A synthesis reaction is ....A reaction where atoms or molecules combine to form more larger or complex molecules
{{c1::anabolic reactions}} are another name for synthesis reactions and involve the&nbsp;{{c1::formation of a bond}}<br>
D{{c1::ecomposition reactions}} or&nbsp;{{c1::Catabolic reactions}} are the opposite of synthesis reactions and involve the&nbsp;{{c1::breakdown}} of a molecule into&nbsp;{{c1::smaller molecules or its constituent atoms}}
Exchange reactions are also called&nbsp;{{c1::displacement reactions }} which involve both&nbsp;{{c1::Synthesis}} and&nbsp;{{c1::Decomposition}}
Carbohydrates consisting of:<div>One sugar are called&nbsp;{{c1::monosacharides}}</div><div>Two sugars are called&nbsp;{{c1::disachardies}}</div><div>Between&nbsp;{{c1::2-10}} are known as Oligosacharides</div><div>{{c1::Greater than 10 }} are known as polysacharides<br></div>
Carbohydrates can be classed as either a{{c1::ldo}} or&nbsp;{{c1::keto}} sugars
{{c1::Epimers}} are sterioisomers that differ in the poistion of the hydroxyl group at only one of their&nbsp;{{c1::asymetric}} carbons<div><br></div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div><br></div><div><br><div><br></div><div><br></div></div>
Examples of pairs of epimers:<div>{{c1::D glucose}} and D galactose<br></div><div>D glucose and&nbsp;{{c1::D mannose}}</div>
{{c1::D and L glucose}} are optical isomers<br>
An&nbsp;{{c1::anomeric}} carbon or C1 is a carbon derived from an&nbsp;{{c1::aldehyde or ketone}}
Epimerases catalyse the {{c1::stereochemical inversion}} of the configuration about an asymetric carbon atom in a substrate with {{c1::multiple centres of asymetry}} thus {{c1::interconverting}} epimers
Polysacharides consisting of a single sugar are called?Homoglycans
Main types of lipids are:<div>T{{c1::riglycerides}}</div><div>P{{c1::hospholipids}}</div><div>E{{c1::icoisanoids}}</div><div>S{{c1::teroids}}</div>
Triglycerides are stored in solid form in {{c1::adipose&nbsp;tissue}}&nbsp;as fat
What type of acids are fatty acids?Alkanoic
Phospholipids are derived from {{c1::phosphatidic}} acid
What are steroids?Lipids with a structure based on a four carbon ring known as a steroid nucleus
What type of acid are eicoisanoids derived from?Arachidonic acid
The four main tissue types in the body are?<div>E{{c1::pithelial}}</div><div>M{{c1::uscle}}</div><div>C{{c1::onnective}}</div><div>N{{c1::ervous}}</div><div><div><br></div></div>
The names of the 11 body systems are&nbsp;<div>I{{c1::ntegumentary system}}</div><div>S{{c1::keletal}}</div><div>M{{c1::uscular}}</div><div>N{{c1::ervous}}</div><div>E{{c1::ndocrine}}</div><div>C{{c1::ardiovascular}}</div><div>L{{c1::ymphatic}}</div><div>R{{c1::espiratory}}</div><div>D{{c1::igestive}}</div><div>U{{c1::rinary}}</div><div>M{{c1::ale Reproducitive&nbsp;}}</div><div>F{{c1::emale Reproductive&nbsp;}}</div><div><br></div>
f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-1"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-O.svg"" />"
f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-2"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-O.svg"" />"
f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-3"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-O.svg"" />"
f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-4"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-O.svg"" />"
f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-5"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-O.svg"" />"
f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-6"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-O.svg"" />"
f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-7"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""f9e486a50fc8466f8050e0714c054689-ao-O.svg"" />"
5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-1"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-O.svg"" />"
5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-2"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-O.svg"" />"
5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-3"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-O.svg"" />"
5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-4"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-O.svg"" />"
5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-5"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-O.svg"" />"
5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-6"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-O.svg"" />"
5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-7"<img src=""403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5c6725337684409cbbb14e166929ece8-ao-O.svg"" />"
Give some features of simple squamous epithelia-Single layer of flattened cells<div>-Disc shaped nuclei</div>
The function of simple squamous epithelia is to {{c1::allow materials to pass by simple diffusion and filtration}} and s{{c1::ecrete lubricating}} substances in serosae
Give a description of simple cuboidal epithelia-Single layer of cube like cells<div>-Large spherical and central nuceli</div>
What is the function of simple cuboidal epithelia?Secretion and absorption?
Describe stratified squamous epithelia:<div>{{c1::Thick}} epithelium consisitng of s{{c1::everal layers}}</div><div>Basal cells are cu{{c1::boidal}} or c{{c1::olumnar}} and m{{c1::etabollically}} active&nbsp;</div><div>Surface cells are {{c1::squamous}}</div><div><br></div>
Give a description of simple columnar epithelia-Single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei<div>-Many cells bear microvilli</div><div>-Some bear cillia</div><div>-Layers may contain goblet cells</div>
The functions of simple columnar epithelia are a{{c1::bsorption}}, s{{c1::ecretion of mucus}} and enzymes
What is the function of stratified squamous epithelia?To protect underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
What is the function of stratifed transitional epithelium?-Stretches readily<div>-Permits stored urine to distend urinary organ</div>
Give a description of pseudostratified columnar epithelia-Single layer of cells of differing heights<div>-Nuceli seen at different levels</div><div>-May contain goblet cellls and bare cillia</div>
e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-1"<img src=""Transitial epithelia"" />""<img src=""e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-O.svg"" />"
e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-2"<img src=""Transitial epithelia"" />""<img src=""e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-O.svg"" />"
e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-3"<img src=""Transitial epithelia"" />""<img src=""e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""e57ba255f4de4ec48d36174e5e5b5fa6-ao-O.svg"" />"
2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-1"<img src=""pseudo epithelia"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-O.svg"" />"
2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-2"<img src=""pseudo epithelia"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-O.svg"" />"
2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-3"<img src=""pseudo epithelia"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-O.svg"" />"
2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-4"<img src=""pseudo epithelia"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2c957fda70a34b2ca921c833783b7883-ao-O.svg"" />"
The three types of muscle tissue are:<div>S{{c1::mooth muscle&nbsp;}}</div><div>C{{c1::ardiac muscle}}&nbsp;</div><div>Sk{{c1::eletal muscle}}</div>
Give a description of skeletal muscle-Long<div>-Cylindrical</div><div>-Multinucleate</div><div>-Striations</div>
Give a description of cardiac muscle&nbsp;-Branching<div>-Striated&nbsp;</div><div>-Uninucleate cells that connect at specialised junctions called intercalated discs</div>
fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-1"<img src=""cardiac muscle"" />""<img src=""fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-O.svg"" />"
fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-2"<img src=""cardiac muscle"" />""<img src=""fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-O.svg"" />"
fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-3"<img src=""cardiac muscle"" />""<img src=""fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""fae9a60c8cde4183bd2df35638e0cbb4-ao-O.svg"" />"
Give a description of smooth muscle-No striations<div>-spindle shaped&nbsp;</div><div>-central nuclei</div><div>-cells arranged closley to form sheets</div>
Neurones are {{c1::branching}} cells with cytoplasmic extensions that are called {{c1::processes}}
Processes allow neurons to:<div>{{c1::Respond}} to stimuli via processes called {{c1::dendrites}}</div><div>{{c1::Transmit electrical impulses}} over substantial distances via processes called {{c1::axons}}</div>
Supporting cells are known as {{c1::glial}} cells or {{c1::neuroglia}}
What are supporting cells?-Non conduncting cells that support, insulate and protect neurons
Examples of neuroglia in the CNS are:<div>A{{c1::strocytes}}</div><div>M{{c1::icroglial cells}}</div><div>E{{c1::pendymal cells}}</div><div>O{{c1::ligodendrocytes}}</div>
Examples of neuroglial cells in the PNS are:<div>S{{c1::atalite cells}}</div><div>Sc{{c1::hwann cells}}</div>
The ECM allows connective tissue to:<div>Su{{c1::pport weight}}</div><div>E{{c1::ndure damage}}</div><div>W{{c1::ithstand tension}}</div>
What are the main roles of connective tissue in the body?-Binding and supporting<div>-Protecting&nbsp;</div><div>-Insulating</div><div>-Storing reserve fuel</div><div>-transporting substances within the body</div>
The four classifications of connective tissue are:<div>C{{c1::onnective tissue proper}}</div><div>Ca{{c1::rtilage}}</div><div>Bl{{c1::ood&nbsp;}}</div><div>B{{c1::one}}</div>
What type of fibres do the ECM (extracellular matrix) consist of?-Elastic fibre<div>-Collagen fibre</div><div>-Reticular fibre</div>
What does the extracellular matrix consist of?-Fibres<div>-Cells</div><div>-Ground substance</div>
Features of elastic fibres<div>-Are l{{c1::ong}},t{{c1::hin}} and e{{c1::lastic}}</div><div>-Form {{c1::branching}} networks in the ECM</div><div>-Contain the rubber like protien {{c1::elastin}}</div><div>&nbsp;</div>
Features of collagen fibres:<div>-Tough and provide h{{c1::igh tensile}} strength</div><div>-Made up of the protein collagen</div><div>-{{c1::White}} in colour&nbsp;</div><div>- Collagen molecules form {{c1::cross linked fibrils}}</div><div>-Fibrils are {{c1::bundled}} together into thick collagen fibres</div>
Features of reticular fibres are:<div>-S{{c1::hort}} f{{c1::ine}} fibres</div><div>-Connect to {{c1::coarser}} collagen fibres<br><div><br></div></div>
What are the three components of ground substance?-Interstitial fluid<div>-Cell Adhesion proteins</div><div>-Proteoglycans</div>
What is ground substance?The unstructured material which fills the space between the cells and contains the fibres in the connective tissue
What is the function of cell adhesion proteins?Allows connective tissue cells to attach to the extra cellular matrix (ECM)
What is the purpose of interstitial fluid in ground substance?Functions as a molecular sieve through which nutrients and other dissolved substances can diffuse between the blood capillaries and the cells&nbsp;
What are the roles of astrocytes in the nervous system?-Support and brace neurons<div>-anchors them to their nutrient supply lines</div>
What are the roles of ependymal cells in the nervous system?-Form permeable barriers between cerebral spinal fluid-filled cavities and brain tissue
What are the roles of oligodendrocytes in the nervous systerm?Insulate thicker nerve fibres
What are the roles of microglial cells in the nervous system?-Migrate towards damaged neurons<div>-Transform into macrophages at damaged area</div><div>-Absorb invading microorganisms and dead neurons</div>
What are proteoglycans composed of?A protein core attached to glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
The 5 key steps of atherosclerosis formation are:<div>-En{{c1::dothelial Damage}}</div><div>-Formation of {{c1::a fatty streak}}</div><div>-Migration of {{c1::leukocytes}}&nbsp;and {{c1::smooth}} muscle cells into the vessel {{c1::cell wall}}</div><div>-{{c1::Foam cell}} formation</div><div>-{{c1::Degradation}} of the extra-cellular matrix</div>
What is atherosclerosis?Thickening or hardening of the arteries caused by gradual build up of plaque
What do lipoproteins consist of?-Inner core of triglycerides<div>-Outer shel of proteins</div><div>-Phospholipids</div><div>-Cholesterol</div>
6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-1"<img src=""artery_wall.jpg"" />""<img src=""6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-O.svg"" />"
6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-2"<img src=""artery_wall.jpg"" />""<img src=""6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-O.svg"" />"
6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-3"<img src=""artery_wall.jpg"" />""<img src=""6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""6217f19fd2b44ca28c25bef4bc7d66f7-ao-O.svg"" />"
Description of formation of atheromas in the arteries:<div><br><div>-{{c1::Endothelial cells}} become damaged in the tunica intima</div><div>-This increases {{c1::permeability}} of the arterial walls which allows {{c1::LDLs}} to enter the tunica intima</div><div>-This leads to development of a {{c1::fatty streak}}</div><div>-{{c1::Leukocytes}} are also able to move out of the blood stream and penetrate arterial walls</div><div>-Lipids and proteins in the LDLs undergo {{c1::oxidation}}</div><div>-{{c1::Macrophages}} in the tunica intima engluf oxidised LDLs and form {{c1::foam cells}}</div><div>-Foam cells {{c1::die}}</div><div>-Fibrous cap form through f{{c1::ibroproliferative progression}}</div><div>-Apoptosis of macrophages and other plaque cells leads to formation of a lipid rich {{c1::necrotic}} core</div><div>-Enzymes {{c1::degrade}} the cap</div><div>-Plaque ruptures</div></div>
What is the function of high density lipoproteins?Carries excess cholestrol from cells back to the liver to be broken down
What is the function of chylomicrons?Transports dietary fat and cholesterol from the intestine to liver, muscle and adipose. Enters blood stream via lymphatics
What is the function of very low density lipoproteins?Supplies tissues with triglycerides
What are the functions of low density lipoproteins?Carry triglycerides and cholesterol to cells
The three types of loose connective tissue proper are:<div>Ad{{c1::ipose}}</div><div>A{{c1::reolar}}</div><div>{{c1::Reticular}}</div>
The three main types of dense connective tissue proper are:<div>I{{c1::rregular}}</div><div>R{{c1::egular}}</div><div>{{c1::Elastic}}</div>
The three different types of cartilage are:<div>H{{c1::yaline&nbsp;}}</div><div>Elastic</div><div>{{c1::Fibrocartilage}}</div>
What is loose areolar tissue made up of?<div>-Collagen, Elastic and Reticular fibres</div><div>-Fibroblasts</div><div>-Macrophages</div><div>-Ground substance</div><div>-Mast cells</div><div>-White blood cells<br><div><br></div></div>
What is the function of loose areolar connective tissue proper?<div>S{{c1::upporting}} and {{c1::binding}} tissues</div><div>{{c1::Holding}} body fluids</div><div>{{c1::Defending}} against infection</div><div>{{c1::Storing}} nutrients as fats in {{c1::adipocytes}}</div>
Give a description of proper loose adipose tissueContains adipocyte cells which have a nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplets
What is the function of loose adipose connective tissue?Insulates against heatloss<div>Supports and protects organs</div>
Give a description of proper loose reticular connective tissueA network of reticular fibres, reticular cells in ground substance
The function of loose reticular connective tissue proper is:<div>-Forms {{c1::stroma}} of organs</div><div>-{{c1::Binds}} smooth muscle tissue cells</div><div>-{{c1::Filters}} and removes worn out {{c1::blood}} cells in the spleen and {{c1::microbes}} in lymph nodes</div>
Give a description of regular dense connective tissue properParallel collagen fibres with fibroblast cells in between them<div>Collagen is non-liiving</div>
The function of dense regular connective tissue proper is:<div>Withstands great {{c1::tensile}} stress</div><div>{{c1::Attaches}} muscles to muscles or muscles to bone</div>
Give a description of irregular dense connective tissue properIrregularly arranged collagen fibres, with few elastic fibres and fibroblasts between them&nbsp;
The function of irregular dense connective tissue proper is to provide {{c1::tensile strength}} in many directions
Give a description of dense elastic connective tissue properContains predominantly elastic fibres with fibroblasts in between them
The main functions of dense elastic connective tissue proper is:<div>-Allows tissues to r{{c1::ecoil}} after s{{c1::tretching}}</div><div>-Maintains {{c1::pulsatile}} flow of blood in arteries</div><div>-Aids {{c1::passive}} recoil of lungs after {{c1::inspiration}}</div>
Give a description of hyaline cartilage:<div>-Contains {{c1::collagen}} fibres</div><div>-Matrix which appears {{c1::hyal}}/glassy</div><div>-Contains chondrooc{{c1::ytes}} and chondro{{c1::blasts}}</div>
What is the function of hyaline cartilage? <b>SRP</b>-Suports and reinforces<div>-Resists compressive stress</div><div>-Provides flexibility and smooth surface for movement at joints</div>
What are some features of elastic cartilage-Network of elastic fibres (more than hyaline)<div>-Contains chondrocytes</div>
What is the function of elastic cartilage?-Provides flexibility<div>-Maintians the shape of a structure</div>
Give a description of fibrocartilage-Chondrocytes<div>-Thick bundles of collagen fibres</div>
What is the function of fibrocartilage?-Provides strength and rigidity<div>-Support and joining structures together</div>
The main components of blood are:<div>E{{c1::rythrocytes}}</div><div>L{{c1::eukocytes}}</div><div>T{{c1::hrombocytes}}</div><div><br></div>
What is the function of blood?-blood clotting<div>-transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide</div><div>-mediate immunie system responses</div>
Why is blood classed as a type of connective tissue eventhough it doesnt connect things or give mechanical support?-develops from the mesenchyme
What are the main components of bone?Lacunae<div>Lamellae</div><div>Central canal</div><div>Osteocytes</div>
The functional unit of compact bone is called an {{c1::osteon}} or {{c1::Haversian}} System
The two main body cavities are the d{{c1::orsal}} and {{c1::ventral}} body cavities
What does the dorsal body cavtiy protect?Brain and spinal cord
What does the ventral body cavity protect?Internal organs
The two main subdivisions of the dorsal body cavity are the :<div>C{{c1::ranial}} Cavity</div><div>V{{c1::erterbral}} Cavity</div>
The name for the organs housed by the ventral body cavity are the v{{c1::isceral}} organs
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303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-6"<img src=""thorcacic cavity labelled.png"" />""<img src=""303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-O.svg"" />"
303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-7"<img src=""thorcacic cavity labelled.png"" />""<img src=""303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-O.svg"" />"
303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-8"<img src=""thorcacic cavity labelled.png"" />""<img src=""303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""303b5ba4e6414310a4577cf99dd596b2-ao-O.svg"" />"
The two major subdivisions of the ventral body cavity are the:<div>A{{c1::bdominopelvic}} cavity and the T{{c1::horacic}} cavity</div>
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89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-2"<img src=""REgionslabelled.png"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-O.svg"" />"
89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-3"<img src=""REgionslabelled.png"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-O.svg"" />"
89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-4"<img src=""REgionslabelled.png"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-O.svg"" />"
89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-5"<img src=""REgionslabelled.png"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-O.svg"" />"
89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-6"<img src=""REgionslabelled.png"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-O.svg"" />"
89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-7"<img src=""REgionslabelled.png"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-O.svg"" />"
89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-8"<img src=""REgionslabelled.png"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-O.svg"" />"
89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-9"<img src=""REgionslabelled.png"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""89e53c3384e7470397aa9dcd2dcfacab-ao-O.svg"" />"
What are the name of the three types of membranes?-Cutaenous<div>-Mucous</div><div>-Serous</div>
Cutaneous membranes consist of:<div>-An epidermis layer which consists of k{{c1::eritanized}} {{c1::stratified}} squamous epithelium</div><div>-A dermis layer which consists of dense {{c1::irregular}} conncective tissue and {{c1::areolar}} connective tissue</div>
Mucous membranes consist of:<div>Lining layer of {{c1::epithelium}} and an underlying layer of {{c1::areolar}} connective tissue known as {{c1::lamina propria}}</div>
Serous membrane or serosa consist of {{c1::areolar}} connective tissue covered by {{c1::mesothelium}}/simple squamous epithelium
The name for the serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and covering the lungs is the {{c1::Pleura}}<div>The name for the serous membrane lining the adbdominal cavity and covering the abdomnal organs is the {{c1::peritoneum}}</div><div>The name for the serous membrane lining the heart cavity and covering the heart is the {{c1::pericardium}}</div>
The layer of the serous membrance which is attactched to and lines the cavity wall is known as the {{c1::parietal}} layer<div>The layer of serous membrane which is covers and adheres to organs within the cavity is known as&nbsp; the {{c1::visceral}} layer</div>
bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-1"<img src=""Serosalmembranes.png"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-O.svg"" />"
bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-2"<img src=""Serosalmembranes.png"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-O.svg"" />"
bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-3"<img src=""Serosalmembranes.png"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-O.svg"" />"
bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-4"<img src=""Serosalmembranes.png"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bb8c6e90c8754997b48ae974ea37d80b-ao-O.svg"" />"
What are the different human blood group types?-AB<div>-A</div><div>-O</div><div>-B</div>
Blood groups of individuals are determined by the antigens known as {{c1::agglutinogens}} on the surface of erythrocytes which are composed of glyco{{c1::proteins}} and glycolipids
People whose RBC's only display type A-antigens have type {{c1::A}} blood<div>People whose RBC's only display type B-antigens have type {{c1::B}} blood</div><div>Those whose RBC's display both type A and B antigens have type {{c1::AB}} blood</div><div>Those whose RBC's display neither type A or type B antigens have type {{c1::O}} blood</div>
Blood plasma contains antibodies called {{c1::agglutinins}}
You {{c1::do not}} have antibodies that react with antigens on your own red blood cells but you do have antibodies for any antigens that your red blood cells {{c1::lack}}
People whose RBC's have Rh antigens are designated {{c1::Rh+}} while individuals without Rh antigens on their red blood cells are designated {{c1::Rh-}}
What does HDN stand for?Haemolytic disease of the newborn
Give a summary of HDN-The immune system of the mother sees the babys RBC's as foreign<div>-This causes the mothers immune system to develop antibodies against the babys RBC's</div><div>-Antibodies attack red blood cellls in the baby's body causing them to break down ---&gt;haemolysis</div>
Development of HDN:<div>-Rh- mother (having no D antigen) carries an {{c1::Rh+}} fetus with D antigens</div><div>-During birth of the first baby there is the greatest chance of {{c1::fetal blood leakage}}</div><div>-This exposes fetal blood to the mother whose immune system will respond by producing {{c1::anti-Rh antibodies}}</div><div>-If the mother is preganant again the second child is {{c1::more likely}} to be affected as the mother will have antibodies small enough to cross the placenta and bind to antigens on the baby's RBC's leading to {{c1::haemolysis}}</div>
How is sensitization of the mother in HDN avoided?Rhesus prophylaxis
Describe how administration of rhesus prophylaxis can prevent HDN-Mother is administered anti-D antibodies<div>-Anti-D antibodies are able to bind to the D antigens on the fetal RBC's that leak into the mothers blood&nbsp;</div><div>-These antibodies are able to bind before the mothers immune system can respond to the foreign antigens on the baby's RBC's and produce anti-RH&nbsp; antibodies</div>
What are some signs/symptoms of HDN in babies-Anaemia<div>-Jaundice</div><div>-Enlarged livers</div>
What are some treatments for HND?-IV fluids<div>-Phototherapy which breaks down billirubin</div><div>-IV immunoglobin G therapy</div><div>-Exchange transfusion</div><div>-Blood transfusion</div>
How does phototherapy work to treat jaundice in babies?-Photooxidation adds oxygen to the billirubin<div>-This increases its solubility in water which makes it easier to break down</div>
Most homeostatic mechanisms are {{c1::negative feedback loops}}
What happens in a negative feedback loop?The output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity
Examples of variables in the body which can be controlled by negative feedback loops are:<div>Gl{{c1::ucose levels}}</div><div>E{{c1::lectrolytes}}</div><div>O{{c1::smolality}}</div><div>Cardiac {{c1::output}} /{{c1::stroke}} volume</div><div>H{{c1::eart rate}}</div><div>B{{c1::lood pressure}}</div><div>Oxygen and Carbon dioxide</div>
Examples of Variables which can be controlled by negative feedback loops are<div>-G{{c1::lucose levels}}</div><div>-E{{c1::lectrolytes}}</div><div>-Cardiac output/{{c1::stroke volume}}</div><div>-H{{c1::eart rate}}</div><div>-B{{c1::lood pressure}}</div><div>-O{{c1::smolality}}</div>
Give two situations where a positive feedback loop would be used?Childbirth and blood clotting
How is platelet formation an example of positive feedback?-Break or tear occurs in the wall of a blood vessel<div>-Platelets adhere to the site and release chemicals</div><div>-Released chemiclas attract more platelets</div><div>-Feedback cycle ends when plug is fully formed</div>
How is childbirth an example of positive feedback-Child pushes against cervix causing it to stretch<div>-Stretching causes nerve impulses to be sent to the brain</div><div>-Posterior pituitary gland releases oxytocin</div><div>-This causes the smooth muscle lining in the uterus to contract and the cycle repeats</div>
Define diastoleThe phase of the heart beat when the heart muscle relaxes and allows chambers to fill with blood
Define systoleThe period of contraction of the ventricles
What are the concequences of homeostatic imbalance of the heart: left side failure<div>Right side contintues to propel blood to the lungs</div><div>Left side d{{c1::oes not adequatley}} eject the blood into the systemic circulation</div><div>Blood vessels in lungs {{c1::engorged}} with blood:</div><div>Pressure {{c1::increases}}</div><div>Fluid leaks from blood vessels into lung tissue ----&gt; {{c1::pulmonary edema}}</div>
What is edema?Swelling due to fluid trapped in body tissues
<div>What are the concequences of homeostatic imbalance: Right Side failure</div><div><br></div>Causes peripheral {{c1::congestion​}}<br><br>Blood stagnates in body organs​<br><br>{{c1::Pooled fluids}} in the tissue spaces​<br><br>Impairs cells ability to obtain adequate nutrients and oxygen​<br><br>&amp; rid themselves of wastes​<br><br>​<br>Causes {{c1::edema}} (swelling due to fluid trapped in body tissues)​<br><br>Edema is most noticeable in the {{c1::extremities}} (feet, ankles, and fingers)​
What is stroke volume?The volume of Blood pumped out by one ventricle with each beat
How do you calculate stroke volume?End dyastolic volume (EDV) - End systolic volume (ESV)
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61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-9"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-O.svg"" />"
61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-10"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-O.svg"" />"
61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-11"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-O.svg"" />"
61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-12"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-12-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-12-A.svg"" />""<img src=""61098dfb80b9425e977ac8fb53d7557a-oa-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-1"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-2"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-3"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-4"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-5"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-6"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-7"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-8"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-9"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-10"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-11"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-12"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-12-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-12-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-13"<img src=""Regions in the body .png"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-13-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-13-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1076a21b90df419289a702b0616f5eb7-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is the subcostal plane and where is it located?A horizontal plane passing through the inferior border of the 10th costal cartilage on each side
What and where is the midclavicular planes located?Two vertical planes which pass through the midpoint of each clavicle
In X-rays less dense tissue appears {{c1::dark}} while denser tissues appear {{c1::light}}
1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-1"<img src=""pelvic cavity.png"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-O.svg"" />"
1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-2"<img src=""pelvic cavity.png"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-O.svg"" />"
1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-3"<img src=""pelvic cavity.png"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-O.svg"" />"
1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-4"<img src=""pelvic cavity.png"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-O.svg"" />"
1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-5"<img src=""pelvic cavity.png"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-O.svg"" />"
1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-6"<img src=""pelvic cavity.png"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-O.svg"" />"
1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-7"<img src=""pelvic cavity.png"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-O.svg"" />"
1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-8"<img src=""pelvic cavity.png"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-O.svg"" />"
1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-9"<img src=""pelvic cavity.png"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""1ca74d2a50d846889140b46a81e6b947-ao-O.svg"" />"
dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-1"<img src=""Body planes.png"" />""<img src=""dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-O.svg"" />"
dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-2"<img src=""Body planes.png"" />""<img src=""dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-O.svg"" />"
dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-3"<img src=""Body planes.png"" />""<img src=""dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""dab28a016a5846f297a2eda16609a940-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is an elevation movement?Movement of a body part in a superior direction
What is a depression movement?Movement of a body part in an inferor direction
What is a flexion movement?A movement that decreases the angle between body parts
What is an extension movement?A movement that increases the angle between body parts
An adduction movement is&nbsp; a type of movement towards the {{c1::medial}} plane/{{c1::midline}}
What is an abduction movement?Movement away from the medial plane/midline
What is a medial rotation?A rotational movement towards the midline/Bringing the anterior surface towards the median plane
What is a lateral rotation?Bringing the anterior surface away from the median plane/rotating movement away from the midline
A pronation movement is a {{c1::medial}} rotation of the {{c1::radius}} so palms of hands face {{c1::prosteriorly}}
A supination movement is a {{c1::lateral}} rotation of the {{c1::radius}} so palms of the hands face {{c1::anteriorly}}
What is an eversion movement?Moving the sole of the foot to face laterally
What is an inversion movement?Moving the sole of the foot to face medially
What is a protrusion/protraction movement?Movement of a body part anteriorly
What is a retrusion/retraction movement?Movement of a body part posteriorly
What is contractillity?How strong the heart muscle fibres can contract
End diastolic volume is affected by {{c1::preload}}
End systolic volume is affected by c{{c1::ontractillity}} and {{c1::afterload}}
Contractillity is influenced by the amount of {{c1::Ca 2+}} in the cardiac muscle and in the {{c1::extracellular}} fluid
Give an example of a hormone which can trigger calcium releaseEpinephrine/adrenaline
Chemicals which increase muscle contractillity are called p{{c1::ositive}} i{{c1::notropic}} agents
Negative inotropic agents {{c1::impair}} or {{c1::decrease}} muscle contractility
Examples of positive inotropic agents are:<div>n{{c1::orepinephrine​}}<br><br>e{{c1::pinephrine​}}<br>t{{c1::hyroxine​}}<br><br>gl{{c1::ucagon​}}<br>d{{c1::igitalis}} (drug)<br></div>
Examples of negative inotropic agents are:<div>a{{c1::cidocis}}</div><div>rising extacellular {{c1::K+}} levels</div><div>c{{c1::alcium}} c{{c1::hannel}} b{{c1::lockers}}</div>
Define blood pressureThe force per unit area exerted on a blood vessel wall
What are the two main types of immune defences?Innate and Adaptive/Acquired&nbsp;
Innate immune responses are {{c1::natural}} and no{{c1::n-specific}}
{{c1::Accquired/Adaptive}} immune responses are specific
Some examples of inate defences are:<div>-S{{c1::kin}}</div><div>-Mu{{c1::cous membranes}}</div><div>-P{{c1::hagocytes}}</div><div>-N{{c1::atural Killer cells}}</div><div>-M{{c1::acrophage-derived cytokines}}</div><div>-Complement</div>
Examples of adaptive/acquired immune responses are:<div>-A{{c1::ntibodies}}</div><div>-L{{c1::ymphocytes}}</div><div>-Lymphocyte-{{c1::dervied cytokines}}</div>
The bodies first line of defence are s{{c1::urface}} b{{c1::arriers}} such as skin and mucous membranes
What is the body's second line of defense?Innate internal defences/immunity
The body's third line of defense is acquired immunity such as...B and T lymphocytes
The body's second line of defence (innate internal immunity) consists of:<div>-P{{c1::hagocytes}}</div><div>-M{{c1::acrophages}}</div><div>-Ne{{c1::utrophils}}</div><div>-{{c1::NK}} cells</div><div>-M{{c1::ast}} cellls</div><div>-Int{{c1::erferons}}</div><div>-C{{c1::omplement}}</div><div>-In{{c1::flamation}}</div><div>-F{{c1::ever}}<div><div><br></div></div></div>
What are the four granulocytes?-Neutrophils<div>-Mast cells</div><div>-Basophils</div><div>-Eosinophils</div>
The different types of leukocytes are {{c1::monocytes}}/macrophages, g{{c1::ranulocytes}} and {{c1::lymphocytes}}
Name the primary lymphoid tissues-Bone marrow<div>-Thymus</div>
Name the secodnary lymphoid organs-Spleen<div>-Lymph nodes</div><div>-Tonsils</div><div>-Peyer's patches</div>
There are {{c1::20}} different amino acids
Describe the basic structure of an amino acidA central carbon atom joined to an amino (NH2) group, an R group, a hydrogen atom (H) and a carboxylic acid group (COOH)
All amino acids apart from glycine contain an {{c1::asymetric}} carbon atom so they are classed as optically active {{c1::steriosomers}}
All human amino acids are in {{c1::L}} form
The two enantiomers of amino acids can be classified as {{c1::D/L}} amino acids
What is the difference between L and D amino acids?In L amino acids the amino group is levo/on the left while in D amino acids the amino group is dextro/on the right
In a neutral solution amino acids are {{c1::zwitterionic}}
What is a zwitterion?An overall neutral molecule with both a positive and negative charge
Define isoelectronic pointThe pH at which the number of positive charges is equal to the number of negative charges
What are the three diffrent classes of bonds found in proteins?-Peptide bonds<div>-Covalent bonds</div><div>-Non- covalent bonds</div>
The only amino acid which preferes the <i>cis </i>confirmation is {{c1::proline}}
Why are <i>trans</i>&nbsp;peptide bonds prefered over <i>cis</i>&nbsp;in amino acids?Bulkier R side groups alternate on either side in trans confirmation but are on the same side in cis confirmation<div>Less repulsion is experienced in trans confirmation so it is more stable</div>
What causes a partial double bond to occur in peptide bonds and what are the concequences of this?-Resonance of electrons which prevents rotation around the double bond
What is a transamination reaction?The transfer of an amine group from an amino acid to a keto acid (amino acid without an amine group) which creates a new amino acid and a keto acid
"List of essental amino acids: (""Private Tim Hall or PVT TIM HALL):<div>P{{c1::henylalanine}}</div><div>V{{c1::aline}}</div><div>T{{c1::rytophan}}</div><div><br></div><div>T{{c1::hreonine}}</div><div>I{{c1::soleucine}}</div><div>M{{c1::ethionine}}</div><div><br></div><div>H{{c1::istidine}}</div><div>A{{c1::rginine}}</div><div>L{{c1::ysine}}</div><div>L{{c1::eucine}}</div><div><div><br></div></div>"
What is a protein confirmational disorder?A disease caused by the misfolding of a protein
What is the primary structure of a protein?The linear sequence of amino acids reading from the N-terminius to the C-terminus
Give examples of protein confirmational disorders-Alzheimers<div>-Mad Cow disease</div><div>-Huntingtons disease</div><div>-Cystic Fibrosis</div>
What is the tertiary structure of a protien?3D structure of a protein determined by interactions between side chain functional groups such as disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds
What is the secondary structure of a proteinRegular and repetitive folding pattern
What are some features of alpha helix coils-H-bond every 4th residue<div>-Rigid structure</div><div>-Outward facing side chains</div><div>-Coiled</div>
Alpha helixes rarely contain {{c1::proline residues}} as their rigid structures would not allow them to {{c1::twist at the appropiate}} angle hence it is also reffered to as a helix {{c1::breaker}}
Amino acids that have a propensity for formng a-helix coils are:<div>M{{c1::ethionine}}</div><div>A{{c1::lanine}}</div><div>Le{{c1::ucine}}</div><div>L{{c1::ysine}}</div><div>G{{c1::lutamate}}</div>
What are some features of beta-pleated sheets-Hydrogen bonding between regions of separate neighboring polypeptide strands alligned parallel to each other<div>-Pleated look due to the carbon-carbon bonds are tetrahedral and cant exist in a planar configuration</div>
List examples of 6 main different types of proteins-structural<div>-Enzyme</div><div>-Transport</div><div>-contractile</div><div>-Communication</div><div>-Defnsive</div>
What are the jobs of structural proteins?Mechanical support
What is the function of enzymes?Catalysis of biochemical reactions
What is the function of transport proteins?Moving substances across the plasma membrane
What are the functions of contractile proteins and give two examples?-Movement<div>-Actin and Myosin</div>
What is the function of communication proteins?-Trasmitting signals between cells<div>-Can act as chemical messengers or receptors in the plasma membrane</div>
What is the function of defensive proteins and give an example?-Protect agaisnt disease<div>-Antibodies</div>
The two major functions of albumin are {{c1::oncotic}} pressure and {{c1::transport}}
Oncotic pressure is a form of {{c1::osmostic pressure}} induced by large protiens which {{c1::forces fluid}} back into the capillary walls
What are acute phase proteins&nbsp;Blood plasma proteins which change in their serum concentrations (increase/decrease) during inflamatory states or infection
Give three examples of implications of protein misfolding-Gain of toxicity<div>-Loss of function</div><div>-Accumulation</div>
"What types of protein confirmational disorder is usually associated with ""loss of fucntion"".&nbsp;"-Cystic fibrosis
What is the efffect of the misfolded CFTR protein?-Mutant CFTR channel is unable to move chloride ions to the outside of the cell<div>-This causes sticky mucus to build up outside of the cell</div>
Accumulation of protein aggregates causes {{c1::amyloidosis}}
CFTR is a {{c1::chloride channel}}
Peripheral resistance is the {{c1::opposition}} to blood flow in vessels<div>Lower peripheral resistance {{c1::reduces}} blood pressure</div><div>High peripheral resistance {{c1::increases}} blood pressure</div>
List 3 factors that affect peripheral resistance-Diameter of blood vessel<div>-Length of blood vessel</div><div>-Blood viscocity</div>
bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-1"<img src=""Low bp homeostasis.png"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-O.svg"" />"
bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-2"<img src=""Low bp homeostasis.png"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-O.svg"" />"
bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-3"<img src=""Low bp homeostasis.png"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-O.svg"" />"
bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-4"<img src=""Low bp homeostasis.png"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-O.svg"" />"
bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-5"<img src=""Low bp homeostasis.png"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-O.svg"" />"
bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-6"<img src=""Low bp homeostasis.png"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bf53985b97624d2e80305ca64defcf81-oa-O.svg"" />"
What is the equation for blood pressure?CO x PR
What is mean arterial pressure?The average pressure in a patients arteries during one cardiac cycle
What is pulse pressure?The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure
What are the actions taken by the kidneys upon the detection of low blood pressure:<div>Decrease in Blood Volume (and BP) detected by the kidneys​<br><br>Release {{c1::RENIN}} - catalyses a cascade -forms A{{c1::NGIOTENSIN}} II a powerful vasoconstrictor - BP rises​<br><br>Angiotensin II also causes release of A{{c1::LDOSTERONE}} from adrenal cortex which increases both sodium and water reabsorption from the kidneys.​<br><br>This causes increase in blood volume and also PR​</div>
The liver responds to detection of low BP by increasing {{c1::albumin}}/blood plasma protien production&nbsp;
What type of genetic disorder is Von Gierke's?Autosomal Recessive disorder
What is the cause of type 1A Von Gierke Disease?A mutation in the G6PC1 gene which leads to a deficency in the Glucose-6 phosphatase enzyme
How is glucose normally converted to glycogen and stored in a liver cell in an individual without Von Gierkes disease?-Glucose molecule enters the liver cell and prevents it from leaving the cell&nbsp;<div>-This is done by phosphorylation of glucose and makes Glucose-6 Phosphate&nbsp;</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;OR</div><div>-Glycogen in the liver cell is broken down into glucose-6 phosphate</div><div>-Glucose-6 phosphate then needs to go through the endoplasmic reticulum via the Glucose 6 phosphate transporter 1 (G6PT1)</div><div>-Glucose-6 phosphate gets transformed into a Glucose molucle and an inorganic phophate molecule by a glucose-6 phosphatase enyme</div><div>-Glucose now exists the E.R via a glucose transporter and can then enter the blood</div>
How is storage of glycogen affected in type 1A of von gierke disease?-In type 1A there is a mutation in the Glucose-6 phosphatase enzyme<div>- As a result glucose-6 phosphate cannot be converted to glucose and an inorganic phosphate</div><div>-This leads to a build up of glycogen</div>
How is storage of glycogen affected in type 1B of Von Gierke Disease?-In type 1B there is a mutation in the Glucose-6 phosphate transporter<div>-As a result glucose-6 phosphate in the cytoplasm will not be able to cross into the E.R</div><div>-This leads to a build up of glycogen</div>
In Von Gierke's disorder there is a {{c1::build up}} of glycogen as it cannot be broken down which leads to enlargening of the liver known as {{c1::hepatomegaly}} or enlargening of the kidneys known as {{c1::nephromegaly}}
The main symptoms of Von Gierke's disease are:<div>H{{c1::epatomegaly}}</div><div>N{{c1::ephromegaly}}</div><div>E{{c1::levated lipid levels}}</div><div><br></div><div>In type 1B patients symptoms also range from:</div><div>C{{c1::hronic neutropenia}}</div><div><br></div>
What are some treatments for Von Gierke's disease-Transplantation<div>-Corn starch therapy</div><div>-Allopurinol</div><div>-Gastric tube</div>
What causes POMPE GSD II?A deficency in the acid-alpha glucosidase enzyme
How does a deficency in the alpha glucosidase enzyme affect the storage of glycogen in Pompe Disease?<div>A deficency in the {{c1::acid-alpha glucosidase}} enzyme found in {{c1::lysosomes}} is unable to hydrolyse the {{c1::1,4}} and {{c1::1,6}} glycosidic bonds within glycogen</div><div>This leads to an {{c1::accumulation}} of {{c1::lysosomal}} glycogen within the cardiac and skeletal muscle</div><div><br></div>
Pompe Disease is an {{c1::autosomal recessive}} genetic disorder
What are the symptoms of late-onset Pompe disease?-Respiratory failure<div>-Exercise intolerance</div><div>-Headaches</div>
What are the symptoms of infantile Pompe Disease? <b>CHBS</b>-cardiomegaly<div>-Hepatomegaly</div><div>-Breathing difficulties</div><div>-skeletal muscle weakness</div>
What are the treatment options for Pompe disease? <b>EFPM</b>-Enzyme replacement therapy<div>-Feeding tube</div><div>-Physical and occupational therapy</div><div>-Mechanical ventilation</div>
Which glycosidic bonds are broken down by glycogen phosphorylase enzyme?1,4 glycosidic bonds and 1,6 glycosidic bonds remain
What causes the Cori disease type III GSD?A deficency in the glucose debranching enzyme which breaks down 1,6 glycosidic bonds within glycogen and this is&nbsp; caused by a mutation in the AGL gene&nbsp;<div>This leads to a build up of limit dextrin</div>
How is glycogen storage affected in the Cori disease?There is an accumulation of abnormally structured glycogen
Accumulated glycogen in Cori disease have:<div>Very {{c1::short}} outer chains</div><div>Similar structure to {{c1::phosphorylase limit dextrin}}</div>
What are some symptoms of Cori disease? <b>HMES</b>-Hypoglycaemia&nbsp;<div>-Muscle weakness</div><div>-Elevated levels of fat in the blood</div><div>-Stunted growth</div>
What are some treatments for Cori disease?-Frequent infant feedings<div>-High protein diet (proteins converted to glucose by gluconeogenesis and proteins used in building of muscles)</div><div>-Cornstarch consumption</div>
What causes the Hers disease GSD?A lack of the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase in the liver&nbsp;
How does a deficency in the liver glycogen phosphorylase enzyme affect glycogen storage in Hers disease&nbsp;-A deficency in the liver glycogen phopsphorylase enzyme prevents the break down of glycogen into glucose-1 phosphate hence glucose is unable to leave the liver cell and enter the blood stream<div>-Glycogen continues to build up</div><div>-This leads leads to hepatomegaly</div>
What are the symptoms of Her's <b>HDSA</b>-Hypoglycaemia<div>-Delayed puberty</div><div>-Stunted growth</div><div>-adenomas of the liver</div>
What are the two main types of phagocytes?-Neutrophils<div>-Macrophages</div>
What are the two main types of macrophages?-Free macrophages<div>-Fixed macrophages</div>
Steps of phagocytosis:<div>1)Phagocyte {{c1::adheres}} to pathogen or debris</div><div>2)Phagocyte forms {{c1::pseudopods}} which eventually engulf particles forming a {{c1::phagosome}}</div><div>3)Lysosome fuses with phagocytotic vessicle forming a {{c1::phagolysosome}}</div><div>4)Lysosomal enzymes digest particles leaving {{c1::residual body}}</div><div>5){{c1::Exocytosis}} of vesicle removes {{c1::indigestible}} residual material</div><div><br></div>
Pathogens express PAMPs: P{{c1::athogen}} A{{c1::ssociated}} M{{c1::olecular}} P{{c1::atterns}} which are recognised by PRRS: P{{c1::attern}} R{{c1::ecognition}} R{{c1::eceptors&nbsp;}}
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11a89bf9fe5b4a25b342999ee318916b-ao-2"<img src=""innate immune response.png"" />""<img src=""11a89bf9fe5b4a25b342999ee318916b-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""11a89bf9fe5b4a25b342999ee318916b-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""11a89bf9fe5b4a25b342999ee318916b-ao-O.svg"" />"
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What are some benefits of inflammation? <b>PDA</b>-Prevents the spread of damaging agents to nearby tissues<div>-Disposes of cell debris and pathogens</div><div>-Alerts the adaptive immune system</div>
Examples of inflammatory chemicals are:<div>Hi{{c1::stamine}}</div><div>K{{c1::inins}}</div><div>P{{c1::rostaglandins}}</div><div>C{{c1::omplement}}</div><div>C{{c1::ytokines}}</div>
What are the four steps of phagocyte mobilization? <b>LMDC</b>-Leukocytosis<div>-Margination</div><div>-Diapedesis</div><div>-Chemotaxis</div>
0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-1"<img src=""Cardinal signs of inflamma.png"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-O.svg"" />"
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0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-3"<img src=""Cardinal signs of inflamma.png"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-O.svg"" />"
0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-4"<img src=""Cardinal signs of inflamma.png"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-O.svg"" />"
0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-5"<img src=""Cardinal signs of inflamma.png"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0b5fa92194fa44d09f3c014b40f1d659-ao-O.svg"" />"
What occurs during leukocytosis?:<div>-Release of {{c1::leukocytosis inducing factors}} by injured cells</div><div>-{{c1::Neutrophils}} enter blood from bone marrow</div>
What are the most important anitmicrobial proteins?-Interferons<div>-Complement proteins</div><div>-Lysozymes</div>
What occurs during margination in phagocytotic mobilization?Neutrophils cling to the capillary wall
What occurs during diapedesis in phagocytotic mobilization?Neutrophils squeeze and flatten between endothelial cells out of the capillary wall
What occurs during chemotaxis phagocytotic mobilization?Neutrophils migrate up the gradient of chemotactic agents
The three stages of inflammation are:<div>-V{{c1::asodilation}} and increased {{c1::permeability}} of blood vessels</div><div>-P{{c1::hagocyte}} e{{c1::migration}}</div><div>-T{{c1::issue}} repair</div>
Describe what occurs during an inflammatory response:<div>-{{c1::Inflammatory chemicals}} are released at the cite of injury<br><div>-{{c1::Vasodilation}} of blood vessels which leads to increased blood flow ({{c1::Hyperaemia}}) and allows delivery of important proteins e.g antibodies and clotting factors to enter the injured area from the blood</div></div><div>-Phagocytes then {{c1::emigrate}} to the cite of injury&nbsp;</div><div>-{{c1::Neutrophils}} then attempt to destroy the invading microbes by {{c1::phaogcytosis}}</div>
Accronym to remember cardinal signs of inflammation:<div><b>P</b>{{c1::ain}} which is due to release of certian chemicals</div><div><b>R</b>{{c1::edness}} because there is a sudden rush of blood to the area</div><div><b>I</b>{{c1::mmobility&nbsp;}} that results from some loss of function</div><div><b>S</b>{{c1::welling}} which is caused by an accumulation of fluids</div><div><b>H</b>{{c1::eat}} caused by more blood rushed to the affected area</div>
What are inteferons and what are their functions?Proteins released by virus infected cells and certain lymphocytes which act as chemical messengers to protect unaffected tissue cells from viral takeover
What are complement and what are their functions?Proteins which when activated lyse micororgansims, enhance phagocytosis by opsonization and intensify inflammatory and immune responses
The three pathways which complement can be activated are via:<div>-L{{c1::ectin}} pathway</div><div>-C{{c1::lassical}} pathway</div><div>-A{{c1::lternative}} pathway</div>
What is opsonization?Coating of pathogen with opsonins which enhances phagocytosis
What is a fever?Systemic repsonse initiated by pyrogens. An abnormally high temperature inhibits microbes from multiplying and enhances body repair processes
The lectin pathway is activated by {{c1::lectins}} which bind to specific {{c1::sugars}} on the microorganisms surface<div>The classical pathway is activated by {{c1::antibodies}} coating a target cell</div><div>The alternative pathway is activated {{c1::spontaneously}} due to a lack of {{c1::inhibitors}} on a microorganisms surface</div>
The role of natural killer cells is to promote {{c1::apoptosis}} by directly attacking virus-infected or cancer cells through release of {{c1::perforin}} and g{{c1::ranzymes}};recognise general abnormalities rather than specific antigens
Antibodies can be c{{c1::omplete}} or i{{c1::ncomplete}}&nbsp;
What are the roles of complete antigens?Immuogenicity&nbsp;<div>Reactivity</div>
What is an epitope?An antigenic determinant; the part of the antigen which an antibody recognises and attaches itself to
What is a hapten?A small molecule which when combined with a large carrier can stimulate an immune response
The name for the group of cell-surface proteins which identify a cell as <i>self</i>&nbsp;are MHC ({{c1::Major Histocompatability}}) or HLA ({{c1::Human Leukocyte Antigen)}}
Name four key characteristics of adaptive immunity-Involves B and T lymphocytes<div>-Its specific</div><div>-Its systemic</div><div>-It has memory</div>
The two types of adaptive immunity are c{{c1::ell mediated}} immunity and {{c1::hummoral}} immunity
What is clonal selection?Process by which a lymphocyte proliferates and differentiates in response to a specifc antigen&nbsp;
The four common life cycle stages of lymphocytes are:<div>O{{c1::rigin}}</div><div>M{{c1::aturation}}</div><div>S{{c1::eeding}} secondary lymphoid organs and ci{{c1::rculation}}</div><div>A{{c1::ntigen}} encounter and a{{c1::ctivation}}</div><div>P{{c1::roliferation}} and d{{c1::ifferentiation}}</div>
Describe what happens in the origin stage of a lymphpcteLymphocytes originate from red bone marrow
Describe what happens during the maturation stage of a lymphocyte-Lymphocytes destined to become T cells migrate to the thymus and mature there<div>-B cells mature in the bone marrow</div><div>-Lymphocytes develop immunocompetence and self-tolerance</div>
Describe what occurs during the seeding of secondary lymphoid organs and circulation?-Immunocompetenet naive lymphocytes leave the thymus and bone marrow<div>-They seed (colonize) secondary lymphoid organs and circulate the blood</div>
Describe what occurs during the antigen encounter and activation stage of a lymphocyteA lymphocyte binds to an antigen with specific antigen receptors which causes it to become activated
Immunocompetence is the ability to {{c1::recognize}}a specific {{c1::antigen}} by {{c1::binding}} to it
Self tolerance is the ability of lymphocyte to {{c1::recognise}} and be {{c1::un-repsonsive}} to self-antigens so it doesnt {{c1::attack}} the body's own cells
What occurs during the proliferation and differentiation stage of a lymphocyte<div>-{{c1::Activated}} lymphocytes proliferate and then differentiate into {{c1::effector}} and m{{c1::emory}} cells</div><div>-Memory cells and effector {{c1::T}} cells circulate in blood and throughout secondary lymphoid organs</div>
A lymphocyte which undergoes clonal selection gives rise to two major cell types: e{{c1::ffector}} cells and m{{c1::emory}} cells
Give examples of effector cells-Active T-helper cells<div>-Active cytotoxic t cells</div><div>-Plasma cells</div>
Give examples of memory cell-Memory T helper cells<div>-Memory cytotoxic T cells&nbsp;</div><div>-Memory B cells</div>
What is the difference between class I and class II MHC?-Class I MHC are built into the plasma membranes ( except RBC's)<div>-Class II MHC appear on the surface of APC's</div>
What are the functions of MHC class I and II proteins?Presenting peptides on the cell surface for recognition by T-cells
During maturation T-lymphocytes undergo positive selection to ensure that T-cells are able to recognize {{c1::self MHC proteins}} and prevents {{c1::apoptosis}} of self cells, and undergo negative selection to ensure that T-Cells dont recognise {{c1::self antigens}} displayed on self-MHC which could also result in {{c1::apoptosis}}
Give examples of antigen presenting cells-Dendritic cells<div>-Macrophages</div><div>-B cells</div>
All antigens displayed on an MHC class I protein are {{c1::endogenous}} while all antigens displayed on an MHC class II protein are {{c1::exogenous}}
<div>Stages of presenting an exogenous antigen by an anitgen presenting cell:</div><div>I{{c1::ngestion}} of the antigen</div><div>D{{c1::igestion}} of the antigen into peptide {{c1::fragments}}</div><div>{{c1::Synthesis}} of MHC II molecules</div><div>{{c1::Packaging}} of MHC II molecules</div><div>F{{c1::usion}} of vesicles</div><div>{{c1::Binding}} of peptide molecules to MHC II molecules</div><div>I{{c1::nsertion}} of the antigen MHC II complexes into the {{c1::plasma membrane}}</div>
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c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-2"<img src=""APC’s+and+MHC-II.jpg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-O.svg"" />"
c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-3"<img src=""APC’s+and+MHC-II.jpg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-O.svg"" />"
c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-4"<img src=""APC’s+and+MHC-II.jpg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-O.svg"" />"
c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-5"<img src=""APC’s+and+MHC-II.jpg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-O.svg"" />"
c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-6"<img src=""APC’s+and+MHC-II.jpg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c7505a488e494897961e7f2e52f48082-ao-O.svg"" />"
Describe the steps of processing an endogenous antigen:<div>D{{c1::igestion}} of antigen into peptide fragments using a {{c1::protein digesting enzyme}}</div><div>Sythesis of {{c1::MHC}} I molecules in ER</div><div>Binding of {{c1::peptide fragments}} to MHC I molecule</div><div>P{{c1::ackaging}} of antigen-MHC I molecules in ER</div><div>Insertion of {{c1::antigen MHC I complexes}} into the plasma membrane</div>
751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-1"<img src=""Figure+Endogenous+antigen+processing+and+presentation.jpg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-O.svg"" />"
751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-2"<img src=""Figure+Endogenous+antigen+processing+and+presentation.jpg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-O.svg"" />"
751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-3"<img src=""Figure+Endogenous+antigen+processing+and+presentation.jpg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-O.svg"" />"
751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-4"<img src=""Figure+Endogenous+antigen+processing+and+presentation.jpg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-O.svg"" />"
751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-5"<img src=""Figure+Endogenous+antigen+processing+and+presentation.jpg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""751b63178ecb4f06b90c44181cba245d-ao-O.svg"" />"
What are the two types of naive T cells?CD4 and CD8
CD4 cells usually become {{c1::T_HCells (T Helper)}} while CD8 cells usually become {{c1::T_C(Cytotoxic T-cels)}}
MHC restiction:<div>CD4/T Helper cells are usually are restricted to binding to antigens on class {{c1::II}} MHC's</div><div>CD8/Cytotoxic T-cells are usually restircted to binding to antigens on class {{c1::I}} MHC'S</div>
What are some examples of cytokines?-Interferons&nbsp;<div>-Interlukins</div><div>-Tumor necrosis factors (TNF)</div>
What are cytokines?Small protein molecules that stimulate or inhibit many cell functions
The two stages of activation of a T-cell are a{{c1::ntigen binding}} and c{{c1::o-stimulation}}
Describe what occurs during the antigen biniding stage of T-cell activationT cell antigen receptors/TCRs bind to an antigen-MHC complex on the surface of an antigen presenting cell
Describe what occurs during the co-stimulation stage of T-cell activation&nbsp;T-cell binds to co-stimulatory signals that appear on the surface APCs
What happens if a T-cell binds to an antigen without recieving the co-stimulatory signal?The T-cell becomes tolerant to the antigen and is unable to repsond<div>-This state of unresponisveness is known as <b>anergy</b></div>
What are the general roles of T_HCells?-Activation of B cells<div>-Activation of CD8 cells</div><div>-Amplification of innate defences</div>
Roles of subsets of T-helper cells:<div>T_H1:Stimulate i{{c1::nflamation}},activate {{c1::macrophages}} and promote {{c1::differentiation}} of cytotoxic t cells</div><div>T_H2:Defend agaisnt {{c1::parasitic worms}} (helminth),promote a{{c1::llergies,}} mobilize e{{c1::osinophils}},&nbsp;{{c1::IL-4,5,13}} secretion</div><div>T_H17: {{c1::IL-17}} secretion, promotion of {{c1::inflammatory}} responses&nbsp;</div>
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What is another name for antibodies?Immunoglobins
How does active humoral immunity differ from passive humoral immunity?-In active humoral immunity antibodies are produced by your B-cells in response to the encounter of an antigen<div>-In passive immunity ready made antibodies are introduced into your body so no immunological memory occurs and the immunity is short-term</div>
What are some example sources of active humoral immunity?-Vacination<div>-Infection</div>
What are some example sources of passive immunity?-Antibodies from breastfeeding<div>-Antivenom</div><div>-Antitoxins</div>
What is a nucleoside?A compound consisting of a purine or pyrimidine base linked to a sugar
What is a nucleotide?Are the monomeric units of nucleic acids; consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group
The chemical linkage between monomer units in nucleic acids is a&nbsp;{{c1::phosphodiester bond}}
What are the three pyrimidine bases?-Cytosine<div>-Thymine</div><div>-Uracil</div>
What are the two purine bases?-Adenine<div>-Guanine</div>
Describe the basic structure of DNA-Polynucleotide<div>-Anti parallel strands</div><div>-Consists of the bases A, T,C,G</div><div>-Double helix</div><div>-Double stranded</div>
Purines are&nbsp;{{c1::larger}} than Pyrimidines because Purines have a&nbsp;{{c1::two-ring}} structure while pyrimidines have a&nbsp;{{c1::one ring structure}}
Give some example uses of ATP-Protein synthesis<div>-Synthesis of DNA and RNA</div><div>-Nerve impulses</div><div>-Muscular contraction</div><div>-Synthesis of fats</div><div>-Phosphorylation of proteins</div>
Give some examples of nucleotide phosphates-ATP<div>-NAD</div><div>-CoA</div><div>-FAD</div>
The names of purine nucleosides end in&nbsp;{{c1::-osine}} and the names of pyrimidine nucleosides end in&nbsp;{{c1::idine}}
Give two examples of cyclic nucleotides<div><br></div>cAMP&nbsp;<div>cGMP</div>
Fibrous proteins:<div>Characteristics:</div><div>{{c1::insoluble}}<br></div><div>Functions:</div><div>S{{c1::upport}}, P{{c1::rotection}},a{{c1::nchoring cells}}<br></div><div>Examples of fibrous proteins:</div><div>C{{c1::ollagen}},a{{c1::ctin}},f{{c1::ibrin}},k{{c1::eratin}},e{{c1::lastin}}<br></div><div>Chemistry/Structure:</div><div>{{c1::Tertiary}}<br></div>
Globular proteins:<div>Characteristics:</div><div>{{c1::round/spherical}},s{{c1::oluble}}<br></div><div>Functions</div><div>e{{c1::nzymes}}, t{{c1::ransport}},h{{c1::ormones}}</div><div>Examples</div><div>A{{c1::lbumin}},H{{c1::aemoglobin}}</div><div>Chemistry/Structure</div><div>H{{c1::ydrophobic}}/H{{c1::ydrophilic}} T{{c1::ertiary structure}}</div>
What is another name for GSD type IV?Andersen disease
What causes the type IV GSD Andersons disease?A lack of the glycogen branching enzyme (GBE) activity which causes an abnormal amount of glycogen to build up in the liver and other organs
What are the concequences of the gene mutation which causes Anderson disease?<div>Causes abnormally structured glycogen known as {{c1::polyglucosan bodies}} to accumulate in cells which lead&nbsp;{{c1::cell damage}}</div>
What are the 5 subtypes of GSD IV?-Fatal perinatal neuromuscular type<div>-Congential muscular type</div><div>-Progressive muscular type</div><div>-Non progressive hepatic type</div><div>-Childhood neuromuscular type</div>
How does GSD IV affect the storage of glycogen?&nbsp;Patients with GSD IV will have an accumulation of an aberrant form of<br>Amylopectin-like polysaccharides.<br>Compared to glycogen the aberrant polysaccharide will have longer branches but<br>fewer branching points
Describe what occurs in the fatal perinatal GSD IVExcess fluid may build up around and in the fetus' body
Give some characteristics of enzymesBriefly combines with reactants during an enzyme-catalysed reaction<div>Remains unchanged after catalysing conversion of reactants to product</div><div>Are specific</div>
753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-1"<img src=""HOloenzyme.png"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-O.svg"" />"
753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-2"<img src=""HOloenzyme.png"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-O.svg"" />"
753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-3"<img src=""HOloenzyme.png"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-O.svg"" />"
753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-4"<img src=""HOloenzyme.png"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-O.svg"" />"
753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-5"<img src=""HOloenzyme.png"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""753a42c1fb854833bb12e343d354072f-oa-O.svg"" />"
Holoenzymes consist of an:<div>A{{c1::poenzyme}}</div><div>Co enzyme</div><div>{{c1::co factor}}<br></div>
Co Factors&nbsp;{{c1::change the charge}} in the active site are often&nbsp;{{c1::metalic }} in nature which help assist enzymes in biochemical reactions&nbsp;
Co enzymes bind to the&nbsp;{{c1::active site }} of the enzyme an help them to&nbsp;{{c1::function}}
"K<span style=""font-size: 16.6667px;"">_mis the subststrate concentration where the</span> {{c1::reaction}}&nbsp;<span style=""font-size: 16.6667px;"">velocity is&nbsp;</span>{{c1::1/2}}&nbsp;<span style=""font-size: 16.6667px;"">the&nbsp;</span>{{c1::maximum}}<span style=""font-size: 16.6667px;"">&nbsp;velocity</span>"
The smaller the K_mValue the:<div>H{{c1::igher}} the a{{c1::ffinity}} of the enzyme for the substrate<br></div><div>{{c1::Vmax/2}} is achieved at low&nbsp;{{c1::substrate concentrations}}</div><div>Enzyme only requires a&nbsp;{{c1::small amount}} of substrate to become saturated</div>
The larger the K_mvalue the:<div>{{c1::Lower the affinity}} the enzyme has for the substrate<br></div><div>Vmax/2 is achieved at&nbsp;{{c1::higher substrate}} concentrations</div><div>Enzyme requires a&nbsp;{{c1::large amount of substrate}} to be saturated</div>
The functions of allosteric enzymes<div>Act as i{{c1::nhibitors}} by displaying n{{c1::egative }} c{{c1::o-operativity}} OR Act as a{{c1::ctivators}} by displaying p{{c1::ositive }}&nbsp;{{c1::cooperativity}}</div>
What is an allosteric enzyme?Enzymes with a binding site other than the active site; the binding brings about confirmational changes thereby changing its catalytic properties
Charactertistics of allosteric enzymes:<div>-Have multiple s{{c1::ubunits}} and multiple a{{c1::ctive sites}}</div><div>-S{{c1::ygmoidal}} response rather than h{{c1::yperbolic}}</div><div>-Binding of substrate to one active site affects {{c1::properties}} of other active sites</div><div>-Activity may be {{c1::regulated}} by other molecules</div>
61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-1"<img src=""allosteric actvation.png"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-O.svg"" />"
61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-2"<img src=""allosteric actvation.png"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-O.svg"" />"
61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-3"<img src=""allosteric actvation.png"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-O.svg"" />"
61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-4"<img src=""allosteric actvation.png"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""61ff926144c64ba5a096e0d2bc462a52-ao-O.svg"" />"
What are the two allosteric effects?Homotropic (positive) and heterotropic (negative)
Give some examples of allosteric enzymes?=-Phosphofrucktinase<div>-Glycogen phosphorylase</div>
What is phosphofruktinase and how does it display allosteric properties?-An enzyme involved in glycolysis<div>-Negativley inhibited by ATP</div><div>-Positivley regulated by ADP</div>
What are the four different types of inhibitors?-competitive<div>-non-competitive</div><div>-uncompetitive</div><div>-mixed</div>
Descriptions of inhibitors:<div>Competitive – molecule {{c1::similar}} to substrate competes for active site.&nbsp; Can be overcome by {{c1::raising substrate}} concentrations. ​<br><br>Non-competitive – molecule binds to enzyme {{c1::somewhere other than active site}}, changing {{c1::3D shape}} and preventing activity. ​<br><br>Uncompetitive – inhibitor can {{c1::only bind once}} the substrate has bound​<br><br>Mixed – features of competitive + uncompetitive, can bind to enzyme or to ES complex ​<br></div>
What is the role of carbonic anhydrase?The bidirectional conversion of carbon dioxide and water into bicarbonate and protons
Give examples of two nucleotides which act as second messengerscAMP and cGMP
b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-1"<img src=""purine synthesis.png"" />""<img src=""b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-O.svg"" />"
b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-2"<img src=""purine synthesis.png"" />""<img src=""b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-O.svg"" />"
b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-3"<img src=""purine synthesis.png"" />""<img src=""b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""b159582fb6bf40cead423f220da8fab9-ao-O.svg"" />"
8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-1"<img src=""Pyrimidine synrhesis.png"" />""<img src=""8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-O.svg"" />"
8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-2"<img src=""Pyrimidine synrhesis.png"" />""<img src=""8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-O.svg"" />"
8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-3"<img src=""Pyrimidine synrhesis.png"" />""<img src=""8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""8cc4dd79e0524267b2dee3d2abd0c263-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is the name of the first purine nucleotide?Inosine (IMP)
What is the name of the first pyrimidine nucleotide?Orotate MP (OMP)
ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-1"<img src=""purine metabolism.png"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-O.svg"" />"
ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-2"<img src=""purine metabolism.png"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-O.svg"" />"
ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-3"<img src=""purine metabolism.png"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-O.svg"" />"
ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-4"<img src=""purine metabolism.png"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-O.svg"" />"
ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-5"<img src=""purine metabolism.png"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ad3d711da8004d42bd878431981f5c6c-ao-O.svg"" />"
In nucleotide metabolism pyrimidines undergo r{{c1::ing }} c{{c1::leavage}}
What are the typical catabolic products of a pyrimidine nucleotide?Beta amino acids , ammonia and CO2
What causes gout?Elevated levles of urate in the blood /hyperuricemia which builds up and forms urate crystals around the joints leading to inflammation
Give some example dietary managements for gout-Reduced consumption of meat products with high amounts of purine<div>-Redduced alcohol consumption e.s.p beer</div><div>-Avoidance of sea food e.g cod,herring with high uric acid content</div>
What is an example of a drug used to treat gout?Allopurinol
Outline how the drug allopurinol can be used to treat gout-allopurinol inhibits xanthine oxidase by acting as a competitive inhibitor<div>-So xanthine cannot be converted to uric acid hence its concentration in the blood lowers</div>
Why does gout commonly efffect the peripheral joints/extremities-Cooler temperature&nbsp;<div>-Gravity</div><div>-More trauma</div><div>-Lower blood pressure</div>
The symptoms of McArdles GSD are:<div>F{{c1::atigue}}</div><div>M{{c1::uscle pain}}</div><div>K{{c1::idney damage}}</div><div>R{{c1::enal failure}}</div><div>R{{c1::ed urine}}</div>
McArdles's Disease is an&nbsp;{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}} Genetic disorder
What causes McArdles Disease to occur?A deficency in an enzyme called myophosphorylase which is an isoform of muscle glycogen phosphorylase
What is the job of the myophosphorylase enzyme?Breaking down of glycogen in muscle cells
How is glycogen storage affected in McArdle's disease?-Deficency in the myophosphorylase enzyme in muscle cells<div>-Glycogen cannot be broken down into glucose-1-phosphate</div><div>-This leads to an accumulation of glycogen</div><div>-This causes muscle cells to be broken down&nbsp;</div>
Term for the breaking down of muscle tissue?Rhabdomyolysis
What are some examples of treatments for McArdle's disease? <b>CSNI</b>-Creatine suplements<div>-Staying active&nbsp;</div><div>-Not excerisng for extend periods of time</div><div>-Increasing fluid intake to maintain good urine output</div>
What causes TaruiA deficency in the enzyme phosphofructoikinase
What are the three types of phosphofructokinase?-PFK-L: Liver<div>-PFK-M: Muscle</div><div>-PFK-P:Platelets</div>
How is glycogen storage affected in Tarui disease?The rate limiting step of glycolysis cannot take place,so glucose cannot be broken down; red blood cells are unable to use enough glucose which leads to muscle cells not having enough energy
What are the 4 types of tarui disease?-Infant<div>-Childhood</div><div>-Late onset</div><div>-Hemolytic</div>
4 types of GSD7 Tarui disease<br>1. <b>Infant </b>GSD7: rare type of GSD7- occurs in babies<br>- h{{c1::ypotonia}}- loss of muscle tone<br>- n{{c1::ausea}} and v{{c1::omiting}} during exercise<br>- i{{c1::ntellectual disability}}<br>2. <b>childhood</b> GSD7: most common form of GSD7<br>- m{{c1::uscle weakness}}<br>- p{{c1::ain}} and s&nbsp;{{c1::tiffness}} during exercise<br>- excess&nbsp;{{c1::glycogen}} in muscles<br>- j{{c1::aundice}} , a{{c1::nemia}}, {{c1::rhabdomyolysis}} (break down of muscle tissue) and<br>{{c1::myoglobinuria}} (dark, red/ brown urine)<br>Symptoms usually disappear after rest<br>3.<b> late onset (adult) GSD7:</b><br>- occurs in adults who only experience muscle weakness/pain- may have had some muscle weakness/ fatigue in<br>childhood.<br>4. <b>Hemolytic</b>: don’t have muscle symptoms but do have {{c1::anemia}} due to break down<br>of RBC’s.
What are some example treatments for Tarui disease?-Avoid heavy exercise to prevent muscle cramps<div>-Eating high amounts of protein during exercise</div><div>-Genetic counselling</div><div>-Avoid eating carbohydrates as this could make exercise intolerance worse</div>
How is&nbsp; glycogen storage affected in GSD IX?Deficency of the enzyme phosporylase kinase which breaks down glycogen into glucose<div>As a result glycogen accumulates in the body and less glucose enters the blood stream</div>
What causes GSD IX?-Mutations in the PHKA1, PHKA2, PHKB and PHKG2 gene any of which can lead to a deficency in the phosphorylase kinase enzyme
What are the symptoms of GSD IX?<b> HHHD</b>-Hepatomegaly<div>-Hypoglycaemia</div><div>-Hyperketonaemia</div><div>-Delayed motor development in children</div>
Treatments of GSD IX:<div>Monitoring b{{c1::lood glucose}} and k{{c1::etone}} levels. ( during intervals of high stress) <br><br>If muscle are affected p{{c1::hysical therapy}} is recommended <br><br>Treatment through p{{c1::olycose}} or fruit juice.<br></div><div><br></div><div>{{c1::Genetic counseling}}- helps patients understand&nbsp; the risks and benefits.<br><br>Frequent small meals can avoid {{c1::hyperglycemia}} ( bedtime snack to avoid prevent nighttime hyperglycemia. )<br></div>
What are the two types of GSD 0?Muscle GSD 0 -which impairs glycogen formation in the muscle<div>Liver GSD 0- which impairs glycogen formation in the liver</div>
What causes the GSD type 0?Mutations in the GYS1 or GYS2 genes which leads to a lack of the enzyme glycogen synthase which prevents the production of glycogen from glucose
GSD 0 is an example of an&nbsp;{{c1::autosomal recessive}} genetic disorder
What are examples of treatment options for GSD 0?-Frequent meals to avoid hypoglycaemia<div>-Cornstarch therapy</div><div>-Increased protein in diet to prevent muscle weakness</div>
What are some symptoms of muscle GSD type 0?-Muscle pain<div>-Arythmia</div><div>-Loss of conciousness</div>
What are some symptoms of liver GSD 0?-Hypoglycaemia and hyperketoneamia&nbsp;<div>-Drowsiness</div><div>-Nausea</div><div>-Sweating</div><div>-Mild growth</div>
What is an autosomal recessive disorder?Two copies of the recessive gene must be present for the disease to develop; both parents must be carriers
Define preloadStretching of the ventricle walls by returning venous blood flow
Define AfterloadBack pressure exerted by arterial blood
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44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-2"<img src=""Homeostasis High BP.png"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-O.svg"" />"
44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-3"<img src=""Homeostasis High BP.png"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-O.svg"" />"
44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-4"<img src=""Homeostasis High BP.png"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-O.svg"" />"
44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-5"<img src=""Homeostasis High BP.png"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-O.svg"" />"
44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-6"<img src=""Homeostasis High BP.png"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""44fb6f1ab2f041668be5bd2793dabab8-oa-O.svg"" />"
Define End diastolic volumeThe amount of blood that collects in a ventricle during diastole
Define End systolic volumeVolume of blood remaining in the ventricles after it has contracted
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d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-2"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-3"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-4"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-5"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-6"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-7"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-8"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-9"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-10"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-11"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-12"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-12-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-12-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-13"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-13-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-13-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-14"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-14-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-14-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-15"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-15-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-15-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-16"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-16-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-16-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-17"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-17-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-17-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-18"<img src=""cell structure.png"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-18-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-18-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d5f07358c6d34affb3faffc171a89a17-oa-O.svg"" />"
The key functions of the cytoskeleton are:<div>M{{c1::aintaining cell shape and movement}}<br></div><div>T{{c1::ransport of cells and vesicles}}</div>
What is the advantage of compartmentilisation of function in the cell?-Efficient function of organelles<div>-Specifc envrionment</div><div>-Protection</div>
Functions of the mitochondria:<div>A{{c1::TP synthesis}}</div><div>C{{c1::a 2+ store and regulation}}</div><div>M{{c1::etabolism}}</div><div>Ce{{c1::ll survival}} and A{{c1::poptosis}}</div>
Describe the structure of the mitochondria-double membrane structure<div>-inner membrane is folded to form cristae</div><div>-contains its own DNA,RNA and ribosomes</div><div>-Contains the ETC and ATP synthase</div>
Mitochondrial DNA said to be {{c1::maternally}} inherited
A radical is a species with an&nbsp;{{c1::unparied electron}}<div>Radicals are produced by&nbsp;{{c1::oxidation }} reactions</div><div>React with DNA, lipids, proteins and carbohydrates producing&nbsp;{{c1::damaging modifications}}</div><div>Are implicated in a{{c1::geing}}, and diseases such as c{{c1::ancer}} and a{{c1::therosclerosis}}</div>
Radicals based on oxygen are known as&nbsp;{{c1::Reactive oxygen species}} e.g&nbsp;{{c1::hydrogen peroxide}}
Give some examples of mitochondiral diseases<br>-Alzheimer’s disease<br><br>-Mitochondrial myopathy (muscle problems) <br><br>-Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON)<br><br>-Pearson syndrome [sideroblastic anaemia]<br><br>-Dystonia (muscle spasms and contractions )<br><br>-Neurogenic muscle weakness, ataxia and retinitis pigmentosa (NARP)<br><br>
caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-1"<img src=""eukvspro.png"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-O.svg"" />"
caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-2"<img src=""eukvspro.png"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-O.svg"" />"
caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-3"<img src=""eukvspro.png"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-O.svg"" />"
caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-4"<img src=""eukvspro.png"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-O.svg"" />"
caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-5"<img src=""eukvspro.png"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-O.svg"" />"
caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-6"<img src=""eukvspro.png"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-O.svg"" />"
caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-7"<img src=""eukvspro.png"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-O.svg"" />"
caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-8"<img src=""eukvspro.png"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""caa65c466d104f4baa09456077e37956-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-1"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-2"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-3"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-4"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-5"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-6"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-7"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-8"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-9"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-10"<img src=""euv.png"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""95e2aee708fb44c4b1ecd8fac09482ae-ao-O.svg"" />"
The two types of organs in the digestive system are?-Alimentary canal<div>-Acessory digestive organs</div>
Give two examples of nervous control of digestive activity-submucosal nerve plexus<div>-myenteric nerve plexus</div>
Give examples of hormones which can control digestion-Gastrin<div>-Secretin</div><div>-Cholecystokinin (CCK)</div>
What is the function of secretin AND Where is it found?Inhibits gastric function<div>Duodenal mucosa</div>
What is the function of gastrin AND where is it found?-Gastric emptying and mass movements<div>-Secretion of enzymes and HCL</div><div>-Stomach</div>
What is the function of cholecystokinin and where is it found?-Increases production of bile and pancreatic enzymes<div>-Duodenal mucosa</div>
The four basic layers of the alimentary canal?-Mucosa<div>-Submucosa</div><div>-Muscularis externa</div><div>-Serosa</div>
Functions of mucosa:<div>Secretes {{c1::mucus}}, {{c1::digestive}} enzymes, and h{{c1::ormones​}}<br><br>{{c1::Absorbs}} end products of digestion​<br><br>{{c1::Protects}} against {{c1::infectious disease​}}<br></div>
What are the three sub layers of the mucosa?-Epithelium<div>-Lamina propria</div><div>-Muscularis mucosae</div>
What type of epithelium is mucosa made of?Simple columnar epithelia
Muscularis externa​<br><br>Responsible for s{{c1::egmentation}} and p{{c1::eristalsis ​}}<br><br>Inner circular and outer longitudinal layers of s{{c1::mooth muscle cells​}}<br><br>Circular layer thickens in some areas ---&gt; {{c1::sphincters​}}<br><br>{{c1::Myenteric nerve plexus}} between two muscle layers​
What is the submucosa made up of?-Areolar connective tissue<div>-Elastic tissue<br><div>-Blood and lymphatic vessels</div><div>-Submucosal nerve plexus</div></div>
What are the names of the three types of extrinsic salivary glands?-Parotid<div>-Submandibular</div><div>-Sublingual</div>
Another name for intrinsic salivary glands are the&nbsp;{{c1::buccal}} glands
The lining of the oral cavity, oesophagus and pharynx is a {{c1::stratified squamous epithelium mucosa}}
The four layers of the oesophagus are?Mucosa<div>Submucosa</div><div>Muscularis externa</div><div>Adventitia</div>
Folds in the stomach lining are known as&nbsp;{{c1::rugae}}
Why doesn’t stomach acid damage the stomach?​<br><br>{{c1::Thick coating}} of mucus on stomach wall​<br><br>{{c1::Tight}} junctions​<br><br>R{{c1::apid}} and e{{c1::fficient}} epithelial repair​
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-1"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-2"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-3"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-4"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-5"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-6"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-7"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-8"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-9"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-10"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-12"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-12-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-12-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
Define tonicity?Ability of a solution to alter the cell's water volume
Function of the nuclear pore:<div>Pores allow substances to {{c1::pass}}; regulates {{c1::transport}} of large molecules into and out of nucleus​<br><br>Double-membrane barrier; encloses {{c1::nucleoplasm}}, protects {{c1::DNA​}}<br><br>Outer layer {{c1::continuous}} with rough ER and bears ribosomes​<br><br>Inner lining {{c1::(nuclear lamina)}} maintains {{c1::shape}} of nucleus; scaffold to organize DNA<br></div>
Funtion of nucleoli:<div>Involved in {{c1::rRNA}} synthesis and {{c1::ribosome}} subunit assembly Contains {{c1::DNA}} coding for rRNA<br></div>
What does chromatin consist of?-Thread-like strands of DNA<div>-Histones</div><div>-RNA</div>
What is chromatin?A complex of DNA and proteins such as histones
The basic structural unit of chromatin is called a&nbsp;{{c1::nucleosome}}
Heterochromatin is more&nbsp;{{c1::tightly condensed}} than Euchromatin
Functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum:<div>{{c1::Synthesis}}&nbsp; - different regions synthesise proteins, carbohydrates and lipids​<br><br>S{{c1::torage}} – of synthesised molecules​<br><br>T{{c1::ransport}}&nbsp; - of materials within ER​<br><br>M{{c1::echanical support}}​<br><br>D{{c1::etoxification}} – drugs and toxins {{c1::neutralised}} by ER enzymes​<br><br>R{{c1::eactions}} – {{c1::large surface area}} for chemical reactions​<br></div>
What is needed for the absorption of B12?Intrinsic factor
What are villi?fingerlike extensions of the mucosa​
What are microvilli?tiny projections of absorptive mucosal cells’ plasma membranes – site of enzymes
{{c1::Brunner’s}} glands in the duodenum secrete alkaline mucus – protects intestine from {{c1::acidic}} stomach contents​
c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-1"<img src=""large intesitne.png"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-O.svg"" />"
c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-2"<img src=""large intesitne.png"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-O.svg"" />"
c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-3"<img src=""large intesitne.png"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-O.svg"" />"
c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-4"<img src=""large intesitne.png"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-O.svg"" />"
c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-5"<img src=""large intesitne.png"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-O.svg"" />"
c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-6"<img src=""large intesitne.png"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-O.svg"" />"
c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-7"<img src=""large intesitne.png"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""c691e7f1c2a64471870f296d247a3996-ao-O.svg"" />"
What are some examples of functions of the large intestine?Absorption of water&nbsp;<div>Fermentation by gut bacteria</div><div>Produces mucus ----&gt; lubricant</div><div>Elimination of indigestible food through faeces production</div>
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-11"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-13"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-13-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-13-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-14"<img src=""stomach GI.png"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-14-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-14-A.svg"" />""<img src=""73b5d6f1019c4428ab8d3bd24d87b8f8-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-1"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-2"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-3"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-4"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-5"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-6"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-7"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-8"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-9"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-10"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-11"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-12"<img src=""blood groups.png"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-12-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-12-A.svg"" />""<img src=""974c3031c4d7489586e9377f48ec5d21-ao-O.svg"" />"
what occurs if an individual recives the wrong type of blood?antibodies in the recipients blood plasma binds to antigens on the donors rbc's which causes agglutination to occur
An Rh -&nbsp;{{c1::cannot}} recieve blood from an Rh+ donnor however an Rh+&nbsp;{{c1:: can}} recieve blood from an Rh- donor
What is gastritis?When the lining of the stomach becomes irritated or inflamed&nbsp;
What are some symptoms of gastritis?-stomach discomfort/pain<div>-abdominal bleeding</div><div>-blood in stool/vomit</div><div>-burning sensation in stomach</div>
What are three ways which gastritis can be diagnosed/detected?-Blood tests<div>-Stool spectrum test</div><div>-Upper endoscopy<br><div><br></div></div>
Give examples of three diseases that can cause gastritis-Autoimmune diseases<div>-Chronic bile reflux</div><div>-perinicious anemia</div>
Give example causes of gastritis-Excessive alcohol consumption<div>-Spicy foods</div><div>-Smoking</div><div>-Stress</div><div>-Long term use of asprin and NSAID's</div>
Coeliac disease is a disorder when your {{c1::immune system}} attacks your own tissues when you eat {{c1::gluten}}. This damages your {{c1::small intestine}} and causes an individual to be unable to take up {{c1::nutrients}}
What causes coeliac disease?<div>An abnormal immune system reaction to gluten {{c1::(protein)}};<div>immunse system {{c1::mistakes}} one of the substances that makes up gluten, called {{c1::gliadin,}} as a threat to the body. The antibodies that are produced cause the surface of your intestine to become {{c1::inflamed}} (red and swollen).<div><br></div></div></div>
What are some symptoms of Coeliac disease?-Diarrhoea<div>-Fatigue</div><div>-Unexpected weightloss</div><div>-Bloating and flatulence</div>
What are some example treatments for coeliac disease?-Not eating foods containing gluten
What is Crohns disease?-An inflammatory bowel disease that mainly affects the illeum; inflammation spreads to the deep part of the bowel
What are some symptoms of Crohns disease?-Diarrhoea&nbsp;<div>-Stomach aches/Cramps</div><div>-Blood in stool</div><div>-Fatigue&nbsp;</div><div>-Weightloss</div>
Give some example treatments for Crohns disease?<div>-Low {{c1::FODMAP}} diet</div><div>-F{{c1::asting}}</div><div>-I{{c1::mmunosurpersants&nbsp;}}</div><div>-S{{c1::teroids}}</div>
Crohns disease is an {{c1::idiopathic}} disease
What are some example theoretical causes of Crohns disease-Autoimmune; immune system attacking the GI tract<div>-Genetic factors</div>
What is dysphagia?Difficulty swallowing
The two different types of dysphagia are<div>or{{c1::opharyngeal}} dysphagia which affects the mouth or throat</div><div>oe{{c1::sophageal}} dysphagia&nbsp;</div>
What are some symptoms of dysphagia?-Choking<div>-Coughing</div><div>-Persistant drooling</div><div>-weightloss overtime</div><div>-Inability to chew food</div>
What are some examples of causes of dysphagia?-Mouth and Oesophageal cancers<div>-GORD (gastro-oesophageal reflux disease)<br><div>-Damage in the nervous system which affects nerves that control swallowing</div><div>-Neurological disorders e.g: parkinsons/stroke/brain tumors</div></div>
Give some examples of treatment options for dysphagia-Speech and language therapy which teaches swallowing exercises<div>-Dietary changes i.e softer foods</div><div>-Feeding tubes to provide nutrition while recovering the ability to swallow</div>
"What is an hiatus hernia?<div><br><div><img src=""paste-a30f8844254c1b6a75a48347a95f808db57745d0.jpg""><br></div></div>"When upper part of the stomach pushes through an opening of the diaphragm and into the chest cavity<div><br></div>
"What are the causes of a hitatus hernia?<div><br><div><img src=""paste-a30f8844254c1b6a75a48347a95f808db57745d0.jpg""><br></div></div>"-Age related changes in the diaphragm<div>-Being born with an abnormally large hiatus</div><div>-Pressure on the abdomen which can be due to vomiting/pregnancy/exercise</div>
"What are the symptoms of a hiatus hernia?<div><br><div><div><img src=""paste-a30f8844254c1b6a75a48347a95f808db57745d0.jpg""><br></div></div></div>"-Heart burn<div>-Acid reflux</div><div>-Bloating</div><div>-Bad breath</div>
"What are the treatments for a hiatus hernia?<div><br><div><div><img src=""paste-a30f8844254c1b6a75a48347a95f808db57745d0.jpg""><br></div></div></div>"-Quitting smoking (which can irritate the stomach)<div>-Key hole surgery to repair the hernia</div><div>-Proton pump inhibitors</div><div>-Eating smaller frequent meals</div>
What is clostridium difficile?Inflammation of the colon associated with the overgrowth of the bacteria <i>clostridium difficile/c.diff</i>
What causes clostridium difficile to occur?-Use of certain antibiotics which may destroy helpful bacteria<div>-Long term stays in a hospital</div>
What are some treatments for clostridium difficile?"-Faecal donation from a healthy donor to increase the amount of ""better bacteria""<div>-10 day course of antibiotics&nbsp;</div><div>-stopping any antibiotics which may be causing clostridium difficile</div>"
What are some symptoms of clostridium difficile?-persisent diarrhoea<div>-Fever</div><div>-Loss of appetite</div><div>-Stomach pain</div>
"What is diverticulitis<div><img src=""paste-53d3608f1e116e76611edf1f41959dcb54f99a25.jpg""><br></div>"When small bulges known as diverticula form in the colon and become inflammed/infected
What are the symptoms of diverticulitis?<div>N{{c1::ausea}} / V{{c1::omiting}}</div><div>A{{c1::bdominal Tenderness}}</div><div>C{{c1::onstipation}}<br><div>F{{c1::ever}}</div></div><div><br></div>"<img src=""paste-53d3608f1e116e76611edf1f41959dcb54f99a25.jpg"">"
What are some causes of diverticulitis?<div>S{{c1::moking}}</div><div>O{{c1::besity}}</div><div>H{{c1::igh fat diet}}</div><div>Medications such as o{{c1::piates}} ,a{{c1::nti inflammatory drugs}}</div>"<img src=""paste-53d3608f1e116e76611edf1f41959dcb54f99a25.jpg"">"
What are some treatments for diverticulitis:<div>H{{c1::igh fibre diet}}</div><div>A{{c1::voiding risk factors}}</div><div>S{{c1::urgery }} to remove part of the colon</div>"<img src=""paste-53d3608f1e116e76611edf1f41959dcb54f99a25.jpg"">"
How can diverticulitis be diangnosed?<div>B{{c1::loods}}</div><div>C{{c1::olonoscopy}}</div><div>C{{c1::T}}</div>"<img src=""paste-53d3608f1e116e76611edf1f41959dcb54f99a25.jpg"">"
Pancreatitis is&nbsp;{{c1::inflammation }} of the pancreas"<img src=""paste-7ced0afed45861f86a084b111b3d008685fa9b8d.jpg"">"
Symptoms of acute pancreatitis:<div>F{{c1::ever}}</div><div>N{{c1::ausea}} / V{{c1::omiting}}</div><div>S{{c1::wollen }} and T{{c1::ender}} belly</div><div>H{{c1::igh heart rate}}</div><div>P{{c1::ain }} in upper&nbsp;{{c1::abdomen}}</div><div><br></div>"<img src=""paste-7ced0afed45861f86a084b111b3d008685fa9b8d.jpg"">"
Symptoms of chronic pancreatitis:<div>D{{c1::iarrhoea}}</div><div>W{{c1::eightloss}}</div><div>P{{c1::ersistent abdominal pain}}</div><div>N{{c1::ausea}}</div>"<img src=""paste-7ced0afed45861f86a084b111b3d008685fa9b8d.jpg"">"
What are some causes of pancreatitis?-Galllstones (blocks bile ducts and inhibits movement of pancreatic enzymes to the small intestine)<div>-Excesive alcohol consumption (causes secretions that block the bile duct)</div><div>-Autoimmune diseases (Body attacks pancreatic cells causing them to loose function)</div><div>-Medication ( accumulation of toxic metabolites)</div><div>-Cystic fibrosis (thick mucus blocks tubes which help transport enzymes)</div>
What are some treatments for acute pancreatitis?-Nasogastic tube to drain the stomach<div>-IV hydration and feeding</div><div>-Surgery</div><div>-Strong painkillers</div>
What are some treatments for chronic pancreatitis?-Surgery<div>-Pancreatic enzyme therapy</div><div>-painkillers</div>
Acute pancreatitis is brought on by a s{{c1::udden}} i{{c1::nflammation}} while chronic pancreatitis is&nbsp;{{c1::long lasting}}
The role of the gallbladder is to&nbsp;{{c1::store and concentrate bile}}"<img src=""paste-200d7281493007ea2563b85c73e788fe04544d87.jpg"">"
What are some symptoms of gallstones?-Sweating excessivley<div>-High temperature</div><div>-Diarrhoea</div><div>-Pain in centre of abdomen</div><div>-Pain in under ribs on the right side</div>
What are some treatment options for gallstones?-Surgery to remove gallbladder<div>-Medication to dissolve gallstones</div>
What causes gallstones?-Bile containing too much cholesterol<div>-Gallblader doesnt empty correctly</div><div>-Bile containing too much billirubin</div>
What is a peptic ulcer?Sores that develop on the lining of the stomach or duodenum
Give some example causes of peptic ulcers-H. Pylori infection which damages mucous coating protecting the stomach<div>-NSAIDs e.g asprin and ibuprofen</div>
What are some symptoms associated with peptic ulcers-Stomach pain<div>-Indigestion</div><div>-Heart burn&nbsp;</div><div>-Vomiting+ nausea</div><div>-Loss of appetite</div>
What are some treatments for peptic ulcers?-Antibiotics<div>-Proton pump inhibitor</div>
How can a proton pump inhibitior be used to treat peptic ulcers-Proton pump blocks gastric H.K ATPase and inhibits gastric acid production<div>-This prevents further damage while the ulcer heals naturally</div>
Complications of peptic ulcers:<div>I{{c1::nternal bleeding}}</div><div>P{{c1::erforation}} -----&gt; peritonitis</div><div>G{{c1::astric outer obstruction}}</div>
Ulcerative collitis is the i{{c1::nflammation}} of the l{{c1::ower}} end of your digestive system including the l{{c1::arge bowel}} and r{{c1::ectum}}"<img src=""paste-0ae1f0f4cdfced029e284f457f176d1f0e5b5d30.jpg"">"
What are the causes of ulcerative collitis?-Genetic and environmental factors<div>-Immune system attacks harmless bacteria which causes inflammation in the tissues</div>
What are some symptoms of ulcerative collitis-Diarrhoea<div>-Weightloss</div><div>-Loss of appetite</div><div>-Painful joints</div><div>-Extreme fatigue</div>
What are some treatmets for ulcerative collitis&nbsp;-immunosuppersants<div>-surgery i.e removing part of the colon</div><div>-Aminosalicylates</div>
"What are oesophageal varices?<div><img src=""paste-4bd6022416dc31d2e97fc6af4f2a63de62ddb749.jpg""><br></div>"Abnormally enlarged veins in the oesophagus which may rupture; usually a complication of cirrhoisis
What causes oesophageal varices to develop?-complications of cirrhosis; which disrupts normal blood flow to the liver so more blood flows the oesophageal veins ----&gt; veins balloon outward
What are some symptoms of oesophageal varices-Blood in stool<div>-Vomiting blood&nbsp;</div><div>-Decreasd conciousness</div>
What are some treatments for oesophageal varices?-Elastic bands to tie off bleeding veins<div>-Medications to reduce pressure in the portal vein</div>
What are the two types of dietary fibres?Soluble and insolubel
What are some characterisitcs of soluble fibre?Absorbs water into the GI tract<div>Increases faecal bulk and softens stool</div><div>Binds with bile salts reducing reabsorption and promoting production of new bile salts from cholesterol</div>
What are some characteristics of insoluble fibre?Increases rate of GI transit<div>Increases bulk of stool</div>
Clinical significance of dietary fibre:<div>{{c1::Weight}} control​<br><br>Slows {{c1::gastric emptying}} and increases s{{c1::atiety​}}<br><br>Lowers {{c1::cholesterol​}}<br><br>faecal loss of bile acids and short chain {{c1::FFA}} that bind to soluble fibre inhibit endogenous Cholesterol synthesis ​<br><br>Type II diabetes mellitus​<br><br>{{c1::Bowel}} diseases – e.g. diverticulitis​<br><br>Prevents c{{c1::onstipation}}<br><br>C{{c1::ance}}r prevention ​<br><br>​<br></div>
Digestion of carbohydrates<div>Begins in the {{c1::mouth}} by action of {{c1::amylase}} ​<br><br>Halts temporarily in stomach as high {{c1::acidity}} inactivates salivary amylase​<br><br>Further digestion by {{c1::pancreatic}} alpha-amylase in small intestine​<br><br>Final CHO digestion occurs primarily at the {{c1::mucosal}} lining of upper {{c1::jejunum}} and include the action of several disaccharidases (enzymes synthesised by the intestinal mucosal cells)​<br><br>The duodenum and upper jejunum absorb bulk of {{c1::dietary sugars.​}}<br></div>
Absorption of carbohydrates occurs via&nbsp;{{c1::co-transport}} with Na+ and f{{c1::acillitated diffusion}}
Give some example uses of carbohydrates-Glucose- for ATP production which is a source of energy in cells<div>-Excess glucose is converted to glycogen or fat and is storeed</div>
What are the two types of proteins?Complete and incomplete proteins
Complete proteins contain all&nbsp;{{c1::9}} essential&nbsp;{{c1::amino acids}} while&nbsp;{{c1::incomplete}} proteins dont
Eggs, milk, fish, most meats, soybeans contain {{c1::complete}} proteins​<br>Legumes, nuts, and cereals contain {{c1::incomplete}} proteins&nbsp;
What is pepsinogen and what is its function?A proenzyme secreted by the stomach which is activated by stomach acid to pepsin
Digestion of proteins:<div>Digestion of proteins begins in the stomach, which secretes {{c1::gastric juice}} which contains {{c1::hydrochloric}} acid and the proenzyme, {{c1::pepsinogen}}. ​<br><br>​<br><br>On entering the small intestine, large polypeptides produced in the stomach by the action of pepsin are further cleaved to {{c1::oligopeptides}} and amino acids by a group of pancreatic {{c1::proteases}}. ​<br><br>​<br><br>The {{c1::luminal}} surface of the intestine contains {{c1::aminopeptidase}} – an exopeptidase that repeatedly cleaves the {{c1::N-terminal}} residue from {{c1::oligopeptides}} to produce even smaller peptides and free amino acids.&nbsp; ​<br><br>​<br></div>
Examples of enzymes used in the digestion of proteins:<div><br><div>Pancreatic enzymes – t{{c1::rypsin}}, c{{c1::hymotrypsin}}, and car{{c1::boxypeptidase​}}</div><div><br>Brush border enzymes – a{{c1::minopeptidases}}, ca{{c1::rboxypeptidases}}, and d{{c1::ipeptidases​}}<br></div></div>
Percentage of dietary fat is recommended at&nbsp;{{c1::35%}}<div>13%&nbsp;{{c1::MUFA}}</div><div>11%&nbsp;{{c1::PUFA}}</div><div>&lt;11%&nbsp;{{c1::Sat}}</div>
What are the two types of essential fatty acids?Linoleic (n-6) acid and Alpha-Linoleic (n-3) acid
What are the two primary bile salts?Cholic acid and Chenodeoxycholic acid
Characteristics of bile salts<div>Produced in the {{c1::liver}} from {{c1::cholesterol​}}<br><br>Assists in the {{c1::absorption}} of fat, fat soluble vitamins and cholesterol by acting as a {{c1::detergent​}}<br></div>
Secondary bile salts are produced by&nbsp;{{c1::bacterial action}} in the colon
Digestion of nucleic acids:<div>​<br>Digestion of dietary nucleotides occurs in the {{c1::small intestine​}}</div><div><br>​Ri{{c1::bonucleases}} and d{{c1::eoxyribonucleases}}, secreted by the pancreas hydrolyze dietary RNA and DNA primarily to {{c1::oligonucleotides.​}}<br><br>​O{{c1::ligonucleotides}} are further hydrolysed by pancreatic p{{c1::hosphodiesterases}} to mo{{c1::nonucleotides}}.​<br><br>​In the intestinal mucosal cells, a family of nucleotidases remove phosphate groups releasing&nbsp; {{c1::nucleosides}} that are further degraded to free {{c1::bases​}}<br><br>​Dietary p{{c1::urine}} bases are not used and are converted to {{c1::uric acid}} which is excreted in urine.<br></div>
Hormonal control of lipid digestion:<div>Arrival of lipids and partially digested proteins to upper small intestine, stimulates {{c1::mucosal}} cells from duodenum and jejunum to produce peptide hormone {{c1::cholecystokinin (CCK)​}}<br><br>​CCK stimulates {{c1::gallbladder}} to contract and release {{c1::bile}} and pancreas to secrete pancreatic enzymes ​<br><br>​<br>Decreases gastric {{c1::motility}} resulting in slower release of gastric contents into small intestine​<br><br>​<br>Low pH of {{c1::chyme}} entering duodenum, causes mucosal cells to produce secretin&nbsp; ​<br><br>​<br>{{c1::Secretin}} stimulates pancreas and liver to release a solution rich in {{c1::bicarbonate}} to neutralise pH of intestinal contents, appropriate for digestive activity by pancreatic enzymes​<br></div>
Describe steps in fatty Acid AbsorptionFatty acids and monoglycerides in micelles enter intestinal cells via diffusion (small enough to fall between microvilli)​<br><br>Inside cell they are resynthesized into triglycerides and re-packaged into chylomicrons​<br><br>Resulting chylomicrons released by exocytosis – too large to enter capillaries​<br><br>They enter lymphatic system through lacteals and are transported to the circulation via lymph
Absorption of nucleic acids occurs by&nbsp;{{c1::active transport}}
Electrolyte Absorption:<div>Ionic iron is transported into mucosal cells where it binds to {{c1::ferritin​}}</div><div><br></div><div>Na+ is coupled with absorption of {{c1::glucose}} and amino acids​</div><div><br></div><div>Ca2:<br></div><div>Is related to blood levels of ionic {{c1::calcium​}}<br>is regulated by vitamin {{c1::D}} and p{{c1::arathyroid hormone (PTH)}}</div>
Give some exampels of fat soluble vitaminsA,D,E,K
Give some examples of water soluble vitaminsC and B complex
List some essential mineralsCalcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium​,iodine
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aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-2"<img src=""large-intestine-labelled-last-part-digestive-system-vertebrate-animals-its-function-to-absorb-body-water-41527286.jpg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-O.svg"" />"
aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-3"<img src=""large-intestine-labelled-last-part-digestive-system-vertebrate-animals-its-function-to-absorb-body-water-41527286.jpg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-O.svg"" />"
aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-4"<img src=""large-intestine-labelled-last-part-digestive-system-vertebrate-animals-its-function-to-absorb-body-water-41527286.jpg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-O.svg"" />"
aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-5"<img src=""large-intestine-labelled-last-part-digestive-system-vertebrate-animals-its-function-to-absorb-body-water-41527286.jpg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-O.svg"" />"
aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-6"<img src=""large-intestine-labelled-last-part-digestive-system-vertebrate-animals-its-function-to-absorb-body-water-41527286.jpg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-O.svg"" />"
aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-7"<img src=""large-intestine-labelled-last-part-digestive-system-vertebrate-animals-its-function-to-absorb-body-water-41527286.jpg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-O.svg"" />"
aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-8"<img src=""large-intestine-labelled-last-part-digestive-system-vertebrate-animals-its-function-to-absorb-body-water-41527286.jpg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-O.svg"" />"
aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-9"<img src=""large-intestine-labelled-last-part-digestive-system-vertebrate-animals-its-function-to-absorb-body-water-41527286.jpg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""aacbf8b6e60f415f81ce01540eb2f006-ao-O.svg"" />"
bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-1"<img src=""Small intestine pics.png"" />""<img src=""bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-O.svg"" />"
bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-2"<img src=""Small intestine pics.png"" />""<img src=""bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-O.svg"" />"
bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-3"<img src=""Small intestine pics.png"" />""<img src=""bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""bccd0223b126490db7168a82bdc990c9-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is the function of the Ubiquitn proteasome pathway?Degradation and quality control of proteins in cells
What is ubiquitination?The process by which ubiquitin molecules bind to protein substrates for degradation
Describe the steps in the Ubiquitin Proteasome pathway-Ribosome makes native protein<div>-Native protein becomes misfolded</div><div>-Proteins called chaperones identify and bind to the misfolded proteins</div><div>-Ubiquitin also bind to the misfolded proteins and this process reuqires ATP</div><div>-This will then be targeted to a complex known as a proteasome which will break down the misfolded protein into a degraded one</div>
Give an example of a protein confirmational disease associated with prionsMad Cow disease
In many protein confirmational disorders, the characteristic misfolding is a strucutre rich in&nbsp;{{c1::β pleated sheets}}
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-1"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-2"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-3"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-4"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-5"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-6"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-7"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-8"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-9"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-10"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-11"<img src=""Ubiquitin pathway.png"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""25ac06b146b8442191eca75b495138c2-ao-O.svg"" />"
Normal proteins are rich in&nbsp;{{c1:: α helix confirmations}}
What is the role of immunoglobinin D?Lymphocyte maturation
What is the function of C3b in relation to complement activation?Opsonisation
What is the function of C5a in relation to complement activationEnhances inflammation by:<div>-Stimulating histmaine release</div><div>-attracting phagocytes</div><div>-Increasing blood vessel permeability</div>
What is an opposition movement?Distal end of thumb brought to the distal end of another digit
What is a cirumduction movement?Conical movement of a limb extending from the joint at which the movement is controlled
What are the 10 stages of a primary bacterial infection?-Breach of first line of defence<div>-Activation of complement (lectin and alternative pathways)</div><div>-Mast cell degranulation which initiates inflammation and increases hyperaemia</div><div>-Leukocytosis</div><div>-Chemotaxis</div><div>-Phagocytosis</div><div>-APCs traveling to lymph nodes</div><div>-Initatiation of adaptive immune response</div><div>-Hummoral response and complement activation by classical pathway</div><div>-Resolution of the infection</div><div><br></div>
What are the&nbsp; stages of a primary viral infection?-Viral entry into the cells<div>-Anti-viral celluar response by interferons</div><div>-APC activation and migration to lymph nodes</div><div>-Cytokines</div><div>-APCs travel to lymphnodes</div><div>-Initation of the adaptive immune response</div><div>-Antigen presentation to T_HCells</div><div>-Activation of cytotoxic T cells by T_H1cells</div><div>-Migration of lymphocytes to the tissues</div><div>-NK cells in inate and adaptive immunity</div><div>-Local antiviral and adaptive response</div><div>-Antibody mediated antiviral response</div><div>-Resolution of infection and memory</div>
Define seroprotection&nbsp;HAI tier &gt; 40 and 50% clinical protection from infection;protection brought about by being vaccinated
Define seroconversionDevelopment of specific antibodies in the blood serum as result of immunization or infection
What are some features of autoimmune diseases?-Self tolerance is lost<div>-Body produces cytotoxic t cells and autoantibodies that destory self cells</div><div>-Immune complexes depositing in tissues which may lead to chronic systemic inflammatory diseases</div>
How do corticosteroids work to treat inflammatory diseases:<div>{{c1::Pleiotropic}} effects – capable of producing {{c1::more than one effect}} e.g. working on multiple tissues/processes​<br><br>Inhibits {{c1::transcription factors}} that control pro-inflammatory {{c1::mediator}} production including COX-2, NOS, cytokine production​<br><br>Also affect m{{c1::etabolism}}, CV function, e{{c1::lectrolyte}} balance​<br></div>
How do antiproliferative drugs work?Inhibit enzymes involved in cell division
Provide named examples of autoimmune diseases-Rheumatoid arthritis<div>-Graves disease</div><div>-Lupus</div><div>-Fibromyalgia</div><div>-MS</div>
Explain the pathophysiology of anaphylaxis/ an allergic reaction<div>1) Sensitisation Stage:</div><div>-Allergen/antigen {{c1::invades}} the body</div><div>-Plasma cells produce large of amounts of {{c1::IgE antibody}}</div><div>-IgE antibodies attach to {{c1::mast cells and basophils}}</div><div><br></div><div>2) Secondary responses</div><div>-More allergen invades the body</div><div>-allergen/antigen combines with {{c1::IgE antibody}} which is already attatched to mast cells and basophil which triggers {{c1::degranulation}} and release of {{c1::histamine}}</div><div>-Histamine causes:</div><div>1-H{{c1::yperaemia}} and v{{c1::asodilation}} ---&gt; Increased {{c1::fluid}} in the tissues (edema)</div><div>2-s{{c1::ecretions}} of large amounts of {{c1::mucus}}</div><div>3-contraction of {{c1::smooth muscle}} cells----&gt; decreased diameter in {{c1::airways}}</div><div><br></div>
What are some symptoms associated with localised anaphylaxis-Uritcaria<div>-Sneezing and rhinitis</div><div>-Vomiting</div><div>-Cramping</div><div>-Diarrhoea</div><div>-atopic eczema</div>
Stages of infection:<div>A{{c1::cquisition}}<br><br>C{{c1::olonization}}<br><br>P{{c1::enetration}}<br><br>S{{c1::pread}}<br><br>D{{c1::amage}}<br><br>R{{c1::esolution}}<br></div>
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-1"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-2"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-3"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-4"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-5"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-6"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-7"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-8"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-9"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-10"<img src=""Gram.png"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""eaa3ee71b34242e686794ee2c2b02588-ao-O.svg"" />"
Give examples of four microorganisms which can cause disease?-Bacteria<div>-Fungi</div><div>-Protozoa</div><div>-Virus</div>
What are the three main regions of a bacterial cell?-Appendages<div>-Cell envelope</div><div>-Cytoplasmic region&nbsp;</div>
5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-1"<img src=""Bacteriophage.png"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-O.svg"" />"
5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-2"<img src=""Bacteriophage.png"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-O.svg"" />"
5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-3"<img src=""Bacteriophage.png"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-O.svg"" />"
5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-4"<img src=""Bacteriophage.png"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-O.svg"" />"
5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-5"<img src=""Bacteriophage.png"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-O.svg"" />"
5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-6"<img src=""Bacteriophage.png"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-O.svg"" />"
5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-7"<img src=""Bacteriophage.png"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-O.svg"" />"
5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-8"<img src=""Bacteriophage.png"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-O.svg"" />"
5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-9"<img src=""Bacteriophage.png"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""5ad3f1dc0c9d4f43a0310a291a142165-ao-O.svg"" />"
Bacteria are divided on the basis of chemical staining known as&nbsp;{{c1::Gram staining }} and&nbsp;{{c1::light microscopy}}
Significance of cell walls in Gram +ve bacteria:<div>{{c1::peptidoglycan}} layers make them very r{{c1::esistant}} to osmotic lysis​<br><br>more {{c1::sensitive}} to certain antibiotics and some types of disinfectants​<br></div>
Significance of cell walls in Gram -ve bacteria:<div>{{c1::Outer membrane}} slows/stops entry of some antimicrobial chemicals​<br><br>generally {{c1::more difficult}} to inhibit or kill ​<br><br>{{c1::LPS}}, has role in some diseases as toxic to humans<br></div>
Features of Gram positive bacteria?-Thick peptidoglycan layer in cell wall<div>-Stained purple by gram-staining&nbsp;</div><div>-No outer lipid membrane</div><div>-No lipopolysaccharide membrane</div><div>-Teichoic acid and Lipoteichoic acid (LTA) present</div><div><br></div>
Features of gram negative bacteria?-Thin peptidoglycan layer in cell wall<div>-Lipopolysacharide membrane (LPS)</div><div>-Stained pink by gram staining&nbsp;</div><div>-Outer lipid membrane present</div>
Give a reason for the differences in appearance after staining between gram positive and gram negative bacteriaThe thicker peptidoglycan layer in gram positive bacteria makes it more able to retain the crystal violet stain<div>Gram negative bacteria have an additional outer memebrane which gets in the way of crystal violet and have a thinner layer of peptidoglycan to retain the stain</div>
Another name for pilli is&nbsp;{{c1::fimbriae}}
What are the two main types of pilli?Common pili and Sex pilli&nbsp;
What are the functions of common pilli?-Adhesion of bacteria to surfaces<div>-Colonisation&nbsp;</div>
What are the functions of sex pili?Alllows the transfer of plasmid DNA
What are some features of sex pili?Straighter, thicker and longer strands than common pilli
What are some features of common pilli (fimbriae)-carry adhesin proteins<div>-hair-like structure</div>
What are the functions of flagella?-Finding food<div>-Locomotion</div><div>-chemotaxis</div><div>-penetrate mucous</div>
Give examples of four different types of flagellaMonotrichous, Lophotrichous, Peritrichous, Endoflagella
326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-1"<img src=""Bacterial spore structure.png"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-O.svg"" />"
326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-2"<img src=""Bacterial spore structure.png"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-O.svg"" />"
326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-3"<img src=""Bacterial spore structure.png"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-O.svg"" />"
326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-4"<img src=""Bacterial spore structure.png"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-O.svg"" />"
326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-5"<img src=""Bacterial spore structure.png"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-O.svg"" />"
326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-6"<img src=""Bacterial spore structure.png"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-O.svg"" />"
326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-7"<img src=""Bacterial spore structure.png"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""326f84e9b80a4d57834a5f287c377668-ao-O.svg"" />"
The function of bacterial endospores are to allow bacteria to survive extreme conditions e.g. h{{c1::eat}} and d{{c1::esiccation}}, r{{c1::adiation}}, c{{c1::hemicals}}, d{{c1::isinfectants​}}
Bacterial Shape names:<div>Spherical =&nbsp;{{c1::Cocci}}</div><div>Rod =&nbsp;{{c1::bacilli}}</div><div>Spiral =&nbsp;{{c1::spirilla}} or&nbsp;{{c1::spirochetes}}</div>
Obligate aerobes&nbsp;{{c1::cannot survive without O2}}<div>Obligate anaerobes are&nbsp;{{c1::killed by O2}}</div><div>Faculative anaerobes&nbsp;{{c1::can survive with or without O2}}</div><div>Microaerophilic&nbsp;{{c1::cannot grow at atmospheric O2 but need some O2}}</div><div>Capnophiles are&nbsp;{{c1::adapted to a high CO2 environment}}</div>
Glycogenesis​<br><br>Glycogen {{c1::formation}} via {{c1::glycogen synthase}} when glucose supplies {{c1::exceed}} need for ATP synthesis​<br><br>Occurs in c{{c1::ytosol​}}<br><br>Mostly in&nbsp;{{c1::liver}} and skeletal muscle​<br><br>Requires energy (from {{c1::ATP}} and {{c1::UTP}})​
​Glycogenolysis​<br><br>Glycogen {{c1::breakdown}} via {{c1::glycogen phosphorylase}} in response to {{c1::low}} blood glucose​<br><br>More rapid than {{c1::gluconeogenesis}}
2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-1"<img src=""glycogenesis.png"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-O.svg"" />"
2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-2"<img src=""glycogenesis.png"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-O.svg"" />"
2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-3"<img src=""glycogenesis.png"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-O.svg"" />"
2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-4"<img src=""glycogenesis.png"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-O.svg"" />"
2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-5"<img src=""glycogenesis.png"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-O.svg"" />"
2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-6"<img src=""glycogenesis.png"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-O.svg"" />"
2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-7"<img src=""glycogenesis.png"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-O.svg"" />"
2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-8"<img src=""glycogenesis.png"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2465861dda2c4b7488095e75d4a22644-oa-O.svg"" />"
What is lipolysis?Hydrolysis of triglycerides to 3 fatty acids and glycerol using lipases
"Why is the enzyme phosphofructokinase considered as a ""rate limiting enzyme in glycolysis""?"catalyzes the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate and ATP to fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate, and adenosine diphosphate<div>&nbsp;(ADP).</div><div><b>-this is a strongly exergonic/irreversible reaction</b></div>
How does phosphofructokinase help to regulate glycolysis?-Via allosteric inhibition which allows the cell to increase or decrease the rate of glycolysis
Steps of glycolysis:<div>1) H{{c1::exose Kinase}} p{{c1::hosphorylates}} glucose into&nbsp;{{c1::glucose-6 phosphate}}</div><div>2) Glucose-6-phosphate is reversibly i{{c1::somerised}} to&nbsp;{{c1::frutcose 6-phosphate}} by the enzyme p{{c1::hosphoglucoseisomerase}}</div><div>3) F{{c1::ructose 6-phosphate}} is then phosphorylated to f{{c1::ructose 1,6 bisphosphate}} by P{{c1::hosphofrucokinase}}</div><div>4) A{{c1::ldolase}} then s{{c1::plits}} f{{c1::ructose 1,6 bisphosphate }} into an aldehyde molecule g{{c1::lyceraldehyde 3-P}} and a ketone molecule D{{c1::ihydroxyacetone-P}} or DHAP</div><div>5) T{{c1::riose phosphate isomerase}} then isomerises&nbsp;{{c1::dihyroxyacetone-P}} into g{{c1::lyceraldehyde 3-P}}</div><div>6)The enzyme g{{c1::lyceraldehde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase}} then dehydrogenates&nbsp; and then phosphorylates <b>X2&nbsp;</b>GAP into&nbsp;{{c1::1,3 bisphosphoglycerate}} (BPG) -----&gt; <b>2xNADH formed</b></div><div>7)P{{c1::hosphoglycerate kinase}} then transfers a&nbsp;{{c1::phosphate}} from BPG to&nbsp;{{c1::ADP}} to form ATP and&nbsp;{{c1::3 phosphoglycerate}} ---&gt; <b>ATP GENERATION X2</b></div><div>8)M{{c1::utase}} then isomerises&nbsp;{{c1::3 phosphoglycerate}} into&nbsp;{{c1::2 phosphoglycerate}}</div><div>9)E{{c1::nolase}} then removes a molecule of&nbsp;{{c1::water}} from&nbsp;{{c1::2-phosphoglycerate}} to form p{{c1::hosphoenolpyruvate}} (PEP)</div><div>10)P{{c1::yruvate kinase}} then transfers a&nbsp;{{c1::phosphate}} from PEP to&nbsp;{{c1::ADP}} to form p{{c1::yruvate}} and ATP ----&gt; <b>ATP GENERATION X2</b></div>
What occurs during the transitional phase of respiration?Pyruvate/pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl CoA
What are the three stages of the transitional phase?-Decarboxylation<div>-Oxidation</div><div>-Formation of acetyl coA</div>
Give two ways mitochondrial toxins can work-Inhibiting the electron transport chain by inhibiting the transport of electrons through the chain of proteins<div>-Uncoupling phosphate bonding by preventing the creation of high energy phosphate bonds (ATP)</div>
The TCA cycle occurs in the&nbsp;{{c1::mitochondrial matrix}}
What are the products of each turn of the citric acid cycle?"-<b>X3</b> NADH and H+<div>-<b>X1</b> FADH₂</div><div><span style=""font-size: 16.6667px;"">-<b>X2</b> CO2</span></div><div><span style=""font-size: 16.6667px;"">-<b>X1</b> ATP</span></div><div><br></div>"
Give three ways in which amino acids can be metabolised-Transamination reaction<div>-Oxidative deamination</div><div>-Keto Acid modification</div>
During a transamination reaction the&nbsp;{{c1::amine}} group from an amino acid is&nbsp;{{c1::transfered}} to a&nbsp;{{c1:: keto acid}} to form an&nbsp;{{c1::alpha keto amino acid}} and an amino acid most common example is the transamination reaction which produces glutamic acid from alpha ketoglutaric acid&nbsp;
Describe what occurs during oxidative deaminiationThe amine group of glutamic acid is removed in the form of ammonia NH3<div>Liberated NH3 is combined with CO2 to form urea</div>
Describe what occurs during ketoacid modificationThe keto acids formed during transamination are converted into intermediates such as pyruvic acid, oxaloacetic acid and acetyl coA to be used in the citric acid cycle
What occurs during beta oxidation of lipids?"-Saturated fatty acids are broken down by repeatedly removing two carbon units from its carboxyl end to produce acetyl CoA<div>-<b>""Beta Oxidation""</b>&nbsp;referes to the carbon in the beta (third) position are oxidised each time a 2C fragment is broken off</div><div>-NADH and FADH₂&nbsp;are also formed</div>"
Where does beta oxidation of lipids occur?mitochondria and peroxisomes
What occurs during lipogenesis?Fatty acids and glycerol are converted to triglycerides and stored<div><div>Acetyl CoA molecules are joined to make fatty acid chains</div></div><div>GAP is converted to gycerol and is joined with fatty acids to make triglycerides</div>
Ketogenesis occurs in the&nbsp;{{c1::liver}}
What occurs during ketogenesis?Liver converts excess acetyl CoA molecules into ketones such as acetoacetate,acetone and&nbsp;ß-hydroxybutyrate
2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-1"<img src=""alcohol metabolism.png"" />""<img src=""2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-O.svg"" />"
2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-2"<img src=""alcohol metabolism.png"" />""<img src=""2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-O.svg"" />"
2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-3"<img src=""alcohol metabolism.png"" />""<img src=""2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2ca62cefb4554926915acde90b3c94dc-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is an example of an issue with alcohol metabolism?-Elevates ratio of NADH and NAD+&nbsp;<div>-Less NAD+ available for other metabolic pathways</div><div>-This prevents the gluconeogenesis occuring and the conversion of lactate to pyruvate</div>
The absorptive or fed state lasts for approximately&nbsp;{{c1::4 hours}}
Features of the absorptive/fed state<div>A{{c1::nabolism}} exceeds C{{c1::atabolism}}</div><div>{{c1::Nutrients}} are stored<br></div><div>G{{c1::lucose}} is the major energy fuel</div>
What are some features of the basal/fasting/post absorptive state?-Catabolism is more prominent<div>-Glucose is still the major fuel but has to be obtained from stores, proteins and fats</div>
What are some metabolic pathways that take place in the fed state?-Lipogenesis<div>-Glycogenesis</div>
What are some examples of metabolic pathways that occur in the fasted state?-Gluconeogenesis<div>-Glycogenolysis</div>
What is substrate-level phosphorylation?High-energy phosphate groups directly transferred from phosphorylated substrates to ADP
What are some features of anabolism?-synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones&nbsp;<div>-Are endergonic</div>
What are some features of catabolism?-Are exergonic<div>-Hydrolysis of complex structures into simpler ones</div>
Fats provide&nbsp;{{c1::9 kcal}} per gram<div>Proteins provide&nbsp;{{c1::4 kcal }} per gram</div><div>Carbohydrates provide&nbsp;{{c1::4 kcal}}</div>
Direct calorimetry is the m{{c1::easurement}} of {{c1::heat}} produced by a person (or animal) which is {{c1::confined}} in a {{c1::sealed chamber}} or calorimeter​
Indirect calorimetry is&nbsp; an {{c1::estimation}} of the {{c1::heat}} produced by measuring the {{c1::differences}} of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the i{{c1::nspired}} and e{{c1::xpired}} air.​
Equation to calculate RQ/ Respiratory QuotientCo2 produced / O2 consumed
Give examples of factors that can affect the respiratory quotient-Diet<div>-High physical activity</div><div>-Hyperventilation</div><div>-Hypocapnia</div>
The metabolic rate is the {{c1::amount of energy liberated ​per unit time ​}}
Give three examples of steroid hormones which can regulate metabolism-Glucocorticoids<div>-Androgens (testosterone)</div><div>-Oestrogen</div>
Give three examples of jobs of the thyroid hormone&nbsp;-Promotes glucose metablism<div>-Promotes hydration and secretion of the skin</div><div>-Mobilises fats</div>
Concequences of hyperthyroidism?-Increasing resting energy expenditure<div>-Weightloss</div><div>-increased lipolysis and gluconeogenesis</div><div><br></div>
Concequences of hyporthyroidism?-Decreased resting energy expenditure<div>-Weight gain</div><div>-reduced lipolysis and gluconeogenesis</div>
Staphylococous aureus:<div>Gram Stain:&nbsp;{{c1::Positive}}</div><div>Shape:&nbsp;{{c1::cocci}}</div><div>PAMP:&nbsp;{{c1::LTA}}</div><div>Associated disease:&nbsp;{{c1::Abcess, disease, TSS}}</div>
Mycobacterium tuberculosis:<div>Gram stain:&nbsp;{{c1::weakly postivie}}</div><div>Shape:&nbsp;{{c1::Fine Rods}}</div><div>PAMP: {{c1::LTA}}</div><div>Associated diseases:&nbsp;{{c1::Tuberculosis}}</div>
Vibrio Cholera<div>Gram stain&nbsp;{{c1::negative}}</div><div>Shape:&nbsp;{{c1:: curved rods}}</div><div>PAMPs:&nbsp;{{c1::LPS}}</div><div>Associated Disease:&nbsp;{{c1::cholera}}<br><div><br></div></div>
Bordetella pertusis<div>Gram stain:&nbsp;{{c1::negative}}</div><div>Shape:&nbsp;{{c1::short rods}}</div><div>PAMPs:{{c1::LPS}}</div><div>Associated disease:&nbsp;{{c1::Whooping cough}}</div>
Clostridium Tetani<div>Gram stain:&nbsp;{{c1::positive}}</div><div>Shape:&nbsp;{{c1::rods}}</div><div>PAMPs:&nbsp;{{c1::LTA}}</div><div>Associated Disease:&nbsp;{{c1::Tetanus}}</div>
Clostridium Difficile<div>Gram stain:&nbsp;{{c1::positive}}</div><div>Shape:&nbsp;{{c1::rod}}</div><div>PAMPs:&nbsp;{{c1::LTA}}</div><div>Associated disease:&nbsp;{{c1::pseudomembranous colitis}}</div>
What are some features&nbsp;β lactam antbiotics?-Contain a&nbsp;β lactam ring as part of their structure<div>-Act by inhibiting peptidoglycan synthesis and activating autolytic enzymes</div>
What are some example of&nbsp;β lactam antibiotics? (mnemonic <b><u>p</u>lease <u>c</u>hoose <u>c</u>arefully <u>v</u>alerie)</b>Penicillins​<br><br>Cephalosporins​<br><br>Carbapenams​<br><br>Vancomycin​
What are some examples of antibiotics which target ribosome protein synthesis? MATCHES<br><b>M</b>{{c1::acrolides}}<br><b>A</b>{{c1::minoglycosides}}<br><b>T</b>{{c1::etracyclines}}<br><b>C</b>{{c1::hloramphenicol}}<br>(H)<br><b>E</b>{{c1::rythromycin}}<br><b>S</b>{{c1::terptomycin}}
What are some examples of antibiotics that disrupt folate synthesis?-Sulphonamides<div>-Trimethoprim</div>
What are some example of antibiotics which target nucleic acids?-Antifolates (nucleotide production​)<br><br>-Quinolones (DNA replication)​<br><br>-Rifampicine (Transcription-RNA polymerase)​
What is en example of an antibiotic that targets cell membranes?Polymixins
0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-1"<img src=""mechs of resistance.png"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-O.svg"" />"
0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-2"<img src=""mechs of resistance.png"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-O.svg"" />"
0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-3"<img src=""mechs of resistance.png"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-O.svg"" />"
0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-4"<img src=""mechs of resistance.png"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-O.svg"" />"
0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-5"<img src=""mechs of resistance.png"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0fbbc5e649d04a84a830e794459bf9ac-ao-O.svg"" />"
How do polymixins target cell membranes of bacteria?Disrupt the membrane of gram negative bacteria by binding to LPS
What are the two classes of antibiotics?Bactericidal and or bacteriostatic
Bacteriocidal antibioitcs&nbsp;{{c1::kill bacteria}} while bacteriostatic antibiotics&nbsp;{{c1::inhibit growth or reproduction of bacteira}}
How does tetracycline inhibit ribosome protein synthesisInterferes with t-RNA anti-codon reading of mRNA codon
How does erythromycin inhibit ribosome protein synthesis?Binds to 50s rRNA and prevents movement along mRNA
How does streptomycin inhibit ribosome protein synthesis?Changes shape of 30s rRNA and causes mRNA to be read incorrectly
How does chloramphenicol inhibit ribosome protein synthesis?Binds to 50s rRNA&nbsp; and inhibits formation of peptide bonds
By which mechanism do sulphonamides inhibit folate synthesis?Competitive inhibition
How do polymixins act on antibiotics?lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and phospholipids in the outer cell membrane of gram-negative bacteria
Give examples of ways antibiotic resistance can be spread?-Rapid multiplication of resistant strains<div>-Direct contact</div><div>-Through food; use of antibiotics in animals</div><div>-International travel</div>
Give examples of ways which antibiotic resistance can be combatted-Reduction in use of antibiotics on farm animals<div>-Using a combination of antibiotics</div><div>-High sanitation standards</div><div>-Discouraging unnecessary prescriptions</div>
Types of sweat glands<div>A{{c1::pocrine glands}}</div><div>S{{c1::ebacous glands}}</div><div>E{{c1::ccrine glands}}</div>
Cell types in the epidermis<div>K{{c1::eratinocytes​}}<br><br>M{{c1::elanocytes​}}<br><br>D{{c1::endritic}} (Langerhans) cells​<br><br>T{{c1::actile}} (Merkel) cells<br></div>
Layers in the epidermis:<div>{{c1::Stratum basale }} (basal)​</div><div><br>{{c1::Stratum spinosum}}&nbsp;(prickly)​<br><br>{{c1::Stratum granulosum}} (granular)​<br><br>{{c1::Stratum lucidum}}&nbsp; (clear) (only in thick skin)​<br><br>{{c1::Stratum corneum}} (horny)<br></div>
What are the three main determinants of skin colour?-Melanin<div>-Carotene</div><div>-Haemoglobin</div>
Give three examples of different skin cancers-Basal cell carcinoma<div>-Squamous cell carcinoma</div><div>-Melanoma</div>
Degrees of burns<div>1st – {{c1::epidermis}} only e.g. sunburn​<br><br>2nd – e{{c1::pidermis}} and upper sections of {{c1::dermis}}, blistering but little scarring, aka partial thickness burns​<br><br>3rd – full {{c1::thickness}} burns, {{c1::nerve endings}} destroyed, skin grafts required<br></div>
What are the three main layers of the skin?-Epidermis<div>-Dermis</div><div>-Hypodermis</div>
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-1"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-2"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-3"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-4"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-5"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-6"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-7"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-8"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-9"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-10"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-11"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-12"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-12-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-12-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-13"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-13-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-13-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-14"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-14-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-14-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-15"<img src=""501_Structure_of_the_skin-1024x803.jpg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-15-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-15-A.svg"" />""<img src=""859d10499cee48098c17e942370e91d3-ao-O.svg"" />"
In the brain alpha keto glutarate is converted to the n{{c1::eurotransmitters}} G{{c1::ABA}} and g{{c1::lutamate}}
What is the name of complex I in the ETC?NAD dehydrogenase
What is the name of complex II in the ETC?Succinate dehydrogenase
What is the name of complex III in the ETC?Cytochrome bc1
What is the name of complex IV in the ETC?Cytochrome oxidase
What is the name of complex V of the ETC?ATP synthase
What are the names of the two mobile electron carriers in the ETC?Coenzyme Q( Ubiquinone) and Cytochrome C
"Summarise ETC and oxidative phosphorylation<div><img src=""paste-d9a24baf80230a042192a5fc719e2a5a3b4ae2d9.jpg""><br></div>"1) Reduced coenzymes NADH + H+ <b>and</b>&nbsp;FADH₂&nbsp;produced in the TCA cycle deliver their electrons to complexes I and II respectivley<div>2) The electrons are then transfered from one complex to another&nbsp;</div><div>3) Each complex is then oxidised and reduced</div><div>4)Energy released is used to pump protons from the matrix into the intermembrane space -----&gt; <b>Electrochemical Gradient</b></div><div>5)Coenzyme Q and Cytochrome c shuttle electrons between larger complexes</div><div>6) At complex IV two electrons combine with two protons and half a moleucle of O2 (t<b>he final electron acceptor</b>)forming water</div><div>7)Protons will diffuse down an electrochemical gradient through ATP synthase which catalyses the conversion of ADP to ATP</div>
0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-1ETC Inhbitors and Uncouplers"<img src=""ETC inhbitors.png"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-O.svg"" />"
0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-2ETC Inhbitors and Uncouplers"<img src=""ETC inhbitors.png"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-O.svg"" />"
0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-3ETC Inhbitors and Uncouplers"<img src=""ETC inhbitors.png"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-O.svg"" />"
0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-4ETC Inhbitors and Uncouplers"<img src=""ETC inhbitors.png"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-O.svg"" />"
0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-5ETC Inhbitors and Uncouplers"<img src=""ETC inhbitors.png"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-O.svg"" />"
0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-6ETC Inhbitors and Uncouplers"<img src=""ETC inhbitors.png"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""0f08a284e62b4f6c967e366fb1f95e9d-ao-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-1"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-2"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-3"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-4"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-5"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-6"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-7"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-8"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-9"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-10"<img src=""TCA.png"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""d3e76b650fd54034a3a55639dbb2eae8-oa-O.svg"" />"
Give three examples of anabolic hormones-Insulin<div>-Testosterone</div><div>-Oestrogen</div>
Give three examples of catabolic hormones-Cortisol<div>-Glucagon</div><div>-Adrenaline</div>
50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-1"<img src=""layers of epi.png"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-O.svg"" />"
50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-2"<img src=""layers of epi.png"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-O.svg"" />"
50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-3"<img src=""layers of epi.png"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-O.svg"" />"
50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-4"<img src=""layers of epi.png"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-O.svg"" />"
50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-5"<img src=""layers of epi.png"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-O.svg"" />"
50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-6"<img src=""layers of epi.png"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""50784cd838b24235a1fc84d00850bea7-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-1"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-2"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-3"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-4"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-5"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-6"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-7"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-8"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-8-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-8-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-9"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-9-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-9-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-10"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-10-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-10-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-11"<img src=""502_Layers_of_epidermis.jpg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-11-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-11-A.svg"" />""<img src=""84a167da450646c5bab9e61b8d1914a3-ao-O.svg"" />"
What is the glycoalyx?The carbohydrate-rich area at the cell surface created by the sugars of glycolipids and glycoproteins
What are some major components of the plasma membrane?-Phospholipid bilayer<div>-Cholesterol</div><div>-Glycoproteins</div><div>-Glycolipids</div>
What are the three modes of passive transport that occur along the plasma membrane?-Simple diffusion<div>-Facilitated diffusion</div><div>-Osmosis</div>
Lipids with sugars attached are called {{c1::glycolipids​}}<br><br>​Proteins with sugars attached are called {{c1::glycoproteins}}
Location of integral proteins?Firmly inserted into the lipid bilayer
What are some features of integral proteins?-Have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions<div>-Span the entirety of the membrane and protrude on both sides with alpha helix confirmations ( transmembrane)</div>
Roles of peripheral proteins?-Form a network of filaments to support the membrane<div>-Cell to cell linkage</div>
Location of peripheral proteins?-Not embedded in bilayer<div>-Attach loosley to integral proteins</div>
Roles of membrane proteins<div>T{{c1::ransport​}}<br><br> R{{c1::eceptors for signal transduction​}}<br><br> A{{c1::ttachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix​}}</div><div><br> E{{c1::nzymatic activity​}}<br><br> I{{c1::ntercellular joining​}}<br><br> C{{c1::ell-cell recognition}}<br></div>
What are some features of transport proteins which allow them to function?-Are selective for particular routes<div>-Form hydrophilic channels</div><div>-Hydrolyse ATP as energy source to pump substances across the membrane</div>
Describe the mode of action for membrane proteins which act as as receptors for signal transduction<div>B{{c1::inds}} to a specific {{c1::signalling molecule}} (e.g a hormone) ​<br><br>​Upon binding the chemical messenger causes a {{c1::change in shape}} in the protein​<br><br>​This {{c1::initiates}} a chain of chemical reactions in the cell.<br></div>
How may a membrane protein act as an enzyme?Its active site may be exposed to substances in an adjacnet solution
How can cell membrane proteins facilitate intracellular joining?CAM's Provide temporary binding sites that guide cell migration<div>Membrane proteins of adjacent cells can bind together to fix cells in position</div>
How can cell membrane proteins facilitate cell-cell recognition?Glycoproteins in the membrane function as an identification tag that is recognised by other cells
The three types of cell junctions are:<div>T{{c1::ight junctions}}</div><div>D{{c1::esmosomes}}</div><div>G{{c1::ap junctions}}</div>
General functions of cell junctions?-Allows neighbouring cells to adhere<div>-Communication</div><div>-Forms communities</div>
Function of tight junctions:<div><br><div>Fusing of {{c1::Integral protein}} molecules in the plasma membranes of {{c1::adjacent}} cells​<br><br>Forms an {{c1::impermeable}} junction that encircles the cell and {{c1::separates}} one {{c1::fluid-filled}} compartment from another​<br></div></div>"<img src=""paste-a95e61557bb170e4eb4a796389823ac0bc27b2b4.jpg"">"
Example location of tight junctions and reason for presence?Between epithelial cells in the digestive tract&nbsp;<div>To prevent digestive enzymes from seeping into the blood stream</div>
Function of Desmosomes:<div>{{c1::anchor}} cells together to prevent their&nbsp;{{c1::separation}}<br></div>"<img src=""paste-afcfd1b6c69b3f6676cca800843e6f65df7361fe.jpg"">"
Example location of desmosomes and reason for presensce&nbsp;Heart muscle and skin<div>Present in areas subjected to great mechanical stress</div>
Give an example feature of a desmosomeIntermediate filaments extend from the cytoplasmic side of the plaque across the width of the cell to anchor to the plaque on the cell’s opposite side
What are some featutes of intermediate filamemts?-Tough, insoluble protein fibres<div>-Made of twisted units of four fibrils in a tetramer</div>
What are some characteristics of intermediate filamentsStrongly resist tension<div>Attach to desmosomes</div><div>Most stable of cytoskeletal elements</div>
What is the function of a gap junction?Aids communication between adjacent cellls
Features of Gap Junctions:<div>Adjacent cells are connected by {{c1::hollow}} cylinders called {{c1::connexons}} composed of transmembrane proteins​<br></div>"<img src=""paste-421367a229e79521eea0e3af04b26e87078e94da.jpg"">"
Example location of gap junctions and reasons for presenceElectrically excitable tissues e.g heart and smooth musle<div>Ion passage from cell helps to synchronize electrical activity and contraction</div>
What can move through a connexon?Ions and simple sugars
Give three examples of ligands-Neurotransmitters<div>-Hormones</div><div>-Paracrines</div>
General functions/mode of action of a cell receptor?Ligand binds to membrane receptor​<br>The receptor’s structure changes​<br>Cell function is altered in response to signalling
Give an example of a receptor found in plasma membranesG-protein coupled receptors
A G-protein is a {{c1::regulatory}} molecule that acts as a {{c1::relay}} to effect a membrane-bound {{c1::enzyme}} or {{c1::ion channel}}. ​
Functions of G-protein?Triggers second messengers<div>Causes changes in the cells metabolic machinery</div>
ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-1"<img src=""G-protien.png"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-O.svg"" />"
ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-2"<img src=""G-protien.png"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-O.svg"" />"
ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-3"<img src=""G-protien.png"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-O.svg"" />"
ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-4"<img src=""G-protien.png"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-O.svg"" />"
ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-5"<img src=""G-protien.png"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-O.svg"" />"
ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-6"<img src=""G-protien.png"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-O.svg"" />"
ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-7"<img src=""G-protien.png"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""ec7ee8a502894095902ab3ffe98dfac3-ao-O.svg"" />"
Give two examples of ways which molecules cross the plasma membrane in facillitated diffusionBinding to carrier proteins in the membrane to be transported across​<br><br>​Move through water-filled channel proteins.
Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion is limited by the number of&nbsp;{{c1::carrier proteins}}
What makes a channel protein selective?-Pore size<div>-Charges of amino acids lining the pore</div>
Channel proteins usually transport i{{c1::ons}} and&nbsp;{{c1::water}}
Osmolarity is a measure of the&nbsp;{{c1::total concentration of solute particles}}
The diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high to low water potential is {{c1::osmosis}}
Osmosis can occur through:​<br>A specific channel protein {{c1::aquaporin}}-channel-mediated facilitated diffusion​<br>The {{c1::lipid bilayer}}-Even though water is highly polar, a small amount of it can cross the plasma membrane by osmosis because of its small size.
What are the two types of active transport?Primary active transport<div>Secondary active transport</div>
Features of primary active transport-Hydrolysis of ATP results in phosphorylation of the pump<div>-This causes a change in shape of the protein so that it pumps the bound solute across the membrane</div>
Give some examples of primary active transport pumps-Calcium<div>-Hydrogen</div><div>-Na+ K+ ATPase pump</div>
Features of secondary active transport-Does not use energy directly from ATP<div>-Energy for secondary active transport comes from the concentration gradeint created by primary active transport</div><div>-Moves more than one substance at a time using a co-transport protein</div>
2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-1"<img src=""direction of movement.png"" />""<img src=""2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-O.svg"" />"
2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-2"<img src=""direction of movement.png"" />""<img src=""2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-O.svg"" />"
2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-3"<img src=""direction of movement.png"" />""<img src=""2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""2b9fed374a5f463198ea26310e0cab19-ao-O.svg"" />"
In a symport system transported substances move&nbsp;{{c1::in the same direction}}
In an antiport system&nbsp;{{c1::transported sustances cross the membrane in opposite directions}}
Give an example of a symport systemCo transport of Na+ ions and glucose
Give an example of an antiport systemCellular regulation of pH:<div>Na+ enters down concentration gradient pumping H+ ions out of the cell</div>
What is endocytocis?Vesicular transport moves substances into a cell
What is exocytosis?Vesicular transport moves substances out of the cell
What is transcytosis?Moves susbstances into, across then out of the cell
What is vesicular trafficking?Moves substnaces from one area in the cell to another
Functions of endocytosis<div>R{{c1::egulating the composition of the cell membrane​}}<br><br>D{{c1::estruction of pathogens​}}<br><br>P{{c1::resentation of antigens to activate the immune system}}<br></div>
57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-1"<img src=""endocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-O.svg"" />"
57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-2"<img src=""endocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-O.svg"" />"
57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-3"<img src=""endocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-O.svg"" />"
57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-4"<img src=""endocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-O.svg"" />"
57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-5"<img src=""endocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-5-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-5-A.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-O.svg"" />"
57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-6"<img src=""endocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-6-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-6-A.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-O.svg"" />"
57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-7"<img src=""endocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-7-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-7-A.svg"" />""<img src=""57af55ed4c2b4d099997e58de4384d30-oa-O.svg"" />"
What are coated pits?A protein coating called clarthrin on the cytoplasmic face that deforms the membrane to produce a vesicle
55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-1"<img src=""exocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-1-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-1-A.svg"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-O.svg"" />"
55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-2"<img src=""exocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-2-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-2-A.svg"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-O.svg"" />"
55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-3"<img src=""exocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-3-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-3-A.svg"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-O.svg"" />"
55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-4"<img src=""exocytosis.png"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-4-Q.svg"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-4-A.svg"" />""<img src=""55202145589c48afb8d8d16620ef3f34-ao-O.svg"" />"
What are some example uses of exocytosis?hormone secretion​<br><br>neurotransmitter release​<br><br>mucus secretion​<br><br>some ejection of wastes
In exocytosis,{{c1::v-SNAREs}} (v for vesicle), recognize certain plasma membrane proteins, called {{c1::t-SNAREs}} (t for target), and bind with them. ​<br><br>Binding causes the membranes to {{c1::fuse}}, rearranging the lipid monolayers without mixing them​
The resting potential of the cell is&nbsp; established by the concentration of&nbsp;{{c1::potassium ions}}
​<br>Potassium (K+) ions and protein anions levels are high in {{c1::intracellular fluid​}}<br><br>​Extracellular fluid contains relatively {{c1::more}} Na+, which is largely balanced by {{c1::Cl−}} ​<br><br>​Sodium (Na+) do contribute to the resting membrane potential, but {{c1::less}} so than K+​<br><br>​K+ still largely determines the resting membrane potential because the membrane is {{c1::much more permeable}} to K+ than to Na+
What is another name for junk DNA?Intergenic DNA
Describe the structure of the golgi apparatusStacked and flattended membranous sacs<div>Contains vesicles called cisternae</div>
Describe the function of the golgi apparatusModify, package and store proteins and lipids made in the rough ER<div>Packages specific enzymes in vesicles&nbsp;</div>
Describe the role of the golgi apparatus in the processing and distribution of newly synthesised proteins1) Protein-containing vesicles bud off from the rough ER and fuse with the membrane of the golgi apparatus<div>2) Proteins are then modified in the golgi apparatus i.e via addition of sugar or phosphate groups</div><div>3) Proteins are then distributed and packaged in three different types of vesicles with dfifferent fates&nbsp;</div><div>3a)Proteins for secretion are packaged into secretory vesicles</div><div>3b) Vesicles containing lipids and transmembrane proteins fuse with and are incorporated within the plasma membranes</div><div>3c) inactive digestive enzymes are then packaged into vesicles and become lysosomes</div>
What are peroxisomes?Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidases and catalses involved in oxidation reactions
Functions of peroxisomes:<div>N{{c1::eutralise dangerous free radicals}}</div><div>S{{c1::ynthesis of fatty acids}}</div><div>D{{c1::etoxify harmful or toxic substances}}</div>
Give four examples of Lysosomal storage diseasesPompe's Disease<div>Farber disease</div><div>Tay Sach's</div><div>Familial hypolipoproteinaemia</div>
Lysosome functions:<div>H{{c1::eterophagy}}</div><div>A{{c1::utophagy}}</div><div>T{{c1::issue remodeling}}</div><div>M{{c1::etabolism}}</div><div>S{{c1::ecretory lysosomes}}</div>
Describe the structure of lysosomesSingle membrane bound organelles formed from vesicles pinching off the golgi
In which type of cells would lysosomes be abundantSecretory cells e.g pancreatic cells and immune system cells such as phagocytes
What are the three main componenets of the cytoskeleton?Actin microfilaments<div>Intermediate filaments</div><div>Microtubules</div>
What are the three main functions of the cytoskeleton?-Defines cell structure<div>-Controls the shape of the cell surface</div><div>-Arranges position of organeles within the cell</div>
Name a disease assoicated with cytoskeletal disfunctionHereditary spherocytosis
What is hereditary spherocytosis&nbsp;Inherited genetic defects in spectrin prevents the formation of a supportive lattice
Name for an intermediate filament in an epihelial cell?Keratin filament
Name for an intermediate filament in a nerve cell?Neurofilament
Microtubules are {{c1::hollow}} tubes made of spherical protein subunits called {{c1::tubulin}}
Functions of microtubules:<div>-I{{c1::ntracellular transport}} <br>• C{{c1::hromosomal movements during nuclear division}}&nbsp;<br>• F{{c1::ormation of cilia and flagella}}<br></div>
How do microtubules aid intracellular transport?Cellular organelles attach to the microtubules move and <br>reposition organelles along the microtubules
How do microtubules aid in chromosomal movements during nuclear division?During prophase of cell division, microtubules split sister chromatids
Describe the structure of centrioles<div>N{{c1::ine}} t{{c1::riplets}} of microtubules each connected to the next by {{c1::nontublin}} proteins and arranged to form a&nbsp;{{c1::hollow}} tube</div>"<img src=""paste-9b41966220aaf8bb76ca36109d0db6d9244a02c2.jpg"">"
What is the centrosome made up of?Two centrioles
What are cillia?Whip like motile cellular extensions that occur on exposed surfaces of certain cells
As a cilium moves, it alternates rhythmically between a propulsive {{c1::power}} stroke and a {{c1::recovery}} stroke, when it bends and returns to its initial position
Flagella are formed from&nbsp;{{c1::centrioles}}
Give an example of a lipid metabolism disorderFamilial hypercholesterolaemia
Give two examples of an amino acid metabolism disorderPhenylketonuria<div>Tyrosinaemia</div>
What are some treatments for phenylketonuria?Low protein diet: <br>• No meat, eggs, dairy <br>• Limited potatoes, cereal <br>Amino acid supplements <br>Avoid aspartame <br>Regular blood testing
What is a common symptom of familial hypercholesterolaemia?Xanthomas on the skin
Describe the pathophysiology of familial hypercholestrolaemia-Mutation in the LDL receptor<div>-LDL not taken up by cells</div><div>-Cholesterol not delivered to cells</div><div>-Increased levels of LDL and cholesterol in circulation</div><div>-This leads to atherosclerosis and CHD</div><div>-Leads to xanthomas in the skin and eyelid</div>
How do statins work to reduce cholesterolAre competitive inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase which is a rate limiting enzyme of cholesterol synthesis in the liver
Describe the pathophysiology of phenylketonuria-Gene mutation in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase which is responsible for the metabolism/conversion of phenylalanine into tyrosine<div>-As a result phenylalanine isnt convered to tyrosine and instead builds up in dangerous amounts</div><div>-This leads to excess levels of phenylketones in the blood which are excreted in the urine</div>
Why is phenylketonuria usully associated with impaired neurological function as well as brain damageTyrosine is important in the production of neurotransmitters
Streptocoous Pneumoniae<div>Shape:&nbsp;{{c1::cocci}}</div><div>Gram stain&nbsp;{{c1::positive}}</div><div>Associated Disease:&nbsp;{{c1::Pneumonia}}</div>
The job of oxidase enzymes in peroxisomes is to&nbsp;{{c1::produce H2O2}}
The job of catalse enzymes in peroxisomes is to&nbsp;{{c1::convert H2O2 into H2O and O2}}
Streptocous Pyogeneses:<div>Shape:&nbsp;{{c1::cocci}}</div><div>Gram stain:&nbsp;{{c1::Positive &amp; Non sporing}}</div><div>PAMP:&nbsp;{{c1::LTA}}</div><div>Associated Disease:&nbsp;{{c1::Impetigo, Cellulitis, N.F, Scarlet Fever}}</div><div>Mode of Action:&nbsp;{{c1::Toxin- pyrogenic or erythrogenic}}</div>
What are some features of double dna viruses?Replicate in the nucleus or cytoplasm (poxviruses) of host cells using a polymerase which reproduces viral DNA​<br><br>Viral DNA is not usually incorporated into host chromosomal DNA
What are some examples of double dna viruses?Poxviruses<div>Herpesviruses</div><div>Papovaviruses</div>
What are some features of retroviruses?single stranded sense RNA, cannot act as mRNA​<br><br>transcribed into DNA by reverse transcriptase - incorporated into host DNA
What are some features of RNA viruses?Single RNA (<b>sense</b> or <b>antisense)</b>​<br><br>Sense (+ve) directly functions as mRNA (coronavirus)​<br><br>Antisense (-ve) functions as a<b> template</b> for mRNA
Example of a virus with a polyhedra capsid?Adenovirus
Example of a virus with a spherical capsid?influenza
Example of a virus with a complex capsid?Bacteriophage
Features of influenza:<div>RNA genome is {{c1::encased}} in a {{c1::protein capsid​}}<br><br>{{c1::<b>Envelope</b>}}&nbsp;contains antigenic surface glycoproteins (spikes):​<br><br>H{{c1::aemagglutinin}} (HA) and​ N{{c1::euraminidase}} (NA)​<br><br>NA blocked by {{c1::Tamiflu​}}<br><br>{{c1::​M2 ion channel proteins}}&nbsp;are embedded in the viral envelope<br></div>
How many major types of haemagglutinin are there in the influenza virus?13
How many major types of neuraminidiase are there in influenza?9
Antigenic drift occurs when {{c1::mutations}} within the virus/antibody{{c1::-binding sites}} accumulate over time
Antigenic shift occurs due to a sudden change in {{c1::antigenicity}} caused by the {{c1::recombination}} of the influenza genome – forming a new {{c1::subtype​}}
Summarise the stages of HIV replication/lifecycle<div>HIV’s host cell is a CD4 T lymphocyte (Helper T cell)​<br>Virus Entry​<br>HIV recognises CD4 receptor on T cell​<br>HIV’s surface glycoprotein, gp120 binds to receptor​<br>HIV’s gp41 binds with co receptor, receptor fusion​<br>Leads to uncoating and RNA is released into cytoplasm</div><div>-Reverse transcription of viral genome</div><div>-Integration of proviral DNA into host genomic DNA</div><div>-Transcription of viral DNA</div><div>-Translation of viral DNA</div><div>-Viron processing and assembly</div><div>-Budding of virus from cell and maturation</div>
What type of retrovirus is HIV?Lentivirus
What is a defining characteristic of a lentivirus?Long incubation periods and can cause chronic and deadly diseases
What are the clinical stages of HIV infection?Incubation<div>Seroconversion illness</div><div>Asymptomatic period</div><div>Pre-AIDS</div><div>AIDS</div>
Give examples of different modes of action of Anti-HIV drugsIntegrase Inhibitors<div>Protease Inhibitors</div><div>Fusion inhbitors</div><div>Reverse Transcriptase inhibitors</div>
Describe how the drug nevirapine works to treat HIV-Acts as an uncompetitive inhibitor- By binding to reverse transcriptase after it has bound to its nucleic acid substrate<div>-When the polymerase has bound to its substrate a conformational change exposes an allosteric binding site</div>-When bound, Nevirapine inhibits reverse transcriptase, blocking polymerase activity.​
Give examples for three blood markers used when dealing with a HIV patientViral load<div>Anti-HIV antibody</div><div>CD4</div>
Suggest why antiviral agents are far less successful than antibacterial agents-Viruses are more hidden than bacteria so access by drugs is more difficult<div>-Viruses mutate frequently</div><div>-Antibacterial drugs can disrupt many pathways in bacteria compared to antiviral drugs on viruses</div>
"Describe using the graph below how HIV progresses to AIDS from infection: <b>ACUTE STAGE</b><div><img src=""paste-992bd03a2da1416ed8fdf3e28aad71c0bbf7ff1c.jpg""><br></div>"Acute Phase:<div>-Earliest stage which develops around two weeks after infection</div><div>-Individuals are highly infectious and transmission rate is high</div><div>-Virus multiplies rapidly and there is a reduction in CD4 t helper cells</div><div>-Immune system mounts a counter attack and begins to produce HIV antibodies ---&gt;Seroconversion</div><div>-HIV antibodies are detectable after two weeks</div>
"Describe using the graph below how HIV progresses to AIDS from infection: <b>CHRONIC</b><div><img src=""paste-992bd03a2da1416ed8fdf3e28aad71c0bbf7ff1c.jpg""><br></div>"-HIV continues to multiply rapidly and CD4 cell are reduced at a slower rate compared to the acute phase<div>-Virus is still transmissible</div>
"Describe using the graph below how HIV progresses to AIDS from infection: <b>AIDS</b><div><img src=""paste-992bd03a2da1416ed8fdf3e28aad71c0bbf7ff1c.jpg""><br></div>"-Increased number of opportunisitc infections i.e TB, Pneumonia,Kaposis sarcoma<div>-CD4 count decreases significantly and there is a more rapid increase in HIV</div><div><br></div>
Why is HIV difficult to treat?Virus hides in places that cannot be detected by the immune system<div>High mutation rate</div>
What are the two main types of glycolipids?Glycoglycerolipid and Glycosphingolipid
Describe how antabuse (disulfiram) can be used as a treatment for alcoholism-Acts as a competitive inhibitor of acetylaldehyde dehydrogenase<div>-Prevents conversion of acetylaldehyde to acetate which leads to an accumulation in acetylaldehyde</div><div>-This leads to side effects such as nausea,vomiting and discomfort</div>
What is given to combat methanol poisoning and by what mechanism does it act?Ethanol<div>Via Competitive inhibition:</div><div>Ethanol is oxidised in preference to methanol less methanol is oxidised to formaldehyde and formic acid which causes blindness</div>
Give an example of a non-competitive inhibitor enzyme used for AlzheimersTacrine
How does tacrine help in the treatment of alzheimersInhibits enzymes(Achesterase) from breaking down acetylcholine, increasing the level and duration of neurotransmitter action.&nbsp; ​
Give an example of a non-competitive inhbitor used in the treatment of cancerEtoposide
How does etoposide help in the treatment of cancer?-chemotherapy ​<br>-A topoisomerase inhibitor : DNA topoisomerases are enzymes that introduce breaks in DNA, allowing for DNA replication and are found at high levels in tumour cells.​<div>-So slows replication of DNA and hence growth of tumour cells</div>
Give an example of an isoenzyme which is used as an indicator/marker for myocaridal infarctionCreatine kinase
How is troponin used as a marker for myocardial infarctionTropinin is released in the blood when the caridac muscle is damaged<div>Elevated cardiac troponin indicates a heart attack</div>
What are isoenzymes?Enzymes which catalyse the same reaction
What are some features of lamina propria?-Loose areolar connective tissue<div>-Lymphoid folicles</div><div>-Capillaries for nourishment</div>
Give some example causes of cell injuryAging<div>Hypoxia</div><div>Ischemia</div><div>Genetic defects</div>
Give some pathways in which neutralisation of free radicals can occurCatalase enzymes<div>Spontaneous decay</div><div>Endogenous and Exogenous antioxidants e.g vitamins E,A,C</div><div>Superoxide dismutase</div>
Give three basic mechanisms which free radicals can cause cell damage-Lipid peroxidation of membranes<div>-DNA fragmentation</div><div>-Protein cross-linking</div>
If not adequately neutralized, free radicals can damage cells by three basic mechanisms:<div>1. Lipid peroxidation of membranes: {{c1::double bonds}} in {{c1::polyunsaturated}} membrane lipids are vulnerable to attack by oxygen {{c1::free radicals}}<br></div>
If not adequately neutralized, free radicals can damage cells by three basic mechanisms:<div>2. DNA fragmentation: Free radicals react with {{c1::thymine}} in nuclear and mitochondrial DNA to produce{{c1::single strand breaks}}<br></div>
If not adequately neutralized, free radicals can damage cells by three basic mechanisms:<div>3. Protein cross-linking: Free radicals promote {{c1::sulfhydryl-mediated}} protein cross-linking, resulting in increased d{{c1::egradation}} or loss of activity<br></div>
What are some concequences of reperfusion damage?–Restoration of flow may expose compromised cells to<br>high concentrations of calcium<div><br>–Reperfusion can result in increase free radicals<br>production from compromised mitochondria and the<br>circulating inflammatory cells</div>
Give four examples of cellular adaptations to injuryAutophagy<div>Hypertrophy</div><div>Hyperplasia</div><div>Metaplasia</div>
•The most common morphologically apparent adaptive changes are<br>– Atrophy -{{c1::decrease in cell size}}<br>– Hypertrophy- {{c1::increase in cell size}}<br>– Hyperplasia- {{c1::increase in cell number}}<br>– Metaplasia -{{c1::change in cell type}}
Subcellular responses to cell injury<div>{{c1::Autophagic}} vacuoles<br>{{c1::Induction/hypertrophy}} of RER<br>{{c1::Abnormal}} mitochondria</div><div>{{c1::&nbsp;Cytoskeletal}} abnormalities<br></div>
What is dystrophic calcification?Abnormal deposition of calcium phosphate in dead or dying tissue
What is metastatic calcification?Calcium deposition in normal tissues as a result of hypercalcemia
Give example concequences of metastatic calcificationBone destruction<div>Vitamin D disorders e.g sarcoidosis</div><div>Renal failure + secondary hyperparathyroidism</div>
Calcification is an important component in the pathogenesis of which diseases?Atherosclerosis<div>Vascular heart disease</div>
Which cytokines are involved in innate immunity and key in inflammationTNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 (chemokine)
What is the function of IL-1?-Promotes T cell activation<div>-Promotes inflammation</div><div>-Causes fevers&nbsp;</div>
What is the role of IL-8?-Is a chemokine<div>-Attracts and activates neutrophils in inflammatory regions</div>
What is the role of IL-2?Stimulates T and B cell proliferation<div>Stimulates NK cell activation</div>
Give two mechanisms by which cytotoxic t cells directly attack and kill infected cells-Release of perforins and granzymes<div>-Binding to specific membrane receptors on target cells, which then stimulates the target cell to undergo apoptosis</div>
What are the main roles of IL-4,, IL-5 and IL-13?-Strong Antibody production<div>-Eosinophil Activation</div><div>-Defense against helminths&nbsp;</div><div>-Allergic reactions</div>
What are the main roles of IL-17?-Involved in defence against some bacteria and fungi<div>-Involved in inflammatory disorders e.g Ulcerative Colitis</div>
Give two examples of co enzymes and their functions-Coenzyme A: Acetyl Group Carrier<div>-Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD); oxidation or hydrogen transfer</div>
Vmax is the number of {{c1::substrate}} molecules converted into {{c1::product}} by an enzyme molecule when the enzyme is {{c1::fully saturated}} with substrate.​
What are four examples of defensive mechanisms used by antibodies?-Agglutination<div>-Precipitation</div><div>-Complement Activation</div><div>-Neutralisation</div>
What is the role of immunoglobinin M?Agglutination of pathogens
What is the role of immunoglobinin E?Defense agaisnt parasites<div>Allergy</div>
What is the role of immunoglobinin A?Mucosal defense<div>Newborn protection</div>
What is the role of immunoglobinin G?Opsonisation and activation of complement
Which T cells are important in preventing autoimmune diseases?Regulatory T cells
What is another name for allergies?Immediate hypersensitivities
What is found in the alimentary canal?Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
Give some examples of acessory digestive organsTeeth, tongue,gallblader, salivary glands,liver,pancreas
What are some components of saliva?Electrolytes; Na+, Ca 2+<div>Proteins; Mucin, IgA, defensins</div><div>Metabolic wastes; uric acid and urea</div><div>Water</div>
What is the value of the resting cardiac output?5.2L
The value of the EDV is normally?120ml
The value of the ESV is normally?50ml
The value of the SV is normally?70ml
What are the three isoforms of creatine kinase?BB- Brain<div>MM- Muscle</div><div>MB- Cardiac muscle</div>
What is the job of parietal cells?-Produce HCl and Intrinsic Factor
What is the job of chief cells?Produce pepsinogen and lipases
What is the function of mucous neck cells?Produce sticky alkaline mucous
Give three examples of structural features of the small intestine which increase the surface area-Pilcare circulares<div>-Villi</div><div>-Microvilli</div>
What is the function of enterendocrine cells?Hormone production
What are some examples of modifications to the muscularis externa in the large intestine?<div>S{{c1::mooth muscle is reduced to three bands (teniae coli)}}<br><br>M{{c1::uscle bands have some degree of tone}}</div><div><br>W{{c1::alls are formed into pocket-like sacs called haustra}}<br></div>
What is the role of the liver in digestion?Produces bile, metabolizes CHO, protein and fat. <br><br>Stores nutrients, detoxifies drugs and waste
Give an example of a chemical which acts as a specific irreversible inhibitor- and how does it act?Aspirin is an irreversible inhibitor of cyclooxygenase – 2​<br>Aspirin acetylates a specific Serine -OH group in a channel through which substrate (arachidonic acid) must pass to reach the active site​
Which type of enzymes can react non-specifcally by irreversible inhibition?Enzymes with sulfhydryl groups in their active site can react with metals with a high affinity to SH groups e.g mercury by non-competitive inhibition
What is a high presence of CK-MB an indicator of?Recent myocardial infarction
What are features of structural isomers?Same molecular formular, different structure
What are features of steriosiomers?Same molecular formula, different spatial arrangements of atoms
Two types of sterioisomers?Geometric and Optical
What are some features of steriosiomers-Same molecular formula but differ around a chiral centre or double bond
Give an example of a dietary source of potassiumBananas
Where is potassium stored?Nerve and muscle cells
What are some symptoms of low potassium?-Constipation<div>-Fatigue</div><div>-Muscle spasms</div>
What are the symptoms of excess potassium?-Heart palpatations<div>-Nausea</div><div>-Shortness of breath</div>
What is the function of potassium in the body?-Regulation of nervous transmission<div>-Muscle function</div><div>-Mainitain normal fluid levels</div>
Give an example dietary source of magnesium-Nuts<div>-Seeds</div>
What is the function of magnesium in the body?Supporting muscle and nervous function<div>Co factors for enzymes which regulate biochemical reactions</div>
What is a symptom of magnesium deficeny?-Loss of appetite<div>-Fatigue and weakness</div><div>-Shaking</div>
What are some symptoms of excess magnesium?-Abdominal cramping<div>-Diarrhoea</div>
Give example dietary sources of iodine-Seaweed<div>-Shellfish</div><div>-Fish</div>
What is the function of iodine in the body?Production of thyroid hormones
What are some symptoms of an iodine deficency?-Swelling of thyroid glands<div>-Weight gain</div><div>-Fatigue</div>
What are some symptoms of having excess iodine in the body?-Delirium<div>-Diarrhoea</div>
Give example dietary sources of zincOysters and red meat
Give some example dietary sources of copperShelfish<div>Chocolate</div>
Zinc is stored in the&nbsp; {{c1::muscle and bone}}
Copper is stored in the&nbsp;{{c1::skeletal muscle}}
What is the function of copper in the body?Helps the body form red blood cells
What is the function of zinc in the body?-immune system function<div>-Blood clotting</div>
Symptoms of zinc deficency?-Delayed wound healing<div>-Hair loss</div>
Symptoms of excess zinc in the body?Nausea and vomiting<div>Abdominal cramps</div>
Symptoms of copper deficency?Anaemia&nbsp;<div>osteoperosis</div>
Symptoms of excess copper in the body?Difficulty speaking<div>Fever</div><div>Bloody diarrhoea</div>
Dietary sources of vitamin A?Spinach, Bell peppers
What is the function of vitamin A in the body?-Vision<div>-Growth</div><div>-Cell division</div>
What are some symptoms of vitamin A deficency?-Night blindness&nbsp;<div>-Stunted growth</div>
What are some symptoms of excess vitamin A in the body?-Headache<div>-Rash</div>
Dietary source of vitamin D?Oily fish<div>Beef liver</div>
What is the function of vitamin D in the body?Absorption of calcium and phosphorus
What are some symptoms of vitamin D deficencyHair loss<div>Fatigue</div><div>Bone Weakness</div>
Symptoms of excess vitamin d in the body?-Hypercalcemia<div>-Kidney failure</div>
What is the function of vitamin E in the body?Antioxidants- prevents formation of free radicals
Give example dietary sources of vitamin E?Plant based oils<div>Nuts&nbsp;</div>
Symptoms of vitamin E deficency?Nerve damage ---&gt; Loss of feeling in limbs
Symptoms of excess vitamin E?Headache<div>Blurred vision</div>
Give an example dietary source of vitamin KGreen leafy vegetables e.g spinach
What is the function of vitamin K in the body?To make proteins which are needed for blood clotting (prothrombrin)
What are some symptoms of vitamin K deficency?GI bleeding<div>Heavy periods</div><div>Easy brusing</div>
What are some symptoms of excess vitamin K in the body?Jaundice
Give some example dietary sources of thiaminWholegrain cereals<div>Pork</div>
What is the function of thiamin/b1 in the body?Conversion of carbohydrates into energy to promote healthy brain and nervous system function
What are some symptoms of thiamin deficency?Loss of appetite<div>Fatigue</div>
Symptoms of excess thiamin intake?Upset stomach
Give example dietary sources of seleniumAnimal protein foods<div>Seafoods</div>
Give some example dietary sources of riboflavinEggs<div>Kidneys</div><div>Liver</div>
What is the function of riboflavin in the bodyActs as an antioxidant by reducing oxidative stress<div>Reducing inflammation</div>
What is the function of selenium in the body?Is an essential component of enzymes and proteins called slenoproteins which help make DNA and protect agaisnt cell damage
What are some symptoms of riboflavin deficency?Pale yellow tongue<div>Pins and needles</div><div>mouth ulcers</div>
What are some symptoms of selenium deficency?Weak immune system<div>Muscle weakness</div>
What are some symptoms of excess selenium in the body?Nausea and vomiting<div>Nail discolouration</div><div>Foul breath odour (garlicky)</div>
Give some example dietary sources of niacin B3Red meat<div>Poultry</div><div>seeds</div>
What is the function of niacin B3 in the body?Formation of NAD,&nbsp;<div>converting nutrients to energy</div>
What are some symptoms of niacin deficency?Weightloss<div>Headache</div><div>Fatigue</div>
What are some symptoms of niacin overdose?Dizziness<div>Abdominal pain</div><div>Diarrhoea</div>
Give some example dietary sources of vitamin B6Fish, Beef liver, starchy vegetables
What is the function of vitamin b6 in the body?Maintian normal nerve function<div>Making antibodies</div><div>Making haemoglobin</div>
What are some symptoms of a vitamin B6 deficency?Dermatitis<div>Rash</div><div>Neuropathy</div>
What are some symptoms of a vitamin B6 overdose?Ataxia (involuntary muscle movements)<div>Painful skin lesions</div>
Give some example dietary sources of vitamin b12meat, fish,milk
What is the function of vitamin B12 in the body?Making red blood cells&nbsp;<div>Supports normal nervous function</div><div>Use of folate</div>
What are some symptoms of a vitamin B12 deficency?Extreme fatigue<div>Mouth Ulcers</div><div>Muscle weakness</div>
What are some symptoms of a vitamin b12 overdose?Headache<div>Nausea/Vomiting</div><div>Diarrhoea</div>
Give some dietary sources of folate/vitamin B9Spinach,Broccoli,Brussel sprouts
What is the function of folate in the body?Red blood cell formation<div>Healthy cell growth</div><div>DNA synthesis</div>
What are some symptoms of a vitamin B9 deficencyExtreme fatigue&nbsp;<div>Muscle weakness</div>
What are some symptoms of a folate overdose?Upset stomach<div>Nausea</div>
Give some example dietary sources of vtiamin cCitrus fruit, white potatoes
What is the function of vitamin C in the body?-Is an antioxidant and protects cells against damage from free radicals<div>-Aids in the absorption of iron</div><div>-Immune system function</div>
What are some symptoms of a vitamin c deficency?Fatigue<div>Irritability&nbsp;</div><div>Dental problems (gingivitis)</div>
Symptoms of a vitamin c overdose?Abdominal cramps
Give some example dietary sources of ironLiver, Red meat, beans
What is the function of iron in the bodyAids cognitive function<div>Is a component of haemoglobin so aids oxygen transport</div>
What are some symptoms of an iron deficency?Extreme fatigue<div>Weakness</div><div>Pale skin</div>
What are some symptoms of an iron overdose?Joint pain<div>Weightloss</div><div>Irregular periods</div>
State some symptoms that may occur in an indivdual facing a significant loss of blood&nbsp;-Rapid weak pulse<div>-Rapid shallow breathing</div><div>-Thirst</div><div>-Cold skin</div>
Describe some physiological/homeostatic effects that may result from severe blood lossLoss of blood leads to decreased blood volume and then decreased blood pressure<div>Vasoconstrion of blood vessels to increase peripheral resistance and increase blood pressure</div><div>Baroreceptors also detect decrease in blood pressure and stimulate sympathetic impulses and cardioaccceltaory centere to increase HR in order to mainitain HR which results in increased CO and a rapid pulse</div><div>Rapid/shallow breathing as respiratory centres are stimulated by baraoreceptors AND chemoreceptors detect increase in pCO2 in tissues (faster breathing = faster removal of CO2)</div>
Greatest danger from burns results from&nbsp;{{c1::loss of fluid and electrolytes}}
Describe how transport of K+ ions can aid the maintenance of a resting membrane potential1) K+ diffuse down their steep​ concentration gradient out of the cell​ via leakage channels<div>Loss of K+​results in a negative charge on the​ inner plasma membrane face.​</div><div><br></div><div>2). K+ also move into the cell​ because they are attracted to the​ negative charge established on the​ inner plasma membrane face</div><div><br></div><div>3) A negative membrane potential​(–90 mV) is established when the​ movement of K+ out of the cell equals​ K+ movement into the cell.&nbsp;</div><div>At this​ point, the concentration gradient​ promoting K+ exit exactly opposes the​electrical gradient for K+ entry.​</div>HSF2::Neurophysiology
What occurs to fatty acids and glycerol after lipolysis has taken place?Glycerol is converted to a glycolysis intermediate known as glyceraldehyde -3 phosphate which is then converted to pyruvic acid and then acetyl coA and enters the TCA cycle<div>Beta oxidation of fatty acids occurs in the mitochondira also producing acetyl coA which enters the TCA cycle<br><div><br></div></div>
In which three steps of the citric acid cycle, is NAD+ reduced to NADH?-Conversion of isocitric acid to alpha keto glutaric acid<div>-Conversion of alpha keto glutaric acid to succinyl coA</div><div>-Conversion of malic acid to oxaloacetic acid</div>
Which stage of the TCA cycle is FADH₂produced?Conversion of succcinic acid to fumaric acid
What are two examples of methods by which proteins can be degraded?Autophagy or UPS
What is autophagy?The process by which a cell breaks down and destroys old,damaged or abnormal proteins and other substances in its cytoplasm
Describe the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease-AD, is caused by the extracelullar depostion of&nbsp;β amyloid&nbsp;<div>-This is a result of the proteolytic processing of the membrane bound protein called the amyloid precursor protein</div><div>-This leads to an accumulation of amyloid (known as amyloidosis)</div><div>-Amyloid proteins clump and cluster together to form neuritic plaque---&gt; A core of&nbsp;β amyloid protein surrounded by neuron fragments</div><div>-Plaques may get between neurones and disrupt signalling</div><div>-Plaques can also deposit near blood vessels in the brain which may cause them to rupture</div>
Describe the process of protein aggregation-Is the self-assembly of misfolded proteins to form soluble oligomers and insoluble aggregates
What are some common symptoms of GSD IV?-Failure to thrive&nbsp;<div>-Severe muscle hypotonia</div><div>-Hepatosplenomegaly</div><div>-Progresive liver cirrhosis</div><div>-Liver failure</div>
Tarui disease is due to deficecies in which isoform of PFK?PFK-M
Give an example of a pattern recognition receptor in the bodyToll like receptors
Give some examples of protective chemicals produced by the skin and mucous membranes in inate immunityAcid<div>Enzymes</div><div>Mucin&nbsp;</div><div>Defensins</div>
What is the function of the mucous produced by mucous membranes in innate imunity?Traps microorganisms
What are the roles of toll like receptors?First line of defense against microbes, triggers immune system reactions
What is the role of interlukin 6?Secreted in response to PAMPS<div>An inflamatory marker/ mediator of inflammatory responses</div>
Give the order of lipid metabolism-Lipogenesis<div>-Lipolysis</div><div>-Beta oxidation</div><div>-Ketogenesis</div>
What is a term that descirbes accumulation of ketone bodies?Ketosis
What treatments are available for those with Andersons disease?Liver transplantation for those in progressive liver failure
What are some treatments for Her's disease?Cornstarch therapy<div>Frequent small meals</div>
Why is cornstarch therapy often used in treatment of GSDs?Cornstarch is a complex carbohydrate that is difficult for the body to digest; therefore it acts as a slow release carbohydrate and maintains normal blood sugar levels for a longer period of time than most carbohydrates in food.
What are the steps of gluconeogenesis?1) <b>Pyruvate Carboxylase</b> converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate<div>2) <b>PEP carboxylase</b> then converts oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate</div><div>3)Enolase catalyses the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to 2-phosphoglycerate</div><div>4)Phosphoglycerate mutase then catalyses the conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate</div><div>5)Phosphoglycerate kinase then catalyses the conversion of 3-phosphoglycerate&nbsp; to 1,3 Bisphosphoglycerate</div><div>6)Glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase then catalyses the conversion of 1,3 Biphosphoglycerate to Glyceraldehyde-3 Phosphate&nbsp;</div><div>7)Aldolase then catlyses the conversion of glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate to Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate</div><div>8)<b> Fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase</b> then catalyses the conversion of fructose 1,6 bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate</div><div>9) <b>Phosphohexoseisomerase</b> then catalyses conversion of fructose-6-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate</div><div>10)<b>Glucose-6-phosphatase</b> then catalyses the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose</div><div><br></div>
What are the functions of the integumentary system?-Barrier<div>-Homeostasis</div><div>-Sensation</div><div>-Excretion</div><div>-Endocrine functions</div>
What does the ABCD acronym used to detect skin cancer stand for?-Asymetry<div>-Border</div><div>-Colour</div><div>-Diameter&nbsp;</div>
What are the two layers of the dermis?Papillary layer<div>Reticular layer</div>
Keratinocytes are tightly connected to one another by what type of cell junction?Desomosomes
Example of a co factor used in alcohol metabolism?zinc
Give some examples of antibiotics which are classed as penicillinsamoxicillin and ampicillin
In which siutations are most quinolone used and why?In life threatening situations due to its rare but adverse effects
What is the job of cortisol/glucocorticoids?Stimulates gluconeogenesis, Lypolysis and proteolysis
What is glucose sparing?The increased use of non-carbohydrate fuels such as fats to conserve glucose for the brain
What are the uses of carbohydrate in the body?-Storage<div>-Membranes</div><div>-Ribose and deoxyribose sugars in DNA and RNA</div><div>-Cell to cell recognition</div>
What are some example of oligosacharides?Raffinose<div>Stachyose</div>
How are oligosacharides formed?Fermentation by microflora in the large intestines
What is the most important eicosanoid?Prostaglandin
Givet two examples of sphingolipidsSphingomyelin and ceramide
Failing blood Ca 2+ levels in the blood&nbsp;{{c1::triggers}} PTH release<div>Rising Ca 2+ levels in the blood&nbsp;{{c1::inhibits}} PTH release</div>
Where in the body does PTH stimulate?Intestines<div>Kidneys</div><div>Skeleton</div>
Give three concequences of PTH release<div>Stimulates {{c1::osteoclasts}} (bone-resorbing cells) to digest some of the {{c1::calcium-rich bony matrix}} and release ionic calcium and phosphates to the {{c1::blood}}<br><br>Enhances the kidney’s {{c1::reabsorption}} of Ca2+ from the forming {{c1::urine}} into the blood<br><br><br>Promotes activation of {{c1::vitamin D}}, thereby increasing absorption of Ca2+ by {{c1::intestinal mucosal cells}}.<br></div>
Why is allopurinol a treatment option in von gierkes?Hyperuricemia is common in patients with von gierkes
What are some causes of hypoalbinaemia?Physiologyical - preganancy causes increased blood volume<div>Pathological- Liver and kidney disease</div>
Give an example of a disease caused by protein malnutrition?Kwashiokor
What is another term for Kwashiokor?Edamatous malnutrition
What are some examples of acute phase proteins?CRP<div>Fibrinogen</div><div>Seroid Amyloid A</div>
Give an example of an enzyme which can be used in a transamination reaction to produce alanineAlanine aminotransferase
Describe the pathophysiology of Parkinsons-Is a neurodegenerative disease leading to loss of neurones in the substantia negra<div>-Alpha synuclein become misfolded and form fibrils and aggregate and eventually form lewy bodies casuing loss of neurones</div><div>-This leads to drop in dopamine levels and causes the emergence of symptoms</div>
Give some examples of treatments for gastritisProton pump inhibitors