you take this ones / this one and I'll take the other / the other one?
9. If you organize the team games at the children's party, I'll do all the others / the others ones.
Exercise 2: Find six more places where you can use one or ones instead of a noun. Write the
correct word.
SHOPPER: l'd like an apple pie, please.
ASSISTANT: Certainly, would you like a small pie (one) or a large pie?
SHOPPER: Oh, just a small pie, I think.
ASSISTANT: These pies are fresh from the oven; they're still warm.
SHOPPER: Mmm, they smell good. I think I'll have a cherry pie too, please. Can I have that pie?
ASSISTANT: Of course. Anything else?
SHOPPER: Yes, I'd like some bread.
ASSISTANT: Brown bread or white?
SHOPPER: Do you have bread rolls?
ASSISTANT: Yes, we have brown and white rolls.
SHOPPER: I'II have two brown rolls, please.
ASSISTANT: Here you are. That's 4.40
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Exercise 3: Choose the most appropriate one.
1. There are ten pieces of fruit in my basket. One is an orange; one is a lemon and ......... is an
apple.
a.others
b.the other
c. another
d. the others
2. I have two pencils. One is black, and ......... is blue.
a.others
b.the other
c. another
d. the others
3.There are four girls in my apartment. Two are called Casey and Amber; ......... are Joanne
and Lindsey.
a.others
b.the other
c. another
d. the others
4. There are three holidays in Brazil. One is Independence Day and ......... are Children's Day
and Teacher's Day.
a.others
b.the other
c. another
d. the others
5. My friend has two cars. One is black and ......... is red.
a.others
b.the other
c. another
d. the others
6. My mom speaks three languages. One is English and ......... one is French.
a.others
b.the other
c. another
d. the others
7. There are eight pets in my house. Six are cats and ......... are dogs.
a.others
b.the other
c. another
d. the others
8. My neighbor has four kids. One of them is a boy and ......... are girls.
a.others
b.the other
c. another
d. the others
9. There are three books in my backpack. One is a maths book and ......... is a chemistry book.
a.others
b.the other
c. another
d. the others
Exercise 4: Complete a sentence for each situation.
0 You're planning a holiday with friends. They ask you whether you prefer quiet or lively holidays.
You say: I prefer quiet ones.
1. You're trying on a jumper. lt's too big. You call the assistant and say: Can I try
.............................. ?
2. A friend offers you a choice of egg sandwiches or cheese sandwiches. You say: I’ll have
…………………….. .
3. You have looked at two hotels on a website. Your friend prefers the first hotel, but you don't.
You say: l prefer …………………….. .
4. The hotel receptionist asks if you'd like a room with a bath or with a shower. You say: l'd like
…………………….. .
5. There are two films on at your local cinema. One of them is very violent and you don't want to
watch it. You say to your friend: Let's watch ................................
6. You're looking at mobile phones. The shop assistant asks whether you want a phone with
Internet access or not. You say: l'd like ................................
17
UNIT 2 - COMPARATIVE & SUPERLATIVE
Before you read: Work with a partner. Try to name the planets in our solar system in order
from the Sun. Then check your answers online.
STRANGE WORLDS
Our solar system (and beyond) is full of extremes. Let's explore!
As the planet nearest to the Sun, Mercury hosts temperatures that can reach 842
degrees Fahrenheit (450° C). With no atmosphere to trap heat, temperatures can drop to 274 degrees Fahrenheit (-170° C). This temperature swing is the greatest in the solar
system. And Mercury orbits the Sun faster than any other planet. It travels at an average
speed of 106,876 miles (172,000 km) per hour. It also has the shortest orbit. One year on
Mercury equals 88 Earth days.
After the Moon, Venus is the brightest object in the night sky, and often shines just
as brightly as a star. Its atmosphere, which consists mostly of carbon dioxide, is the
densest of all the planets. A younger Venus was believed to have possessed Earth-like
oceans, but these all evaporated as temperatures rose.
Jupiter is equal to more than 1,300 Earths in size. The most extraordinary feature
on Jupiter is the Great Red Spot, a giant storm. At its widest point, the spot is roughly
three times as wide as Earth. Jupiter's moon Io has the most active volcano in the solar
system.
Saturn, the second largest planet after Jupiter, is most famous for its spectacular
rings. Titan, the largest of Saturn's 62 moons, is bigger than the planet Mercury. Saturn is
less dense than water. In fact, it could float in a bathtub, if there were a bathtub big
enough.
Uranus was the first planet discovered with a telescope. No planet tilts as heavily
as Uranus. Its north-south poles lie where most planets have their equators. This makes
for some extreme weather. Considered the least understood planet, Neptune is the
farthest planet from the Sun. (The farthest planet used to be Pluto, but Pluto was recently
downgraded to a dwarf planet.)
After you read
Complete the blanks with the correct information from the article
1. Brightest object at night
: ...........................
5. Windiest planet
2. Second largest planet
: ...........................
6. Most active volcano: .............................
3. Moon bigger than Mercury : ...........................
7. Farthest planet from Sun: .....................
4. Fastest planet
: ..............................
: ...........................
18
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES / ADVERBS
1. Comparative and Superlative Forms
COMPARATIVE (two things)
adjectives
with one
syllable1
adjectives
with two or
more
syllables2
irregular
adjectives
add -(e)r:
large > larger
small > smaller
young > younger
use more/less + adjective:
useful > more/less useful
expensive >more/less expensive
interesting > more/less interesting
bad > worse, good > better
far > farther/further
well (=healthy) > better
SUPERLATIVE (more than two things)
add -(e)st:
large > the largest
small > the smallest
young > the youngest
use the most/the least + adjective:
useful > the most/least useful
expensive > the most/least expensive
interesting > the most/least interesting
bad > the worst, good > the best
far > the farthest/furthest
1
Sometimes the spelling changes: dry > drier/the driest, big > bigger/the biggest
Adjectives with two syllables where the second syllable is unstressed (often ending in -y, -ly, -ow, or l) can sometimes form the comparative and superlative in the same way as one-syllable adjectives:
friendly > friendlier/the friendliest, gentle > gentler/the gentlest funny > funnier/the funniest
2
2. Comparative Adjectives/Adverbs
We use comparative adjectives to compare two things. When we use a comparative
adjective in front of a noun, we add than:
✓ Humpback whales are larger than killer whales.
X Humpback whales are larger of killer whales.
We use object pronouns (me, them, etc.), not subject pronouns (I, they, etc.) after than:
✓ Maria is taller than Jack. ✓ Maria is taller than him. X Maria is taller than he.
We don't use more or less with an adjective that is already comparative:
X Kevin is more taller than Sue.
X Sue is less taller than Kevin.
We can use two comparatives to show that something is changing.
The weather is getting hotter and hotter.
Food is becoming more and more expensive these days.
Forming comparative adverbs
- adverbs ending -ly: use more:
slowly > more slowly
Jim runs more slowly than anyone I know!
- adverbs with the same forms as adjectives without -ly: add -er
fast > faster, hard > harder
- irregular forms:
well > better
19
3. Superlative Adjectives/Adverbs
We use superlative adjectives to compare more than two things. We use the or a possessive
adjective (my/your/his, etc.) before the superlative form:
- Blue whales are the largest whales.
- What was your best subject at school?
After superlatives we use “in” before singular nouns (i.e. the name of a place or group):
- The blue whale is the largest creature in the world.
- Ben is the oldest player in the team.
But we use “of” before plural nouns:
- The blue whale is the largest of the whales.
- Ben is the oldest of the players.
Forming superlative adverbs
- adverbs ending -ly: use the most / least:
slowly > the most slowly
Jim runs the most slowly of anyone I know!
- adverbs without -ly add –est:
fast > the fastest; hard > the hardest
- irregular forms:
well > the best
4. Making Comparisons Stronger or Weaker
We can make comparisons stronger with much, a lot and far:
- The tortoise is much more expensive than the other animals.
- New York is a lot bigger than Paris.
We can make comparisons weaker with a bit, slightly or a little:
- The rabbits are slightly cheaper than the kittens.
- My sister is a bit younger than me.
We can make superlatives stronger with by far. It means there is a big difference:
- Fredrik is by far the tallest student in our class. (= He's much taller than all the others.)
We can make superlatives weaker with one of or among:
- This is one of the best hospitals in the country. (Only a few hospitals may be better.)
- Julie is among the cleverest of our students.
20
COMPARATIVE STRUCTURES
PETS
FOR
SALE
Kittens
Guinea pigs
Rabbits
Tortoise
30€
€20
€20
€100
The rabbits aren't as expensive as the kittens.
The tortoise is much more expensive than the other animals.
1. as + adjective + as
To say that two things have the same quality we use as+ adjective + as:
The guinea pigs are €20.
The rabbits are €20.
The guinea pigs are as expensive as the rabbits.
The rabbits are as expensive as the guinea pigs.
To describe a difference in quality we can use not as+ adjective + as:
The guinea pigs are €20.
The kittens are €30.
The guinea pigs aren't as expensive as the kittens.
The kittens aren't as cheap as the guinea pigs.
If there is a big difference, we can use not nearly as+ adjective + as:
I'm not nearly as clever as my brother. (= He's much cleverer than me.)
If there is a small difference, we can use almost as/not quite as+ adjective + as:
My house is almost as big as yours. = My house isn't quite as big as yours.
2. “the same (as)” and “different from”
We use the same (as) when two things are equal:
The price of the rabbits and the guinea pigs is the same. They both cost €20.
Mikal's motorbike is the same as mine. We both have Honda 250s.
We use similar (to) when something is nearly the same:
Indian elephants are similar to African elephants, but they're a bit smaller.
The opposite of the same as is different from. We can also use different to, but it is less
common: Tigers are different from leopards. Tigers are much bigger.
* We use nouns and pronouns after the same (as), similar (to) and different (from), not
adjectives:
X They are the same expensive. ✓ They are the same price.
X My brother and I are different tall. ✓ My brother and I are different heights.
21
Exercise 1: Choose the best answer, A or B.
0. Your sunglasses are similar to mine.
A. They are exactly the same. B. They are almost the same.
1. Jackie isn't as friendly as Lucy.
A. Lucy is friendlier than Jackie. B. Jackie is friendlier than Lucy.
2. This bed is as comfortable as my old one.
A My old bed was more comfortable. B The beds are both comfortable.
3. Anna isn't nearly as rich as Susie.
A. Susie is much richer than Ana. B. Susie is a little richer than Ana.
4. Our TV is almost as big as Michael's.
A. Michael's TV is a little bigger than ours. B. Michael's TV is much bigger than ours.
5 I had one of the best exam results in the school.
A. Nobody had a better result. B. One or two people had a better result.
Exercise 2: Choose the correct form, A, B or C to complete the text.
When you look into the night sky, you may not be able to tell the difference between stars
and planets, but planets are a__ to Earth. However, they are still very far away, and a journey
to Mars would be about nine months, b__ than a journey to the Moon (about three days).
Even if your future spaceship was c__ the simple spaces probes we have now, it would still
take you a couple of years to get to Jupiter, which is d__ Earth – more than 1,300 times, in
fact, and it’s more than 300 times e__. Jupiter is a giant ball of the gas and the atmospheric
pressure is f__ it is on Earth. If you could land there, you would be g__ – more than twice as
much. The whole planet is h__ Earth as well, and scientists think that the centre of the planet
may be as hot as 10,000 centigrade degree. Interestingly, the day on Jupiter is i__, and only
lasts about ten hours, but a year on Jupiter lasts for 11 Earth years. So when you came back,
you would be j__ when you set out!
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
A. a lot nearer
A. more longer
A. more fast
A. very much bigger than
A. as dense as
A. a lot greater than
A. more than heavy
A. as hot as
A. a lot shorter
A. more old
B. nearer than
B. as long as
B. a lot faster than
B. as big as
B. more dense
B. just as great
B. less heavy
B. a lot hotter than
B. shorter than
B. older
C. less near than
C. much longer
C. not as fast as
C. less big than
C. less dense than
C. less great on
C. much heavier
C. hotter
C. less short
C. much older than
22
Exercise 3. Choose the correct form, A, B, C or D to complete the sentence.
1. You left school …A… than I did.
2. Mirror, mirror on the wall, who is ………… of them all?
3. What’s ………… book you’ve ever read?
4. Helen’s teacher congratulated her for working so ………… before the exams.
5. Our company can help you to manage your money …………
6. You can type ………… I can.
7. I find French ………… to speak than Italian.
8. Which moves …………, a snail or worm?
9. Have you ever eaten ………… meal than this?
10. Picasso’s paintings are among …………
1. a.later
b.more lately
2. a.the more beautiful b.as beautiful
3. a.more interesting
b.the most interesting
4. a.hardly
b.hardest
5. a. more successfully b.just as successful
6. a.much faster than
b.more fast as
7. a.difficult
b.more difficult
8. a.quicker than
b.as quick as
9. a.as good
b.the best
10. a.the most expensive b.more expensive
c.most lately
d.more late
c.the most beautiful
d.more beautiful
c.the more interesting d. as interesting
c.hard
d.harder
c.more successful than d. successful
c.just as fast than
d.fastest than
c.as difficult
d.most difficult
c.more quickly
d.as quickest
c.the good
d.a better
c. most expensive
d.as expensive
Exercise 4: The following words are missing from the text. Put them in the correct positions.
lot
of
far
to
from
not
more
Television viewers are sometimes surprised to learn that natural history programmes are
often a lot more popular than soap operas or films. One the most famous presenters is
David Attenborough. He has been making programmes about nature since the 1960s.
In those days Jacques Cousteau was by the most famous TV presenter of nature
programmes. Although Cousteau only made programmes about life in the sea, his style of
presenting was similar Attenborough's - they both seem like friendly uncles who really love
nature.
Of course. today's programmes are different those of fifty years ago. in those days cameras
were nearly as small and light as they are now. Today the technology is much advanced
and there are digital special effects which can help us understand the complexity of the
natural world.
23
Exercise 5: Rewrite the first sentence so that it contains the word or words in capital.
a. This book isn’t as interesting as that one.
LESS
This book is less interesting than that one.………………………
b. A bike is less expensive than a scooter.
MORE
...............................................................................................................
c. You are taller than I am.
AS
...............................................................................................................
d. The first explanation is unlikely, and so is the second.
JUST
...............................................................................................................
e. Carol thought the accident was less serious than it was.
MORE
...............................................................................................................
f. My arm isn’t as painful as it was.
THAN
...............................................................................................................
Exercise 6: Complete each sentence with one word.
a. I expected my exam results to be better.
My exam results were …worse… than I expected.
b. Harry doesn’t look so clever.
Harry is ......................... than he looks.
c. The black coat is smaller than the brown coat.
The brown coat is ......................... than the black one.
d. Helen’s brother is older than her.
Helen is ......................... than her brother.
e. Jim Carrey’s previous film wasn’t as funny as his latest one.
Jim Carrey’s latest film is ......................... than the previous one.
f. I thought the station was nearer.
The station was ......................... than I thought.
g. Maths lessons don’t seem as short as English lessons.
Maths lessons seem ......................... than English lessons.
h. I’m sure this year is colder than last year.
I’m sure last year was ......................... than this year.
i. I’m not as happy as I used to be.
I used to be ......................... than I am now.
j. The weather yesterday was worse.
The weather today is ......................... than it was yesterday.
24
Exercise 7: Complete the second sentence so it means the same as the first, using the
words in brackets. Use two to five words in your answer.
0. Lions are stronger than tigers. (aren't)
Tigers ...aren’t as strong as... lions.
1. I'm not as old as my sister. (than)
My sister ........................................................
2. Our cat is slightly smaller than Daniel's. (quite)
Our cat isn't ........................................................ Daniel's.
3. Look, Melanie's dress is really similar to your mother's. (same)
Look, Melanie's dress ........................................................ your mother's.
4. Nokia phones are not the same as Motorola ones. (from)
Nokia phones ........................................................ Motorola ones.
5. The Metropole is much more expensive than any other hotel in our town. (far)
The Metropole is ........................................................ hotel in our town.
6. Prices aren't quite as low as they used to be. (bit)
Prices are ........................................................ they used to be.
Extension Activity
A. Write five sentences comparing yourself now with yourself aged eight.
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………
5. ……………………………………………………………………………………
A. Write five sentences comparing cars and bikes.
1. ……………………………………………………………………………………
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………
5. ……………………………………………………………………………………
25
UNIT 3- TENSES
3.1 PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Read about Anouska, a TV extra. Look at the highlighted grammar examples.
I'm Anouska David — you don't know me, but you often see me on your TV! That's me on
the left, in the picture. I've got a really interesting job as a TV extra. Yes, I work in TV! But
I’m not a famous actor. You see, lots of TV productions need people for crowd scenes —
and of course they don’t want to pay famous actors, so they use ordinary people, like me.
The only problem is the waiting — like now, I’m sitting here and I’m just waiting for someone
to call me. That happens all the time! Still, I'm not complaining as I usually have a really
good time at work. The other thing is that I’m getting more and more jobs at the moment,
because there are so many TV companies these days.
Now read the sentences and choose the correct words in italics. The highlighted grammar
examples will help you.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Alistair isn’t / not be a famous actor.
We always have / have got fun at your parties!
Samantha and Frank both live / living near the office.
‘The bus is late.’ ‘I know. It’s coming / It comes late every day.
I can’t go out yet. I wait / I’m waiting for the post.
Food prices climb / are climbing higher and higher at the moment.
I don’t want /I’m not wanting to get up yet – I am still tired.
26
PRESENT SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS?
Basic Differences in Use
PRESENT SIMPLE
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Permanent situations: things we do not
expect to change:
Temporary situations, for a limited period of
time:
Janice lives in London with her husband
and children.
But Janice is staying in a hotel this
weekend.
Time expressions: today, this week, at the
moment
Regular actions, habits, and routines:
Janice is a pilot. She flies all over the world.
Time expressions: usually, often, every day,
once a month, at the weekend, most days
Actions that are happening at/around the
time we are speaking:
Janice is flying to Sydney today.
Time expressions: (right) now, at the moment,
today
Permanent situations: things we do not
expect to change:
Something that is changing:
Pilots usually train for about two years to
get their flying licence.
More and more women are training to
become pilots these days.
To describe events in a book, play or film:
To describe what is happening in a photo or
picture:
The story starts in Madrid. The main
character lives there. One day, he goes out
and ...
That's my niece in the photo. She's riding
her brother's bike.
27
Action Verbs
Action verbs describe an action and can usually be used in both simple and continuous
forms:
Janice flies around the world. She’s flying to Sydney today.
We usually drive to work, but at the moment we aren’t driving because the car has
broken down.
State Verbs
State verbs describe states rather than actions, e.g. ways of thinking or feeling.
These verbs are not usually used in the continuous form:
✓ I prefer classical music to popular music.
X I’m prefering classical music to popular music.
✓ Do you understand the maths homework now?
X Are you understanding the maths homework now?
verbs of feeling/wanting
verbs of thinking/believing
STATE VERBS
EXAMPLES
like, love, dislike, hate, prefer,
need, want, wish
Does she like her
present?
(BUT we often use enjoy in
the continuous)
I need a little more time.
believe, doubt, forget, know,
mean, realise, recognise,
remember, think, understand
I don’t believe in luck.
(Are you enjoying that
book?)
Do you know the answer?
We think she's really nice.
verbs of being/appearing
appear, be, seem
This door appears to be
locked.
Maria seems very helpful.
verbs of possessing/relating
Belong, contain, have (got),
own, possess
These drinks contain
Vitamin C.
Duncan has two Ferraris.
sense verbs
hear, see, smell, taste
Listen! Do you hear
music?
This coffee tastes really
good.
The verbs agree, cost, promise and thank are also rarely used in the continuous tense:
I agree with you.
The hotel costs €100 a night.
We promise not to be late.
He always thanks us with a card or flowers.
28
State Verbs and The Continuous Form
We can use some state verbs in the continuous form, with a different and more active
meaning:
State (Present Simple)
Action (Present Continuous)
have
I have two sisters. (= possess)
I’m having breakfast right now. (= eating)
think
What do you think of it?
What are you thinking about?
(= What's your opinion?)
(= considering at the moment)
appear
It appears that they're going to close the
theatre. (= seems that/looks like)
The Gypsy Kings are appearing at the
local theatre next week. (= performing)
taste
Your soup tastes wonderful! (= a quality of
the soup)
I'm tasting the soup to check if it needs any
more salt. (= I'm checking/testing it.)
see
Do you see the difference between the two
pictures? (= can you notice it?)
Are you seeing your friends a lot at the
moment? (= meeting)
We can also sometimes use state verbs in the continuous when we want to emphasise that
the state is unusual or unexpected, and probably temporary:
My new car uses a lot of petrol so it’s costing me a fortune.
(I don’t usually spend this much on petrol.)
I’m finding it difficult to organise my time at the moment.
(This is unusual for me; I usually organise my time well.)
Some verbs which express physical states (feel, hurt, ache) can be used in the simple or
continuous forms with no (or very little) difference in meaning:
‘How do you feel/are you feeling today?’
‘I feel/I’m feeling a lot better, thanks.’
My back aches/is aching this morning.
It is becoming more common to use like, love and hate in the continuous form in informal
English:
'How's the course going?'
'It's great! I'm really loving it!'
Some people consider this to be incorrect.
29
Exercise 1: Match the sentences 1-5 with the correct meaning, A or B.
0) Craig works in an architect's office.
A This is a temporary position.
B This is his permanent job.
1) Rhona is staying with her aunt this weekend.
A She usually lives somewhere else.
B This is her permanent home.
2) Max sings with a band on Friday evenings.
A This is a changing situation.
B This is something he does regularly.
3) Steve can't talk now. He's interviewing someone.
A This is an action in progress.
B This is something he does regularly.
4) More men are looking after their children these days.
A This is a permanent situation.
B This is a changing situation.
5) Berlin is one of Germany's sixteen states.
A This is a fact - something permanent.
B This is a changing situation
Exercise 2: Complete Neil and Jack's conversation about their flatmate using the words in
brackets. Decide whether to use the present simple or present continuous.
JACK: You know, Laurence has been in the flat for three months now. What (0) ...do you
think.... (you / think) of him?
NEIL: Well, actually, (1) ............................... (I / get) really fed up with him. I mean, (2)
............................... (he/ always / take) my food from the fridge.
JACK: And mine. And (3) ........................... (he/ never / do) the washing-up! It's not fair.
Perhaps we should ask him to leave.
NEIL: Well, I'm not sure that he wants to stay. (4) ............................... (he / not/ seem) very
happy here.
JACK: Mmm. (5) ............................... (he / have) any friends? He doesn't go out much.
NEIL: Mmm ... you know that (6) ............................... (he/ have) about three showers a day.
JACK: That's because (7) …..................... (he/ work) on a building site at the moment.
NEIL: True, but the gas and water prices (8) ............................... (go up) all the time. We
can't afford his three showers a day.
JACK: I know, but (9) ................. ............. (he/ have) some good points, too. He's quiet and
(10) ............................ (he/ usually / pay) the rent on time. Look, I'll have a word with him
about the showers and so on, and we'll see how it goes.
30
Exercise 3: Read the information about HousesittersPro. Then complete John and Angela's
statement with the verbs from the box.
are enjoying
are living
are looking after
don't leave
get
live
go
spend
are spending
visits
work
HousesittersPro - the holiday solution
Our employees come and live in your home while you're away. They look after your property,
including your garden and your pets, so that your home is safe. They are mostly retired people, and
we have checked their background.
Meet John and Angela, two of our typical housesitters:
"We have both retired from responsible jobs.
We (0) ...........live............. in a small cottage in the country and we
(1) ............................... our retirement. We (2) ....................... time in the
garden most days and we often (3) .......................... to the cinema and
theatre with our friends. Our daughter (4) .................... us with our
grandchildren now and again. But we sometimes (5) ................... bored,
so far three months every year we (6) .................. for HousesittersPro. Then our life is
very different. At the moment, we're in the home of a young couple who are travelling
for three weeks. We (7) .................... in their apartment in the city, and we (8)
.................... their pets. We (9) ...................... a lot of time in front of the TV, because
as HousesittersPro employees, we (10) ..................... the house for more than a couple
of hours at a time. You know that your house is safe when you have HousesittersPro in
it!"
31
Exercise 4 : Read the article and choose the correct answer, A, B or C below.
lt's a cold Saturday afternoon and l'm at Cottle and Austin's Circus to meet Diego Zeman,
their human cannonball. When I (0) .......... inside the Big Top, I (1) ........ Diego immediately.
His act is about to start and he (2) ………. on top of the cannon. He then (3) ……….. inside
it, and suddenly he shoots out, flies through the air and lands safely in the net. The whole
act only (4) .. . .. a couple of minutes, but l'm sure that Diego (5) …...... nerves of steel- it's
frightening stuff!
When we talk later on, Diego tells me that he (6) ......... nervous at first, but then he feels
free for the moments he (7) ………. through the air - the whole two seconds! Diego (8)
………. from a circus family, so he grew up amongst performers. His job may be glamorous,
but it's hard work and Diego (9) ......... a lot of money. He (10) ......... with the circus and
travels with them, and he (11) ...... a couple of hours in the gym every day to control his
weight and strengthen his legs and back. But he does it because he (12) ......... the work.
0
A goes
B am going
C go
1
A see
B sees
C am seeing
2
A is standing B has standing
C stands
3
A climbs
B climb
C is climbing
4
A is last
B is lasting
C lasts
5
A got
B has got
C is got
6
A feels always B is feeling always
C always feels
7
A is fly
B is flying
C is flies
8
A comes
B is coming
C is come
9
A isn't earning B don't earn
C doesn't earn
10
A is living
B lives
C live
11
A spends
B is spending
C does spend
12
A is loving
B is love
C loves
32
3.2 PAST SIMPLE AND PAST CONTINUOUS
Getting Started
In the extract below from a radio chat show, Barbara Noakes describes how she
started to make advertisements. Barbara is famous for her Levi's '501' jeans
advertisement. Read the extract and answer the questions. Why did she write an
advertisement ('ad') when she was still a secretary?
WELL, I was reading a book and a very worried-looking man rushed in and said,
'Where's everybody? What's happening?' And I explained that everyone was away
sick with flu, which is why I was reading the book. I had nothing to do. And he
explained that there was that terrible problem. They needed an ad urgently, and I
said, 'Oh, if you want an ad, I'll try and do one.' So, I wrote an ad, and I went
downstairs and found an art director, and that was my first advertisement!
1. Underline the examples of the past continuous (was / were + -ing) in the extract.
2. Find the examples of the past simple (e.g. regular: liked; irregular: met) in the
extract, and circle them.
3. Fill in the gaps with past simple or past continuous.
a)
The __________ is used to give an idea of the background situation (what was
happening at the time).
b) The __________ is used to describe the events of the story
Past Continuous Tense
1. Form
POSITIVE
I was waiting for you.
She was travelling in the Middle East.
They were living at home.
NEGATIVE
I was not (wasn't) waiting long.
He was not (wasn't) travelling then.
We were not (weren't) living there.
QUESTIONS
Were you waiting long? (No, I wasn't.)
Were they living at home? (Yes, they were.)
Where was she travelling?
2. Past actions and situations
We use the past continuous
➢ to describe an action or situation happening at or around a time in the past
I wasn't feeling well that day, so I didn't go out with the others.
➢ for temporary past situations
33
We were living in Beijing at the time of the 2008 Olympics. (We don't live there now.)
➢ for two actions/situations happening at the same time
While Roland was playing his match, I was waiting in the car outside.
➢ we can also use the past continuous to criticise another person's actions, often with
‘always’
Karla was always complaining about something or other.
3. lnterrupted actions
➢ We use the past continuous and the past simple together to show that one action (past
simple) interrupts another action (past continuous).
We were having dinner when the doorbell rang.
4. Plans that did not happen
➢ The past continuous of verbs like ‘plan, hope, intend’ shows that the action did not
happen:
We were planning to come to your party, but Mike was ill so we couldn’t make it.
I was hoping to study medicine, but my grades weren't high enough so I couldn't.
5. Background situations
➢ We often use the past continuous to describe a 'background' situation in the past.
When we arrived at the beach, the sun wasn't shining.
➢ We also use the past continuous to 'set the scene' for a story or account of something
that happened; the actions that follow are in the past simple
Dana was living in Istanbul that summer. Isil was working at the same school as her. As soon
as they met, they immediately got on with each other ...
Past Simple or Continuous?
1. Completed or unfinished actions?
PAST SIMPLE
❖ We use the past simple for single or repeated completed
actions in the past.
We arrived at the hotel at three o'clock.
He went on many expeditions to Africa.
PAST CONTINUOUS
❖ We use the past continuous to describe an unfinished
action at or around a time in the past.
When we arrived at the hotel, the maid was cleaning our room.
He was searching for the source of the Nile.
2. Interrupted past or series of past actions?
❖ We use the past continuous for an action in progress when something else happened.
While he was searching for the source of the river Nile, he disappeared.
34
'Were you playing football when you sprained your ankle?' 'No, I wasn't doing anything like
that. I was running downstairs and I tripped over my trousers!'
❖ We use when + past simple, followed by past simple, when one action happened after
another one. Compare:
When Isabel joined us, we watched a DVD. (Isabel came and then we watched a DVD.)
When Isabel joined us, we were watching a DVD. (We were already watching a DVD at the
time Isabel came.)
3. when and while
❖ We can use either when or while before an unfinished action or the interrupted past. It
means 'during the time'.
The post came when I was having my breakfast.
While he was searching for the source of the river Nile, he disappeared.
❖ We can use when before the unfinished (continuous) or the completed (simple) action.
He was trying to find the source of the Nile when he died in 1873.
He died in 1873 when he was trying to find the source of the Nile.
❖ We don’t use while before a completed action.
While the post came, I was having my breakfast.
When the post came, I was having my breakfast.
The post came while/when I was having my breakfast.
❖ We can use as instead of while:
As/While I was driving to work this morning, I saw a deer by the side of the road.
Exercise 1: Read what each speaker is thinking about. Tick (✓ ) the best sentence for the
speaker.
Example:
1. I want to know about your action after the President's death.
a) What did you do when the President died? __ ✓__
b) What were you doing when the President died? ____
2. I want to describe the situation at the party when I arrived.
a) Everyone danced. ____
b) Everyone was dancing. ____
3. I'm thinking of the whole car journey.
a) The driver drove too fast. ____
b) The driver was driving too fast. ____
35
4.
a)
b)
5.
a)
b)
6.
a)
b)
7.
a)
b)
8.
a)
b)
9.
a)
b)
I want to tell you what sort of person he was.
He talked too much. ____
He was talking too much. ____
l want to show that l finished my dream.
I dreamt about a wonderful holiday. ____
I was dreaming about a wonderful holiday. ____
I want to show that I was interrupted.
I talked about her when she came into the room. ____
I was talking about her when she came into the room. ____
I want to show that different things happened at the same time.
He made a phone call, cooked supper, and drank a coffee. ____
He was making a phone call, cooking supper and drinking a coffee. ____
I want to show that different things happened one after another.
She was buying a new house, writing a novel and arranging the wedding. ____
She bought a new house, wrote a novel and arranged the wedding. ____
I want to describe the situation at the time I broke my arm.
l was carrying a big bag up some steps. ____
I carried a big bag up some steps. ____
Exercise 2: Look at the extracts below and tick (✓) the past simple or past continuous verbs if
they are right or put a cross (X) if they are wrong.
❖ The bell rang at one o’clock in the afternoon and the children were running out of their
classes. It was like the bell had released a sea of students. Children (1) were running ( __ )
everywhere.
❖ While we (2) were chatting ( __ ) two monkeys appeared and (3) were moving ( __ ) towards
us.
❖ When I (4) was working ( __ ) as an Executive Secretary to the Managing Director I (5) was
living( __ ) with my parents.
❖ When the police (6) were arriving ( __ ) Mr Jones was arrested.
❖ One day, while Mr. Pippett (7) took( __ ) Solom out for a walk, he (8) met( __ ) Solom’s
previous owner.
Exercise 3: Read the sentences below and underline the correct form.
1. While he took / was taking a bath, Archimedes discovered / was discovering the
principles of density and buoyancy.
2. When Edouard Benedictus, a French scientist, worked / was working in his laboratory,
he dropped / was dropping a glass bottle which had some plastic inside and invented /
was inventing safety glass.
3. Columbus arrived / was arriving in America while he tried / was trying to reach the Far
East.
4. Alexander Fleming discovered / was discovering penicillin by accident while he looked
/ was looking at some old experiments.
5. While Hiram Bingham climbed / was climbing in the mountains of Peru in 1911, he
discovered / was discovering the lost city of Machu Picchu.
6. While Isaac Newton sit / was sitting under an apple tree, an apple fell / was falling on
his head, and he understood / was understanding gravity.
36
Exercise 4: Read the text and complete the sentences with the past simple or past continuous
form of the verbs in brackets.
Alexander the Great
While he 1._____________ (grow up), the
philosopher Aristotle was his teacher.
Alexander 2._____________ (become)
interested in science, medicine, philosophy
and literature. While his father Philip
3._____________ (attend) his daughter’s
wedding,
a
young
nobleman
4._____________ (murder) him. Alexander
was king of Macedonia at the age of 20.
While he 5._____________ (fight) his
enemies in the north, the Greeks in the
south 6._____________ (start) a rebellion.
He 7._____________ (destroy) all their
cities. He 8._____________ (lead) his army
against the Persian Empire through what is now Turkey. While he 9._____________ (stay)
in the ancient City of Gordium, he 10._____________ (undo) the Gordian knot. A legend
said that only a future king of Asia could do this. While his army 11._____________ (march)
through Persia, it 12._____________ (defeat) Darius, the king of Persia. He
13._____________ (found) the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile while he
14._____________ (visit) Egypt. While he 15._____________ (travel) with his army, he
16._____________ (give) his name to many other towns. He 17._____________ (kill) his
friend Clitus in a quarrel, while they 18._____________ (have) dinner. While he
19._____________ (attack) the City of Mali in India, he 20._____________ (receive) a
serious wound from an arrow. While he 21._____________ (attend) a banquet in Babylon
in 323 BC, he 22._____________ (fall) ill and 23._____________ (die).
Exercise 5: Read the police statement from a cyclist who was in an accident. Complete it with
verbs from the box in the past simple or the past continuous tense.
call
cycle
fall
go
happen
have
hit
hurt
lie
say
stop
take
turn
The accident __happened__ at 5.55 p.m. on 15 August. I 1._____________ home from work
along Manning Road. Suddenly a car 2._____________ past me and 3._____________ left. I
4._____________ (not) time to stop, and I 5._____________ the side of the car. I
6._____________ off my bicycle, and I 7._____________ on the ground when the car
8._____________ and the driver got out. He asked if I was OK. I 9._____________ 'No',
because my left leg 10._____________ a lot. He 11._____________ an ambulance and it
12._____________ me to hospital.
37
Exercise 6: Writing short stories
Below are the beginnings of three short stories. In each story, choose your own verb in the
past continuous to set the scene in the first gap, and then continue by describing the first two
or three events. Use the verbs in the boxes if you want to. We have started the first story for
you.
Story 1
arrive
get on
leave
pull out
see
shout
lt was a cold, dark morning, and a tall man in a grey coat __was standing__ on the station
platform. Then the train arrived, and the man quickly got on. He left a small bag on the platform
and the train ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Story 2
score try
win
feel
With the score at 2-0, it was nearly the end of the match and United __________________
well. Suddenly everything began to change…………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Story 3
walk look around
take
leave
The festival was nearly over. There was still loud music, and people ________still________.
Then a strange man……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
38
3.3 ‘Used to’ and ‘Would’
Sir Ranulph Fiennes is an explorer. He used to be a soldier but started exploring in the
1960s. When he was younger, he used to go on very difficult expeditions and he
would take risks that many other explorers wouldn't. In 2000, for example, he attempted
to walk to the North Pole alone and unsupported.
1. Form of used to
POSITIVE
I used to work there.
He used to be a soldier.
We used to have a cat.
NEGATIVE
I did not (didn’t) use to work.
He did not (didn’t) use to be an explorer.
They did not (didn’t) use to have a cat.
QUESTIONS
Did you use to work? (Yes, I did.)
Did they use to have a cat? (No, they didn't.)
Where did he use to work?
❖ There is no present form of used to: I use to go to work by bus. ✓ I go to work by bus.
❖ Do not confuse used to do with be/get used to doing:
l'm used to spending time on my own. (= I'm often alone; it isn't unusual for me.)
I used to spend time on my own. (= I spent time on my own in the past; I don't anymore.)
2. Used to
❖ We use used to + infinitive to talk about regular past actions that do not happen now:
I used to take the bus to work every day. (But now I take the train.)
People used to write a lot of letters. (But now they send emails.)
❖ We often use adverbs of frequency (e.g. always, once a week, every year) with used to:
I always used to swim before breakfast.
We often used to hold parties for our friends.
We never used to stay up late when we were young! (= We didn’t use to stay up late.)
❖ We also use used to + infinitive when we talk about past situations that are no longer true:
He used to be a soldier. (But now he’s an explorer.)
France used to have a king.
3. Would
❖ We can also use would + infinitive to talk about regular past actions that do not happen
now:
When we first moved here, people would stop and talk in the street. They don't now.
39
❖ When we start descriptions of past actions with used to, we usually continue with would:
When he was younger, he used to go on very difficult expeditions and he would take risks.
❖ Would is used for past actions, not situations:
France would have a king.
✓ France used to have a king.
4. Used to or past simple
❖ We often use used to, not the past simple, when we want to emphasise a difference
between the past and the present:
My sister works in an office now, but she used to work on a farm.
❖ We use the past simple for
• single actions in the past: I used to have an exam last week. ✓ l had an exam last week.
•
•
periods of time: He used to be in Greece for 2 years. ✓ He was in Greece for 2 years.
a number of times: We used to swim in the pool twice when we stayed there.
✓ We swam in the pool twice when we stayed there.
Exercise 1: Choose the correct words in italics. In two sentences, both answers are possible.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
When we lived in the country, people in shops would /used to be much friendlier.
When I was a child, we didn't use / weren't used to fly- we couldn't afford it.
Do/ Did you use to wear a uniform at your last school?
When Matt was in his twenties, he used to / would play rugby every Sunday.
Last week we interviewed / used to interview over twenty candidates.
Did you use to / Would you have dark hair when you were a girl?
In the nineteenth century people worked / used to work longer hours than they do now.
Exercise 2: Complete each sentence (1-6), with a suitable ending (a-n). There are more
endings than you need.
Example: She used to play tennis every morning before breakfast.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
I'd watch TV for hours…..
l used to have…..
l used to feel…..
We used to live…..
l cycled a lot yesterday….
They would go…..
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
a cat. lt's very unfriendly!
tennis every morning before breakfast
so I was quite fit.
lonely until l met James.
last night until my eyes hurt.
in Rome, but we're thinking of moving.
for a long walk in the countryside last Saturday.
so I felt tired.
but l never watch it now.
in Rome, but we moved to Naples last year.
in the 1994 tennis final.
for long walks in the countryside.
a cat, but it died last year.
40
Exercise 3: Complete the text with the verbs in brackets. Use the past simple, used to or would.
(Remember not to repeat used to too much.)
The greatest mountain climber of all time?
Reinhold Messner is often called 'the greatest
mountain climber of all time': he was the first person
to climb all fourteen peaks of over 8,000 metres.
Messner was born near Bolzano, Italy, in 1944. This
area 0.__used to belong__ (belong) to the
Austrian Empire, and is still German-speaking.
When Reinhold was a child, he 1._____________
(go) climbing in the Dolomite Mountains with his
father and brothers. He 2._____________
(become) a very good climber at a young age. He
first 3._____________ (climb) the Himalayas in 1970, though this expedition was a tragedy
because his brother 4._____________ (die) on the way down.
Messner was well-known for his attitude to the mountains: he 5._____________ (climb)
with only light equipment, he 6._____________ (not request) any outside support and he
7._____________ (not take) any extra oxygen - at a time when it was thought impossible
to climb the highest peaks without oxygen. Apart from mountaineering, Messner
8._____________ (make) a number of Arctic and Antarctic crossings.
Exercise 4: Find six more mistakes and correct them. Tick (✓) the correct sentences.
Messner didn't use to taking extra oxygen when he climbed. __take__
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
When we went to Nepal, I used to climb to Everest Base Camp once. _____
When we were children, we'd often visit our grandparents at the weekends. _____
People today use to spend a lot of time on their computers. _____
Did they use to have electric lighting in the 1800s? _____
Centuries ago, people would be a lot shorter than today. _____
We never use to stay at school for lunch in those days. _____
Before the 1960s men wouldn't have long hair. _____
Were you used to learn French when you were at school? _____
41
Exercise 5: The two compositions here were written by learners of English. Correct any
mistakes with would and used to.
Changes in My Country
There have been many changes in my country in the past 20 years. The biggest change
is probably in the area of technology. Twenty years ago, no one had a telephone. They used
communicate by letter. Nowadays many people have mobile phones. People didn’t used to
have any electrical things in their houses, so they would to wash all the clothes by hand and
keep food fresh by hanging it outside. Most people have fridges and washing machines now.
Many people still travel by bicycle in my country but there use to be many more bicycles on
the roads. Twenty years ago, people didn’t own cars, but now it’s common. There is a real
change in the clothes people wear too. People didn’t use to wearing Western-style clothes,
but now most young people wear the same things as people in the US or Europe.
My life ten years ago
My family used to lived in a big house in the countryside. I used to have many friends
who lived near the house, and we would often playing together in the summer. My school
was in the village and I wasn’t use to go to the city very much. One thing I remember clearly
is the peace we’d heard animal noises but no cars My family didn’t have a car as they were
too expensive, so I’d cycling everywhere. I have good memories of life in the countryside,
but sometimes I’m used to get bored, and I’m happy to be in the city these days.
Exercise 6: Write a paragraph about what you used to do as a child. lf you are working in class,
collect the paragraphs together and guess who wrote each one.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
42
3.4 PRESENT PERFECT AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
3.4.1 PRESENT PERFECT
Before You Start
1. Read the extract from a newspaper article and a letter. Look at the highlighted grammar
examples.
NEW CAR SUPERMARKET IN DINGLEY
LESTER’S
Lester’s Car Supermarket has just opened a
new supermarket at Dingley Corner. Lester’s
has been selling cars in Longton since 1998,
but with sales of over fifty cars per week the
company urgently needed a new and larger
showroom.
Dear Customer,
SUPERMARKET
Three years ago, you bought a car from us.
Have you thought about replacing it yet?
Have you been looking for a car supplier that
offers a huge range and incredible value?
Well, look no further. We’ve been searching
the country for the best buys, and we already
have over 500 used cars – all at amazing
prices! We’ve reduced the prices on more
than fifty different models this month – these
really are the lowest prices we’ve ever
offered.
And to celebrate the opening of our new car
supermarket we are offering a 10% discount
to all our customers.
2. Now read the sentences and choose the correct words in italics. The highlighted grammar
examples will help you.
1 Has he buying / bought a car from a supermarket before?
2 Have you looked yet on the Internet / on the Internet yet?
3 Yes, we've yet / just looked at their website.
4 This is the best car I owned / I’ve ever owned.
5 My parents have had the same car since 2003 / eight years.
6 I’ve gone/ I went to look at some used cars two weeks ago.
7 We've been looked / looking for a new car since January.
8 Have you searching / you been searching for a sports car?
9 Jack can’t decide which new car to buy. He’s been looking / looked at more than twenty different
ones this month.
10 I’m very tired. I’ve been driving / driven all morning.
43
Present Perfect for Past Experiences and Present Results
1. Form
We form the present perfect with have + past participle. The regular past participle ends in -ed
(e.g., finished):
Positive
I
She
They
have (‘ve)
has (‘s)
have (‘ve)
finished.
gone.
broken it.
Negative
I
have not (haven’t)
She
has not (hasn’t)
They
have not (haven’t)
Questions
Have
Has
Have
Where have
you
she
they
you
finished
gone.
broken
it.
finished?
gone?
broken it?
been?
Short answers
Yes,
I
No,
I
Yes,
she
No,
she
have.
haven’t.
has.
hasn’t.
Natural English
In speech and informal writing, we usually use short forms of has/have in positive and negative
statements: I've finished. She hasn't gone.
Infinitive
Past Participle
Regular
play use visit want
played used visited wanted
Irregular
be break come drive eat go have
been broken come driven eaten gone had
2. Past Experiences
* We use the present perfect to talk about actions and experiences that have happened in our lives
up to now:
Have you driven an automatic car before?
I've travelled a lot.
My father has worked for several different companies.
* We can use expressions like often, once, twice or several times to say 'how often':
I’ve eaten in that restaurant several times. My parents have visited Canada twice.
3. ever, never, before
* We often use ever to ask questions about past experiences. It means 'in your life':
Have you ever driven a truck? Has Kemal ever been to an opera?
44
* We use never in negative sentences. It means 'not in your life':
I've never swum with dolphins. Caroline's never eaten Chinese food.
*We put ever and never before the past participle:
Have you been ever to California?
✓ 'Have you ever been to California?' 'No. I've never been there.'
* We often use before to say whether it's the first time we've done something:
We've been here before. We came for my birthday. (= We are here now, and we've been here in
the past as well.)
I haven't stayed in a five-star hotel before. (= I am going to stay in one soon - for the first time.)
* We usually put before at the end of the statement or question:
Have you been here before?
4. Past Actions with Present Results
* We can use the present perfect to talk about a past action that has a result in the present:
My car's broken down. (= it broke down earlier, and it isn't working now.)
They've gone out. (= They went out earlier, and they aren't here now.)
* Compare this with the past simple, where the action and the result are both in the past:
My car broke down last year and l couldn't drive it for three weeks.
5. just, already, recently
* We use just to talk about actions that happened a very short time ago:
The plane has just landed. The passengers are getting off now.
The shop has just closed - you can't go in now.
* Already means 'before the expected time'. We use it in positive sentences:
You've missed the match. It's already finished.
* We usually put just and already before the past participle:
My car has broken down just. ✓ My car has just broken down.
Graham's train has already arrived. You don't need to lock the car. I've already done it.
* We use recently to talk about actions that happened in the last few days or months:
Have you seen them recently?
What's the place like now? I haven't been there recently.
* We don't use already in negative sentences:
The parcel hasn't arrived already. ✓ The parcel hasn't arrived yet.
6. still, yet
* We use yet in questions to ask about something we expect to happen around now, but which
hasn't happened at the time of speaking:
45
Has the six o'clock train arrived yet? It's five past six and l haven't seen it.
* We use still or yet in negative sentences when we expected something to happen before now:
Our pizzas haven't come yet. We ordered them nearly half an hour ago!
I gave my teacher that essay last week but she still hasn't marked it.
* We usually put yet at the end of a question or negative statement; we put still before hasn't/
haven't:
Has your car been repaired yet? We still haven't had our exam results.
* We can also use still in positive sentences to say that an earlier situation has not changed. We
use the present simple or continuous, not the present perfect:
Carlos is thirty, but he still lives with his parents. The bridge is closed; they're still repairing it.
* We don't use yet in positive sentences:
I’ve paid for the meal yet. ✓ I've already paid for the meal.
7. been or gone
* There is a difference in meaning between been and gone:
My parents have gone to New York on holiday. (= They are there now.)
My parents have been to New York. (= They have visited it in the past and have returned home.)
A number of astronauts have been to the Moon (and have returned)
The space prob Voyager has gone past the planet Neptune (it hasn't returned)
Exercise 1. Match the sentences 1-7 with the explanations A-H.
0 My computer broke down.
1 My computer has broken down.
2 We've been here before.
3 We haven't been here before.
4 He's gone to the post office.
5 He's been to the post office.
6 It hasn't rained yet.
7 It's just stopped raining.
A So I have to water the garden.
B This is our first visit.
C He isn't here at the moment.
D I couldn't send any emails.
E So I don't have to water the garden.
F This isn't our first visit.
G I can't send any emails.
H He brought back some stamp
Exercise 2 Complete the conversation with the words from the box.
already
been
before
ever
just
never
recently
still
yet
MANDY: How are the wedding plans going?
SARAH: OK. But there are lots of things I haven't done (0) yet_____.
MANDY: But you've (1) ________ chosen your dress, haven't you?
SARAH: No, I (2) ________haven't seen anything I like.
MANDY: Have you (3) ________ to Baxter's? They've got a good selection.
46
SARAH: Really? Their clothes used to be very old-fashioned. But I haven't been there (4)
________.
MANDY: It's better now. Actually, there are lots of nice designs in the Nuptia catalogue. Perhaps
you should get a dress from them.
SARAH: I'm not sure. I've (5) ________ bought a dress from a catalogue.
MANDY: Well, at least have a look at it. They've (6) ________ sent me the new edition. I can bring
it around later.
SARAH: All right.
MANDY: What about the cake? Have you (7) ________ tried that place on Randall Street? They
do fantastic cakes.
SARAH: I know. But they seemed a bit expensive to me. Of course, I don't really know how much a
big wedding cake should cost. I've never bought one (8) ________ !
Exercise 3: Find eight more mistakes in the conversation and correct them.
you brought
DAVE: Have brought you the new car?
ALICE: Yes. I've park it outside. Come and have a look…
DAVE: It's lovely. How fast does it go?
ALICE: I don't know. I yet haven't driven it on the motorway.
DAVE: I bet it's really fast. Pete's got one of these and he says he's did over 125 mph in it!
ALICE: Oh, that's too fast for me. I've driven never over 80 or 90.
DAVE: I haven't driven a car like this already. Could I have a go?
ALICE: I'm afraid not. Just I've arranged the insurance and I'm the only person that's allowed to
drive it.
DAVE: That's a pity. How do you turn on the CD player?
ALICE: Mmm, I'm not sure. !'ve looked at the manual yet.
DAVE: Has it got air-conditioning?
ALICE: Yes. I'm really looking forward to the hot weather so l can try it out. I've never had before a
car with air-conditioning!
Exercise 4: Imagine you are feeling unhappy. Write three sentences with the present perfect
explaining why. Then imagine you are feeling happy and explain why. Check your sentences with
the teacher.
Example: I’m feeling unhappy because I’ve lost my job.
1 _______________________________________________________ .
2 ________________________________________________________.
3 ________________________________________________________.
47
Exercise 5: Look at the picture and write sentences about what the student has or has not done,
using the verbs and nouns in the box.
glass
do
have
clean
empty
breakfast
keys
the washing up
forget
switch off
shoes
the lights
break
wastepaper basket
1 ____________________________________________________________________________
2 ____________________________________________________________________________
3 ____________________________________________________________________________
4 ____________________________________________________________________________
5 ____________________________________________________________________________
6 ____________________________________________________________________________
7 ____________________________________________________________________________
48
PRESENT PERFECT OR PAST SIMPLE?
1 Differences in Use
Present Perfect
Past Simple
Single or repeated actions in the past, when
we don't know the date of the action, or it isn't
important:
Single or repeated actions that happened at a
definite time in the past:
I've driven an automatic car before.
We've been to the theatre many times.
Time expressions: before, ever, already, just,
and yet
Situations that started in the past and are still
continuing:
Tom has worked at the garage for two years.
(He’s working there now.)
with for + period of time, or since + date
I drove a racing car in the summer.
We went to the theatre twice last month.
Time expressions: yesterday, last month, in
2007, etc.
Situations that started and finished in the past:
Alex worked at the garage for two years.
(He isn't working there now.)
with for to say how long the situation lasted
One or more completed actions in a time
period that is still continuing:
Completed actions in a time period that is
finished:
He's sold fifteen cars this month.
He sold twenty cars in August.
I sold my Toyota two weeks ago.
Time expressions: this morning/evening,
today, so far, etc.
with ago to mean '(a period) before now'
It is sometimes difficult to hear /v/ in I've, we've, you've, they've and /iz/ in he's and she's.
It is easy to confuse the present perfect and past simple:
PAST SIMPLE: I finished work. He started early. We carried the bags.
PRESENT PERFECT: I've finished work. He's started early. We've carried the bags.
The other words around the verb can usually help you to understand which form you hear:
I finished work an hour ago. I've just finished work.
2 Giving News
* We often use the present perfect to introduce new information:
I've decided to get a new car. I'm going to look at some tomorrow.
'Julian has passed his driving test.' 'Oh, that's good news!'
* News reports often start a new item with the present perfect:
The Terracotta Army exhibition has opened in London.
There has been an earthquake in southern China.
* After we have introduced new information with the present perfect, we usually give more details
with the past simple:
Julian has passed his driving test. He took it on Wednesday.
The Terracotta Army exhibition has opened in Paris. It was opened by the Minister of Culture.
49
Exercise 1: In situations 1-10 below, tick (✓) the best sentence, a) or b), for the speaker to use.
Example: The baby's a day old and is
doing well.
a) My sister's had a baby. ✓
b) My sister had a baby.
1 It's 7.30 a.m. The postman usually
comes between 7.15 a.m. and 7.45 a.m.
a) The postman hasn't come yet.
b) The postman didn't come this morning.
2 I'm talking about my trip around
Eastern Europe last year.
a) I haven't been to Prague.
b) I didn’t go to Prague.
3 Alice is a good friend of mine.
a) She's known me since we were children.
b) She knew me when we were children.
4 I'm telling you this just after I heard the news.
a) A large shark has attacked a swimmer on
Australia's western coast.
b) A large shark attacked a swimmer on
Australia's western coast.
5 He is back with his family now.
a) No one has seen him for ten days.
b) No one saw him for ten days.
6 My knee is much better now.
a) I've hurt my knee.
b) I hurt my knee.
7 I'm giving a friend recent news about Alexander. a) Alexander has given up smoking.
b) Alexander gave up smoking.
8 Mike didn't get the job.
a) Mike's applied for a new job.
b) Mike applied for a new job.
9 I'm still studying maths with the same teacher.
a) I've learnt a lot from my maths teacher.
b) I learnt a lot from my maths teacher.
10 The drug was never used because it
was dangerous.
a) Scientists have found a new drug.
b) Scientists found a new drug.
Exercise 2: Jo Thomas is a famous guitar player with the band ‘Earthforce’. A journalist is asking
him questions. Write her questions using the present perfect or the past simple.
1 ______________________________________________________________________?
JO: I started playing the guitar when I was nine.
2 ______________________________________________________________________?
JO: I left school when I was sixteen.
3 ______________________________________________________________________?
JO: We gave our first concert in a pub in Plymouth.
4 ______________________________________________________________________?
JO: We got our first recording contract five years ago with Polygram Records.
5 ______________________________________________________________________?
JO: We’ve made twelve albums so far.
50
6 ______________________________________________________________________?
JO: I chose it. I thought ‘Earthforce’ was a good name for a rock band.
7 ______________________________________________________________________?
JO: We’ve sold about eight million. We sold over a million records last month.
8 ______________________________________________________________________?
JO: No, we haven’t been there yet. They don’t seem to like our music in the States.
Exercise 3: Complete the text with suitable forms of the words in brackets. Use the present perfect
or past simple. In one place, both are possible.
Electric cars - Latest update
A small American car manufacturer (0) has just announced (just announce} that its experimental
electric car, the Lexington X1, will go into production this year. Markton Automobiles, of Detroit,
Michigan, (1) _____________ (make) the announcement at last month's Auto Show in Geneva.
Although there are now many electric cars on the market, so far manufacturers (2) ____________
(not be able) to produce one that can really compete with existing petrol cars. There are two major
problems - speed and distance. Up until now, electric cars (3) _____________ (be) either too slow
or unable to travel far enough without recharging their batteries. Mark ton Automobiles claim that
they (4) _____________ (overcome) these difficulties with a new type of solar panel which
continually recharges the batteries. The company (5) _____________ (not give) the press exact
details yet, but they claim they (6_____________ (already test} the car successfully under all kinds
of weather conditions. A Japanese company (7) _____________ (first design) the engine in 2007.
But over the last few years Markton (8) ______________ (adapt) the design and increased its power.
The company (9) _______________ (invite) ten journalists to test-drive the new car last week. Their
reports (10) ______________ (be) mainly positive, although we will have to wait for the full test
results before we know if this really is the electric car that everyone is waiting for.
Exercise 4: It is three o’clock in the afternoon. Sally is having a bad day. She is talking to her
neighbour. Read the dialogue. Some of the lines are correct, and some have a mistake in them. If
the line is correct, put a tick (✓). If the line has a mistake, underline the mistake, and write the
correction in the brackets.
SALLY: I can’t use the car because I’ve lost the keys.
NEIGHBOUR: When did you lose them?
SALLY: I’ve lost them this morning, I think. And I can’t use my
word processor because I’ve cut my finger.
NEIGHBOUR: When have you done that?
SALLY: I’ve done it this morning on a piece of glass.
Oh, and the dog’s disappeared.
NEIGHBOUR: The dog’s disappeared? When has that happened?
SALLY: When I’ve let it out into the garden this morning.
And worst of all, the telephone has stopped working and
nobody came to repair it.
NEIGHBOUR: Why has no one come?
SALLY: Because the Telekom engineers went on strike.
(1________________)
(2________________)
(3________________)
(4________________)
(5________________)
(6________________)
(7________________)
(8________________)
(9________________)
(10_______________)
(11_______________)
(12_______________)
(13_______________)
51
Exercise 5: A learner completed a present perfect / past simple gap-fill exercise which is a
conversation between two old friends. Check the answers and write right or correct them.
A: Have you seen (see) William recently? He grew (grow) a beard!
B: Yes, actually. I 1 've seen. (see) him last week in the supermarket.
I think the beard suits him.
A: Yes, it's OK. He 2 's lost (lose) a lot of hair in the past few years
though.
B: Oh, poor William! All of us 3 changed (change) quite a lot. Look at
Marsha. She 4 lost (lose) so much weight since she was a teenager.
A: Yes. I 5 have never been able to (be able to) lose weight. Anyway, the
reason I 6 ‘ve asked you about William was that he 7 ‘s decided (decide) to
have a college reunion next month and we’re all invited. He’s only inviting
people he 8 ‘s met at college.
B: That sounds fun. I 9 met (meet) William on my first day of college. We
were only 17 and he seemed really shy. He 10 changed (change) a lot since
then, that's for sure.
A: Look, I'd better go. I'm going to a friend's house, but I 11 haven’t been
(not be) there before and I don't want to get lost and be late. She 12 just moved
(just move) house and is having a party to celebrate.
right_______
has grown__
1 _________
2 _________
3 _________
4 _________
5 _________
6 _________
7 _________
8 _________
9 _________
10 ________
11 ________
12 ________
Exercise 6: Write ten sentences about your life using the present perfect and the simple past. Say
what you have done or haven’t done so far and what you did and didn’t do at particular times in the
past. Check your answers with the teacher.
Examples: I’ve walked in the Himalayas. I met the Pope in 1994.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
52
3.4.2 PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
1 Form
We form the present perfect continuous with have + been + -ing form of the verb:
POSITIVE:
I
have (‘ve)
He
has ('s)
They
have ('ve)
been
been
been
NEGATIVE:
I
Have not (haven’t)
He
has not (hasn’t)
They
have not (haven’t)
QUESTIONS:
Have you
Has
he
Have they
been
been
been
waiting
washing the car
cooking
been
been
been
waiting
washing the car
cooking
waiting?
washing the car?
cooking?
Short Answers:
Yes, I have. / No, I haven’t.
Yes, he has. / No, he hasn’t.
2 Actions/situations up to the present
• We use the present perfect continuous to talk about actions or situations that started in
the past and are still continuing now:
We've been waiting to hear from them.
Clare's been living with her cousins.
• We often use for and since to answer the question How long?
We've been waiting for about an hour.
I've been working since three o'clock.
•
We can also use the present perfect continuous if the action or situation finishes at the
time of speaking:
I've been waiting in this queue for an hour! (... but now I've reached the ticket office.)
Clive's been driving all morning. (... but now he's arrived.)
53
→ We use the present perfect, NOT the present perfect continuous, when we say how
many times, we have done something, or how much we have done:
X I have been washing the car twice this week.
✓ I've washed the car twice this week.
→ We don't usually use the present perfect continuous with always, already and yet:
X I have been washing the car yet.
✓ I haven 't washed the car yet.
3 Recent continuous actions with present results
• We often use the present perfect continuous to talk about an activity in the recent past:
'I haven't seen you in the office recently.' 'I know. I've been working at home.'
• We often use this form to explain a present situation or result; it gives the cause:
'Your clothes are all wet!' ' l know. I've been washing the car.'
'Have you lost weight?' 'Yes, I’ve been going to the gym a lot.'
• Sometimes the action is not complete:
I've been reading 'War and Peace' but I am only halfway through it.
→ We use the present perfect simple or continuous, NOT the present simple or
continuous, for a situation that is continuing.
X I live here for five months.
✓ I have lived here for five months.
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE OR CONTINUOUS?
1 Differences in use
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
An action that is completed:
I've driven an automatic car before
emphasis on the result of a past action:
The mechanic has repaired the car. (lt's
ready for the customer now.)
To answer the questions 'how much?' or
'how many?'
We've played six games.
Kari has driven 200 miles.
Time expressions: always, recently, before,
ever, already, just, still, yet, for and since:
I've always lived in that flat.
I've lived there since I was born.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
An activity that is continuing, or has just
ended:
I've been driving since nine o'clock.
emphasis on the cause of a present result:
Why is Caroline dirty?
She's been repairing the car.
To answer the question 'how long?'
We've been playing tor three hours.
Karl's been driving since nine o'clock.
Time expressions: for, since (NOT always,
yet)
X I have always been living in that flat.
✓ I have been living there for years.
54
2 State verbs
•
With state verbs (e.g. understand, know, be, own) we use the present perfect simple,
not the present perfect continuous.
X I have been knowing Ben since I was six.
✓ I have known Ben since I was six.
• We can use always and never with these verbs:
I've always liked ice cream.
Switzerland has never had a king.
Have you always owned a car?
•
Some verbs (e.g. live, work, teach, study) describe an action which continues over a
period of time, not a single event. We can use these verbs with for or since in the
present perfect simple or continuous.
'How long have you lived/have you been living here?' 'We've lived/We've been living in this
house since we got married.
Alice has studied/has been studying Maths for three years.
Exercise 1: Choose the correct words in italics. In two places both answers are possible
0. Jake doesn’t have any family. He’s always lived/ been living on his own.
1. He never answers the phone. I’ve called / been calling six times!
2. Sorry I’m so late. I’ve waited / been waiting for a call from the New York office.
3. Debbie knows Seattle really well. She’s lived / been living there for two years.
4. I’m afraid the house is a mess. We’ve decorated / been decorating it.
5. Look at the new garden lights. Sam’s just turned / been turning them on.
6. Carol’s an expert on economics. She’s studied / been studying it for years.
7. Harry’s an old friend of mine. I’ve known / been knowing him since we were kids.
8. Marking essays is hard work. l’ve marked / been marking twenty this evening.
9. I’m curious about the food here. I haven’t tried / been trying Mexican food before.
10. I hate cabbage. I’ve never liked / been liking it.
Exercise 2: Match sentences 1 and 2 with A and B in each pair.
0. 1 Rick has had a nice time. B
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2 Carlo needs a shower.
A
1 I've just read that detective story.
2 I've been reading that detective story.
1 We can start making dinner now.
2 Sorry my clothes are dirty.
1 Jane's fıxed the computer.
2 Jane's been fixing the computer.
1 Your towels are ready.
2 Your towels are still damp.
1 The suitcases are empty.
2 The suitcases are half empty.
A He's been playing in the garden.
B He's played in the garden all day.
A So I know who the murderer is.
B I don't know who the murderer is yet.
A I've been cleaning the kitchen.
B I've cleaned the kitchen.
A You can use it now.
B It's taken her most of the day.
A I've been washing them.
B I've washed them.
A I've been unpacking.
B I've unpacked.
55
Exercise 3: Complete the conversation with suitable forms of the words in brackets.
ROY
BEN
ROY
BEN
ROY
BEN
ROY
BEN
ROY
BEN
You look tired. (0) ….have you been working…. (you work) all day?
Not exactly, I (1)………………… (do) some research on the Internet. I (2)………..
(try) to get some information about one of our old friends from college.
Who?
Dave Colston. Do you remember him?
Yes. I (3)…………………(not see) him for years! But what do you want to find out?
Well. I (4) ………………… (just get) an email from Philip Markham. He wants to get
in touch with Dave, but he doesn't know where he is now. He thinks Dave (5)………..
(live) in the Far East for the last few years.
Yes. I remember he was always interested in oriental philosophy.
Exactly. I (6)…………….. (look at) six or seven different websites already, but I
(7)…………………… (not find) much information.
(8)…………………….. (you try) that website that reunites old college friends?
Yes. I (9) ………………………..(already look at) that one, but he's not on it. I posted
a message for some of his other friends on some other websites and I
(10)........................ (wait) for a reply. But so far, I've heard nothing.
Exercise 4: Complete the text, using the present perfect simple or the present perfect
continuous.
Jack is a tax inspector but he (1 be) ………. out of work for six months and he (2 try)
……….. to get another job. He (3 apply) ………….. for ten jobs, but he (4 have) ……….
only ……… one interview. While he (5 be) ……… out of work he (6 do) ……….. jobs around
the house. So far he (7 paint ) ……… all the bedrooms and he (8 build) …….. a new garden
shed. But all the time he (9 get) ……. more and more frustrated. All his life he (10 work) in
an office and he (11 hate)………. working in the house. He (12 not feel) …….. well recently.
He (13 see) …….. the doctor two or three times, and he (14 take) ……. pills for two weeks
now, but they (15 cure)………. his depression. Today he (16 decide)…….. not to get up.
He (17 watch) …….. television in bed. He (18 watch) ………. a documentary about
unemployment and he (19 see)……. the news three times. Now at least he (20 fall) ……..
asleep. And for the last few minutes he (21 dream) …… about being back in an office again
surrounded by computer screens full of figures. He (22 not smile) ……. like that for months.
56
3.5 FUTURE TENSES
Which business will create the most jobs?
Did you guess space travel? If so, Professor Patrick Collins, a professor of economics in
Japan, agrees with you. At a recent lecture he said, “It won’t be long before people will call
their travel agents and book their flights to the Moon. Imagine! Yes, there is room on tomorrow’s
flight to the Moon. It leaves at 9:00 A.M. It’s going to be full so please arrive early for check-in.”
Of course, many people disagree with Collins. They think space travel will cost too
much and not many people will travel. They also think that people won’t feel safe enough to
travel into space. But Collins’s research shows that the majority of people think it will be worth
saving their money to travel into space. He claims that while it will probably start out as an
activity for a few rich individuals, it will grow very quickly—just like the aviation (airplane)
industry grew in the last 100 years. After all, Collins reminds us, the Wright brothers flew their
first plane in 1903.
If Collins is right that people will travel to space as tourists, then, like all tourists, they are
going to stay in hotels. They are going to want tours and they will certainly expect some
entertainment. All of this will require many people, and that will mean many new jobs.
Some of these space jobs will be similar to Earth jobs, but they will have some unique
challenges. For instance, how will a space waiter serve food in a gravity-free restaurant? And
what about fitness trainers? Teaching an aerobics class in space will require some new moves
in addition to a lot more flexibility—in all directions! But not all space jobs will be more difficult.
Some will be easier, the job of a porter for instance. No more carrying heavy luggage; it will just
float along. Well, one thing is certain about these space jobs—they won’t be boring!
PLEASE NOTE: If you missed this great lecture, Professor Collins is speaking again at
the space conference tomorrow night at 7:00 PM.
57
AFTER YOU READ
What's Professor Collins’s opinion? Read each statement and write T (True) or F (False)
under Collins. Write your own opinion under You.
Collins
You
1. Space travel will create more jobs in the future.
_______
_______
2. People won’t feel safe enough to travel in space.
_______
_______
3. The space travel business won’t grow very quickly.
_______
_______
4. At first, only rich people are going to travel as space tourists. _______
_______
5. People will save money to travel into space.
_______
_______
6. There will be hotels in space.
_______
_______
7. Space jobs will be completely different from Earth jobs.
_______
_______
8. Space jobs will have some interesting new problems.
_______
_______
Be going to & Will
Be going to and will can be used to talk about the future. Sometimes the difference
between them is small, but note these points:
We usually choose be going to when:
•
•
•
We talk about plans.
We're going to travel to France next year. (a plan)
We've already made a decision:
I'm going to study Arabic next term. (I’ve already decided)
the present situation tells us something about the future:
She’s going to win. (she’s only got to win one more point)
We usually choose will when:
•
•
We haven't decided about the future yet, or we make a prediction. We often use
words such as “think, probably, sure, suppose, definitely, doubt”:
We think we'll buy them some glasses as a wedding gift. (haven’t decided yet)
I'll probably go home in a few minutes. (haven't decided yet)
She'll definitely feel homesick in the States. (prediction)
The shops will be really busy tomorrow. (prediction)
I doubt that you'll see him tonight. (prediction)
We decide at the time of speaking to do something (this can be an offer or promise or
a response to an offer):
A: Have you bought Sally a birthday present?
B: No! I’ll buy her some flowers at lunchtime. (decision at the time of speaking)
A: Oh, I’ve forgotten to turn off the iron!
B: Don’t worry. I’ll do it. (an offer)
I’m sorry. I’m busy, but I promise I’ll help you later. (a promise)
58
*The choice of be going to or will depends on the speaker’s emphasis.
Compare: What's he going to do when he gets here? (I think he’s thought about it)
What will he do when he gets here? (I don’t think he’s decided)
Present Tenses for Talking about the Future
The names of tenses in English are not always very helpful. The present continuous and
present simple can both be used to talk about future events.
Present Continuous for Future
We can use the present continuous to talk about planned or arranged future events. The time
of the future event is either given or understood:
I’m coming back next Thursday.
We're having a party next Friday. Would you like to come? (a fixed arrangement)
I spoke to Simon yesterday. We’re having lunch tomorrow. (We arranged it when we
spoke)
* Note that there is usually a time reference:
What are you doing next week?
We’re leaving for France on Monday. (we’ve bought the tickets)
Present Continuous or Be Going To?
The difference between be going to and the present continuous for future is often small:
I’m going to see / I’m seeing him tomorrow.
Note, however:
-The present continuous is more likely when an arrangement is made:
Sue and I are having lunch together tomorrow. (She knows and I know)
-For personal intentions, we use be going to:
I'm going to visit my cousins in Australia next summer if I have enough money. (not yet
fixed with the cousins)
Present Simple for Future
The present simple is used for future events that always happen at a certain time or which
are part of a timetable:
The conference begins on Tuesday at 10:00. (it’s scheduled)
My plane leaves at 4.30, so I need to be at the airport by 3.00. (it’s on a timetable)
His new job starts on Monday. He’s really looking forward to it. (The contract start date
is Monday)
We leave the beach at 12.00 and climb into the mountains. (An extract from a travel
itinerary)
59
-
-
Be as a main verb in the present simple is common in spoken English to refer to the
future:
Don’t worry. I’m here tomorrow, so I'll let you in.
She’s 50 next week, so I think we should plan a surprise.
We use present forms after “when, if” and “as soon as” to refer to the future:
If I see her, I’ll tell her.
As soon as he gets back, we'll start the meeting.
When you’re talking to her later today, ask her about her weekend.
Exercise 1: Decide if the verbs in italics in the sentences refer to present time (p) or future
time (f).
Example: I'm spending a few weeks with an uncle in the States this summer. _f_
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
I can't find Barbara. Maybe she’s meeting the others for lunch. _____
When you see her, could you tell her to give me a call? _____
The show starts at 8.30 every day except Monday. _____
I hope everyone's ready. We Ieave first thing in the morning. _____
I can't talk to you then. I'm meeting Joe for coffee. _____
Sorry about the noise. My neighbour's having a party. _____
l'm going to make something for supper. Are you hungry? _____
After 2 weeks in London, the show opens on Broadway at the end of the month. ____
We're at home next weekend, aren't we? We've been invited to a party. _____
Exercise 2: Fill in the gaps with a suitable form of the verb in brackets.
Example: A: You're looking pleased with yourself. What's happened?
B: I've won some tickets for Disneyland. I am taking__ (take) kids next month.
1. My exams __________ (start) in two weeks so I've got to work hard. As soon as I
__________ (get) my degree, I'll try and find work abroad.
2. My sister __________ (get married) next month. I __________ (go) to the wedding, but
my boyfriend can't come. He's got to work then.
3. A: What's the director's programme for tomorrow?
B: He's got a really busy day. He __________ (arrive) at 9.00 and __________ (have)
three meetings before lunch. They're about the conference which __________ (open)
on 3 March.
4. Don't forget to phone Dad when you __________ (get) to Paris. He won't be very
pleased if you __________ (forget).
5. This season's gone really quickly. We've only got one more match! Who __________
we ___________ (play)?
60
Exercise 3: Be Going To or Present Progressive?
Complete the conversation about e-readers. Use be going to or the present progressive and
the verbs in parentheses. Sometimes more than one answer is possible.
Mei: I __'m going to buy__ (buy) an e-reader one of these days. Any suggestions?
Kyle: Look at this ad. Big Buy_______________ (have) a sale on the iRead next week.
Mei: How much is it?
Kyle: They _______________ (lower) the price to $69.
Mei: That's great. I _______________ (visit) a friend near that area next week. I’ll stop by.
Kyle: That’s a great price.
Mei: Yes, it’s quite a deal. You know, I think companies _______________ (give) e-readers
away someday. They’re getting less and less expensive. Soon they’ll be free!
Kyle: I've got to go. I _______________ (meet) some friends for dinner. What
_______________ you_______________ (do) tonight?
Mei: I _______________ (go) straight home. I'm tired.
Exercise 4: Be Going To, Present Progressive, or Simple Present? Complete the article
about a social networking site. Use be going to, the present progressive, or the simple
present form of the verbs in parentheses. Sometimes more than one answer is possible.
Changes Ahead for Youth Network
Youth Network, Inc., announced today that it (1) __is buying__ (buy) FacePlace, the popular
social networking website. FacePlace has already accepted Youth Network's offer of $3.1
billion. The company has not made any definite plans, but it (2) _________ probably _________
(start) asking people to pay for the site. It won't be free anymore. In addition, some people think
that the network (3) ___________ (put) ads on the site. Another possibility is that Youth
Network (4) ___________ (show) its TV programs on FacePlace. Next week, FacePlace
technicians (5)___________ (meet) with Youth Network technicians to help with the changes.
They (6)___________ (plan) to shut down the old FacePlace website at 1 :00 a.m. on
Saturday, August 10. The new Youth Network site (7)___________ (go) live at 6:00 a.m. the
next day.
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Exercise 5: Will or Be Going To?
Complete the phone conversation between an employee and a technician in the tech
department. Underline will or be going to. If both are possible, underline both.
Bill: Tech Department, Bill speaking.
Kate: Hi, Bill. This is Kate in Business Development. My laptop is behaving very strangely
this morning. It (1) will /‘s going to crash at any minute. (2) Will you / Are you going to send
someone to look at it?
Bill: Of course, I (3) will / am going to.
Kate: Soon?
Bill: I promise. I (4) 'll /’m going to send Dave in five minutes.
Kate: Bill, (5) will you / are you going to send Silvia instead, please? She's fixed this same
problem before.
Bill: Oh, OK. Then Silvia (6) will / is going to be there in about 5 minutes.
Kate: Thanks, Bill. Bye.
A few minutes later:
Silvia: Hi, Kate. Are you having problems with your laptop again?
Kate: Uh-huh. This is the fourth time! I think I (7) 'll /’m going to ask for a new computer.
Silvia: I (8)’ll /’m going to look at it for you.
Kate: Thanks, Silvia.
Classwork
1. What is your perfect holiday? Plan a holiday by choosing one option from each
column in the chart.
Example: A skiing holiday in a large hotel in Japan in winter.
Type of holiday
Accommodation
Country
Time of year
beach
large hotel
France
spring
skiing
camping
Japan
summer
sightseeing
small hotel
Argentina
autumn
cruise
apartment
Egypt
winter
2. Ask questions using the present continuous with future meaning and try to find
someone in the class who is planning the same holiday as you.
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Example:
A: Where are you staying on holiday?
B: In a hotel.
A: Me too. What ...?
3. If you find someone, plan a programme for someone going on this holiday. Tell the
class about it, using the present simple.
Example:
On Monday you visit the Great Pyramid and on Tuesday you fly to Aswan ...
4. If you can't find anyone, join other students who have not found a match and plan a
different holiday together.
Other Ways to Talk about the Future
Was/Were Going To
We use was/were going to to talk about something that was expected or planned for the
future, but it didn’t happen. We sometimes call this form ‘the future in the past’:
In 2005 they were going to build a supermarket here. (There was a plan to build it.)
When I was younger, I was going to be a ballet dancer. (I expected to do this in the
future.)
I wasn’t going to work today, but the boss called me in. (I didn’t expect to work today.)
We often use this form
-
to talk about something we expected to happen but in fact didn’t happen:
I was going to study medicine, but my grades weren’t good enough for medical school.
to make excuses about something we failed to do:
I was going to finish my homework, but I didn’t have time.
We were going to buy some more milk, but we left our money at home. Sorry.
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Expressions with a Future Meaning
We use am/is/are to + infinitive in formal situations to talk about future events:
The president is to talk to the nation tomorrow.
The bridge is to be opened by the mayor on July 20th.
We often use this form in news reports and in instructions or orders:
The police are to start house-to-house enquiries this week.
The driver of the stolen car is to appear in court tomorrow.
These pills are to be taken three times a day.
You are to report for duty at 9.00 a.m.
We use am/is/are about to + infinitive to talk about an action that will happen in the
immediate future:
Hurry up! The train’s about to leave.
I can’t talk now — my phone battery is about to run out.
Some verbs and other expressions also have a future meaning:
be due to
The new computer is due to arrive tomorrow.
be sure/certain to
The test isn’t difficult. I’m sure to pass it.
be likely to
I don't think we're likely to get a refund as we don’t have a receipt.
Expect
The company expects to announce its annual results next month.
Hope
I hope to see you on Friday.
Want
They want to visit us next summer.
Exercise 1: Match the sentences 1-5 with A or B.
0. She's certain to be promoted.
(A) I’m talking about the present. (B) I’m talking about the future.
1. We were going to go to their party.
(A) We went to their party.
(B) We didn’t go to their party.
2. I can’t talk now, I’m about to go out.
(A) I'm going out in a few minutes. (B) I’m going out later this evening.
3. I wasn’t going to wear that red dress.
(A) I didn’t wear the red dress.
(B) My friend persuaded me to wear the red dress.
4. Four heads of state are to attend the opening ceremony.
(A) I read this in a newspaper.
(B) A friend said this.
5. The government was going to reduce taxes last year.
(A) They reduced taxes last year.
(B) They didn’t reduce taxes last year.
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Exercise 2: Complete the recorded phone messages with the words and phrases from the
box.
about to
hope
hope to
likely to be
sure to
due to
were going to
want
was going to
A- Hi Carla, it’s Jane here. I (0) __hope__ you get this message! Sorry | didn’t call you
earlier. I (1) _______________ phone, but it’s been a really busy day. Anyway, I just
wanted to tell you that I might be a bit late for the aerobics class this evening. I’m (2)
_______________ finish a really important report for my boss for tomorrow and I need
to spend a couple more hours on it to get it ready. But I’m (3) ______________ finish
it by 7.00, so I’ll see you around 7.30.
B- Hello. Mr Carlton? This is Anthea from the electrical shop. You (4) _______________
collect your repaired toaster this morning, but you didn’t come into the shop. Do you
(5) _______________ us to send it to you or do you still want to collect it yourself? The
thing is, we're (6) _______________ close for our annual holidays so if you don’t collect
it before the weekend, it’ll be too late.
C- This is Karen from customer services with a message for Stephen Brook. I’m afraid
we’ve had some problems with our suppliers and there’s (7) _______________ a few
weeks’ delay in the delivery of your spare parts. I’m sorry about that. I (8)
_______________ get a definite date from them in the next few days. I’ll phone again
when I’ve got a firm date for you.
Exercise 3: Complete the second sentence so it means the same as the first, using the word
in brackets. Use two to five words in your answer.
0. They will definitely ask us about our holiday plans. (sure)
They __are sure to ask us__ about our holiday plans.
1. I planned to phone you but I didn’t have time. (was)
I ________________________ but I didn’t have time.
2. The new hospital will open next September. (due)
The new hospital ________________________ next September.
3. I think we’re probably going to be there around 6.00. (likely)
We ________________________ there around 6.00.
4. The Prime Minister will make an announcement this evening. (is)
The Prime Minister ________________________ an announcement this evening.
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3.6 PAST PERFECT TENSE
A cruise ship was sailing back to New York after a cruise around the Caribbean islands. The
ship's officers were alarmed when a woman told them that she couldn't find her husband. After
searching the ship, they decided that he had fallen overboard. They turned the ship around and
started to look for him. To everyone's amazement, they found the man alive, swimming in the
ocean, 18 hours after he had fallen off the ship.
1) After searching the ship, they decided that he had fallen overboard.
2) To everyone’s amazement, they found the man alive, swimming in the ocean, 18 hours
after he had fallen of the ship.
Which event happened first? Which event followed? Write the verbs. What do you notice about
the form of the verbs?
1) First:
Second:
2) First:
Second:
Form
Affirmative
I / You / We / They / She /He/ It
had (‘d)
left (past participle).
hadn’t (hadn’t)
left (past participle).
Had
I / you / we / they / she / he/ it
left (past participle)?
What had
I / you / we / they / she / he/ it
found?
Negative
I / You / We / They / She /He/ It
Questions
Short Answers
Yes,
I / you / we / they / she / he/ it
had.
No,
I / you / we / they / she / he/ it
hadn’t.
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Use
•
Use past perfect simple to describe a past event which happened before another event
in the past. Only use it when it is important to make clear that one event in the past
happened before another.
Example: On 12 July 1771, Cook's ship The Endeavour arrived back in Britain. Cook had not
discovered a new continent, but he had visited places never seen before. (In this example,
'not discovered' happened before 'arrived'.)
* We do not use past perfect simple simply to show that an event happened a very long time
ago. We can sometimes use before or after with past simple to make the order of events clear.
Example: By the time the ship reached the island, more than twenty sailors had died.
(More than twenty sailors died before the ship reached the island.)
forgot, remembered, realized
With forgot, remembered, realized, knew, we use past perfect simple to describe the past
events that happened before the moment we forgot, remembered, or realized something.
Example: When Franklin checked the ship's position, he realized he had made a mistake.
Exercise 1. Read the following information about famous moments in history. Then underline
the correct form. Only one verb in each paragraph is past perfect.
A. Columbus left Spain in August 1492 with three ships to try and find a way to India by sailing
west instead of east. When his ships finally reached / had finally reached land on 12
October, he thought he was there, but the ships actually arrived / had actually arrived
in America instead.
B. Captain Robert Stock wanted to reach the South Pole first. He and his companions finally
arrived there on 1 January 1912 after a terrible journey across the ice but found / had
found a Norwegian flag. Unfortunately for Scott, Roald Amundsen got / had got there on
14 December, 18 days earlier.
C. Leonardo painted his famous The Last Supper between 1495 and 1498, but the painting
started to deteriorate within 50 years. The most common explanation for this used to be
that Leonardo used / had used the wrong kind of paint, but experts have always disagreed
about this, and many believe that the damp in the wall is the cause of the damage.
Between 1978 and 1999, experts restored / had restored the painting, and the public can
now see it again.
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Exercise 2. Complete the sentences with the past simple or past perfect simple form of the
verbs in brackets.
1. When I (try) ___________to use my laptop, I realized the battery (run) __________ down.
2. I (turn) ___________ the computer off but forgot that I (not save) ____________ my work.
3. I only remembered I (not pay) ____________ the bill when my internet connection
(stop) ___________ working.
4. When I (receive) _________ the e-mail, I couldn’t understand who (send) __________ it.
5. When I (check) __________ the instructions, I understood what I (do) ____________.
6. I knew I (receive) __________ a virus when I (run) ___________ the anti-virus program.
7. As soon as I (download) ___________ the document, I knew I (make) __________ a
mistake.
8. I could see what (go) __________ wrong as soon as I (look) ___________ inside the
printer.
9. I knew I (press) ___________ the wrong key when nothing (happen) ____________.
10. When the screen (go) __________ blank, I couldn’t understand how it (happen) ________.
Exercise 3. Choose the correct form A, B or C to complete the sentences
On 26 December 2004, Tilly Smith, a 10-year-old British school girl, 1) ___ on the beach with
her family. They 2) ___ Christmas in Thailand. Suddenly Tilly 3) ___ that something was wrong.
She could see that the water 4) ___ and waves 5) ___. The beach 6) ___ smaller and smaller.
She 7) ___that there had been an earthquake in Sumatra that morning, but she 8) ___ a
geography lesson she 9) ___ at school just two weeks before. So she 10) ___her mother what
she 11) ___ about earthquakes and giant waves. Luckily for the Smith family, Tilly’s teacher
Andrew 12) ___ the class about earthquakes and 13) ___ them a video of tsunami in Hawaii.
Tilly 14) ___ screaming at her parents to get off the beach. They 15) ___ Tilly back to their
hotel, which was not too close to the shore, and 16) ___ the alarm. One of the staff, who was
Japanese, 17) ___ the word tsunami, and 18) ___ everyone to leave the beach. From their
room on the third floor, the Smiths 19) ___ the terrible effects of the tsunami on the area.
Thanks to Tilly, everybody from that beach 20) ____ that terrible day.
1) A. walked
2) A. spent
3) A. felt
4) A. rose
5) A. came
6) A. got
7) A. didn’t know
8) A. remembered
9) A. had
10) A. told
11) A. learnt
12) A. taught
13) A. showed
14) A. started
15) A. took
16) A. raised
B. had walked
B. had spent
B. had felt
B. had risen
B. had come
B. had got
B. hadn’t known
B. had remembered
B. had had
B. had told
B. had learnt
B. had taught
B. had shown
B. had started
B. had taken
B. had raised
C. was walking
C. were spending
C. was feeling
C. was rising
C. were coming
C. was getting
C. was not knowing
C. was remembering
C. was having
C. was telling
C. was learning
C. was teaching
C. was showing
C. was starting
C. were taking
C. were raising
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17)
18)
19)
20)
A. understood
A. ordered
A. watched
A. survived
B. had understood
B. had ordered
B. had watched
B. had survived
C. was understanding
C. was ordering
C. were watching
C. was surviving
Exercise 4. Read these sentences about Julius Caesar. Then complete the sentence with the
past simple or past perfect form of the verb in brackets.
1. Julius Caesar (come) came from an aristocratic Roman family, though his family was
not rich by Roman standards.
2. When he was 15, his father (die) _______, and to avoid political problems in
Rome, Caesar (serve) ________ as a soldier in the east.
3. By the time he (return) ________ to Rome, he (win) ________ awards for bravery.
4. He (become) ___________ a member of the Senate, and governor of what is now
Spain.
5. By the age of 40 he (rise) __________ to the top of the political world, and (form)
_________ a political alliance with a powerful general, Pompey, and a rich man,
Crassus.
6. Between 58 BC and 49 BC he (fight) ________ a war against the people of what are
now France, Belgium, Switzerland, and parts of Germany.
7. By the end of this war, according to the historian Plutarch, three million men (die)
_______.
8. In 50 BC The Senate (order) _________ Caesar to return to Rome. By that time,
Crassus was dead and Pompey (become) ________ Caesar's enemy.
9. ln the civil war that followed, Caesar (defeat) ________ all his enemies.
10. By the time a group of Roman senators (murder) _________ him in 44 BC, he (be)
________ the most powerful man in Rome for only a year.
Exercise 5. Make sentences using the past perfect as in the examples below.
Jack finished his lunch. --- He sat down to watch a film. (when)
When Jack had finished his lunch, he sat down to watch a film.
I went on a trip round America. --- I finished my exams. (after)
I went on a trip round America after I had finished my exams.
1. He tried on six pairs of shoes. --- He decided he liked the first ones best. (after)
___________________________________________________________________
2. Mary did all the shopping. --- She took a short walk round the park. (when)
___________________________________________________________________
3. I washed and dried the last plate. --- Paul came in and offered to help. (after)
___________________________________________________________________
4. I started on the dark chocolate. --- I ate all the milk chocolate. (when)
____________________________________________________________________
5. Peter did his karate training. --- He phoned his mother. (when)
___________________________________________________________________
6. Mike had a long hot shower. --- He went for a run. (after)
___________________________________________________________________
7. Sandra went to bed. --- She phoned the office to say she was ill. (after)
___________________________________________________________________
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UNIT 4 - DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
You are going to read three stories about a cat, a dog and some monkeys. Which animal(s),
do you think, could go in each headline?
a)…….. go to the prison
b)…………eats Money
c) ……….. is hurt by an automatic feeder
1- Now read the three stories to find out which animals were really involved.
A Southampton dog lover who rescued lost dog returned home to find it had eaten
£ 800 he had saved for a new car.
Monkeys which annoy people in the northern Indian state of Punjab are being
locked up in a special jail and held until they are ready for release back into society.
A cat feeder, probably for people who secretly hate their cats, was introduced in
1979. It was a plastic machine that made leading the cat a simple job. You put food
into the feeder and it would automatically give it to the cat. Great idea for a pet
owner- but not so great for the cat. The lid of the feeder would often fall down while
the cat was eating and hit it on the nose.
2- Find these words in the texts: who-which-that. Which of these words:
a) is used for people? ………………………….
b) are used for things and animals ? ………………………
2- Read the spoken version of the dog story and answer the question.
“There was this man that loved animals, and one day he found a dog wandering
around in the street and he took him home with him. He left the dog in his house while
he went out shopping and when he came home he had a bit of shock. The stupid dog
had eaten £800 that he had been saving to buy a new car!”
Can that be used for things and people? ……………………….
Using the answers to 2 and 3 above complete this sentence:
c) ………. and b) ………………. can be used to describe people, and c) ……….. and d)………
can be used to refer to things or animals.
70
Looking at language
Defining Relative Clauses
Relative clauses give information about a noun or a noun phrase. There are two types.
■ Defining relative clauses give information to help us identify a specific person, animal
or thing.
Monkeys which annoy people in the northern Indian state of Punjab are being locked
up in a special jail. (not all monkeys in the Punjab, just these specific monkeys).
Words like who, that and which in relative clauses are called relative pronouns. The chart
below shows what they refer to.
Relative Pronoun
Refers to
who (or whom in formal English
people (and sometimes pet animals):
when it replaces an object);
There is the woman who/ that told me.
that (usually in spoken English)
There are several people whom I need to talk to.
It was my dog who/ that chased the cat, not yours.
which and that
things:
Flowers which/ that attract bees are good for gardens.
where(= in which)
places:
It's a place where time seems to stand still.
Also in descriptions of stories and films:
There is a scene where the hero nearly dies.
when
nouns of time:
It was just after 9:00 o'clock when he got back.
whose
possessives:
The people whose daughter I look after are moving away.
why
after the noun the reason:
And that's the reason why we’re leaving.
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In defining relative clauses you can leave out the relative pronoun when it refers to the object
of the verb in the clause.
Compare:
The man who visited us was a salesman.
Here who cannot be left out.
The man who we went to visit was a salesman.
Here who can be left out
The man we went to visit was a salesman.
But be careful:
The man with a large expensive house and fast car (who) we went to visit was an
insurance salesman.
If you leave out who here, the sentence is unclear because the relative clause a long way from
the noun (the man) it replaces.
In the text below can you leave out the relative pronoun in the underlined relative clause?
Why/ why not?
Lamine Martori, the French boy who last year stole £ 8500 from his parents for a
luxury holiday at Disneyland Paris has stolen again. Lamine, 12, took £ 750 for a
three- day visit. After he returned his mother Jeanne said: Yeah I'm relieved he's
home but I'm sure he will do it again.
Other points:
■ What generally means ‘the thing(s) that’:
We went out again to get what we needed.
That's what I thought.
■ After prepositions we use whom and which. Prepositions come before the noun
in formal language.
The order to which I referred in my previous letter has not arrived.
The relative with whom I went to India stayed there for another month.
Prepositions come at the end of the clause in informal spoken English.
Careful with that! It's the bag which I keep my keys in. (informal/spoken)
■ Whom is rare in spoken English.
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Exercise 1 Relative Pronouns
Underline the relative pronoun in the sentences below. Explain what it refers to, and
decide whether it can be left out.
Relative pronoun
Example:
Refers to:
Can it be left out?
the man
yes
I don't know the man that Sarah is talking to, do I?
1- What's the name of that TV channel
which shows classic films?
2- As a vegetarian there aren't many things that I
can eat in that restaurant?
3- What do you think now about the things
that you did in your youth?
4- Did you hear about the man who is trying
to fly around the world in a balloon?
5-What's the best holiday that you’ ve
ever had?
6-The doctor has given me some new antibiotics
which are better than the old ones.
7- Jane is someone that I get on really well with.
8- That's the woman who told me about the job
Exercise 2 Link Up
Match two halves of the sentences and link them with a suitable relative pronoun.
Example: This is one occasion……when…f)…….
1- Who is that woman………
2- According to the reporters at the
scene……….
3- Do you know the earrings….……
4- She's someone………….
5- Trainer gave him some
exercises…………
6 Do you remember the time……
a) I feel you can trust.
b) we went swimming and that boy pushed you into water.
c) I bought last week? Well, I’ve lost one of them.
d) saw the event, the police overreacted
e) were aimed at improving his fitness
f) we should work together for the good of the company
g) always waits at the bus stop?
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Exercise 3
Complete the sentences with which, where, when or why. Leave out the
pronoun where possible.
0123456-
This tastes awful I don't know ….. why ….. I ordered it.
Summer is the season ............. ……..I feel the happiest.
Is this the place ............................ we're supposed to meet them?
She works in a building ................ ……used to be a hospital.
Is that the reason ......................... she never answers your emails?
This is the house.......................... my grandmother was born.
1969 was the year ....................... human beings first landed on the
moon.
7- What a terrible thing to say! I don't know the reason…………….she's always so
rude to me.
8- It was a film.................................. seemed to last forever.
9- Do you remember the day………………….we met?
10- There were a couple of questions ……………were too difficult for me to
answer.
Exercise 4
In some of these sentences you need who or that. Correct the sentences where
necessary.
1- The woman lives next door is a doctor. …. the woman who lives next door
2- Have you found the keys you lost? ............ OK………………………………
3- The people we met last night were very nice…………………………………
4- The people work in the office are very nice……………………………………
5- The people I work with are very nice. ………………………………………….
6- What have you done with the money I gave you? ……………………………
7- What happened to the money was on the table? …………………………….
8- What's the worst film you have ever seen? ……………………………………
9- What's the best thing that has ever happened to you? …….…………………
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Exercise 5
What do you say in these situations? Complete each sentence with a
relative clause.
1- Your friend lost some keys. You want to know if he has found them.
You say:Have you found……….….the keys you lost………….…..?
2- A friend is wearing a dress. You like it. You tell her:
I like the dress…………………………………………………………
3- A friend is going to see a film. You want to know the name of the film.
Yousay: What's the name of the film ………………………….……?
4- You wanted to visit a museum. It was shut when you got there. You tell a
friend: The museum ....................................... was shut when we got there.
5- You invited some people to your party. Some of them couldn't come.
You tell someone:
Some of the people ………………………………………. couldn't come.
6- Your friend had to do some work. You want to know if she has finished. You
say: Have you finished work …………………………………………?
7- You rented a car. It broke down after a few miles. You tell a friend:
The car ............................................................. broke down after a few miles.
Exercise 6
These sentences all have a relative clause with a preposition. Put the words in
the correct order.
1- Did you find (looking /for/ you/ the books/ were)?
Did you find …the books you were looking for…?
2- We couldn't go to (we/ invited/ to/ were/ the wedding)
We couldn't go to ……………………………………….
3- What's the name of ( the hotel/ about/ me/ told/ you?
What's the name of .......................................... ……..?
4- Unfortunately I didn't get (applied/ I/ the job/ for).
Unfortunately I didn't get……………………………….
5- Did you enjoy (you/ the concert/ to/ went?)
Did you enjoy.................................................... …………?
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6- Gary is a good person to know. He‘s (on/ rely/ can/ somebody/ you).
Gary is a good person to know. He’s ……………………..
7- Who was (the man/ were/ with/ you) in the restaurant last night?
Who was……………………………in the restaurant last night?
Exercise 7
Complete the conversation with who-that-whose-where if no word is necessary leave the
space empty (-).
Zoe and Pat are planning a party next Thursday.
Zoe: Well who shall we ask to this party?
Pat: Oh, not too many. Just a few people (1)...--…we can be relaxed with.
Zoe: Yes, I agree. So, who, for example?
Pat: John and Jason, of course, and Carlo.
Zoe: Carlo? who is he?
Pat: He's the Italian guy (2) …who… is staying with John.
Zoe: Oh yeah. Is he the one (3)……wallet got stolen when they were in London?
Pat: That's right. They caught the guy (4)……….. took it, but he had already spent all the
money (5) ……….Carlo had brought with him.
Zoe: Poor Carlo. Perhaps the party will cheer him up.
Pat: It might, if we ask the girl (6)………he's going out with.
Zoe: Who is that?
Pat: Celia is her name. She works in that cinema (7)……….they show all the new films.
Zoe: But will she be free on Thursday evening?
Pat: Yes it's her evening off. That's the reason (8)………..I suggested Thursday.
Zoe: OK. Who else? What about Nikki and Cherry?
Pat: Are they the people (9)…………you went to France with?
Zoe: Yes. If they bring their boyfriends, that will be 10 of us. But have you got a room
(10)……….. is big enough? My landlady says we can't use her sitting room because
we made too much mess last time (11)…………… she let us have a party.
Pat: It's all right. Our house has got a basement (12) …………. we store old furniture.
If we clean it up, it will be fine.
Zoe: Great. Let's go and have a look at it.
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Exercise 8
Complete the sentences with your own ideas. Use a relative pronoun.
1- I like meeting people……………… who have traveled widely………..
2- I enjoy parties……….. which go on till dawn…...….............................
3- l avoid going to restaurants………………………………………………
4- most of my friends are people…………………………………………..
5- I never wear clothes……………………………………………………...
6- My favorite films are those………………………………………………
7- I feel sorry for children……………………………………………………
8- My best friend is someone……………………………………………….
9- I'm going to buy a cupboard……………………………………………..
10- I wish I had a job………………………………………………………….
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UNIT 5- PREPOSITIONS
verb + preposition
Many verbs are followed by a particular preposition, or by different prepositions for different
meanings. e.g., laugh at / laugh with. Always check in a dictionary for meaning and usage.
verb + preposition + noun
Everyone laughed at the cartoon.
I suffer from panic attacks.
They were protesting against the war.
I’ll pay for your ticket.
How do they differ from one another?
They’re talking / arguing about history.
verb + preposition + noun / -ing
We apologize for the delay.
I'm not used to studying late at night.
Dr Sims specializes in bad problems.
I insist on seeing the manager.
verb + noun + preposition + noun
I always confuse 'lie' with 'lay'.
They blamed everything on me.
I can't deal with this problem.
You can depend on us.
We laughed about the problem the next day.
I find it hard to cope with stress.
You can’t rely on Tom to arrive on time.
What does the word 'input refer to?
He can 't concentrate on his work.
They succeeded in making matters worse.
Let me congratulate you on your success.
I’ll have to discuss this with your parents.
I prefer tea to coffee.
verb + person + preposition + noun / -ing
They accused her of cheating.
You remind me of someone I once knew.
Can you provide us with a copy?
adjective + preposition
An adjective can be followed by different prepositions for different meanings. e.g. be angry
with someone / be angry about something.
You're right / wrong about that.
I’m not sure about the answer.
I’m sorry for being late.
Are you afraid of spiders?
Are you angry with me?
I’m bored with the same old routine.
Kate isn’t keen on animals.
We were shocked / annoyed by the news.
I’m sorry / upset / angry about that.
Our town is famous for its cakes.
Who is responsible for this mess?
Speech is different from writing.
I’m annoyed with you.
I wish I was good at math.
Is your sister married to him?
Are you interested in Jazz?
preposition + noun phrases
Is this boat for sale?
In practice it doesn’t work.
It happens on average once a year.
The bus was out of control.
Everything is under control.
That sounds good in theory.
In fact, this is true.
After running, I was out of breath.
I was under the impression you knew.
We found the answer in the end.
Are we in danger (of+ ing)?
They received the letter by mistake.
Sorry, I’m out of practice.
Are you on holiday here?
My little brother is in trouble.
I think he did it on purpose.
Don’t worry, he is out of danger.
There’s no school tomorrow after all.
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Exercise 1. Complete the sentences with a suitable preposition.
1. Most people would expect a work environment to differ from an educational
environment.
2. When you start your first job, you may find that you are not used _____ the way that
your colleagues behave.
3. You may not understand what people are talking ______.
4. You may have to ask a lot of questions and worry that other people can't rely ___ you.
5. Or you may find it difficult at first to cope _____ the demands your job places on you.
6. But there is no reason to suffer _____ feelings of anxiety.
7. You must concentrate _____ learning the job and understanding the people around
you.
8. Don’t worry that people are laughing ____ you or making fun of you because you are
new to the job.
9. You'll soon learn to deal _____ everyday problems and gain confidence.
10. Don’t be afraid to ask for advice, and you'll soon be congratulating yourself _____ your
success.
Exercise 2. Rewrite each sentence so that it begins as shown and contains an adjective and
preposition.
1. You really annoy me sometimes.
Sometimes I’m really annoyed with you.
2. The things we saw on the news shocked us all.
We were all _____________________________
3. I’m sorry but l lost your magazine.
I’m ____________________________________
4. Who caused the accident?
Who was ________________________________
5. I don't really like horror films.
I’m not __________________________________
6. Football and rugby are not the same.
Football is _______________________________
7. Are Madonna and Guy Ritchie married?
Is Madonna ______________________________
8. Does playing computer games interest you?
Are you __________________________________
9. I find doing the same things every day boring.
I'm _______________________________________
10. Going to the top of high buildings makes some people afraid.
Some people are _____________________________
79
Exercise 3. Complete the text with the words from the list. Use each word once only.
all – impression – average – practice – control – purpose – end – theory – fact - trouble
In 1) theory people are either morning people, who get up very early, or afternoon people, who
don't, but things may not be quite as simple as this. People who sleep until late may not do
this on 2) ________. They may just be under the 3) _______ that they are afternoon people,
so they simply couldn't get up early even if they tried. Or they think that they could get up early,
but they are out of 4) _______. It’s just a question of getting used to it. Then one day they
realize that morning people are more successful. They decide they have to change but then
their problems start. For example, you may really want to get up at 5.00 am, but when the
alarm clock goes off, you decide that perhaps you are an afternoon person after 5) _______.
And so, you fall asleep again. What can you do?
Some research suggests that people who want to get up early often go to bed too early, and
this is what lands them in 6) _______ when the alarm clock rings. Their sleep patterns are
out of 7) ________ and either they can't get to sleep, or they wake up too early, or they can't
wake up until late. In 8) ______, we may not need the same number of hours sleep every
night. As long as we sleep roughly the same amount on 9) ________ over a period of time,
we probably get enough sleep. So, in the 10) _______ we may be better off going to sleep
only when we really feel tired, provided we always get up at a fixed time each day.
Exercise 4. Rewrite each sentence so it contains the word in parentheses as shown in the
example.
1. In the end I managed to find the answer. (succeeded)
In the end I succeeded in finding the answer.
2. Martin’s teacher said that he had cheated. (accused)
____________________________________________________
3. We get a free lunch at school. (provides)
_____________________________________________________
4. I must have my money back. (insist)
_____________________________________________________
5. They said the fire was Anna’s fault. (blamed)
_____________________________________________________
6. When I see you, I think of my sister. (remind)
_____________________________________________________
7. Getting up early in the morning is new to me. (used)
_____________________________________________________
8. Don’t worry, you can trust Chris. (depend)
______________________________________________________
9. What were you two discussing? (talking)
______________________________________________________
10. I like jazz better than rap. (prefer)
_____________________________________________________
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Exercise 5. Fill in the gaps with one suitable preposition.
____ average, a yawn lasts about six seconds. If you yawn ______ purpose in front of other
people, they will start yawning. You might be _____ the impression that a yawn is a bad thing.
People usually apologize ______ yawning when they are in meetings or lessons. We often
assume that we yawn because we are bored ______ something. People often yawn, for
example, when they can’t concentrate _______ their work. However, we are ______ danger
of simplifying the complex process of yawning. For example, athletes often yawn before races,
and we can suppose that they are quite interested ______ what they do. ______ fact, scientists
are not exactly sure why we yawn. Some believe that people yawn because they are suffering
_____ a shortage of oxygen. Others think that it is part of our animal past, and we are showing
our teeth to other people to make them afraid ______ us. Apparently, even if people read about
the subject of yawning, they start yawning ______ the end. So if this article has succeeded
_______making you yawn, don’t worry about it. You are just being normal, ______ all.
Exercise 6. Complete the sentence so that it contains the words in parentheses as shown in
the example.
1. Are you selling your bike? (sale)
Is your bike for sale?
2. I haven’t done this for a long time. (practice)
I’m ____________________________________________
3. Eventually we stopped and turned back. (end)
In _____________________________________________
4. Are you spending your holiday here? (on)
Are ____________________________________________
5. I thought it was Andy, but actually it was David. (fact)
I thought it was Andy, but __________________________
6. I think you broke the window deliberately. (purpose)
I think you broke the window ________________________
7. They told him that he could lose his life. (danger)
They told him that he was ___________________________
8. The driver had no control over the train. (out)
The train was_____________________________________
9. I thought it was a holiday today. (impression)
I was ____________________________________________
10. We accidentally turned left instead of right. (mistake)
We turned left ______________________________________
Extension Activity: Answer the questions about yourself.
•
•
What are you afraid of? / What interests you? / What are you good at? / What sorts of
things are you annoyed by?
What kind of things would you protest against?
81
UNIT 6 – MODALS
Before You Read
Do you like to watch reality TV? Which shows do you enjoy? Can you learn something from
these shows or are they just entertaining? Read this article about reality TV.
REALITY TV
“Everyone Should Have an Audience”
—Josh Souza, contestant, Big Brother 2, USA
Josh Souza
“I know reality TV is not really reality.”
—Ikaika Kaho’ano, contestant, Making the Band, United States
The situations in reality TV may not always be realistic, but those contestants on the screen
are ‘really laughing, crying, and plotting against each other. Viewers continue to be fascinated.
Although some might think a show is cruel or embarrassing and they ought to stop watching,
they simply can't change the channel. With everyone at school or work talking about last
night's episode, a lot of people may watch reality TV just to keep up with the conversations.
But the secret thrill of many viewers has got to be the thought, “The next celebrity could be
me!”
“Reality is the best business model for TV.”
—Shuman Ghosemajumder, media expert, www.shumans.com
Reality TV started in Europe at a time when local TV networks weren't able to afford to buy
foreign shows. And because writers and actors were expensive, they also couldn't develop
shows of their own. Then, Bob Geldof of the British television company Planet 24 had the
bright idea of filming ordinary people in out-of-the-ordinary situations. Geldof knew that people
love seeing themselves on TV, so he thought there had to be a lot of people willing to try it.
Why should producers pay for actors and writers when they could use real people with real
emotions?
“I didn’t know we actually had to survive.”
—Martin Melin, first winner, Expedition Robinson, Sweden
Expedition Robinson was Geldof’s brainchild. A group of contestants and a television crew go
to a desert island. The contestants have to figure out how to survive, and the television
audience can watch their struggle. Geldof couldn’t sell his idea in England, but an
adventurous Swedish producer bought it. It just might work, she thought. Filming started in
1997. Everyone struggled that first season. The contestant and the crew were on a tropical
island, and technicians thought the equipment might not work in the heat. The winner, Martin
82
Melin, was shocked that his group had to find their own
food. The TV crew was equally shocked when the group
wanted to explore the island. “You can’t go into the jungle!”
they yelled. But the group went—and the crew was able to
follow with cameras. To everyone’s surprise, it all worked,
and the show was a smash hit. Now known as Survivor, it
has become popular all over the world.
Tribes compete of Survivor Africa
“I can’t act, | can’t sing, | can’t dance—but people don’t care.”
—Brian Dowling, winner, Big Brother 2, UK
Big Brother, first produced in the Netherlands in 1999, was
another surprise hit. In this show, a group of strangers had to stay
in a house for 100 days. They couldn’t go out or talk to anyone
outside the group. Intense feelings developed in this situation, and
cameras and microphones recorded everything that happened.
Viewers were glued to their television screens, and the show's
website got 100 million hits during that first season. Today, Big
Brother is the most successful reality show in the world, with
versions in North and South America, Europe, and Africa.
“... viewers often prefer homegrown shows that better reflect local tastes, cultures,
and historical events.”
—Suzanne Kapner, New York Times, January 2, 2003
Reality shows around the world reflect different cultural values. Japanese viewers, for
example, love to watch contestants who are able to face difficulty and not complain. Italian
audiences, on the other hand, enjoy seeing big emotional reactions. Some cultures don't like
fierce competition between individuals. On one Chinese show, for example, relatives win
prizes for each other, reflecting the idea that people should win for their families, not only
themselves. In Europe, contestants might not have perfect teeth or figures, but in the United
States, even the losers have got to be gorgeous. Reality shows come in different flavors for
different audiences, but in one way, they're all the same. All over the world, it's clear that
ordinary people like to be on TV—and viewers love to watch them. That must be why they
are tuning in by the millions!
After You Read
Answer the following questions.
1. Why may some people want to change the channel while watching reality TV? (Text 1)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
83
2. What may be one of the reasons behind people’s watching reality TV? (Text 1)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. When did reality TV first appear in Europe? (Text 2)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. What was Geldof’s idea in filming ordinary people rather than actors? (Text 2)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. What was Expedition Robinson about? (Text 3)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. What was Big Brother about? (Text 4)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. What was the success of Big Brother in its first season? (Text 4)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
8. What is the difference between Japanese and Italian audiences regarding their reality
show preferences? (Text 5)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
9. What can be one the reasons behind the success of reality shows? (Text 5)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6.1 MODALS: ABILITY, OBLIGATION (PRESENT / FUTURE)
Ability: can, can’t, cannot
Subject
Modal verb
She
can
Use can / can’t
cannot (can’t)
• to describe ability or lack of it.
Many animals can see clearly in the dark.
Human beings can’t do this.
• to describe what is allowed or not allowed.
You can look at the animals in the zoo, but you can’t touch them.
• with a future meaning.
Sorry, but I can't come to the party next week.
• with verbs of perception: hear, see, taste, feel, smell.
What can you see? I can smell gas!
Ability: be able to
This has the same meaning as can.
Base Form of the Verb
act
act
Subject
Modal verb
I
am (not) able to
Base Form of the
Verb
act
He/She/It
is (not) able to
Use be able to
You/
We/
They
are
(not)
able
to
• instead of can.
Many animals are able to see in the dark.
• when can is unsuitable. Because can has only present and past forms, we use be able to for
other tenses, and infinitive form.
I haven't been able to finish my project.
We hope to be able to visit you next month.
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Obligation & Necessity: have to / has to
Use have to / has to
• to describe what is necessary, a rule, or something we
do because other people tell us to.
Baby birds have to learn how to fly or they won't survive.
Do we have to buy another ticket to see this part of the
castle?
Subject
Modal verb
I / You
We/ They
He / She
It
have to
don’t have to
Has to
doesn’t have to
Base Form
of the Verb
go
go
• The negative form, don’t / doesn’t have to, is used to describe something unnecessary.
I don’t have to go to work tomorrow. There’s a holiday.
Use need to
• with the same meaning as have to. Need to is not a modal verb.
You need to work harder. You don’t need to come tomorrow.
Do I need to bring my dictionary?
*** Need is a modal verb and has no third person form. It is mainly used in questions and
negatives and is more formal in use.
Need I say more?
He need not take the exam.
Obligation & Rules: must / mustn’t
Use must to describe something we personally think is necessary and important to do.
• There is sometimes little difference between first person I must and I have to.
Sorry, I really have to go now.
Sorry, I really must go now!
• In other contexts, there is a difference.
You must be more careful!
(= personal opinion of the speaker)
We have to wear safety goggles.
(= an ‘outside’ opinion or rule)
• We usually use the question form of have to for must.
Do I have to sit here?
• We use mustn't when we think an action is against the rules.
You mustn't throw things in the science Jab! It's dangerous!
• Compare mustn’t and don't have to.
You mustn't use a pencil.
(it’s not allowed)
You don‘t have to use a pen.
(it's not necessary — use a pen or a pencil)
85
Advice: should / ought to / had better
Subject
You
Modal verb
should (not)
Ought (not) to
Had better (not)
Base Form of the Verb
Use should, ought to
• to say what we think is right or correct or
is a good idea. This is not as strong as must.
You should pay more attention.
You shouldn’t talk so much.
• to give advice.
I think you should study biology next year.
*** Ought to / ought not to has the same meaning as should / should not.
Use had better
• to say what we think someone should do.
You'd better wear your raincoat. It’s going to rain.
watch this TV show.
You'd better not wait too long.
You'll be late.
Exercise 1: Complete each sentence with can or can’t + the verb in brackets. Use a form of be
able to if can / can’t is not possible.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
That shelf is too high. I (reach) can’t reach it.
What's that noise? I (hear) ____________ something.
There's something wrong with this door. I (open) _____________ it.
I'm really hungry, but I (take) ________________ my lunch break yet.
Sorry, I (come) __________________ tomorrow. I'll try to see you next week.
I really want (use) ___________________ a computer properly.
Don't push Harry into the water. He (swim) ________________.
I feel terrible. I (sleep) __________________ for the past couple of nights.
Exercise 2: Complete the sentence with must or mustn’t. They are all strange, but true laws.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
In New Hampshire, USA, you mustn’t pick up seaweed from the beach.
In Louisiana, USA, schoolchildren _____________ call their teachers Sir or Ma‘am.
In Canada, you _______________ let a lama eat grass in a national park.
In Italy, a man _______________ wear a skirt in public.
In Illinois, USA, you _____________ use the steering wheel when you drive a car.
In Michigan, USA, people ______________ swear in front of women and children.
In Baltimore, Maryland, USA, you ________________ take a lion into a cinema.
In Kentucky, USA, everyone __________________ take at least one bath every year.
86
Exercise 3: Complete the sentence with mustn’t, or don’t / doesn’t have to.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
You mustn’t stand on the desk. You'll break it.
We ___________ take an umbrella. I’m sure it isn’t going to rain.
You ___________ put a stamp on this letter. It says FREEPOST on it.
We ____________ forget to take the presents with us when we go.
In our country, children ______________ go to school on Saturday.
You ______________ touch the ball. It’s against the rules.
Exercise 4: Complete the text with the verbs in brackets and a form of can or have to.
Rapid population growth (cause) can cause problems.
The government (provide) __________ more hospitals,
schools and jobs. Farmers (produce) ____________
more food and all the extra people (have) ___________
homes. In a less economically developed country, the
economy (grow) __________ fast enough to deal with
the problems. Many countries realize that they (control)
____________ population growth. Some countries
believe they can encourage family planning through
education and publicity. Other countries believe that
they have such a serious problem that they (take)
___________ special measures to control the number
of people. In China, for example, there is a 'one child'
policy. Couples (ask) __________ permission from the
government to marry, and women (be) __________ at
least 25 years old. The couple then (ask) ___________
permission to have a child, and are allowed only one.
Exercise 5: Choose the correct option A, B, C or D to complete the sentence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Are you any good at athletics? How fast _____D________ you run?
You _____________ take some money with you in case you need it.
I think that was the last bus. ______________ look for a taxi.
l'm really tired, but luckily I _______________ get up early in the morning.
You _______________ look at other students' work. lt's against the rules.
'My tooth really hurts!' 'I think you ______________ go to the dentist’s.'
Sorry, but my train is at 6.00. I ________________ leave now.
You _________________ eat so many sweets. They aren't good for you.
1. A) should
2. A) have to
3. A) We needn’t
B) must
B) shouldn’t
B) We’d better
C) need
C) can
C) We’re able to
D) can
D) should
D) We don’t have to
87
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
A) can’t
A) had better not
A) mustn’t
A) have to
A) can’t
B) don’t have to
B) needn’t
B) needn’t
B) shouldn’t
B) don’t have to
C) had better
C) don’t have to
C) ought to
C) mustn’t
C) shouldn’t
D) shouldn’t
D) mustn’t
D) can
D) can
D) needn’t
Exercise 6: Rewrite these sentences using must, mustn't, should, shouldn't, have to or don't
have to.
a. Parking in this street is prohibited.
You mustn’t park in the street.
b. It's not a good idea to swim immediately after a meal.
_______________________________________________________
c. (Doctor to patient) lt's really important to take this medicine three times a day.
________________________________________________________
d. Is it necessary for me to do this exercise?
_________________________________________________________
e. lt's Saturday tomorrow, so it's not necessary for me to get up early.
________________________________________________________
f. lt's a good idea to listen to the weather forecast before you go hill walking.
_________________________________________________________
g. I can recommend this book to you - I think you would like it a lot.
__________________________________________________________
h. It's a good idea to have a medical check-up every two years.
__________________________________________________________
i. It's very important not to drink the water there. It will make you ill.
__________________________________________________________
j. Is it really necessary for us to finish the work today?
__________________________________________________________
k. Did the teacher tell you to see him tomorrow?
__________________________________________________________
88
6.2 MODALS: ABILITY, OBLIGATION, CRITICISM (PAST)
Past Ability: could, couldn’t, was / were able to
Could / couldn’t are past forms of can / can’t. Could not is used in formal speech and writing.
Use could / couldn't
• to describe past ability.
We don't know how fast ancient Greek athletes could run.
• to describe what was allowed or not allowed.
Women couldn’t compete or watch the ancient Olympic Games.
• We can use was / were able to in the place of could / couldn‘t to describe past ability in general.
I was the only one in my class who wasn't able to / couldn't swim.
• We use was / were able to, not could / couldn’t, to talk about success in a particular task or
activity
One runner fell badly, but fortunately was able to finish the race.
Past Obligation: had to, didn’t have to
Had to / didn’t have to / did you have to etc. are past forms of have to and must.
Use had to
• to describe past obligation, for both must and have to.
Athletes who cheated in the Olympic Games had to pay for a statue of the god Zeus.
Use didn’t have to
• to describe lack of necessity / obligation in the past
Of course, in ancient times athletes didn’t have to take drug tests.
Past Necessity: needed to, didn’t need to, needn’t have
• Use needed to (regular verb) to describe what was necessary.
He needed to stop for a drink, but he kept running.
• Use didn’t need to to describe what was not necessary.
In ancient Greece, winning athletes didn’t need to work again.
The question form is: Did you need to etc.
•
Use needn’t have + past participle (a form of modal verb ‘need’) to explain that someone did
something, but what they did was unnecessary.
I was worried because I thought that my tickets for the Games wouldn't arrive in time. But I
needn't have worried. They arrived this morning!
89
Past Criticism: should have / shouldn't have, ought to have, ought not to have
Use should have / shouldn't have + past participle to criticize a past action.
‘You started before the gun! You shouldn't have done that.’
‘But it was an accident!’ ‘Well, you should have been more careful!’
*** Use ought to have / ought not to have + past participle in the same way.
Exercise 1: Complete the sentence with could or couldn't.
The suitcase was so heavy I couldn’t lift it.
I learned to play the piano when I was ten but I ___________only play one song.
I have to go home soon, my parents said I _____________ stay out late.
We don’t know how, but the ancient Egyptians _________________ move huge pieces
of stones to build the pyramids.
5. Frank Sinatra ______________ sing really well, but he _________________ write his
own songs.
6. He _______________ do the homework because he lost his book.
7. The Britons ________________ make soap before the Romans.
8. 100 years ago, most people ________________ travel abroad because it was too
expensive.
9. The class worked hard, so they ______________ leave early.
10. When you were younger, __________________ you play any musical instruments?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Exercise 2: Complete the comment on the situation with either didn’t need to or needn’t have
(done) and the verb in brackets.
0. I worked fast and finished my project on time, but now our teacher has given the class
three more weeks.
(work) I needn't have worked so hard!
1. At least I managed to do it without working at the weekend.
(work) ______________________________________ the weekend.
2. And although I thought I would have to borrow some books, in the end, this wasn't
necessary.
(borrow) _____________________________________ any books.
3. But I gave up a lot of my spare time when I didn’t have to!
(give) ________________________________________ so much of my spare time.
4. But I managed to do it on my own, and I didn’t ask for any help.
(ask) __________________________________________ any help.
5. But it was quite easy in the end, and I did it without thinking too hard!
(think) ___________________________________________ too hard.
6. In the end, I worried about it a lot, but this wasn’t necessary!
(worry) ___________________________________________ it so much.
90
Exercise 3: Complete the text with had to, didn’t have to, could or couldn’t + the verbs in
brackets.
Life for children in Victorian Britain was very
different from the life children lead today. Firstly,
Victorian children (go) didn’t have to go to school,
and in any case poor families (pay) ____________
for lessons because they didn’t have enough
money. So children (find) _____________ jobs at
an early age, starting in the coal mines, for example, at the age of five. The more
fortunate children became apprentices, learning a trade and working at the same time.
Such children (work) _____________ for fifty or sixty hours a week, usually for very low
wages, and (sign) ______________ an agreement which kept them with the same
master for a number of years. The worst jobs were in factories, where many children
under the age of nine were employed. Children were also employed to clean chimneys,
and known as ‘chimney sweeps’. These children (climb) ______________ up chimneys
and clean them. They (be) ______________ small, or else they would get stuck in the
chimney. Using children to do this job was banned in 1840, but employers then (use)
_______________ special brushes, which were expensive, and so they continued to
use children. The employers (pay) _____________ a small fine if they were caught.
After the Factory Act of 1833, employers in textile factories (employ) _______________
children under the age of nine, though children aged nine to 11 (work) _____________
eight hours a day. However, nothing changed in coal mines and in other factories,
where employer (put) _______________ children to work in dangerous and dirty
conditions. It wasn’t until 1847 that employers (limit) ______________ the working day
to ten hours for both children and adults.
91
6.3 CONCLUSIONS: Must, Have (got) to, May, Might Could, Can’t
Before You Read
Who is Sherlock Holmes? What kind of a story is this? Read an excerpt from a Sherlock Holmes
story called “The Red-Headed League.”
When Dr. Watson arrived, Sherlock Holmes was with a visitor.
"Dr. Watson, this is Mr. Jabez Wilson," said Holmes. Watson shook hands with a fat, redhaired man.
"Mr. Wilson must write a lot," Dr. Watson said. Holmes smiled. "You could be right. But
why do you think so?"
"His right shirt cuff looks very old and worn. And he has a small hole in the left elbow of his
jacket. He probably rests his left elbow on the desk when he writes."
Wilson looked amazed. "Dr. Watson is correct," he told Holmes. "Your methods may be
useful after all."
"Please tell Dr. Watson your story," said Holmes.
"I have a small shop," began the red-haired man. "I don't have many customers, so I was
very interested in this advertisement. My clerk, Vincent, showed it to me." He handed Watson a
piece of newspaper:
An American millionaire started the Red-Headed League to help red-headed men. The
League now has one position open. The salary is £4 per week for four hours of work every
day. The job is to copy the encyclopedia in our offices. "
“They couldn’t pay someone just for having red hair and copying the encyclopedia."
Watson laughed. "This has to be a joke." "It might not be," said Holmes. "Listen to Wilson tell the
rest of his story." "I got the job, and I worked at the League for two months. Then this morning I
found a note on the door." Wilson gave Holmes the note…
After You Read
Read the statements. Check True or False.
True
False
1. Dr. Watson is almost certain that Mr. Wilson writes a lot.
□
□
2. Holmes thinks Dr. Watson is wrong about Mr. Wilson.
□
□
3. Mr. Wilson is certain that Holmes's methods will be useful.
□
□
4. Dr. Watson is sure that the newspaper job is a joke.
□
□
5. Holmes is sure that it isn't a joke.
□
□
92
FORM
Subject
Affirmative Statements
Must/May/ Might/
Base
Could*
form of
Verb
I
You
He
must
She
may
be
wrong
It
might
We
could
You
They
* Must, may, might, and could are modals. Modals have only one form. They do not have -s in
the third-person singular.
Negative Statements
Must/May/
Base
Subject
Might/
Not Form
Could
or
/Can
the
Verb
I
You
He
must
She
may
not
be
It
might
We
could
You
They
Contractions*
Could not = couldn’t
right
Cannot = can’t
* Note: We usually do not contract must not, may not, and might not when we draw conclusions.
Affirmative Statements with Have (got) to
Subject
Have (got) to
Base
form
I
You
We
have(got) to
You
be
right
They
He
has (got) to
She
It
93
Yes / No Questions
Can/Could Subject
Could
Can
he
Do
Subject
Does
he
Base
Form
know
that?
must (not)
may(not)
might(not)
could(not)
has (got) to
can’t
He
Base
Form
know
Yes / No Questions With Be
Could/
Subject
Be
Can
Can
he
be
Could
Be
Is
Short Answers
Subject Modal
Subject
he
that?
Short Answers
Subject Modal
Be
a detective
a
detective
He
Wh- Questions with Can and Could
WhCan/Could Subject
Base Form
Word
Who
can
it
be?
What
could
they
want?
GRAMMAR NOTES
1. We often make guesses and draw
conclusions about present situations using
the information we have.
We use modals to show how certain or
uncertain we are about our conclusions.
2. When we are almost 100 percent certain,
we use must, have to, or have got to to state
affirmative conclusions.
USAGE NOTE: We often use have got to
instead of have to in informal speech and
writing. We usually contact have or has.
must (not)
may(not)
might(not)
could(not)
has (got) to
can’t
be
EXAMPLES
AFFIRMATIVE
must
have(got) to
may
might, could
NEGATIVE
can’t, couldn’t
must not
may not
might not
FACT
Wilson has only one
clerk.
CONCLUSION
• His shop must
be quite small.
Wilson applied for a
job.
•
He has to
need money.
They pay men for
having red hair.
•
It’s got to be a
joke.
94
3. When we are less certain about our
conclusion, we use may, might, or could to
express that something is possible.
FACT
Wilson has a hole in
his sleeve.
CONCLUSION
• He may write
a lot.
Watson knows a lot
about medicine.
•
He might be a
doctor.
Vincent knows a lot
about cameras.
•
He could be a
photographer.
4. To express negative conclusions, use the
following modals.
*Use can’t and couldn’t when you are almost
100% certain that something is impossible.
•
•
•
*Use must not when you are slightly less
certain.
*Use may not and might not when you are
even less certain
BE CAREFUL! Do not use have to and have
got to to draw negative conclusions.
He can’t be dead! I just saw him!
Vincent couldn’t be dishonest! I trust
him completely!
He must not have enough money.
He never buys new clothes
•
He may not know about the plan.
His boss doesn’t tell him everything.
•
It can’t be true!
NOT It doesn’t have to be true!
5. Use can and could in questions.
* Someone’s coming. Who can it be?
* Could Vincent be in the shop?
6. In short answers use a modal alone.
A: Does she still work at Wilson’s?
B: She may not. I saw a new clerk there.
BE CAREFUL! Use be in short answers to
questions that include be.
A: Is Ron still with City Bank?
B: I’m not sure. He might not be.
95
Exercise 1: Discover the Grammar
Read the next part of “The Red-Headed League.” Underline the phrases that draw conclusions.
Sherlock Holmes studied the note: The Red-Headed league does not exist anymore. "This could
be serious," Holmes told Wilson. "What can you tell us about your Clerk Vincent?"
"Vincent couldn't be dishonest," replied Wilson. "In fact, he took this job for half-pay because he
wanted to learn the business. His only fault is photography."
"Photography?" Holmes and Watson asked together.
"Yes," replied Wilson. "He's always running down to the basement to work with his cameras.
Wilson left soon after that.
"Wilson's clerk might be the key to this mystery," Holmes told Watson. "Let's go see him." An
hour later, Holmes and Watson walked into Wilson 's shop. The clerk was a man of about 30,
with a scar on his forehead. Holmes asked him for directions. Then he and Watson left the shop.
"My dear Watson," Holmes began. "It's very unusual for a 30-year-old man to work for half-pay.
This clerk has to have a very special reason for working here."
"Something to do with the Red-Headed League?" Watson asked.
"Yes. Perhaps the clerk placed that ad in the newspaper. He may want to be alone in the shop.
Did you look at his legs?"
"No, I didn't."
"He has holes in his trouser knees. He must spend his time digging a tunnel from Wilson's
basement. But where is it?"
Holmes hit the ground sharply with his walking stick. "The ground isn't hollow, so the tunnel must
not be here in front of the shop. Let's walk to the street in back of Wilson's shop."
Read the second part of the story again. What does Holmes believe about each of the following
statements? Check Possible or Almost Certain for each statement.
Possible
Almost Certain
1. Something serious is happening.
□
□
2. The clerk is the key to the mystery.
□
□
3. The clerk has a special reason for working in Wilson’s shop.
□
□
4. He wants to be alone in the shop.
□
□
5. He’s digging a tunnel from Wilson’s basement.
□
□
6. The tunnel isn’t in front of the shop.
□
□
96
Exercise 2: Look at the picture. Think about it in connection to the story, "The Red-Headed
League.” Draw conclusions and circle the appropriate words.
1. It must / could be night-time.
2. Number 27 might / can’t be a bank.
3. The delivery couldn’t / might be for the
bank.
4. The box could / must not contain gold.
5. The two men on the sidewalk must not
/ could notice the delivery.
6. The manager might not / must want
people to know about this delivery.
7. He couldn’t / may worry about robbers.
Exercise 3: Ann and Marie are buying hats in a shop. Read the conversation and rewrite the
underlined sentences another way. Use have got to or can't and the word in parentheses.
ANN: Look at this hat, Marie. What do you think?
MARIE: Oh, come on. That's got to be a joke.
1. ________You can’t be serious__________(serious).
Anyway, it's much too expensive. Look at the price tag.
ANN: It's $100! That can't be right.
2. ___________________________________(wrong).
MARIE: I know. It can't cost more than $50.
3. ___________________________________(less).
Anyway, let's talk about it over lunch. I'm getting hungry.
ANN: It's too early for lunch. It has to be before 11.00.
4. ___________________________________(after).
MARIE: Look at my watch. It's already 12.30.
ANN: Then let's go to Cafe Au Lait. It's on Jones Street. it can't be far.
5. ___________________________________ (nearby).
MARIE: Let's go home after lunch. I don't feel well.
ANN: Oh, come on. You're fine. You must be hungry.
6._____________________________________(sick).
97
Exercise 4: Write a short answer to each question. Use might (not) or must (not) and include be
where necessary.
A: You sound terrible. Are you sick?
B: I ___must be______(1). I have a headache and my throat is starting to hurt.
A: This bottle is empty. Are we all out of cough syrup?
B: We ______________(2). I think that was the last bottle.
A: I'II go and get you some cough medicine. Does that night-time cough medicine work?
B: It ________________(3). lt's worth a try.
A: I forgot to cash a check today. Do you have any money?
B: I _________________(4). Look in my wallet. It's on the table downstairs.
A: I found it. lt's 9:30. Is Drake Drugstore still open?
B: It _______________(5). Their advertisement says "Open till 11."
A: Do you think they sell chicken soup? Some drugstores carry food.
B: They ____________(6). lt's a very small store.
A: What about Quick shop? Do they have soup?
B: They ____________(7). They've got everything.
Exercise 5: Mr. and Mrs. Wilson are trying to get to sleep. Write questions and answers with could
be, couldn't be, or can't be. Choose between affirmative and negative forms.
MRS. WILSON: Shh! I hear someone at the door. lt's 9.30. Who ___could it be____ ?(1).
MR. WILSON: It_____________(2) a late customer.
MRS. WILSON: No, it ____________ (3). lt's much too late. Maybe it's the cat.
MR. WILSON: It ____________ (4). I put the cat out before we went to bed.
MRS. WILSON: __________ it __________(5) Vincent? He's always down in the basement with
his camera.
MR. WILSON: No, Vincent went out an hour ago. He ___________(6) back this early. Wait a
minute. It ____________(7) Holmes and Dr. Watson. They said they wanted to talk to me.
MRS. WILSON: __________ they really __________(8) here so late?
MR. WILSON: No. You're right. It ___________(9) them.
MRS. WILSON: What __________it___________(10) then?
MR. WILSON: That door rattles whenever the wind blows. It _______________(11) the wind.
MRS. WILSON: That must be it. Let's go to sleep.
98
Exercise 6: Fill in the gaps with an appropriate modal verb or another way of expressing
possibility.
Deputy Director: Excuse me. Have you seen Bob anywhere? We had a meeting arranged for
10.00 and now it's 10.05.
Receptionist: Er, no. Have you tried the canteen? He…………. might…. be there, l suppose.
Deputy Director: Yes, I've looked there. Do you think he................(1) be with James?
Receptionist: No, he..................(2) be because James is out this morning. I know - he
.................(3) be with Sharon. He's working on a project with her.
Deputy Director: Oh, right.
Receptionist: Oh, hang on. l'm wrong. He….................(4) be there because Sharon's on holiday
this week. I forgot. Look, that's his coat, so he…..................(5) be somewhere nearby. Are you
sure he's not in the design office?
Deputy Director: Yes, positive. I was in there with Jeremy and his desk was empty. …............(6)
he's not in today?
Receptionist: No, I'm sure that's his coat.
Use the plan to help you finish this sentence: Bob must be in the .............................................
because………………………………………………………...
99
UNIT 7- NOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS
Before You Read
Look at the map and the photo. Where did each journey start and end? When do you think
these journeys took place? Read the history text about a modern explorer’s expeditions.
WHO GOT THERE FIRST?
Was Christopher Columbus really the first explorer to discover
the Americas? The great Norwegian explorer Thor Heyerdahl
didn’t think so. He believed that ancient people were able to build
boats that could cross oceans.
To test his ideas, Heyerdahl decided to build a copy of the reed
boats pictured in ancient Egyptian paintings and sail across the
Atlantic Ocean from North Africa to Barbados. Heyerdahl’s
team also copied ancient Middle Eastern pots and filled them with
enough food for their journey- dried fish, honey, oil, some
eggs and nuts, and a little fresh fruit. Ra, the expedition’s boat, carried an international
group of sailors including a Chadian, an Egyptian, an Iraqi, a Japanese, a Mexican, and a
Norwegian.
On May 25, 1969, Ra left Safi in Morocco
and headed across the widest part of the
Atlantic. The boat fell apart just before it
reached Barbados, but all the men
aboard survived and wanted to try again.
On May 17, 1970, Ra II sailing under the
flag of the United Nations, successfully
crossed the Atlantic in 57 days. The
expedition
proved
that
ancient
civilizations had enough skill to reach
the Americas long before Columbus did.
AFTER YOU READ
Read the statements and write T for TRUE and F for FALSE.
1. Heyerdahl believed that Columbus was the first Explorer to discover the Americas. __
2. Heyerdahl's team built a reed boat. __
3. The team members were all from Egypt. __
4. The first Ra expedition failed. __
5. The second Ra expedition crossed the Pacific. __
100
A. GRAMMAR NOTES FOR NOUNS
1) Proper nouns are the names of particular people, places, things, seasons, and months. They
are usually unique (there is only one).
•
The first letter of proper nouns is capitalized.
The second Ra expedition was successful
We often use the before seasons, and we usually don't capitalize the first letter.
They arrived in the spring.
•
Exercise 1: Find the proper nouns in the text above:
-
People: Heyerdahl,
Places: Egypt,
Nationalities: Chinese,
Months:
2) Common nouns refer to people, places, and things, but not by their names. For example,
explorer is a common noun, but Heyerdahl is a proper noun.
•
Do not capitalize the first letter of a common noun unless the noun is the first word in the
sentence.
Heyerdahl is an explorer.
NOT Heyerdahl is an Explorer.
Exercise 2: Find the common nouns in the text above:
-
People: explorer,
Places: ocean,
Things: pot,
3) Common nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Count nouns are people, places,
or things that you can count separately: one boat, two boats, three boats…
•
•
•
Count nouns can be singular or plural:
He saw one shark. She saw two sharks.
They take singular or plural verbs.
The boat is fine, but the sailors are sick.
You use a /an or the before them.
A sailor lives alone on an island.
4) Uncountable nouns are things that you cannot count separately.
For example: gold
one gold or two gold
101
Exercise 3: There are different uncountable word groups. Match them with the correct group.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Activities Words
Abstract Words
Fields of study
Foods
a) courage, education, time
b) exploring, sailing, farming,
c) geography, history
d) corn, chocolate, fish
•
Uncountable nouns have no plural forms.
He had a lot of courage.
He had a lot of courages.
•
They take singular verbs and pronouns.
Anthropology is an interesting subject. It was Heyerdahl's favourite subject.
d) We usually do not use a /an with them.
Anthropology is an interesting subject
An anthopology is an interesting subject.
courage → a courage
corn → a corn
sailing → a sailing
history → a history
education → an education
Exercise 4: Read Uta's diary entries. There are seventeen mistakes in the use of nouns and in
the use of verb and pronoun agreement. The first three mistakes are already corrected. Find
and correct fourteen more.
Canary
weather is
October 27, I've been on the canary Islands for three days now. I'll start home when the weathers are
fine. I was so surprised when I picked up my mails today. My family sent some birthday presents to
me. My Birthday is the 31st.
october 29. I think the weather is getting worse. I heard thunders today, but there weren't much rain.
Typhoon and I stayed in bed. I started reading brave New World.
October 30. I left the Canary Islands today—just like columbus. There's a strong wind and plenty of
sunshine now. I went 250 miles.
October 31. I'm 21 today. To celebrate, I drank little coffee for breakfast, and I opened my presents. I
got some perfume and some pretty silver jewelleries.
November 1. The electricities are low. I'd better save them until I get near land. I'll need the radio then.
It rained today, so I collected a few waters for cooking.
102
B. GRAMMAR NOTES FOR QUANTIFIERS
1) You can use the quantifiers some, any, enough, a lot of, lots of, plenty of and most, all
with both countable and uncountable nouns. If the noun coming after quantifiers is countable,
use PLURAL NOUN after them. If the noun is uncountable, use noun as singular form.
For example:
We have some eggs and some honey
Quantifier: some
Noun: eggs →Countable and PLURAL FORM, honey→ Uncountable - SINGULAR FORM
* “ANY” is used in negative sentences and questions.
Exercise 5: Read the sentences and find the quantifiers and the nouns in each sentence.
Write if they are countable or uncountable and singular or plural noun.
-
Are there enough pots and enough oil?
Quantifier:
Noun:
-
There were a lot of good days.
Quantifier:
Noun:
-
There was a lot of danger too.
Quantifier:
Noun:
-
We didn't see any sharks.
Quantifier:
Noun:
-
Is there any tea left?
Quantifier:
Noun:
2) Use a few, few, several, a lot of = lots of, a couple of and many with plural countable
nouns and use a little, little, a lot of = lots of, a great deal of = a great amount of, and much
with uncountable nouns in affirmative sentences.
- A few team members got sick (Affirmative Sentence)
103
Quantifier: a few
Noun: team members → countable and PLURAL FORM
- They had a little trouble with the sail.
Quantifier: a little
Noun: trouble → uncountable and SINGULAR FORM
-
She earns a great amount of money.
Quantifier: a great amount of
Noun: money → uncountable and SINGULAR FORM
NOTE: In affirmative sentences, much is very formal.
Very Formal: We saw much pollution.
Less Formal: We saw a lot of pollution.
*** Be Careful! Don't confuse a few and a little with few and little. Few and little usually mean
"not enough."
a little vs. little
I received a little news during the voyage. (not a lot, but enough)
I received little news during the voyage. (not enough news)
A few vs. few
I have a few friends at my new school. (not many but enough. I don’t need to make new
friends.)
I have few friends at my new school. (not enough, SO I need to make more friends.)
3) Use many with countable nouns and much with uncountable nouns in questions and
negative sentences. You can use quantifiers with short answer without noun.
•
Much isn't formal in questions and negative sentences.
A: How many ships did they see?
→ ships: Countable and PLURAL FORM
B: They didn't see many. (short answer)
A: How much water did they carry? → water: uncountable and SINGULAR FORM
B: They didn't carry much. (short answer)
Much vs. Many
In spoken affirmative statements, native speakers usually prefer a lot of and lots of to much
and many which sound more formal. This is especially true for much.
- There are a lot of accidents on this road.
- There are lots of constructions going on.
However, much and many are common in questions and negatives in spoken
and written English.
-
Did they spend much money?
She does not read many magazines
104
4) Use a great deal of with uncountable nouns. This quantifier is rather formal and found more
in writing than in speech.
• Presidents are under a great deal of stress. (Stress: uncountable noun)
Exercise 6: Read the sentences. Find the quantifiers and the nouns in each sentence. Write if
they are countable or uncountable and singular or plural.
They experienced several large storms.
Quantifier:
Noun:
Many people worried about them.
Quantifier:
Noun:
They threw away a great deal of food
Quantifier:
Noun:
We saw much pollution.
Quantifier:
Noun:
Much planning went into this.
Quantifier:
Noun:
She has no plans to travel. Also, she has no money for holiday.
Quantifier:
Noun:
Exercise 7: Write the quantifiers above into the correct group with the help of instructions and
examples above.
Quantifiers for Countable
Nouns
Quantifiers for Uncountable
Nouns
Quantifiers for Both
Countable and Uncountable
Noun
105
Exercise 8: Complete these excerpts about family camping. For each paragraph, use the
quantifiers in parentheses. You will use some quantifiers more than once.
1. (a little / a few)
Try to get (a)__a little___ exercise before a long camping trip. It will help you feel better on the
trip. (b)_______ good stretching exercises every day will help. (c)_______ walking or swimming
is also useful.
2. (many / a great deal of)
You will need (a)_______ information for a long trip. Your public library has (b) _______ books
about family camping. The National Park Service website can also provide (c)_______ advice
3. (a / some / much / many)
Making a fire is (a)_______ skill, but it's easy to learn. You won't need (b)_______ practice
before you can build a roaring campfire. Start with (c)_______ paper and leaves. Place the
wood on top of these and leave spaces for air. Don't use (d)_______ big pieces of wood.
4. (any / enough / How much / How many)
"There isn't (a)_______ milk left! Who used it all?" (b)_______ times have you heard this cry?
To avoid this problem, plan your food in advance.(c) _______ sandwiches are you going to
make?(d) _______ bread will you need? Make sure you have (e)_______ food and beverages
before you leave.
5. (few / a few / little / a little)
On our family's first camping trip, we had (a)_______ equipment and almost no experience, but
we still had a lot of fun. It was a blast. We swam, we hiked, and we made new friends. Of course,
we had (b)_______ problems, but not many. Anyway, (c)_______ inconvenience didn't interfere
with our fun.
Today millions of people enjoy camping. In fact, (d)_______ campsites are available in the
summer without a reservation.
Exercise 9: Underline the correct option
In geography, a desert is an area which receives (1) few / little rain, and which loses
(2) few / lots of its moisture through evaporation. (3) Many / Much polar regions can be called
deserts, but most of us think of a desert as being a sandy, rocky area with (4) not enough / few
water. (5) Lots / Lot of deserts consist of sand dunes or bare rock, and (6) many / much are
near mountain ranges, which take away the moisture from clouds. Others are far away from the
sea or other water, so receive (7) few / little moisture. Although we might assume that very few
/ lots kinds of life live in deserts, in fact there are (8) lots / many of plants, animals and insects
in these regions. (9) Lots / Many desert plants store water in their leaves or roots, and some
desert plants can live for (10) lots / many years. Some desert animals live underground. They
spend (11) little / a few time in the sun and only come out at night. There are (12) enough / lots
of insects, scorpions, and spiders as well as reptiles, such as snakes, lizards and tortoises, in
deserts. They need to spend (13) much / many hours in the sun to generate body heat, so they
have (14) few / little difficulty living in high temperatures. However, (15) few / little of them can
bear extreme sunlight, so they tend to move from one area of shade to another.
106
UNIT 8- CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
FIRST, SECOND AND ZERO CONDITIONALS
Getting Started
Match Extracts 1, 2 and 3 to the correct headlines, a). b) or c).
a) What a winner!
b) Jupiter, saviour of the world
c) Baby talk
1 Headline: ……
If a large comet hit the Earth, humans would very soon die out. lf it hit the land, it would
cause earthquakes worldwide, knocking down almost every building. If it landed in the
deepest ocean, it would send waves thousands of feet high over surrounding continents.
A minimum of a billion people might die. But Jupiter helps to stop these disasters.
2 Headline: ….
MARGARET JONES, 56, can't seem to stop winning. She has won two out of the three
competitions she's entered this year, and now she's won the lottery too! OK, so she
didn't win the top prize, but she's not unhappy with her $50,000. 'Margaret's amazing. If
she enters a competition, she wins!' says husband Mike.
3 Headline: …
Rosonna Della Corte was 62 when she gave birth to a son in 1994. Now she's trying for
another child. lf Rosanna gives birth soon, she'II be nearly 80 when all the teenage
problems start!
Find the sentences with if and number them 1-5. Write the numbers of the sentences which
match a), b) and c) below.
a)
b)
c)
First Clause
If + present tense
If + past tense
If + present tense
Second Clause
will / can + verb
would + verb
present tense
….
….
….
Which of the if sentences describe real, possible situations? ................
Which describes unreal or imaginary situations? ................
Do any refer to the past? ................
107
Conditional sentences
* Conditional sentences usually have an if clause (the condition) and another clause (the result):
If a large enough comet hit the Earth (condition), humans would very soon die out (result).
* The if clause can come either before or after the result clause.
Humans would very soon die out (result) if a large enough comet hit the Earth (condition).
USE AND FORM
1) The zero conditional describes something that is or was generally true:
If I eat fish, I get ill.
lf I didn't eat my meals, Mum got cross.
Form: If + present tense, present tense
or
If + past tense, past tense.
* If means 'whenever' in a zero conditional sentence.
* The imperative is often used with the zero conditional:
Tell her about the party if you see her.
2) The first conditional describes real or probable future situations:
lf it rains today, I won't go out.
Form: If + present tense, will + infinitive
* The present simple, present continuous, present perfect simple or continuous (not wilI) can be
used to talk about the future in the if clause:
If you're going shopping, will you buy me some milk?
If he's had enough, he'll stop.
* When and as soon as can replace if in a first conditional sentence. Compare:
If I see her, I'll tell her. (Perhaps I won't see her.)
When / As soon as I see her, I'll tell her. (I know I'll see her.)
* Will can be replaced to show something is less certain:
If you go now, you may / might see her. (It is possible but not definite.)
If I pass my exam, we can / could celebrate. (We can celebrate if we want to.)
* In spoken English, we often use ‘going to’ in the if clause to suggest a previous arrangement:
If your sister's going to be there, I will definitely join the party.
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Exercise 1: Getting the form right: first conditional
In the conversation below, two friends are putting a new piece of furniture together. Fill in the
gaps with the correct form of the verb in brackets
A: So where do you think this bit goes?
B: Well, if we … put… (put) it here, this piece ... will fit…(fit) onto it perfectly.
A: Yes, but if you 1 . ……….(do) that, how 2 ................. you (get) the doors on?
B: Good point. Perhaps we should do the doors first. Yes, if we 3 .................
(attach) the doors now, we 4 …………. (be able to) stand it upright.
A: But how 5. . ....... we………... (get) the top on if we 6 .................. (do) that?
It 7 ................... (be) too tall to reach.
B: Hmm. OK. Let's put the top on first then.
A: Yes. Good. Now, if we 8 …….. (stand) it upright, we 9 …………. (be able to) fix the doors and
put the shelf in, and it 10 ………………. (be) finished.
B: Not quite. What's this bit?
A: Ah, that's easy. If you 11 ………... (read) the instructions, you 12 . …......... (see) that it’s a
spare shelf - we don't need it.
3) The second conditional describes imaginary or unlikely present or future situations:
If I knew, I’d tell you.
Form: If + Past tense, would/ could/ might + bare infinitive
If I had money, I would live in luxury. (I do not have money, I live in poverty.)
If I was tall enough, I could play basketball. (Unreal Present Situation)
If I won the lottery, I would do some charity work. (Unreal Future Situation)
Here are some more examples:
If he was/were a true friend, he would help you under any circumstances.
What would you do if you saw a ghost in your room?
I would be happy if I had a game console.
* In a more formal style we use were, not was, after if:
If I were you, I’d apply for the job.
If he were here, what do you think he’d do?
* Would can be replaced to make the situation in the result clause less certain:
If I went to Africa, I might see wild elephants. (It is possible but not definite.)
If I had enough money, I could go round the world. (If I want to.)
* Conditions are not always stated. Some sentences do not include an if clause: it is just
suggested:
I'd love to meet your brother. (If you let me.)
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Exercise 2: Getting the form right: second conditional
Complete the text with the verb in brackets. Use would + bare infinitive or the past tense.
What would happen if I drilled a tunnel through the centre of the Earth and jumped into it?
It would be impossible to do this on Earth because it is too hot. But you could do it on the moon.
Imagine a tunnel through the moon. If you (jump) jumped into the tunnel, you 1(accelerate)………..
toward the centre at a very high speed because of gravity. Then you 2 (go)………….. through the
centre and start slowing down. Then, when you 3 (reach)………… the end of the tunnel on the other
side of the moon, you 4 (stop)………….. , and then you 5 (fall) ............. back down the tunnel in the
other direction and forwards. You 6 (go)………… backwards and forwards like this forever.
Exercise 3: Write suitable answers for questions 1-4 below.
Example: How would your friend feel if you always wore the same clothes as him / her?
Answer: She would probably get annoyed with me.
1 What would you do if you found 500 dollars in the street?
…………………………………………………………………….
2 What would you say if your mother asked what you thought of a new dress and you hated it?
…………………………………………………………………….
3 What would you tell your teacher if you didn’t do your homework?
…………………………………………………………………….
4 Where would you live if you could live anywhere in the world?
…………………………………………………………………….
4) The following linkers can be replaced with if in conditional sentences:
Unless
* Unless means ‘if not’. We use it when we say that if something does not happen, something
else will happen.
Unless she wears glasses, she can’t see. (zero conditional)
= (If she doesn’t wear glasses,…)
Unless we deal with the global warming problem, average temperatures will rise. (first conditional)
= (If we don’t deal with the global warming problem,…)
Unless she were stuck in traffic, she would be here by now. (second conditional)
= (If she weren’t stuck in traffic,…)
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provided, as long as + present simple
* Provided and as long as mean only if.
Provided / as long as we reduce energy consumption, we can slow down global warming.
in case + present simple
* This describes a possible situation we want to be prepared for.
Take an umbrella in case it rains.
Compare:
I will take a coat if it rains. (“if” is used to present a conditional situation (dependent on its
raining.)
I will take a coat in case it rains. ( “in case” is a precaution (done to prepare for the rain).)
Exercise 4: Rewrite each sentence so that it contains unless or as long as and begins as shown.
Example: If you don’t train hard, you won't succeed in sport.
You won't succeed in sport unless you train hard.
1. If you train regularly, you can improve your performance.
You can improve ……………………………………..
2. If you enjoy your sport, it doesn’t really matter whether you succeed or not.
It doesn’t really matter ……………………………………..
If you don’t eat and sleep properly, you won't develop as an athlete.
You won't develop as an athlete ……………………………………..
Exercise 5: Rewrite each sentence so that it contains in case.
1 Take a spare pair of running shoes, because it’s possible that you will need them.
Take a spare pair of running shoes ……………………………………..
2 Take a waterproof coat with you because it’s possible that it will rain.
Take a waterproof coat with you ……………………………………..
3 Take a warm jumper because it's possible that you will get cold when you stop.
Take a warm jumper ……………………………………..
4 Take a first-aid kit because it’s possible that someone will get injured.
Take a first-aid kit ……………………………………..
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Other points
* The choice of first or second conditional often depends on the speaker's view of the situation.
Example: Two people buy lottery tickets every week. One says:
If I win, I’ll give up my job. (first conditional; he thinks he can win.)
The other says:
If I won, I'd move to the country. (second conditional; she thinks it's unlikely that she'll win.)
If I see my uncle, I will invite him to my birthday party. (This situation is likely.)
If I saw Al Pacino, I would ask for an autograph. (This situation is unlikely.)
Exercise 6: Match the sentence beginnings, 1-6, to the endings, a-f. Are the sentences
examples of first, second or zero conditional?
1. If Deborah rings, …
2. If I were you, ...
3. In those days, girls only went to school, …
4. She'll be really upset
5. If they're watching television,
6. We'd have no countryside left
a) if she doesn’t get the job.
b) they won't notice anything.
c) tell her to come round at 7.00.
d) if everybody lived in big houses.
e) if they came from a rich family.
f) I'd find a new girlfriend.
Exercise 7: In situations 1-8 below, which conditionals are possible? Tick (✓) a), b), or both if
they are both possible.
Example: The farmer wants to sell the field behind our house to property developers.
a) If they build houses there, it ruins the area .
b) If they build houses there, it'll ruin the area ... ✓
1.That politician Steven Brown has been offered some money by a businessman.
a) What will you do in his situation?
b) What would you do in his situation?
2. The interview went well, actually. I think they liked me.
a) If they offer me the job, I’m going to accept it.
b) If they offered me the job, I'd accept it.
3. It's a simple law of physics.
a) Water boils if you heat it to 100 °C.
b) Water would boil if you heated it to 100 °C.
4. I think I know how it works.
a) If you pushed this, the drink would come out.
b) If you push this, the drink comes out.
5. Elvis died in 1977, didn't he?
a) If he’s still alive today, do you think he's still singing rock'n'roll?
b) If he was still alive today, do you think he'd still be singing rock'n'roll?
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Exercise 8: Put the verb in brackets into the correct form. Is it first or second conditional?
1. If you (study) ………hard, you will pass the exam.
2. If the factory shuts, over 100 people (lose) …….. their jobs.
3. lf he (give) ………… up smoking, he'd feel a lot better.
4. If I sold my grandfather's watch, I (get) ………….. a lot of money for it.
5. Would Peter mind if I (borrow)………. his bicycle?
6. If you (go)………….. to live in a different country, would you e-mail me?
7. He's useless at football. If he (be)…………… any good, he (be)………….. in the school team.
8.Don't worry, your secret is safe. If I(see)……… John today, I (not / tell)………….. him.
Exercise 9: Use the words to complete the conditional if sentences. Use an always true, real, or
unreal conditional to suit the meaning.
1) Scientists are planning a way of writing extremely small letters, using xenon (Xe) atoms. If
you (use).. used… this system, you (be able)…………………. to write ten copies of the Bible on
the area of a postage stamp.
2) Humans are among the few animals to have colour vision. If you (be)…………. a horse, for
example, you (see)………….. everything in black and white.
3) The brain works in two parts, the left side, and the right side. Scientists can put one side of
the brain to sleep and see what happens. For example, if they (turn off)………… the right side of
the patient's brain, the patient (not be able)…………… to sing, because musical ability comes
from the right side of the brain.
4) Beetles are one of the most numerous species on the planet. In fact, if other insects and
animals (not eat) …….... beetles, in about a year and a half the beetle population (weigh)
……………. as much as the whole Earth!
5) Parts of the body send messages to other parts of the body when they have to do things. For
example, if you (not have)……………………… enough water in your body the brain
(let)…………………… you know that you need more, by making you feel thirsty.
6)If you (look)………….. inside your own eye at the images there, they (be)………. upside
down, and they (be)……………… moving.
7) If you (smoke)…………….. , chemical changes (take place)………. in your cells, which do not
receive enough oxygen and die.
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8) The world’s oceans contain huge amounts of salt. In fact, if you (remove)……………. all the
salt from the oceans, you (be able)………………. to use it to build a wall about 300km wide and
a kilometre tall all around the Earth!
Exercise 10: Respond to the sentences using the prompts. Decide if the situation is real or
imaginary.
1. Are you going to tell her about it? (If / tell / she / laugh at me)
No way. If I told her, she would laugh at me.
2. Do you think he is going to pass his driving test? (Unless / get nervous / not have / problems)
l think so. ……….……………………………………..
3. Are you going to invite Sarah to the party? (lf / invite / Dave / have to invite Sarah too)
It depends………………………………………………..
4. I’ve got a bad headache but we haven't got any aspirin. (If / take / aspirin / you / feel better)
Oh dear………..……………………………………..
5. He almost had an accident. (Unless /stop/ drinking and driving / kill himself)
What, again? ………………………………………………..
6. I haven't enough time to start a hobby. (If / have / time/ start one)
…………….……………………………………..
7. Can you tell me the answer to question five? (If / know / answer / tell you)
No, I’m sorry………….……………………………………..
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UNIT 9- ARTICLES
(a-an-the-no article)
1) Read the article and answer the questions.
a) What happened at the prison?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) How did the prisoner do what he did?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
PRISONER COPIED KEYS FROM MEMORY
A PRISON spent thousands of pounds changing locks after a prisoner with a
photographic memory copied a vital set of keys. The prisoner memorized the shape and
size of the set of keys after seeing them for only a few seconds. He then made the copies
from a plastic mirror. The alarm was raised when a guard uncovered at least three keys
hidden in his cell. As soon as they were found, managers at the prison ordered a
complete change of locks in order to reduce the chances of an escape.
(adapted from The Independent, 3 March 1998)
2) “A, an, the” are articles. They come before a noun. Underline any that you find in the text.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
3) “A prisoner” (paragraph 1) changes to “the prisoner”. (paragraph 2)Why?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4) Why “a vital set of keys” (paragraph 1) but “the set of keys” (paragraph 2)?
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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Looking at language
Articles:
Articles show whether we are:



talking generally about something
talking about one or more unidentified examples of something. We don’t know which
one(s).
talking about one or more identified examples of something. We do know which
one(s).
Talking generally
■ To talk generally about something, we use “no article + plural /uncountable noun”:
- I love flowers.
- Tea is produced in Malaysia.
(We are talking about flowers and tea in general.)
But !!!
■ We use “the + adjective” to talk generally about groups of people:
- The unemployed / the poor / the young need more money from the government.
Unidentified / identified
■ We use “a/an + singular noun” to talk about something our reader/ listener doesn't know
about (it's unidentified).
■ We use “the + singular / plural / uncountable noun” to talk about something we and our
reader /listener knows about (it's identified).
Compare: A prisoner with a photographic memory copied a vital set of master keys. (We
don't know which prisoner)
The prisoner memorized ... (We know which prisoner because we have already mentioned
him)
Something is unidentified (a/an) when:
■ we mention it for the first time in a story:
There was a man standing at the corner of the building.
■ we are naming or labelling:
A: What sort of car is that? B: I think it’s a Toyota.
■ we mean any:
Can you bring me an apple? (any apple; it doesn't matter which)
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Something is identified (the) because:
■ it has been mentioned before:
A writer and some artists live there. The writer is French, but the artists are all Italian.
first mention
second mention
There was a cat in front of the door. I didn’t know the cat was our neighbor’s.
■ There is only one possible example of something that you can be referring to:
The Prime Minister spoke for nearly an hour. (a country has only one Prime Minister)
The moon rose just after midnight.
■ There is only one in that context:
We live in a small house next to the church. (= the church in our village)
Dad, can I borrow the car? (= the car that belongs to our family)
When we stayed at my grandmother’s house, we went to the beach every day. (= the beach
near my grandmother’s house)
NOTE: We use the with the superlative form of adjectives/ adverbs. This is because there's
only one (or one group) of the thing we are talking about.
It was the most interesting holiday I’ve had in years. / Brian runs the fastest in the team.
Zero article
We use zero article:
■ to talk about school subjects such as geography, history etc.
If you want to study physics, you must be good at maths.
■ to refer to days and months.
I'll see you on Monday at midday.
School begins in September.
■ We don’t use an article with bed/ home/ work/ school/ university/ hospital/ prison/ church
when referring to them in general.
Grandad’s still in bed.
What time do you go to work/ school/ university?
Let’s go home.
He goes to church every Sunday.
But! We use the definite article when referring to the specific place, building.
Compare:
He is in hospital (=as a patient)
Mark’s wife waited in the hospital for some news. (= as a visitor)
Clara’s son is at school. (= as a pupil)
Robin’s mother is at the school. (= as a visitor)
117
Other points
■ We use “an”, not “a”, before vowels (a, e, i, o, u):
a prisoner, an artist, a university, an hour…
■ We must use an article with a singular countable noun, even when there is also an
adjective.
He is an interesting man.
We don’t say: He is interesting man. X
Uses of the definite article ‘the’ or ‘no article’
■ We use the definite article with:
Countries whose names include words like kingdom, states, or republic:
The Turkish Republic, The United Kingdom, The United States
But ! We do not use the with the names of continents, countries, cities.
He lives in Switzerland.
They wanted to spend their honeymoon in Paris.
■ We use the with:





rivers & canals; the Kızılırmak, the Nile, the Suez Canal
oceans & seas; the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic
deserts; the Sahara, the Gobi
island groups: the Canary Islands
mountain ranges: the Himalayas, the Andes Mountains
But ! We do not use an article with


individual islands; Crete, Sicily, Cyprus
individual mountains; Mount Blanc, Mount Ararat,
■ We use the with directions like north, south, southeast etc.
Hamburg is in the north of Germany.
There are perfect holiday resorts on the south coast of Turkey.
But ! We do not use the with directions when referring to the names of continents.
North America is the third largest continent in the world.
118
Exercise 1
Circle the correct option. This may include a space (--) for zero article.
a. The / -- Republic of Slovenia lies at a /the heart of the / -- Europe.
b. It is where the / -- Alps face the / -- Pannonian plains and the / - Mediterranean meets the
/-- Karst region.
c. To the north is the / -- Austria and the / -- Hungary is to the / -- east.
d. To the south is the / -- Croatia and to the west is the / -- Italy.
e. A / The / -- weather here is ideal for the / -- holidays.
f. There are approximately 2,000 hours of a / the / -- sunshine per year, and there is plenty of
the / -- snow in winter.
g. There are many woods and forests covering more than half of a/ the / -- country.
h. In the / --Kocevje area in one of a / the / -- oldest forests in the / -- Europe, it is possible to
walk among the trees for days.
Exercise 2
Complete the text with “a/an, the” or leave blank for “zero article”.
a.____ people often say they have flu when all they have is ____ cold and ____ slight
temperature.
b. ____full name of flu is ____ Influenza.
c. ____ real flu is caused by ____ virus.
d. There are many different kinds of ____ flu virus.
e. They give you _____ high temperature, aching muscles and ____ headache.
f. They also give you _____ cold shivers and ____ feeling of ______ tiredness.
g. You may also get ____ cough.
h. There is no treatment as ____ antibiotics cannot kill _____ viruses.
i. You should go to _____ bed and rest.
j. If you go to _____ school and mix with others, you will spread ____ virus to them, so it is
better to stay at _____ home until you feel better.
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Exercise 3
Complete the text with “a, an, the” or leave blank for “zero article”.
Equity Travel School Tour Specialists
Youth and School Group Travel
Equity has been arranging a) _____
educational tours since 1991 and our
Directors and Managers have many
years of experience in b) _____ school
travel, making us true specialists in c)
____ field.
We know and understand d) ____
special requirements of schools and
youth organizations and can meet your
needs. You will receive e) ____ highquality educational tour, with unrivalled
personal service and excellent value for
f) ____ money.
Educational Tours
Study Tours
All our tours have g) ____ educational
value and many have been specifically
designed to comply with h) ____
requirements of i) ____ UK National
Curriculum. We organize tours to j) ____
wide range of countries in k) ____
Europe, and also offer tours in l)____
USA, m) ____ South Africa, and other
parts of the world.
History tours, geography tours, n) ___
language courses, and cookery courses
are all available in our study tours
programme, specially designed for o)
____ school groups.
World Wide - USA, South Africa, China, and India
There is p) ____ special brochure of tours to q)
_____ New York and Washington, r) ____ West
Coast of America, South Africa (visiting big game
parks) China, visiting s) ____ Great Wall and t)
_____ Golden Triangle in India (visiting Delhi, Agra,
and Jaipur).
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Exercise 4
Complete the text with “a/ an, the” or leave blank for “zero article”.
Apple Computer was founded in Los Gatos, California on 1 April 1976 by Steve Jobs,
Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne, to sell a) the Apple I personal computer kit at
$666.66. They were hand-built in Jobs’ parents’ garage, and b) _____ Apple I was
first shown to c) ____ public at d) _____ Homebrew Computer Club. Jobs and
Wozniak, e) _____ two Steves, had been f) _____ friends since 1971. Jobs managed
to interest Wozniak in assembling g) _____ personal computers and selling them.
Jobs approached h) _____ computer store, which ordered 50 units and paid $500 for
each unit. Jobs then ordered components from Cramer Electronics, i) ______
company making electronic parts. Using j) _____ number of methods, including
borrowing space from k) _____ friends and family and selling l) ______ things
including m) ____ Volkswagen Type 2 bus. Jobs managed to secure n) _____ parts
needed while Wozniak and another friend, Ronald Wayne, assembled o) ____ Apple.
The computers were delivered in June and paid for on delivery. Eventually 200 Apple
I computers were built. p) ____ Apple II was first sold in q) _____ 1977. It was
popular with r) _____ home users and was occasionally sold to s) _____ business
users, particularly after t) _____ release of u) ____ first computer spreadsheet, called
VisiCalc.
121
UNIT 10- PASSIVE VOICE
Before you read
Look at the title of the article. What is geography? Have you ever studied geography? Did you
enjoy studying geography? Is it an important subject? Why or why not?
Read this article about National Geographic, a famous magazine.
GEOGRAPHY
The Best Subject on Earth
Geography is the study of Earth and its people. It sounds exciting, doesn’t it? Yet for decades,
students yawned just hearing the word. They were forced to memorize the names of the capital
cities, important rivers and mountains, and natural resources. They were taught where places
were and what was produced there.
But they weren’t shown how our world looks and feels. Then came National Geographic
magazine. From The Amazon rain forests to the Sahara Desert, and from Kuala Lumpur to
Great Zimbabwe – the natural and human-made wonders of our world have been brought to
life by fascinating reporting and beautiful photograph, such as this one of a Russian couple,
which was taken by Reza Daghati.
The National Geographic society was formed in Washington D.C., in 1888 by a group of
professionals including geographers, explorers, teachers, and mapmakers. Nine months later
the first National Geographic magazine was published so that the society could fulfill its
mission- to spread the knowledge of and respect for the world, its resources, and its inhabitants.
In 1995, the first foreign-language edition of National Geographic magazine was published in
Japan. Today, the magazine is printed in more than 20 languages and sold all over the world.
National Geographic also puts out a number of special publications, National Geographic
Explorer, for example, has been created for classrooms. Other publications feature travel and
adventure, National Geographic TV programs are watched in over 160 million homes in 145
countries.
The study of geography has come a long way since 1888. The Society’s mission has been
fulfilled. In fact, it has even been extended to include worlds beyond Earth. From the deep
seas to deep space, geography has never been more exciting!
After you Read: Answer the questions below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Who memorizes the names of the capital cities?
Who took the photo of Russian couple?
Who formed National Geographic Society?
Who watches National Geographic TV?
122
FORM
Use be + past participle to form the passive.
Present Simple Active
Present Simple Passive
We find oil and gas beneath the ground or sea.
Oil and gas are found beneath the ground or sea.
Present Continuous Active
Present Continuous Passive
The police are questioning two men.
Two men are being questioned by the police.
Past Simple Active
Past Simple Passive
Teachers trained Aztec boys to fight.
Aztec boys were trained to fight.
Past Continuous Active
Past Continuous Passive
The salesman was helping the customer when a thief came in.
The customer was being helped by the salesman
Present Perfect Active
Present Perfect Passive
Tourism has harmed some countries.
Some countries have been harmed by tourism.
Past Perfect Active
Past Perfect Passive
The prisoners had robbed five banks before they got caught.
Five banks had been robbed by the prisoners
Will Active
Will Passive
We will choose a new class representative on Monday.
A new class representative will be chosen on Monday.
USE
Use the passive
• to move important information (the object of the active sentence) to the beginning.
The police are questioning two men. (active)
Object
Two men are being questioned by the police. (passive)
• when we want to be impersonal and not to mention the name of the person who performs the
action. We often use the passive in scientific or technical processes.
Oil and gas are found beneath ground or sea.
• when it is obvious who performed the action, e.g., teachers, or we do not want to use a
general subject e.g. people, they.
Aztec boys were trained to fight.
Two missing children have been found safe and well.
• more often in formal speech and writing than in everyday speech
123
• TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE
Verbs which have an object are called transitive verbs; verbs without an object are
intransitive. Only transitive verbs can be made passive.
+ Transitive
Subject+ verb + object (I lost my wallet on the way to school)
+ Intransitive No object (I swim --- everyday.)
Some common intransitive verbs:
agree
appear
arrive
belong
cry
die
disappear
fall
go
grow
happen
live
rise
sit
sleep
swim
Use by
•
when it is important to know the ‘agent’ or person who performed the action.
Some countries have been harmed by tourism.
•
Only when it is really necessary.
The two men were arrested. (by the police-this is obvious)
Use with
•
For objects which perform actions.
The game was played with a ball of solid rubber.
Exercise 1: Read the sentences and decide if the sentence is active or passive.
__P_1. The first National Geographic magazine was published in October 1888.
____2. Today, millions of people read it.
____3. The magazine is translated into many other languages.
____4. My cousin reads it in Russian.
____5. Most of the articles are translated from English.
____6. Some of them are written by famous writers.
____7. Many expeditions have been sponsored by the National Geographic Society.
124
Exercise 2: Change the active sentences into the passive sentences.
1. The company will make a lot of profit next year.
____________________________________
2. The teacher is not going to open the window.
____________________________________
3. They export electrical goods to other countries.
____________________________________
4. The Government is planning a new road near my house.
____________________________________
5. At six o'clock someone was telling a story.
____________________________________
6. The teacher always answers the students' questions.
____________________________________
7. Did the police officer catch the thief?
____________________________________
8. The Chinese probably printed the first books more than a thousand years ago.
____________________________________
9. Tourists have spent millions of euros in Europe in the last few years.
____________________________________
Exercise 3: Choose the correct form.
Reporter: I would like to ask some questions about your use of English here at BR Corporation.
Do people speak English/ Is English spoken by most executives?
CEO: Yes, most executives speak/ are spoken English at this branch.
Reporter: Do only executives speak English? I mean, do lower-level employees use/ are used
English here, too?
CEO: No, English isn’t used/ doesn’t use by them much.
Reporter: Why is English necessary for some employees?
CEO: English is needed/ needs by executives who travel. Also, we are expected/ expect them
to read technical documents in English.
Reporter: Does BR Corporation support/ Is BR Corporation supported English language
learning?
CEO: Yes, BR Corporation is offered/ offers onsite English courses.
Reporter: Are the courses taught / Do the courses teach by native English speakers?
CEO: Yes, native speakers are conducted / conduct all of our English classes.
Reporter: Thank you for speaking with me today.
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Exercise 4: Put the verbs into the correct form of verbs, active or passive.
1. Italian
____(not teach) at the school I go to.
2. This book looks old. It _________(teach) at the university since 1989.
3. A new book
_____ (publish) by that company next year.
4. The package
____(send) more than a week ago, but it _______ (arrive) yesterday.
5. When do you think they
6. Five people
______(send) us the copy of the contract?
____(injure) after a car
_______(crash) into a bus last night.
7. Hundreds of people _________ (employ) in this factory and many of them ________ (lose)
their jobs when it shuts down.
8. About 71% of the Earth’s surface __________ (cover) by water and oceans ________ (hold)
about 96 % of all Earth’s water.
9. The building ___________ (destroy) by the fire but fortunately, everybody ___________
(rescue).
10. While I was on holiday, my camera ____________ (steal) from my hotel room.
11. While I was on holiday, my camera ___________ (disappear) from my hotel room.
12. Bill ______________ (fire) from his job because he wasn’t very good at it.
13. Robert’s parents _____________ (die) when he was 3 years old.
14. Julia and her sister _____________ (bring up) by their grandparents.
Exercise 5: Fill in the correct form of the verbs in brackets: active or passive.
Today, paper ________ (use) for hundreds of things - not only books and newspapers, but also
money, stamps, bags and even clothes. In ancient times, before the invention of paper, people
_________(write) on animal skins, bones, and stones. In 2700 BC the Egyptians
_________(start) to make papyrus, which was similar to paper. But the first real form of paper
_________ (invent) in 105 AD by a Chinese government official. It_________ (make) from a
mixture of plants and clothes. The Chinese ________(keep) their new discovery a secret for many
centuries. Finally, in the 10th century, paper ______ (bring) to Europe by the Arabs. The
first European paper mill _________ (build) in Spain in 1150. Since the 18th century, most
paper __________ (make) out of wood, because it is much stronger than cloth. Today, each
person _________ (use) about 300 kg of paper every year. It has become a material that we
cannot do without.
Extension Activity
1. How much do you know about history? Write 5 sentences about famous events in the past,
using these verbs: discover, invent, paint, write, build.
2. Write a list of 5 recent news in your country. Describe what was done at a particular time.
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UNIT 11- GERUND & INFINITIVE
11.1 GERUNDS
Before You Read
Is it expensive to attend a college in your country? What can make attending college difficult?
What are some ways to make college more affordable?
Comprehension Check
Read the web article about the cost of attending college in the USA. Answer the following
questions.
1. Why do public colleges cost less than private colleges?
2. What is the difference between a grant and a loan?
3. What are two ways students can reduce or eliminate tuition costs?
The Cost of U.S. Higher Education
In many countries, the cost of a college education is not very high. In France, for
example, university students pay an affordable $220 a year. French students do not
have to worry about paying a lot for a college education because the government pays
for it. In the USA, however, college tuition is more expensive. Many students have
difficulty affording it, especially at private colleges. In 2010, the average cost per year
of a private college in the USA was $35.000.
Public colleges generally cost less because they depend on the government to
help pay some of the expenses of education. However, if budget cuts reduce that
money, tuition can increase. This can prevent students from attending even a public
college.
The tuition at community colleges is least expensive, costing about $2,500 $3,000 a year. Community colleges offer two-year programs with an associate degree.
Other colleges and universities offer four-year programmes and a bachelor’s degree.
Not attending a four-year college right away is one option students use to save money.
Many students attend a community college for the first two years of college and then
transfer to a more expensive school for the last two years.
To help pay for college many students apply for financial aid. Financial aid
consists of loans, grants, scholarships, and work study programmes. Students can
apply for a student loan at a low interest rate. They must, however, plan on repaying
the loans plus interest after they graduate. Some students want to avoid repaying
loans, so they apply for grants, which they do not have to repay. Scholarships are
another form of financial aid that students do not have to repay. Playing a sport for a
college team is one way to receive a scholarship. Finally, students can apply for work
study programs. In these programs, students work at jobs at their school and receive a
small salary to help pay for their expenses.
For students interested in getting a higher education in the USA, the cost can
be high; however, there are ways to make it less expensive. Once students resolve the
issue of money, they can concentrate on having the exciting experience of college
life.
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After You Read
Find the sentences in the article and complete them. What do the missing words have in
common? In which sentence(s) does the missing word act as a subject? In which
sentence(s) does the missing word act as an object?
1. French students do not have to worry about ________ a lot for a college
education because the government pays for it.
2. Some students want to avoid ________ loans, so they apply for grants, which
they do not have to repay.
3. ________ a sport for a college team is one way to receive a scholarship.
GRAMMAR NOTES
➢ A gerund (verb + -ing) is a verb that we use like a noun.
Smoking is bad for your health.
Swimming is a good exercise.
I enjoy running in the park.
➢ Form the negative by placing not before the gerund.
Not exercising is bad for you.
The doctor suggested not drinking coffee for a while.
She's happy about not working today.
➢ We use the gerund:
I.
as the subject of a sentence,
II.
after some verbs (e.g. hate, spend, don’t mind etc.)
III.
after prepositions and phrasal verbs.
1. A gerund can be the subject of a sentence.
Eating junk food makes me sick.
Inhaling smoke give me bronchitis.
Driving at night is quite tiring.
2. A gerund can also be the object of certain verbs. Use a gerund after these verbs.
Mike avoids hanging out with smokers.
Have you ever considered quitting?
I dislike sitting near smokers in cafes.
We finished studying and went out.
Did you miss smoking after you quit?
Doctor Ho suggested not staying up late.
Verbs Followed by the Gerund (verb + -ing)
acknowledge
admit
advise
appreciate
avoid
can’t help
can’t stand
celebrate
consider
continue
delay
deny
detest
discuss
dislike
end up
endure
enjoy
escape
explain
feel like
finish
forgive
give up
imagine
justify
keep
mention
mind
miss
postpone
practice
prevent
prohibit
put off
quit
recall
recommend
regret
report
resent
resist
risk
suggest
support
tolerate
understand
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3. As we use nouns and pronouns following prepositions, we use gerund after
prepositions and phrasal verbs.
I thanked him for giving me the book.
Katie’s given up smoking.
4. We often use go+ gerund to describe activities such as shopping, fishing, skiing,
swimming, and camping.
Let's go swimming in the lake.
I went shopping for running shoes yesterday.
BE CAREFUL!
❑ Gerund is always singular. Use the third person singular form of the verb after
gerunds.
Shopping is my favourite thing to do at weekends.
❑ Don't confuse a gerund with the progressive form of the verb.
Drinking a lot of coffee is unhealthy.
He is drinking coffee right now.
❑ Do not confuse the preposition to with part of the infinitive (to + base form of the
verb).
Expressions with Preposition to:
look forward to
be opposed to
object to
be used to
resort to
get used to
❑ Use a gerund, not an infinitive, after expression with the preposition to.
I'm looking forward to seeing you.
NOT I'm looking forward to see you.
Exercise 1: Complete the conversation using the -ing form of the verbs in the box.
call
camp
do
make
go
not be
play
tell
try
JULES I’ve got some information about that new club. Listen, it says: “For young
people who love (0) _trying__ new things, and who enjoy (1)_________ new
friends! We offer lots of activities, so if you like (2)_________ team sports and
(3) _________ martial arts like judo and karate, this is the club for you. In the
summer, we also expect to go (4)_________ and canoeing.”
NICK Oh, OK. Sounds good. I like all of those things.
JULES Me, too. I’ve really missed (5)_________ to the sports centre since it closed
down.
NICK Yeah. Well, at least we’ve still got the bowling alley - can you imagine
(6)_________ able to go there with everyone on a Friday evening?
JULES No, I can’t! It would be awful. This new place opens next week. What do you
think about (7) _________ the others and (8)_________ them about it?
NICK
Yes, let’s do that.
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Exercise 2: Complete the web article about tips for starting the college application process.
Use the correct forms of the verbs in parentheses.
Tips for Getting a College Education
Do you want a college education? First, (1) consider looking (consider /look) for the right
college as soon as possible. If you are in high school or attending community college,
(2)___________ (keep / study) hard so you will have good grades. Some schools require
an essay on their college application. Many students in this position (3)______________
(dislike / write) the essay, but it is important, so (4)____________ (not delay / think
about) it. Some schools require an on-site interview, so (5)____________ (practise /
interview) with your friends or family.
Where will the money come from? Some students (6)_______________ (consider / pay)
for college themselves. Other students (7)______________ (not mind / borrow) money
from their families, but not all families can afford to pay for a college education. Sit down
with your family and discuss all the options. (8)______________ (discuss /work) at a
part time job while you go to school, and (9)______________ (imagine/work), studying,
and adjusting to a new lifestyle all at once. Is this really for you? If you think it is, then
following these tips will make the process easier.
Exercise 3: A student is talking about his plans for going to college. Match the sentence
parts.
1. Many students worry _c_
a. in getting a college education.
2. To pay for their education, they depend __
b. on applying for financial aid for me.
3. I am very interested __
c. about being able to afford college tuition.
4. I hope I will be successful __
d. on receiving scholarships and loans.
5. I' m not used __
e. on having an exciting college experience
and not worrying about finances.
6. Fortunately, my parents want me to
concentrate __
7. They are planning __
f. at getting into the school of my choice.
g. to studying and working at the same time.
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Exercise 4: Read about each person's situation and complete the advice. Use the words in
parentheses with the correct preposition and the gerund form of the verbs.
1. Chelsea wants to be an engineer, but she doesn't have a 3.0 GPA. She should
not depend on getting (depend / get) a National Smart Grant.
2. Michael has completed two years of community college, but he doesn't have
enough money to go to a four-year college. He should not ____________ (be
afraid / apply for) a Pell Grant.
3. Alison got a TEACH Grant, but she quit her teaching job after two years and got a
high-paying job in computers instead. She must not ____________ (be worried /
pay) back her loan.
4. Brandan goes to the community college, but he spends time partying and has a
low GPA. He must not ____________ (be interested/ study).
5. Jorge got a TEACH Grant, taught for several years, and now is the head teacher
at a private school. He must _____________ (be successful / teach).
6. Sharon wants to major in computer science and get a National Smart Grant, but
so far, her grades aren't that good. She should ________(concentrate / improve)
her grades.
7. Rob's family can't help him pay for college, and he needs financial aid. He can
probably _____________ (depend/ receive) a Pell Grant.
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11.2 INFINITIVE
Before You Read
Annie is a writer at a newspaper advice column. What kind of questions do you think Annie
answers? Do you think this is a good place to get advice? Read the letter to the newspaper
advice column, Ask Annie.
Dear Annie,
Dear Lonely,
I have just moved to Seattle and started
going to a new school. I try to meet
people, but nothing seems to work. A few
weeks ago, I agreed to have dinner with
someone from my English class. Bad idea.
Right after we got to the restaurant, he
asked to borrow money from me for the
check and he also wanted to correct my
pronunciation. (I'm from Louisiana).
Obviously, I decided not to see him again.
Now my roommate would like me to go
out with her boyfriend’s brother. I asked
her not to arrange anything because I
really don't want to date anyone right
now. First, I would just like to find some
friends to hang out with. Do you have any
suggestions?
You seem to have the right idea about
making new friends. A lot of people try to
solve the problem of loneliness by falling in
love. I usually advise them to make friends
first. Perhaps you just need to relax a bit.
Don't expect to develop friendships over
night because that takes time. Instead, do
things that you would like to do anyway.
Join a sports club. Learn to dance. Try
not to focus so much on your problem
and just remember to have fun with your
new activities. You will come into contact
with people who have similar interests.
Even if you fail to meet your new best
friends immediately, you will at least have
a good time.
Lonely in Seattle
Don't give up!
Annie
After You Read
Read the statements. Write True or False.
1. “Lonely” has been successful in meeting people.
2. She isn’t asking for advice about dating.
3. Annie thinks making friends is a good idea.
4. She says that friendships develop quickly.
5. Annie thinks that “Lonely” ought to have some fun.
___
___
___
___
___
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GRAMMAR NOTES
➢ An infinitive is to + base form of the verb.
She asked me to call after 5:00 P.M.
➢ Form the negative by placing not before the infinitive.
She asked me not to call before 5:00 PM.
➢ We use the infinitives:
I.
II.
III.
After some verbs, (e.g. want, need, learn, etc.)
After adjectives
To express a reason or purpose.
1. Certain verbs can be followed by an infinitive.
I want to make some new friends.
I asked Annie to help me.
She advised me to relax.
She told me not to worry.
Verbs Followed by the Infinitive (to + base form of the verb)
agree
consent
hurry
pay
appear
decide
intend
plan
arrange
deserve
learn
prepare
ask
expect
manage
pretend
attempt
fail
mean (intend)
promise
can’t afford
help
need
refuse
can’t wait
hesitate
neglect
request
choose
hope
offer
rush
seem
volunteer
wait
want
wish
would like
❖ Some verbs, like the ones below, can be followed directly by an infinitive.
(verb + infinitive)
begin
hope
promise
decide
learn
refuse
fail
plan
try
He decided to join a health club.
He hoped to meet new people.
She promised to go out with him.
She tried not to be late.
❖ Some verbs, like the ones below, need an object (noun or pronoun) before the
infinitive. (verb + object +infinitive)
advice
force
remind
allow
invite
tell
encourage
order
warn
I invited Mary to eat with us.
I reminded her to come.
She told me to call her.
They warned us not to forget.
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❖ Some verbs, like the ones below, can be followed by an infinitive or an object +
infinitive.
ask expect
help need want would like
I asked to join the club. (infinitive)
I asked them to join the club. (object + infinitive)
2. We use infinitives after adjectives.
My flat is very easy to find.
I am pleased to meet you.
3. Use an infinitive + to to explain the purpose of an action. It often answers the
question why.
A: Why did you go to the mall?
B: I went there to buy a new camera phone.
I left at 9:00 to be on time.
Liam is saving money to buy a new car.
❖ We usually do not repeat to when we give more than one purpose.
I went to the mall to buy a sweater, eat lunch, and see a movie.
NOT I went to the mall to buy a sweater, to eat lunch, and to see a movie.
❖ You can also use the longer form in order to + base form of verb to explain a
purpose. (more formal)
I bought my first camera phone in order to send instant photos.
Reporters use camera phones in order not to miss deadlines.
1. Choosing the correct form. Read the stories and fill in the gaps with verbs from the box
in the correct form.
chew
give up
go
keep away
know
feed
The doors were just about to close on my underground train when I saw a pigeon hop in.
The tourists wanted 1. ____________ it with crisps, but the bird wasn't interested. It
appeared 2. _____________ where it was going and as soon as the doors opened at
the next station, it flew out.
If you want to give up smoking, you are recommended not 3. ____________ electrical
cables to help. An Australian builder chewed almost a metre of cable a day for ten years,
and found it had a ‘sweet and pleasant taste’. Unfortunately, the cables he was eating
contained lead and last year doctors found the lead levels in the man’s blood were three
times the safety limit. Fortunately, his blood is now back to normal, but he has failed
4. ___________ smoking.
On 29 January a worried resident of Tilehurst, Berkshire saw a cobra lying motionless
by the side of the road. He rang the local Animal Hospital who told him
not 5. _____________ near it. As the man waited for help, he warned other
people 6. _____________ . When a man arrived from the Animal Hospital in full
protective clothing and approach the snake, he realised it was an old car exhaust pipe.
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Exercise 2: Complete the report on quick response (QR) codes. Use the words in
parentheses with the simple present or simple past form. Use the verb+infinitive or
verb+object+infinitive form.
Last week, Steve Green 1. asked me to look into (ask/me/look into) QR codes, so
I decided to interview people who use QR codes for marketing. One way companies
use QR codes is through smartphones. Consumers point their smartphones at QRs,
and the code takes them immediately to a company or product website.
I 2.______________ (choose/interview) two different people. Steve 3.__________
(urge/me/interview) the manager from Dan's Gourmet Food for this report because his
company uses QR codes. Dan said the QR codes 4.__________ (help/inform)
consumers about the nutritional content of the product and 5._______(help/them/use)
the product correctly. Dan also 6._____________ (want/consumers/find out) about new
products, so the QR code contains a link to Dan's company's website. The QR code
7.____________(promise/become) an important marketing tool.
After I interviewed the manager from Dan's, I 8.__________(prepare/visit) Liz Kurikova,
the owner of a small flower shop. She was unable to meet with me this week, but she
9._____________(encourage/me/contact) a friend of hers who runs a small ice cream
shop. I spoke with Ned Searby at Astoria lce Cream. Currently, they 10._____________
(not need/offer) this option to their customers. Once they start selling other
products, however, they 11.________________ (expect/include) QR codes for
products on the shelves. They 12.__________ (would like/use) this technology to
expand their business and promote their new products.
Exercise 3: Complete the article about tracking technology. Use the adjective + infinitive
combinations in the box.
difficult / avoid
necessary/ use
easy / acquire
shocked /find out
fun/go
surprising/ know
interesting / read
unlikely / change
Who is watching you as you visit Internet pages? It may be 1. surprising to know
that advertisers are following you as you surf the Web. Many Internet users would
be 2. __________ how much companies know about them through tracking technology,
such as cookies, which allow websites to identify visitors and their web page preferences.
Today, because of tracking technology, it is 3. ____________ data on people’s habits and
tastes. Most websites have this technology, so it is 4. __________. Companies believe that it
is 5. _____________ tracking because it helps consumers find out about products that they
like.
Here is an example of what companies can learn through tracking. Maria thinks it is
6. ______________ to websites and comment on movies she has seen. She also thinks it is
7. _____________about health issues on several sites. She notices that ads pop up on
topics that she has done searches on, but she is 8. ______________ her search habits
because of this.
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Exercise 4: Complete the sentences. Use infinitives of purpose.
1. The professor gave the assignment because he wanted to start a discussion about
jobs.
The professor gave the assignment to start a discussion about jobs.
2. The scientist studies the oceans because she wants to understand climate systems.
The scientist studies the oceans _____________________.
3. Because he wanted to get a good grade, Jack studied all night.
___________________________ Jack studied all night.
4. Louise used the Internet because she wanted to find some answers to her questions.
Louise used the Internet ____________________.
5. Everyone worked hard on their assignments because they wanted to get good
grades.
Everyone worked hard on their assignments _____________________.
GERUND / INFINITIVE REVIEW
Exercise 1: Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verbs.
1. I don't enjoy 1.___________ very much. (drive)
2. I can't afford 2. ___________ out tonight. I don't have enough money. (go)
3. We were unlucky to lose the game. We deserved 3. ___________. (win)
4. Why do you keep me 4. ___________ questions? Can't you leave me alone? (ask)
5. I refuse 5. ___________ any more questions. (answer)
6. The driver of one of the cars admitted 6. ___________ the accident. (cause)
7. Mark needed our help, and we promised 7. ___________ what we could. (do)
8. I don't mind 8. ___________ alone, but it's better to be with other people. (be)
9. The wall was quite high, but I managed 9. ___________ over it. (climb)
10. l've enjoyed 10. ___________ to you. I hope 11. __________ you again soon. (talk,
see)
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Exercise 2: Complete the text with the correct form of the verbs.
Good morning, everyone and thank you for 1. coming (come) today. Do you
dislike 2.__________ (look) for a word in a thick heavy dictionary? Can you
imagine 3._____________ (have) instant access to the world's biggest dictionary
in every language?
Well, today I want 4. _____________ (present) the latest in electronic dictionaries, the
XtraLingo. It is so simple that anyone can 5. ______________ (use) it. First of all, you
need 6. ___________________ (press) the ON button. Then you begin by
7.______________ (type) in a word in English and the machine will automatically
8._______________ (give) you the translation in any language. And don't worry about
9.__________ (carry) it around because the XtraLingo is the size of mobile phone.
Exercise 3: Complete the conversation with the -ING or infinitive form of the verbs.
A: Did you enjoy 1. taking (take) the quiz?
B: Yes, it was interesting. I discovered that I am good at 2. ________ (do) creative
things.
A: So, you are right-brain dominant?
B: Yes, I am. I don't appear 3. _________ (be) as good with details. What about you?
A: I am a mixture. On the whole, I learn by 4. ____________ (study) the rules first, and
afterwards I attempt 5. ___________ (answer) questions one by one. That's left-brain
dominant, but I also risk 6. ____________ (make) mistakes from time to time, which is
more right-brain.
B: Have you asked anyone else in the class 7. __________ (try) the quiz?
A: Not yet. I was thinking of 8. _______________ (ask) Pietro.
B: Good idea. I’d expect the test 9. _______________ (show) that he is left-brain
dominant.
A: Me too. But you never know!
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UNIT 12 - ADVERB CLAUSES
READING
A. Read the book review. According to Glaeser, why do many people want to live in cities?
We are becoming an urban species. More than half of the world’s people live in cities
today, and cities are still growing. For economist Edward Glaeser, this is good news. In his
fascinating book, Triumph of the City, Glaeser explains why cities continue to attract people.
Glaeser sees great advantages to urban life. Whenever people live close together,
they can exchange ideas, from business to technology to the arts. This exchange makes cities
exciting and productive centers of opportunity.
He also believes that cities are good for the planet because they reduce pollution.
Since urban residents don’t drive much, cities have fewer carbon emissions.1 For example,
fewer than one third of New York City residents drive to work as compared with 86 percent of
people living elsewhere in the United States.
Glaeser thinks that cities are good for everyone – for people of all incomes. He does
not believe that cities make people poor. He writes that we should build more skyscrapers so
that large numbers of people can live in relatively small areas. Then housing will be
affordable. However, even though Glaeser has some interesting suggestions, he
underestimates the high cost of city living. Millions of urban residents can’t afford food,
clothing, and housing because they are too expensive. It is a serious problem.
Triumph of the City is a thoughtful book. Although you may not agree with all of
Glaeser’s ideas, you will probably enjoy his lively discussion.
1
carbon emissions: the release of carbon dioxide into the air
B. Check. Correct the error in each sentence to make it true according to the book review.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
About one third of the world’s population lives in cities.
Cities today are decreasing in size.
According to Glaeser, cities cause pollution.
Eighty-six percent of New York City residents drive to work.
The reviewer agrees with all of Glaeser’s ideas.
C. Discover. Complete the exercises to learn about the grammar in this lesson.
Exercise 1. Find these sentences in the book review above. Write the missing words.
1. _______________ people live close together, they can exchange ideas.
2. _______________ urban residents don’t drive much, cities have fewer carbon emissions.
3. He writes that we should build more skyscrapers _______________ large numbers of
people can live in relatively small areas.
4. Millions of urban residents can’t afford food, clothing, and housing _______________ they
are too expensive.
5. _______________ you may not agree with all of Glaeser’s ideas, you will probably enjoy
his lively discussion.
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Exercise 2: Look at the words you wrote in exercise 1. Write the words that show:
1. A contrasting idea _______________
3. Reasons
_______________
2. A purpose
_______________
4. A time relationship _______________
ADVERB CLAUSES OF TIME
Whenever I hear that song, I get sad.
Adverb Clause
Main Clause
It started to snow just as we were leaving the theatre.
Main Clause
Adverb Clause
1. Adverb clauses of time begin with a time word or phrase (when, whenever, as, as long as, as
soon as). They tell when the action or event in the main clause happens.
As I was leaving my dormitory, I ran into an old friend.
2. As means when or while something is or was happening. Just as means that an action or
event happened at exactly the same moment as another action or event.
As I was walking home, it started to thunder.
My roommate called just as I was leaving.
3. As long as means from beginning to end.
I’ll never forget that day as long as I live.
4. Whenever means any time or every time.
Whenever she tells a story, I laugh a lot.
5. Once means as soon as, when
Once it is destroyed, it cannot be recreated.
6.Time clauses can come before or after the main clause. The meaning is the same.
We went on vacation as soon as we finished classes.
Remember: Use a comma after the time clause when it comes first in the sentence.
As soon as we finished classes, we went on vacation.
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Exercise 1: Underline five more adverb clauses of time in the paragraph. Add commas where
necessary.
SINGAPORE
As you fly over Singapore, you’ll see enormous skyscrapers. Five million people live
in just 270 square miles (700 sq. km) there, so most people live in tall buildings. Whenever
people think of skyscrapers they usually think of crowded spaces. However, this is not true
of the Pinnacle@Duxton in Singapore. The Pinnacle is a huge skyscraper with 1800
apartments. You’ll be amazed as you walk around it. As soon as you reach the 20th floor
you’ll see a 2625-foot (800 m) jogging track. You’ll feel like you’re running in the clouds
whenever you go there to exercise. The skyscrapers in Singapore look like something from
a science fiction movie. They’re truly amazing works of architecture. You’ll remember them
as long as you live.
Exercise 2: Circle the correct word(s) to complete each sentence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Some people use elevators as long as / whenever they leave the building.
As soon as / As the new skyscraper was completed, people start complaining about it
The power went out as long as / just as the elevator reached the twelfth floor.
Whenever/ As people live close to each other, there is less privacy.
Just as / Whenever our neighbors have a party, they invite us.
As / As soon as I was driving home, I saw that new apartment building.
I’ll remember my trip to Singapore whenever / as long as I live.
Oleg got to the station just as / as soon as the train was leaving.
Please call me as long as / as soon as you get to Hong Kong.
Whenever / As we go to New York City, we always visit the Empire State Building.
ADVERB CLAUSES OF CONTRAST
Although I’ve studied a lot, I’m still nervous about the exam.
Adverb Clause
Main Clause
I’m still nervous about the exam even though I’ve studied a lot.
Main Clause
Adverb Clause
1. Adverb clauses beginning with although, even though, and though introduce a contrast. The
information may be unexpected or surprising.
Although Joe studies a lot, he’s still nervous about the exam.
Even though she loves him, she is not going to marry him.
Though I slept well last night, I’m very tired today.
2. Even though shows more contrast than though.
He bought a new car even though he has trouble paying his rent every month.
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3. Though is more common in informal English.
Informal: Though I have qualifications, they’re not going to give me the job.
Formal: Although you have the right qualifications, I’m afraid we can’t offer you the position.
4. Be Careful! Do not use but in sentences with although even though, and though.
Though it was raining, but I went for a walk.
5. Remember: Use a comma after the adverb clause when it comes first in the sentence.
Although we enjoy the countryside, we prefer city life.
Exercise 3: Choose the best ending for each sentence. Then add commas where necessary.
1. Singapore has a population of five million although __________.
a. it is only 270 square miles (700 sq. km) wide.
b. it has a lot of interesting architecture
2. Even though Chicago is a large city, __________.
a. it has a lot of tall buildings
b. it has a lot of parks and gardens
3. Some of the world's oldest cities are in Egypt although __________.
a. Greek cities are not as old
b. there are many ancient cities and towns in China, too
4. Toronto is the largest city in Canada although __________.
a. it is not the country’s capital
b. it has a population of about 5.6 million
5. Although Yamoussoukro is the capital city of the Ivory Coast, __________.
a. it is the political capital
b. it began as a very small village
6. Even though many ancient cities had walls around them, __________.
a. the walls did not always stop invaders
b. the walls protected the city from invaders
7. Shanghai, China has the largest population of any city in the world though __________.
a. almost as many people live in Beijing
b. far fewer people live in Jaipur, India
8. Though some large cities such as Tokyo and London have skyscrapers __________.
a. their streets are inhabited by millions of people
b. tiny streets in some sections show their ancient beginnings
ADVERB CLAUSES OF REASON AND PURPOSE
Since I don’t know how to get there, I’m going to use my GPS.
Adverb Clause
Main Clause
Now that I have a GPS, I never get lost.
Adverb Clause
Main Clause
We’re going to leave early so that we can avoid traffic.
Main Clause
Adverb Clause
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1. Because, Since, and As show reasons
Because I didn’t do well in the exam, I’m going to take it again.
As he couldn’t find a job, he enrolled on a web-design course.
Since we’re late, let’s take a taxi.
2. Be Careful! Since can also refer time
Since I got here, I’ve done very little work.
3. Now that shows a reason. It means because … now.
Now that I know English, I can get a good job.
Now that Ed is retired, he’s going to have more free time.
4. So that shows a purpose, it means in order to.
I’m putting on my glasses so that I can read the menu.
We studied hard so that we would do well on the exam.
Modal verbs (can, could, would, etc.) are often used with so that. In conversation, that is often
omitted after so.
Max moved to the front of the classroom so that he could see better.
I texted Bill so he could get the information fast.
Exercise 4: Circle the correct word(s) to complete each sentence.
1. Because / So that people live close together in cities, they can interact more.
2. Since / So that our city has excellent public transportation, we don’t need a car.
3. More people want to live in big cities now that / so that they are safer and cleaner.
4. Cities need police so that / since they will be safe places to live.
5. Cities are important now that / because they are economic, political, and cultural centers.
6. Now that / So that I have a bike, I don’t have to take the bus to work.
7. So that / Since the world population is growing, cities are becoming larger.
8. Some people move to big cities so that / now that they can live more exciting lives.
Exercise 5: Complete the conversation with because, since, now that, or so that. Sometimes,
more than one answer is correct.
Ali: How was your trip to Malaysia? Did you get to see much of Kuala Lumpur?
Bill: Yes, I did. The weather was nice. It was really warm (1) ___________ Kuala Lumpur has a
tropical rainforest climate. There's a lot to see there, especially religious sites. A lot of people go
there (2) __________ they can visit the mosques and the Batu Caves outside the city.
Ali: What are the Batu Caves?
Bill: They're an important religious site. The Batu Caves are a group of cave temples cut into
the side of a hill. Some people climb all 272 steps (3) __________ they can see all of the
caves, but I didn't get to see many of the caves (4) __________ I didn't have that much time.
Ali: It sounds interesting. I’ve never heard of them.
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Bill: A lot of people have never heard of them. But (5) __________ they have become
famous, they attract a lot of tourists.
Ali: Really? So, what else did you do there?
Bill: Well, we visited Putrajaya (6) _____________ it is so close to Kuala Lumpur. That was
nice, too. It's a new city. The government built it not long ago.
Exercise 6: Circle the correct words to complete the sentences about Putrajaya, Malaysia.
1. Putrajaya was created because / so that / though Kuala Lumpur would be less crowded.
2. Because / Just as / Although there are a lot of government offices in Putrajaya, many
government workers live there.
3. Even though / Just as / Now that many government workers live in Putrajaya, there is less
traffic there than in Kuala Lumpur.
4. Government workers enjoy living in Putrajaya even though / since / whenever it has good
public services.
5. You can see attractive buildings, parks, and bridges as / even though / since you walk down
the streets of Putrajaya.
6. As long as / So that / Although Putrajaya does not have historical buildings, it does have
interesting places, such as Wasana Park.
7. Even though / So that / Since Putrajaya is a big city, it also has a lot of green space, such
as parks and botanical gardens.
8. Although / Since / Whenever people visit Putrajaya, they are surprised by its natural beauty.
Exercise 7: Read the sentences about Curitiba, Brazil. Then combine each pair of sentences
into one sentence with an adverb clause. Use the word in parentheses. Add a comma where
necessary. Sometimes there is more than one way to combine the sentences.
1. Curitiba is an attractive city. It has historic buildings and beautiful woods around it. (because)
Because Curitiba has historic buildings and beautiful woods around it, it is an attractive city. OR
Curitiba is an attractive city because it has historic buildings and beautiful woods around it.
2. Curitiba has a diverse population. lmmigrants from Europe and Japan have made it their
home. (since)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. The population began to grow rapidly. Curitiba's mayor tried to reduce crowding. (as)
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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4. Many people own cars in Curitiba. Two million people take public transportation everyday.
(although)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Curitiba developed a good recycling program. It can keep the city clean. (so that)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. Children bring cans and bottles to recycling centers. They receive small gifts. (whenever)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Not all of the city's garbage is recycled in Curitiba. Seventy percent of it is. (though)
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 8: Complete the blog entry with since, because, although, even though, though,
whenever, or so that. Sometimes more than one answer is correct.
WORLD TRAVELER
Rome and Dubai are two of my favorite cities (1) __________ they are very different. (2)
__________ there are a lot of huge skyscrapers in Dubai, it has a very modern look and feel.
The architecture is amazing. In fact, many people go there (3) __________ they can visit the
Burj Khalifa-the tallest building in the world. (4) __________ Dubai is well known for its
impressive buildings, there are also many beautiful parks and gardens there. My favorite
park is Dubai Miracle Garden, which has over 45 million flowers! Dubai is also a great
city for shopping. (5) __________ I visit Dubai, I always go to the famous Wafi shopping
mall.
Rome is my other favorite city. Like many other people, I go there (6) __________ I can visit
the historical sites and see the famous art. (7) __________ Rome is one of the most ancient
cities in Europe, there is a lot to see, such as Renaissance palaces, the Pantheon, the
Colosseum, and the Spanish Steps. Also, (8) __________ many of the sites in Rome are
close together, it's a very walkable city. And the food in Rome is fantastic! (9) __________ I
go to Rome, l gain weight!
Rome and Dubai are two wonderful cities with very different atmospheres. I highly recommend
visiting them both!
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CLAUSES OF RESULT
We use Clauses of Result to express the result of an action or a conclusion.
➢ so + adjective/adverb + that
That Math problem was so difficult that I couldn’t solve it. They shouted so loudly that everybody
heard them.
➢ so + much/many/little/few + noun + that
I’ve heard this song so many times that I know it by heart now.
➢ such + a/an + (adjective) + singular countable noun + that
It was such a beautiful day that we decided to go for a picnic.
➢ such + (adjective) + uncountable / plural countable noun + that
She was wearing such strange clothes that everyone was looking at her.
Exercise 9: Rewrite the sentences starting with the words given.
1.
Richard is a singer who is so talented that everyone wants to be in his band.
Richard is such ____________________________________________________________
2.
There were such strong winds that the bridge was closed for six hours.
The winds were ___________________________________________________________
3.
Harry couldn’t eat the meal because it was too spicy.
The meal was so __________________________________________________________
4.
Anna was seriously ill, but she never lost her courage.
Although _________________________________________________________________
5.
The weather was stormy, but Jennifer decided to go surfing.
Even though ______________________________________________________________
6.
The film was too boring, so I fell asleep while watching it.
It was such _______________________________________________________________
7.
Ben was quite tired, but he knew he had to keep running to win the race.
Although _________________________________________________________________
8.
The food was disgusting. Nobody could eat it.
The food _________________________________________________________________
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