DECLARATION OF OWN WORK
Course Code: COM2604
Assignment Number: 649892
I, Angeline Claire Ninow, Student Number 34558667
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this MODULE contains my own, original ideas and work
those ideas, or work, that are not my own, have been cited through the
prescribed referencing system which I have familiarised myself within the TL
CMNALL/E/301
I have not submitted the ideas or work contained in this MODULE for any other
tertiary education credit
I have read the University’s Policy of Research Ethics
I have read and understood the PLAGIARISM POWERPOINT FOR
UNDERGRADUATE STUDIES (available under ADDITIONAL SOURCES on
myUnisa)
I have familiarised myself with the library guides ON PLAGIARISM AND ETHICS
offered by Unisa’s library: https://libguides.unisa.ac.za/researchsupport/plagiarism
I have read and understood Unisa’s Policy for Copyright Infringement and
Plagiarism, and I am aware that plagiarism is punishable in terms of the
Copyright Act (Act 98 of 1978) and I have read the regulations of the University of
South Africa in this respect, available online:
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Signature:
Witness:
Date: 17 March 2022
CHECKLIST
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I acknowledged all source material (study guide, tutorial letter,
internet, other sources) used in my assignment.
Irrespective of whether I participated in a study group or not, the
wording of the assignment is my own.
I indicated all sources used in my assignment by placing the quote
in inverted commas and/or by providing the reference according to
the Harvard method.
At the end of my assignment, there is a bibliography reflecting all
the consulted sources.
YES
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NO
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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1
INTRODUCTION
1
2
THE EFFECTS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
1
2.1
Defining Effect Studies
1
2.2
Two Behavioural Effects
1
2.3
The Difference Between Planned and Unplanned Effects
2
2.4
The Two-Step Flow Theory
3
2.5
The Basic Stages of the Meaning Construction Theory
4
3
MEDIA CULTURE AND THE IDEOLOGICAL POWER
OF THE MEDIA
5
3.1
Defining Culture
5
3.2
Defining High Culture
6
3.3
Defining Mass Culture
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4
CONCLUSION
7
SOURCES CONSULTED
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ADDENDUM A: SELF-ASSESSMENT AND SELF-REFLECTION
9
1.
INTRODUCTION
The media is a collective term used to refer to mass communication that creates and
distributes information in various forms ranging from radio programs to the internet
and direct messaging applications, and everything in-between (Fourie 2020: 91). The
interdependence of media on society and society on media can be likened to two
mirrors facing each other where media messages are reflected in the attitudes and
actions of its society and likewise, society’s beliefs and activities are reflected in the
media. This essay will look at the ability of media to affect change on an individual as
well as societal level, while also summarising the shared cultural aspects that are
reflected in the media. If media, society, and culture are intertwined, then their
effects on each other can be deliberate or casual, which bolsters the argument that
detailed media studies and interpretation are essential to ensure media messages
are crafted responsibly and ethically to benefit society.
2.
THE EFFECTS OF MASS COMMUNICATION
2.1.
Defining Effect Studies
Effect studies strive to systematically identify and explain the influence and
consequence of media on the individual’s and society's thinking and behaviour
(Fourie 2020: 228). Effect studies aim to discern and measure the depth and range
of impact and change that media messages have on a person’s thought processes
and actions, as well as the effect on society. Researchers use measurable research
methods like quantitative content analysis, surveys and questionnaires, and
experimental research to obtain this type of relevant data.
2.2.
Two Behavioural Effects
Two types of behavioural effects that media can have on a person are cognitive
effects and conative effects.
Cognitive effects are when the media message affects change in a person’s or
community’s knowledge and thinking by either conveying new information or
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expanding upon existing knowledge. For instance, informative articles or interviews
that dismantle stereotypes and discrimination towards the LGBTQ+ community, by
changing people’s attitudes and promoting acceptance.
Conative effects are when the media message affects a change in behaviour and
action in a person or society (Fourie 2018: 230). For instance, when Carlisle (2021)
reported that community members had partnered with environmental groups to
petition against Shell’s seismic blasting plans off the Wild Coast, the court ruled to
halt this environmentally damaging activity.
2.3.
The Difference Between Planned and Unplanned Effects
A media message can be strategically and deliberately crafted to elicit the desired
effect, and it can also have incidental and unexpected effects — these planned and
unplanned effects can occur over the long and short term (Fourie 2018: 231).
According to Cilliers, Breet-van Heerden, Kirsten and Reid (2007: 53) propaganda is
one example of the planned effects of media. Propaganda is a continuous campaign
of distributing a message that is biased or misleading to influence people in the
desired direction of action or thought. Propaganda uses various manipulative
techniques to achieve its goals. An example of propaganda is the current RussianUkrainian War coverage in Russia (Paul and Matthews [sa]), where President Putin
is justifying Russia’s invasion of Ukraine as a response to Ukraine requesting NATO
membership, while his real motive is the expansion of Russian territory.
Two unplanned effects of the media coverage of the Russian-Ukrainian War are the
“media’s contribution in defining reality” (Cilliers et al 2007: 53) and “the media’s
contribution to collective reaction” (Cilliers et al 2007: 54). Through social media and
ethical journalism, the global community was made aware of the reality of the
situation. The media coverage of the crisis resulted in the swift reaction of the
international community to impose sanctions on Russia.
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2.4.
Klapper’s Two-Step Flow Theory
There are many factors that hamper a definitive and accurate measurement of media
effects, and in 1960 J.T. Klapper identified these influences in his two-step theory
(Fourie 2018: 234). The first is the ability of media users to actively seek, select, and
engage with media content that aligns with their beliefs, opinions, and knowledge, as
well as their choice of format in which to consume that media message. Another
factor that modifies the effects of media is the social and familial grouping of people
where media messages can be introduced and discussed — offering the opportunity
for broader interpretation and interesting debate.
An example from my own experience would be from 2021 when I was unsure about
whether to get the Covid-19 vaccination. Initially, I did not want to get vaccinated and
only read or listened to media messages that aligned with my view. However, after
discussing my concerns with family members who work in hospitals, as well as my
doctor (an opinion leader) my thoughts changed, and I decided to get vaccinated.
Figure 1: Two-Step Flow Theory
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2.5.
The Basic Stages of the Meaning Construction Theory
De Fleur and Dennis outline five basic stages of the meaning construction theory
(Fourie 2018: 243). Using the label “mental health”, let us look at the stages through
which meaning is constructed.
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Linking labels with meaning — A concept traditionally associated with
psychology is introduced into the mainstream media as a mental wellness
concept and practice.
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Exposing the media audience to the label in a way that a personal
interpretation is created — By describing common emotions and mental
fatigue that modern society can identify with, the media message is
internalised as personal and appropriate.
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The media user uses the term/label in communication — While in
conversation with a friend who is feeling overwhelmed at work or at home,
he/she will discuss the mental health concepts and practices he/she
assimilated from the media message.
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The label and its meaning become social convention — Regular use and
repetition in communication will eventually lead to “mental health” (a concept
used in the field of psychology) being simplified into a blanket term that can
mean anything from rest to exercise; or from taking vitamins to hospitalisation
for clinical depression.
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Individual behaviour is directed by these meanings and media has indirectly
shaped society’s activity — By highlighting and simplifying these types of
concepts people learn how to take better care of themselves and others, and
a new social term is created with a simple and accepted meaning.
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3.
MEDIA CULTURE AND THE IDEOLOGICAL POWER OF THE MEDIA
3.1.
Defining Culture
According to Fourie (2018: 276), culture is all aspects of daily life in society, but any
attempts to measure and denote culture are tenuous at best. A comprehensive
definition of culture would need to account for its multiple dimensions, diverse scope,
and dynamic nature.
Culture is a fluid concept because there is no consensus on a precise and
universally agreed-upon definition. This could pose a problem for scholars and
theorists when deciding whether something can be identified as part of a culture. It is
however useful to sort the elements of culture into two categories to assist in
describing what aspects of society encompass “culture” and how we define culture.
These two groups are material features (which have a physical form) and nonmaterial features (which have abstract qualities).
The material aspects of culture consist of all the things present and shared in a
society like books and literature, buildings and architecture, food, clothing,
monuments, music, fine art, performance art, and artefacts.
The non-material aspects of culture are the thoughts, actions, language, values,
history, economics, politics, customs, as well as traditions and rituals that are passed
down through generations. This facet of culture includes the intangible creations of
human society like its ideals, symbols, meaning, gestures, codes, and norms that
serve as indicators of membership in that particular culture, as well as guidelines for
acceptable behaviour within the culture.
From these two explanations, as well as the Williams definition cited in Fourie (2018:
277), it is clear that culture is a way of life that is a complex shared network of
meaning and communication.
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Figure 2: The elements of culture
3.2.
Defining High Culture
High culture is defined as those cultural activities and objects that were considered
the pinnacle of human creativity and innovation and was a concept that preceded the
cultural studies approach (Cilliers, Breet-van Heerden, Kirsten & Reid 2007: 68). The
high culture view was elitist and discriminative because it was reserved exclusively
for the enjoyment and patronage of the wealthy and educated. The affluent and
privileged classes had access to high culture art forms like ballet, classical music,
opera, and fine art (Cilliers et al 2007: 68) because they could afford these
experiences and had developed the refined taste and knowledge (through exposure
to art) to appreciate these art forms (Fourie 2018: 273).
3.3.
Defining Mass Culture
Conversely, mass culture theory judges the ordinary cultural experiences of average
people through the lens of high culture (Cilliers et al 2007: 68), deeming these forms
of mass entertainment or popular culture as inferior to high culture. Mass culture
theorists also argue that if a high culture object or activity is allowed to filter down to
mass culture and mass reproduction, then its perceived and intrinsic value is
depreciated or completely lost because people will no longer be able to decern high
culture elements in the art forms. Consider Bach’s “Air on the G String” and then set
it to a techno-beat — a mass culture theorist would insist that the music has been
destroyed and is worthless.
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4.
CONCLUSION
Media messages are infused with ideas and values that are produced by media
creators, these messages have an influence on and consequences for the audience
who receives them. Studying the effect of media on people involves identifying the
change in their thoughts and actions and studying the media message to determine
the scale and scope of the influential power of the message. But media influence is
not one-sided and extraneous elements like culture and personal ideologies affect
how messages are interpreted and assimilated into daily life.
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SOURCES CONSULTED
Carlisle, A. 2021. Court Orders Shell to Halt Wild Coast Seismic Blasting.
TimesLIVE, 28 December 2021. Available: https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/southafrica/2021-12-28-court-orders-shell-to-halt-wild-coast-seismic-blasting/
Accessed on 2022/03/02.
Fourie, PJ. 2018. Media Studies (Volume 1): Media History, Media and Society (2nd
ed) Revised print. Lansdowne: Juta.
Paul, C and Matthews, M. 2016. The Russian "Firehose of Falsehood" Propaganda
Model: Why It Might Work and Options to Counter It. Santa Monica, CA: RAND
Corporation, 2016. Available: https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PE198.html.
Accessed on 2022/03/08
TPRMX. 2015. [TPRMX] Bach - Air on the G String REMIX Available:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mGZ3F96MvSU
Accessed on: 2022/03/09
University of South Africa. Department of Communication Science. 2022. Tutorial
Letter 301/4/2022 for CMNALLE. Pretoria.
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ADDENDUM A: SELF-ASSESSMENT AND SELF-REFLECTION
After reading the study guide and prescribed textbook for Media Studies I am more
aware of my attitude towards media messages and their possible influence on my
thoughts and actions. I have also noticed my preference for digital media sources
instead of printed or spoken (radio) sources, even though a physical newspaper and
magazine get delivered to my work every morning. The convenience of choosing
when and how I consume media also made me realise my preference for media
messages that I agree with and that align with my cultural views (according to
Klapper’s Two-Step Theory) and that this is an area where I need to alter my
behaviour so that I can expose myself to different views and become a more
informed and involved citizen.
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