Pseudo code Tutorial and Exercises – Teacher’s Version
Pseudo-code is an informal way to express the design of a computer program or an algorithm in
1.45. The aim is to get the idea quickly and also easy to read without details. It is like a young child
putting sentences together without any grammar. There are several ways of writing pseudo-code;
there are no strict rules. But to reduce ambiguity between what you are required to do and what
you express let’s base the pseudo code on the few defined conventions and carry out the exercises.
Pseudo-code Examples
Repeatedly steps through the list to be
sorted, comparing each pair of adjacent
items and swapping them if they are in
the wrong order.
Let’s see few examples that can be used to write pseudo-code.
1.
Sort
Taking the sorting example; let’s sort an array using the Bubble sort technique. This sorting
algorithm could be implemented in all programming languages but let’s see the C implementation.
void ArraySort(int This[], CMPFUN fun_ptr, uint32 ub)
{
/* bubble sort */
uint32 indx;
uint32 indx2;
int temp;
int temp2;
int flipped;
if (ub <= 1)
return;
indx = 1;
do
{
flipped = 0;
for (indx2 = ub - 1; indx2 >= indx; --indx2)
{
temp = This[indx2];
temp2 = This[indx2 - 1];
if ((*fun_ptr)(temp2, temp) > 0)
{
This[indx2 - 1] = temp;
This[indx2] = temp2;
flipped = 1;
}
}
} while ((++indx < ub) && flipped);
What’s your impression?
Is it easy to understand at once
this C implementation?
Bubble sort is mostly used in teaching.
However, its performance is slow and in
2.44 the students will discover that there
are better algorithms.
}
Page 1 of 16
Here is some pseudo code for this algorithm.
What’s easier to understand,
the implementation in C or
pseudo-code?
Set n to number of records to be sorted
repeat
flag = false;
for counter = 1 to n-1 do
if key[counter] > key[counter+1] then
swap the records;
set flag = true;
end if
end do
n = n-1;
until flag = false or n=1
OR the same can be expressed more concisely in words as below
repeat
set a flag to False
for each pair of keys
if the keys are in the wrong order then
swap the keys
set the flag to True
end if
next pair
until flag is not set.
OR even as follows
Keep swapping items until array is in order
This is easier than the programming language but is not
so precise. Hence the above pseudo code examples are
more useful for implementing purposes. This one-line
version may raise questions such as “on what basis do I
swap the items?” Therefore, it is important to be precise
too.
The main part is that it is important to provide easy to read but precise instructions; this will keep
the design simple and unambiguous.
Taking a practical example, if I gave you the following instructions:
(a) Take a left, then take a right, go down the stairs, on your right enter the kitchen, pick a cup
and pour some hot water and add some hot chocolate….
OR
(b) Please make me a hot chocolate.
The above line of instruction depends on the reader, some prefer to (a) if not experienced while
others prefer (b) because it nails it to the point. It is pretty concise too.
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Let us take Example 1 and divide the algorithm implementation in stages and conquer.
Example 1: Compute Fibonacci numbers till 50.
int main( )
{
int n, k, f1, f2, f;
if ( n < 2 ) return n;
else {
f1 = f2 = 1;
for(k=2;k<n;k++)
{
f = f1 + f2;
f2 = f1;
f1 = f;
}
return f;
}
C implementation
The statements with // are
just comments
Let us first declare and initialise all the variables.
Declare an integer variable called n
Declare an integer variable sum
Declare an integer variable f1
Declare an integer variable f2
set loopcounter to 2
values
set sum to 0
set f1 and f2 to 1
set n to 50
Now the computation and displaying the output
// n is the numberlimit
// f is the sum
// f1 is temporary storage
// f2 is temporary storage
// assigning the variables declared above to
Instead of an equal sign an
arrow sign ← can also be
used
repeat n times
sum = f1 + f2
f2 = f1
f1 = sum
print sum
end loop
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If all the above sections of pseudo code are put together we will get something looking like the
example below
Pseudo Code Example 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Declare an integer variable called n
Declare an integer variable sum
Declare an integer variable f1
Declare an integer variable f2
set sum to 0
set f1 and f2 to 1
set n to 50
repeat n times
a. sum = f1 + f2
b. f2 = f1
c. f1 = sum
d. print sum
end loop
For example in Pseudo
Code Example1 the
scope of a loop starts at
line 9 and ends at 10
Points to note
 Usually scope terminators such as start and end are used.
 Say if you want to consider a check if the n is more than 2 then you can have an if – endif
statement
if n < 2 then
print n
end if
If this condition is true only then continue initialising the
temporary variables and the computation else exit of the function
This if – endif statement would come in before code line 7. Pseudo Code Example 1 is one of the
ways that pseudo code can be written. Below is another example where it exempts the declaration
of the variable and directly initialises them to a value. It is quite wordy than Pseudo Code Example 1.
Pseudo- Code Example 2
Initialise n to fifty
Initialise sum to zero
Initialise f1 and f2 to zero
repeat n times
add f1 and f2, store this value in sum
assign f1’s current value to f2
assign sum’s current value to f1
end loop
These examples are just suggested ways of writing pseudo-code. There are various approaches that
you can use. I have included a number of links in Table 2 each having variations of pseudo-code
writing techniques with few examples. No strict rules are defined but just easy to read but precise.
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Let’s look at another example
2.
Nested Function
Now let’s have an example of a nested function in other words where a function calls another
function.
Exercise: Create an array of size 10 and assign random values to each element of the array and print.
The random values are generated by another function which we do not implement but it is just
invoked to complete our need.
Example 3: The implementation is in Java programming language.
int arr;
// Declaring a variable called arr
// which will be later used to create an array
arr = new int[10];
// Initialising the array
for(int i = 0; i < arr.size(); i++) // Loop
{
arr[i] = random ();
// insert random numbers into the array
print arr[i];
}
Pseudo Code Example 3
Declare an integer variable arr
Declare an integer variable loopcounter
Since there is a use of the loopcounter to
succeed to the next element in the array
the for loop is vital.
Set arr to size 10
for loopcounter = 0 to (size of arr)-1
arr[loopcounter] = random()
loopcounter = loopcounter + 1
print arr[loopcounter]
endfor
Points to note
 There are two function calls random() and size(). size() gets the size of the initialised array
and randon() generates numbers randomly.
The process could be re-written in a wordier format and quite precise than the above example. See
Pseudo Code Example 4 for this.
Pseudo Code Example 4
fill the array with random variables
Pseudo Code Example 4 is very concise description of the algorithm and most programmers know
how to implement it.
Page 5 of 16
Desk – Checking
Desk checking is a way of testing your algorithm; it can be also called as code walk through. There
are several ways of testing for example by showing it to peers or by implementing it into a
programming language and just executing the code step-by-step. But desk checking is faster and it
helps one to think like a compiler and a debugger.
The Desk Check Guide at the link below has a range of examples with desk checking.
http://ironbark.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/subjects/PE/2005s1/other_resources/desk_check_guide.ht
ml . This guide creates a table of input, outputs and various variables against the code lines and
checks what happens to the variables at each line of code. But this seems to be time consuming
especially if the algorithm is complex. Desk checking checks the internal workings of an algorithm.
There is power point on the teaching on desk checking. Use this link
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/15885541/Desk-Checking.
There is no fixed way of desk checking but taking the Fibonacci example I have suggested a simpler
way to do it (simpler than the Desk Check Guide).
Let us make n = 6 and the set values are of f1 = f2 = 1.
Table 1: Fibonacci desk-check
Code line 11
At loopcounter
2
3
4
5
Code line 12
Sum (f1 + f2)
2
3
5
8
Code line 13
f2
1
2
3
5
Code line 14
f1
1
3
5
8
Code line 15
Increment loop by 1
3
4
5
6
Side check: is it overlimit
Answer : No, then continue.
Hits the limit. STOP Looping.
Page 6 of 16
Extra Information
There are few keywords that are common while writing pseudo-code.
Looping and selection

Keywords :
Do While...EndDo;
Do Until...Enddo;
Case...EndCase;
If...Endif;
Call;
When;

Most authors use scope terminators (Start-end, If-endif, for-endfor, do-endo) for loops
and iteration.
As verbs, use the words



Generate,Compute,Process, etc.
Words such as set, reset, increment, compute, calculate, add, sum, multiply, ...
Displaying :
o print, display, input, output, edit, test , etc. with careful indentation tend to
foster desirable pseudocode.
Expressions
Common Operators: =, +, -, *, /, (), <, <=, >, >=, [], %, ^. Sometimes add, sum, subtract, etc. are used
instead. But a + b is better and quick to understand. Such are language independent while some are
not such as % or mod. Thus, it is better to specifically mention modulo, e.g. a modulo B.
It is not necessary to include data declarations in your pseudo code.
Page 7 of 16
Useful links
All these links cover all the AS expectations but one particular link does not cover all of them. Hence, I have listed all these in a table. So for further
information you can refer to the following links. These include various sites of pseudo-code writing tutorials/information and desk checking.
Table 2: Useful Links with extra information and various examples to practice
1
2
3
4
5
Link
http://ironbark.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/subjects/PE/2005s1/other
_resources/desk_check_guide.html
http://ironbark.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/subjects/PE/2005s1/other
_resources/pseudocode_guide.html
http://userpages.wittenberg.edu/bshelburne/Comp150/Algorithm
s.htm
http://www.unf.edu/~broggio/cop3530/3530pseu.htm
6
http://www.dreamincode.net/forums/topic/59022-using-pseudocode-to-design-application-logic/
http://www.roseindia.net/tutorialsearch/?t=pseudocode
7
http://users.csc.calpoly.edu/~jdalbey/SWE/pdl_std.html
8
http://www.brpreiss.com/books/opus5/html/book.html
Difference
Has number of desk checking examples
Has pseudo code examples
Shows use of various pseudo-code jargon
Does not declare the variables first , instead initializes
them directly, only examples and also shows use of
parameters in pseudo code
A simple example but emphasises the importance of
specifying in detail
Links to several examples of pseudo-code (with various
scenarios) writing from Java
Pseudo-code conventions and simple examples, calling of
sub-procedures
Complicated algorithms available that can be used to
write pseudo - code
Level of useful
Adequate
Basic
Too basic
Basic
Basic
Basic
Basic
Advanced material
for interested
students (beyond
AS)
Page 8 of 16
We live and learn.
There are few exercises below. These exercises are of a mixed range such as achieved, merit and excellence. They aim to cover the advanced concepts from
computer science to ensure students gain an understanding of modular algorithmic structure design. These exercises can be taken further and
implemented as expected for AS 2.46
Exercise 1: String reverse - Design an algorithm that reverses a string and print it.
Sample Answer
Achieved
Uses indexed data structure- array,
includes data type, specifies variables ,
uses the value in the data structure
(prints the string in the reverse order)
Merit
Excellence
×
×
Algorithm start
Declare an array of string type variable called word
Declare a loopcounter
Store a string in the array word
for loopcounter = (length of the word) – 1 to 0
loopcounter = loopcounter – 1
print arrayword[loopcounter]
endfor
Algorithm end
Page 9 of 16
Exercise 2: Replace every third element in the array with the value 10. Assume that an array filled with values is already provided. (Hint: Use example 3)
Sample Answer1
Achieved
for loopcounter = 2 to size of the array length – 1
arr[loopcounter]= 10;
Merit
loopcounter = loopcounter + 3;
Excellence
Uses indexed data structure- array,
includes data type, specifies variables
Modifies the content in the indexed
data-structure, has boundary cases
×
endfor
A better way of
writing for loop.
Sample Answer 2
Set loopcounter to 0
for every third element in the array
replace the existing value with 10
OR
Sample Answer 3
for the array from 2 to size of the array length -1 by 3
replace the existing value with 10
endfor
increment loopcounter by 3 ;
endfor
ASIDE: You can extend this exercise for example; consider there are duplicated values in the array. To delete duplicated values you will have to first sort the
array and then delete them. Moreover, you will have to decrease the size of the array. In addition you can also insert values at various places in the array.
Page 10 of 16
Achieved
×
Merit
Modifies the contents of the indexed data structure
Excellence (If Sample Answer 3 is used then this level can be achieved
too). It calls a module to conduct the Caesar Cipher.
Exercise 3: Caesar Cipher- it is an encryption technique for sending secret messages. Let’s take the example of the alphabets.
You can have a look and experiment with various words at http://www.secretcodebreaker.com/caesar-cipher.html. This
Sample Answer
for each character c
output = ( c+3 ) modulo 26
Alternatives for the output statement can be:
Sample Answer 2
output k characters after c in the alphabets
OR
Sample Answer 3
output code(c)
Define code (parameters: c)
return c + 3 modulo 26
For some the Sample Answer1 is easier to understand while for others the alternatives spell out all that they need. Note: If Sample Answer 3 is used then it
satisfies the excellence expectation.
Page 11 of 16
Achieved
×
Merit
×
Excellence Calls modules, well-structured logical
decomposed task.
Exercise 4: Multiple modules
Print a line of stars and then for five times print an asterisk, multiple spaces and print an asterisk and then finally print again a line of stars.
Sample Answer
FullLine
repeat five times
HollowLine
FullLine
FullLine()
print 5 asterisks
newline
HollowLine()
print *
print 3 spaces
print *
newline
*****
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*****
ASIDE: To fulfil each of the condition of the exercise two separate functions have been defined - FullLine and a HollowLine. These have no parameters. We
could have compressed it all in one function as below.
print 5 asterisks
newline
repeat five times
print *
print 3 spaces
print *
newline
print 5 asterisks
newline
Which one is elegant, the one
above or this one?
The example above has modules that constitute a well-structured logical decomposition for the task.
There are more similar exercises, but these use parameters. Even though the AS does not expect to let’s practice with these.
Page 12 of 16
Achieved
×
Merit
×
Excellence Calls modules, well-structured logical
decomposed task.
Exercise 5: Convert binary to Hexadecimal (relates to AS 2.44)
Convert an integer (a decimal) number to hexadecimal.
Sample Answer
Declare a string variable numbin
Read in value numbin to a value of binary numbers
Call ConvBintoHex(arguments:numbin) and return the hexadecimal numbers
print numhex
ConvBintoHex (parameters: binarynumber)
Divides binary number in groups each containing 4
binary number and computes a value for each group
Important to note: The word Call is significantly used when invoking another procedure or module.
The function contains a parameter and in the relevant box it shows how to write pseudo-code for functions with parameters. Note the difference when a
function with parameters is defined and when it is called. When the function is invoked it uses the notation ‘arguments’ but the notation used for the
function header is ‘parameters’. Some websites use: Call function name with parameter name, for example Call ConBintoHex with numbin.
Other Sample Answers
Declare a string variable numbin
Declare a long variable numhex
Read in value numbin to a value of binary numbers
numhex ← Call ConvBintoHex(arguments:numbin)
print numhex
OR
Call ConvBintoHex(arguments:numbin) and store the result
Page 13 of 16
Achieved
×
Merit
×
Excellence Calls modules, well-structured logical
decomposed task.
Exercise 6: Tower of Hanoi
Before starting the exercise a video at this link http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bPgv9D0lMfs&feature=related can be shown to the students.
Furthermore, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGlt2G-DC8c can be shown to the students; this video shows the tower of Hanoi process in a slow
motion and with few disks.
While writing the pseudo-code for tower of Hanoi for a number of disks there are few considerations. The disks of different sizes are stacked in ascending
order of size; from the largest to the bottom to the smallest at the top. Stack the disks from tower one to tower three as shown in the figure below. Only
one disk may be moved at a time. No disk may be placed on top of a smaller disk at any time (even in the process of stacking). Let’s experiment with three
disks.
Tower A Tower B
Tower C
Tower A
Tower B
Tower C
Sample Answer
Algorithm start
Move from Tower A to Tower C
Move from Tower A to Tower B
Move from Tower C to Tower B
Move from Tower A to Tower C
Move from Tower B to Tower A
Move from Tower B to Tower C
Move from Tower A to Tower C
Algorithm end
Page 14 of 16
The algorithm calls a module named move, this module moves the each disk one at a time. I have included a pseudo code found on a website to handle
indefinite number of disks.
FUNCTION MoveTower(disk, source, dest, spare):
There is more to this pseudo code that is it calls its function recursively.
(http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~cburch/survey/recurse/hanoiimpl.html)
IF disk == 0, THEN:
move disk from source to dest
ELSE:
MoveTower(disk - 1, source, spare, dest)
// Step 1 above
move disk from source to dest
// Step 2 above
MoveTower(disk - 1, spare, dest, source)
// Step 3 above
END IF
Page 15 of 16
Let’s see if you can solve this.
Say, you ask a friend to go out and buy 1L of milk, and if there are eggs, to buy 10. So what does your friend buy in the end?i
It is precise, is it unambiguous?
MORAL: There is no one defined way of writing pseudo code but a pseudo-code should possess three elements: clarity, precision and concise.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ HAVE FUN ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
i
10 Litres of milk
Page 16 of 16