GEE 002: Module 1 Catalysts for Change ILOs: After this module, you will be able to: 1. Discuss the development of computers, showing how they evolved from simple manual calculations aids to complex microprocessors. 2. Show how information storage and retrieval evolved 3. Discuss some of the moral issues that have arisen from the development of information technology 4. Describe the two centuries of progress in networking technology and culminating in the creation of an email system connecting over a billion users Information Age - Also known as Computer age, Digital age, and New Media age - A modern age regarded as a time in which information hsa become a commodity that is quickly and widely disseminated and easily available especially through the use of computer technology Milestones in Computing Aids to Manual Calculating - Manual Calculating is slow, tedious, and error prone (unreliable) Mechanical Calculators - - Blaise Pascal - His father is a tax collector and asked him to calculate taxes In order to speed the chore, he invented a mechanical calculator that is capable of adding whole numbers containing up to six digits Gottfried Leibniz - - Inspired by Pascal, he constructed a more sophisticated calculator that can add, subtract, multiply and divide whole numbers These calculators were not reliable and did not commercialize - Create the Arithmometer, the first commercially successful calculator - Demonstrated how a machine could compute the values of polynomial functions through the method of differences but unfortunately, had been unsuccessful - Charles Thomas de Colmar - Charles Babbage - Georg Scheutz - Inspired by the work of Babbage, created the world’s first printing calculator (machine that calculates mathematical tables and typesetting the values onto molds William Burroughs - - Former bank clerk who invented adding machine 1800s were characterized by rapid industrialization, economic expansion and concentration of corporate power. Because of these, corporations needed access to up-to-date, comprehensive, reliable and affordable information which cannot be achieve if the accountants and bookkeepers cannot compute a long columns of transactions by hand It results to “de-skilling” and “feminization” Cash Register - During 1800s, companies were challenged related to embezzlement wherein clerks could steal cash simply by not creating receipts for some sales - James Ritty and John Ritty - James saw a mechanical counter connected to the propeller shaft of a ship They used the same concept to create the first cash register Adding machine capable of expressing values in dollars and cents - In early 1900s, Cash register that is capable of creating printed, itemized receipts for customers are constructed - This provides business owners with detailed sales records and prevents clerks to embezzle cash Punched-Card Tabulation - Due to rapid industrialization, corporations needed to handle greater volumes of information - Herman Hollerith - Use punched cards to store data which is better than the predecessors who uses rolls of paper This approach allows the computation of subtotals by categories Precursors of Commercial Computers - John Atanasoff (professor) and Clifford Berry (graduate) - John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert - - - Constructed an electronic device solving systems of linear equations (first computing device built with vacuum tubes but it was not programmable) Mauchly visited Atanasoff to learn more and worked with Eckert to create a design for electronic computer to speed the computation of artillery tables for the US Army They completed the ENIAC (Electronic Numeric integrator and computer) A person with desk calculator could compute 60-sec trajectory in 20 hours but with their device, it can compute the same in just 30 seconds (which is 2400 times faster) ENIAC unlike Atanasoff-Berry Computer, can be programmed but it was not stored inside a memory rather “wired-in” from the outside (reprogramming it meant removing and reattaching many wires. EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was created to improve ENIAC. It can also be programmed but this time, it is stored in a memory F.C. Williams - He is actively involved in the development of cathode ray tubes used in radar systems He decided to put his knowledge to use by figuring out how to use CRT as a storage device for digital information Small Scale Experimental machine- the first operational, fully electronic computer system that had both program and data stored in its memory (using CRT) First Commercial Computer - Ferranti Ltd - - Ferranti Mark 1 was introduced by this british corporation which is the world’s first commercial computer Eckert and Mauchly Computer Corporation - - - After completing the ENIAC, they decide to launch a commercial computer (UNIVAC 1) but unfortunately experienced cost overruns that made them bought out by Remington Rand Remington Rand cooperated with CBS to predict the outcome of 1952 presidential election. UNIVAC predicted that Dwight Eisenhower would win election in a landslide but political experts disagrees so Rand had to instruct his engineers to reprogram UNIVAC 1 to correspond with the expert’s prediction. But it turns out that UNIVAC 1 prediction is correct. IBM’s products are inferior to UNIVAC but IBM quickly turned the tables and had half of the market in 1955 due to its investment with research and development Programming Languages and Time-sharing - In the earliest digital computers, every instructions was coded as a long string of 0s and 1s People immediately began looking for ways to make coding faster and less errorprone - Assembly Language- allows programmers to work with symbolic representations of the instruction codes. Programmers wanted fewer, higher-level instructions to generate more machine instructions - Frances Holberton - Grace Murray Hopper - John Backus - - - Created sort-merge generator for the UNIVAC that took a specification of files to be manipulated and automatically produced the machine program to do the sorting and merging. Developed the A-0 system that automated the process of linking together subroutines to form the complete machine code He convinced his superiors of the need for a higher-level programming language for IBM computers He led the efforts to develop the IBM mathematical formula translating system (FORTRAN) FORTRAN is a automatic programming system that generates machine code 5 to 20 times faster than assembly language Programming Languages and Time-sharing - COBOL - - Common business-oriented programming language Each computer provider companies creates their own version of FORTRAN which resulted to differentiated program languages. These languages cannot be used to other computer brands because of its incompatibility US Department of Defense develop COBOL to require all manufacturers to use common programming languages Dartmouth Time-sharing System (DTSS) - John Kennedy and Thomas Kurtz directed teams of undergraduate students of Dartmouth College to develop a time-sharing system and an easy-to-learn programming language DTSS gave multiple people the ability to edit and run their programs simultaneously, by dividing the computer’s time among all the users Time-sharing made computers accessible to more people because it allowed the cost of owning and operating a computer system to be divided among a large pool of users who purchased the right to connect to the system Transistor and Integrated Circuit - Transistor - - - A semiconductor substitute for vacuum tubes Bell Lab scientists, led by Bill Shockley, invented transistor to be used to amplify signals that can detect enemy’s planes precisely during the war. Vacuum tubes can also amplify signals but it needs a lot of power that resulted to lot of heat and burned out like lightbulbs Shockley understood the potential of transistor and decided to found Sholkley Semiconductor in 1956 and hired an exceptional team of engineers and physicists but 8 of them decided to walked out and found Fairchild Semiconductor. While transistors are superior to vacuum tubes, they are still too big for some applications. Thus, Fairchild decided to create a semiconductor that contains transistor, capacitors, and resistors known as “INTEGRATED CIRCUIT” IBM System/360 - Integrated Circuit made possible the construction of much more powerful and reliable computers - Mainframe Computers - - IBM dominated the mainframe market during 1960s These are large computers designed to serve data-processing needs of large businesses. It enables enterprises to centralize all of their data-processing applications in a single system In 1964, IBM announced the System/360, a series of 19 compatible computers with varying levels of computing speed and memory capacity Because the systems were compatible, a business could upgrade its computer without having to rewrite its application programs Microprocessors - Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore left Fairchild to found another semiconductor manufacturing company, which named “INTEL” - A year later, BUSICOM (japanese calculator manufacturer) approached INTEL about designing 12 custom chips for use in a new scientific calculator. Intel agreed and assigned Marcian “Ted” Hoff to the project. Hoff suggested that they can create a general-purpose chip that can be programmed based on the need of the customer - Ted Hoff, Stanley Mazor, and Federico Faggin led to release of the INTEL 4004, the world’s first microprocessor - ⅛ inch x ⅙ inch chip that can function as ENIAC Microprocessor are still in use into everyday devices like cell phones, MP3 players, digital cameras and the like Personal Computers - Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs - - Created more powerful personal computer that supported keyboard input and television monitor output. Steve Jobs thought a few improvements and they decided to build a business out of it. They launched APPLE COMPUTER and later release APPLE II - Two significant developments made personal computers more attractive to business - Computer spreadsheet program-Bob Frankston and Dan Bricklin- they released VISICALC to Apple II. It made APPLE II increased its sales IBM PC in 1981- IBM decided to make its PC an open architecture, meaning the system was built from off-the-shelf parts and other companies could manufacture clones with the same functionality Milestone of Networking Electricity and Electromagnetism - Amber is a hard, translucent, yellowish-brown fossil resin often used to make beads and ornamental items. - - If you rub amber, it becomes charged with a force enabling it to attract light objects like feathers and dried leaves. The greek word for amber is ELECTRON. In english word “ELECTRIC” means “to be like amber” Alessandro Volta - Professor of physics He discovered that electricity could be generated chemically. He produced an electric current by submerging two different metals close to each other in an acid He used this principle to create the world’s first battery - Christian Oersted - William Sturgeon - - He discovered that an electric current creates a magnetic field He constructed an electromagnet by coiling wire around a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron When he ran an electric current through the coil, the iron became magnetized He showed how a single battery was capable of producing a charge strong enough to pick up a nine-pound metal object Joseph Henry - He rigged classroom connected series of up an experiment that showed how telegraph machine could work. He strung a mile of wire around the walls of his and placed a battery at one end, and connected the other end an electromagnet, metal bar and a bell. When he the battery, the electromagnet attracted the metal bar, causing to ring the bell. In this way, he could produce a rings Telegraph - Samuel Morse (MORSE CODE) - He worked on the idea of a telegraph and patented the design in 1838. In 1837, Morse proposed a construction of NY to NO telegraph system to US Congress and was not approved until 1843. Telegraph became the sole method of rapid long-distance communication until 1877 and people kept finding new applications of it like making it as an fire alarm system wherein a person can pull the lever of alarm box and immediately transmit the message to fire department its location Telephone - Alexander Graham Bell - - - His father and grandfather are experts in correction of speech and he followed their steps and became a teacher for deaf students. He focused on improving telegraph. A significant problem with early telegraph systems was that a single wire could transmit only one message at a time. If multiple messages could be sent simultaneously along the same wire, communication delays would be reduced, and the value of the entire system would increase His solution to this problem was called HARMONIC OR MUSICAL TELEGRAPH Harmonic telegraph assigned a different note (different sound frequency) to each message. At the receiving end, different receivers could be tuned to respond to different notes, as you can tune your radio to hear only what is broadcast by a particular station He speculated that it should be possible to capture and transmit human voice over a wire. He and THOMAS WATSON succeeded in transmitting speech electronically in 1876 Though Telephone helps businesses to conduct transactions in easy way, some found it unpleasing to lose privacy. Anyone can call you at anytime that might disturb your privacy. Typewriter and Teletype - Typewriter - Christopher Sholes, Carlos Glidden, and Samuel Soule patented the first typewriter Remington and Sons Company produced the first commercial typewriter - Teletype - Charles and Howard Krum succeeded in testing an experimental machine that allowed a modified Oliver typewriter to print a message transmitted over a telegraph line Radio - James Clerk Maxwell - - Published a mathematical theory demonstrating the relationship between electricity and magnetism. This theory predicted the existence of an electromagnetic wave spreading with the velocity of light. It also predicted that light itself was an electromagnetic phenomenon. Heinrich Hertz successfully generated electromagnetic waves, proving the correctness of Maxwell’s theory - Guglielmo Marconi - He put Hertz’s discovery to practical use by successfully transmitting radio signals He then founded Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company David Sarnoff landed a position to Marconi Company and introduced the use of radio for entertainment Television - Paul Nipkow - Invented electromechanical television - Philo Farnsworth - Invented the first completely electronic television transmission Remote Computing - George Stibitz - He made a teletype machine the input/output device for the calculator He did not have to be in the same room as the calculator to use it He typed numbers into the teletype, which will be transmitted the data in miles, after the calculator computed the answer, it transmitted the data back to the teletype which printed the result ARPANET - Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) - They funded research and development at prominent universities It aims to develop “galactic network”- a global computer network that would facilitate the exchange of programs and data A circuit-switched telephone network were not a good foundation for this thus DONALD DAVIES, ROGER SCANTLEBURY, PAUL BARAN AND LEONARD KLEINROCK designed PACKET-SWITCHED NETWORK ARPA initiated the design and construction of the ARPANET - Fear of a nuclear attack led to the crucially important design decision that the network should be DECENTRALIZED. Every computer on the network would have the ability to make decisions about how message traffic should be routed. It means, the loss of any single computer or communication link would not prevent the rest of the network from working. Packet-switched network met this condition while circuitswitched did not. Email - ARPANET can only transfer programs and data only and people still rely on telephone for personal communication - Ray Tomlinson - Wrote the first software enabling email message to be sent and received by ARPANET computers - Lawrence Roberts - Created the first “killer app” for the network It has the ability to list their email messages, selectively read them, reply to them, forward them to others and save them Internet - ARPA researchers anticipated the need to connect the ARPANET with other networks based on different designs - Robert Kahn - Developed the concept of open architecture networking which means individual networks could be quite different as long as they shared a common “internetworking architecture” With Kahn, Vinton Cerf design Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and internet protocol (IP) that would support open architecture networking TCP is responsible for dividing a message into packets at the sending computer and reassembling the packets at the receiving computer IP is the set of rules used to route data from computer to computer Internet is the network of networks that communicate using TCP/IP NSFNET - National Science Foundation (NSF) saw the importance of networking to the academic community - - They created TCP/IP-based network called NSFNET and provides grants to universities to join the NSFNET These grants encouraged broad participation by stipulating that universities would have their internet connections available to all qualified users. NSFNET consisted regional networks connected by the NSFNET backbone They encouraged universities to reduce their network subscriptions costs by finding commercial customers for the network Broadband - Refers to a high-speed internet connection - It make feasible the transfer of large files such as those containing images, music and video Wireless networks - Computers and mobile phones within relevant range of the hotspot communicate with the hotspot using radio waves Milestone in Information Storage and Retrieval Greek Alphabet - 6000 years ago, writing system were developed to allow the recording and communication of various types of information such as laws and financial records - Three general types of writing systems - Logography- each character represents a word Syllabary- each character represents a syllable Alphabet- each character represents a phoneme/letters - It was a simple, efficient way of transforming the spoken word into a written form, and it marked an important milestone on the journey of civilization from oral culture to written culture - 750 BC the Greeks developed the first true alphabet, representing vowels and consonants. It has 24-letter Greek Alphabet Codex and Paper - - Papyrus- important information was recorded with this but it tends to fall off Codex- rectangular pages sewn together on one side - - Pages are made out of sheepskin or calfskin It is superior to papyrus - Durable - It was divided into pages which makes it easier for readers to find a particular passage Paper Gutenberg’s Printing Press - Johannes Gutenberg - He began to work on a printing press that would imprint pages movable metal type rather than wood blocks They started to print religious books and pamphlets It became a powerful tool for mass communication using Newspaper - The printing press made possible the establishment of newspapers Hypertext - Vannevar Bush described many ways in which technology can solve important problems. One of them was the information retrieval. - He suggested a machine that could stimulate the mind’s ability to make associations between pieces of information Information retrieval system equipped with a provision whereby any item may be caused it all to select immediately and automatically another - Ted Nelson - Nelson coined the work “Hypertext” Hypertext refers to a linked network of nodes containing information. The links allow readers to visit the nodes in a nonlinear fashion In 1967, Nelson proposed the creation of a system called “Xanadu”, a worldwide network of connected literature but the system was never completed Graphical User interface - Douglas Engelbart - - - He set out to use the power of the computer to augment human intellect He wondered why people couldn’t interact directly with computers and view the output on a CRT like radar images then he created a research lab called “Augmentation Research Center” where he created several input devices like computer Mouse. He also developed a hypermedia and groupware system called NLS (oNLine System) He then made a 90-minute demo on how NSL works which includes: Video Display divided into windows, email, use of a mouse to direct cursor, and live video conferencing with staff members 30 miles away. This demo is still considered as “The mother of all demos” Alan Kay - He saw the demo of Engelbart and decide to take the next step and became one of the founders of Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) His team developed ALTO, a small minicomputer design to be used by single person He also developed the ALTO’s graphical user interface that responded to the point, click and drag operations of a mouse Single-Computer Hypertext Systems - Peter Brown - In 1987, Apple Computer released HyperCard- a hypertext system that enabled programmers to create “stacks of cards”. A card could contain text and images - - He started a hypertext research project calles GUIDE and later commercialized and released version for Apple and IBM The HyperCard programmer created links from one card to another with buttons. Buttons could be visible to the user and labeled, or they could be transparent and associated with an image or an area of the card Networked Hypertext- World Wide Web - Tim Berners-Lee - - - His parents are both programmers and learned that it is easy to get a computer to keep information in lists or tables but much more difficult to get it to remember arbitrary relationships He wrote a program called ENQUIRE that incorporate links between information. He proposed the development of a networked hypertext system that could be used for documentation purposes however, the proposal was not approved. He purchased a new released personal computer called NeXT and started to try ENQUIRE ENQUIRE is a system that allows links between information stored in different computers connected by a network. The links can connect any two computers on the internet, even if they have different hardware or are running different operating systems He completed the first Web browser (a program that allows users to view Web pages and traverse hyperlinks between pages) on the NeXT computer. He then called it WORLDWIDEWEB MOSAIC- first widely used web browser Search Engines - Search Engine- a program that accepts a list of keywords from a user, searches a database of documents, and return those documents most closely matching the specified keywords - Most powerful information retrieval devices ever invented Information Technology Issues - Information Technology refers to devices used in the creation, storage, manipulation, exchange, and dissemination of data including text, sound and images - Issues related to IT: - Email allows anyone to send email to anyone else with an email address- most email traffic is spam, unsolicited, bulk, commercial email Legality may be different from one country to another Unauthorized copies of information can be easy Data privacy issue Liability of programmers who created bugs QUIZ 1.1 QUIZIZZ END
