International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management
Why is employees’ emotional intelligence important?: The effects of EI on stresscoping styles and job satisfaction in the hospitality industry
Hyo Sun Jung, Hye Hyun Yoon,
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Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 28 Issue: 8, pp.1649-1675, https://
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Why is employees’ emotional
intelligence important?
The effects of EI on stress-coping styles and
job satisfaction in the hospitality industry
Emotional
intelligence
1649
Hyo Sun Jung and Hye Hyun Yoon
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Department of Culinary Arts and Food Service Management,
Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Received 9 October 2014
Revised 22 February 2015
30 April 2015
15 June 2015
Accepted 29 September 2015
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of hospitality employees’ emotional
intelligence (EI) on their stress-coping styles and job satisfaction.
Design/methodology/approach – The sample consisted of 366 food and beverage employees in the
Korean hospitality industry. The validity and reliability of the respondents’ replies regarding EI,
stress-coping styles and job satisfaction were tested through exploratory factor analysis, reliability
analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Once the measure was validated, a structural equation model
was used to test the validity of the proposed model and hypotheses.
Findings – The results showed that the elements of EI (i.e. self-emotion appraisal [SEA], use of
emotion [UOE], regulation of emotion [ROE] and others’ emotion appraisal [OEA]) had a significant,
positive effect on the cognitive-appraisal coping style, whereas only SEA and UOE had a significant,
positive effect on the problem-solving coping style. Meanwhile, SEA had a significant, negative effect
on the emotion-focused coping style. In addition, employees’ problem-solving and cognitive-appraisal
stress-coping styles showed a significant, positive effect on their job satisfaction. Employees’ UOE and
ROE demonstrated a significant, positive effect on job satisfaction.
Research limitations/implications – The generalizability and, therefore, implications are limited
to the Korean hotels and family restaurants. Future research needs to closely examine models and
variables which may become the causes of individual traits, relationship traits and leadership.
Originality/value – Strategies to cope with stress and job satisfaction used by family restaurant
employees showed more sensitive effects of control than hotel employees did in the organic causal
relationships between EI and strategies to cope with stress/job satisfaction. The results of this study,
which indicate that hospitality companies can increase employees’ job satisfaction by enhancing their
employees’ EI, suggest detailed and practical alternatives to human resource management, as
employees with higher degrees of EI can bring positive outcomes to both organizations and employees.
Hospitality employees’ EI is significant in terms of organizational performance.
Keywords Hospitality industry, Emotional intelligence, Employees attitudes
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
Can employees with high emotional intelligence (EI) cope with a stressful situation
reasonably well? Does the ability to respond to stress well affect employees’ job
satisfaction? These questions are the driving themes of this paper, which examines EI
and stress-coping styles to identify organic, causal relationships between them and job
satisfaction. EI is the universal ability to perceive others’ emotions and indicate suitable
self-emotions (Mayer et al., 2002). The competitiveness of a business is affected by the
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
Vol. 28 No. 8, 2016
pp. 1649-1675
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0959-6119
DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-10-2014-0509
IJCHM
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1650
organizational passion, sense of responsibility and reliability of talented employees, as
well as their intellectual properties. Organizations utilize passion and reliability as
criteria for the selection of workers in addition to their ability to perform the cognitive
aspect (Michaels et al., 2001). For this reason, businesses pay attention to creative and
autonomous talented persons who can flexibly perform their duties. This means that the
ability to smoothly perform duties together with colleagues and handle one’s own
emotions has become important not only for individuals’ lives but also for success in
organizations. Because even talented persons with excellent intellectual capabilities
hinder a business’ long-term growth if they have little devotion and loyalty (Dickey et al.,
2011), EI has become a criterion of employee desirability. Rational abilities are indicated
by the intelligence quotient (IQ), and emotional abilities are indicated by EI. Regarding
the relationship between IQ and EI, Goleman (1995) argued that success in relationships
between superiors and subordinates, including general human relations, are not
determined by cognitive intelligence (i.e. the head) but by EI (i.e. the heart), thereby
advocating a logic that emotions are more important than intelligence when predicting
individuals’ success or happiness. Furthermore, he advised that emotional abilities also
have an important role in selecting employees who could contribute predicting
outstanding business abilities. For these reasons, paying attention to employees’ EI has
been known to help employees endure stress in fiercely competitive organizational
environments, enhance loyalty to the firm, share positive energy with colleagues and
team with colleagues to achieve goals (Hur et al., 2011). Palmer et al. (2002) indicated that
the emotions of individual employees were important in maximizing individuals’
performances and that individual performances might vary according to their emotions.
Caruso and Salovey (2004) argued that emotions were not only important but also
necessary to achieve success in taking appropriate actions to solve problems and coping
with changes. In particular, given that EI is not a gift but can be developed and improved
through education and training (Salovey et al., 2002; Slaski and Cartwright, 2003), it is
considered useful in in meaningful marketing strategies for business performance too.
In particular, employees in the hospitality industry who should treat their customers
with positive emotions such as bright smiles had higher intensity of emotional labor
compared to ordinary occupational groups (Chu et al., 2012). Furthermore, EI is
necessary to control individuals’ moods, which is a very important factor in the case of
service-oriented businesses, where employees’ roles at counters are to communicate
face-to-face with customers (Lee and Ok, 2012). Service organizations determine the
norms for emotional expressions and require employees to observe these norms. These
emotional expressions are determined and required by organizations and are important
components of jobs that must be performed by employees currently (Shani et al., 2014).
Such emotional labor can be determined by the degree of the employees’ EI (Johnson and
Spector, 2007). For example, Psilopanagioti et al. (2012) said that if employees’ EI is
excellent, it can help them carry out the positive performance of emotional labor, thereby
increasing job satisfaction. Also, in the case of organizations that manage EI well, the
employees have passion for their companies and display will, involvement, affection
and liveliness (Day and Carroll, 2004; Weinberger, 2003; Wong and Law, 2002). In
contrast, feelings of helplessness, stress and anxiety can be easily triggered among
employees to affect the organization adversely (Aghdasi et al., 2011; Jung and Yoon,
2012; Sakloske et al., 2012). However, studies conducted thus far examined only the
organic relations between EI, coping styles and satisfaction (Daus and Ashkanasy,
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2005; Kafetsios and Zampetakis, 2008; Kim and Agrusa, 2011; Moradi et al., 2011;
Mousavi et al., 2012).
EI can motivate individuals based on their abilities to perceive (self-emotion
appraisal, SEA), control (regulation of emotion, ROE) and utilize (use of emotion, UOE)
their emotions and those of others (others’ emotional appraisal, OEA), as well as
enabling them to contribute to an organization’s performance through the formation of
smooth human relations with all employees of the organization (Labo, 2005). Hence, this
study divided EI into four elements of OEA, UOE, SEA and ROE (Mayer and Salovey,
1997) and attempted to investigate the sub-elements of EI that affect stress-coping styles
and job satisfaction. We believe that the study can suggest practical implications to
executives by providing them with the aspects of EI that help smart response to
stressful situation and satisfaction enhancement.
Therefore, this study focuses on individuals’ EI based on the study results where
individuals’ decision-making or behavioral bases are based more on emotional than
cognitive aspects (Salovey et al., 2002). It is assumed that as employees with high EI are
quick to understand the requirements and values of stakeholders related to
organizations, manage their stress or crises well and have good relations with others,
they are emotionally comfortable and, thus, positively affect job satisfaction. The
propose of this study is:
• to investigate the effect of sub-factor in EI on stress-coping styles and satisfaction;
and
• to analyze the effect of employees’ stress-coping styles on job satisfaction
(Figure 1).
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1651
2. Literature review and conceptual model
2.1 Emotional intelligence in the hospitality industry
Research on EI in the hospitality industry largely focused on positive performance. In
particular, Goleman (1998) advised that the high EI of service employees has direct and
positive effects on customers’ responses. In a study conducted on employees in the
hospitality industry, Langhorn (2004) demonstrated that the EI of employees in the
leisure and restaurant industries in the UK is closely related to company performance.
Scott-Halsell et al. (2007) found that respondents’ EI and leadership skills were highly
Figure 1.
Research model of
EI, stress-coping
styles and job
satisfaction
IJCHM
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1652
correlated with each other, and the level of EI among employees in the hospitality
industry was above average compared to other industries so that employees’
performance can be estimated based on their EI level. Scott-Halsell et al. (2008) compared
EI of managers and graduate students and reported that managers’ EI was significantly
higher than that of graduate students and observed that EI was an essential element in
the post of a leader in the hospitality industry. According to Cha et al. (2008), groups in
which the EI of foodservice industry employees is high can also demonstrate excellent
stress management abilities and social skills. Cichy et al. (2008) divided the results of the
validation of measured variables of EI among private club managers into three factors:
in (oneself), out (others) and relationships (interpersonal relationships). Kim and Agrusa
(2011) examined the EI of hotel and restaurant service employees and found that it
varied according to demographic and personal characteristics, which also significantly
affected strategies used to cope with stress. According to Jung and Yoon (2012), the EI of
hotel employees was closely related to counterproductive behavior (negative) and
organizational citizenship behavior (positive). In addition, Lee and Ok (2012) identified
significant causal relations among employees’ EI, labor exhaustion and job satisfaction.
They determined that EI can reduce emotional depletion and unbalance in a work
environment, which was followed by an increase in job satisfaction. Prentice and King
(2013) verified the effects of casino employees’ EI on their adaptability and host
performance. Meanwhile, Min (2012) demonstrated that a tour guide with high levels of
EI also displayed high job performance. Wolfe and Kim (2013) reported that EI of hotel
employees was an important variable to predict their job satisfaction, and the more
excellent their EI in a hotel company, the higher their longevity. As such, many studies
focused on the hospitality industry, including hotels, restaurants and hospitality-related
companies, have discovered that EI can reduce stress, burnout and the separation rate
while increasing satisfaction and performance.
2.2 Model development and hypotheses
2.2.1 Emotional intelligence, stress-coping styles and job satisfaction. EI, as defined by
Mayer and Salovey (1997), refers to:
[…] the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access
and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and
emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and
intellectual growth (p. 10).
EI comprises four dimensions: OEA, UOE, SEA and ROE (Bande et al., 2015; Jung and
Yoon, 2012; Lee and Ok, 2012; Mayer and Salovey, 1995; Wong and Law, 2002). In terms
of sub-factors, OEA is the ability to recognize and comprehend the emotions of
individuals; thus, the UEO refers to the ability to utilize individual emotional
information for individual performance and constructive activities. SEA is the ability to
perceive and indicate one’s emotions accurately; the ROE means the ability to
demonstrate individual emotions through appropriate behavior depending on given
situations (Wong and Law, 2002).
Stress-coping, as defined by Lazarus (1998), refers to “person’s constantly changing
cognitive and behavioral effects to meet specific external and/or internal demands that
are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person (p. 202)”. Folkman et al.
(1986) noted that cognitive-appraisal and problem-solving coping styles and
emotion-focused coping styles changing relationship between humans and the
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environment in a stressful situation were important stress-coping strategies (Folkman
and Lazarus, 1980; Oakland and Ostell, 1996). Aldwin and Revenson (1987) emphasized
on the importance of three stress-coping styles noting that problem-solving and
cognitive-appraisal coping styles played the role of a buffer in coping with stress, but
emotional methods had adverse psychological effects. Based on Billings and Moos’s
(1981), this study divides stress-coping styles into cognitive-appraisal coping,
problem-solving coping and emotion-focused coping. The cognitive-appraisal coping
style tries to handle one’s appraisal of the stressful situation (Meichenbaum, 1985). The
problem-solving coping style is aimed at doing something to modify the cause of the
stress to prevent or supervise it (Collins, 2008). Also, the emotion-focused coping style is
aimed at decreasing or controlling the emotional distress associated with the situation
(Lazarus and Folkman, 1984).
Job satisfaction is:
[…] an attitude that individuals have about their jobs. Job satisfaction results from their
perception of their jobs and the degree to which there is a good fit between the individual and
the organization (Ivancevich et al., 1997, p. 86) Locke (1969, p. 317).
Locke (1969, p. 317) defined job satisfaction as the “pleasant emotional condition
resulting from the evaluation of one’s job as achieving or facilitating one’s job
standards”. Spagnoli et al. (2012) suggested that from a long-term perspective, job
satisfaction positively affects attitudes toward the job. Therefore, it is a broad concept
that includes consciousness about a set of factors in the workplace and the job itself (Gil
et al., 2008).
2.2.2 Relationship between emotional intelligence and stress-coping styles. In a similar
study that examined the relationship between EI and positive stress-coping styles, such
as cognitive-appraisal coping and problem-solving coping, Gohm et al. (2005) explained
that if employees’ EI improved, stress-coping styles related to organizational
performance would be significantly increased, thereby exhibiting positive relationships
between EI and employees’ stress-coping styles. In addition, Noorbakhsh et al. (2010)
said that employees’ EI and problem-focused coping style had a positive relationship.
Kim and Agrusa (2011) also indicated that the EI of employees in the hospitality
industry was positively correlated with job-focused style to cope with stress. People
high in EI are thought to be better prepared to cope with stressful situations (MacCann
et al., 2011). Moradi et al. (2011) noted the correlation between EI and positive coping
behaviors (e.g. cognitive-appraisal coping and problem-solving coping). Por et al. (2011)
suggested that EI can help solve problems in stressful situations and plays an important
role in increasing well-being. In a study that examined the correlations between the
sub-elements of EI and styles to cope with stress, Rogers et al. (2006) found that
emotional regulation was closely related with cognitive coping, whereas Sakloske et al.
(2012) verified that EI (e.g. ROE) was significantly correlated with task-focused coping
style with problem-solving. In addition to the aforementioned studies, other researchers
have indicated that employees with high EI used cognitive coping or problem-solving
styles in stressful situations (Austin et al., 2010; Downey et al., 2010; Houghton et al.,
2012; Mikolajczak et al., 2008). Based on these previous findings, the present study
assumed that employees’ EI was positively correlated with both cognitive-appraisal
coping and problem-solving coping styles.
Emotional
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IJCHM
28,8
H1. EI is positively related to cognitive-appraisal coping.
H1a. Others’ emotion appraisal (OEA) is positively related to cognitive-appraisal
coping.
H1b. Self-emotion appraisal (SEA) is positively related to cognitive-appraisal
coping.
1654
H1c. Use of emotion (UOE) is positively related to cognitive-appraisal coping.
H1d. Regulation of emotion (ROE) is positively related to cognitive-appraisal
coping.
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H2. EI is positively related to problem-solving coping.
H2a. Others’ emotion appraisal (OEA) is positively related to problem-solving
coping.
H2b. Self-emotion appraisal (SEA) is positively related to problem-solving coping.
H2c. Use of emotion (UOE) is positively related to problem-solving coping.
H2d. Regulation of emotion (ROE) is positively related to problem-solving
coping.
In a study of the relationship between employees’ EI and negative stress-coping
styles to emotion, Salovey et al. (2000) indicated that emotion regulation derived
from EI was closely related with emotional coping style. Ciarrochi et al. (2002)
mentioned that weak ability to control personal emotion results in negative response
to stress because of recognition of emotions such as hassles, suicidal thoughts and
depression in a stressful situation. Pau and Croucher (2003) also pointed out that
people with low EI tend to react emotionally to minor stresses by sensitively
responding to them. Hunt and Evans (2004) suggested that low EI is associated with
anxiety stress-coping style. Rogers et al. (2006), and Shah and Thingujam (2008)
observed that when one lacked in emotion controlling capabilities among EI, one
coped with stress in an emotional style. Sakloske et al. (2007) reported that EI and
emotion-focused stress-coping styles had a negative relationship, meaning that the
higher EI, the lower possibility one had of emotion-focused copings styles in a
stressful situation. Noorbakhsh et al. (2010) argued that people with low EI in an
aspect of using and controlling individual’s emotion are more likely to emotionally
respond to stress. In addition, Vergara et al. (2010) identified a negative relationship
between EI and passive coping styles, such as cognitive avoidance and emotional
discharge. Kim and Agrusa (2011) argued that low EI means responding to stress in
a more emotion coping style, pointing out the negative correlation between EI and
neuroticism. Moradi et al. (2011) mentioned that EI significantly affects the coping
style of emotional and somatic inhibition and argued that lower EI is linked to
negative response to stress because of weak emotion-controlling ability. Wons and
Barqiel-Matusiewicz (2011) also argued that people with low EI tend to respond
depending on their emotions, trying only to avoid stressful situation. Davis and
Humphrey (2012) said that people with excellent EI deal with stress with minimal
evasive measure. Based on these previous findings, the present study assumed that
employees’ EI was negatively correlated with emotion-focused coping style (Gooty
et al., 2014).
H3. EI is negatively related to emotion-focused coping.
H3a. Others’ emotion appraisal (OEA) is negatively related to emotion-focused
coping.
Emotional
intelligence
H3b. Self-emotion appraisal (SEA) is negatively related to emotion-focused coping.
H3c. Use of emotion (UOE) is negatively related to emotion-focused coping.
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H3d. Regulation of emotion (ROE) is negatively related to emotion-focused coping.
2.2.3 Relationship between stress-coping styles and job satisfaction. In a work situation,
the stress-coping styles that employees use produces different degrees of job
satisfaction. For example, cognitive-appraisal and problem-solving coping styles
increase job satisfaction, whereas emotion-focused coping style decreases job
satisfaction. Several studies identify the two different viewpoints. First, regarding the
study on the relationship between stress-coping styles of positive aspect and job
satisfaction, Welbourne et al. (2007) said that problem-solving coping and cognitive
coping styles were positively related with job satisfaction. Also, Park and Adler (2003)
advised that as problem-solving coping and cognitive-appraisal coping styles were
positively correlated with physical health and well-being, they also positively affected
job satisfaction. Littrell and Beck (2001) indicated that problem-solving-focused
cognitive style is a driving force that leads employees to adapt to stressful situations
faster and solve problems faster than emotional style. In terms of another type of
positive stress-coping style, Golbasi et al. (2008) observed that although optimistic
coping style (such as problem-focused coping; Strutton and Lumpkin, 1992) in stressful
situations are positively correlated with job satisfaction, they further emphasized the
fact that different levels of job satisfaction depend on the styles used to cope with stress
(Reissner et al., 2008). Chen et al. (2009) noted that constructive stress-coping (e.g. talk to
spouse and relative and friends about problem) is positively correlated with job
satisfaction, according to Kim (2010). In the case of organizations with appropriate
strategies for coping with stress, turnover intent resulting from job stress decreases as
job satisfaction increases.
Studies of the relationship between stress-coping styles of negative aspects and job
satisfaction, such as Callan et al. (1994), have indicated that using emotion-focused style
to cope with stress might cause negative behavior in employees be anxiety and
depression, which can result in job dissatisfaction. According to Brown (1996),
employees who use avoid-coping styles in stressful situations tend toward dissatisfied
with jobs. Littrell and Beck (2001) said that emotional styles also reduce negative
behavior in organizations and enhance job satisfaction. Golbasi et al. (2008) noted that
lethargic-coping style (such as avoid coping) is negatively correlated with job
satisfaction; Chen et al. (2009) found that destructive stress-coping (e.g. stay away from
everyone and increased smoking and drinking) is negatively correlated with job
satisfaction. In addition, as avoid-coping styles can bring about negative performance
caused by maladjustment to organizations and environments, they would also
negatively affect job satisfaction (Armstrong-Stassen, 2004; Carver et al., 1993). Song
(2008) suggested that as emotion-focused coping style is positively related with job
exhaustion and problem-focused coping style is negatively related with employees’
exhaustion, styles for coping with stress are significantly related with job satisfaction.
As such, most previous studies have verified that job satisfaction varies according to
1655
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individuals’ coping styles in stressful situations (Amber Raza and Ali, 2007; BhuIiar
et al., 2012; Shimizu and Nagata, 2003). Based on these previous results, the present
study assumes that cognitive-appraisal coping and problem-solving coping styles
positively affect job satisfaction, whereas emotion coping style negatively affects job
satisfaction.
H4. Stress-coping styles are positively (or negatively) related to job satisfaction.
H4a. Cognitive-appraisal coping is positively related to job satisfaction.
H4b. Problem-solving coping is positively related to job satisfaction.
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H4c. Emotion-focused coping is negatively related to job satisfaction
2.2.4 Relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. According to
Wong and Law (2002), senior and junior coworkers’ EI did not affect job performance,
although both had a positive effect on job satisfaction. It was mentioned that ROE shows
the highest correlation with job satisfaction. Also, Brackett et al. (2010) said that emotion
regulation ability had a positive effect on employees’ satisfaction, because employees
with high EI who can control their emotions can also favorably accept positive emotion
and support from the organization, resulting in high job satisfaction. Guleryuz et al.
(2008) suggested that employees’ job satisfaction was observed to be associated with
ROE and UOE. A research that considered EI and job satisfaction from the macroscopic
perspective is as follows. Mayer and Salovey (1995) indicated that employees with
excellent abilities to efficiently control and utilize their emotions used to be more
satisfied. Also, Daus and Ashkanasy (2005) noted that EI is an important factor in job
satisfaction. Fariselli et al. (2008) found that employees with high EI experienced low
stress in job situations, which can be used as a variable to estimate performance,
including employees’ job satisfaction; its estimation accuracy was around 60 per cent.
Kafetsios and Zampetakis (2008) claimed that not only did employees’ EI have a direct
relationship with job satisfaction but also indirect effect was present between EI and job
satisfaction, with both positive and negative effects. Lee and Ok (2012) proposed that
employees with high EI were more sympathy, suggesting that it is indirectly related to
job satisfaction through the mediating roles of personal accomplishment. Overall, the
prior studies suggested that employees’ EI is an important leading variable for
enhancing job satisfaction (Çekmecelioğlu et al., 2012; Law et al., 2008; Lope et al., 2006;
Sy et al., 2006; Wolfe and Kim, 2013).
H5. EI is positively related to job satisfaction.
H5a. Others’ emotion appraisal (OEA) is positively related to job satisfaction.
H5b. Self-emotion appraisal (SEA) is positively related to job satisfaction.
H5c. Use of emotion (UOE) is positively related to job satisfaction.
H5d. Regulation of emotion (ROE) is positively related to job satisfaction.
3. Research methodology
3.1 Data collection and procedure
The data utilized for this study were collected in 2012 from food and beverage
employees in two hospitality sectors in South Korea. For this study, it selected deluxe
hotel and family restaurant in the same number as a company of representing
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hospitality industries. The following are the process of each sampling. A convenience
sample was chosen from the participants, which comprised all employees of the five
target hotels (250 samples) and five family restaurants (250 samples). After removing
incomplete questionnaires, we obtained 336 valid samples for data analysis (response
rate of 73.2 per cent):
• Deluxe hotel: The participants in this study were employees working in the food
and beverage division of five five-star hotels. Among 12 five-star chain-hotels
located in Seoul, 10 hotels whose human resource management (HRM)
department provided organic collaboration were selected. Employees of having
responded to self-administered questionnaires were presented the fixed gift card.
• Family restaurant: Five-ranked family restaurants were selected according to
their sales in 2011. Questionnaire survey was conducted targeting employees of
working at each of the family restaurants by receiving permission of five
franchise head offices. Two branches per one brand were randomly extracted.
The corresponding branches were supported the prescribed get-together
expenses.
3.2 Instrument development
To measure employees’ EI, this study applied the work of Mayer and Salovey (1997) and
Wong and Law (2002). The study examined four dimensions of employees’ EI
(Cartwright and Pappas, 2008; Cote and Miners, 2006; Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Wong
and Law, 2002): OEA, UOE, SEA and ROE (Appendix 1). EI was measured by 16 items
based on a seven-point Likert-type scale (here after). Stress-coping styles were measured
using 12 items by Billings and Moos (1981, 1984) and Moradi et al. (2011). The study
explores three dimensions of employees’ stress-coping styles (Billings and Moos, 1981):
cognitive-appraisal coping, problem-solving coping and emotion-focused coping. Also,
Job satisfaction was measured using five items by Cammann et al. (1983), Spector (1985)
and Ko (2012). The questionnaire also included questions obtaining characteristics of
respondents (e.g. gender, age and education level) and job-related information (e.g.
tenure and company statues).
4. Results
4.1 Descriptive statistics of sample
The characteristics of the sample are presented in Table I. The majority of the
employees (55.4 per cent) were male. The participants’ mean age was 33.27 (⫾7.95)
years; 44.5 per cent were 30-39 years of age. Most participants (41.8 per cent) had a
university degree. All respondents had been working for five years or less in current
company (53.8 per cent), and their company types were deluxe hotel (55.7 per cent) and
family restaurant (44.3 per cent).
4.2 Measurement model
Following the two-step approach (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988), a confirmatory factor
analysis was practiced to estimate the fit of the eight-factor model using analysis of
moment structure (AMOS) programs. As shown in Table II, all t-values exceeded 8.0
(p ⬍ 0.001), and each indicator standardized loadings exceeded 0.60 (Anderson and
Gerbing, 1988). The Cronbach’s alpha (0.839-0.932) and composite construct reliability
estimates (0.701-0.896) of each measurement scale exceeded 0.70 (Nunnally, 1978). In
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Characteristic
Gender
Male
Female
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Age
21-29 years
30-39 years
Older than 40 years
Educational level
College university
University
Graduate
university
Tenure
5 years or fewer
Table I.
Profile of the samples 6-9 years
N (%)
10 years or more
Hotel (N ⫽ 204)
Family restaurant (N ⫽ 162)
Total (N ⫽ 366)
115 (56.3)
89 (43.7)
75 (46.2)
87 (53.8)
203 (55.4)
163 (44.6)
44 (21.6)
95 (46.6)
65 (31.8)
80 (49.3)
68 (41.9)
14 (8.8)
124 (33.8)
163 (44.5)
79 (21.5)
57 (27.9)
87 (42.6)
74 (45.6)
66 (40.7)
131 (35.7)
153 (41.8)
60 (29.5)
22 (13.7)
82 (22.5)
93 (45.5)
62 (30.3)
49 (24.0)
104 (64.1)
33 (20.3)
25 (15.6)
197 (53.8)
95 (25.9)
74 (20.2)
addition, the average variance extracted of all factors (OEA ⫽ 0.725; SEA ⫽ 0.691;
UOE ⫽ 0.672; ROE ⫽ 0.693; cognitive-appraisal coping ⫽ 0.745; problem-solving
coping ⫽ 0.632; emotion-focused coping ⫽ 0.576; and job satisfaction ⫽ 0.713) exceeded
0.50 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Also, discriminant validity was evident because the
variance extracted estimates, ranging from 0.61 to 0.75, exceeded all squared
correlations for each constructs, ranging from 0.01 to 0.34. The results of confirmatory
measurement models proposed the fit of measurement model [␹2 ⫽ 954.767; df ⫽ 467;
p ⬍ 0.001; ␹2/df ⫽ 2.044; goodness-of-fit index (GFI) ⫽ 0.864; normed fit index (NFI) ⫽
0.899; comparative fit index (CFI) ⫽ 0.945; root square error of approximation
(RMSEA) ⫽ 0.053; and root mean square residual (RMR) ⫽ 0.068].
To examine a common method bias (CMB), we tested for common method variance using
Harman’s single-factor test (Harman, 1967; Podsakoff et al., 2003). An exploratory factor
analysis showed eight factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.00 (Appendix 2). The scale
items exhibited eight factors (33 variables) that explained 77.028 per cent, with the first factor
(job satisfaction) explaining 38.023 per cent and the last factor (emotion-focused coping)
explaining 3.354 per cent of the total variance. Additionally, CMB error was verified through
marker variable, which was used in researches by Lindell and Whitney (2001) and Hon and
Lu (2010). As Table III, the correlation between exogenous variable (EI) and endogenous
variable (coping style and job satisfaction) had no significant difference (partial correlation)
from when having used job engagement as marker variable.. Accordingly, the probability
that CMB error will occur in this study was indicated to be very small.
The correlations, means and standard deviations are shown in Table III. The
correlation analysis result showed that emotion-focused coping and all other variables
had a negative correlation, showing that the hypothesis and direction were consistent. In
addition, it was studied that other variables of general characteristics showed a low
correlation with the independent and dependent variables (⬍0.20), indicating that
Construct (Cronbach’s alpha)
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Others’ emotion appraisal (0.922)
OEA1
OEA2
OEA3
OEA4
Standardized loadings
t-value
0.871
0.869
0.877
0.787
Fixed
22.057
22.414
18.615
Self-emotion appraisal (0.899)
SEA1
SEA2
SEA3
SEA4
0.812
0.865
0.866
0.780
Fixed
19.157
19.188
16.649
Use of emotion (0.891)
UOE1
UOE2
UOE3
UOE4
0.841
0.819
0.781
0.838
Fixed
18.333
17.114
18.925
Regulation of emotion (0.900)
ROE1
ROE2
ROE3
ROE4
0.870
0.892
0.757
0.805
Fixed
22.320
17.238
19.017
Cognitive-appraisal coping (0.922)
CAC1
CAC2
CAC3
CAC4
0.809
0.845
0.899
0.898
Fixed
18.854
20.629
20.605
Problem-solving coping (0.878)
PSC1
PSC2
PSC3
PSC4
0.830
0.817
0.808
0.756
Fixed
17.669
17.417
15.951
Emotion-focused coping (0.839)
EFC1
EFC2
EFC3
EFC4
0.805
0.866
0.721
0.635
Fixed
16.479
14.048
12.142
Job satisfaction (0.932)
JS1
JS2
JS3
JS4
JS5
0.853
0.865
0.860
0.868
0.772
Fixed
21.377
21.174
21.511
17.760
CCRa
AVEb
0.877
0.725
0.863
0.691
0.827
0.672
–
0.826
0.693
0.880
0.745
0.814
0.632
0.701
0.576
0.896
0.713
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Notes: a CCR ⫽ composite construct reliability; bAVE ⫽ average variance extracted; ␹2 ⫽ 954.767 (df ⫽
467) p ⬍ 0.001; ␹2/df ⫽ 2.044; goodness-of-fit Index (GFI) ⫽ 0.864; normed fit index (NFI) ⫽ 0.899; Tucker
Lewis index (TLI) ⫽ 0.938; comparative fit index (CFI) ⫽ 0.945; incremental fit index (IFI) ⫽ 0.945; root
square error of approximation (RMSEA) ⫽ 0.053; root mean square residual (RMR) ⫽ 0.068
Table II.
Confirmatory factor
analysis and
reliabilities
Table III.
Correlation analysis,
means, and standard
deviations
1
⫺0.09
⫺0.22**
⫺0.21**
⫺0.07
⫺0.09
⫺0.17**
⫺0.13*
⫺0.09
⫺0.11*
⫺0.14**
⫺0.11*
1
⫺0.09
0.41**
0.02
⫺0.06
⫺0.01
0.03
0.08
0.10
⫺0.04
0.08
2
1
0.39**
0.11*
0.09
0.20**
0.05
0.09
0.18**
0.21**
0.20**
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
0.10
1
0.52**
0.43** ⫺0.06
0.02
0.59** 1
0.52**
0.54** ⫺0.11*
0.14** 0.46** 0.52** 1
0.49**
0.50** ⫺0.12*
0.08
0.31** 0.44** 0.46** 1
0.37**
0.38** ⫺0.07
0.12*
0.53** 0.55** 0.49** 0.39** 1
0.18** 0.43** 0.56** 0.51** 0.38** 0.56** 1
0.03 ⴚ0.08 ⴚ0.18** ⴚ0.09 ⴚ0.12* ⴚ0.20** ⴚ0.13*
1
0.23** 0.38** 0.45** 0.52** 0.42** 0.49** 0.52** ⴚ0.17*
4
1
0.37**
0.44**
0.51**
0.41**
12
–
–
–
–
4.81 ⫾ 1.12
4.90 ⫾ 1.08
4.87 ⫾ 1.13
4.53 ⫾ 1.24
5.16 ⫾ 1.13
4.87 ⫾ 1.09
3.41 ⫾ 1.25
4.55 ⫾ 1.08
Mean ⫾ SD a
a
Notes: SD ⫽ standard deviation; all variables were measured on a seven-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree); OEA ⫽ others’
emotion appraisal; SEA ⫽ self-emotion appraisal; UOE, use of emotion; ROE ⫽ regulation of emotion; CAC ⫽ cognitive-appraisal coping; PSC ⫽
problem-solving coping; EFC ⫽ emotion-focused coping; JS ⫽ job satisfaction; * p ⬍ 0.05; ** p ⬍ 0.01; italic data ⫽ marker-variable partial correlation
analysis (job engagement, mean ⫽ 3.45, SD ⫽ 1.45); Bold data ⫽ squared correlations
1. Gender
2. Age
3. Education level
4. Tenure
5. OEA
6. SEA
7. UOE
8. ROE
9. CAC
10. PSC
11. EFC
12. JS
1
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general characteristics of the respondents had no significant effect on this causal
relationship.
4.3 Structural equation modeling
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was demonstrated to analyze the hypotheses and
the proposed model. The model fit was data well (␹2 ⫽ 825.109; df ⫽ 463; p ⬍ 0.001;
GFI ⫽ 0.884; NFI ⫽ 0.912; CFI ⫽ 0.959; and RMSEA ⫽ 0.046). The value of the normed
␹2 was 1.782, which was below the cut-off criterion of 3 (Hair et al., 2006). Table IV and
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Hypothesized path (stated as alternative
hypothesis)
Standardized
coefficients
t-value
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Results
H1: EI ¡ cognitive-appraisal coping
H1a OEA ¡ CAC
H1b SEA ¡ CAC
H1c UOE ¡ CAC
H1d ROE ¡ CAC
0.291
0.263
0.194
0.112
4.532***
3.275***
3.216**
1.922*
Supported
Supported
Supported
Supported
H2: EI ¡ problem-solving coping
H2a OEA ¡ PSC
H2b SEA ¡ PSC
H2c UOE ¡ PSC
H2d ROE ¡ PSC
0.060
0.391
0.266
0.102
0.912ns
5.099***
4.141***
1.693ns
Rejected
Supported
Supported
Rejected
H3: EI ¡ emotion-focused coping
H3a OEA ¡ EFC
H3b SEA ¡ EFC
H3c UOE ¡ EFC
H3d ROE ¡ EFC
0.056
⫺0.233
0.033
⫺0.059
0.669ns
⫺2.509*
0.414ns
⫺0.766ns
Rejected
Supported
Rejected
Rejected
H4: Coping style ¡ job satisfaction
H4a CAC ¡ JS
H4b PSC ¡ JS
H4c EFC ¡ JS
0.196
0.255
⫺0.085
2.837**
3.631***
⫺1.796ns
Supported
Supported
Rejected
H5: EI ¡ job satisfaction
H5a OEA ¡ JS
H5b SEA ¡ JS
H5c UOE ¡ JS
H5d ROE ¡ JS
0.020
⫺0.017
0.240
0.127
0.291ns
⫺0.212ns
3.631***
2.161*
Rejected
Rejected
Supported
Supported
Goodness-of-fit statistics
Emotional
intelligence
␹2(463) ⫽ 825.109 (p ⬍ 0.001)
␹2/df ⫽ 1.782
GFI ⫽ 0.884
NFI ⫽ 0.912
CFI ⫽ 0.959
RMSEA ⫽ 0.046
Notes: GFI ⫽ goodness-of-fit index; NFI ⫽ normed fit index; CFI ⫽ comparative fit index; RMSEA ⫽
root mean square error of approximation; EI ⫽ emotional intelligence; OEA ⫽ others’ emotion
appraisal; SEA ⫽ self-emotion appraisal; UOE ⫽ use of emotion; ROE ⫽ regulation of emotion; CAC ⫽
Table IV.
cognitive-appraisal coping; PSC ⫽ problem-solving coping; EFC ⫽ emotion-focused coping; JS ⫽ job Structural parameter
estimates
satisfaction; * p ⬍ 0.05; ** p ⬍ 0.01; *** p ⬍ 0.001
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Figure 2.
SEM with parameter
estimates
Figure 2 show the standardized coefficients and t-values for all relationships in the SEM.
4.3.1 Relationship between emotional intelligence and stress-coping style. To examine
how employees’ EI affects cognitive-appraisal coping styles, H1 was verified and
accepted. Specifically, among the elements of employees’ EI, OEA (␤ ⫽ 0.291; t ⫽ 4.532;
p ⬍ 0.001), SEA (␤ ⫽ 0.263; t ⫽ 3.275; p ⬍ 0.001), UOE (␤ ⫽ 0.194; t ⫽ 3.216; p ⬍ 0.01)
and ROE (␤ ⫽ 0.112; t ⫽ 1.922; p ⬍ 0.05) had positive effects on cognitive-appraisal
coping style. H2 was partially supported (i.e. employees’ EI has a significant effect on
problem-solving style). SEA (␤ ⫽ 0.391; t ⫽ 5.099; p ⬍ 0.001) and UOE (␤ ⫽ 0.266; t ⫽
4.141; p ⬍ 0.001) had positive effects on problem-solving style, whereas OEA (␤ ⫽ 0.060;
t ⫽ 0.912; p ⬎ 0.05) and ROE (␤ ⫽ 0.102; t ⫽ 1.693; p ⬍ 0.05) did not. H3 was partially
supported as well (i.e. employees’ EI has a significant effect on emotion-focused style).
SEA (␤ ⫽ -.233; t ⫽ ⫺2.509; p ⬍ 0.05) had a significant negative effect on
emotion-focused style, whereas OEA (␤ ⫽ 0.056; t ⫽ 0.669; p ⬎ 0.05), UOE (␤ ⫽ 0.033;
t ⫽ 0.414; p ⬎ 0.05) and ROE (␤ ⫽ ⫺0.059; t ⫽ ⫺0.766; p ⬍ 0.05) did not.
4.3.2 Relationship between stress-coping style and job satisfaction. Employees’ coping
styles had a significant effect on job satisfaction; therefore, H4 was also partially
supported. Specifically, among employees’ stress-coping style elements,
problem-solving coping (␤ ⫽ 0.255; t ⫽ 3.631; p ⬍ 0.001) and cognitive-appraisal coping
(␤ ⫽ 0.196; t ⫽ 2.837; p ⬍ 0.01) had positive effects, whereas emotion-focused coping
(␤ ⫽ ⫺0.085; t ⫽ ⫺1.796; p ⬎ 0.05) did not.
4.3.3 Relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. H5 (i.e.
employees’ EI has a significant effect on job satisfaction) was also partially accepted.
UOE (␤ ⫽ 0.240; t ⫽ 3.85; p ⬍ 0.001) and ROE (␤ ⫽ 0.127; t ⫽ 2.161; p ⬍ 0.05) had a
significant effect on job satisfaction, whereas OEA (␤ ⫽ 0.020; t ⫽ 0.291; p ⬎ 0.05) and
SEA (␤ ⫽ ⫺0.017; t ⫽ ⫺0.212; p ⬎ 0.05) did not.
5. Conclusion and implication
5.1 Conclusions
This study sought to explore the effects of hospitality employees’ EI on stress-coping
styles and job satisfaction. EI is divided into four dimensions: OEA, UOE, SEA and
ROE. This study observed that all dimensions – OEA, SEA, ROE and UOE in order of
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influence – have a significant positive effect on cognitive-appraisal coping style (Moradi
et al., 2011; Sakloske et al., 2012; Vergara et al., 2010). Thus, all four EI sub-factors have
positive effects on coping when using cognitive-appraisal styles in stressful situations.
In other words, as employees understand others’ emotions and control their emotions
while effectively utilizing and adjusting their emotions, they can also cope with stress
using cognitive-appraisal styles, as all other EI sub-factors play a positive role in the
cognitive-coping styles. Another finding was that SEA and UOE in employees’ EI have
significant positive effects on the problem-solving coping style. These findings support
previous studies (Noorbakhsh et al., 2010; Por et al., 2011). The results of this study
indicated that EI regarding the ability to perceive self-emotions efficiently while using
emotions induced problem-solving coping behaviors. In particular, EI in SEA was the
most important factor in increasing problem-solving coping; moreover, SEA had greater
influence on problem-solving coping than UOE did. Unlike other factors, however, ROE
and OEA had no significant effects. Thus, ROE and OEA are not important factors in
problem-solving coping styles in stressful situations. In other words, the results can be
interpreted such that individuals’ abilities to understand, control and adjust their
emotions are more advantageous in coping with stress by solving problems. In addition,
the influence of SEA on the emotion-focused coping style was negatively significant
(Davis and Humphrey, 2012; MacCann et al., 2011; Moradi et al., 2011). Conversely, OEA,
UOE and ROE had no significant effects on emotion-focused coping style. Thus, EI with
regard to understanding one’s emotions negatively affects styles to emotionally cope
with stressful situations. In other words, employees with excellent understanding and
control of their emotions were not likely to cope with stress using emotional styles.
Consequently, SEA was shown to be the EI variable that would most affect all styles of
coping with stress. The assumed reason for this finding is that only those who can
recognize and comprehend their own emotions can understand others’ emotions,
thereby utilizing and regulating emotions.
Regarding the link between stress-coping styles and job satisfaction, the influence of
problem-solving coping and cognitive-appraisal coping on job satisfaction was
positively significant. These results are in line with the studies conducted by Golbasi
et al. (2008), Reissner et al. (2008) and Welbourne et al. (2007); an employee’s positive
stress-coping styles (problem-solving coping and cognitive-appraisal coping) induce his
or her job satisfaction. The UOE and ROE of hospitality employees’ EI were noted to
have a significant effect on job satisfaction, whereas OEA and SEA among EI
dimensions did not. This result can be interpreted as a context similar to the fact that
UOE significantly affected not only positive styles for coping with stress (cognitive
coping and problem-solving coping) but also emotional coping, a negative style for
coping with stress. This result was partially consistent with that of Mayer and Salovey
(1995), indicating that employees with higher EI have better control of self-emotion,
which leads to positive work satisfaction.
5.2 Theoretical implications
This study developed a theoretical foundation for the cause-and-effect relationships
among EI, stress-coping styles and job satisfaction recognized by hospitality
employees. Although, as predicted, employees’ EI was shown to affect stress-coping
styles and job satisfaction, this study also examined the effect of employees’ coping
styles on job satisfaction. However, this study is significant because it investigates
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sub-factors in EI and examines the relationship between stress-coping styles and
job satisfaction in hospitality companies. The present study demonstrated that
enhancing employees’ EI through education and reflecting the importance of EI when
selecting talented persons for efficient personnel management could have positive
results that enhance organizations’ effectiveness. In particular, the present study
showed that employees with high EI cope with stressful situations using positive styles
and, consequently, experience higher job satisfaction. The theoretical implications of
this finding are important. This result showed that, although rational approaches to
solving problems with the brain were pursued in past personnel management practices,
EI-oriented approaches to employee management are worth considering. In particular,
the present study verified that coping styles in stressful situations experienced during
the performance of jobs varied according to employees’ EI. A sub-result showed that the
SEA of employees’ EI significantly affected all types of styles used to cope with stress.
Thus, employees’ ability to efficiently overcome stressful situations is determined by
how well they understand and control their emotions. Moreover, as an element of EI,
SEA is the most closely related to strategies for coping with stress. In addition, the
results showed that EI plays an efficient role in helping individuals take appropriate
actions to solve problems and cope with problems using active styles (Caruso and
Salovey, 2004). In particular, SEA not only has a significant positive effect on
stress-coping styles (cognitive-appraisal coping and problem-solving coping) but also is
considered to be a unique EI variable that can negatively affect the decrease of the
stress-coping styles (emotion-focused coping). This means that employees who control
their emotions well but perhaps lack the ability to utilize their emotions and understand
others’ emotions might have a higher probability of not coping with stress using
emotional styles. Therefore, corporations should improve their employees’ ability to
understand and utilize their emotions. As a result, one can utilize one’s emotions and
understand others’ emotions only when one can control one’s own emotions. In
particular, in the case of the hospitality industry, employees’ EI has all the more special
meanings owing to their continuous emotional labor. EI also showed a significant
relationship with job satisfaction. Among the many factors involved in EI, UOE and
ROE were shown to affect job satisfaction directly. Thus, as employees have a better
ability to utilize and control their emotions, they experience more job satisfaction.
Therefore, it is assumed that in the representative hospitality industry where direct
communications with customers are frequent (Choi et al., 2014; Kang and Hyun, 2012),
the regulation or utilization of momentary emotions not only is important but also
affects job satisfaction. In other words, employees who utilize emotions well even when
they face negative emotions, such as stress, while performing their jobs can positively
affect their job satisfaction by efficiently controlling their emotions and seeking
effective coping styles. As employees perform their jobs in every situation, instead of
simply understanding or utilizing their own or others’ emotions, the study results show
that EI is the ability to regulate and manage emotions so that one can quickly solve
problems without being embarrassed or excited in problematic situations.
5.3 Practical implications
As mentioned at the beginning of this paper, considering that individual employees’
EI is not fixed like an inherent disposition but is similar a trait that can be developed
(Goleman, 1998), outstanding internal marketing measures can be sought by
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utilizing this study’s results with hospitality companies’ managers. First, tangible
tools (test of EI index) should be procured that can be utilized to select employees
with high EI or a HRM recruit with potentially outstanding EI ability. Furthermore,
for those already working in a company, systematic training and education
programs should be enacted to improve their EI. For example, employees’ potential
EI should be developed using coaching or mentoring, and through simulation
education, which may occur in various virtual service situations, coping abilities
using EI in a sudden service situation may be able to be learned. In addition, to form
bond of sympathy among organizational employees, opportunities to share opinions
about organizational culture should be frequently created, employees’ emotions
should be respected and employees’ own changes should be induced. Moreover,
considering that senior leaders could influence junior employees’ positive work
attitude, programs in which senior managers, rather than junior employees (Pastor,
2014), might participate should be provided. In addition, as the most important
factor in EI requires understanding and identifying one’s own emotions, as inferred
from this study’s results, professional counselors should be available within an
organization to help employees understand and control their emotions by
themselves. In addition, watching movies and musicals should be recommended for
improving cultural emotions of employees, and methods to stimulate employees’
emotions through book lending and watching art galleries or exhibitions should be
created. Through such efforts, the ability to demonstrate emotional understanding
and empathy, as well as to adjust and control the negative emotions, can be
improved via suitable training program development to maximize employees’ EI
within an organization, thereby preparing them to cope with stressful situations
flexibly while contributing to the improvement of their job performance. Ultimately,
this study emphasized on the simple fact that the development and management of
EI, whatever it might be, is needed to improve employees’ efforts and behavior for
organizational enhancement. Following this trend, this study’s results support the
introduction of emotional management in hospitality companies.
The results also demonstrated that employees’ job satisfaction varied according
to the styles they used to cope with stressful situations. In particular, it was verified
that employees who used positive methods (cognitive coping and problem-solving
coping) showed high job satisfaction. Employees have a desire to cope with stressful
situations using their own methods (Pearlin and Schooler, 1978), and job satisfaction
is determined by the degree of actively coping with stressful situations. In
particular, given that foodservice employees are likely to be exposed to stressful
situations because of their frequent contact with customers, they will be dissatisfied
with their jobs if this stress is not efficiently managed or relieved. Methods to cope
with stressful situations are assumed to be meaningful at the business level. The
results also suggested that to induce employees’ positive actions, it is necessary to
encourage them to implement active job-oriented coping strategies. To this end,
foodservice businesses should seek methods to implement appropriate education to
prepare their employees to cope with stress. To inform their employees, such
education should include methods to effectively cope with and overcome the stress
they face, as well as strategies to improve employees’ job satisfaction. The results of
this study, which indicate that hospitality companies can increase employees’ job
satisfaction by enhancing their employees’ EI, suggest detailed and practical
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alternatives to HRM, as employees’ EI can bring positive outcomes to both
organizations (job satisfaction) and employees (efficient stress-coping). Hospitality
employees’ EI is significant in terms of organizational performance (e.g. job
satisfaction and positive stress-coping behavior).
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5.4 Limitations and future research
Despite the contributions made by this study, several limitations need to be addressed.
First, the generalization of the results might be limited, because the sample comprised
employees of deluxe hotels and family restaurants in South Korea; as such, the study’s
subjects cannot be evaluated to be typical of the hospitality industry. Second, the
questionnaire’s contents, which were used to measure EI and stress-coping styles, were
based on a general company and not specifically on a company in the hospitality
industry. Thus, these results do not apply to the entire hospitality industry. Third, this
study did not meditate a sufficient number of variables of individual differences that
might influence EI. Also, CMB error was somewhat validated through exploratory
factor analysis (EFA), but the possibility for error is still present. In addition,
investigating the moderate effects of cause-and-effect relationships in employees’
characteristics (demographic and job-related) could lead to specific recommendations.
As EI can differ according to culture and individuals’ characteristics (Gökçen et al., 2014;
Koveshnikov et al., 2014; Wechtler et al., 2014), we believe that verifying its controlling
role in general aspect can provide management side with practical and useful
implications. Even comparisons through analyzing the moderating effect in this
causality targeting general service-business employees and hospitality company
employees in future research will be useful for hospitality company operators. This can
be further developed into a study which puts emphasis on the EI among the employees
in the hospitality industry who are required to frequently perform emotional labor by
comparing EI between ordinary firm employees and hospitality industry employees.
Finally, this study relied exclusively on the job satisfaction level as the final dependent
variable; therefore, future studies should examine additional inputs of variables that can
define an employee’s intention to leave a job, such as their job performance or job
commitment. This will be able to suggest meaningful research results in that it can
study the EI sub-factors that affect the overall work attitude of the employees.
References
Aghdasi, S., Kiamanesh, A.R. and Ebrahim, A.N. (2011), “Emotional intelligence and
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Appendix 1. Descriptive statistics of variables
Emotional intelligence
OEA1: I Always know my friends’ emotions from their behaviors (4.76 ⫾ 1.30).
OEA2: I am good observer of others’ emotions (4.74 ⫾ 1.26).
OEA3: I am sensitive to the feelings and emotions of others (4.88 ⫾ 1.18).
OEA4: I have good understanding of the emotions of people around me (4.94 ⫾ 1.29).
UOE1: I always set goals for myself and then try my best to achieve them (4.93 ⫾ 1.27).
UOE2: I always tell myself I am a competent person (4.83 ⫾ 1.35).
UOE3: I am a self-motivated person (4.75 ⫾ 1.26).
UOE4: I always encourage myself to try my best (5.03 ⫾ 1.33).
SEA1: I have a good sense of why I have certain feelings most of the time (4.75 ⫾ 1.23).
SEA2: I have good understanding of my own emotions (4.91 ⫾ 1.24).
SEA3: I really understand what I feel (4.99 ⫾ 1.25).
SEA4: I always know whether I am happy or not (5.02 ⫾ 1.21).
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ROE1: I am able to control my temper and handle difficulties rationally (4.70 ⫾ 1.36).
ROE2: I am quite capable of controlling my own emotions (4.52 ⫾ 1.35).
ROE3: I can always calm down quickly when I am very angry (4.50 ⫾ 1.43).
ROE4: I have good control of my own emotions (4.49 ⫾ 1.42).
Stress-coping styles
CAC1: Tried to step back from the situation and be more objective (5.06 ⫾ 1.28).
CAC2: Took things one step at a time (5.14 ⫾ 1.27).
CAC3: Tried to step back from the situation and be more objective (5.25 ⫾ 1.26).
CAC4: Prayed for guidance or strength (5.28 ⫾ 1.21).
PSC1: Considered several alternatives for handling the problem (5.01 ⫾ 1.24).
PSC2: Drew on my past experiences; I was in a similar situation before (4.88 ⫾ 1.25).
PSC3: Tried to find out more about the situation (4.94 ⫾ 1.29).
PSC4: Talked with spouse or other relative about the problem (4.84 ⫾ 1.34).
EFC1: Sometimes took it out on other people when I felt angry or depressed (3.60 ⫾ 1.46).
EFC2: Tried to reduce the tension by eating (smoking, drinking) more (3.43 ⫾ 1.50).
EFC3: Kept my feelings to myself (3.34 ⫾ 1.51).
EFC4: Got busy with other things in order to keep my mind off the problem (3.33 ⫾ 1.65).
Job satisfaction
JS1: I like the people I work with (4.58 ⫾ 1.50).
JS2: My job is enjoyable (4.66 ⫾ 1.17).
JS3: I like doing the things I do at work (4.72 ⫾ 1.20).
JS4: In general, I like working here (4.60 ⫾ 1.22).
JS5: All in all, I am satisfied with my job (4.39 ⫾ 1.41).
Notes: (Mean ⫾ SD); SD ⫽ standard deviation; a all variables were measured on a seven-point
Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree); OEA ⫽ others’ emotion appraisal;
UOE ⫽ use of emotion; SEA ⫽ self-emotion appraisa; ROE ⫽ regulation of emotion); CAC ⫽
cognitive-appraisal coping; PSC ⫽ problem-solving coping); EFC ⫽ emotion-focused coping; JS ⫽
job satisfaction
Emotional
intelligence
Appendix 2
Downloaded by Robert Gordon University At 03:45 20 May 2019 (PT)
Variables
OEA1
OEA2
OEA3
OEA4
SEA1
SEA2
SEA3
SEA4
UOE1
UOE2
UOE3
UOE4
ROE1
ROE2
ROE3
ROE4
CAC1
CAC2
CAC3
CAC4
PSC1
PSC2
PSC3
PSC4
EFC1
EFC2
EFC3
EFC4
JS1
JS2
JS3
JS4
JS5
Eigen values
Variance
F1
F2
F3
0.196
0.195
0.106
0.032
0.212
0.155
0.160
0.103
0.179
0.210
0.265
0.189
0.112
0.160
0.190
0.149
0.170
0.132
0.267
0.202
0.231
0.144
0.177
0.287
⫺0.094
⫺0.047
⫺0.048
⫺0.048
0.797
0.829
0.798
0.810
0.779
12.548
38.023
0.784
0.826
0.819
0.811
0.357
0.258
0.224
0.173
0.187
0.201
0.088
0.139
0.058
0.09
0.106
0.088
0.173
0.166
0.265
0.253
0.145
0.127
0.115
0.143
0.011
⫺0.052
0.020
⫺0.031
0.102
0.085
0.114
0.112
0.142
2.717
8.234
0.108
0.106
0.176
⫺0.004
0.150
0.151
0.161
0.195
0.185
0.155
0.187
0.172
0.813
0.833
0.804
0.836
0.097
0.154
0.118
0.149
0.064
0.182
0.146
0.097
⫺0.080
0.032
⫺0.070
⫺0.014
0.120
0.151
0.100
0.162
0.177
2.465
7.469
Factor loading
F4
F5
0.181
0.162
0.213
0.163
0.122
0.207
0.171
0.184
0.145
0.092
0.158
0.183
0.164
0.120
0.037
0.106
0.797
0.825
0.754
0.740
0.241
0.165
0.169
0.188
⫺0.063
⫺0.069
⫺0.152
0.056
0.170
0.115
0.180
0.167
0.074
2.088
6.328
0.180
0.138
0.128
0.130
0.132
0.189
0.154
0.191
0.783
0.790
0.739
0.744
0.183
0.162
0.101
0.152
0.141
0.143
0.133
0.197
0.133
0.139
0.142
0.209
⫺0.038
⫺0.017
0.063
⫺0.071
0.191
0.140
0.219
0.158
0.123
1.638
4.964
F6
F7
F8
0.158
0.123
0.059
0.136
0.202
0.138
0.234
0.168
0.170
0.181
0.064
0.200
0.159
0.143
0.100
0.032
0.147
0.176
0.223
0.260
0.710
0.772
0.784
0.710
0.134
⫺0.022
0.007
⫺0.248
0.164
0.145
0.186
0.214
0.088
1.467
4.446
0.216
0.153
0.234
0.197
0.688
0.763
0.776
0.738
0.114
0.090
0.205
0.231
0.133
0.100
0.125
0.152
0.187
0.152
0.170
0.165
0.288
0.207
0.155
0.065
⫺0.060
⫺0.083
⫺0.026
⫺0.032
0.082
0.126
0.089
0.109
0.165
1.389
4.209
0.003
⫺0.029
⫺0.031
0.000
⫺0.042
⫺0.075
⫺0.057
⫺0.129
⫺0.002
0.005
⫺0.020
⫺0.060
⫺0.050
⫺0.101
⫺0.002
⫺0.008
⫺0.093
⫺0.106
⫺0.067
⫺0.072
0.023
⫺0.013
⫺0.128
⫺0.004
0.836
0.875
0.799
0.752
⫺0.112
⫺0.110
⫺0.043
⫺0.040
⫺0.028
1.107
3.354
Notes: Total cumulative ⫽ 77.028%; OEA ⫽ others’ emotion appraisal; SEA ⫽ self-emotion
appraisal; UOE ⫽ use of emotion; ROE ⫽ regulation of emotion; CAC ⫽ cognitive-appraisal coping;
PSC ⫽ problem-solving coping; EFC ⫽ emotion-focused coping; JS ⫽ job satisfaction; italic data ⫽
factor loading values of each factors
Corresponding author
Hye Hyun Yoon can be contacted at: hhyun@khu.ac.kr
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1675
Table AI.
Exploratory factor
analysis
Downloaded by Robert Gordon University At 03:45 20 May 2019 (PT)
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