Guidance
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Seeks to help an individual become familiar with facts about himself, his interest, abilities,
previous development and plans (Chris Holm)
Enables each individual to understand his abilities and his interests (Traxler)
Embraces every kind of outside help enough to give an individual self-knowledge and selfdiscipline in order to enable that individual to properly live his life and solve his problems
Function of Guidance
1. Guidance makes available all opportunities of value to the individual
2. Guidance constitutes those factors outside the individual that are made available to him in his
search for self-knowledge and self-development
3. It aims at self-understanding, self-appraisal and self-direction
Area or Scope of Guidance
1. Personal Area
 Concerned with the individual’s
 Health
 Intellectual ability
 Attitudes
 Interests
 Degree of industriousness
 Home environment
o Facilities for learning
o Parental relationships
2. Educational area
 Time schedules
 Curriculum
 Extra-curricular adjustment
3. Vocational area
 Job or work that the student fits
General Principles of the organization and administration of guidance
o
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Guidance and Guidance services should grow out of the interests, needs and purposes of the
school child.
Guidance should be continuous and should serve all.
Guidance should be concerned with the whole individual in his total development, but with
specific needs and problems.
Guidance should provide all the phases of pupil problems as they occur, guidance should be
child centered.
A guidance program should provide for trained personnel and specialists.
Guidance should provide for securing and recording adequate information (occupational and
educational requirements and opportunities) through tests and other techniques.
o
o
Guidance should provide for leadership and for cooperation among the home, school, and
community.
Guidance should be simple and comprehensible to the parents, the child himself, and the
community.
Principles basic to understanding guidance (crow and crow)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Phases in an individual’s developmental history do not exhibit a unitary pattern
Individuals tend either to be different or like one another
Knowledge of principles or laws of learning has helped guidance counselors
Tests have their place in guidance
Guidance is a lifelong process
Guidance is positive and preventive rather than curative
Guidance is an adjustment process
There is no mass guidance
Principles or assumptions involved in guidance (Ordonez)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Take time to solve problems and make decisions
Let the counselee develop his own insight
Consider most individuals as normal beings
Problems arise from situations
Problems are interrelated
Integration of efforts is essential
Guidance services must be an integral part of the organization
Views on human nature
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Humans are among the weakest species at birth
Humankind has the greatest potential for growth and development of all the species
Humans have the highest level of communication skills that enable us to express our thoughts in
detail to many others; to teach our language to others; and to record, send and receive
information.
The human species exhibits a wider range of differences than any other species
Human beings manipulate and are being manipulated by their environment
Humans are the only living organism that understand past and future time
Humans have the ability to reason and gain insight
Form or types of organization
Non-centralized guidance program
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Little o no coordination among teachers and administrators
The administrator or principal sends students with problems to teachers who have done
outstanding work in counseling and guiding the students
Has little or no system
Centralized guidance program
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Usually under the charge of guidance expert who can effectively secure the cooperation and
coordination of all concerned with the administration
The direction and control of guidance services flow from the chief administrator
Techniques used in guidance process
Observation
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Basic to other guidance techniques
The behavior and personality of an individual are measured in terms of what he says and does
Made on several occasions and records are made and kept
Autobiographical Sketches
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An individual’s life story - routine behavior, attitudes, interests, ideals - written by himself
Anecdotal Records
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Short description of a significant event or incident of a pupil’s overt behavior
Should possess the following criteria
1. Objectivity - do not give an account of the personal emotional reaction of the one who
makes the record
2. Adequate Background - definite information about time, place, and person involved, as
well as name, age, and the specific situations wherein the counselee is observed
3. Selectivity - which ones are significant in understanding a counselee’s problems
4. Reliability - based exactly on one’s personal observation, not on hearsay
Case Study
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Intensive investigation employing all types of research, make use of tests, checklists, score
cards, interviews, and observation
Steps in Case Study:
1. Recognition of the status of what is being investigated
2. Collection of data relating to the factors or circumstances associated with the problem
under study
3. Identification of casual factors - diagnosis
4. Application of remedial measures
5. Follow-up techniques
Recording Data - Cumulative Record
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Significant facts should be recorded that they can be used when and where they are needed
Records must be cumulative, accurate, complete and reliable; There must be space for
additional information from time to time
Cumulative records have information concerned with the appraisal of the individual pupil
usually kept on a card, sheet, folder, cards in an envelope, or in combination of all
Interview
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The heart of the counseling process
Dynamic face-to-face relationship dependent upon the skill of the counselor and the
cooperation of the counselee
“Most essential of all techniques in the counseling process.” (Rothney and Roen)
Consists of the following steps:
1. Preparing for the interview
2. Establishing rapport
3. Developing insight
4. Terminating the interview
5. Keeping records of the interview
6. Evaluation of the interview
Type of Tests
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Achievement tests measure achievement in the subject studied in school
Standardized tests are prepared by a competent group or groups of persons whereby every item
is chosen after its difficulty and value have been determined by means of rigid experimental
processes
Intelligence tests measure general intelligence, the IQ of the counselee
Aptitude tests are a present condition, a quality or set of qualities for fitness which are indicative
of an individual’s potentialities in the future
Interest-Inventory tests reveal the field or fields in which pupils are interested
Personality tests are the totality of what makes an individual different from another
Trade tests are designed to determine the skills, special abilities, and techniques that make an
individual fit for a given occupation
Diagnostic tests are aimed to uncover and focus attention on weaknesses of individuals for
remedial purposes
Guidance Services
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1. Individual Assessment
Often referred to as individual inventory, assessment or appraisal;
Promotes the client’s self-understanding
Assists counselors and other helping professionals to understand clients better by identifying
the characteristics and potential of every client
Gathering and synthesizing informational data of students as they go through school
2. Individual Counseling
Counseling is a one-to-one helping relationship that focuses on a person’s growth and
adjustment and problem-solving and decision-making needs
It is a client-centered process that demands confidentiality
Effectiveness and credibility of counseling program is dependent on counselors
This is the core of the guidance program around which revolves around services
3. Group Guidance and Counseling
Group Guidance
o
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Refers to group activities that focus on providing information or experiences through a
planned and organized group activity
o Organized to prevent the development of problems
o The content could include educational, vocational, personal, or social information, with
goal of providing students with accurate information that will help them make more
appropriate plans and life decisions
o Some traditional group guidance activities that have become familiar to most high
school students are career days, college days, and orientation days
Group Counseling
o The routine adjustment or developmental experiences provided in a group setting
o Focuses on assisting counselees to cope with their day-to-day adjustment and
development concerns of human sexuality, values or attitudes, or career decision
making
o This service includes homeroom guidance. It makes it possible for students to seek help
without fear of being identified with a particular problem to maintain the individual’s
wholesome relationship with his/her peers
4. Career Assistance
o Standardized tests were used for career assessment and planning
o Referred to as the information service (providing occupational and educational
information)
o A developmental approach, a person should have certain experiences and
understandings at each stage of growth that will provide appropriate foundations for
later career planning and decision making
o To provide career guidance and counseling across the entire life span
o To provide career planning and adjustment assistance to clients
o The focus is almost exclusively on the career needs of individuals
o This involves a conscious process of career education. Students are assisted in
developing proper values, attitudes and aspirations regarding work which is not only for
self-sustenance but also to maintain the community
5. Placement and Follow-up
o Emphasis on educational placement in courses and programs.
Placement service or employment placement
o Match students seeking part time or regular employment with available jobs
Follow-up
o Assess the effectiveness of a program’s placement activities
o Follow-up procedures for assessing counseling outcomes
6. Referral
o The practice of helping client find the needed expert assistance that the referring
counselor cannot provide
o Directs the client to another counselor with a higher level of training or special expertise
related to the client’s needs
o Helps students by identifying cooperating agencies in the community where
professional help could be obtained for particular problems
7. Consultation
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
A process for helping a client through a third party (triadic consultation) or helping a system to
improve its services to its clientele (process consultation)
Receiving increased attention as a way of preventing severe mental illness
8. Research
Necessary to the advancement of the profession of counseling
Provide empirically based data relevant to the ultimate goal of implementing effective
counseling
9. Evaluation and accountability
Evaluation
A means or process for assessing the effectiveness of the counselor’s activities
To verify and improve professional and program performance
Accountability
An outgrowth of demands that schools and other tax-supported institutions and agencies be
held accountable for their actions
Establishes a basis for relevance, effectiveness, and efficiency
Evaluation can be viewed as a component of the accountability model
10. Prevention
Promotion of mental health through social psychological perspective
Seeks to prevent the occurrence of the disorder
School as a shaping force to initiate and develop
Closely allied with the concept of wellness (physical and mental well-being of man)
3 Stages of Counseling
The act of helping the client to view things more clearly, from a value-based perspective to remove the
difficulties or hurdles in achieving an aim is called counseling. Counseling is used to deal with mental,
psychological issues, professional issues where an expert or a professional address the problems with an
aim to solve them. But always remember that Counseling does not come in a ready-made format and
each session is generally tailored according to the problem an individual face. The assigned Counselor
creates a plan of action in accordance with the client, his nature, his aims, and objectives. Counseling
can also be said to be a therapy that is set to address professional and personal issues. This therapy is
flexible because of various Counseling formats that make it so. Let’s take a glance at the various
Counseling formats before taking a dive into the stages of the counseling process.
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Face to face Counseling
This type of Counseling usually finds its place in addressing mental, psychological, addiction issues and
professional problems too. These are popular therapy formats in addressing health issues as they
provide an opportunity to react to any emotions that arise then and there
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Individual or Group Counseling
The client can approach the Counselor all alone if he /she wishes to safeguards his /her privacy to blurt
out his/ her personal /professional problems to seek a solution for the same. Also, he/she can approach
or join a group that is going through similar problems thus gaining a support network.
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Telephonic Counseling
This type of Counseling protects your anonymity also allowing you to take time to think as well as take
time to discuss the issues to be addressed. People find it easy to pen down their issues rather than talk
face to face or say even on a telephone. This is just utilizing technology and emailing the problems to the
Counselor.
The three major stages of the Counseling process
The Counseling process is broken down into three basic stages.
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Initial stage or the initial disclosure stage
Middle stage or in-depth exploration stage
Last stage or commitment to action stage.
Initial Stage or The Initial Disclosure Stage
The first step focuses on building a relationship with the client. So, in simple words, it is relationship
building with the client. For this stage to be successful, the Counselor should be able to empathize with
the client so that the client is engaged to explore the issues affecting him. The Counselor should win
over the client with his strategic convincing communication skills. Communication skills play a vital role
in this initial disclosure stage.
Skills for relationship building with the client can be summarized as follows
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Start with an introduction.
Make the client comfortable by making him sit down.
Address the client with his name.
If the Counseling is for addressing health issues engage the client in
some social conversations to make him/her anxiety free.
If it is for addressing professional problems let the client talk about his problems affecting him.
The Client should get a vibe that the Counselor is interested in his talk. Be genuine.
Middle Stage or In-depth Exploration Stage
This stage is the stage of assessment of the problem the client is facing either professional or personal
interfering with their daily life or professional targets causing despair. According to Seligman(19990),
assessment should attempt to recognize the importance and uniqueness of the client. The key is to
extract all possible information and knowledge about the client’s grievances or problems and ensure
nothing is left out. Any missing link can disastrously affect the whole counseling process.
The exploration or problem assessment begins with noting down the client’s personal data, like name,
age, address, marital status, occupation. This should be followed by the problems affecting the client’s
professional or personal life. Also making a note of the duration of the problem, his family history,
personal history is a must. This helps in joining the dots. That is to form a connection between the
problems of the client and other information collected and grasped. This gives a rough idea of how
much counseling might be required and to which particular counselor the client needs to be assigned
Counselors who do not assess the problems presented by their clients are more likely to formulate
wrong conclusions and non-workable counseling strategies and conclusions, resulting in hit and miss
counseling. The Client may leave with the same set of problems brought to the first session sans any
solution.
Last Stage Or Commitment To Action Stage
This stage is the goal-setting stage, wherein the client with the help of the counselor identifies specific
ways of problem-solving getting in the way to achieve the target. Goals are the results and outcomes the
client wants to achieve at the end of the counseling sessions. Without the achievement of goals, the
whole process of counseling goes down the drain.
This is a crucial stage of counseling as the goals when stated clearly help both the client and the
counselor to recognize progress during the process of counseling sessions
Some of the guidelines for goal selection are summarized as follows:
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Goals should relate to the desired end sought by the client.
Goals should be well defined in explicit and measurable terms.
Most importantly they should be in the range of the Counselors’ knowledge and skills.
They should be feasible.
They should also be consistent with the client’s mission and policies (if the client is an
organization).
Thus, the three-stage counseling process is a planned, progressive movement towards the achievement
of a desired, ultimate conclusion.
Counseling Skills: Definitions and Examples
Counseling skills are soft (interpersonal) and hard (technical) attributes that a counselor puts to use in
order to best help their clients work through personal issues and overcome obstacles that are currently
preventing them from living a full and happy life.
Mastering particular counseling skills could make a great difference in whether or not you can provide
your clients with the best opportunities for personal growth.
Examples of counseling skills
There are a variety of skills that are beneficial to a counselor's understanding of their client, and to the
client's overall comfort and willingness to be vulnerable about their personal hardships. Here is a list of
useful skills that counselors should have:
2. Active listening - Active listening is an important skill for a counselor to have. It can be
defined as the use of eye contact, facial expressions and gestures to imply that you are
engaged and focused on the information the other person is saying. It can help a client
feel like they've been heard and validated in the information they chose to share.
3. Questioning- There are two types of questioning styles that a counselor should be able
to utilize—open questioning and closed questioning. Being skilled in questioning
techniques can help a counselor to better interpret what a client is saying and it can
help them think more deeply into their personal situation as well.
4. Open questioning includes all questioning that is directed toward gathering more
detailed and complex information. Closed questioning is directed toward more shortended questions with specific answers.
5. Note-taking- Counselors should be skilled in organized note-taking techniques in order
to record important points that were discussed during the session and information the
client provided. This can be used for further analysis later on.
6. Interpretation- Counselors should be able to interpret vague information that a client
shares and place it within the context of what they are going through. Phrases like "I'm
just so tired," or "I'm on edge all the time," constitute further information, and it is up to
the counselor to interpret this information.
7. Nonverbal communication competency- Similar to information interpretation,
counselors should be able to identify current attitudes or feelings based upon the body
language that a client uses during the session.
8. Self-awareness- Counselors need to be aware of how their body language, gestures and
tone of voice can affect their client and their willingness to talk about the situation.
Having good self-awareness can keep a counselor from accidentally exhibiting signs of
boredom, frustration or judgment.
9. Trustworthiness- An important skill for a counselor is to be able to build and maintain
trust with their clients. This can affect a client's willingness to share information.
10. Empathy- A counselor needs to be able to see a client's situation from their perspective
in order to best help them overcome their obstacles.
11. Emotional compartmentalization- Another skill that can be specific to counselors is the
ability to emotionally compartmentalize themselves from their clients and maintain
professional boundaries in order to continue healthy client relationships.
12. Information recall- Counselors should be able to remember information that was shared
with them earlier in the session or from a previous session in order to help guide their
questioning toward a particular client.
13. Confidentiality- Confidentiality can be seen as a valued skill for a counselor to have as
they must respect their clients and the information they share with them.
14. Record keeping- Counselors should be able to keep detailed records of their clients,
relevant paperwork and session notes to make sure everything stays up-to-date.
How to improve counseling skills
Here are some steps you can follow to maximize your positive impact as a counselor:
1. Enlist a friend for mock counseling sessions
You can potentially improve your counseling skills by asking a trusted friend to be your mock
client. Hold a mock counseling session and record yourself. Afterward, ask your friend how they
perceived you, what they liked and disliked about your questions or overall body language and
review the footage to conduct your own assessment of your counseling skills and what areas
could be further improved.
2. Practice body language analysis
You can practice body language analysis in your daily life. This type of exercise can help with
your interpretation of clients and their attitudes about a given topic. For example, observe the
cashier in the checkout line or a person you pass on the street based on their posture, facial
expressions and tone of voice.
3. Seek out a mentor within the profession
You can find a mentor who has counseling experience and consult with them about the methods
they find most effective during counseling sessions, how they have handled difficult cases and
what skills they utilize the most.
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How to highlight your counseling skills - Knowing how to highlight your counseling skills on your
resume and during a job interview can be an important factor in whether or not a potential
employer finds you to be an agreeable candidate for a position. Here are a few ways to
implement your counseling skills on your resume, cover letter and during the job interview:
Include counseling skills in your resume - You can use a combination of your skills and the skills
listed in the job description to present yourself as the perfect candidate on your resume. Include
your counseling skills in the summary section, skills section and professional experience section
of your resume. This can also be helpful if the company you are applying to uses a keyword
tracker to pull your resume from a pool of other applicants, as you list your relevant skills that
were also listed in the job description.
Include counseling skills in your cover letter - Use your cover letter as a way to display your
counseling skills by incorporating your professional or industry-related experiences into your
description of your qualifications. You can also use your cover letter as a way to include desired
candidate traits from the original job posting and apply them to your experiences and
qualifications.
Demonstrate your counseling skills during a job interview - During a job interview, you have
the opportunity to display yourself as an individual who is the right candidate for a counselor
position. You can demonstrate the traits and skills you possess in various ways. Participate in
active listening by allowing the interviewer to see that you can engage in positive body language
and gestures to indicate interest in what the speaker is saying. You should also demonstrate
trustworthy and compassionate traits that would be comforting and pleasant to a potential
client. You should appear open and friendly in order to convey this to the interviewer.
Basic Counselling Skills
Counseling skills are soft (interpersonal) and hard (technical) characteristics that a counselor
implements to best assist their clients in working through personal issues and overcoming obstacles that
are currently stopping them from enjoying a full and happy life.
Examples of counseling skills
Active listening - It can be defined as the use of eye contact, facial expressions and gestures to imply
that you are engaged and focused on the information the other person is saying.
Questioning - Being skilled in questioning techniques can help a counselor to better interpret what a
client is saying and it can help them think more deeply into their personal situation as well.
Two types of questioning
Open questioning- Includes all questioning that is directed toward gathering more detailed and complex
information.
Closed questioning- is directed toward more short-ended questions with specific answers.
Theories of Counseling
Adlerian Theory of Personality
"The goal of the human soul is conquest, perfection, security, superiority. Every child is faced with so many
obstacles in life that no child grows up without striving for some form of significance.”
Alfred Adler believed that the personality of individuals was formed in their early years as a result of
relationships within the family. He emphasized the importance of individuals' contributions to their
community and to society. The Adlerian approach to therapy is practical, helping individuals to change
dysfunctional beliefs and encouraging them to take new steps to change their lives. An emphasis on
teaching and educating individuals and families about dealing with interpersonal problems is
characteristic of Adlerian therapy.
Person Centered Theory
Person-centered therapy is also known as client centered psychotherapy and Rogerian therapy. This is a
type of psychotherapy that consists of the client's self-discovery and understanding of themselves. Rogers
said each client has value and should be viewed as a person of unconditional self-worth no matter their
condition, behavior, or feelings. Person-centered therapists understand that what is important to them
may be different from what is important and valuable to the client.
Behavioral Theory
Behavior therapy, initiated during the 1950s and 1960s, presented a powerful challenge to the principles
of psychoanalysis. Behavior therapy's focus on observable behaviors rather than the unconscious; on the
present rather than the past; and on short-temp treatment, clear goals, and rapid change had
considerable appeal. As its name implies, behavior therapy focuses entirely on specific behavior with the
goal of changing or modifying that behavior
Reality Theory
William Glasser was the one who developed the ideas behind reality therapy in the 1950's & 1960"s.
Reality therapy/theory is a client-centered form of cognitive behavioral psychotherapy that focuses on
improving present relationships and circumstances, while avoiding discussion of past events.
Reality therapy - 5 basic needs to fulfill in:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Power, or a sense of self-worth and achievement.
Love and belonging, or being part of a family or community of loved ones.
Freedom, or independence.
Fun, which includes a sense of satisfaction or pleasure.
Survival, or the comfort of knowing that one’s basic needs—food, shelter, and sex—are met.
Psychoanalytic theory
“Emphasizes the study of the client's conscious and subconscious states”
Talk Therapy - also known as psychotherapy, is based on the core idea that talking about the things that
are bothering you can help with emotional distress.
Techniques:
People undergoing psychoanalytic therapy often meet with their psychoanalyst at least once a week.
They can remain in therapy for months or even years
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Dream interpretation
Free association
Transference
What Psychoanalytic Therapy Can Help With
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Psychoanalytic therapy may be used to treat a number of different psychological conditions
Classical conditioning
classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning. This learning process creates a
conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.
Classical conditioning techniques
Counterconditioning
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Aversion therapy (aversive conditioning) - Uses an unpleasant stimulus to stop an undesirable
behavior
Exposure therapy - Exposure therapy is a technique in behavior therapy to treat anxiety
disorders.
Operant conditioning
A learning theory that uses POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT, and/or
PUNISHMENT in order to shape behavior.
Operant conditioning techniques
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Contingency management- Contingency contracts can be very effective in producing behavior
changes
Extinction- Time-outs are a perfect example of the extinction process.
Behavior modeling - involves learning through observation and modeling the behavior of others
Token economies - Relies on reinforcement to modify behavior
Transactional analysis
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Developed by psychiatrist Eric Berne, this is a form of psychology which examines a person’s
relationships and interactions.
Was inspired by Freud’s theories of personality
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Address one’s interactions and communications with the purpose of establishing and reinforcing
the idea that each individual is valuable and has the capacity for positive change and personal
growth.
Considered to be one effective method of enhancing relationships with others.
There are 3(three) Ego States of Transactional Analysis
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Parent
Child
Adult
Gestalt Counseling
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Developed by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls, and Paul Goodman in the 1940.
Considered as an experimental and humanistic form of therapy that was designed to be an
alternative to conventional psychoanalysis.
Creative and experiential techniques are used by the therapist and their client to enhance
awareness, freedom, and self-direction.
Note that context affects experience, and a person cannot be fully understood without
understanding his or her context.
Emphasis is put on the here and now in order to gain awareness.
Multicultural counseling
Used to describe a counseling practice that acknowledges how various aspects of a patient’s cultural
identity might influence their mental health.
Factors:
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Race
Ethnicity
Immigration status
Religion
Socioeconomic background
Gender identity
Based on this, it is a fact that these factors can affect the approach to counseling and mental health of a
person. Ex. Machismo.
Counseling Theories (Canvas)
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By understanding the origins of distress, we are better able to deal with distress
Counseling Theories assert that problems stem from ineffective relationships or thoughts in
adulthood
Personality Theories speculate that distress stems from more innate, long standing problems
often starting in childhood
Learning Theories emphasize the fact that distress and behavior is learned from exposure to
rewards and punishments
Person Centered Theory
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Humans are good and forward moving unless they are blocked
Blockages often occur from a lack of unconditional positive regard which leads to low selfesteem and low self-efficacy
By creating a nurturing, positive environment, people will naturally move in the right direction.
6 necessary conditions required for change
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Therapist-Client Psychological Contact: a relationship between client and therapist in which each
person’s perception of the other is important must exist
Client incongruence, or Vulnerability: incongruence exists between the client experience and
awareness causing vulnerability/anxiety increasing motivation.
Therapist Congruence, or Genuineness
Therapist Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR)
Therapist Empathic understanding
Client Perception of the therapist UPR and empathic understanding.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)/CBT
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Focuses on changing the current evaluations and/or reactions
Distress is caused by a combination of the event and the person’s perception of the event
By using the A-B-Cs, people can evaluate their beliefs and reactions (consequences) to events.
A-B-C
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A= Activating Event
B= Beliefs/assumptions about/interpretations of an event
C= Consequences<br />D= Dispute irrational beliefs<br />What is the evidence for my beliefs?
What are other possible explanations for what happened?
E= Evaluate reactions/consequences for effectiveness
What are the implications of my believing this way, and do they make it worth holding on to my beliefs?
How useful are my beliefs? Do I or others get any benefits from holding on to them, or would we benefit
more if we held other beliefs?
CBT/REBT: Irrational Thoughts
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Irrational Idea 1- It is a dire necessity to be loved or approved by almost everyone for virtually
everything he or she does
Irrational Idea 2 - One should be thoroughly competent, adequate, and achieving in all possible
respects
Irrational Idea 3 - Certain people are bad or wicked, and should be severely blamed and
punished
Irrational Idea 4 - It is terrible, horrible, and catastrophic when things are not going the way one
would like them to go
Irrational Idea 5 - Happiness is externally caused and people have little or no ability to control
their emotions
Irrational Idea 6 - If something is dangerous or fearsome, one should dwell on it
Irrational Idea 7 - It is easier to avoid facing many life difficulties and self-responsibilities than to
undertake more rewarding forms of self-discipline
Irrational Idea 8 - The past is all-important and because something once strongly affected one’s
life, it should indefinitely do so
Irrational Idea 9 - People and things should be different, and it is catastrophic if things do not
immediately change
Irrational Idea 10 -Maximum human happiness can be achieved by inertia and inaction or by
passively “enjoying oneself.”
CBT/REBT: Irrational Thoughts
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Emotional perfectionism: I should always feel happy, confident, and in control of my emotions
Performance perfectionism: I must never fail/make a mistake
Perceived perfectionism: People will not love and accept me as a flawed and vulnerable human
being
Fear of disapproval or criticism: I need everybody’s approval
Fear of rejection: If I’m not loved, then life is not worth living
Fear of being alone: If I’m alone, then I’m miserable
Fear of failure: My worth depends on my achievements
Conflict phobia: People who love each other shouldn’t fight
Emotophobia: I should not feel angry, anxious, jealous etc.
Entitlement: People should always be how I expect
CBT/REBT: Irrational Thoughts
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all or nothing thinking
overgeneralization
mental filter – dwell on the bad and let it discolor everything
discount the positives
jumping to conclusions/overgeneralization
magnification
emotional reasoning –we FEEL bad so we believe we are
labeling – we label ourselves negatively instead of trying to learn from the situation or thinking
about the best way to overcome
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blame – we hold other people responsible for our pain or blame ourselves entirely for every
problem
mind reading
catastrophizing - we expect disaster.
personalizing - we think that everything people do or say is some kind of reaction to us
CBT/REBT: Irrational Thoughts
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Control Fallacy - If you feel externally controlled, you see yourself as a totally helpless victim of
fate. Conversely, it can hold you responsible for the pain and happiness of everyone around you.
Fallacy of Fairness–Life is not fair
Fallacy of Change - You expect that other people will change to suit you if you just pressure or
cajole them enough.
Fallacy of Being Right - Being wrong is unthinkable, and you will go to any length to demonstrate
your rightness.
Heaven Reward Fallacy - You expect all your sacrifice and self-denial to pay off, as if there were
someone keeping score. You feel bitter when the reward does not come.
Reality Therapy
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Focus on the present
Avoid discussing symptoms and complaints. These are the ineffective ways that counselees
choose to deal with problems
Focus on what counselees can do directly-act and think.
Spend less time on what they cannot do directly: changing their feelings and physiology.
Avoid criticizing, blaming and/or complaining
Remain non-judgmental, but encourage people to ask: Is what I am doing getting me closer to
the people I need?
Teach that excuses stand in the way of making needed connections
Focus on specifics. Who are counselees are disconnected from?
Help them make specific, workable plans to reconnect with the people they need. Follow
through on what was planned by helping them evaluate their progress.
Be patient and supportive but keep focusing on the source of the problem, disconnectedness.
Personality Theories: Psychoanalysis
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The conscious mind is what you are aware of at any particular moment, your present
perceptions, memories, thoughts, fantasies, feelings
Working closely with the conscious mind is what Freud called the preconscious, what we might
today call “available memory. “
The largest part by far is the unconscious. It includes all the things that are not easily available to
awareness, including many things that have their origins there, such as our drives or instincts,
and things that are put there because we can’t bear to look at them the unconscious is the
source of our motivations
The id, the ego, and the superego
o The id (instinct)works with the pleasure principle to take care of needs immediately
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The ego helps the person searches for objects to satisfy the id’s wishes
as the ego struggles to keep the id happy, it meets with obstacles in the world. It keeps a
record of consequences. This record of things to avoid and strategies to take becomes
the superego.
There are two aspects to the superego:
o conscience, which is an internalization of punishments and warnings.
o The other is called the ego ideal. It derives from rewards and positive models presented
to the child.
The defense mechanisms
When the Id/superego conflict becomes overwhelming, the ego must defend itself. The techniques are
called the ego defense mechanisms:
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Denial
Sublimation
Displacement
Humor
Reaction Formation
Personality Theories: Adler
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Striving for perfection is a single “drive” or motivating force behind all our behavior and
experience
Since we are not perfect, our personalities are accounted for by the ways in which we do -- or
don’t -- compensate or overcome our failures
Adler felt that there were three basic childhood situations that most contribute to a faulty
lifestyle. Disabilities. If someone doesn’t come along to draw their attention to others, they will
remain focused on themselves.
Pampering. Many children are taught, by the actions of others, that they can take without
giving.
Neglect. They learn inferiority because they are told and shown every day that they are of no
value; They learn selfishness because they are taught to trust no one.
Personality Theories: Erickson
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We develop through a predetermined eight stages.
Progress through each stage is determined by our success in all the previous stages.
Each stage involves certain developmental tasks
If a stage is managed well, we develop a certain virtue or strength
Erickson’s Stages
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hope - Basic Trust vs. Mistrust - Infant stage. Does the child believe its caregivers to be reliable?
will - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - Toddler stage. Child needs to learn it is safe to explore
the world. purpose - Initiative vs. Guilt - Kindergarten - The child can do things on his own. If
“guilty” about making choices, the child will not function well.
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competence - Industry vs. Inferiority - Around age 6 to puberty. Child comparing self-worth to
others. fidelity - Identity vs. Role Confusion - Teenager. Questioning of self. Who am I, how do I
fit in? If the parents continually push him/her to conform to their views, the teen will face
identity confusion.
love (in intimate relationships, work and family) - Intimacy vs. Isolation - Young adult. Who do I
want to be with or date, what am I going to do with my life? Will I settle down?
caring - Generativity vs. Stagnation - the Mid-life crisis. Measure accomplishments/failures. Am I
satisfied or not? The need to assist the younger generation. Stagnation is the feeling of not
having done anything to help the next generation.
wisdom - Ego Integrity vs. Despair - old age. Some handle death well. They reflect on the past,
and either conclude at satisfaction or despair
Learning Theories: Classical Conditioning
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Classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some
significance (usually an unconditioned stimulus)
Classical conditioning is most important in helping us understand why seemingly neutral stimuli
evoke a response from a client
Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning
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Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior
(Treatment planning)
Reinforcement is a consequence that increases a behavior.
+/- Punishments a consequence that decreases a behavior.
+/- Extinctions the elimination of a behavior by removing the reward.
Learning Theories: Social Learning
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People learn from one another, through observational learning, imitation, and modeling.
People can learn by observing behavior and the outcomes of those behaviors.
Learning can occur without a change in behavior
Cognition, awareness and expectations of future consequences can have a major effect on the
behaviors that people exhibit
Reciprocal causation: The person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on
each other
4 conditions that are necessary before an individual can learn
o Attention: the person must first pay attention to the model/situation
o Retention: the observer must remember the behavior that has been observed.
o Rehearsal: the third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior.
o Motivation: Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
Self-Regulation
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Set goals and standards
Self-observe
Judge yourself
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React, revisit and reinforce
Implications of Social Learning Theory
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Students often learn a lot by observing others.
Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate behaviors and
decrease inappropriate ones.
Modeling can be used in conjunction with shaping
Expose people to a variety of other models/behaviors/lifestyles
People must believe that they are capable or have a sense of self-efficacy.
Help students set realistic expectations
Teach self-regulation techniques
Summary
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There are a multitude of theories
Most boil down to clients lacking self-confidence or motivation to do the correct behaviors
By helping people identify obstacles to their behaviors or motivation, we can help them improve
their quality of life.