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PHYSICS1
General Science Handout
Lecturer: Earshad B. Banjal, MAEd-GS2
_________________________________________________________
CLASSICAL PHYSICS
Learning Outcomes:
✓ Demonstrate the relation of heat, work, and temperature to energy, radiation, and
physical properties of matter
✓ Illustrate the transfer of energy from one place to another and from one form to
another
✓ Discuss the uses of electromagnetism for motors, generators, transformers, x – rays,
etc.
✓ Distinguish the characteristics and functions of waves and optics
Content:
• Review on Kinematics and Dynamics
•
•
Thermodynamics
Electricity and Magnetism
•
Waves and Optics
Review on Kinematics and Dynamics
I.
Newtonian Mechanics
a. Kinematics: the study of motion without regard to forces that cause it
b. Dynamics: the study of motions that result from forces.
II.
Motion - a continuous change in position with respect to a reference point,
accompanied by distance or displacement
a. Distance (d) - the length of the path traveled by an object
b. Displacement (𝒅 ⃗) - a measure of how far an object has moved in a particular
direction from its original position
III.
Nature of Measurement: Scalar or Vector?
a. Scalar quantity: a quantity that can be completely specified by its magnitude
(value + unit)
i.
distance
ii.
time
iii.
speed
iv.
mass
v.
volume
b. Vector quantity: a quantity that specifies direction as well as magnitude
(value + unit + direction)
i.
displacement
Annex A, PQF Level 6. Under the New TOS, Physics comprises 12% of all items in the Specialization for BSED
Science.
1
The author is a BS in BIOLOGY major in General Biology graduate of the University of Southeastern
Philippines (USeP-Obrero), earned units in MSERM (USeP), certificate in professional education (Brokenshire
2
College, Inc), units in Juris Doctor (UM), completed MAEd-GS (HCDC), and on-going PhD in EM.
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 2
IV.
ii.
velocity
iii.
acceleration
iv.
force
Adding Vectors
a. Vectors do not like scalar units, so we will use vector algebra.
b. What do we want to get when using vector algebra? - The Resultant
c. Resultant: the single vector that represents the sum of all vectors
d. Methods: Graphical and Analytical
V.
Graphical Method
a. Also known as the tail-head method
b. How:
i.
Draw the first vector using an arrow with a head
ii.
Draw the next vector starting from the head of the previous vector
iii.
Draw the resultant vector using an arrow from the tail of the first
vector to the head of the last vector. Measure or solve for the
displacement.
iv.
To get the Resultant Vector with Angles:
•
Use a ruler or measuring tool to measure for the magnitude.
•
Use a protractor to measure the angle and refer to the cardinal
points on the compass for the direction.
VI.
Analytical Method
a. Also known as the component method
b. How:
i.
We draw the vector arrows using the graphical method.
ii.
Find the x- and y components of each vector.
iii.
Find the sum of all x components.
iv.
Find the sum of all y components.
v.
To get the Resultant Vector:
•
Use the Pythagorean Theorem to get the Magnitude.
•
Use the Trigonometric Functions for the Direction.
a. Sin angle = opposite / hypotenuse
b. Cos angle = adjacent / hypotenuse
c. Tan angle = opposite / adjacent
VII.
Speed (v)
a. Speed is a measure of how fast something moves.
b. Formula: Speed = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
i.
SI unit: m/s or km/h
ii.
English: ft/s or mi/h
c. Measures of Speed
i.
If your car is neither speeding up nor slowing down = Constant speed
ii.
If you calculate speed over a large distance over some period of time
= Average speed
iii.
VIII.
The speed at any specific instant = Instantaneous speed
Velocity ( 𝒗 ⃗ )
a. Distance traveled per unit of time with respect to a position
b. Velocity is speed plus direction; or displacement over time
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c. Velocity = displacement/time
d. v ⃗ = d ⃗/t
i.
IX.
SI unit: m/s or km/h, with the direction
Acceleration ( 𝒂 ⃗ )
a. Acceleration is a change in velocity over time
i.
Changing the speed without changing the direction of motion
ii.
Changing the direction of motion without changing the speed
iii.
Changing both the speed and the direction of motion
⃗⃗ =
b. Formula: 𝒂
X.
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗 −𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
=
⃗⃗𝒇 –⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗
𝒗𝒊
𝒕
Deriving other unknown variables from the acceleration formula:
a. Solving for final velocity (vf): a =
⃗⃗ f -⃗⃗⃗⃗
v
vi
t
⇒ at + vi = vf
b. Solving for initial velocity (vi): at + vi = vf ⇒ at – vf = vi
c. Solving for time (t): at + vi = vf ⇒ t =
XI.
⃗⃗ f -⃗⃗⃗⃗
v
vi
a
Uniformly Accelerated Motion: Free Fall
a. motion is solely influenced by gravity, thus the constant net force
b. the change in velocity of the object is due to the gravitational pull of the earth
c. the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational acceleration (g in
symbol), which is equal to 9.8 m/s2 or -9.8 m/s2 and is directed downward
XII.
Force – an interaction between two or more bodies; a push or a pull affecting
objects; measured in Newtons; the net force or resultant determines the effect on
the body or the direction of motion; 1 N = 1 kg m/s2 = 0.225 lb; 1lb = 1 kg in/s2 = 4.45 lb
a. Contact Forces - arise when there is physical contact between the interacting
bodies
i.
Friction - a force between two bodies that are in contact with each
other; opposes the motion of an object; that is why it is often
described as the resistance an object meets when its surface is
rubbed against another surface
•
Static friction – the force that keeps an object at rest (Fs = Nµs)
•
Kinetic friction – the force that acts between moving surfaces
(Fk = Nµk)
ii.
Tension - the pulling force transmitted axially using a string, a cable,
chain, or similar object, or by each end of a rod, truss member, or
similar three-dimensional object
iii.
Normal (support) force – one which supports the object in place;
exerted upward
b. Non-contact Forces – occur when bodies interact at a distance
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i.
Gravitational force – the interaction of two bodies primarily
becausetheir their mass. It is attractive in nature
ii.
Electrical force - force between interacting charges (positive and
negative)
iii.
Magnetic force - force between interacting magnets or between
materials with high magnetic properties (north and south poles and
ferromagnetic materials)
iv.
Buoyant force - force exerted by a liquid when an object is immersed
in it; exerted upward
c. Newton’s Laws of Motion
i.
First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)
•
An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in
motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless
acted upon by an unbalanced force.
•
Inertia – the tendency of a body to remain at rest or stay in
motion
ii.
Second Law of Motion (Law of Acceleration)
•
The acceleration depends directly upon the net force acting
upon the object and inversely upon the object's mass. The
direction of the acceleration is in the direction of the applied
force.
•
iii.
Net Force = mass x acceleration
Third Law of Motion (Law of Interaction; Law of Action-Reaction)
•
Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the
second object exerts a force equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction to the first.
•
For every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction
d. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
i.
Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a mutually
attractive force.
ii.
For two bodies, this force is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
separating them.
iii.
Formula: Force =
G (m1 x m2)
d2
𝑁.𝑚2
𝑘𝑔2
•
where: G is the universal constant of gravitation, 6.67 x 10-11
•
m1 is the mass of the first body
•
m2 is the mass of the second body
•
d2 is the square of the distance of the two bodies from their
centers
e. Weight as a Force:
i.
Weight is the pull of the Earth upon an object. Weight is a force caused
by gravity. Acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2
ii.
Formula:
•
Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity
•
Weight = (mass)(9.8)
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THERMODYNAMICS
I.
Definition
a. the branch of science concerned with heat and temperature and their
relation to energy and work
II.
Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules.
a. Units used to measure energy:
i. Joules: 1 J = 1 kg·m2/s2
ii. British Thermal Unit (Btu): 1 Btu = 1055.06 J
iii. calorie: 1 cal = 4.18 J
iv. Food calorie: 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 4186.8 J
v. kilowatt-hour: 1 kWh = 3,600,000 J
III.
Forms of Energy
a. Potential Energy – stored energy of position possessed by an object
i. Gravitational potential energy - energy stored in an object as the result
of its vertical position or height
ii. Elastic potential energy - energy stored in elastic materials as the
result of their stretching or compressing
iii. Chemical energy - energy that can be stored and released in chemical
bonds
iv. Nuclear energy – energy stored in the nucleus of an atom
v. Electric potential energy is stored potential energy in cells or battery
b. Kinetic Energy – the energy of motion
i. Thermal energy - internal kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in an
object
ii. When thermal energy is transferred from one object to another,
thermal energy becomes heat energy
iii. Radiant energy – the energy of moving electromagnetic waves
iv. Electrical energy – the energy of moving electrons in a conducting
object
v. Sound energy – energy released by vibrating objects
IV.
Temperature and Heat
a. Temperature measures the hotness or coldness of a body.
b. Heat is the energy that transfers from a body of higher temperature to
another body of lower temperature.
c. Heat is the quantity of thermal energy absorbed or given off by a body.
d. Relationship:
i. Temperature indicates the direction in which heat flows, while heat is
the actual energy transferred.
ii. A substance may have a high temperature and give out or contain a
small amount of heat.
iii. A substance may have a low temperature and give out or absorb a
considerable amount of heat.
V.
Thermometer - any thermal sensor that measures temperature
a. A thermal sensor is any material that has a thermometric property or that
property that changes with temperature
b. The lines on a thermometer are called calibrations.
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c. A thermometer may be calibrated in Fahrenheit, Celsius, or Kelvin scale.
d. The three common scales for measuring temperature are the following:
i. Fahrenheit scale
ii. Celsius scale
iii. Kelvin scale
e. Freezing Point of Water in the Three Scales
i. Fahrenheit scale: 32°F
ii. Celsius scale: 0°C
iii. Kelvin scale: 273 K
f.
Boiling Point Water in the Three Scales
i. Fahrenheit scale: 212°F
ii. Celsius scale: 100°C
iii. Kelvin scale: 373 K
g. Conversion
i. Celsius to Kelvin: K = C + 273.15
ii. Kelvin to Celsius: C = K - 273.15
iii. Fahrenheit to Celsius: C = (F-32) (5/9)
iv. Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = C(9/5) + 32
v. Fahrenheit to Kelvin: K = (F-32) (5/9) + 273.15
vi. Kelvin to Fahrenheit: F = (K-273.15) (9/5) + 32
VI.
Heat Transfer
a. Conduction – through matter from particle to particle
b. Convection – by the actual movement of the warmed matter or fluid
c. Radiation – electromagnetic waves that directly transport energy through
space
VII.
Expansion of Materials
a. Thermal Expansion – a phenomenon that occurs when an object expands
and becomes larger due to a change in the object's temperature
i. When materials are heated, they expand.
ii. When materials are cooled, they contract.
iii. Some things expand more than others when heated.
b. Expansion - The increase in the size of a material
c. Contraction - The decrease in size of a material
VIII.
Expansion of Water
a. Like all liquids, water contracts when cooled. But for water, this is true only for
temperatures above 4°C.
b. Below this temperature, water expands until it freezes at 0°C. Therefore, the
maximum density of water is at 4°C.
IX.
Thermostat
a. Different materials have different rates of expansion. That is, when subjected
to the same changes in temperature, some materials expand more than
others.
b. One practical application is the bimetallic strip in thermostats (an automatic
switching mechanism that depends on a pre-set desired temperature).
c. Thermostat – a device with a bimetallic strip which consists of two strips of
different meta,ls usually brass, and iron-which are welded together
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X.
Laws of Thermodynamics
a. The Zeroth of Thermodynamics
i. Establishes the concept of temperature:
ii. “If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they
must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.”
b. The First Law of Thermodynamics
i. Another way of stating the first law is that the internal energy (∆E) of a
system is the sum of the heat flow across its boundaries (q) and the
work done on the system (W).
1.
Formula: ∆E = q + W
c. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
i. “The entropy of a system not in thermal equilibrium increases.”
ii. Entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a
thermodynamic system. As entropy increases, less energy is available
for useful work.
d. The Third Law of Thermodynamics
i. “The entropy of a system approaches as constant value as the
temperature approaches absolute zero.”
ii. Absolute zero is the lowest theoretically possible temperature (0K or
zero Kelvin).
ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM
I.
Electrostatics – the study of forces between charges; studies charges at rest
a. Benjamin Franklin (1705 – 1790)
•
one of the Founding Fathers of the United States
•
a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for
his discoveries and theories regarding electricity
•
inventor of the glass harmonica, bifocals, stove, and the lightning rod
•
first to discover the principle of conservation of charge
•
thoughtelectric current was electrical fluid under different negative and
positive pressurese.
•
the most notable experiments he did involve lightning (1752)
b. The word “Electricity”
•
comes from the Greek word ήλεκτρον, or electron (amber
•
Thales of Miletus (600 B.C.) informed us that the ancient Greeks recognized
the fact that amber, when rubbed, attracted light particles to it
•
amber and jet were the only substances known at that time to have this
property
•
William Gilbert, the inventor of the electroscope, was the first to use the word
“electricus” with a meaning closest to the modern definition of electricity
•
The English word "electricity" was first used in 1646 by Sir Thomas Browne,
derived from Gilbert's 1600 New Latin electricus, meaning "like amber."
c. Electric charge
•
the fundamental physical property that causes objects to experience an
attractive or repulsive force toward one another
•
There are two kinds of charges:
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i.
positive charge
ii. negative charge
•
The Charge Law:
i.
Like charges repel; unlike charges attract
ii. Objects acquire charges because there is an imbalance in the number of
protons and electrons.
•
The Law of Conservation of Charges:
i.
Whenever something is charged, no electrons are created or destroyed.
ii. Electrons are simply transferred from one material to another.
iii. Charge is conserved.
II. Conductors and Insulators
a. A material that allows charges to move about easily is called an electric
conductor. These materials have high electron mobility (many free electrons).
b. A material through which a charge will not move easily is called an electric
insulator. These materials have electrons that have very little freedom to move
around.
III. Triboelectric Series – a list that ranks materials according to
their tendency to gain or lose electrons
IV. Electric Units
a. Ampere - a measure of the amount of electric charge
passing a point in an electric circuit per unit of time with
6.241 × 1018 electrons
b. Coulomb - the amount of charge flowing when the
current is 1 ampere
c. Elementary Charge - the charge on an electron, or
electron charge (elementary charge or unit charge) can
be expressed in coulombs as e = 1.602176634×10−19
Coulomb
•
To find out the unit charges (number of electrons)
present in a quantity charge in coulomb: Qe = QC × 6.241 x 1018
V. Electrodynamics – studies charges in motion
a. Electricity
•
Electricity is the flow of moving electrons.
•
Electrical Energy is a type of energy due to the movement of electrons.
b. Voltage (also known as electric potential difference)
•
the difference in potential energy per unit charge between two locations in an
electric field
•
defined as electric potential energy per unit of charge
•
formula: V = W/Q
•
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827)
i.
Italian physicist, chemist, and pioneer of electricity and power
ii. known especially for the invention of the electrochemical cell
c. Current
•
the flow of electric charge that transports energy from one place to another
•
rate of flow of one coulomb of charge per second; measured in Ampere
•
1 A is the flow of 6.24 x 1018 electrons per second, or 1 coulomb per second
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•
SI symbol for Current = I; SI Unit for Current = Amps (A)
•
In formula: I = Q/t
•
André Ampère (1775 – 1836)
i.
French physicist and mathematician
ii. He named a new field in science – electrodynamics (electromagnetics)
iii. Current Direction
1.
Initially, current was believed to be the flow of positive charges. This is
calledthe conventional current direction
2. The actual flow of charge is by electrons (negative charge) called
electron flow direction
iv. Types of Current:
1.
Direct Current - current that constantly moves in a single direction
2. Alternating Current - the current direction alternates back and forth
d. Resistance
•
the property of a material that resists electric current
•
a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit
•
opposes the push from the voltage source and affects the speed of the
current
•
SI symbol = R; SI unit = Ohm or Ω
•
Georg Ohm (1789 – 1854):
i.
German physicist
ii. determined that there is a direct proportionality between the voltage
applied across a conductor and the electric current (Ohm’s Law)
•
Factors affecting the resistance of materials:
i.
The cross-sectional area of the conductor.
ii. Length of the conductor.
iii. The material of the conductor.
iv. The temperature of the conducting material.
VI. Ohm’s Law
a. The current in a circuit varies in direct proportion to the potential difference or
voltage across the circuit and inversely with the circuit’s resistance:
b. Current = Voltage / Resistance; I = V/R
c. The formula can be written as:
•
V = IR, when voltage is unknown
•
I = V/R, when current is unknown
•
R = V/I, when resistance is unknown
VII. Electric Power
a. rate at which electric energy is converted into another form, such as mechanical
energy, heat, or light
b. Power = Current x Voltage
c. Watts = amperes x volts
d. SI Unit: Watt or W; Equation Symbol: P
VIII.
Circuits
a. a closed path along which electrons can flow from and return to an energy
source
b. Types of Circuit:
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•
Closed circuit - a complete electric circuit that allows electrons to flow along
an uninterrupted path
•
Open circuit - one in which there is an opening that does not allow current to
flow
c. Types of Closed Circuit
•
Series Circuit - provides only one possible path for the flow of current
•
Parallel Circuit - offers more than one path for the flow of electricity
d. Circuits in Relation to the Ohm’s Law
IX. Magnetism - the ability of a material to attract iron, steel, and its alloys; magnetic
properties are due to moving charges; a stationary charge does not exhibit a magnetic
property
a. Magnet - any object that creates a magnetic field; a magnet attracts
ferromagnetic materials such as Iron, Nickel, and Cobalt
b. Magnets always have two poles:
•
the north magnetic pole
•
the south magnetic pole
c. Magnetic poles always occur in pairs
d. Types of Magnetic Materials
•
Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted to both poles of magnets
•
Paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted to a single pole
•
Diamagnetic materials are the most unique of these three types, as they repel
both poles of magnets
e. Types of Magnets
•
Permanent magnets - emit a magnetic field without the need for any external
source of magnetism or electrical power
•
Temporary magnets - behave as magnets while attached to or close to
something that emits a magnetic field but lose this characteristic when the
source of the magnetic field is removed
•
Electromagnets - require electricity in order to behave as a magnet
X. Electricity and Magnetism in Relation to Energy
a. Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
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•
“Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an
electromotive force is induced. Likewise, if the conductor circuit is closed, a
current is induced, called induced current.”
b. Devices that Use Faraday’s Law
•
Motor - converts electricity into mechanical energy, providing a power
source for machinery
•
Generator – converts mechanical energy into electricity
WAVES & OPTICS
I.
What is a Wave?
a. A wave is a disturbance or a wiggle that travels or propagates from the place
where it was created. Examples: light, sound, and waves in the ocean.
b. Properties of Waves:
•
Waves transfer energy from one place to another
•
Waves do not transfer mass
•
May require a medium (mechanical) or not (electromagnetic) to travel
through
II. Mechanical Waves
a. Waves that require a medium
b. A medium may be a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
c. Sound waves in air and water waves are mechanical waves.
d. The speed of the wave depends on the material properties of the medium
through which it is traveling
e. Examples:
•
For water waves, the disturbance is in the surface of the water; an example is
the disturbance created by a rock thrown into a pond or a swimmer splashing
the water’s surface repeatedly.
•
For sound waves in air, the disturbance is caused by a change in air pressure,
an example of when the oscillating cone inside a speaker creates a
disturbance.
•
For earthquakes, there are several types of disturbances, including the
disturbance of the Earth’s surface and the pressure disturbances under the
surface.
III. Types of Mechanical Waves
a. A transverse wave propagates so that the disturbance is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. These waves are sometimes called shear waves.
b. A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the disturbance is parallel to the direction
of propagation. These waves are sometimes called compression waves or
compressional waves. Longitudinal waves have compressions and rarefactions.
•
Compression - a region in a longitudinal wave where the particles are closest
together
•
Rarefaction - a region in a longitudinal wave where the particles are furthest
apart
IV. Electromagnetic Waves
a. Waves that do not require a medium
b. Electromagnetic (EM) waves are transverse waves
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c. EM waves are NOT mechanical waves
d. From highest to lowest energy, the sections of the EM spectrum are named:
gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, and
radio waves.
V. Wave Combinations
a. Transverse: The waves on the strings of musical instruments are transverse, and
so are electromagnetic waves, such as visible light.
b. Longitudinal: Sound waves in air and water are longitudinal.
c. Transverse and Longitudinal Components:
•
Sound in solids can be both longitudinal and transverse.
•
Water waves are also a combination of transverse and longitudinal
components.
•
Earthquake waves under Earth’s surface have longitudinal and transverse
components.
1.
P waves in an earthquake are longitudinal waves.
2. S waves are transverse waves.
VI. Wave Variables
a. Crest - the highest point of a sine wave
b. Trough – the lowest point of a sine wave
c. Wavelength - the distance between adjacent identical parts of a wave, parallel
to the direction of propagation
•
The wavelength in longitudinal waves is the distance between two
compressions.
•
The wavelength in transverse waves is the distance between two
crests/troughs.
d. Amplitude – the distance between the resting position and the maximum
displacement of the wave
e. Period (or Cycle) - the time it takes for one up-and-down motion of a wave to
complete
f.
Frequency - the number of waves passing by a specific point per second; The
formula is f = 1/T; the SI unit is Hertz (Hz)
•
The higher the frequency, the smaller the wavelength.
g. Wave Velocity (Speed) - the speed at which the disturbance moves; The formula
is v = λf or vw = λ / T
VII. Optics
a. Mirrors - A reflecting surface that can be explained by the law of reflection: “The
angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.”
b. Types of Mirrors
•
Plane Mirror:
1.
The images formed from a plane mirror are the reflected images in their
normal proportions.
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2. Mirrors don't actually reverse anything. It's you who is doing the flipping.
•
Spherical Mirrors
1.
Convex mirror: Spherical mirrors that are curved outward. The image
obtained is virtual, diminished, and erect for a real object.
2. Concave mirrors: Spherical mirrors that are curved inward. The image
obtained from these mirrors depends on the placement of the object.
c. Types of Images Formed by Mirrors (Lenses)
•
Real image - images that are obtained using a converging lens or a concave
mirror; the size of the real image depends upon the placement of the object
•
Virtual image - an upright image that is achieved where the rays seem to
diverge; image is produced with the help of a diverging lens or a convex
mirror; cannot be projected onto a screen
d. Parts of a Spherical Mirror
•
principal axis -
imaginary line
passing through the center of the
sphere to the vertex
•
center of curvature - point in the
center of the sphere from which the
mirror was sliced and is denoted by
the letter C
•
vertex – the point on the mirror's
surface where the principal axis meets the mirror and is denoted by the letter
A. The vertex is the geometric center of the mirror.
•
focus - midway between the vertex and the center of curvature denoted by
the letter F
•
radius of curvature - distance from the vertex to the center of curvature is
represented by R. The radius of curvature is the radius of the sphere from
which the mirror was cut.
•
focal length - the distance from the mirror to the focal point or focus
represented by f. Since the focal point is the midpoint of the line segment
adjoining the vertex and the center of curvature, the focal length would be
one-half the radius of curvature
e. Images formed by Convex Mirrors:
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f.
Images formed by Concave Mirrors:
g. Lenses - a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam
using refraction
•
•
Convex (converging) lens - thick in the middle and thinner at the edges
Concave (diverging) lens - flat in the middle and thicker at the edges
•
Image Formed by Concave Lens
•
Image Formed by Convex Lens
•
Lens Equations
1.
Formula for Magnification:
i.
Magnification =
hi
di
=
ho do
ii. Where, hi = height of image, ho = height of object, di = distance of the
image, do = distance of the object
iii. di is + if the image is a real image and located on the object's side of
the mirror.
iv. di is - if the image is virtual and located behind the mirror.
v. hi is + if the image is an upright image (and therefore, also virtual)
vi. hi is - if the image is an inverted image (and therefore, also real)
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 15
2. Formula for Focal Length:
i.
1
𝑓
Formula: =
1
𝑑𝑜
+
1
𝑑𝑖
ii. f is + if the mirror is a concave mirror
•
iii. f is - if the mirror is a convex mirror
Corrective Lenses
1. Convex lenses are used to correct hyperopia.
2. Concave lenses are used to correct myopia.
-END-
PRACTICE TEST (PHYSICAL SCIENCE BOARD EXAM Qs)
1. The study of inland waters also called freshwater science, is
A. Oceanography
B. Hydrology
C. Geology
D. Limnology
2. The field of science, which covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject
to soil formation processes, is
A. Geography
C. Soil science
B. Ecology
D. Geology
3. The acceleration of an object is___________.
A. inversely proportional to its mass
B. not resisted by inertia
C. indirectly proportional to the applied force
D. directly proportional to its mass
4. The Bohr Theory was developed to explain which of these phenomena?
A. energy levels
C. line spectra
B. the photoelectric effect
D. quantum numbers
5. The scientist who formulated a heliocentric model of the solar system was_______.
A. Descartes
C. Ptolemy
B. Copernicus
D. Galileo Galilei
6. The field of science which covers the gaseous parts of the Earth is________.
A. Hydrology
C. Atmospheric science
B. Atmospherology
D. Earth science
7. The field of science which describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere)
and its historical development is_______.
A. Ecology
B. Geology
C. Geoscience
D. Geography
8. Who became famous for his discovery of the planet Uranus, along with two of its major
moons, Titania and Oberon, and also discovered two moons of Saturn?
A. Charles Avison
C. Caroline Herschel
B. Frederick William Herschel
D. Matthias Bamert
9. Which human sense is second in supplying the most information about the external
world?
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 16
A. Taste
C. Touch
B. Hearing
D. Sight
10. The all-embracing term referring to the field of science dealing with planet Earth
is_________.
A. Geography
B. Earth Science
C. Biological Science
D. Geology
11. Many forms of energy in use today can be traced back to
A. sun
B. petroleum
C. coal
D.Texas
12. Which one of the following expresses a concise statement about a fundamental
relationship in nature?
A. Theory
C. Experiment
B. Hypothesis
D. Law
13. All human senses have________.
A. limitations
C. minimum tolerance
B. expansion
D. wide imaginations
14. A scientific law can be expressed as_______.
A. written concept, an equation, anda graph
B. an equation and verbal concept
C. written concept
D. printed graph
15. A generalized mental image of an object is________.
A. definition
C. impression
B. mental concept
D. mental picture
16. Which of the following situations does NOT show work being done?
A. A girl kicked the ball.
B. A boy pressed his hands on the electric post.
C. A girl picked up her toy.
D. A boy pushed his car forward.
17. One atmosphere is equal to_____cm or____inches of mercury.
A. 86, 30
C. 76, 30
B. 76, 40
D. 86, 40
18. What is the cloud root name that means "heap"?
A. Stratus
C. Nimbus
B. Cumulus D. Cirrus
19. The following situations illustrate acceleration, EXCEPT
A. A car travels at constant speed along a highway
B. A drum roils down on an inclined plane
C. A truck travels around the curved road with a constant speed of 20 m/s
D. The bus increases its speed from 70 kph to 120 kph
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 17
20. The ratio of the speed of light vacuum to the speed of light in a transparent material is
called
A. index of deflection
B. index of refraction
C. index of diffusion
D. index of reflection
21. The altostratus cloud is a member of which family?
A. High clouds
B. Vertical clouds
C. Low clouds
D. Middle clouds
22. A petroleum product that is composed of hydrocarbons with 16 to 18 carbon atoms per
molecule is
A. gasoline C. paraffin
B. motor oil D. asphalt
23. Which type of reaction does the general equation (AB + energy A+B) show?
A. Exothermic synthesis
B. Exothermic decomposition
C. Endothermic synthesis
D. Endothermic decomposition
24. A fluorescent lamp rated at 100kW has an efficiency of 20%. How much energy is
dissipated as heat if the lamp is used for 5 hours?
A. 250kW-hrs
B. 100 kW-hrs
C. 150kW-hrs
D. 200 kW-hrs
25. The greatest number of typhoon casualties is caused by
A. storm surge
B. high winds
C. low pressure
D. flying debris
26. An empty garbage truck moving at a speed of 4 m/sec enters a tunnel where a bale of
garbage half as massive as the truck is dropped onto the truck. What is the speed of the
truck when coming out of the tunnel?
A.5.8m/sec
B.2.7m/sec
C. 5.7m/sec
D. 2.8m/sec
27. Of the following elements, the one with the greatest electron-holding ability
is_______.
A. copper
C. zinc
B. sodium
D. platinum
28. How much inertia would a 50 kg mother have compared to her 25 kg child?
A. The mother has twice as much inertia as her child
B. The mother has half as much inertia as her child
C. The child has as much inertia as her mother, and herself put together
D. The mother and child have equal inertia
29. An iron exchange reaction can be identified by all of the following EXCEPT
A. the required addition of heat
C. formation of water
B. generation of gas
D. formation of a precipitate
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 18
30. What instrument is used to measure relative humidity?
A. Barometer
C. Anemometer
B. Psychrometer
D. Wind vane
31. Which one of the following is NOT one of Kepler's laws?
A. harmonic law
C. law of equal areas
B. law of elliptical path
D. law of radial velocities
32. If the speed of a moving object is double, which quantity associated with the object
must also double?
A. its acceleration
B. its kinetic energy
C. its gravitational potential energy
D. its momentum
33. Which of the following particles has positive (+1) charge?
A. proton
B. alpha
C. neutron
D. electron
34. Which of the following is used to measure altitude?
A. clock
B. compass
C. barometer
D. sextant
35. The frequency of. a light wave is 5.0 x 1014 hertz. What is the period of the wave?
A. 6.0 x 10-7 s
B.5.0 x 10-14 s
C. 2.0 x 10-15 s
D. 1.7 x 10-6 s
36. What other term is synonymous with texture in a rock?
A. Specific gravity
B. Grain Size
C. Streak
D. Porosity
37. The basic difference between a monomer of polyethylene and a monomer of polyvinyl
chloride is the
A. addition of four fluorines
B. elimination of double bonds
C. replacement of a hydrogen by chlorine
D. removal of all hydrogens
38. Black holes appear black for what basic reason?
A. They appear in starless, dark areas of the Milky Way.
B. They "shine" by blackbody radiation and are easily detected.
C. Light cannot escape them
D. They are invisible and can never be detected by astronomers.
39. A highway curve with a radius of 900 ft is to be banked so that a car travelling 55.0
mi/hr will not skid sideways even in the absence of friction. At what angle should the
curve be banked?
A. 5.7°
C. 13.7°
B. 14.7°
D. 12.7°
40. Sound vibrations below 20 vibrations per second is considered
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 19
A. ultrasonic C. hypersonic
B. infrasonic D. supersonic
41. What is the formula weight of magnesium hydroxide, an ingredient found in antacid?
A. 72.0 u
C. 58.3 u
B. 41.3 u
D. 89.0 u
42. When a beam of an ordinary white light passes through a Polaroid plate, the intensity
of the beam that emerges is
A. practically zero
B. about 50% of the incident beam
C. about one half that of the incident beam
D. about 75% of the incident beam
43. Why is Cobalt (Co) placed before Nickel (Ni) on the periodic table of the elements
even though it has a higher average atomic mass than nickel?
A. Cobalt was discovered first
B. Nickel has more protons
C. Nickel was discovered first
D. Cobalt has more protons
44. An atom of silicon has a mass number of 28 and an atomic number of 14. How many
protons are in this atom?
A.11
B.14
C. 13
D. 15
45. Which of the following is the result of deposition?
A. rain
B. dew
C. snow
D. frost
46. A highly successful scientific spacecraft was launched in January 1978. Operated
jointly by NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA), it has helped astronomers from
around the world obtain access to the ultraviolet (UV) radiation of celestial objects in
unique ways not available by other means. Which is this spacecraft?
A. International Ultraviolet Explorer
B. International Ultraviolet Station
C. International Ultraviolet Agency
D. International Ultraviolet Project
47. What describes the critical stage of a tornado?
A. Tornado alert
B. Tornado watch
C. Tornado prediction
D. Tornado warning
48. Which of the following is the softest mineral?
A. Quartz
C. Diamond
B. Talc
D. Gypsum
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 20
49. A convex spherical mirror has a focal length of 12 cm. If an object is placed 6cm in
front of it, the image position is
A. 6 cm behind of the mirror
C. 12 cm in front of the mirror
B. 6 cm in front of the mirror
D. 12 cm behind the mirror
50. Which element/s compose iron rust?
I. Oxygen
II. Iron metal
III. water
A. I,II and III
C. II and III
B. II only
D. I and II
51. The solubility of calcium oxide ______ with the increase in temperature.
A. cannot be determined as this depends on the amount of calcium oxide
B. increases
C. is unchanged
D. decreases
52. A uniform plank is supported horizontally by a brick at one end and an egg at the other.
The plank is 8.00 m long and weighs 60 N, and you weigh 450 N. If a force of 150 N will break
the egg, how far from the end of the plank where the brick is can you stand and net break
the egg?
A. 3.13 m
B. 1.13 m
C. 4.13 m
D. 2.13 m
53. Which part of the circuit is included so that if a fault occurs and too much current
flows, it will melt before anything else is damaged or start a fire?
A. breaker C. fuse
B. wire
D. bulb
54. Which of the following is FALSE?
A. Parallels become smaller than the equator
B. Parallels are all small circles
C. The equator is parallel
D. Parallel run east-west
55. You normally drive on the highway between Manila and Batangas at an average speed
of 105 km/hr (65mi/hr), and the trip takes 2 hr and 10 min. On a rainy day you slow down
and drive the same distance at an average speed of 80km/hr (50mi/hr). How much longer
does the trip take?
A. 31 minutes
B. 45 minutes
C. 41 minutes
D. 35 minutes
56. Applying heat transfer, wooden ladles are preferred than aluminum or tin ladles in the
kitchen because wooden ladles_______.
A. are good heat conductor
C. are good insulator
B. are lighter
D. are natural
57.In the Southern Hemisphere, which direction does the wind rotate around a low?
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 21
A. south-west
C. south-east
B. counter-clockwise
D. clockwise
58. Which is the third most abundant gas in the atmosphere?
A. Nitrogen
C. Carbon dioxide
B. Argon
D. Hydrogen
59. The simple, common method of classifying minerals depends on which general
property?
A. Nuclear
C. Optical
B. Chemical
D. Physical
60. Which of Kepler's laws gives an indication of the semi-major axis?
A. Law of relativity
B. Harmonic law
C. Law of elliptical orbits
D. Law of equal areas
61. With what instrument is wind speed measured?
A. Anemometer
C. Wind vane
B. Barometer
D. Psycho meter
62. What is a cold front advancing under a warm front called?
A. Stationary front
B. Cold front occlusion
C. Warm front occlusion
D. Warm front
63. Since wood is composed of carbohydrates, you should expect which gases to exhaust
from a fireplace when complete combustion takes place?
A. Carbon dioxide and water vapour
B. Carbon monoxide and smoke
C. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and pollutants
D. It depends on the type of wood being burned
64. Which one/s take place in radioactive decay?
I. An unstable atomic nucleus spontaneously loses energy by emitting ionizing particles
and radiation
II. A stable atomic nucleus alpha and beta particles.
III. An atom of one type transforms to an atom of another type that results to a decay
chain.
A. I only
B. II only
C. II and III
D. I and III
65. A large minor planet discovered in 1804 by the German astronomer Karl Ludwig
Harding (1765-1834) is a type-S asteroid with a diameter of 240 kms. and a rotation
period of 7.2 hours, its orbital period is 4.36 years and is known as
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 22
A. Eros
B. Ida
C. Vega
D. Juno
66. What event is believed to create elements heavier than iron?
A. The formation of a neutron star
B. A nova outburst
C. The accretion of matter into a black hole
D. A supernova explosion
67. A Cartesian coordinate system is also called what kind of coordinate system?
A. Spherical
B. Equilateral
C. Square
D. Rectangular
68. The composition of dry air is approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other
gases. What is the partial pressure of nitrogen at standard atmospheric pressure (101.3
kPA)?
A. 21.0kPa
B. 760.0 kPA
C. 79.0 kPa
D. 101.3 kPA
69. Which of the following scientists is generally designated "the father of geology"?
A. Friedrich Mohs
B. Alfred Wegener
C. Edwin Hubble
D. James Hutton
70. Which of the statement/s is TRUE of electrolytes?
I. They are positively and negatively charged particles.
II. They are positively charged particles.
III.They are negatively charged particles.
IV. They regulate fluid distribution in the blood because they are changed.
A. I and IV
C. I only
B. Ill and IV
D. II and IV
71. Which of these is a synthetic element?
A. iodine(53)
C. oxygen(8)
B. uranium (92)
D. roentgenium(111)
72. What is the proof of a "wine cooler" that is 5 percent alcohol by volume?
A. 5 proof
C. 50 proof
B. 2.5 proof
D. 10 proof
73. In a photoelectric effect experiment at a frequency above cut off, the number of
electrons ejected is proportional to______.
A. their kinetic energy
B. the work function
C. their potential energy
D. the number of the photons that hits the sample
74. A balloon is filled with 3.8 L of helium gas at STP. Approximately how many moles of
helium are contained in the balloon?
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 23
A. 0.26 mol
C. 72 mol
B. 0.17mol
D. 85 mol
75. Two students are poised to dive of equal-height diving towers into a swimming pool
below. Student B is twice as massive as student A. Which of the following is true?
A. Both students will have the KE just before hitting the water
B. Both students have the same gravitational PE
C. Student B will reach the water sooner than student A
D. Student B did twice as much work climbing the tower
76. Which Mercury Mission Project with a duration of 15 minutes and 37 seconds was
recovered on July 21,1961 at Randolf, Atlantic?
A. Mercury Atlas 7 (Aurora 7)
B. Mercury Redstone 3 (Freedom 7)
C. Mercury Atlas 6 (Friendship 7)
D. Mercury Redstone 4 (Liberty Bell7)
77. The chemical reaction 2H2O → 2H2 + O2 is called
A. combustion reaction
C. single displacement reaction
B. synthesis reaction
D. decomposition reaction
78. A current of 0.5 A exist in a 60 0. lamp. The applied potential difference is______.
A. 120 V
C. 60 V
B. 15 V
D. 30 V
79. Which of the following is NOT a physical characteristic of a terrestrial planet?
A. Relatively low density
B. Solid surface
C. Small density
D. Relatively high-temperature environment
80. Three identical balls are thrown simultaneously from a certain height with the same
speed but in different directions. Which ball reaches the ground with the greatest kinetic
energy?
A. The ball thrown at an angle 70 deg with the horizontal
B. The ball thrown at an angle of 60 deg with the horizontal
C. The ball thrown downward
D. The ball thrown upward
81. Jupiter's moon with an approximate diameter of 30 km. and rotates around Jupiter for
758 days is_________.
A. Sinope
B. Ananke
C. Carme
D. Pasiphae
82. What is/are TRUE of all combinations of resistors arranged in parallel?
I. Current splits down each leg of the combination.
II. Voltage is constant across each leg of combination.
III. Resistance is the same for each leg of the combination.
A. II and III
C. I and III
B. I and II
D. I, II and III
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 24
83. The precession of the Earth's axis is caused by______.
A. the apparent north-south movement of the Sun
B. the tilt of the axis
C. the Earth's equatorial bulge
D. gravitational torque
84. Which of the following is condensation polymer?
A. Styrofoam
C. Polyethylene
B. Teflon
D. Nylon
85. A lens that is thicker at the center than at the edges is termed
A. convex
C. diverging
B. concave
D. scattering
86. Balance this chemical equation. CuCI2 + H2 -----> Cu + HCI
A. 1,1,1,1
C. 2,1,2,1
B. 1,1,1,2,
D. 1,2,1,2
87. What result/s when a base and an acid react together?
I. Water is formed
II. Salt is formed
III. Oxygen is released
A. I and II
B.I and III
C. II only
D. I only
88. Balance the following equation:
NH3 + O2 → NO + H2O
A. 5 NH3 + 4 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O
B. 4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 5 H2O
C. 4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O
D. 4 NH3 + 6 O2 → 4 NO + 5 H2O
89. Which of the following is a solid/ solid solution?
A. A mixture of argon ad krypton
B. A strongly electrolytic acid
C. An alloy of gold and copper
D. A neutralized base
90. What is the correct name for the compound P4 06 ?
A. Tethraphosphorus hexoxide
B. Phosphorus(IV) oxide
C. Phosphoric acid
D. Phosphorus oxide
91. The vernal equinox indicates the beginning of_________.
A. winter
B. fall
C. spring
D. summer
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 25
92. A major human space flight project headed by NASA. Russia, Canada, Europe, Japan,
and Brazil are also contributing key elements to this large, modular space station in low
Earth orbit that represents a permanent human outpost in outer space for microgravity
research and advanced space technology demonstrations. What is this major human
space flight project?
A. International Space Station
B. International Galaxy Explorer
C. International Ultraviolet Explorer
D. International Telecommunication Satellite
93. If you have 6.02 x 10²³ atoms of metallic iron, you will have how many grams of iron?
A. 55.85
B. 26
C. 3.4x1025
D. 334.8
94. The first French astronomer to spot Comet Halley during its anticipated return in 1758,
was an avid "comet hunter". He personally discovered at least 13 new comets and assisted,
the discovery of six more others. Who is this French astronomer?
A. Charles Messier
C. Arno Allen
B. Albert Abraham Michelson
D. Hermann Julius Oberth
95. The power rating of an electric motor that draws current of 3A when operated a 120 V
is________.
A. 40W
C. 360W
B. 1000W
D. 400W
96.The total potential and kinetic energy of an everyday-sized object is
A. external energy
C. internal energy
B. gravity
D. heat energy
97. Which of the following statements concerning the terrestrial planets is FALSE?
A. All rotate clockwise as viewed from above the North Pole
B. They are relatively close to the Sun and have orbits closer the outer planets.
C. Mercury and Venus can never be in opposition
D. All have magnetic fields except Venus
98. How many sodium atoms are in 2 moles of sodium?
A. 22
C. 6.02x10²³
B. 1.20 x1024
D. 11
99. An object is undergoing simple harmonic motion with period ((π/2) seconds and
amplitude A = 0.20 m. At t = 0 the object is at x = 0. How far is the object from the equilibrium
position when t = (π /5) seconds?
A. 0.118 m
C. 0.215 m
B. 0.300 m
D. 0.150 m
EARSHADBANJAL@2023 | 26
100. A hypothetical spaceship takes a straight-line path from the Earth to the moon, a
distance of about 400,000 km. Suppose it accelerates at 10.0 m/s2 for the first 20 minutes
of the trip, then travels at constant speed until the last 20 minutes, when it accelerates at
1.0 m/s², just coming to rest as it reaches the moon. What total time is required for the trip?
A. 776 minutes
C. 576 minutes
B. 676 minutes
D. 476 minutes
-END-