UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELLOR
EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: CED439
COURSE TITLE: THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
GROUP ASSIGNMENT FOR CED439
GROUP A (SIGMUND FREUD)
LECTURER IN CHARGE: DR L. O.
ADEGBOYEGA
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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ABDUL-MALIK, Saheed Olohunkemi
ABDULRAFIU, Hammed Ayomide
ABEGUNDE, Oluwatosin Abraham
ABRAHAM, Marvellous Abigail
ADEJARE, Samuel Adura
ADEJESU, Blessing Hopeful
ADEOYE, Oluwatomiwa Peace
AIGORO, Damilola Dolapo
AJOGWU, Gloria Ochanya
ALABI, Oluwatosin Christianah
AMOSA, Lanre Shittu
ATIKU, Salamot Omowunmi
BALOGUN, Kehinde Rashidat
DAUDA, Ajoke Fatimah
ELUBODE, Doyin Racheal
FOLORUNSHO, Aminah Adeola
IBRAHIM, Nabilat Olajumoke
ISAMAT, Tohirat Adejoke
JOSHUA, Anuoluwapo Deborah
KOMOLAFE, Deborah Temitope
MAKINDE, Grace Boluwatife
MUSA, Juwerat
OBEYA, Blessing Edebo
OLABODE, Fodilat Olawumi
OLANREWAJU, Habeeb Damilare
OLAWEPO, Oluwafemi Noah
OMOTOSHO, Blessing Damilola
OYEYEMI, Titilayo Omobolale
REMILEKUN, Ibrahim Yinka
SAMUEL, Fatimah Omotoyosi
SOLIU, Taiwo Kabirat
TOBSON, David Segun
YUSUF, Umar Olawale
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
1. Acknowledgements………………………………………………………. 1
2. Table of Content………………………………………………………….. 2
3. Meaning of Personality…………………………………………………… 3
4. Meaning of Theory……………………………………………………….. 3
5. Meaning of Personality Theories…………………………………………. 4
6. Background of Sigmund Freud………………………………………….... 5
7. Background of Psychoanalytic Theory……………………………………. 6
8. Structure of Psyche/Mind I (Conscious, Preconscious and Unconscious)… 9
9. Structure of Psyche/Mind II (ID, Ego and Superego)…………...……….. 13
10. Ego Defense Mechanism………………………………………………… 16
11.Theory of Instinct and Libido……………………………………………. 18
12.Psychosexual Development & Fixations…………………………………. 20
13. Criticism of Psychoanalytic Theory……………………………………... 24
14.Implications of the Theory………………………………….……………. 28
15.References……………………………………………………………….. 30
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MEANING OF PERSONALITY
Personality is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by an individual that
uniquely influences their cognition, emotions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations.
The word personality originates from the Latin (persona) which means “mask”. Personality also
pertains to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments, and behaviours persistently
exhibited over time that strongly influences one’s expectations, self-perceptions, values, and
attitudes. Personality predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress.
MEANING OF THEORY
In everyday use, the word “theory” often means an untested hunch, or a guess without
supporting evidence. But for scientists, a theory has nearly the opposite meaning. A theory is a
well substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can incorporate laws,
hypotheses and facts.
A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such
thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such
processes as observational study or research. Theories may be scientific, belong to a nonscientific discipline, or no discipline at all. Depending on the context, a theory’s assertions
might, for example, include generalized explanations of how nature works.
The word has its roots in ancient Greek, but in modern use it has taken on several related
meanings, in modern science, the term “theory” refers to scientific theories, a well-confirmed
type of explanation of nature, made in a way consistent with the scientific method, and fulfilling
the criteria required by modern science. Such theories are described in such a way that scientific
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tests should be able to provide empirical support for it, or empirical contradiction (“falsify”) of
it.
MEANING OF PERSONALITY THEORIES
Personality theories are the result of hypothesis, experiment, case studies and clinical research
led by scientists in the field.
It is your unique set of behaviours, experiences, feelings and thought patterns that make you you.
While it may change subtly over time, your personality remains fairly consistent throughout your
life after a certain age. It also gives answers to why specific features and traits develop in one
person over another or in which does not develop at all. The goal is to identify what makes
everyone so similar and different at the same time.
Personality theories study how an individual develops their personality and how it can be utilized
in studying personality disorders.
It also refers to postulating about the characteristics and behaviours that comprise a person’s
unique adjustment to life which includes, major traits, interest drives, values, self-concept,
abilities and emotional patterns.
Examples of Personality Theories
1. Psychodynamic Theory
2. Biological Theories.
3. Evolutionary Theories.
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BACKGROUND OF SIGMUND FREUD
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a late 19th and early 20th century neurologist. He is
widely acknowledged as the father of modern psychology and the primary developer of the
process of psychoanalysis.
Sigmund Freud was born in Freiberg, Moravia in 1856, the oldest of eight children. His family
moved to Vienna when Freud was four years old. He studied at a preparatory school in
Leopoldstadt where he excelled in Greek, Latin, history, math, and science. His academic
superiority gained him entry into the University of Vienna at the age of seventeen. Upon
completion, he went on to pursue his medical degree and PhD in neurology.
Freud married Martha Bernays in 1886, and the couple had six children. The youngest of
Freud’s children, Anna Freud, became an influential psychologist and ardent defender of her
father’s theories.
After working with Joseph Breur at the Vienna General Hospital, Freud travelled to Paris
to study hypnosis under Jean-Martin Charcot. When he returned to Vienna the following year,
Freud opened his first medical practice and began specializing in brain and nervous disorders.
Freud soon determined that hypnosis was an ineffective method to achieve the results he desired,
and he began to implement a form of talking therapy with his patients. This method became
recognized as a “talking cure” and the goal was to encourage the patient to tap into the
unconscious mind and let go of the repressed energy and emotions therein. Freud called this
function repression and felt that this action hindered the development of emotional and physical
functionality, which he referred to as psychosomatic. The element of using talk therapy
eventually became the foundation of psychoanalysis.
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Freud drew heavily upon the emphasis of philosophers such as Nietzsche, Dostoevsky, and Kant.
Freud’s theories continue to influence much of modern psychology, and his ideas also resonate
throughout philosophy, sociology, and political science, with thinkers such as Jacques Lacan and
Karl Marx drawing heavily upon Freudian theories. Freud’s emphasis upon early life and the
drive to pleasure are perhaps his most significant contributions to psychology. Even
contemporary psychologists who disapprove Freud’s theories often take interests in client’s early
life and the relationship between a child and the parents. Some of Freud’s most significant
theories include:
Development of unconscious and conscious mind.
The structural model of personality of a person’s true self.
Stages of psychosexual development.
The concept of defense mechanisms.
Dream interpretation.
BACKGROUND OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Psychoanalysis is a type of therapy that aims to release pent-up or repressed emotions and
memories in or to lead the client to catharsis, or healing In other words, the goal of
psychoanalysis is to bring what exists at the unconscious or subconscious level up to
consciousness.
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This goal is accomplished through talking to another person about the big questions in
life, the things that matter, and diving into the complexities that lie beneath the simple-seeming
surface.
This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred the development of some
of his most influential idea.
Sigmund Freud’s Model of Mind
Perhaps the most impactful idea put forth by Freud was his model of the human mind. His model
divides the mind into three layers, or regions:
Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus live;
Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): This is the home of everything we can recall
or retrieve from our memory.
Unconscious: At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the processes that drive
our behavior, including primitive and instinctual desires.
Later, Freud posited a more structured model of the mind, one that can coexist with his original
ideas about consciousness and unconsciousness. The Id, Ego and Superego
In this model, there are three metaphorical parts to the mind:
Id: The id operates at an unconscious level and focuses solely on instinctual drives and desires.
Two biological instincts make up the id, according to Freud: eros, or the instinct to survive that
drives us to engage in life-sustaining activities, and thanatos, or the death instinct that drives
destructive, aggressive, and violent behavior.
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Ego: The ego acts as both a conduit for and a check on the id, working to meet the id’s needs in a
socially appropriate way. It is the most tied to reality and begins to develop in infancy.
Superego: The superego is the portion of the mind in which morality and higher principles
reside, encouraging us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways.
Freud’s Defense Mechanisms
Freud believed these three parts of the mind are in constant conflict because each part has
a different primary goal. Sometimes, when the conflict is too much for a person to handle, his or
her ego may engage in one or many defense mechanisms to protect the individual.
The 5 Psychosexual Stages of Development
Finally, one of the most enduring concepts associated with Freud is his psychosexual
stages. Freud proposed that children develop in five distinct stages, each focused on a different
source of pleasure;
First Stage: Oral—the child seeks pleasure from the mouth (e.g., sucking);
Second Stage: Anal—the child seeks pleasure from the anus (e.g., withholding and expelling
faeces).
Third Stage: Phallic—the child seeks pleasure from the penis or clitoris (e.g., masturbation)
Fourth Stage: Latent—the child has little or no sexual motivation
Fifth Stage: Genital—the child seeks pleasure from the penis or vagina (e.g., sexual intercourse)
Freud hypothesized that an individual must successfully complete each stage to become a
psychologically healthy adult with a fully formed ego and superego. Otherwise, individuals may
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become stuck or “fixated” in a particular stage, causing emotional and behavioral problems in
adulthood.
The Interpretation of Dreams
Another well-known concept from Freud was his belief in the significance of dreams. He
believed that analyzing one’s dreams can give valuable insight into the unconscious mind.
In 1900, Freud published the book The Interpretation of Dreams in which he outlined his
hypothesis that the primary purpose of dreams was to provide individuals with wish fulfillment,
allowing them to work through some of their repressed issues in a situation free from
consciousness and the constraints of reality.
In this book, he also distinguished between the manifest content (the actual dream) and
the latent content (the true or hidden meaning behind the dream).
Freud’s ideas about dreams were game-changing. Before Freud, dreams were considered
insignificant and insensible ramblings of the mind at rest. His book provoked a new level of
interest in dreams, an interest that continues to this day.
STRUCTURE OF PSYCHE/MIND I (CONSCIOUS, PRECONSCIOUS AND
UNCONSCIOUS)
Each level of consciousness contributes to the shaping of human behaviour and thought,
according to Sigmund Freud, conduct and personality are the result of the continual and unique
interaction of competing psychological forces operating at the 3 distinct levels of awareness:
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Conscious, Pre-conscious and Unconscious. He felt that each of these components of the mind
has a significant influence on behaviour.
The Conscious Mind
The first level of consciousness is referred to as the conscious state, and it refers to our
present awareness. When we receive information from our senses, analyse it, and then make
decisions based on that information, we are utilising our conscious mind. For instance, you may
be conscious of the information you’re reading, the sound of the music you’re listening to, or the
content of a conversation you’re having at the moment. All of the thoughts that pass through
your mind, all of the sensations and perceptions from the outside world, and all of the memories
that you bring into awareness are all a part of that conscious experience.
The conscious mind comprises everything that we are aware of at any given moment. It
encompasses everything we’re feeling, thinking, wishing or paying attention to. For example,
suppose a girl is riding a bike; hence, the vehicles, road in her field of vision, and the horn sound
she is hearing, or anything else she is experiencing at that moment such as hunger, thirst or pain,
are all present in her consciousness.
The conscious level consists of all those things we are aware of, including things that we
know about ourselves and our surroundings.
Sub-Conscious/ Pre-Conscious Mind
The subconscious level of consciousness is where dreams are created. We can think of it
as a repository for all recalled experiences, the impressions these experiences leave on the mind,
and the tendencies that are awoken or reinforced by these impressions.
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Every experience, thought, and impression you’ve ever had is stored in your
subconscious mind and has a far greater influence on our thought and behaviour patterns than we
realize.
The subconscious stores information just beneath the level of conscious awareness.
Individuals can retrieve such information relatively easily when required, and these are
commonly referred to as memories.
For instance, Suppose someone were to ask you right now what your middle name was,
you would recall it, as well as your father’s birthday, your siblings phone number and the last
time it rained. Past experiences are stored in what Freud referred to as the subconscious part of
our minds, which we may be unaware of at one point and then completely focused on at another.
Our success in life, work, and relationships is frequently determined by the habits we
develop over time. Setting priorities and completing critical day-to-day tasks requires both
mental and physical strength. As such, this habit is amenable to learning through practise and
repetition until it becomes ingrained in our subconscious mind and becomes an indelible part of
our behaviour.
This is also refers to as something that one is not currently aware of but could be brought
into consciousness at any given moment. For example, someone may forget to grab cheese
during a grocery trip until they see a sign that advertises a half-off cheese sale. The task of
buying cheese was in the preconscious mind until an environmental cue brought it into
consciousness.
The preconscious consists of those things we could pay conscious attention to if we so
desired, and where many memories are stored for easy retrieval. Freud saw the preconscious as
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those thoughts that are unconscious at the particular moment in question, but that are not
repressed and are therefore available for recall and easily capable of becoming conscious (e.g.,
the “tip of the tongue” effect).
The preconscious mind is the information or thoughts that could be brought into
consciousness. For example, someone may see or hear something that makes them remember to
do something they had planned to do.
An example of the preconscious mind is the Freudian slip, or the slip of the tongue.
People often say words unintentionally and Freud thought this reflects an unconscious thought or
unresolved feeling.
Unconscious Mind
The unconscious is the final level of consciousness. This is composed of thoughts,
memories, and primitive/instinctual desires that are deeply buried within us, well below our
conscious awareness. While we are unaware of their existence, they have a sizable impact on our
behaviour and almost every aspects of our daily life. While our behaviours frequently reveal the
unconscious forces that motivate them, we are unable to readily access the information stored in
the unconscious mind. Throughout our childhood, we accumulated a variety of memories and
experiences that shaped or current beliefs, fears, and insecurities. However, we are unable to
recall the majority of these memories. They are unseen forces that influence our behaviour.
Things that may be forgotten in your unconscious mind include negative past experiences
or a traumatic event that you pushed out of your subconscious. Certain life experiences or
thoughts may be too frightening for some individuals to fully acknowledge and are thus mediated
by the subconscious mind.
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The unconscious consists of those things that are outside of conscious awareness,
including many memories, thoughts, and urges of which we are not aware. Much of what is
stored in the unconscious is thought to be unpleasant or conflicting; for example, sexual impulses
that are deemed “unacceptable.” While these elements are stored out of our awareness, they are
nevertheless thought to influence our behaviour.
Unconscious can also be referred to the part of the mind that contains all of the thoughts
and feelings that are outside of conscious awareness. The content of the unconscious mind
includes things that are in some way painful, shameful, or unacceptable to the individual.
STRUCTURE OF PSYCHE/MIND II (ID, EGO AND SUPEREGO)
As humans our behaviours, our thoughts and actions, are the product of our psyche. In
order to have an understanding of why we behave as we do, it is necessary to identify the
formation and structure of the human psyche. Sigmund Freud’s work in the field of
psychoanalysis was ground breaking because it answered questions about the human psyche in a
way that no one else had before him. This paper will explore Freud’s conception of the formation
and structure of the human psyche. It will discuss the shift from a static to a dynamic (libidinal)
conception of unconsciousness, sublimation and its fundamental role not only in an individual’s
psychological development but also in psychological development from a cultural perspective,
and finally it will explore the social dimension of identity formation. Explication of these
concepts will clarify the role of the human psyche in governing human behaviour on both and
individual and societal level.
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Frued analysed the human psyche in terms of three elements, which he calls, the Id, Ego,
and Super-Ego. In order to obtain an understanding as to why humans behave as they do, it is
necessary to examine all three.
The ID is the unorganized part of the psyche that contains a human’s instinctual drives. The id
is the only part of the psyche that is present at birth and it is the source of our bodily needs,
wants, desires, and impulses; particularly our sexual and aggressive drives. The id is an entirely
unconscious aspect of the psyche and, according to Freud, is the “source of all psychic energy”;
thus making it the primary component of personality. Freud claimed that the Id acts according to
the pleasure principle and that the id contains the libido, which is the primary source of
instinctual force that is unresponsive to the demands of reality.
The pleasure principle drives the Id to seek immediate gratification of all needs, wants,
and desires. Clearly instant gratification of these desires is not always possible and thus
psychological tension is created that needs to somehow be discharged. The Id remedies this
tension through, what Freud called, Primary Process. The Id uses Primary Process to fulfill the
need to act on an urge that is dangerous or unacceptable by creating a mental image of the
desired object to substitute for the urge. This mental representation then diffuses psychological
tension and relieves anxiety. Daydreaming and masturbation would be common examples of the
Primary Process. To elaborate, Freud believed that when a person masturbated it was to relieve
sexual tensions that they were experiencing. The act of masturbation proceeds from a mental
image that then substitutes for the object of sexual desire in reality. Masturbation provides, what
Freud thought, to be a perfect image of ones sexual desires. It allows that person to be in
complete control of their experience and it is because of this that some actually argue that
masturbation is better than sex.
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The desires of the Id give rise to the Ego, which is generally the component of the psyche
that ensures that the impulses of the Id are expressed in a way that is acceptable to the real world.
The Ego operates according to the reality principle.
The Ego is identified as being “a coherent organization of mental processes”. Freud’s
conception of the Ego is strongly related to consciousness and it controls approaches to the
discharge of excitations into the external world. It is an element of the psyche that tries to
regulate all of its constituent processes. Freud believed that even when one went to sleep at night,
the Ego continued to exercise a censorship upon ones dreams. It is from this aspect of the Ego
that it becomes necessary to discus its role in the unconscious. Repressions are an attempt to cut
off certain aspects of mental functioning not merely from consciousness but also from their other
forms of manifestation and activity. Those functions that have been shut out stand in opposition
to the Ego. All that is repressed is a part of the Unconscious mind meaning that it is possible that
a part of what was initially the Ego may become a part of the. Freud suggests that the real
difference between an unconscious and a preconscious thought consists in the notion that the
unconscious is formed from some material which remains unrecognized, whereas the
preconscious can be brought into connection with verbalizable images. With the repressed
unconscious there are no verbalizable images to refer to, thus it remains unrecognized.
Fundamentally, the Ego has a set of psychic functions able to distinguish between fantasy
and reality. It organizes thoughts and makes sense of the world. The Ego represents reason and
common sense. The ego is said to serve three masters: the external world, the Id, and the Superego.
The Super-ego is the third part of Freud’s system. The Super-ego reflects the internalization of
cultural rules, mainly taught by parents applying their guidance and influence. For Freud the
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Super-ego can be described as a successful instance of identification with the parental agency.
The Super-ego aims for perfection. It is made up of the organized part of the personality
structure, which includes the individual’s ego ideals, spiritual goals, and ones conscience. It is a
psychic agency that criticizes and prohibits ones drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions. The
Super-Ego works in contradiction to the Id because it strives to act in a manner that is socially
appropriate. As a consequence of the Super-Ego conflicting with the demands of the Id, the Ego
often has to mediate between the two.
Super-ego; it sometimes struggles to bring about harmony among the forces and
influences working and acting upon it, causing it to break out in anxiety; realistic anxiety
regarding the external world, moral anxiety, regarding the Super-Ego, and neurotic anxiety
regarding the strength and passions of the Id. To overcome these anxieties the Ego employs
defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are not necessarily direct or conscious. They lessen
the tension by covering up our impulses that are threatening.
EGO DEFENSE MECHANISM
Defense mechanisms are psychological strategies that are unconsciously used to protect a
person from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings. According to Freudian
theory, defense mechanisms involve a distortion of reality in one way so that we are better able
to cope with a situation.
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There are a large number of defense mechanisms; the main ones are summarized below.
1. Displacement
Displacement is the redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute
target. The target can be a person or an object that can serve as a symbolic substitute.
Displacement occurs when the Id wants to do something of which the Super ego does not permit.
The Ego thus finds some other way of releasing the psychic energy of the Id. Thus there is a
transfer of energy from a repressed object-cathexis to a more acceptable object.Turning against
the self is a very special form of displacement, where the person becomes their own substitute
target. It is normally used in reference to hatred, anger, and aggression, rather than more positive
impulses, and it is the Freudian explanation for many of our feelings of inferiority, guilt, and
depression.
2. Repression
Repression is an unconscious defense mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or
threatening thoughts from becoming conscious. This is not a very successful defense in the long
term since it involves forcing disturbing wishes, ideas or memories into the unconscious, where,
although hidden, they will create anxiety.
Repressed memories may appear through subconscious means and in altered forms, such as
dreams or slips of the tongue (‘Freudian slips’).
3. Introjection.
Introjection, sometimes called identification, involves taking into your own personality
characteristics of someone else, because doing so solves some emotional difficulty. For
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Introjection is very important to Freudian theory as the mechanism by which we develop our
superegos.
4. Denial
If a situation is just too much to handle, the person may respond by refusing to perceive it or by
denying that it exist. As you might imagine, this is a primitive and dangerous defense no one
disregards reality and gets away with it for long! It can operate by itself or, more commonly, in
combination with other, more subtle mechanisms that support it.
5. Reaction Formation
Reaction formation, which Anna Freud called “believing the opposite,” is a psychological
defense mechanism in which a person goes beyond denial and behaves in the opposite way to
which he or she thinks or feels.
Conscious behaviors are adopted to overcompensate for the anxiety a person feels regarding their
socially unacceptable unconscious thoughts or emotions. Usually, a reaction formation is marked
by exaggerated behavior, such as showiness and compulsiveness. By using the reaction
formation, the id is satisfied while keeping the ego in ignorance of the true motives.
THEORY OF INSTINCT AND LIBIDO
Freud believed that human actions are driven by libido (sexual drives) which he
translated to be instincts, he also believed human actions are life instincts which require them to
take actions for their survivals however Freud came to believe that life instincts alone could not
explain all human behaviours. With the publication of his book “Beyond the Pleasure Principle”
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in 1920, Freud concluded that all instincts fall into one of two major classes: life drives and death
drives—later dubbed Eros and Thanatos by other psychologists.
The Life Drive (Eros)
This is sometimes referred to as sexual instincts, the life drive deals with basic survival,
pleasure, and reproduction. While we tend to think of life instincts in terms of sexual procreation,
these drives also include instincts such as thirst, hunger, and pain avoidance. The energy created
by the life drive is known as libido.
In early psychoanalytic theory, Freud proposed that the life drive was opposed by the
forces of the ego, the organized, logic-driven part of a person’s psyche that mediates desires.
Later, he maintained that the life drive or Eros was opposed by a self-destructive death instinct,
later known as Thanatos.
The life drive is focused on the preservation of life, both of the individual and of the species.This
drive compels people to engage in actions that sustain their own lives, such as looking after their
health and safety. It also exerts itself through sexual drives, motivating people to create and
nurture new life.
Behaviours commonly associated with life instincts include love, cooperation, and other
prosocial actions. These behaviors support both individual well-being and the harmonious
existence of a cooperative and healthy society.
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The Death Drive (Thanatos)
Freud first introduced the concept of the death drive in his essay “Beyond the Pleasure
Principle.” He theorized that humans are driven toward death and destruction, famously
declaring that “the aim of all life is death.”
Freud believed that people typically channel this death drive outward, which manifests as
aggression toward others. People also can direct this drive inward, however, which can result in
self-harm or suicide.
Freud based this theory on clinical observations, noting that people who experience a traumatic
event often recreate or revisit it. For example, he noted that soldiers returning from World War I
tended to revisit their traumatic experiences in dreams that repeatedly took them back to combat.
With these observations, he concluded that people hold an unconscious desire to die but that life
instincts largely temper this wish. In Freud’s view, the compulsion to repeat was “something that
would seem more primitive, more elementary, more instinctual than the pleasure principle which
it overrides.” Thus, Thanatos stands in stark contrast to the drive to survive, procreate, and
satisfy desires.
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT & FIXATIONS
Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during five
psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During each
stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the
body.
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Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)
In the first stage of psychosexual development, the libido is centered in a baby’s mouth.
During the oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its
mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth
orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities
all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities
engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.
Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)
During the anal stage of psychosexual development the libido becomes focused on the
anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that
they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the
demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults
impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict
with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who
hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and
tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum’s
then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
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Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilettraining regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like
giving things away anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of
three to six years, wherein the infant’s libido (desire) centers upon their genitals as the erogenous
zone.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict
between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus
complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.
Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of
Freud’s most controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man,
kills his father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes
blind. This Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
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In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy
develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively
and get rid of his father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take
away what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis.
Hence the boy develops castration anxiety.
The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in
masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old
boy resolves his Oedipus complex.
Electra Complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl
desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of
penis envy and the wish to be a boy.
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis
with the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her ‘castrated state,’ and this creates
great tension.
The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take
on the female gender role.
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Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)
The latency stage is the fourth stage of psychosexual development, spanning the period of
six years to puberty. During this stage the libido is dormant and no further psychosexual
development takes place (latent means hidden).
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy
can be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child’s energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
Genital Stage (puberty to adult)
The genital stage is the last stage of Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality
development, and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the
successful resolution of which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another
person in our 20’s.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the
phallic stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse.
Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may
develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily
from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
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CRITICISM OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
1. Freud overemphasized sex
There have been criticisms of psychoanalysis from every imaginable angle. It has been equally
strongly defended, and has held up very well under fire. Two common criticisms, espoused by
laypeople and professionals alike, are that the theory is too simple to ever explain something as
complex as a human mind, and that Freud overemphasized sex and was unbalanced here (was
sexist). My opinion is that these criticisms are to a large extent the result of misreading, and
therefore miss the point. Freud's model is just that--a model. Like an economic model or any
other, it simplifies something almost infinitely complex to a point at which it can be analyzed.
Like the process of modeling anything, it is difficult to draw the line of oversimplification, but
Freud's theory and models are practical in understanding people and have been fruitful in tm
reatments. There are two important responses to the criticism regarding sexuality. The first is that
people misinterpret Freud's use of the word "sexual." The word should generally be inferred to
mean "sensual." Freud included in the concept "sexual" the genital, the anal, and the oral (Freud,
1964). However, even most modern Freudians would concede that Freud's emphasis on the
Oedipal complex was excessive. In light of this, another legitimate response to criticisms about
the role of sexuality in the theory would be to concede that Freud's emphasis was excessive, but
that that in itself does not really have any effect on the theory as a whole. .Freud's focus on sex is
simply a reflection of the time and period more than a determinant of personality.
2. Scientific status of psychoanalysis.
It is true that Freud essentially considered psychoanalysis a pure science, but that is a view which
has been superseded by the current view, which puts more emphasis on the issue of how fruitful
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psychoanalytic treatment is as a treatment. Even if an inordinate amount of time is spent writing
about theory within the profession, clinical practice plays the central role in the professional lives
of psychoanalysts . As a science, psychoanalysis is imperfect, but it has stood the test of time as
an important basis of psychotherapy.
3. Emphasizes more on childhood.
Criticism of the psychoanalytic theory is that it places far too much emphasis on childhood. For
one, Freud's theory says that personality development occurs during childhood, but many
modern psychologists say that this development is life-long. A similar criticism is that the minds
of children do not attain as much trauma that Freud linked many psychological illnesses to.
Also, criticism has been raised against Freudian slips, saying they do not arise from unconscious
motives, but rather confusion in word retrieval from memory. Also, Freud's ideas of repression
are rebuked by most modern psychologists who say repression is a rare phenomenon and that
intense stress and pain actually causes better remembrance of an event.
4. Idea of unconscious mind
One other criticism of his theory was directed on his idea of the unconscious mind. Critics stated
that the unconscious mind did not consist of hidden or repressed, passionate emotions. Instead, it
was underlying information such as cognition, memory, perception, as well as emotion, but
generally not the repressed kind.
As more has been learned about child development since Freud's theories were first launched,
there has been an increasing lack of support for some of his assumptions about the human
personality. Perhaps none of his ideas have met with as much criticism as his psychosexual
stages of development. While many modern-day clinicians still find aspects of his stages helpful,
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most do not adhere to the presupposition of sexual conflict being the central task of
developmental maturity. Thus, concepts like Oedipal and Electra complexes are held by a very
small minority of professionals overall.
5. Emphasis on psychopathology
Other criticism of Freud concerns his training as a physician and his extensive reliance on a
medical model to develop his theory of psychoanalysis. His strong emphasis on pathology causes
him to label behavior as "problematic" or "inappropriate" that most in contemporary times would
classify as normative or common to the human condition. In other words, he is accused by some
of "creating" psychopathology when it may not be anything out of the ordinary human
experience.
6. Freud method of data collection
Example: Data collection and report Freud's methods of collecting data from his patients have
also drawn much criticism by scholars
Freud did not make verbatim transcripts of his conversations with patients. If he made notes at
all it was typically hours after the interaction. Critics claim that important data would inevitably
be lost because recall of specific details would fade the longer the interval between analysis and
recording. This opened up the possibility that there were important omissions and distortions of
the original data.
Because a central component of Freud's theory involved interpretation of a patient's disclosures,
some critics claim that Freud could have easily recalled and recorded only what he wanted to
hear or selectively chosen those aspects that would support his assumptions.
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Freud claimed that a high percentage of his female clients had experienced sexual abuse
as children, often by their fathers. Some have suggested that Freud used suggestive or even
coercive procedures to elicit or plant memories of child sexual abuse in his patients. Freud
himself later acknowledged that some recollections by his patients may have been fantasies they
imagined. He even left the door open to the possibility, though he did not explicitly state it as
fact, that he may have influenced their recollection in a coercive way.Researchers have found
discrepancies between Freud's notes . Freud only published six case histories, and none are
considered to be compelling evidence for the soundness of psychoanalysis. One of the cases he
published was not even one of his patient, but that of another physician.Even if Freud's
recollections of events discussed in therapy were completely accurate, the reports given to him
by patients may not have matched reality. Freud is known to have spent little time verifying
accounts about patient's childhood experiences, especially those accusing family members of
sexual abuse. Critics argue that he should have questioned family members to determine the
accuracy of patient reports.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY
Psychoanalysis is based on Freud's theory that people can experience and gain insight
into their state of mind by bringing the content of the unconscious into conscious awareness.
Through this process, a person can find relief from psychological distress.
Strive to understand the unique phenomenology of a person. In doing so, the meaning and values
that give significance to our lives are honored and supported. In our modern era of brain
research, a person’s experience of living is sometimes reduced to a discussion of biochemicals
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and brain structures. Love, happiness, sadness, or misery can be simplistically “explained” by
neuropathways, select brain regions, and neurotransmitters. While the remarkable advances of
science have allowed researchers to understand how biological systems function during the
experience of such emotions, they actually offer descriptions of how they happen, not
explanations for these phenomena. By reducing the essence of the human experience (or any
living creature’s experience, for that matter) to an objectified mechanistic system, we deny the
most salient of human abilities, our imagination! Our capacity to create seemingly limitless ideas
and stories has allowed the mind to be emancipated from the constraints of sensory reality. We
imagine, invent, create, and transcend beyond the material world toward a world of potentialities.
Certainly, psychoanalysis is still relevant today!
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REFERENCES
Freud Sigmund “Mental Functioning,” in A General Selection From the Works of Sigmund
Freud.
Freud Sigmund edited by John Rickman (Garden City, 1957, 38-45
Cherry, Kendra, The Conscious and Unconscious Mind (The Structure of the Mind According to
Freud) http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/consciousuncon.htm (accessed 10
12, 2013).
Freud Sigmund, “The Ego and The Id,” in A General Selection From The Works of Sigmund
Freud.
Daniel Lagache (London: Karnac Books, 1973),
McLeod, S. A. (2019, April 10). Defense mechanisms.
Conscious, unconscious and the subconscious mind https://xmonks.com/conscious-unconsciousand-the-subconscious-minds/
Freud’s psychoanalytic theories explained https://studiousguy.com/freuds-psychoanalytictheories/
Alexander, Sam. “In Memory of Sigmund Freud”, The Modernism Lab, Yale University.
Retrieved 23 June 2012.
13th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.
Appignanesi, Lisa and Forrester, John. Freud’s Women. Penguin Books, 2000.
Auden, W.H. “In Memory of Sigmund Freud”, 1940, poets.org. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
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Cohen, Patricia. “Freud Is Widely Taught at Universities, Except in the Psychology
Department”, The New York Times, 25 November 2007
2007 – 2023 GoodTherapy, LLC
www.europianmedical.info
Myers, D. (2010). Psychology in modules: PersonalityNew York: Worth Publishers.
www.personalityresearch.org
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica
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