Cambridge
International AS and A Level
Psychology
SECOND EDITION
David Clarke
In memory of Habacuc
For Tatiana and all my family and friends in Brazil with
love and affection.
Em memória de Habacuc
Para Tatiana e toda a minha família e amigos no Brasil
com amor e carinho.
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Get the most from this book
Everyone has to decide his or her own revision strategy,
but it is essential to review your work, learn it and test your
understanding. This Revision Guide will help you to do
that in a planned way, topic by topic. Use this book as the
cornerstone of your revision and don’t hesitate to write in
it — personalise your notes and check your progress by
ticking off each section as you revise.
My revision planner
1
8
The core studies
11 key components of core studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 The biological approach
10 Canli et al . (2000) Brain scans and emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 Dement and Kleitman (1957) Sleep and dreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15 Schachter and Singer (1962) Two factors in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 The cognitive approach
17 Andrade (2009) Doodling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20 Baron-Cohen et al . (2001) Eyes test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23 Laney et al . (2008) False memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 The learning approach
Tick to track your progress
You can also keep track of your revision by ticking off each
topic heading in the book. You may find it helpful to add
your own notes as you work through each topic.
1.4 The social approach
1 The core studies
Use the revision planner on pages 4–6 to plan your revision,
topic by topic. Tick each box when you have:
● revised and understood a topic
● tested yourself
● practised the exam-style questions
26 Bandura et al . (1961) Aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29 Saavedra and Silverman (2002) Button phobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31 Pepperberg (1987) Parrot learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1.1 The biological approach
33 Milgram (1963) Obedience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 Piliavin et al . (1969) Subway Samaritans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40 Yamamoto et al . (2012) Chimpanzee helping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Brain scans and emotions
2Authors:
Research
methods
Canli et al.
(2000)
Key terms: Brain scans and emotion
2.1 The five main research methods
Approach: Biological approach
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
43 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Background/context:
are more likely to recall emotional experiences
49
Self-reports . . . . . . . .people
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
than non-emotional ones, and the amygdala appears to play a crucial role in
51 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
emotional memory. Studies using PET and MRI scans have shown correlations
51 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
between amygdala activation and the presentation and recall of emotional
53
Correlations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
stimuli.
The correlations
could be for three reasons:
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tip
■ Expert ■
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A
positron
emission
tomography (PET)
■ scan is ■
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invasive: the scanner detects
■ a radioactive
■ substance
■ injected into
● some
people had
anaims
enhanced
55
Hypotheses
and
. . . . . . . . emotional
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . state
. . . . . . . .during
. . . . . . . . . .the
. . . . . scanning
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
● the
amygdala
is sensitive
to techniques
the emotional . . .intensity
56
Samples
and
sampling
. . . . . . . . . . . . of
. . . .a
. . stimulus
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Ethics
(human
and
animal)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aims/hypotheses: emotionally intense stimuli will cause greater activation of
60
Types ofand
data
(quantitative
qualitative)
. . . . . . intense
. . . . . . . . . . .stimuli.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
the amygdala
lead
to better recalland
than
less emotionally
61 Data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Method: laboratory experiment.
66 Reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variables:
67 Validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective) . . . . .
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■ experiments,
■ page 43
2.2
Methodological
aspectstoof
the research
● some
people are more responsive
emotional
experiencesprocess
than others
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the body. A magnetic resonance
image (MRI) scan is non-invasive (no
. . . . injection
. . . . . . . . .
. . . . .no
. . . .radioactivity)
. . .
and
and
changes in
. . . . uses
. . . . . . .magnets
. .
. . . . .to
. . . .record
. . .
blood flow in the brain.
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IV – intensity ratings of each stimulus (picture) on the 4-point scale from 0 =
not emotionally intense to 3 = extremely emotionally intense.
DV – the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with
certainty; functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’.
4
Cross check
Design: allInternational
ten participantsAS
sawand
all 96
so the design
is repeated
Cambridge
A pictures,
Level Psychology
Revision
Guide
Repeated measures design, page 45
measures.
Features to help you succeed
Participants and sampling technique: the participants were ten
right-handed healthy female volunteers, so the sampling technique is selfselecting (although how they came to volunteer is not stated by Canli et al.)
Females were chosen because they are more likely to respond physiologically
and are more likely to report intense emotional experiences.
Apparatus:
A functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI) scanner which, unlike a
PET scan is non-invasive (no injections and no radioactivity). The scanner
works by measuring the contrast in blood-oxygen levels between areas of
activation and non-activation in the brain.
● 96 pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), each of
which has a normative rating of emotion (valence and arousal). Normative
valence ratings ranged from 1.17 (highly negative) to 5.44 (neutral). Arousal
ratings ranged from 1.97 (tranquil) to 7.63 (highly arousing).
Now test yourself
1 Describe what is meant by a
repeated measures design.
Answers on p.192
●
Expert tip
Throughout the book there are tips from the experts on
how to maximise your chances.
Definitions and key words
Advice is given on how to avoid the common
misconceptions students often have.
Evaluation
The strengths and weaknesses of the core studies and
specialist options are assessed throughout the book.
Now test yourself
These short, knowledge-based questions provide the first
step in testing your learning. Answers are at the back of
the book.
2 Suggest one advantage of using
scientific equipment in psychological
experiments such as this.
Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms
are
Answers on p.192
provided
on the page where they appear.
Controls: all participants were female, healthy and right-handed. The order of
the pictures was randomised. Each picture was presented for 2.88 seconds with
Common misconception
Now test yourself
Cross check
seconds in between when the participants would focus on a fixation cross
Key 12.96
words
from the syllabus are highlighted
in bold
for47
Experimental
controls, page
(to keep them looking at the same spot).
you throughout the book.
Exam-style
questions
10
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Exam-style questions are provided for each topic. Use them
to consolidate your revision and practise your exam skills.
Cross check
These quick cross-references to other parts of the book
will help your revision.
My revision planner
1
8
The core studies
11 key components of core studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 The biological approach
10 Canli et al. (2000) Brain scans and emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12 Dement and Kleitman (1957) Sleep and dreams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15 Schachter and Singer (1962) Two factors in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 The cognitive approach
17 Andrade (2009) Doodling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20 Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) Eyes test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23 Laney et al. (2008) False memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 The learning approach
26 Bandura et al. (1961) Aggression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29 Saavedra and Silverman (2002) Button phobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31 Pepperberg (1987) Parrot learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 The social approach
33 Milgram (1963) Obedience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 Piliavin et al. (1969) Subway Samaritans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40 Yamamoto et al. (2012) Chimpanzee helping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Methodological aspects of the research process
55
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Research methods
2.1 The five main research methods
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Samples and sampling techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ethics (human and animal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective) . . . . . .
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3
Approaches and issues and debates
3.1 Approaches
70
71
71
72
The biological approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The cognitive approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The learning approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The social approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Issues and debates
73
74
75
75
76
The application of psychology to everyday life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Individual and situational explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nature versus nurture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The use of children in psychological research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The use of animals in psychological research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
AS examination guidance/questions and answers
5
Specialist options
5.1 Methods, issues and debates
88
89
89
90
91
Cultural bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reductionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Psychometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Determinism (and free will) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Longitudinal studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Psychology and abnormality
93
97
100
104
108
Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bipolar and related disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impulse control and non-addictive substance disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anxiety disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Obsessive–compulsive and related disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Psychology and consumer behaviour
111
116
123
128
133
The physical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The psychological environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consumer decision-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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My revision planner
5
5.4 Psychology and health
138
142
147
150
154
The patient–practitioner relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Adherence to medical advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Health promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 Psychology and organisations
157
161
166
169
175
Motivation to work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leadership and management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Group behaviour in organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Organisational work conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Satisfaction at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
6
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
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Countdown to my exams
6–8 weeks to go
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Start by looking at the syllabus – make sure you
know exactly what material you need to revise
and the style of the examination. Use the revision
planner on pages 4–6 to familiarise yourself with
the topics.
Organise your notes, making sure you have
covered everything on the syllabus. The revision
planner will help you to group your notes into
topics.
Work out a realistic revision plan that will allow
you time for relaxation. Set aside days and times
for all the subjects that you need to study, and
stick to your timetable.
Set yourself sensible targets. Break your revision
down into focused sessions of around 40 minutes,
divided by breaks. This Revision Guide organises
the basic facts into short, memorable sections to
make revising easier.
1 week to go
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The day before the examination
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4–6 weeks to go
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Read through the relevant sections of this
book and refer to the expert tips, common
misconceptions and key terms. Tick off the topics
as you feel confident about them. Highlight those
topics you find difficult and look at them again in
detail.
Test your understanding of each topic by working
through the ‘Now test yourself’ questions in the
book. Look up the answers at the back of the
book.
Make a note of any problem areas as you revise,
and ask your teacher to go over these in class.
Look at past papers. They are one of the best
ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Write
or prepare planned answers to the exam-style
questions provided in this book. Check your
answers with your teacher.
Try different revision methods. For example, you
can make notes using mind maps, spider diagrams
or flash cards.
Track your progress using the revision planner and
give yourself a reward when you have achieved
your target.
Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of
an entire past paper and seek feedback from your
teacher, comparing your work closely with the
mark scheme.
Check the revision planner to make sure you
haven’t missed out any topics. Brush up on any
areas of difficulty by talking them over with a
friend or getting help from your teacher.
Attend any revision classes put on by your
teacher. Remember, he or she is an expert at
preparing people for examinations.
●
Flick through this Revision Guide for useful
reminders, for example the expert tips, common
misconceptions and key terms.
Check the time and place of your examination.
Make sure you have everything you need – extra
pens and pencils, tissues, a watch, bottled water.
Allow some time to relax and have an early
night to ensure you are fresh and alert for the
examinations.
My exams
Paper 1
Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paper 2
Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paper 3
Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Paper 4
Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Countdown to my exams
7
1 The core studies
11 key components of core studies
(1) Background to the studies (the context)
The background or context to a study explains the reasons why a particular
piece of research was conducted. The research may be a response to an earlier
study. It could have been done to support a theory proposed by the author or
someone else, or to investigate further or explain a real-life event.
Expert tip
A little knowledge goes a long way.
Knowing a little of the background
to a study, such as why it was
done, is always useful and shows
understanding.
(2) The theory or theories on which studies are based
Studies are often based on a particular theory or theories. For example, in 1960,
Stanley Schachter proposed the two-factor theory of emotion. In 1962, along
with Jerome Singer, he conducted a piece of research designed to support the
theory. Sometimes, the reverse of this occurs, where research is conducted
and a theory is then proposed to explain the findings. The subway Samaritans
study by Piliavin et al. illustrates this point. In this study, the researchers found
no diffusion of responsibility, which was contrary to their expectations. To
explain bystander behaviour, they proposed a ‘model of response to emergency
situations’, where each witness considers the costs and benefits involved in
helping or not helping a person in need.
(3) What are the key words (the jargon)?
Wherever you can, write like a psychologist. Use the jargon! Examination
questions will never write out the full names of the authors. A common
convention where there are three or more authors is to write the first name and
then ‘et al.’ meaning ‘and all’. ‘Canli et al.’ is much shorter then writing out the
names of all five authors. Similarly, the full title of a core study will never be
written. Instead questions will use key words that make it obvious what the core
study is.
Expert tip
Learn the shortened words for the
authors of each core study and learn
the shortened key words for the title of
each study.
It may take a while, but an excellent
revision exercise is to list 10 key terms
for all 12 studies.
(4) What methods are used in the studies?
What method was used by the researchers conducting the core study? There
are different types of experiments, observations, self-report questionnaires and
interviews and case studies. See Chapter 2 on research methods. Sometimes
more than one method is used.
(5) Who were the participants, and how were they
recruited?
Who the participants are (the sample) and how they are recruited (the
sampling technique) can affect the outcome of a study and the conclusions
that can be drawn – not least of which is the issue of generalisation.
Expert tip
Know the method or methods used in
each of the core studies.
Expert tip
Many studies use participants who are restricted in some way. For example,
participants may be all students or they may be all female. They may have been
paid for participating. How they were recruited is also important. If participants
respond to a newspaper advertisement then they are ‘volunteers’, and they might
behave in ways that are different from those who do not or would never volunteer.
In some studies, the participants do not even know that they are taking part.
So, for each study, you should be able to identify the sampling technique, know
how the participants were recruited and other relevant details such as how
many took part, and be aware of at least one limitation of the sampling method.
8
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Know the difference between the
sample and the sampling technique.
The answer in relation to some studies is almost certainly ‘yes’. Many studies
contravene the ethical guidelines laid down by the British Psychological Society
(BPS) and the American Psychological Association (APS). And, there are some
ethical studies that bend the guidelines a little.
(7) How were the data collected?
The method may be an experiment, but data can be gathered in many different
ways. Data can appear as response categories (e.g. a tally chart), but they can also
be in the form of numbers, or what people say.
Expert tip
For each study know which ethical
guidelines were broken and which
ethical guidelines were upheld.
Expert tip
When an ethical guideline is broken it
becomes an ethical issue.
1 The core studies
(6) Does the study contravene any ethical guidelines?
Data in the form of numbers are known as quantitative data. These are
data that are based on numbers and frequencies rather than on meaning
or experience. Qualitative data describe meaning and experience rather
than providing numerical values for behaviour. So which is better? Each has
its advantages and disadvantages, and you could be asked an examination
question about them. You should know whether a study gathers qualitative or
quantitative data, or both.
(8) How were the data presented?
Data can be presented in a number of ways, most typically in the form of a
results table. Descriptive statistics, which describe (or summarise) data, include
measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode) and dispersion (range),
and these can show the findings ‘at a glance’. Data can also be presented visually
in the form of a bar chart, histogram or scattergraph.
(9) What are the results of the study? What conclusions
can be drawn?
Once the data have been gathered, we need to know what they mean. If we
accept the data as valid, how can we summarise what has been found? If we
go back to the original aims of the study, what do the results tell us?
Sometimes it is possible to explain the same data in more than one way. The
crucial aspect of statistics is to know about significance and probability (p). You
will see p < 0.05 and similar expressions, but what do they mean? You do not
need to know all the names of the statistical tests, or calculated values;
knowing a ‘p’ or two is useful but, crucially, just knowing that a result is
significant is sufficient.
(10) Methodological issues (reliability and validity)
There are always methodological issues involved in any study. For example, in
experiments, in order to make sure that the manipulation of the independent
variable is causing the change in the dependent variable, it is important for the
researcher to control any confounding variables. It is also important that a
study is valid and reliable. We will look at these terms and many others in
detail in Chapter 2.
Expert tip
Don’t get stressed about statistics.
Knowing what was found is all you
need to know. You will never be
asked to calculate any statistics in an
examination.
Expert tip
Know the difference between the
results (the members), the findings
(comments about the numbers)
and the conclusion (a single overall
statement).
A result is said to be statistically
significant if it is unlikely to have
occurred by chance.
Expert tip
Know the difference between
reliability and validity. Never write
‘…this improves the reliability and
validity’ without saying why. Show you
understand the terms and can apply
them.
(11) Strengths and limitations of the studies
The syllabus requires you to provide some evaluative comment about the
studies. You should remember that evaluation can be positive (a strength)
or negative (a weakness, limitation or criticism). For more on evaluation, see
pages 180–1.
A good starting point is to consider the method. What are the strengths and
limitations of the method used? Was the study ethical? Was it low in ecological
validity? Was the sample representative? Were the findings of the study useful?
Can the findings be generalised? You can apply these questions to every study,
as well as the other evaluative points that apply specifically to each study.
The core studies
9
1 The core studies
1.1 The biological approach
Brain scans and emotions
Authors: Canli et al. (2000)
Key terms: Brain scans and emotion
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
Approach: Biological approach
Background/context: people are more likely to recall emotional experiences
than non-emotional ones, and the amygdala appears to play a crucial role in
emotional memory. Studies using PET and MRI scans have shown correlations
between amygdala activation and the presentation and recall of emotional
stimuli. The correlations could be for three reasons:
● some people are more responsive to emotional experiences than others
● some people had an enhanced emotional state during the scanning
● the amygdala is sensitive to the emotional intensity of a stimulus
Expert tip
A positron emission tomography (PET)
scan is invasive: the scanner detects
a radioactive substance injected into
the body. A magnetic resonance
image (MRI) scan is non-invasive (no
injection and no radioactivity) and
uses magnets to record changes in
blood flow in the brain.
Aims/hypotheses: emotionally intense stimuli will cause greater activation of
the amygdala and lead to better recall than less emotionally intense stimuli.
Method: laboratory experiment.
Variables:
Cross check
Laboratory experiments, page 43
IV – intensity ratings of each stimulus (picture) on the 4-point scale from 0 =
not emotionally intense to 3 = extremely emotionally intense.
DV – the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with
certainty; functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’.
Cross check
Design: all ten participants saw all 96 pictures, so the design is repeated
measures.
Participants and sampling technique: the participants were ten
right-handed healthy female volunteers, so the sampling technique is selfselecting (although how they came to volunteer is not stated by Canli et al.)
Females were chosen because they are more likely to respond physiologically
and are more likely to report intense emotional experiences.
Apparatus:
● A functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI) scanner which, unlike a
PET scan is non-invasive (no injections and no radioactivity). The scanner
works by measuring the contrast in blood-oxygen levels between areas of
activation and non-activation in the brain.
● 96 pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), each of
which has a normative rating of emotion (valence and arousal). Normative
valence ratings ranged from 1.17 (highly negative) to 5.44 (neutral). Arousal
ratings ranged from 1.97 (tranquil) to 7.63 (highly arousing).
Controls: all participants were female, healthy and right-handed. The order of
the pictures was randomised. Each picture was presented for 2.88 seconds with
12.96 seconds in between when the participants would focus on a fixation cross
(to keep them looking at the same spot).
10
Repeated measures design, page 45
Now test yourself
1 Describe what is meant by a
repeated measures design.
Answers on p.192
Now test yourself
2 Suggest one advantage of using
scientific equipment in psychological
experiments such as this.
Answers on p.192
Cross check
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Experimental controls, page 47
Data: the data were quantitative:
● the self-report percentages of forgotten, familiar and remembered with
certainty
● functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel count’
1 The core studies
Procedure:
1 Scanning: participants were settled in the scanner, told to fixate on the cross,
and when they saw a picture, press one of four buttons with their right hand.
Cross check
The buttons ranged from 0 = not emotionally intense to 3 = extremely
Types of data, page 60
emotionally intense. The same procedure was repeated until all 96 pictures
had been viewed.
2 Testing: 3 weeks later the participants completed a recognition test in the
laboratory. They viewed all 96 previously seen pictures and an additional 48
Now test yourself
new scenes (called foils) that were matched to the original 96 for valence and
3 Describe two types of quantitative
arousal. Responses were coded as follows: ‘1’ for not remembered/forgotten;
data that were gathered.
‘2’ for familiar; and ‘3’ for remembered with certainty.
Answers on p.192
Findings:
1 Participants’ self-report ratings of emotional intensity (scale 0–3) were spread
across the rating scale with 29% scoring ‘0’, 22% ‘1’, 24% ‘2’, and 25% ‘3’
(see Figure 1).
1.25
0.75
Percentage activation
Cross check
Rating ‘0’
Rating ‘1’
Rating ‘2’
Rating ‘3’
The biological approach, page 70
Correlations, page 53
Samples and sampling techniques,
page 56
0.25
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
−0.25
−1.75
−1.25
Now test yourself
Stimulus
presentation
period
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Scan frame
Figure 1 Correlation of scan frame, participants’ intensity ratings and percentage
activation of amygdala
4 Give an assumption of the
biological approach using an
example from this study.
Answers on p.192
2 Amygdala activation was significantly bilaterally (both sides) correlated
with ratings of emotional arousal. In Figure 1, rating ‘3’ shows much more
activation that ratings ‘2’, ‘1’ or ‘0’.
3 Memory recall was much better for pictures rated ‘3’ (more emotionally
intense) than pictures rated ‘0’, ‘1’ or ‘2’.
3 Left amygdala activation (but not right) predicted whether an individual
picture would be forgotten, appear familiar or be remembered.
4 Left amygdala activation was also found to correlate with the emotional
intensity of the memory.
5 Other brain locations in the frontal and temporal regions also correlated
with emotional experience and subsequent memory.
The core studies
11
1 The core studies
Conclusions: amygdala activation is significantly correlated with higher ratings
of individually experienced emotional intensity.
Evaluation
●
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Scientific equipment – the use of scientific equipment in psychological
experiments such as an MRI scanner has many advantages, such as
reliability (strength).
Biological approach – this study provides evidence of specific brain
function (the role of the amygdala) and this is likely to be generalisable to all
people (strength).
Correlations – correlation studies can provide evidence of cause and effect
(strength), however in this case, there might be some other variable that
has not been considered by the researchers (weakness). Be cautious when
drawing conclusions from correlations.
Sample – can the findings of this study be generalised to males and people
who are left-handed? (weakness)
Sleep and dreams
Authors: Dement and Kleitman (1957)
Cross check
Key terms: sleep and dreams
The biological approach, page 70
Approach: biological approach
Background/context: in 1953, Aserinsky identified REM (rapid eye movement)
and NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep. Various studies have confirmed that
sleep follows a cycle consisting of alternating periods of NREM (with four stages)
and REM, and that REM sleep is strongly associated with dreaming. The reason
for this study was to investigate further the features of REM sleep.
REM is the sleep period when there is
rapid eye movement under closed lids.
NREM is the rest of the sleep period,
when the eyes do not move rapidly.
Aims/hypotheses: there were three main aims:
1 Does dreaming occur during REM or NREM sleep?
2 Can participants accurately estimate the length of time they have been
dreaming?
3 Do eye movement patterns match dream content?
And one additional aim:
4 Does the duration of REM sleep correlate with the number of words (the
narrative) in a reported dream?
Cross check
The natural experiment, page 44
Self-reports, page 48
Observations, page 52
Method: natural experiment (REM and NREM occur naturally) conducted in a
laboratory; use of self-reports and use of observation.
Variables:
Aim 1 – IV was REM and NREM sleep; DV was number of dreams recalled from
each.
Aim 2 – IV was ‘woken after 5 minutes’ and ‘woken after 15 minutes’; DV was
number of correct dream length estimations.
Aim 3 – IV was direction of eye movement (vertical, horizontal, mixture and little
or no movement); DV was the subjective report of dreaming (or not) when woken.
Aim 4 – The total number of words used to describe a dream was correlated
with the duration of a dream.
Cross check
Design: all participants slept and were woken at various points (e.g. in REM/
NREM or after 5 or 15 minutes), so the design is repeated measures.
12
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Repeated measures design, page 45
Apparatus: sleep laboratory with equipment: bed, electrodes on scalp (EEG) and
electrodes around eyes (EOG) connected to recording device, bell, tape-recorder.
Note that no muscle movements (EMG) were recorded in this study.
Controls: all participants were asked not to drink alcohol (a depressant) or
caffeine (a stimulant). All participants were asked to report to the laboratory at
their normal bedtime. The way in which participants were woken (by a bell) and
the way in which their dreams were recorded (tape-recorder) were standardised.
Procedure:
1 Participants arrived at the sleep laboratory at their normal bedtime. They
went to bed in an individual room with electrodes attached to the eye and
scalp areas. The electrodes were connected to the recording device in the
room next door.
2 As sleep began, the experimenter observed the EEG record and noted
when a participant entered REM sleep. During REM sleep, the experimenter
pressed the button to ring the bell situated next to the participant to wake
them. If a dream was recalled, the details were spoken into the tape-recorder.
The same procedure was followed when a participant was in NREM sleep.
3 The same procedure was adopted when the experimenter wanted to test
the duration of REM sleep – participants were woken after 5 minutes’ or
15 minutes’ sleep.
Data: the data were quantitative (e.g. instances of dream recall, dream length
estimations and number of words in each dream narrative) and qualitative
(e.g. descriptions of dreams).
Results:
Table 1.1 Aim 1: instances of dream recall after awakenings during periods of REM or
periods of NREM
Rapid eye movements (REM)
Participant
Now test yourself
5 If the participants slept in
their own bed rather than in a
laboratory, what effect might this
have on the results?
Answers on p.192
Expert tip
1 The core studies
Participants and sampling technique: initially there were nine participants,
but two only slept for 1 night and two for 2 nights before exercising their right to
withdraw. Five participants completed between 6 and 17 nights. The participants
slept in the laboratory at the University of Chicago (USA). The sampling
technique is not stated by Dement and Kleitman; there are no details about how
the participants knew about the study or whether they were students.
‘Suggestion’ questions like Q5 ask you
to think for yourself. There is no right
or wrong answer.
Common misconception
Because sleep can be measured using
EEG, EOG and EMG, it does not mean
that every study uses all three. There
is also an assumption that EEG, EOG
and EMG are three different recording
devices. They are not. For example, an
EOG simply involves electrodes near
the eyes attached to a device that
prints the movements.
Now test yourself
6 Suggest one advantage of
using scientific equipment in
psychological experiments such as
this.
Answers on p.192
No rapid eye
movements (NREM)
Dream recall
No recall
Dream recall
No recall
DN
17
9
3
21
IR
26
8
2
29
KC
36
4
3
31
WD
37
5
1
34
PM
24
6
2
23
KK
4
1
0
5
SM
2
2
0
2
DM
2
1
0
1
MG
4
3
0
3
Total
152
39
11
149
Cross check
Experimental controls, page 47
Now test yourself
7 Give two variables that were
controlled in this study.
Answers on p.192
The core studies
13
1 The core studies
Table 1.2 Aim 2: results of dream-duration estimates after 5 or 15 minutes of REM
5 minutes
Participant
Right
Types of data, page 60
15 minutes
Wrong
Right
Cross check
Wrong
DN
8
2
5
5
IR
11
1
7
3
KC
7
0
12
1
WD
13
1
15
1
PM
6
2
8
3
Total
45
6
47
13
Findings:
1 Aim 1 supported: 152 dreams were recalled during awakening from REM
sleep, with only 11 dreams recalled from awakening during NREM sleep. There
were 149 instances of no recall when awakened from NREM. (See Table 1.2.)
2 Aim 2 supported: When woken after 5 minutes, 45 out of 51 estimations
were correct. When woken after 15 minutes, 47 estimations out of 60
estimations were correct. (See Table 1.2.)
3 Aim 3 supported: When woken from a specific eye movement pattern,
participants reported a dream that corresponded to that pattern.
a Vertical movement: participants reported standing at the bottom of a
cliff and hoisting things up and down; climbing a ladder and looking up
and down; bouncing and throwing a basketball into the basket.
b Horizontal movement: a participant reported a dream of two people
throwing tomatoes at each other.
c Little or no movement corresponded to dreams about looking into the
distance, such as when driving a car.
d Mixed movements: dreams were about people talking or watching
objects close to them.
4 Aim 4 supported: the number of words used to describe a dream (dream
narrative) revealed significant positive correlations (for the five participants
who were tested) with the length of the REM period. Correlations were +0.6,
+0.68, +0.4, +0.71 and +0.53.
Expert tip
This study gathered both quantitative
data and qualitative data. Make sure
you know the difference between these
two and can give an example of each.
Now test yourself
8 a How was the self-report method
used in this study?
b How was observation used in
this study?
Answers on p.192
Conclusions: dreams are more likely to be reported in REM sleep. Dreams
appear to happen in ‘real time’. Dream content appears to correspond to the
direction in which the eyes move.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
●
14
Scientific equipment – the use of scientific equipment in psychological
experiments has many advantages, such as reliability (strength). It also
provides qualitative data which are objective (strength), for example the
equipment revealed that a participant was in REM sleep, but it cannot
know whether a participant is having a dream or not (weakness).
Controls – controlling variables in studies is highly desirable, and cause
and effect are more likely (strength). Controlling caffeine and alcohol may
disrupt the sleep pattern of a participant who normally drinks alcohol or
caffeine before sleeping. (weakness)
Generalisations – can the findings of this study be generalised to
everyone? If every person in the world sleeps then these findings can be
generalised (strength).
Self-reports – how accurate is the reporting of a dream/no dream?
(weakness) The experimenters excluded fragmented reports, but a tired
participant may report ‘no dream’ to get back to sleep.
Quantitative and qualitative data – one type of quantitative data was
gathered in the number of words used to describe a dream (strength).
Qualitative data was gathered in the form of descriptions of dreams, such as
throwing tomatoes.
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
Experimental controls, page 47
Generalisations, page 68
Self-reports, page 48
Expert tip
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
Authors: Schachter and Singer (1962)
Key term: emotion
Approach: biological approach
Background/context: early theories of emotion were based on physiological
factors only and suggested that the physiological response happened at the
same time as we experienced the emotion. Schachter (1959) proposed the
two-factor theory of emotion, that emotion is the result of both physiological
and psychological (cognitive) components. This was Schachter’s theory and what
was needed was supporting experimental evidence.
Propositions:
1 If a person is physiologically aroused and there is no immediate explanation,
the arousal will be labelled as a particular emotion based on the information
(or cognitions) available.
2 If a person is physiologically aroused and there is an appropriate explanation,
there is no need to seek further information (or cognitions) to label that
emotion.
3 If there is no physiological arousal then any cognition we have we dismiss
and there is no emotional experience.
Method: laboratory experiment with observation and self-report
questionnaires.
Variables: there were three experimental conditions of the IV and one control
condition:
● EPI INF (epinephrine informed) – injected with epinephrine and told true
effects of epinephrine.
● EPI MIS (epinephrine misinformed) – injected with epinephrine and told
false effects of epinephrine.
● EPI IGN (epinephrine ignorant) – injected with epinephrine and told nothing
more.
● Placebo (or control condition) – injected with saline solution and told
nothing more.
These conditions manipulate the physiological component. The psychological
(cognitive) component is manipulated by two further conditions: using a stooge
in the creation of euphoria (happiness/joy) and anger.
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
The cognitive approach, page 71
Now test yourself
9 What are the two factors in
Schachter’s two-factor theory of
emotion?
Answers on p.192
Cross check
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Observations, page 51
Self-reports, page 48
Cross check
Use of a stooge, page 59
Thus there are seven sub-groups: placebo anger, placebo euphoria, EPI INF anger,
EPI INF euphoria, EPI IGN anger, EPI IGN euphoria, EPI MIS euphoria. There was
no EPI MIS anger condition.
Now test yourself
Data were gathered via observation through a one-way mirror and self-report on
various measures.
Explanation:
Answers on p.192
EPI INF – told effects of epinephrine so should not copy behaviour of stooge.
Placebo – no epinephrine and told nothing, so should not copy behaviour of
stooge.
EPI MIS – misinformed about epinephrine, so seek an explanation, so should
copy behaviour of stooge.
EPI IGN: told nothing about epinephrine, so seek an explanation, so should copy
behaviour of stooge.
Design: the design was independent measures because if a participant were
to repeat any of the conditions, they would immediately understand what was
going on and respond falsely.
1 The core studies
Two factors in emotion
10 Give one advantage of using a
one-way mirror.
Expert tip
You can use abbreviations like EPI,
INF and MIS, but make sure you know
which group is which. If you use full
words like ‘misinformed’, then there is
no ambiguity as to what they were told.
Cross check
Independent measures design, page 46
The core studies
15
1 The core studies
Participants and sampling technique: the participants were all male college
students taking introductory psychology. They were given two extra points on
their final examination for participating. The sampling technique is self-selecting.
The participants volunteered to be part of a ‘pool’ of participants who could be
invited to take part in this, or any other study.
Cross check
Apparatus: a private room for administering injections, for giving various
instructions and for observing through a one-way mirror. Suproxin (i.e. epinephrine
Samples and sampling techniques,
page 56
(adrenaline) which causes an increase in breathing, heart rate, possible palpitations,
and an empty sensation in the stomach), or a placebo (a saline solution). Items for
the euphoria condition: paper, wastebasket, manila folders, a hula-hoop. ‘Ambiguous’
questionnaires for the anger condition.
Controls:
All participants were given an injection.
● All participants in each condition received the same instructions.
● The stooges repeated the same behaviour, saying and doing the same thing
Cross check
each time.
Experimental controls, page 47
● The same items of equipment were in the same place in each room.
Procedure:
1 Each participant was taken to the private room and told that the study was
a test of vision and the vitamin supplement Suproxin.
2 If the participant agreed to do the study, a short while later a doctor arrived
and gave an injection of Suproxin.
3 Participants were then given one of three different sets of instructions
depending on whether they were in the INF, MIS or IGN/placebo group.
Now test yourself
4 Each participant was then placed in a room and introduced to another
‘participant’ (actually a stooge) and told to wait for 20 minutes. The stooge
11 a How was the physiological
either behaved euphorically or angrily:
component manipulated?
● Euphoric – doodled on paper, crumpled it, threw it in wastebasket and
b How was the psychological
(cognitive) component
played basketball. Asked participant to join in. Made paper plane, flew it.
manipulated?
Built a tower with folders then knocked it over. Played with a hula-hoop.
12 a Give one advantage of using a
● Angry – began to answer a questionnaire, which got increasingly
stooge in this study.
personal and insulting. Made aggressive comments about it.
b Give one problem with the use
5 The experimenter entered the room and handed out questionnaires for
of a stooge in psychological
‘feedback on the effects of Suproxin’.
research.
6 The experimenter debriefed the participants (11 of the participants were
Answers on p.192
‘suspicious of the procedure’ so their data were discarded).
Data:
● Observation (controlled and structured) – objective behaviour coded into
categories. Four categories for euphoria: joins in, initiates new activity, ignores
stooge and watches stooge. Six categories for anger: agrees, disagrees, neutral,
initiates agreement/disagreement, watches, ignores.
● Self-report – subjective data gathered by a structured questionnaire. Mock
questions were asked, then two questions about emotional state: ‘How irritated,
angry or annoyed would you say you feel now?’ and ‘How good or happy would
you say you feel now?’ Answers were on a 5-point scale from 0: ‘I don’t feel…’ to
4: ‘I feel extremely…’ Then two questions were asked about physiological state:
Cross check
‘Have you ever experienced any palpitations?’ and ‘Did you feel any tremor?’
Types of data, page 60
Answers on a 4-point scale from 0: ‘not at all’ to 3: ‘an intense amount’.
●
Results: there were too many results tables to include here. See the original
study or look at the summarised findings below.
Findings:
1 Participants in the epinephrine condition experienced more physiological
responses than those in the placebo conditions (as would be expected) and
the difference was significant (p = 0.001).
16
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Expert tip
This theory is important because it
brings together physiological and
cognitive components. The study by
Piliavin et al. also does this.
1 The core studies
2 For euphoria self-reports:
a EPI INF reported significantly less euphoria than the EPI MIS (p < 0.01).
b EPI INF reported significantly less euphoria than the EPI IGN (p < 0.02).
c There was no significant difference between the placebo and the other
groups.
3 For euphoria observations. This shows that EPI MIS had more instances
of euphoric activity (22.56) than any other group; EPI INF had the least at
12.72. This difference was significant (p = 0.05). No other comparison was
significant.
4 For anger self-reports. This shows that EPI INF had the highest anger score
of 1.91 and that EPI IGN had the lowest with 1.39.
5 For anger observations. This shows that EPI IGN had the highest anger
score of 2.28 and that EPI INF had the lowest with –0.18.
Conclusions: all three propositions are supported and so the findings of the
study provide experimental evidence for the two-factor theory of emotion.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
●
Ethics – stooges were used in this study (weakness). This is automatically
unethical because the use of a stooge is deceiving a participant. However,
without the use of a stooge it would not have been possible to conduct the
study (strength). The ends might justify the means.
Theory – any theory needs to be tested and this study provides evidence
to support the two-factor theory of emotion (strength).
Biological and cognitive approach – this study shows the interaction
between biological factors and cognitive factors (strength). This study links
with that by Piliavin et al. which also considers how these two factors are
linked (strength).
Sample – the participants were volunteers (for the ‘subject pool’)
(strength). However, all the participants were male, they were paid
for participating, and they were students, limiting the generalisability
(weakness).
Controls – the study employed many controls to try to ensure that the IV
caused the DV (strength). However, the study was low in ecological validity
and also low in mundane realism (weakness).
Cross check
Ethics, page 57
Samples and sampling techniques,
page 56
Experimental controls, page 47
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
Expert tip
Also think about the ethics of
deception and individual and
situational explanations.
1.2 The cognitive approach
Doodling
Authors: Andrade (2009)
Key term: doodling
Cross check
The cognitive approach, page 71
Approach: cognitive approach
Background/context: doodling is ‘aimlessly sketching patterns and figures
unrelated to the primary task’, but is doodling aimless? It might impair
performance by moving concentration from the primary task; or it might
improve performance and be an aid to concentration. The study by Andrade
aimed to find out.
Doodling is commonly a meaningless
activity done without purpose when
idle, bored or impatient in a state of
diminished attention.
The core studies
17
1 The core studies
Aims/hypotheses: to test the view that doodling aids concentration.
Now test yourself
Method: laboratory experiment.
Variables:
13 Explain why this study is an
example of the cognitive approach.
IV – a doodling group and non-doodling/control group.
Answers on p.192
DV – mean number of correct recall, false alarms and memory scores for names
and places.
Design: as participants were in either the ‘doodling’ group or the ‘control’
group, the design was independent measures.
Participants and sampling technique: 40 participants aged 18–55 who were
members of the Applied Psychology Unit at the University of Plymouth,
originally recruited from the general population. The participants volunteered
to be part of a ‘pool’ of participants who could be invited to take part in this, or
any other study. They were recruited for this study by the experimenter taking
the opportunity to invite them to participate in her study immediately after
completing an unrelated study. They were randomly allocated to the
‘doodling’ group (20 participants: 18 female and 2 male) or the control group
(20 participants: 17 female and 3 male).
Apparatus:
● A mock telephone message lasting for 2½ minutes recorded at an average
voice speed played at a comfortable volume. The message included eight
names of people attending a party (e.g. William and Claire), three names of
people (e.g. John) and of a cat (Ben) who could not attend, and eight place
names (e.g. London, Colchester).
● Doodling group: a pencil and a piece of A4 paper with 10 shapes (1 cm
diameter squares and circles in alternating rows); a space for writing the
target information.
● Control group: a pencil and a piece of blank A4 paper.
Controls: standardised instructions to participants; the same message for all
participants.
Cross check
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Cross check
Independent measures design, page 46
Cross check
Samples and sampling techniques,
page 56
Random allocation, page 46
Now test yourself
14 Describe what is meant by ‘random
allocation’.
Answers on p.192
Cross check
Procedure:
1 Participants completed an unrelated experiment and, on their way home,
were invited to participate.
2 Participants were given standardised instructions: ‘listen to a dull/boring tape
about a friend inviting you to a party. Write down the names of the people
attending, ignoring the names of people who can’t come and any other
information.’
3 The doodling group were also told to shade in the squares and circles while
listening to the tape.
4 All the papers were collected. Half of each group were asked to recall the
names of those going to the party and then the place names. The other half
were asked to recall the place names and then the names of those attending
the party.
5 All participants were debriefed and given an apology for disguising the fact
that it was a memory test.
Data: quantitative data were gathered: mean number of correct recall, false
alarms and memory scores for names and places.
Findings:
1 Those in the doodling group recalled more party-goers (7.8) than the control
group (7.1), as shown in Table 1.3. Any mis-hearings which were close to the
original were credited, e.g. ‘Greg’ for ‘Craig’.
18
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Experimental controls, page 47
Control group
Mean number of correct names
(out of 8)
7.1
Number of participants making a
‘false alarm’ (incorrect name)
5
Doodling group
7.8
1
Now test yourself
15 Draw a fully labelled bar chart
for the mean number of correct
names for the doodling and for the
control group.
Answers on p.192
2 The doodling group recalled a mean score of 7.5 for names and places, 29%
more than the control group (mean of 5.8).
3 The data were then re-categorised. The number of false alarms was
subtracted from the number of correct names to give an overall memory
score. As can be seen from Table 1.4, the memory score for the doodling
group was better than for the control group for both names (5.1 compared
to 4.0) and places (2.4 compared to 1.8).
1 The core studies
Table 1.3 Mean number of correct recall and false alarms for party-goer names
Cross check
Types of data, page 60
Table 1.4 mean number of correct recalls, false alarms and memory scores for names
and places
Control group
Names (monitored
information)
Places (incidental
information)
Doodling group
Correct
4.3 (1.3)
5.3 (1.4)
False alarms
0.4 (0.5)
0.3 (0.4)
Memory score
4.0 (1.5)
5.1 (1.7)
Correct
2.1 (0.9)
2.6 (1.4)
False alarms
0.3 (0.6)
0.3 (0.4)
Memory score
1.8 (1.2)
2.4 (1.5)
Now test yourself
16 Suggest one reason why the
findings of this study may not
generalise.
Answers on p.192
Conclusion: doodling aids concentration. Participants who doodled
concentrated better on the task than participants who did not, as shown in the
scores on the memory test (for names and places).
Discussion: doodling could improve concentration by stabilising arousal and
keeping people awake, or by reducing daydreaming.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
●
Experiment – the study was tightly controlled (strength); the message
was the same for all participants and the instructions were standardised.
Participants were randomly allocated to each group. It is likely that the DV
was due to the IV and not any extraneous variable.
Ethics – all ethical guidelines were met (strength). The participants were
deceived in a very small way as they were told ‘I do not want you to
remember any of it. Just write down the names of people who will be
coming to the party’, when they were later asked to recall place names.
However, participants did receive a full debriefing and an apology.
Cognitive approach – the study investigated ways in which concentration
on a task can be improved (strength).
Generalisations – the study showed that for a shading task, participants
recalled more than the control group. However, the task was restricted
in many ways (weakness). In reality, people have different methods for
concentrating on a task in addition to doodling, and even doodle in
different ways.
Design/sample – the participants were randomly allocated to be in either
the doodling or control group (strength). Random allocation and being
in independent groups meant that only one message was needed to test
the participants. Some participants allocated to the control group might
have been doodlers, using it regularly to help concentration and some
participants allocated to the doodling group might never have doodled and
so it was a novel task for them (weakness).
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Ethics, page 57
Samples and sampling techniques,
page 56
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application
for this core study.
The core studies
19
1 The core studies
Eyes test
Authors: Baron-Cohen et al. (2001)
Key term: Eyes test
Cross check
The cognitive approach, page 71
Approach: cognitive approach
Background/context: one feature of autism is a lack of theory of mind. This
was first tested in children by Baron-Cohen et al. in 1985 using a procedure
called the ‘Sally-Anne test’. In 1997, Baron-Cohen et al. devised a theory-ofmind test for adults called the ‘eyes test’. A number of methodological
weaknesses arising from this test were resolved and the revised version was
published in 2001.
Now test yourself
17 Briefly describe the background
to the 2001 core study by
Baron-Cohen et al.
Answers on p.192
Problems with the original eyes test (and how they were resolved):
● There was a choice of only two words for each set of eyes, meaning the
answer could be a 50/50 guess. Four words were added in the revised test.
● Parents of children with AS/HFA scored at the same level. The test did not
differentiate widely enough as the scores covered a very narrow band. The
revised test had 40 items (reduced to 36) not 25 items.
● Ceiling effects (too many scores at the top end of the mark range) were
Expert tip
observed with too many people scoring too highly. Having 36 items and four
AS/HFA means Asperger syndrome/
words was intended to remove the ceiling effect.
high-functioning autistic. You can use
abbreviations rather than writing the
● Some test items were too easy, again causing ceiling effects. The revised
full terms.
version had fewer easy items.
● Some items were guessed by checking gaze direction (e.g. ‘noticing’). These
items did not assess mental states so were excluded from the revised version.
● The original version had more female faces than male. In the revision there
were equal numbers.
● In the original, the semantic word and foil (the other word) were semantic
opposites, such as sympathetic and unsympathetic. Again this could be
Now test yourself
too easy and contribute to ceiling effects. If three of the four words are not
18 Describe two problems with the
semantic opposites, then the level of difficulty increases and ceiling effects
original (1997) version of the eyes
should be removed.
test.
● The words used might not have been understood by all participants. In the
Answers on p.192
revised version a glossary of terms was included, which participants could
refer to.
Aims/hypotheses:
1 To test a group of autistic adults to see if the revised version ‘works’.
2 To see if there is an inverse correlation between the eyes test and AQ for a
sample of normal adults.
3 To see if females have superiority on the eyes test.
The study made five predictions:
1 The AS/HFA (autistics) will score lower on the eyes test than other groups.
2 The AS/HFA (autistics) will score higher on the AQ test than other groups.
3 ‘Normal’ females will score higher than males on the eyes test.
4 ‘Normal’ males will score higher than females on the AQ.
5 Scores on the AQ and eyes test will be inversely correlated.
AQ (or autism spectrum quotient)
is a test devised by Baron-Cohen
et al. (2001) to assess autistic spectrum
conditions.
Expert tip
What is the AQ? The autism spectrum quotient is an adult self-report closed
questionnaire designed by Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) to test for autism in adults.
It includes 50 questions and responses are given on a 4-point scale. A score of 32
or more indicates ‘clinically significant levels of autistic traits’. A typical question is:
20
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
You will never be asked for all eight
of these problems. A typical question
will ask for one or two and possibly ask
how the problem was solved.
Definitely agree
Slightly agree
Slightly disagree
Definitely disagree
Explanation: (Aim 2/Predictions 1, 2 and 5) those with AS disorders score high
on the AQ. One feature of AS disorders is a lack of theory of mind, and such
people score low on the eyes test. This means that there should be an inverse
(or negative) correlation with AS people scoring high on one variable and low on
the other.
(Aim 3/Predictions 3 and 4) Baron-Cohen suggests that autism may be due
to what he calls an ‘extreme male brain’ and that males in general have more
autistic tendencies than females. If this is true, then a ‘normal’ female should
score higher on the eyes test than a ‘normal’ male, and inversely a ‘normal’ male
should score higher on the AQ test than a ‘normal’ female.
Now test yourself
19 The revised (2001) version of the
eyes test made five predictions.
Outline two of these predictions.
1 The core studies
38. I am good at social chit-chat.
Answers on p.192
Method: quasi-experiment (participants with autism can only participate in one
condition; ‘normal’ participants cannot be autistic); questionnaire (the AQ).
The eyes test consists of 36 black-and-white photographs of different male and Cross check
Experiments, page 43
female eye regions taken from a magazine. The images are all the same size
Questionnaires, page 49
(15 × 10 cm). Each photograph has four words that describe the mental state
of the person. A participant is presented with a set of eyes and four words and
is asked ‘Which word best describes what this person is feeling or thinking?’
One answer is correct; the other three are incorrect. After completing all 36,
the total number of correct answers is added to give an overall score.
The words for each set of eyes were initially chosen by two of the authors and
judged by a four-male- and four-female-member team. At least five of the judges
had to agree that a particular word was the correct one. As a further check, at
least 50% of participants from groups 2 and 3 had to choose the correct word.
Four items did not achieve this level of consistency and so were dropped,
reducing the test to 36 items. This meant that there was a check (of validity) to
see if the correct word really was describing the mental state.
Now test yourself
20 Suggest one problem with
photographs and suggest how this
problem could be resolved.
Answers on p.192
Participants and sampling technique:
Group 1: 15 male adults with AS/HFA recruited from an autistic society
magazine advertisement. Their IQs had a mean score of 115. This sample is
self-selecting.
● Group 2: 122 normal adults (the control group) selected from community
classes or public libraries in Cambridge and Exeter by opportunity sampling.
There was a mixture of occupations and educational levels.
● Group 3: 103 normal adult students (Cambridge undergraduates, 53 male
and 50 female), with a much higher than average IQ.
Cross check
● Group 4: IQ-matched controls: 14 normal adults IQ matched with group 1
Samples and sampling techniques,
(mean of 116). The authors state that they were ‘randomly selected from the
page 56
population’, but there is no explanation of how this was done.
●
Design: groups 1 and 4 were matched (as above) but each group was
independent. It was impossible for a participant to be male with AS/HFA and
also be a ‘normal’ adult female student.
Cross check
Experimental designs, page 45
Apparatus: the AQ, the eyes test and a quiet room in Cambridge/Exeter.
Procedure:
1 All four groups were given the eyes test to complete in a quiet room.
2 Participants in groups 1, 3 and 4 were given the AQ.
Data: quantitative data were gathered because both the eyes test and the AQ
test gave numerical scores. Participants were not asked any ‘why do you think…’
questions or open-ended questions.
Cross check
Types of data, page 60
The core studies
21
1 The core studies
Results:
Table 1.5 Performance on the revised eyes test and AQ
Eyes test
N
Expert tip
AQ
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
15
21.9
6.6
34.4a
6.0
122
26.2
3.6
–
–
Males
55
26.0
4.2
–
–
Females
67
26.4
3.2
–
–
103
28.0
3.5
18.3b
6.6
53
27.3
3.7
19.5c
6.7
6.1
2.9
You do not need to know all the
numbers in this table. Look at the
findings to see how the numbers are
used.
Group 1: AS/HFA adults
All
Group 2: General population
controls
All
Group 3: Students
All
Males
Females
50
28.6
3.2
16.6d
14
30.9
3.0
18.9
Group 4: IQ matched controls
All
aN
= 14, due to 1 unreturned AQ
N = 79, due to 24 unreturned AQs
c N = 47, due to 6 unreturned AQs
d N = 32, due to 18 unreturned AQs
b
Findings:
1 The distribution of the eyes test scores showed no score lower than 17 and
none higher than 35 (scale of 0 to 36), and most participants were normally
distributed with the modal score being 24.
2 Prediction 1: the mean eyes test score was lowest for group 1 at 21.9 and this
group scored significantly lower than all the other groups (e.g. means of 26.2,
28 and 30.9). Prediction 1 was supported.
3 Prediction 2: for the AQ, group 1 (mean of 34.4) scored significantly higher
than groups 3 and 4 (means of 18.3 and 18.9). Prediction 2 was supported.
4 Prediction 3: sex differences on the eyes test were examined in groups
2 and 3 and females did score higher than the males but this difference was
not significant. Prediction 3 was supported.
5 Prediction 4: sex differences on the AQ test were examined in groups
2 and 3 and males (19.5) did score higher than the females (16.6) but this
difference was not significant. Prediction 4 was supported.
6 Prediction 5: there was a significant (p = 0.004) inverse (negative) correlation
of –0.53 between the AQ and the eyes test scores. Prediction 5 was
supported.
Conclusions:
1 This study replicates the results found in the original eyes test – that
AS/HFA participants are significantly impaired compared with non-AS/HFA
participants.
2 The modifications made in this test, compared with the original version,
improved the test ‘in that the same weaknesses were not observed’.
3 This test helps to validate the eyes test as a useful tool for identifying
impairments related to AS/HFA.
4 All the initial aims were met and all the predictions were confirmed.
22
Cross check
Correlations, page 53
Expert tip
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Always know the aims of a study and
whether the conclusions match the
aims. Do these conclusions match the
study’s aims/predictions?
●
●
●
●
●
Validity – Were the pictures of the eyes valid? The study included 8 judges
to confirm that the emotions in the eyes and the target words matched
(strength). However, only 5 of the 8 judges had to agree, leaving some
ambiguity (weakness).
Ecological validity/mundane realism – all the photographs were black
and white; real-life isn’t black and white (weakness). The quality of some
photographs was poor because newsprint was used. The photographs were
static whereas in real life a person is animated and the eyes (and face) move
continuously (weaknesses).
Cultural bias – all the photographs were of white, western people
(weakness).
Questionnaire design – do the eyes in the test have an equal male/
female balance of positive and negative emotions? (weakness). There is
no difference between ‘definitely’ and ‘slightly’ in scoring, simply 1 point
is given to ‘agree’ on half the items and 1 point to ‘disagree’ on the other
half (weakness). The AQ has no mid ‘opt-out’ choice, so this forces the
participant to either agree or disagree (strength and weakness). The
AQ test is both reliable and valid. This test and the eyes test are both
psychometric tests (strength).
Correlations – the inverse relationship between high AQ scores and
low eyes test scores could only be determined by applying a correlation
(strength). These two tests, eyes and AQ, don’t cause each other; they
merely confirm features of autism (weakness).
Cross check
Validity, page 67
Ecological validity/mundane realism,
page 67
Questionnaires, page 49
Correlations, page 53
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
1 The core studies
Evaluation
False memory
Authors: Laney et al. (2008)
Key term: false memory
Approach: cognitive approach
Background/context: false memories happen when post-event information
changes the original memory so a person believes that the false information
really was part of the original event, even though it never existed. Loftus and
Pickrell (1995), for example, successfully planted a memory for a false but possible
event (getting lost in a shopping mall) and Braun et al. (2002) even planted a
false memory for an impossible event (meeting Bugs Bunny at Disneyland).
Cross check
The cognitive approach, page 71
False memory is where people
remember events differently from the
way they happened, or they remember
events that never happened at all.
Experiment 1
Aims/hypotheses:
Cross check
1 Can a positive false memory, such as the suggestion that they loved a
Laboratory experiments, page 43
specific food as a child (i.e. asparagus), be successfully planted in participants?
Self-reports, page 48
2 Are ‘believers’ more susceptible to false memory manipulation compared to
non-believers’?
Method: laboratory experiment; self-report questionnaires.
Variables:
IV – the love group (in whom the false memory that they love asparagus will be
planted) and the control group.
DV – scores on various questionnaires.
Design: independent measures as a participant can only be in one condition
of the independent variable for obvious reasons.
Participants and sampling technique: 128 undergraduates who received
course credits for participating; the sampling technique is not stated. The
participants were randomly allocated to the love or control group; 77% of the
sample were female with a mean age of 20.8 years. There were 63 participants in
the love group and 65 in the control group.
Now test yourself
21 What is a ‘false memory’?
22 Suggest a suitable null hypothesis
for the statement ‘are believers
more susceptible to false memory
manipulation compared to
non-believers’?
Answers on pp. 192–3
Cross check
Random allocation, page 46
The core studies
23
1 The core studies
Apparatus: Session 1: food history inventory with 24 items rated on an
8-point scale from 1 = definitely did not happen to 8 = definitely yes. Item
16: ‘loved asparagus the first time you tried it’ (to create the false memory).
Restaurant questionnaire, looking like a menu, and also rated on an 8-point
scale from 1 = definitely no to 8 = definitely yes.
Session 2: food preferences questionnaire with 62 items rated on an 8-point
scale from 1 = definitely don’t like to eat to 8 = definitely like to eat. Food costs
questionnaire on how much they would be willing to pay for 21 food items
at a grocery store and for asparagus ranging from ‘never buy it’ to costs ranging
from $1.90 to $5.70. Memory or belief questionnaire with three answer
options: ‘have specific memory’, ‘belief that it happened’ and ‘positive that it
hadn’t happened’.
Procedure:
1 Session 1: participants completed the food history inventory and the
restaurant questionnaire. Three ‘filler’ questionnaires were completed to hide
the true nature of the study.
2 Session 2: one week later participants returned and the experimental
participants were given false feedback disguised in a computer-generated
profile of food preferences with the critical item being ‘you loved to eat
cooked asparagus’. Control participants did not receive the asparagus
feedback.
3 Session 2: all participants answered questions such as ‘imagine the setting in
which this experience might have happened’, ‘where were you?’, ‘who was
with you?’ and ‘to what extent did this affect your adult personality?’ The
answer options were on a 1–9 scale (1 = not at all and 9 = very much).
4 Session 2: all participants completed the food history inventory and the
restaurant questionnaire to compare pre- and post-manipulation. In
addition, three other questionnaires were completed: the food preferences
questionnaire, the food costs questionnaire and a memory or belief
questionnaire.
Data: data were quantitative and consisted of responses on the 1–8 scale.
Cross check
Results – food history inventory: 31 participants (17 in love group and 14
in control group) were excluded from the study because they already liked
asparagus. The 46 participants in the love group showed a mean increase of
2.6 points on the 8-point scale whereas the control group showed very little
difference (mean increase of 0.2).
Results – memories or beliefs: 22% of the love group said that ‘they had a
memory’, 35% ‘had a belief’ and 44% had no memory.
Results – believers versus non-believers: believers state ‘memory’ or ‘belief’
rather than ‘no memory’ (believers meet two criteria: a low rating in session 1
and a higher rating in session 2 on the food history inventory; non-believers are
those not meeting these criteria). Believers (2 males and 20 females) increased 4.5
points on the 8-point scale, non-believers 0.9; 12 believers claimed they ‘had a
memory’ and 10 ‘had a belief’, significantly different from the non-believers.
On the restaurant questionnaire, believers were much more likely to report a
desire to eat asparagus in session 2 than the controls. On the food preferences
questionnaire, they reported that they liked asparagus significantly more, and
on the food costs questionnaire, they were willing to pay significantly more for
asparagus than the controls.
Findings: positively framed false beliefs about experiences with foods can
be created in participants and these beliefs can lead to an increased liking of
those foods. Nearly half of participants (48%) said they had loved asparagus the
24
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Types of data, page 60
Experiment 2
Aims: to replicate the findings of Experiment 1 and to explain the underlying
mechanism for false memory.
Method: laboratory experiment; self-report questionnaires.
Participants and sampling technique: 103 undergraduates who received
course credits for participating; 62% were female with a mean age of 19.9 years.
The sampling technique was not stated.
Now test yourself
23 Give one difference and one
similarity between the sample of
participants in Experiment 1 and
Experiment 2.
Answers on p.193
1 The core studies
first time they tried it as children, even though they began the study relatively
confident that they did not.
Variables:
IV – a love group (as previously) where N = 58 and a control group (N = 45).
DV – scores on various questionnaires.
Design: independent measures as a participant can only be in one condition
of the independent variable for obvious reasons.
Apparatus: the same questionnaires as were used in Experiment 1: food history
inventory, food preferences questionnaire, restaurant questionnaire and memory
or belief questionnaire. An additional photographs questionnaire with questions
1, 2 and 4 rated on a 4-point scale.
Procedure:
1 Session 1: participants completed the food history inventory, the
food preferences questionnaire and the restaurant questionnaire as in
Experiment 1.
2 Session 2: one week later participants returned and received false feedback;
the control participants received no feedback.
3 Session 2: participants in the experimental group completed an elaboration
exercise, answering questions about their memory for the event, including
their age at the time, the location and what they were doing, who was with
them and how it made them feel.
4 Session 2: participants then answered a qualitative question (an additional
exercise) asking: ‘What is the most important childhood, food-related event
in your life that your food profile did not report? Please explain in the space
below.’
5 Session 2: participants then viewed 20 slides of common foods (each
displayed for 30 seconds), including spinach, strawberries, pizza and
asparagus. Each slide was rated on four questions: how appetising the food
was, how disgusting the food was, whether the photograph was taken by
a novice, amateur or expert, and the artistic quality of the photo (the first,
second and fourth questions were rated from 1 = not at all to 8 = very
much).
6 Session 2: participants then completed the restaurant questionnaire, the
food preferences questionnaire and the food history inventory for a second
time.
Cross check
Laboratory experiment, page 43
Questionaries, page 49
Designs, page 45
Cross check
Types of data, page 60
Data: data were quantitative and consisted of responses on the 1–8 scale, the
1–4 scale and the qualitative, ‘important food-related event’ question.
Results: these were similar to Experiment 1 on the food history inventory in
that the love group showed a mean increase of 2.5 points on the 8-point scale
whereas the control group showed very little difference (mean increase of 1.07).
On the memory or belief questionnaire, 28% of the love group said that ‘they
had a memory’, 28% ‘had a belief’ and 45% had no memory. For believers versus
non-believers: the believers increased 6.48 points on the 8-point scale,
non-believers 1.42.
The core studies
25
1 The core studies
For the photograph ratings (see Table 1.6), believers rated the asparagus
photo as more appetising (5.10 to 2.63 and 4.0); and less disgusting (1.81 to
3.84 and 3.24).
Table 1.6 Mean ratings of critical items on post-manipulation photographic
consequence measure in Experiment 2
Appetising
Mean
Believers
5.10
Disgusting
Artistic quality
(Standard Mean (Standard Mean (Standard
deviation)
deviation)
deviation)
(2.05)
1.81
(1.57)
4.95
(2.22)
Non-believers
2.63
(1.74)
3.84
(2.41)
5.16
(2.09)
Controls
4.00
(2.09)
3.24
(2.39)
4.76
(1.73)
Conclusions:
1 It is possible to implant false beliefs and false memories for a positive
childhood experience, such as liking or loving asparagus the first time that
one tried it.
2 These false beliefs are associated with positive attitudinal and behavioural
consequences, such as an increased self-reported preference for asparagus, a
willingness to spend more on asparagus in the grocery store, and increased
willingness to eat asparagus in a restaurant.
Now test yourself
Evaluation
Cross check
●
●
●
●
Questionnaires – the use of closed questionnaires with rating scales
provides quantitative data which allow for comparisons between, in this
study, session 1 and session 2 and even between experiments 1 and 2
(strength). This study uses five different questionnaires and although most
use a 1–8 scale, participants may begin to tire (weakness).
Quantitative/qualitative data – this study uses closed questionnaires
to provide quantitative data but also asks an open-ended question to give
qualitative data (strength).
Longitudinal studies – this isn’t on the AS syllabus, but Laney et al. raise
the question of how long the consequences of false belief might last. A
follow-up (longitudinal) study testing the same participants 6 or 12 months
later would determine this.
Ecological validity/mundane realism – as Laney et al. state: ‘Completing
paper-and-pencil tasks may not involve the same processes as choosing to
eat (or not eat) a specific food in a restaurant setting, or buying that food in
the grocery store’ (weakness).
24 a What is a standard deviation?
b How was a standard deviation
used in Experiment 2 of the
Laney et al. experiment?
Answers on p.193
Questionnaires, page 49
Types of data, page 60
Longitudinal studies, page 91
Ecological validity/mundane realism,
page 67
Expert tip
1.3 The learning approach
Aggression
Authors: Bandura et al. (1961)
Key term: aggression
Approach: learning approach
Background/context: behaviourists believed that all behaviour is learned. This
was shown in studies by Pavlov on dogs (classical conditioning) and in studies
by Skinner on rats and pigeons (operant conditioning). Watson (1923) classically
conditioned ‘Little Albert’ to be fearful of a white rat. Bandura outlined
observational learning (or imitational learning), suggesting that if behaviour
of a model is observed then it will be copied. To test his theory Bandura
26
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
Aims/hypotheses: To show that observed behaviour is imitated. There were
four hypotheses:
1 If a behaviour is observed it will be imitated.
2 If a behaviour is not observed it cannot be imitated.
3 Boys will copy a male model more than a female model, and girls will copy a
female model more than a male model.
4 Boys will be more predisposed than girls towards imitating aggression.
Method: laboratory experiment with controlled observation.
Cross check
The learning approach, page 71
Cross check
1 The core studies
designed a laboratory experiment. He could choose any behaviour to study
because all behaviour is learned. Bandura chose to teach aggression. Learning is
said to have taken place if a behaviour is reproduced in a new setting or in the
absence of the model.
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Observations, page 51
Variables:
IV1 – three conditions: aggressive model group, non-aggressive model group and
a control group who were not exposed to any model; IV2 – sex of model;
IV3 – sex of children.
Group 1: aggressive group – six boys with male model and six girls with male
model, six girls with female model and six boys with female model.
Group 2: non-aggressive group – six boys with male model and six girls with
male model, six girls with female model and six boys with female model.
Group 3: control group – 12 boys and 12 girls who saw no model at all.
DV – number of behaviours out of 240 maximum in each of the response
categories (see Table 1.7)
Cross check
Experimental designs, page 45
Expert tip
Design: independent measures, as outlined in the three groups above. No
There were two different designs in
child could be in the aggressive, non-aggressive and control group. Also matched
this study: children were matched for
groups: the children were matched for pre-existing levels of aggression, meaning
aggression and then put into one of
that a child rated as 5 (very aggressive) was matched with a child also rated 5
the three independent groups.
(with one going to the aggressive group and one to the non-aggressive group).
Participants and sampling technique: 36 boys and 36 girls aged 37–69
Cross check
months from Stanford University nursery school. The sampling technique is
Samples and sampling techniques,
unspecified, but was likely to be children who were there at the time and so was
page 56
an opportunity sample. There was quota sampling to achieve 12 participants in
each sub-category.
Apparatus:
Room 1: potato prints and picture stickers, table and chair, Tinker Toy set, mallet
and inflatable 5-foot bobo doll (adult-size).
Room 2: toys included a fire engine, locomotive, doll set, spinning top.
Room 3: one-way mirror for observations; a 3-foot bobo doll (child-size), mallet
and peg board, two dart guns, tetherball with a face, tea set, three bears, cars,
farm animals, ball, crayons and colouring paper.
Controls:
The toys in room 1 and room 3 were always the same and always in the
same position when a child entered the room.
● The actions of the aggressive model were always the same, in the same order
and for the same length of time (see procedure 2 below).
● Observations were done by two independent observers. The 20-minute
session was divided into 5-second intervals, giving 240 response ‘units’.
Observer data were compared (to assess inter-rater reliability) and showed
correlations in the 0.9 range.
Common misconception
Don’t confuse the toys in the
original room (1) with the toys in the
‘aggression arousal room’ (2) and the
toys in the test room (3).
●
Cross check
Experimental controls, page 47
The core studies
27
1 The core studies
Procedure:
1 Pre-existing levels of aggression were determined by the experimenter and
nursery teacher by rating each child on four aspects (e.g. physical aggression
and verbal aggression), using a 5-point scale.
2 Each child was shown to room 1. He/she played with the potato prints
and stickers to ‘settle in’. The child was taken to other side of room where
the model behaved either in a non-aggressive way or in an aggressive way.
Aggressive (and associated verbal) actions were as follows: sits on bobo
and punches on nose (saying ‘sock it on the nose’); hits bobo on head with
mallet (‘hit him down’); throws bobo up in air (‘throw him in the air’); kicks
bobo about the room (‘kick him’). After 10 minutes, the child was taken
from the room by the experimenter. In the non-aggressive group, the model
went to the corner of the room, and played quietly with the tinker toy set. In
the control group, the children did not see any behaviour by a model.
3 Each individual child (from all three groups) was taken to room 2 for ‘mild
aggression arousal’. He/she played with the toys but was then frustrated
when told ‘these are not for you to play with’ and taken to room 3. (The
frustration-aggression hypothesis means the child is highly likely to
behave in an aggressive way given the opportunity.)
4 Room 3 (the room to test delayed imitation) contained aggressive toys and
non-aggressive toys plus additional toys (e.g. dart guns). The child was left
alone and his/her behaviour observed for 20 minutes. The child was then
taken back to nursery school.
Now test yourself
25 a What is meant by inter-rater
reliability?
b Give two examples where
inter-rater reliability was used in
this study.
Answers on p.193
The frustration-aggression
hypothesis (Dollard et al., 1938) is the
belief that aggression (whatever type)
will always result when a person is
frustrated.
Data: quantitative data were gathered because the observers used ‘response
Expert tip
categories’ to record the number of times each behaviour occurred. The
Questions might ask candidates to
response categories were: imitative physical aggression; imitative verbal aggression;
identify one or more of the response
partial imitation – mallet aggression, sits on bobo doll; non-imitative aggression –
categories. The correct answer is, for
punches bobo, aggressive gun play. A record was made every 5 seconds (time
example, ‘imitative physical aggression’
not ‘imitative aggression’ or ‘physical
sampling) and as the test lasted for 20 minutes, 240 instances of behaviour were
aggression’.
recorded. Qualitative data were also gathered. Comments were made by the
children when observing the models, such as ‘Who is that lady? That’s not the
way for ladies to behave’ and ‘That man is . . . a good fighter, like daddy.’
Cross check
Results:
Types of data, page 60
Observations, page 51
Table 1.7 Mean aggression scores for experimental and control subjects
Experimental groups
Aggressive
F
M
Response category
model model
Imitative physical aggression
Female subjects
Non-aggressive
F
M
model
model
Control
groups
5.5
7.2
2.5
0.0
1.2
12.4
25.8
0.2
1.5
2.0
13.7
2.0
0.3
0.0
0.7
4.3
12.7
1.1
0.0
1.7
Female subjects
17.2
18.7
0.5
0.5
13.1
Male subjects
15.5
28.8
18.7
6.7
13.5
6.3
16.5
5.8
4.3
11.7
18.9
11.9
15.6
14.8
15.7
Male subjects
Now test yourself
Imitative verbal aggression
Female subjects
Male subjects
Mallet aggression
Punches Bobo doll
Female subjects
Male subjects
28
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
26 a Describe the observation
sampling strategy used by
Bandura et al.
b Suggest why this observation
strategy was used.
27 Give two types of behaviour (the
response categories) that the
observers looked for when they
observed the children.
Answers on p.193
Aggressive
F
M
Response category
model model
Non-imitative aggression
Non-aggressive
F
M
model
model
Control
groups
Female subjects
21.3
8.4
7.2
1.4
6.1
Male subjects
16.2
36.7
26.1
22.3
24.6
Female subjects
1.8
4.5
2.6
2.5
3.7
Male subjects
7.3
15.9
8.9
16.7
14.3
Aggressive gun play
Findings: all four hypotheses were supported. There were many more instances
of aggression in the aggression group than in the non-aggression group and the
control group. Boys showed more physical aggression when with a male model;
girls show more verbal aggression when with a female model. Children in all
groups, both male and female, showed aggressive gun play even though this had
not been observed in the room 1 (‘exposure’) situation.
Conclusion: behaviour that is observed is likely to be imitated.
Now test yourself
1 The core studies
Experimental groups
28 a Describe how the children were
matched for pre-existing levels
of aggression.
b Explain why the children were
matched for pre-existing levels
of aggression.
Answers on p.193
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
●
●
Experiment – the experiment was well designed, and with a sound
procedure and appropriate controls; it can be assumed that the IVs caused
the DV (strength).
Ecological validity – the laboratory is not a natural environment for
children and the behaviours that the children watched could also be said to
be not true to real life (weakness).
Reliability – the level of agreement for pre-existing levels of aggression between
the two observers was checked and the correlation was +0.89, meaning that the
observations were reliable (strength). In addition, the inter-rater reliability in the
room 3 (test room) produced correlations of +0.9 or better.
Validity – the children were matched for pre-existing levels of aggression
which added to the validity of the study (strength). If this was not done
then any difference in the results may not have been due to learning, but
due to pre-existing aggression.
Generalisations – some of the specifics of the study (e.g. sample, setting)
raised questions about generalising (strength and weakness). However, what
can be generalised is Bandura’s original premise that if the behaviour of a
model is observed, it is likely to be copied.
Children – there are always issues when children participate in research
(strength and weakness). They cannot give full, informed consent because
they are under age. Do they fully understand the task and what the
experiment requires? How does the child respond: does the experimenter
interpret behaviour (or what a child says) in the correct way? However, are
these comments appropriate to this particular study? What do you think?
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Ecological validity, page 67
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Generalisations, page 68
Children, page 75
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
Button phobia
Authors: Saavedra and Silverman (2002)
Key words: button phobia
Approach: learning approach
Cross check
The learning approach, page 71
Background/context: Watson (1920) taught ‘Little Albert’ to be afraid of a
white rat using classical conditioning, also known as expectancy learning.
This is where a previously neutral object (e.g. white rat) is associated with a
potentially threatening negative event (e.g. loud noise) so that in the future the
person is fearful because of the expectation of what will happen when coming
into contact with the object (in Albert’s case, the white rat). In contrast, in
evaluative learning there is no expectancy (no fear); instead the person thinks
about and evaluates the object (such as a button) negatively, typically with
feelings of disgust towards the object.
The core studies
29
1 The core studies
Aims/hypotheses:
1 To determine the cause of a button phobia.
2 To successfully treat the button phobia using exposure-based cognitivebehavioural therapy.
Cross check
Case study, page 51
Interviews, page 50
Method: case study with interviews being used.
Participant and sampling technique: a 9-year-old American-Hispanic boy
who went to the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program at Florida international
University and Saavedra and Silverman took the opportunity to study and treat
him. The boy’s mother provided full informed consent.
Assessment: the boy and his mother were first interviewed using the
child-parent anxiety disorders interview schedule (originally devised by
Silverman). Questions requiring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers are asked about symptoms
and the total number of ‘yes’ answers determines whether the DSM-IV (the
study was conducted in 2002) criteria are met. Second, questions are asked
about whether those symptoms cause clinically significant impairment. These
questions are answered using a ‘feelings thermometer’, a 9-point scale (from 0 to 8)
and ‘clinically significant’ is determined if the score is 4 or greater for each
question.
Now test yourself
Cause of button phobia: for an art project the boy tried to take buttons from
a bowl on a teacher’s desk, but slipped and the bowl fell on him. After that
his avoidance of buttons increased. Over time his avoidance got worse and he
avoided wearing clothes with buttons, especially his school uniform. After
4 years treatment was needed.
Treatment of button phobia: the boy was treated with exposure therapy. This
involved exposure to the feared object (buttons) in a ‘safe’ and controlled place
with the therapist; constructing a hierarchy of ‘graded exposures’ (see Table 1.8)
ranging from mildly arousing items to more strong ones. This hierarchy was
constructed by the boy using the feelings thermometer.
Table 1.8 Disgust/fear hierarchy with child’s ratings of distress
Stimuli
Distress ratings (0–8)
1 Large denim jean buttons
2
2 Small denim jean buttons
3
3 Clip-on denim jean buttons
3
4 Large plastic buttons (coloured)
4
5 Large plastic buttons (clear)
4
6 Hugging Mom when she wears large plastic
buttons
5
7 Medium plastic buttons (coloured)
5
8 Medium plastic buttons (clear)
6
9 Hugging Mom when she wears medium plastic
buttons
7
10 Small plastic buttons (coloured)
8
11 Small plastic buttons (clear)
8
The boy was also exposed to the buttons in vivo (in real life). Treatment sessions
lasted for 30 minutes with the boy alone, and 20 minutes with the boy and his
mother. Successful exposure to each stimulus had the added bonus of positive
reinforcement from the mother. Positive reinforcement increases the probability
of a behaviour happening again. By the fourth session, the boy had successfully
completed all the stimuli in the graded hierarchy. However, his subjective ratings
of distress were higher than when the treatment began, which was unusual. For
example, ‘medium coloured buttons’, initially graded as a ‘5’, was now higher.
30
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
29 Identify the type of interview used
in this study.
Answers on p.193
These treatments were successful: before treatment, the imaginal exposure of
‘hundreds of buttons falling on your body’ was rated as 8 on the distress scale,
at the mid-point the rating was down to ‘5’, and it went as low as ‘3’ after the
exposure.
Treatment effectiveness: was the treatment effective? At 6-month and 12month follow-up sessions, the child-parent anxiety disorders interview schedule
was re-administered and the boy reported minimal distress. Further, he was
wearing school uniform with buttons on a daily basis.
Conclusion: the button phobia and experience of disgust was successfully
treated using exposure-based, cognitive-behavioural therapy.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
●
Interviews – a structured interview specifically designed for use with
children and parents was used to assess whether the phobia was clinically
significant (strength). The use of an interview allowed the boy and parent to
describe their story, giving the therapist (Saavedra) insight into the disorder.
Case study – in-depth detail could be gathered about the boy’s phobia:
what caused it and the specific details of treatment for his particular
situation (strength). This is just one boy with a specific problem and so
it has very limited generalisability (weakness). However, the principles
underlying the treatment can be generalised (strength).
Nature versus nurture – this case study is evidence to support the
learning approach and that phobias are learned rather than being inherited
(strength). Saavedra and Silverman explain the learning process.
Quantitative/qualitative data – the interview gathered qualitative
data with the boy and his mother explaining how the phobia developed
(strength). The use of a rating scale, the ‘feelings thermometer’, allowed
the extent of distress to be measured over time (strength). The rating scale
gathered subjective rather than objective data (weakness).
Children – children are like adults in that any child like any adult can have
a phobia and can have treatment for it (strength). However, aspects of the
treatment were designed for a child rather than an adult (weakness).
The boy could not give informed consent, but the boy’s mother could and
she attended parts of the treatment sessions (strength and weakness).
Disgust is an emotion with a
characteristic facial expression, a
physiological response of nausea,
feelings of revulsion and avoidance
behaviour.
Cognitive restructuring aims to
identify irrational or negative thoughts
and replace them with more realistic or
positive thoughts.
1 The core studies
Disgust cognitions and treatment: it was determined that the boy found
buttons disgusting upon contact with his body and he claimed that they
smelled unpleasant. The next seven treatment sessions therefore involved
disgust-related imagery exposures. Therapy involved imaginal exposure about
the things he found disgusting (e.g. he was to imagine buttons falling on him
and how they looked, felt and smelled) and cognitive restructuring where the
unpleasant emotions and negative thoughts were replaced with positive
thoughts.
Now test yourself
30 What is ‘cognitive restructuring’?
Answers on p.193
Cross check
Interviews, page 50
Case study, page 51
Nature versus nurture, page 75
Types of data, page 60
Children, page 75
Now test yourself
31 a Give one advantage of a case
study.
b Give one disadvantage of a case
study.
Answers on p.193
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
Parrot learning
Author: Pepperberg (1987)
Key term: parrot learning
Approach: learning approach
Background/context: there is no doubt that animals communicate with
each other, and many studies have shown that animals can communicate
with humans using various signs and symbols; but to what extent do animals
have human language? Does one or more species possess the cognitive skills
for human language? Pepperberg has shown that Alex, an African grey parrot,
can use English vocalisations to identify, request, refuse and comment on 80
Cross check
The learning approach, page 71
Animals, page 58
The core studies
31
1 The core studies
different objects of various colours, shapes and materials. However, Alex cannot
use abstract symbolic relationships. This core study focuses on one cognitive
ability, that of understanding whether an object is the same or different.
Aim/hypothesis:
1 To test whether Alex could distinguish between same and different objects.
2 To test additional comprehension of categories, e.g. whether Alex could
distinguish between two novel objects he had never been seen before with
regard to colour, shape and material.
Method: case study; laboratory experiment.
Participant and sampling technique: Alex was an African grey parrot bought
by Pepperberg in a pet shop when he was a year old. Alex died in 2007 aged 31.
Alex had been studied by Pepperberg for 10 years before this specific study. The
sampling technique is opportunity.
Cross check
Case studies, page 51
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Apparatus: objects that have similar and different properties with regard to
colour, shape and material. For training (and testing) the objects used were
restricted to red, green or blue, triangular or square, rawhide or wood.
Design: before the start of the experiment, Alex could already name
five colours, several shapes and four materials. Further, he could respond
to questions such as ‘What colour?’ and ‘What shape?’, showing some
comprehension of abstract categories.
However, the test was not for Alex to merely name a colour, shape or material
but to test his comprehension of categories by asking questions such as ‘What’s
same?’ and ‘What’s different?’ This meant that Alex had to understand similarity
and difference for colour, for shapes and for materials (making the task quite
complex).
To further test his comprehension, Alex would be presented with novel objects
he had never seen before with regard to colour, shape and material (such as pink
and brown paper triangles).
This meant that Alex would have to assess three categories of two objects;
understand that the question asked about ‘same’ or ‘different’; determine from
the objects what was ‘same’ or ‘different’; and provide a vocal answer for the
correct category.
General training procedure: Pepperberg used the model/rival (M/R)
technique, based on social learning outlined by Bandura (see page 26). This
involves a human trainer and a second human, the model. The trainer presents
objects and asks questions about them, giving praise and reward (positive
reinforcement) to the model for correct answers and disapproval for incorrect
answers. The model’s responses were observed by Alex and in addition the
model acted as a rival, competing with Alex for the trainer’s attention.
Now test yourself
Training for same/different: observed by Alex, the trainer held two objects
in front of the model and asked either ‘What’s same?’ or ‘What’s different?’
The model responded with the category (colour, shape or material) and was
rewarded by being given the object if correct, or scolded and removed from
view (a ‘time-out’) if incorrect. If incorrect, the object was re-presented and the
question repeated. At this point, the roles of the trainer and model were reversed.
Alex could use the words ‘colour’ and ‘shape’ but had to be taught the word
‘mah-mah’, meaning matter or material.
Controls (for testing): the testing was conducted by secondary trainers who
had not trained Alex on ‘same/different’ (to prevent answer ‘cuing’). Testing
for ‘same/different’ was also incorporated into other test procedures being
conducted. A student not involved in the research chose the objects to be
paired and randomly ordered the questions to be asked. This meant that neither
32
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
32 What is ‘observational learning’?
Identify one other study that
involves observational learning.
Answers on p.193
Test procedure: testing went on for over 2 years (26 months). In any week,
testing was conducted between one and four times. The secondary trainer
would present two objects and ask ‘What’s same?’ or ‘What’s different?’ If Alex
was correct (this was a first-trial response), he was given the object and praised,
and if incorrect he was told ‘No!’
In addition, to confirm the validity of the testing procedure, three additional
tests were used:
● Tests on objects (of categories) that were familiar, such as another colour or
material. These objects meant that the pairings were always novel.
● Transfer tests with novel objects: Alex was presented with pairs of objects
never used in training to find out if Alex could generalise to new situations.
● Probes: to ensure Alex was concentrating, questions were asked which
included a wrong answer in addition to correct ones.
Now test yourself
1 The core studies
Alex nor the principal trainer knew what was going to be asked. The principal
trainer sat back and did not look at Alex during the testing.
33 Identify two controls to add
validity to the testing procedure.
34 Is this study single-blind or doubleblind? Explain your answer.
Answers on p.193
Data: quantitative data were gathered – what was said by Alex was repeated
by the principal trainer and the percentage of correct responses was calculated.
Results:
● Familiar objects: Alex scored 69/99 (69.7%) on first trials and 99/129 (76.6%)
on all trials, which is very significant and well above 33.3% chance.
● Transfer tests: Alex scored 79/96 (82.3%) on first trials and 96/113 (85%) on all
trials.
● Probes: Alex scored 55/61 (90.2%) on all trials, showing that he was
processing questions.
Conclusion: African grey parrots have the ability to comprehend ‘same’ and
‘different’.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
Case study – in-depth detail could be gathered about Alex’s abilities,
acquired and tested over a period of time (strength). This is just one parrot
and Alex was trained over many years (weakness). Alex may be unique and
these findings cannot be generalised (weakness). However, if Alex can be
trained then so can any other African grey parrot (strength).
Ethics – Pepperberg and the trainers conformed to all appropriate animal
guidelines (strength). Alex was not deprived of food and his rewards were
appropriate. Alex was housed in suitable ‘accommodation’ and only one
parrot was used.
Experiment – the study was conducted in controlled settings and
the testing procedure was strictly controlled (strength). The study was
conducted in a laboratory (low ecological validity) and the task was rather
artificial for a parrot (weakness).
Learning approach – this study shows what can be learned (and how it
can be learned) (strength), and supports the nurture side of the nature–
nurture debate (strength).
Cross check
Case study, page 51
Ethics, page 57
Experiments, page 43
The learning approach, page 71
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
1.4 The social approach
Obedience
Author: Milgram (1963)
Key term: obedience
Approach: social approach
Cross check
The social approach, page 72
The core studies
33
1 The core studies
Background/context: obedience is productive; and it can be destructive. The
slaughter of millions of people from 1933 to 1945 ‘could only be carried out on a
massive scale if a very large number of persons obeyed orders’, according to
Milgram. He believed that extreme obedience to authority was a one-off, that
‘the Germans were different’ from the rest of society. He expected that in 1960s
USA, no-one would obey if he created an extreme situation. Before the study
Milgram asked 14 Yale senior students ‘if asked, would you give an electric shock
to another person.’ Less than 3% said they would. He asked his colleagues and
they also believed that few, if any, would give shocks.
Aim/hypothesis: to test the hypothesis that the obeying of orders to kill
another human was a ‘one-off’; that it would not happen again – specifically,
that US citizens in the 1960s would not obey the command to give an electric
shock to another person.
Obedience is complying with
the orders of an authority figure
(compliance is obeying an order
without agreeing with it).
Common misconception
It is often said that the study by
Milgram is a laboratory experiment.
Milgram himself called it an
experiment. However, there was no
independent variable, so it isn’t an
experiment in the strict sense. Often
people call any study an ‘experiment’
when it is not.
Method: laboratory ‘experiment’ (with interview and observation).
Variables: there was no IV in this study and no variables were compared
(although the command to obey is sometimes said to have been the single IV).
There should be no DV because there was no IV, but ‘shock intensity level’ is
sometimes said to have been the DV.
Design: there was no design. Each participant did the ‘one condition’ of the
experiment.
Cross check
Samples and sampling techniques,
page 56
Use of a stooge, page 59
Participants and sampling technique: the sampling technique was selfselecting as participants could volunteer by responding to an advertisement
placed in a local newspaper for a study on ‘learning and memory’ stating that $4
would be paid (plus $0.50 for travel). Forty males from the New Haven area aged
20–50 of various occupations were chosen to participate.
Experimenters: also participating as stooges were a 31-year-old high-school
biology teacher wearing a grey lab coat, who was the experimenter (not
Milgram himself), and Mr Wallace, the ‘learner’, a 47-year-old accountant
trained for the role.
Apparatus: shock generator labelled from 0–450 volts in 15-volt increments,
with labels from ‘slight shock’ through to ‘XXX’. Electrodes attached to the
generator and a chair onto which the learner was strapped.
Controls: the procedure was the same for all participants, including drawing of
teacher/learner, use of equipment, word pairs and prods.
Procedure:
1 There was a general introduction by the experimenter about punishment
and learning to both the participant and Mr Wallace.
2 Choice of who was to be teacher and learner was done by taking a slip of
paper from a hat. However, the participant was always the teacher (both
slips of paper said ‘teacher’).
3 Both teacher and learner were taken to the room next door where the
learner was strapped into a chair, and electrodes attached to his wrist. A
sample shock of 45 volts was given to the teacher and further instructions
confirmed the authenticity of the apparatus.
4 The teacher read out word pairs and the learner responded with an answer
by pressing a button so it was displayed on a screen in the teaching room.
5 If the learner got the answer right, the next pair was presented, but if the
learner got the answer wrong (which the learner did deliberately at
pre-determined points), the teacher was to give an electric shock to teach
the learner to do better.
6 The stooge responded in a fixed way at each voltage level. At 75 volts
Mr Wallace shouts ‘Hey, this hurts!’ for example. At 300 volts the learner
‘pounds on the wall of the room’.
34
Common misconception
A ‘newspaper sample’ is incorrect. The
correct terminology is self-selecting
sample via a newspaper.
Now test yourself
35 a Describe how the participants
were recruited.
b Outline one disadvantage of
recruiting participants in this way.
Answers on p.193
Common misconception
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Students often think that it is important
to know the ages and occupations of
these stooges, but these details are
irrelevant to the purpose of the study.
Method: all the participants were given an interview (with open-ended
questions) and a debrief after the study. Using a one-way mirror, most of the
trials were observed and photographs taken. Often the trials were recorded on
video-tape.
Data: quantitative data were gathered – the frequency of participants going to
a particular voltage level. Milgram noticed participants were becoming stressed
and although this was noted, it was only reported anecdotally.
Common misconception
The teacher (the participant) and the
learner (Mr Wallace, the stooge) are
often confused.
1 The core studies
7 As the ‘learning’ progressed and the 15-volt shock increments increased, if
the teacher showed doubt or did not continue, the experimenter gave a
‘prod’ – an instruction to continue, whatever the response from the learner.
There were four prods: please continue/please go on; the experiment
requires that you continue; it is absolutely essential that you continue; you
have no other choice, you must go on.
8 The study progressed with prods either until the teacher pressed the 450volt switch or until the teacher refused to continue and began to leave the
room.
9 The teacher/participant was then given an interview and a debriefing (or
‘dehoax’ as Milgram called it).
Now test yourself
36 Describe three features of the type
of observation that was conducted.
Answers on p.193
Results:
Table 1.9 Distribution of breakoff points
Verbal designation and
voltage indication
Number of subjects for whom Verbal designation and
this was maximum shock
voltage indication
Slight shock
Number of subjects for whom
this was maximum shock
Intense shock
15
0
255
0
30
0
270
0
45
0
285
0
60
0
300
5
Moderate shock
Extreme intensity shock
75
0
315
4
90
0
330
2
105
0
345
1
120
0
360
1
Strong shock
Danger: severe shock
135
0
150
0
390
0
165
0
405
0
180
0
420
0
Very strong shock
375
1
XXX
195
0
435
0
210
0
450
26
225
0
240
0
Findings:
1 All participants gave shocks up to and including 285 volts.
2 5 of the 40 participants withdrew at 300 volts, 4 at 315, 2 at 330, 1 at 345 and
1 at 360 volts.
3 26 participants went to the full 450 volts.
Expert tip
You don’t need to remember every
voltage level for every participant. Be
selective – for example, how many
stopped at 300 volts? How many (or
what percentage) went to 450 volts?
The core studies
35
1 The core studies
4 Observations – many participants showed signs of nervousness: sweating,
trembling, stuttering, biting lips, digging finger-nails into flesh and nervous
laughter. Full-blown uncontrollable seizures were observed in three
participants – one was very severe.
5 Interviews – most participants were convinced the situation was real. When
asked about how painful the shocks at the end were for the learner, on a 14point scale, the mean rating was 13.42 – ‘extremely painful’.
6 Milgram reported two surprising findings: the sheer strength of the
obedience shown by participants and the extraordinary tension generated by
the procedures.
Conclusions:
1 Milgram found that the Germans were not different; that US citizens of the
1960s obeyed an authority figure when instructed.
2 Although most of the participants obeyed, they were far from happy in
doing so. The signs of tension and stress indicated the mental ‘torture’ they
were experiencing.
Explanations: why did people obey authority?
1 Situational factors: it was conducted at the prestigious Yale University; it
was a scientific experiment; the participants felt obliged to continue, to earn
the money paid; the instruction that the shocks were not dangerous; the
experimenter was in charge and so was responsible.
2 Dispositional factors: the nature of the conflict the participants faced. These
were between the demands of the experimenter to continue and the
demands of the learner to stop. Further, there were the demands not to harm
other people, but also to obey people who were perceived to be in authority.
3 Milgram outlines the shift from being in an autonomous state (being in
control of one’s own decisions) to an agentic state (an ‘agent’ of the
experimenter, being under their control and obeying their orders).
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
●
Self-selecting sample – participants volunteered for the study so there
was no experimenter selection bias (strength). However, Milgram chose 40
participants from all those who volunteered (weakness). Use of newspaper
(strength) covered a relatively wide catchment area, but volunteers may be
different from non-volunteers (weakness).
Individual and situational – to what extent were participants going to
450 volts responding to aspects of the situation? To what extent were those
who dropped out before 450 volts showing their individuality?
Ethics – there are numerous ethical issues raised by this study: informed
consent, deception, harm, right to withdraw (weakness). Milgram did
however de-brief participants and maintained confidentiality (strength).
Interviews – Milgram interviewed participants at the end of the study and
many said they were pleased to have participated (strength).
Use of a stooge – Mr Wallace (the stooge) acted in the same way for every
participant (strength). However, there are many disadvantages to using a
stooge, including it being unethical (weakness).
Now test yourself
37 a Identify two features of the
experimenter that may have led
to obedience.
b Identify two features of the
setting that may have led to
obedience.
Answers on p.193
Cross check
Samples and sampling technique,
page 56
Individual and situational, page 74
Ethics, page 57
Stooges, page 59
Interviews, page 50
Expert tip
Subway Samaritans
Authors: Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin (1969)
Key term: Subway Samaritans
Approach: Social approach
36
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Also think about ecological validity,
and the ethics of deception and the
right to withdraw.
Aims/hypotheses:
1 To test the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis in a real-life setting. Previous
laboratory experiments showed diffusion of responsibility in a laboratory but
not in the real world. Would the same effect be found?
2 To look at the effect of type of victim and race of victim on the speed of
helping, frequency of responding, and race of the helper. Would helping
differ according to the type of victim? Would someone who needed help (an
ill person) be helped more than a person whose need was their own fault
(a drunken person)? Other research suggested that a person is more likely
to help someone of his or her own race. Would this be true when a person
needed help in an emergency?
3 To look at the effects of modelling in emergency situations. Research by
Bryan and Test (1967) found that people are more likely to help when they
have seen another person helping. If a model was used to help, would other
people join in and help too?
4 To examine the relationship between size of group, and frequency and
latency of helping response with a face-to-face victim. This was because
previous laboratory studies had shown that group size made a difference to
the frequency of helping (because of diffusion of responsibility).
Now test yourself
38 a Identify two ethical guidelines
that were broken.
b Identify two ethical guidelines
that were not broken.
Answers on p.193
1 The core studies
Background/context: following the 1964 murder of Kitty Genovese and the
apparent apathy of 37 witnesses, where no-one telephoned the police or went
to help, many psychologists began to conduct laboratory experiments into what
became known as ‘bystander behaviour’ – in particular, Darley and Latané. They
conducted studies such as ‘a lady in distress’, ‘an epileptic seizure’ and ‘the
smoke-filled room experiment’. All these studies showed that as group size
increased, the amount of helping behaviour decreased and this was termed
diffusion of responsibility.
Diffusion of responsibility is based
on the idea that if one person witnesses
an event he or she is 100% responsible
for helping. If there are more people
then responsibility is diffused among
them. If there are 10 people then they
are each only 10% responsible. This
means that they are less likely to help.
Now test yourself
39 What murderous event triggered
all the research into bystander
behaviour?
40 Describe what is meant by the
term ‘diffusion of responsibility’.
Answers on p.193
Method: field experiment and non-participant, structured, naturalistic
observation.
Variables: IV1 – type of victim (ill/cane and drunk); IV2 – race of victim (‘black’
and ‘white’); IV3 – model conditions (see procedure 3, below). DVs – frequency
of helping, speed of helping, race of helper, sex of helper.
Cross check
Field experiments, page 44
Observations, page 51
Design: the design is independent measures because the people on the
subway train only experienced an ill black trial, an ill white trial, a drunk black
trial or a drunk white trial.
Setting: New York subway, IND (Independent line), 59th Street station to 125th
Street station – a 7½-minute journey.
Experimenter(s): students from Columbia University (New York): four male
victims (three white and one black, aged 26–35); four male models (all white,
aged 24–29); and eight female observers. The experimenters were divided into
four teams of one victim, one model and two observers.
Participants and sampling technique: 4450 men and women travelling
between 11 am and 3 pm unaware that they were involved in an experiment.
The racial composition was about 45% black and 55% white. The sample was
opportunity because it consisted of participants who just happened to be on
that train at that time of day.
Apparatus: a subway train (an old model which had 13 seats only). All victims
were dressed in Eisenhower jackets and old slacks (no tie). In the ill condition, a
black cane was carried; in the drunk condition, the victim smelled of alcohol and
carried a liquor bottle in a brown paper bag. Response categories were used to
record the observations (as outlined for the DVs above).
The core studies
37
1 The core studies
Observer 2
Adjacent area
Critical area
Exit
doors
Exit
doors
Remainder
of car
Victim
Observer 1
Exit
doors
Exit
doors
Doors
to next
carriage
Motorman’s
box
Figure 2 Layout of subway car (carriage)
Controls: the same 7½-minute train journey for all trials. Victims wore the
same clothes and fell over at the same time (after 70 seconds) in the same place
and in the same way on every trial. Each team member started the journey in
the same place (e.g. observer 1 in the adjacent carriage near the exit door and
observer 2 in the adjacent carriage in the far corner).
Procedure:
1 Four members of the team position themselves in a specific location on the
subway train.
2 Subway train leaves station; 70 seconds later, victim (black or white, drunk or
ill condition) staggers forward, collapses and remains on the floor, looking at
the ceiling of the carriage.
3 If no-one helps then a model intervenes. There are four model conditions:
● Critical-early (model in same carriage as victim) and helps 70 seconds
after falling over.
● Critical-late (model in same carriage as victim) and helps 150 seconds
after falling over.
● Adjacent-early (model in adjacent carriage to victim) and helps
70 seconds after falling over.
Cross check
● Adjacent-late (model in adjacent carriage to victim) and helps
The social approach, page 72
150 seconds after falling over.
4 Observer 1 records: sex of passengers, race of passengers (‘black’ or ‘white’),
location of passengers (seated or standing) and in critical carriage, total
number of people, and total number who went to help (including race, sex
and location). Observer 2 records: sex, race and location of people in
Common misconception
adjacent area. She also records time taken for first observer to help (the
latency), and time taken for someone to help the model. Both observers
There was no inter-rater reliability
done in this study. As you will see, the
record comments by passengers sitting next to them.
observers recorded different things.
5 If no-one helps, the model helps victim to his feet. At the next station the team
of four gets off train, crosses over and repeats procedure on a train going in the
opposite direction. 6–8 trials completed each day. 103 trials conducted in total.
Data: quantitative data were gathered – demographic characteristics,
frequency of helping, etc. Qualitative data were also gathered through the
comments that were made to the observers.
Cross check
Results: the results tables for this study are numerous and complex. They have
not been included and are replaced by detailed findings.
Findings:
1 The victim with the cane received spontaneous (before the model) help on
62 out of 65 trials. This means that the model only helped on 3 occasions. The
drunken victim received spontaneous help on 19 of the 38 trials. The median
helping time for cane victims was 5 seconds; for the drunken victim, 109 seconds.
2 When people did give spontaneous help, on 60% of the 81 trials there was
helping from two, three and even more people. There was no difference on
this between black and white, or drunk and ill. A first helper is the crucial
thing: if one person helps then others join in.
38
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Types of data, page 60
Conclusions:
1 An individual who appears to be ill is more likely to receive help than a
person who appears to be drunk.
2 Even when an audience includes both men and women, men are more likely
to help than are women.
3 Same-race helping is more likely, particularly when the victim is drunk as
compared with ill.
4 There is no strong relationship between the number of bystanders and the
speed of helping; the expected diffusion of responsibility was not observed.
5 The longer the emergency continues without help being offered, the less
impact a model has and the more likely it is that individuals will leave the
immediate area.
1 The core studies
3 Who helped? 60% of first helpers in the critical area were males; 90% of
people helping were male. Racial composition was 55% white, 45% black and
64% of first helpers were white – not a significant difference.
4 Was there same-race helping? When the victim was white 68% of first
helpers were white (32% black), significantly above the 55%. When the victim
was black, only 50% of first helpers were white (and 50% black). There was a
tendency toward ‘same-race’ helping.
5 In the ill condition there was no difference between black or white helpers.
In the drunken condition mainly members of the same race came to help.
6 Other responses:
● People left the critical area only 20% of the time and totalled only 34
people. More people left when the victim was drunk rather than ill.
● Most comments happened during the drunken trials, particularly when
no-one helped until after 70 seconds. This may be due to the discomfort
of not helping and a need to justify inaction, such as saying ‘it’s for men
to help’ and ‘I’m not strong enough’.
7 Was there diffusion of responsibility? The simple answer is no, and the simple
explanation is that in this situation the victim and the witnesses were faceto-face, whereas they were not in the laboratory studies. Further, diffusion of
responsibility predicts that the more people there are, the less helping there
will be. In this study helping was faster when there were more people.
Now test yourself
41 Piliavin et al. drew five conclusions
from their data. Outline two
conclusions.
Model of response to emergency situations:
1 Observation of any emergency situation creates arousal in a bystander.
Answers on p.194
2 Arousal is an unpleasant feeling, and the bystander has a need to reduce it. The
arousal will be differently interpreted in different situations as fear, sympathy,
etc., and possibly a combination of these. Arousal can be higher, the more one
can empathise with the victim (e.g. same-race helping), the closer one is to
the emergency, and the longer the state of emergency continues.
3 Arousal is reduced by the following responses: helping, going to get help,
Expert tip
leaving the scene of the emergency, or concluding that the victim doesn’t
Look at ‘Now test yourself 42’. The
deserve help.
What determines the response is our thoughts, our ‘cognitive processes’
summarised in this model as the cost–reward matrix. This means we weigh
up the costs and benefits and then make a decision. What are those costs and
benefits? They include: the costs of helping (e.g. possible physical harm); the
costs of not helping (e.g. damaged self-esteem); the rewards of helping (e.g. social
approval such as a ‘thank you’); and the rewards of not helping (e.g. getting to
work on time, or not getting harmed).
This means that the two major features of this model include our physiological
arousal and our cognitive (or psychological) decision-making.
As Piliavin et al. state, all of the effects observed in this study can be explained
by this model.
answer is NOT ‘costs and benefits/
rewards’ as many candidates
incorrectly assume. Make sure you
know the correct answer.
Now test yourself
42 Identify the two components
of the model of response to
emergency situations.
Answers on p.194
The core studies
39
1 The core studies
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
●
●
The model of response to emergency situations has much in common
with Schachter’s two-factor theory of emotion (strength). Both models have a
stimulus that creates arousal (physiological component) and then there needs
to be a psychological (cognitive) component for a decision or conclusion made.
Generalisations – Piliavin et al. suggest that the model of response to
emergency situations can be generalised as it explains what all people
experience when faced with an emergency situation (strength). However,
the specific findings of this study cannot be generalised (weakness).
Reliability – the two observers recorded different things and so the
reliability of their observations (i.e. inter-rater reliability) could not be
checked (weakness).
Design – it is possible for a person to travel on the same train at the same
time every day (weakness). The study was only conducted between 11 am
and 3 pm, so this limits the sample.
Controls/ecological validity/ethics – the study had many controls
(strength) and high ecological validity (strength). This could only be
achieved by the study being unethical (weakness). Participants gave no
informed consent and they were deceived. They could not withdraw
(for 7½ minutes), there was no debrief and a drunk male falling over in front
of them may have been distressing.
Ethics – there are several advantages when using a stooge in a study
(strength). There are also many problems that may arise when using a
stooge (weakness).
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Reliability, page 66
Experimental controls, page 47
Ethics, page 57
Stooges, page 59
Expert tip
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
Chimpanzee helping
Author: Yamamoto et al. (2012)
Key term: chimpanzee helping
Cross check
The social approach, page 72
Approach: social approach
Background/context: humans are believed to be unique when they show
altruistic behaviour and co-operate with others. It is argued that this uniqueness
is because only humans have a theory of mind (see Baron-Cohen et al. page 20).
Altruism is helping others with no
benefit to oneself, or even at a cost to
oneself.
However, studies have shown that animals (such as marmoset and capuchin
monkeys) show co-operative abilities, such as sharing food. Studies usually focus
on ‘why’ animals help each other (e.g. kin selection) but they don’t focus on
‘how’, the reasons animals help each other, the underlying cognitive function.
The study by Yamamoto et al. investigated the cognitive abilities of chimpanzees
using targeted helping to find out whether they can understand the needs of
other chimpanzees.
Aims/hypotheses: to investigate the ‘how’ rather than the ‘why’, and whether
chimpanzees can understand the needs of other chimpanzees (conspecifics).
Conspecific is a term used for a
member of the same species.
Cross check
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Obstruction, page 51
Method: laboratory experiment; structured, controlled observation.
Variables:
IV – three conditions: two ‘can see’ and one ‘cannot see’; the ‘can see’ as the
experimental condition and the ‘cannot see’ as the control condition.
Now test yourself
DV – percentage of trials of what object the helper offered the recipient first.
Percentage of trials where the stick or straw was given when it was/wasn’t needed.
Design: as all participants performed in all three phases of the experiment, the
‘can see’, ‘cannot see’ and ‘can see’ trials design is repeated measures.
Participants and sampling technique: the participants were mother and
child pairs: Ai and Ayumu, Pan and Pal, and Chloe and Cleo (but Chloe did not
participate). All were housed at the Primate Research Institute in Japan. The
chimpanzees had participated in similar studies and were chosen because they
were experts in the two tool-use tasks used in this study.
40
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
43 Why is the Yamamoto et al. study a
structured, controlled observation?
Answers on p.194
1 The core studies
Apparatus: two adjacent experimental booths (136 × 142 cm and 155 × 142cm)
with a hole cut to allow a chimpanzee to reach through (see Figure 3). In the
‘can see’ condition there was a transparent (see-through) panel wall between the
two booths and in the ‘cannot see’ condition there was an opaque panel.
Tray of seven tools including a stick, a straw, a hose, a chain, a rope, a brush and
a belt.
Three video cameras to record all the behaviour of the chimpanzees.
Controls: all chimpanzees underwent the same tool familiarisation procedure,
so they were equally familiar with the function of each tool. The ‘can see’ and
‘cannot see’ initial 48 conditions were randomly allocated.
Ethics: the study was approved by the Animal Care Committee of the Primate
Research Institute of Kyoto University.
Procedure: one chimpanzee acted as the helper and another as the recipient
(the conspecific). The aim was for the recipient to obtain a juice reward which
could be achieved by using either the stick (stick condition) or the straw (straw
condition) that was supplied by the helper in the booth. The recipient could
‘request’ a tool by putting their hand through the hole between the two booths.
(a) Can see
(b) Cannot see
Juice
Juice
Hole
Hole
Tool
Figure 3 ‘Can see’ and ‘cannot see’ conditions
1 Familiarisation phase: all chimpanzees undergo eight 5-minute trials (one per
day).
2 Phase 1: 48 trials (randomly ordered) including 24 ‘stick’ and 24 ‘straw’ trials in
the first ‘can see’ condition.
Cross check
3 Phase 2: 48 trials as above but with the ‘cannot see’ control condition.
The learning approach, page 71
4 Phase 3: 48 trials as above in the second ‘can see’ experimental condition.
A comparison in performance could then be made between the phase 1 and
the phase 3 conditions.
A trial in each phase began when the tray of tools was put into the helper
booth and ended either when the correct tool was passed to the recipient to
acquire the juice or when 5 minutes had passed without the correct tool being
passed. (The juice provided positive reinforcement as originally outlined by
Skinner.) Between 2 and 4 trials were conducted each day.
Data: the quantitative data recorded by the video cameras can be analysed:
what object the helper offered the recipient (and only the first offer was
counted); upon-request offers (helper offering a tool when requested); and
voluntary offers (tool offered by helper when not requested). Any ‘theft transfer’
was classified as a ‘no offer’.
Observations, page 51
Now test yourself
44 Give two advantages when
analysing video recordings of
behaviour.
45 What is a ‘repeated measures
design’? How was it used in this
study?
Answers on p.194
The core studies
41
1 The core studies
Results:
Phase 1– first ‘can see’ condition: offer of an object on 90.8% of trials, 90%
of which were ‘upon request’ offers. This confirmed that a direct request is
important for the onset of targeted helping. Four chimpanzees offered the stick
or straw first, but Pan offered the non-tool brush on 79.5% of offers.
Importantly, the stick or straw was offered significantly more when it was
needed, showing flexible targeted helping depending on their partner’s needs.
Phase 2 – ‘cannot see’ condition: an object was offered on 95.8% of trials
with 71.7% following a request. As previously, four chimpanzees offered the
stick/straw with Pan continuing to offer the brush.
Importantly there was no difference (50/50) in choice of stick or straw when
stick or straw was needed. This suggests that the chimpanzees can only
understand their partner’s needs when they can see the task themselves.
Phase 3 – second ‘can see’: only three participants were tested (Ai, Cleo and
Pal) and objects were offered on 97.9% of trials. All three offered a stick or straw
more frequently than other objects (Pal 100%). As previously, the stick or straw
was offered significantly more when it was needed.
This again shows flexible targeted helping with an understanding of which tool
was needed when they could see their partner’s situation.
Conclusions: chimpanzees can understand the needs of other chimpanzees by
applying flexible targeted helping and this is an advanced cognitive process.
When the helper can see the partner’s needs they are significantly more likely to
select the correct tool.
Chimpanzees will still try to help their partner even if they cannot see what their
partner’s needs are.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
●
42
Animals – should animals be studied in their natural environment or
in a laboratory? (weakness) This laboratory experiment investigates the
cognitive processes of chimpanzees and this could only be studied in a
controlled environment (strength and weakness).
Ecological validity – the setting was a psychology laboratory and the
chimpanzees were tested in ‘experimental booths’ (weakness). The task
(using the correct tool to obtain a reward of juice) was low in mundane
realism.
Laboratory experiment – the conditions of the IV were manipulated, the
environment controlled and behaviour was recorded on video-tape. This
scientific method establishes cause and effect (strength).
Cognitive approach – humans show helping behaviour and so do animals.
Humans have a theory of mind, and with the correct choice of stick or
straw the chimpanzees in this study showed theory of mind behaviour
(strength).
Social approach – this study demonstrates that behaviour (and cognitions)
of animals, as well as humans, can be influenced by social interactions with
others (strength).
Cross check
Animals, page 58
Ecological validity, page 67
The cognitive approach, page 71
The social approach, page 72
Experiments, page 43
Expert tip
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Think about a real-world application of
this core study.
2 Research methods
Research methods in psychology can usefully be divided into two categories:
● the five main research methods
● methodological aspects of the research process
You need to know the main research methods and methodological aspects
because questions are asked about them on Papers 1 and 2:
● On Paper 1 you will need to be able to describe the main methods and
methodological aspects and give their strengths and weaknesses.
● On Paper 2 you will need to be able to define and give examples of each
method and methodological aspect; give their strengths and weaknesses;
and apply them to a scenario-based question. You will also need to be able
to design a study, know its limitations and suggest how any weakness could
be resolved.
Expert tip
All the research methods also relate
to the A Level options. Cross checks
appear for each option.
2.1 The five main research methods
The five main research methods include experiments, self-reports, case studies,
observations and correlations. This section will describe each in turn, before
summarising their strengths and weaknesses.
Experiments
One of the ideas behind the experimental method is that of cause and effect –
that changes or differences in one factor bring about changes in another.
Three types of experiment
There are three different types of experiment: laboratory experiment, field
experiment and natural (or quasi-) experiment. In both a laboratory and field
experiment, the researcher manipulates the IV and controls any variables
extraneous (or irrelevant) to the study. In a natural experiment, which may
be conducted in a laboratory, the IV varies naturally, without the researcher’s
intervention, for example if people who are left-handed are compared with
people who are right-handed.
An experiment is where the
independent variable (IV) is the factor
that is thought to be the cause, and the
dependent variable (DV) is the effect.
Common misconception
Many students get the IV and DV
the wrong way round. Make sure you
do not.
Laboratory experiments
A laboratory experiment takes place in a laboratory where conditions are
controlled and IVs manipulated in order to discover cause and effect. It is
probably the method psychologists use most often to conduct research. There
is an IV, all extraneous variables are controlled and the DV is measured.
A laboratory experiment takes place
in a laboratory or under ‘controlled
conditions’. It does not happen in a
normal environment for the participant.
Examples of laboratory experiments
●
●
The study by Canli et al. had to be conducted in a laboratory simply because
it used a piece of scientific equipment, a brain (MRI) scanner which could
not be used in any other location.
Yamamoto et al. investigated helping behaviour in chimpanzees in controlled
laboratory conditions using three IV conditions – two ‘can see’ and one
Cross check
Canli et al., page 10
Yamamoto et al., page 40
Research methods
43
2 Research methods
‘cannot see,’ with the ‘can see’ as the experimental conditions and the
‘cannot see’ as the control condition.
Common misconception
The study by Milgram was conducted
in a laboratory and although it is
claimed by Milgram that it is an
experiment, it isn’t as there was no
independent variable.
Advantages of laboratory experiments
●
●
●
●
The manipulation of one IV while controlling irrelevant variables means that
cause and effect are much more likely to be shown.
They allow for control over many extraneous variables, e.g. temperature and
noise levels.
Standardised procedures mean that replication is possible.
In a laboratory, participants must have given some degree of consent, but
not neccessarily informed consent, to take part.
Expert tip
An experiment always has an IV and
a DV, whether it is conducted in or
outside a laboratory.
Disadvantages of laboratory experiments
●
●
●
●
●
●
The results may be biased by sampling, demand characteristics or
experimenter bias.
Some people regard the process as dehumanising, with participants being
treated like laboratory rats by having something done to them.
Controlling variables is reductionist as it is unlikely that any behaviour would
exist in isolation from other behaviours.
Artificial conditions (setting and task) can produce unnatural behaviour,
which means that the research lacks ecological validity.
For the IV to be isolated, participants might be deceived about the true
nature of the study. There may be other ethical issues.
It is more likely that the data will be snapshot.
Now test yourself
1 Give one similarity and one
difference between a laboratory
experiment and a field experiment.
2 Give two disadvantages of
conducting a study in a laboratory.
Answers on p.194
The field experiment
A field experiment takes place in a natural or normal environment for the
behaviour being studied. For example, to conduct a field experiment about how
children learn, the logical place to do this is in a classroom.
A field experiment is a form of
research that takes place outside
a laboratory, where conditions are
controlled and IVs manipulated in order
to discover cause and effect.
Examples of field experiments
●
The study by Piliavin et al. was a field experiment. There were IVs, DVs and
many controls, but the study was conducted in a New York subway where
the natural behaviour of participants could be observed without their
knowledge that they were participating in a study.
Cross check
Piliavin et al., page 36
Advantages of field experiments
●
●
●
●
There is greater ecological validity because the surroundings are natural.
There is less likelihood of demand characteristics (if people are unaware of
the research taking place).
The features of an experiment (IV, DV etc.) are retained.
The behaviour is natural and so tells us how people behave in real life.
Now test yourself
Disadvantages of field experiments
●
●
●
●
There might be difficulties in controlling the situation, and therefore more
possibility of influence from extraneous variables.
The experiment might be difficult to replicate exactly.
There might be problems of access to where the study is to be done; such as
consent from a company.
There might be ethical issues of consent, deception, invasion of
privacy etc.
The natural experiment
In a natural experiment the conditions of the IV happen by themselves. For
example, we might be interested in whether males or females are more likely to
44
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
3 Give two advantages of conducting
a field experiment.
Answers on p.194
A natural experiment is where
conditions of the IV are naturally
occurring/happen by themselves and
are not manipulated or controlled by an
experimenter.
2 Research methods
choose science or humanities subjects. The IV is sex – male or female. This
cannot be ‘manipulated’ by the experimenter – it happens independently.
Examples of natural (quasi-) experiments
●
●
The study by Baron-Cohen et al., the ‘eyes test’, is an example of a natural
experiment because the participants could not be randomly allocated to
be either autistic (AS or HFA) or non-autistic. The AS/HFA condition was
naturally pre-existing. The eyes test was exactly the same for all four groups
of participants without the experimenters creating an experimental and
control group.
Dement and Kleitman is an example of a natural experiment because the
experimenters could not manipulate REM or NREM or whether the
participant recalled a dream or not (this occurs naturally). The experimenters
did create the IV of REM versus NREM and the IV of 5 versus 15 minutes.
Cross check
Baron-Cohen et al., page 20
Dement and Kleitman, page 12
Experimental designs
Because many of the core studies are experiments (field or laboratory), we need
to look in more detail at how an experiment works – its design.
There are three types of design: repeated measures, independent measures and
matched pairs/groups.
An experimental design is how
participants are allocated to the
conditions of the IV.
Repeated measures
A repeated measures (or related samples) design is where each participant
takes part in all conditions of the IV. For example:
Condition 1
Participant A
Participant B
Participant C
Condition 2
Same participant A
Same participant B
Same participant C
Expert tip
An easy way to spot a repeated
measures design is to see if the same
participants do all the conditions of
the IV.
Examples of repeated measures designs
●
●
In the study on sleep and dreaming, Dement and Kleitman used a repeated
measures design when comparing recall of dreams from REM and NREM
and when comparing estimations of 5 and 15 minutes. These had to be
done with the same participants because there might have been individual
differences in reportings (as can be seen from Table 1.2, page 14).
In the study by Canli et al., all ten participants saw all 96 pictures, which was
essential for each participant to give consistent intensity ratings to each
picture. This could not have been achieved with any other design.
Cross check
Dement and Kleitman, page 12
Canli et al., page 10
Advantages of repeated measures designs
●
●
This design is best for the control of participant variables, because the same
people do both conditions and their level of intelligence, motivation and
many other factors remain the same throughout.
Although much less important, it means that only half the number of
participants are needed than for other designs because each participant
‘scores’ in both conditions.
Disadvantages of repeated measures designs
●
●
Some experiments are impossible to do as a repeated measures design, e.g. a
participant cannot be both left-handed and right-handed or both male and
female.
If a participant completes both conditions then it may be necessary to
duplicate apparatus, such as word lists. But how can the lists be balanced so
they are of equal difficulty? It may be better to use a different type of design.
Research methods
45
2 Research methods
●
A major flaw is that the design can create order effects. If a participant
performs an activity twice, they may become tired or bored the second time
(known as the fatigue effect) and the result is different from the first time.
It might be that the second result is much better than the first because the
participant knew what to expect or treated the first as a practice. This is
simply known as the practice effect.
Now test yourself
4 What is meant by the term
‘repeated measures design’?
5 Suggest one way in which order
effects can be overcome.
One way to eliminate order effects is to counterbalance. This is where
participant 1 performs in condition 1 first and then condition 2, participant 2
performs in condition 2 and then condition 1, and so on. As a result, both
practice and fatigue effects are controlled.
Answers on p.194
Independent measures
An independent measures design is where each participant is in just one
condition of the IV. For example:
Condition 1
Participant A
Participant C
Participant E
Expert tip
An easy way to spot an independent
measures design is so see if there
are different participant numbers
in the conditions of the IV. If they
are unequal, it cannot be a repeated
measures design.
Condition 2
Participant B
Participant D
Participant F
Examples of independent measures design
●
●
In the study on doodling by Andrade, the design was independent measures.
Cross check
Participants were randomly allocated to either doodle or not to doodle
Andrade, page 17
(control), and this was important because a participant could not hear the
Schachter and Singer, page 15
message when doodling and then without (or vice versa) as this would
confound the result.
The participants in the Schachter and Singer study could only be in one of
four groups: EPI INF, EPI MIS, EPI IGN or control/placebo. Further, they could
only be in the euphoric or angry conditions. If a single participant had done
all four conditions, the experiment would clearly not have worked.
Advantages of independent measures designs
●
●
●
Expert tip
In the examples for both repeated
and independent measures ‘Condition
1’ and ‘Condition 2’ are used. This
design is called a ‘2-sample’ because
there are just two conditions. Many
other designs exist which have three
conditions, or even more. This type of
design is a ‘K-sample’ (meaning more
than two). This isn’t on the syllabus,
but now you know!
Participants only perform in one condition of the IV and so there are no
order effects.
Only one word list (or test) is needed for participants.
Each participant only experiences one condition so it might stop them
guessing what the study is all about and so reduce demand characteristics.
Disadvantages of independent measures designs
●
●
Twice as many participants are needed as for a repeated measures design.
This design does not always adequately control for participant variables. The
researcher may end up with participants in one group who are all somehow
‘naturally’ better at the DV than the participants in the other group –
more intelligent, or more suited to the condition to which they have been
allocated.
One way to try to eliminate participant variables is to randomly allocate
participants to conditions. Random allocation is done by (for example) tossing
a coin for each participant, giving them a 50/50 chance of doing Condition 1 or
Condition 2 first. For this design, it does not matter if there are unequal numbers
of participants in each condition. Note that random allocation is very different
from a random sample.
Now test yourself
Matched pairs/groups
A matched groups design is where the experimenter tries to match as many
aspects as possible on which two (or more) groups of participants may differ.
The aim is that overall the two (or more) groups are the same. A special case of
46
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
6 What is meant by the ‘random
allocation’ of participants to
conditions?
Answers on p.194
2 Research methods
this is matched pairs, where each pair of participants in the whole group are
matched. For example, twins have many things in common so using pairs of
twins is ideal.
The aim of this design is to control participant variables (see page 49) and so
it is sometimes used to reduce participant variables in an independent groups
design. There is no need to use this for a repeated measures design because the
same participant is in the two (or more) conditions.
Examples of matched groups designs
●
●
The study by Bandura et al. matched groups of participants for preexisting levels of aggression. If they had not done this – if all the ‘naturally
aggressive’ children were in one group and all the ‘non-naturally aggressive’
children in another group – the result would be confounded and the
effect of learning would not be shown. Matching of pre-existing levels was
therefore essential to the study. Note that an independent measures design
was also used in this study to measure the IV of aggressive, non-aggressive
and control groups.
The study by Baron-Cohen et al. matched the participants in group 4. These
were randomly selected individuals from the general population who were
IQ matched with group 1 (the AS or HFA participants). Note that an
independent measures design was also used in this study for the IV of
participants who were autistic and those who were non-autistic/controls.
Cross check
Bandura et al., page 26
Baron-Cohen et al., page 20
Advantages of matched designs
●
●
Participant variables are controlled because participants are matched across
the conditions of the IV.
There are no problems with order effects.
Disadvantages of matched designs
●
●
This design is only as good as the experimenter’s ability to match
participants, and it is questionable whether all relevant variables can be
matched.
It can be difficult (and time consuming) to find and match participants.
Experimental controls
In order to make sure that it is the manipulation of the IV that is causing the
change in the DV, it is important for the researcher to control any
confounding variables. These are factors apart from the IV that may affect
the DV.
Confounding variables
There are three main types of confounding variable that need to be controlled:
1 Situational variables concern the environment or situation in which the
experimental and control groups are participating in the experiment. If
one group is tested in one environment and another group in a different
environment, then this might cause the result to be different.
2 Experimenter variables are where the presence of the researchers
themselves may affect the outcome of the experiment. This can happen in
two different ways:
a
The mere presence of the experimenter may cause demand
characteristics. The one way to control demand characteristics is by
using a single blind design, in which the participant is unaware of the
behaviour that is expected of them (i.e. they are not told whether they
are in the experimental or the control group, or they are not told what
behaviour is being measured, or why).
A control is an action taken by the
experimenter to try to ensure that the
IV causes the DV rather than some
extraneous variable.
A confounding variable is when an
experimenter does not know whether
the DV is due to the IV or some other
extraneous variable.
Now test yourself
7 Why do psychologists try to
control extraneous variables?
Answers on p.194
Demand characteristics are where
the participant responds to the
experiment in a certain way in order to
please (or upset) the experimenter.
Research methods
47
2 Research methods
bExperimenter bias occurs when an experimenter who wants to achieve
a particular outcome gives different ‘signals’ to participants, for example
smiling if a participant is doing what is desired or encouraging them if they
are not. This can be controlled by using a double blind design, in which not
only is the participant unaware of the behaviour that is expected of them
but also the experimenter does not know whether the participant is in the
experimental or the control group. Experimenter bias can also be reduced by
giving all participants the same standardised instructions.
3 Participant variables are individual differences between participants, such
as level of motivation, eyesight, intelligence or memory. One solution is to
have two very large groups (to minimise the effect of a rogue individual or an
‘outlier’) and to allocate participants to the two groups randomly. Another
solution is to match the groups of participants, so extraneous variables are
equally distributed across the two (or more) groups.
Now test yourself
8 Identify three types of extraneous
variable that experimenters should
try to control.
Answers on p.194
Examples of studies with controls
●
●
The study by Bandura et al. had many controls. For example, he matched
participants for pre-existing levels of aggression (and so controlled
participant variables). He used the same three rooms and the same toys,
and in each room even the toys were replaced in their original position
before the next child entered. This was to control any situational variables.
To control experimenter bias, Bandura used more than one observer when
testing the responses of the children.
The study by Piliavin et al. had many controls (even though it was a field
Cross check
experiment). The victims were dressed in the same outfit; the train journey
Bandura et al., page 26
was always the same (7½ minutes long); the victim always fell over after
Piliavin et al., page 36
70 seconds); the model intervened if needed after 70 or 150 seconds.
Advantages of controlling variables
●
●
●
More control over irrelevant/extraneous variables means that the DV is
more likely to be due to the IV; cause and effect are much more likely to be
shown.
Participants are more likely to behave in predictable ways – particularly ways
in which the experimenter wants them to behave.
Controls act as a benchmark of ‘normality’ against which things can be
compared. This is most likely through using an experimental group and a
control group, where nothing is done to the control group and a measure of
their ‘normal’ behaviour is recorded.
Disadvantages of controlling variables
●
●
●
Controlling variables is reductionist – it is unlikely that any behaviour would
exist in isolation from others.
The more controls, the more artificial the situation becomes and the more
participants are likely to respond to demand characteristics. They are less
likely to behave naturally. This lowers the ecological validity of the study.
Attempting to control variables for many different trials can lead to
participants becoming suspicious.
Controlling variables is highly desirable but so is high ecological validity. Low
control means high ecological validity, and high control means low ecological
validity. Which is better? The solution to this dilemma is not a desirable one – to
be unethical. The field experiment by Piliavin et al. was done in a real-life setting
and they had many controls. To achieve this, there was no informed consent,
many deceptions, no right to withdraw, no debriefing and possible
psychological harm.
48
Expert tip
Don’t just think about one evaluation
issue (such as controls); think about
how two or more interact with each
other.
Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
9 Identify four controls used by
Piliavin et al. in their ‘subway
Samaritan’ study.
Answers on p.194
A self-report simply means asking participants about something so they can
report on it themselves. There are three main components to take into account:
● the specific method (questionnaire or interview) used to ask questions and
gather data (the answers)
● the format or structure of the questions themselves
● the way in which participants will provide answers to the questions
Self-reports involve research that
uses the participants’ own accounts
of their behaviour or experience. Selfreport methods include questionnaires,
interviews, thinking aloud and diaries.
Questionnaires
How questions are asked in a questionnaire depends on what type of response
or data the researcher is looking for. Data can be quantitative (in the form of
numbers) or they can be qualitative (in the form of words). There are advantages
and disadvantages to both these types of data (see page 60).
We can ask open-ended questions, which are simply questions that ask the
participant to give a response in his or her own words, with no pre-determined
way to answer. Closed questions, on the other hand, require the participant to
choose from a range of pre-determined answers. There are several forms of predetermined answer:
● a simple yes/no
● a choice from a range of categories such as 0–6, 7–12, 13–18 etc.
● a choice of number on a scale, with or without descriptor words at either
end, such as:
strongly agree 1 2 3 4 5 strongly disagree
A rating scale like this is often known as a Likert scale and can be 5-point (as
in the example above) or 7-point, or it could be 4-point. If a scale is 5-point,
it gives the participant a chance to opt out, to be neutral. In the example
above, the mid-point of the 5-point scale would be neutral or ‘neither agree
nor disagree’. This may well be the case depending on what question is
asked. But what if every participant responded like this? There would be no
useful data. Using a 4-point scale, with a fixed/forced choice, means the
participant must commit to either agreeing or disagreeing. Think about the
advantages and disadvantages of using each type of scale.
A questionnaire is where participants
read the questions for themselves and
then fill in their answers themselves.
This can be done on paper or online.
2 Research methods
Self-reports
Expert tip
When doing an experiment a
participant can give a one-word or
one-sentence answer. This is a ‘selfreport’ but it isn’t a ‘stand-alone’
method like a questionnaire or
interview.
Now test yourself
10 Describe the two main types of
question that can be included on a
questionnaire.
11 Describe what is meant by a
‘forced-choice’ questionnaire.
Give an advantage of this type of
questionnaire.
Answers on p.194
Questionnaires can be completed in a number of ways:
● by approaching a person and asking them to complete the questionnaire
there and then
● by posting the questionnaire and asking for it to be returned
● by completing it online
Think about the advantages and disadvantages of these different ways in relation
to:
● Cost: posting out a questionnaire and having it returned is relatively very
expensive; asking people ‘in the street’ has no monetary cost at all.
Expert tip
● Return of answers: postal questionnaires take the most time because of
Psychologists rarely ask
postage and not every person will return the questionnaire immediately.
single-statement questions. They
● Target population: a postal questionnaire can target specific individuals
usually ask a number of questions
or it can cover a wide area; asking people in the street limits the sample.
which all relate to the same thing. For
Completing a questionnaire online only targets people who are online and
example, the autism quotient (AQ)
has 50 questions, all asking about
the sample may therefore be very restricted.
the features of autism, to give a score
● Question design: asking ‘in the street’ means that questions need to be
between 0 and 50.
relatively short.
Research methods
49
2 Research methods
Examples of studies using questionnaires
●
●
Laney et al. used a range of questionnaires with closed questions, including
the food history inventory, the restaurant questionnaire, the food preferences
questionnaire, the food costs questionnaire, the memory or belief
questionnaire and the photographs questionnaire.
Baron-Cohen et al. used the autism quotient (AQ) test which includes 50
Cross check
questions, and responses are given on a forced-choice, 4-point scale:
Laney et al., page 23
definitely agree, slightly agree, slightly disagree, definitely disagree. Scores of
Baron-Cohen et al., page 20
32 and above suggest autism.
Interviews
Interviews can be:
● structured, where the questions are pre-prepared and every participant
receives the same questions in the same order without variation
● unstructured, where there is no pre-preparation of questions and questions
are asked depending on the direction in which the discussion goes, or
questions are open-ended
● semi-structured, where there are some structured questions and some
unstructured/open-ended questions.
An interview is where questions
are asked of a participant and the
interviewer notes the responses.
Expert tip
Think about the advantages and
disadvantages of answering faceto-face questions compared with
answering questions over the
telephone.
An interview that is face-to-face is not anonymous and neither is a telephone
interview, even if it is not face-to-face. A medical practitioner can conduct a
clinical interview.
Example of a study using interviews
Saavedra and Silverman interviewed the boy and his mother using the childparent anxiety disorders interview schedule. Structured questions were
asked about symptoms requiring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers. Questions were also asked
about whether symptoms cause clinically significant impairment and answered
using a ‘feelings thermometer’ on a 9-point scale (from 0 to 8).
Cross check
Advantages of self-reports
Now test yourself
●
●
●
●
●
●
Participants are given an opportunity to express a range of feelings and
explain their behaviour.
The data obtained may be ‘rich’ and detailed, especially with open questions.
Data are often qualitative, but may also be quantitative depending on the
types of question that are asked.
Closed/forced-choice questions are easier to score/analyse.
Relatively large numbers of participants can be questioned relatively quickly,
which can increase representativeness and generalisability of the results.
Questionnaires are relatively easy to replicate.
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
12 Describe the three main types of
interview.
13 Outline two ways in which
interviews can be conducted.
Answers on p.194
Disadvantages of self-reports
●
●
●
●
●
●
50
Closed questions often do not give the participant the opportunity to say
why they behaved or answered a question in a particular way.
Participants might provide socially desirable responses, not give truthful
answers or respond to demand characteristics.
Closed/forced-choice questions might force people into choosing answers
that do not reflect their true opinion, and therefore may lower the validity.
Researchers have to be careful about the use of leading questions; it could
affect the validity of the data collected.
Open-ended questions can be time-consuming to categorise/analyse.
If a telephone interview is conducted, a participant can easily withdraw, or
might find it difficult to understand how to respond if the questions being
asked cannot be seen.
Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
14 Describe three disadvantages of
self-reports.
Answers on p.194
A case study is a detailed piece of research involving a single ‘unit’, for example
one participant or one organisation. It often gives us a detailed insight into
unique behaviour and many would argue this is the fascination of psychology.
Others would argue that case studies are often not scientific at all. Some case
studies make use of a range of different methods and techniques.
A case study involves a detailed
description of a particular individual or
small group under study or treatment.
Examples of case studies
●
●
The case study by Saavedra and Silverman, who successfully treated a 9-yearold boy with a button phobia and feelings of disgust using exposure-based
cognitive behaviour therapy.
The case study by Pepperberg of Alex the parrot, who was trained and
tested to distinguish between ‘What’s same?’ and ‘What’s different?’ As
Alex’s results were above chance, Pepperberg concluded that Alex showed
comprehension of the concept of same/different.
Advantages of case studies
●
●
●
●
●
There are some circumstances where it is impossible to have a large number
of participants, making case studies ideal; rare or unique behaviours can be
studied in detail.
Participants can be studied over a period of time, so developmental changes
can be recorded. This is longitudinal, and it often means that the data
gathered are detailed.
The sample may be self-selecting, which means that the participants are not
chosen by the researchers.
Ecological validity is usually very high – the participant is often studied as
part of everyday life.
The data gathered may be rich and detailed.
Cross check
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
Pepperberg, page 31
2 Research methods
Case studies
Expert tip
Case studies are not automatically
longitudinal, so this is not a key
feature. For example, Griffiths (2003)
interviewed ‘Jo’ about her gambling
behaviour. This was a study of one
person, but she was interviewed on
three different occasions in quick
succession.
Now test yourself
15 Outline two key features of any
case study.
Answers on p.194
Disadvantages of case studies
●
●
●
●
Case studies might not produce enough quantitative data for statistical
testing; this means that some people regard case studies as little more than
anecdotal evidence.
Because case studies sometimes involve quite an intense relationship
between the researcher and the participant, the researcher may lack
objectivity. He/she may become too involved and thus alter the natural
course of the participant’s life events and experiences.
There might be only one participant (or very few) involved, and so any
conclusions cannot be generalised to other people.
The participant might be unique and possibly not ‘normal’ in some way.
This might mean that the researchers do not know how to proceed, or they
might draw false conclusions.
Common misconception
Some case studies are longitudinal,
but not all. Studying a participant over
time is not a feature of all case studies.
Observations
Types of observation
An observation can best be understood by considering how it applies to its
four main features: the participants, the observers, the data to be gathered and
the setting.
In an observation, data are collected
through observing or watching
participants with the aim of recording
the behaviour that is witnessed.
The participants: is the observation overt or covert?
● Overt observation is where a participant knows that they are being observed.
● Covert observation is where the participant does not know that they are
being observed.
Research methods
51
2 Research methods
The observers: are they participant or non-participant?
● Participant observation is when the observer becomes part of the
community (or group of people) they wish to observe (this could be overt or
covert).
● Non-participant observation is when the observer isn’t part of the group and
observes from a distance (this could be overt or covert).
The setting: is the setting natural or controlled?
Naturalistic observation is when the observation is conducted in an
environment that is natural for the participant.
● Controlled observation is when the observation is conducted in a nonnatural environment such as a laboratory where the environment is
controlled.
●
The data: will the data be structured or non-structured?
Expert tip
● In a structured observation, the observer creates a list of what is to
Go back to each study that includes
observation and decide whether
be observed (response categories or tally chart) before beginning the
it is overt/covert, participant/nonobservation.
participant, natural/controlled, and
● In a non-structured observation, the observer records what is happening as it
structured/ unstructured.
happens.
Recording observational data
Structured observations can use:
● event sampling, where the observer is looking for certain behaviours and a
tally chart or record is kept of every instance of these behaviours (e.g. in the
Piliavin et al. study where an observer recorded whether the helpers were
male or female, black or white)
● time sampling, where the observer notes down or records the behaviour at
certain times (e.g. at 5-second intervals, as done in the study by Bandura et al.)
The reliability of observations can be checked in two ways (depending on the
type of observation):
● Test/re-test reliability where an observation is repeated at a later date and
the two sets of observations are compared.
● Inter-rater reliability where two observers observe the same behaviour
independently. The data are compared and the level of agreement can be
calculated using a correlation test. Note that this simply checks the reliability
(which may be good or bad), it does not make an observation reliable. For
example, Bandura et al. found the inter-rater reliability for pre-existing levels
of aggression to be + 0.89.
Examples of studies using observation
●
●
52
The study by Bandura et al. was covert as the children did not know they
were being observed. It was non-participant because the model did not
remain in the test room with the children. The setting was a laboratory
Cross check
which was tightly controlled (e.g. the toys were always in the same place).
Bandura et al., page 26
The data gathered were structured because the observers had prePiliavin et al., page 36
determined categories (such as imitative physical aggression).
The study by Piliavin et al. is more complex. It was covert because the
Now test yourself
participants on the train did not know they were being observed. It was
participant because the model and the observers were bystanders. The
16 Give one similarity and one
model, by not helping for at least 70 seconds, could have created diffusion of
difference in the type of
responsibility as could the two observers (who never helped). It was
observation conducted by Bandura
et al. and Piliavin et al.
structured because each observer recorded specific pre-determined items. It
was naturalistic because the subway train is a natural place for the
Answers on p.194
participant to be. However, the researchers did control many things that
appeared to be natural (e.g. train journey for 7½ minutes).
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
●
●
●
●
2 Research methods
Advantages of observation
The observed behaviour can be natural. As ‘real’ behaviour is observed,
because the person is unaware, it is high in ecological validity.
The data are often quantitative through using response categories, meaning
they can be measured objectively and statistical tests can be applied.
The data can be extremely rich if unstructured observation or participant
observation is used.
If the participants are unaware of the observation (covert or naturalistic),
they are unaffected by demand characteristics.
Disadvantages of observation
●
●
●
●
●
●
In non-participant/covert observations, the participants cannot explain
why they behaved in a particular way (and the observer should not make
assumptions about it).
Practically, the observer’s view might be obstructed and the observations
might not be reliable, although this can be resolved with inter-rater reliability
(see page 66).
With natural observation there is a lack of control over variables, making it
difficult to conclude cause-and-effect relationships.
With unstructured observation or participant observation there might be
bias, with the observer ‘seeing’ things he or she desires; with structured
observation and no time or event sampling, the observer might mis-record
instances of a behaviour.
It might be difficult to replicate natural observations as some circumstances
can be unique (however, a good replication of controlled observation is
possible).
It is unethical if people are observed without their permission in a non-public
area; it is also deception if the observer, in order to obtain data, pretends to
be something he or she is not.
Now test yourself
17 Using the Piliavin et al. study as
an example, give one advantage
and one disadvantage of an
observation.
Answers on p.195
Correlations
A correlation coefficient is a number between 0 and 1 that expresses how
strong a correlation is. If this number is close to 0, there is no real connection
between the two variables at all. If it is approaching 1, there is strong correlation.
Correlations can be positive or negative. This has nothing to do with how strong or
weak a correlation is; it is a measure of how the variables interact with each other.
● If the scores on one variable increase, and the scores on the other variable
also increase (or both decrease), the correlation is positive.
● If the scores on one variable increase, and the scores on the other variable
decrease (or one decreases when the other increases), the correlation is
negative.
Look at the three examples in Figure 4. They show no correlation, a good
positive correlation and a good negative correlation. The positive and negative
merely show the direction.
Correlations can show that one variable causes an effect in another. Rain might
cause people to open an umbrella. Sometimes variables correlate where there is
no cause and effect. In a now famous example, it was shown that the divorce
rate in the USA increased when sales of margarine increased. Clearly margarine
does not cause people to divorce! Sometimes correlations stimulate further
research to try to find out cause and effect. Fifty years ago it was found that
incidence of lung cancer increased and sales of cigarettes increased. Research
discovered that this was a cause and effect relationship.
Correlation is a measure of how
strongly two, or more, variables are
related to each other.
Now test yourself
18 What is the difference between a
positive correlation and a negative
correlation?
19 What should never be assumed
about a correlation?
Answers on p.195
Research methods
53
2 Research methods
(b) Negative correlation
(a) Positive correlation
(c) No correlation
5
5
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure 4 Correlations: positive, negative and no correlation
Examples of studies using correlations
●
●
The study by Canli et al. used correlations to show the relationship between
emotionally arousing stimuli and activation of the amygdala. He found that
the more intense stimuli (rating of ‘3’) were significantly positively correlated
with the percentage of amygdala activation.
The study by Baron-Cohen et al. found that performance on the revised eyes Cross check
test was inversely correlated (i.e. negatively correlated) with scores on the AQ
Canli et al., page 10
(the autistic spectrum quotient). This means that those scoring high on
Baron-Cohen et al., page 20
‘autism’ scored low on the eyes test. The value found was –0.53.
Advantages of correlations
●
●
●
They can provide useful information about the specific strength of the
relationship between two variables.
They can be used to check agreement between observers (inter-rater
reliability).
They might provide information that could prompt future research to
determine whether one variable does cause another variable.
Disadvantage of correlations
Causality should never be assumed, i.e. that one variable causes the other,
because sometimes totally unrelated variables might co-vary together.
2.2 Methodological aspects of the
research process
What follows in this section is a definition and brief explanation of each
methodological aspect followed by an advantage/strength and then a
disadvantage/weakness. The methodological aspects comprise:
● hypotheses and aims
● samples and sampling techniques
● ethics (human and animal)
● types of data (qualitative and quantitative)
● data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread)
● reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test)
● validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective)
Expert tip
You need to know all these methodological aspects because questions are asked
about them in all four examination papers (AS and A2).
54
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
All the methodological aspects of the
research process also relate to the A
Level options. Cross checks appear for
each option.
A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the outcome of a study. This
differs from an aim because the aim is a more general statement describing the
purpose of the study.
In a hypothetical study, the aim might be ‘to see whether sinistrals
(left-handers) perform better in a spelling test than dextrals (right-handers)’. The
hypothesis for this might be ‘sinistrals will spell more words correctly in a test
than dextrals’.
Now test yourself
20 What is the difference between an
aim and a hypothesis?
Answers on p.195
A hypothesis should always be operationalised, meaning that the IV and DV
should always be precisely defined. In our example, the IV are dextrals (righthanders) and sinistrals (left-handers). The DV is the number of words correctly
recalled out of 20 on a spelling test.
2 Research methods
Hypotheses and aims
Writing hypotheses is complicated because they can be different depending on
whether they are directional or non-directional, whether a difference or a
correlation is predicted and whether there are two or more conditions (or even
a trend).
A directional (or one-tailed) hypothesis predicts a difference or correlation
and the expected direction of the results. A non-directional (or two-tailed)
hypothesis predicts a difference or correlation but not the expected direction of
the results.
When writing hypotheses (e.g. for an experiment with two conditions), there is
a general formula that can be followed (and its components rotated) depending
on the type:
● state the first condition of the independent variable (IV)
● state the dependent variable (DV)
● state the second condition of the independent variable (IV)
So a directional hypothesis for our example could be:
Participants who are dextrals (first condition of the IV) will score significantly
more words correctly out of 20 on a spelling test (the DV) than participants who
are sinistrals (second condition of the IV)
This can be easily changed if it is believed that sinistrals will score more than
dextrals.
A non-directional hypothesis for our example could be:
There will be a significant difference in the number of words spelled correctly out
of 20 for participants who are dextrals and participants who are sinistrals.
A hypothesis never exists in isolation; it always has a null hypothesis. The null
hypothesis uses very similar words to the hypothesis but the null hypothesis
states that the result is due to chance (i.e. that there will be no difference). The
null hypothesis is never directional and if there is no difference, we never need to
write that there is no significant difference.
For example, the null hypothesis could be:
Now test yourself
21 Why do psychologists have a null
hypothesis?
Answers on p.195
There will be no difference in the number of words spelled correctly out of 20
on a spelling test between participants who are dextrals and participants who
are sinistrals.
Here the formula still applies, it is just re-arranged.
Research methods
55
2 Research methods
Samples and sampling techniques
The choice of participants for any study is fundamental and is based on two
questions:
● What group of people is being studied? (This is the target population.)
● How much effort is a researcher prepared to put in to make the sample
representative of the target population?
The target population is the group to
which research is hoping to generalise.
The sample refers to the details of the participants themselves, including how
many of them participate and features such as age, gender and any other feature
relevant to the specific study.
How many participants are needed for research? There is no fixed answer, but
generally the larger the sample, the more representative it will be of the target
population. It also means that any outliers will have less effect on the data
collected. When planning research there are practical considerations – getting
a sample of 1,000 participants may simply not be practical. For research into
social psychology, such as that by Milgram, where there are cultural differences,
the larger the sample the better; for physiological research, such as sleep and
dreaming, the sample can be smaller as sleep is a cultural universal.
Now test yourself
22 What is the difference between
a sample and the sampling
technique?
The sampling technique is how the sample is selected from a target
population. There are different sampling techniques and some are more effective
in being representative of the target population than others.
Answers on p.195
Opportunity sample
An opportunity sample can include people who happen to be in a particular
place at the time the study is being conducted. These participants do not know
they are taking part in a study; the researcher takes advantage of their presence.
The study by Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans) is an example of this.
An opportunity sample is one
that is selected by ‘opportunity’: the
researcher simply uses the people who
are present at the time that he/she is
conducting the research.
An opportunity sample can also involve the researcher approaching people;
they might approach people who walk past in a shopping mall or in a student
common room (and invite them to participate). These participants know they
are taking part in a study.
Advantage of opportunity samples
It is relatively quick and easy to get participants. A large sample can be obtained
quickly and without too much effort.
Disadvantages of opportunity samples
●
●
Expert tip
Know the difference between
describing the sample (details of the
participants, such as how many, etc.)
and the sampling technique (how the
participants were selected, e.g. a selfselecting sample).
Participants who are chosen are unlikely to be representative of the target
population. They may be psychology students, who have been paid or
receive course credits for taking part.
A researcher might choose people they think look suitable, ignoring others,
and so biasing the sample.
Self-selecting (volunteer) sample
These are people who volunteer to participate in the research and ‘select
themselves’ rather than being chosen by a researcher. Sometimes a person may
approach a researcher, or it may involve the researcher advertising for
participants. An advertisement could appear in a newspaper (as done in the
study by Milgram), or on notice boards (a common way to attract university
students). The people who reply are ‘self-selecting’ – that is, they volunteer
themselves for the research. Sometimes volunteers are not paid at all; sometimes
they receive a small amount of money; and sometimes students receive course
credits.
56
Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
23 Identify two examples of core
studies that used a self-selecting
sample.
Answers on p.195
●
●
●
They are useful when the research requires participants of quite a specific
type or with a specific experience.
There is no researcher sampling bias.
It can be easy to place an advert (e.g. in a newspaper).
Disadvantages of self-selecting (volunteer) samples
●
●
●
●
●
Recruiting a sample in this way can be expensive (advertisements in
newspapers cost money, and the researcher may need to offer a fee), and it
can take more effort.
People may not see the advert; they may see it but ignore it; or they may see
and read it but will not make the time or effort to reply.
The type of people who do volunteer to take part may be different in
some ways from the type of people who are eligible but do not choose to
volunteer.
We can never really be sure that a self-selecting sample is representative of
the target population.
Participants may only volunteer if they are paid (or receive something in
return). This may lead to demand characteristics.
Expert tip
You do not need to know five
disadvantages. Choose two, which you
think are high-quality points.
2 Research methods
Advantages of self-selecting (volunteer) samples
Random samples
A random sample is where each participant is randomly selected from the
target population. If the target population is students then selecting a sample of
students would be representative. But there might be 1,000 students and only 20
in the sample. One way to achieve a random sample is to put every student’s
name into a hat and pick out the first 20 names.
A random sample is a sample that
has been selected in a way that means
everyone in the target population has
an equal opportunity of being chosen.
Advantage of random samples
They are more likely to be representative than opportunity or self-selecting
samples.
Disadvantages of random samples
●
●
It can be time-consuming to get the right sample.
Some of the people picked by the random generator may not want to take
part and will need replacing; this might end up producing a biased sample.
Now test yourself
24 What is the difference between
a random sample and random
allocation?
Answers on p.195
Examples of sampling techniques
●
●
Self-selecting sample: Milgram advertised in a newspaper in the New Haven
district of New York. He asked for volunteers to take part in a study on
learning and memory, and from all the replies he selected 40 to take part.
Opportunity sample: Schachter and Singer used 184 male students who
were taking part in introductory psychology classes. They volunteered for a
‘subject pool’, receiving two extra points on their final examination for every
hour they served as participants.
Cross check
Milgram, page 33
Schachter and Singer, page 15
Ethics (human and animal)
The British Psychological Society (BPS), American Psychological Association
(APA) and ethical associations in other countries have guidelines on consent,
deception, harm, the right to withdraw, debriefing, confidentiality, the use of
children and the use of animals.
Ethics are a set of rules designed to
distinguish between right and wrong
in the protection of participants in
psychological studies.
Research methods
57
2 Research methods
Humans
Informed consent: participants should (in most cases) be asked if they want
to take part in the study and they should be given all the relevant information
about what it will involve, what the aims of the research are and so on. In the
Milgram study, the participants thought they were taking part in a study on
learning and memory, not obedience to authority.
Expert tip
When an ethical guideline is broken it
is an ethical issue.
Deception: participants should not be deceived about the aims of the
study and should not be deliberately misled about any aspect of the study.
For example, the use of a stooge or confederate would be considered to be
deception by today’s standards. In the Piliavin et al. study, participants were
deceived because they thought the victim was genuinely ill or drunk, whereas
the male stooge (or confederate) was acting.
Protection of participants (harm): participants should not be harmed in any
way (mentally or physically). This may occur if the participants are exposed to
aggression, as in the Bandura et al. study.
Right to withdraw: participants should be told they can withdraw completely
from the study at any time during and after the data collection. There should
be no pressure to keep them in the study. This cannot be granted if the
participants do not know that they are being studied or when, as in the Milgram
study, the right to withdraw was denied as part of the actual study.
Confidentiality: participants’ data and information about them should not be
passed on to other people not directly involved in the research, or published in
a way that would reveal their identity. No participant is ever named or can be
identified in the research, so this guideline is always met.
Now test yourself
Debrief: at the end of a study participants should be told what has happened,
asked if they have any concerns, and given any explanations they require.
Anything which may have caused stress should be resolved so that the
participant can leave the study in the same state in which he or she arrived.
Animals
The British Psychological Society (BPS) outlines eight guidelines for working with
animals.
Replacement: wherever possible, alternatives to using animals should be
considered, such as using computer simulations or watching videos of previous
studies.
Species and strain: an appropriate species should always be chosen and some
strains (of laboratory rodents for example) are more suitable for use than others.
Numbers: the smallest number of animals to meet the goals of the research
must be used.
Procedures: no procedure should cause physical or psychological harm or
distress. For any procedure that might, a special project licence is needed.
Housing: distress (which varies according to species) caused in animals who are
caged in isolation or where there is over-crowding must be avoided.
Reward, deprivation and aversive stimulation: normal feeding patterns
should be adhered to and deprivation or aversive stimulation should be avoided,
or kept to the minimum needed to achieve the goals of the study.
Anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia: post-operative care should minimise
stress, and when needed the animal must be killed humanely using an approved
technique.
58
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
25 Define (a) deception and
(b) debrief.
Answers on p.195
All 12 of the AS core studies could go here, as could some studies from the
A Level options. Some break more ethical guidelines than others, but it is also
worth considering which ethical guidelines are not broken. For example, does
any study breach the confidentiality of the participants?
● Milgram’s study is unethical. Participants did not give informed consent;
they were deceived because they thought it was a study on ‘learning and
memory’. They were also deceived in many other ways. They were denied
the right to withdraw because of the ‘prods’: ‘the experiment requires that
you continue’ etc. Some participants suffered psychological harm and
Milgram states that some participants suffered ‘full blown uncontrollable
seizures’, suggesting they suffered physical harm. To give him credit, Milgram
gave a debrief and no participant was identified.
● Yamamoto et al. conducted a study on chimpanzees that was approved
as being ethical by an ethics committee prior to conducting the study. No
animal was harmed (no deprivation or aversive stimuli) in conducting the
study, and numbers were kept to a minimum.
Expert tip
Which is the most unethical core
study? Why is it so? Debate this with
your friends. It will allow you to revise
the issue with different examples.
2 Research methods
Examples of ethical and unethical studies
Cross check
Milgram, page 33
Yamamoto et al., page 40
Advantages of conducting unethical studies
●
●
●
●
The knowledge gained may be valuable, so a small amount of harm may be
justified. It is argued that the ends justify the means.
Participants behave naively – if they do not know the true nature of the
study, they behave more naturally and will not show demand characteristics.
Being unethical can simulate or help create a more realistic/ecologically valid
situation.
Participants are never really harmed in psychological studies.
Disadvantages of conducting unethical studies
●
●
●
●
Being unethical is not ethical! Breaking guidelines is unacceptable because
participants are not protected.
The participant may make a false assumption about the true nature of the
study and behave in a way in which the experimenter does not wish.
Being unethical might discourage future participation in psychological
research; it can give psychology a bad name and lower the status of the
subject.
If participants are harmed, something may go seriously wrong; there may be
long-term damage.
Now test yourself
26 Give one reason why studies in
psychology should be ethical and
one reason why it is believed that
studies in psychology should be
unethical.
Answers on p.195
The use of stooges
A stooge is a person who acts in a way that has been predetermined by the
researcher. They follow the script: performing, saying and doing things at certain
times, and as this is consistent for all participants, it standardises the procedure
of the study. Participants think that the stooge is just another participant and so
they are likely to behave more naturally.
A stooge (or confederate) is a person
who pretends to be a participant but is
actually working for the researcher.
Examples of studies using stooges
●
●
Schachter and Singer used a stooge to manipulate the cognitive components
of euphoria (e.g. throwing paper like a basketball) and anger (e.g. making
increasingly angry comments about the questionnaire).
Cross check
Milgram used Mr Wallace as another participant arriving for the study, who
Schachter and Singer, page 15
received the fake electric shocks, and who responded to the different
Milgram, page 33
voltages in ways pre-scripted by Milgram.
Research methods
59
2 Research methods
Advantages of using a stooge
●
●
●
A stooge standardises the procedure of a study with the aim of repeating
everything in exactly the same way with every participant.
The participants, thinking the stooge is another participant, behave more
naturally and will not respond to demand characteristics (as the stooge isn’t
an experimenter).
A stooge can be used as a model to suggest to participants how they should
behave.
Now test yourself
27 Using an example, give an
advantage of using a stooge.
28 Using an example, give a
disadvantage of using a stooge.
Disadvantages of using a stooge
●
●
It is unethical. It deceives participants because they think the stooge is
another participant.
The stooge may lead a participant to behave in ways in which they would
not normally behave; ways in which an experimenter has predetermined.
Answers on p.195
Types of data (quantitative and qualitative)
Quantitative data involve describing human behaviour and experience using
numbers and statistical analysis. Examples of quantitative data in research
include: a score recorded for each participant; the time taken to complete a task;
the number of people in each condition who displayed a particular behaviour.
Quantitative data are data that focus
on numbers and frequencies rather
than on meaning or experience.
Qualitative data are data that
describe meaning and experience in the
form of words rather than providing
numerical values for behaviour.
Qualitative data consist of descriptions or words, rather than numbers. These
could be descriptions of events, actual quotes from participants, descriptions
of participants’ responses to a task, etc. Some studies produce a mixture of
qualitative and quantitative data.
Examples of studies using quantitative data, qualitative data and both
●
●
Schachter and Singer gathered quantitative data through observations and
through structured questionnaires about the participants’ emotional and
physiological state. They also asked two open-ended questions (on other
physical or emotional sensations) which provided qualitative data.
Dement and Kleitman gathered quantitative data largely from the recordings
of the EEG machine, which told them whether or not a participant was in
REM or NREM, and the direction of the eye movements. However, whether
the participant was having a dream could only be known if the participant
was asked about his or her dream and what they had been dreaming about
– qualitative data.
Cross check
Schachter and Singer, page 15
Dement and Kleitman, page 12
Strengths of quantitative data
●
●
●
The use of numbers and statistics allows direct comparison of participants in
different conditions. It can also allow comparison if the study is replicated.
The use of numbers and statistics is more objective and scientific, so is more
likely to be accepted by the scientific community.
The collection of data and numbers through ‘snapshot’ studies can be done
relatively quickly; it is the most appropriate way to gather data for some
aspects of behaviour.
Now test yourself
Weaknesses of quantitative data
●
60
Using quantitative data is reductionist: it often reduces behaviour to a
single number or a yes/no, failing to find out why a participant behaved in a
particular way.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
29 Using an example, give a weakness
of quantitative data.
30 Give two examples of studies
obtaining qualitative data.
Answers on p.195
●
It is reductionist: human behaviour is complex and conclusions drawn from a Expert tip
number or statistic should not be generalised.
Candidates often write ‘one
disadvantage (of quantitative data)
Researchers might misinterpret what is said or observed or put detailed
is that participants do not give
answers into a limited number of categories to enable conclusions to be
the reason “why” to explain their
drawn. There may be bias, with researchers modifying evidence to match the
behaviour.’ Think about this. It may
aim of the study.
be obvious, e.g. because they have
autism; it may be that the participants
themselves do not know.
Strengths of qualitative data
●
●
The data can be in-depth, rich in detail, insightful and therefore
not reductionist.
The data might help us to understand why people behave in a
particular way.
Now test yourself
Weaknesses of qualitative data
●
●
●
●
There may be problems of interpretation. Words and descriptions are more
subjective than numbers, and are more open to bias and misinterpretation
by participants.
Statistical comparisons cannot be made with qualitative data.
The data might be more prone to researcher bias, as information that best
fits the researcher’s hypothesis could be selected.
The participants might give socially desirable answers. Participants might
want to look good for the researcher.
2 Research methods
●
31 What is meant by ‘qualitative data’?
Give one advantage of qualitative
data.
Answers on p.195
Expert tip
Make sure in any examination
answer that you get quantitative and
qualitative the right way round.
Data analysis (measures of central tendency and spread)
When psychologists have carried out their research using the methods
described earlier, they end up with a set of raw data. These data are the
results of their research that they must then make sense of. This can be done
in a number of ways depending on the data collected. Data analysis can be
categorised into the following:
1 Descriptive statistics which describe data in different ways such as tables,
summary statistics such as mean, median, mode and range (measures of
central tendency and dispersion), and in visual formats such as a graph.
2 Inferential statistics where a statistical test is calculated in order to draw
conclusions about hypotheses (note that inferential statistics are not on the
syllabus).
Now test yourself
32 What is the difference between
descriptive and inferential
statistics?
Answers on p.195
There are three different scales or levels of measurement to consider which
determine the type of data analysis.
1 Nominal data: this is when the number just acts a label (it doesn’t have
any genuine mathematical properties), for example when people are put
into categories. For nominal data, you cannot use the measures of central
tendency such as mean, median and mode.
Example of nominal data:
Suppose you work at a factory and you decide to observe the days of the
week on which workers are absent the most (the frequency). You display
your raw data in a table like Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Raw data
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
3
8
5
4
12
Research methods
61
2 Research methods
A pie or bar chart could be used to display these data, but no measure of
central tendency (mean, median or mode) can be calculated.
2 Ordinal data: this is where numbers can be put in order but do not have
any other mathematical properties. For example, in an athletics race the
first person past the winning post is 1st and the others 2nd, 3rd, etc. Note
that it isn’t known how close to each other the athletes are when they
finish. In psychology studies, most of the scores obtained from self-report
questionnaires and rating scales are ordinal.
3 Interval and ratio data: interval level data are one step better than ordinal
data. With ordinal data we could say that a rating of 6 was more than a rating
of 5, but we could not be sure that the difference between 5 and 6 meant
the same as the difference between 7 and 8. With interval level data, the
points are equally spaced. For example in centigrade, the difference between
35° C and 40 ° C is the same difference as that between 20 ° C and 25° C.
Now test yourself
Measures of central tendency
For the syllabus, you do not need to make a distinction between ordinal
and interval/ratio data because for both you can use measures of central
tendency in order to summarise and display the data:
● mean – the average (the ‘arithmetic’ average)
● median – the middle value of a set of scores
● mode – the most common value.
Raw data tables do not tell us anything very much until they are organised and
summarised in a suitable way using measures of central tendency. A raw data
table (e.g. scores out of 20 for a memory test with and without noise) may look
something Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Word recall scores out of 20
Word recall with noise
Word recall without noise
10
16
12
14
11
15
10
14
7
17
8
17
10
17
13
16
12
17
14
14
Calculating the mean
Add up the numbers in both sets of data to find the sum (Σ). Find N, the
number of scores in each set. Divide the sum by the number for each set to give
the mean. For example:
Word recall with noise: Σ = 107, N = 10, therefore the mean is 107/10 = 10.7
Word recall without noise: Σ = 157, N = 10, therefore the mean is 157/10 = 15.7
Sometimes the mean is affected by exceptional scores (called outliers) either way
above or way below the average.
Calculating the median
Put all the scores in increasing order. Cross off the lowest score and the highest
score. Continue to do this at each end until one score remains. That is the
median. If there are two numbers remaining, divide each by 2 to give the
62
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
33 What is the difference between
nominal and ordinal data?
Answers on p.195
2 Research methods
median. In Table 2.3, for the ‘with noise’ group, the median is 10.5 (the mid-point
of 11 and 10) and for the ‘without noise’ group, the median is 16.
Table 2.3 Calculating the median
Word recall with noise
Word recall without noise
14
17
13
17
12
17
12
17
11
16
10
16
10
15
10
14
8
14
7
14
median = 10.5
median = 16
Calculating the mode
Look at the data and the number that has the most scores is the mode.
Sometimes, there are two modes (bi-modal) and sometimes even more.
In Table 2.4, for the ‘with noise’ group, the mode is 10 (because there are 3
scores of 10), and for the ‘without noise’ group, the mode is 17 (because there
are 4 scores of 17).
Table 2.4 Calculating the mode
Word recall with noise
Word recall without noise
10
16
12
14
11
15
10
14
7
17
8
17
10
17
13
16
12
17
14
14
mode = 10
mode = 17
Measures of dispersion
With ordinal (and interval/ratio) data, you can also use measures of dispersion.
These give you some idea of ‘how spread out’ your data are. There are different
measures of dispersion:
● range – for any set of data, this is simply the difference between the top
value and the bottom value; this is usually used for ordinal data
● standard deviation – this is a measure of spread of data around the mean
and is usually used with interval/ratio data
Calculating the range
Calculate the difference between the highest and lowest scores. Using the word
recall example above:
Word recall with noise: 14 (highest score) – 7 (lowest score) = a range of 7
Word recall without noise: 17 (highest score) – 14 (lowest score) = range of 3
Research methods
63
2 Research methods
Calculating the standard deviation
This is much more complex to calculate (and you will never need to calculate a
standard deviation), so example calculations do not appear here. However, for
the above set of data the standard deviations have been calculated as follows:
Word recall with noise: s = 2.16
Word recall without noise: s = 1.33
The symbol used to represent standard deviation is ‘s’. Remember that the
standard deviation is a measure of spread around the mean.
For the ‘without noise’ group, there is much less spread around the mean (s =
1.33, mean = 15.9) than there is for the ‘with noise’ group (s = 2.16, mean = 10.7).
The larger the score, the more spread out it is.
On a graph, a ‘normal distribution’ is a bell-shaped curve that is symmetrically
distributed around the central point of the mean, median and mode (see
Figure 5). The curve shows standard deviations of 1 (where 68% of scores lie),
of 2 (where 95% of scores lie), and of 3 (where 99.7% of scores lie). Many things
follow this curve, such as blood pressure, the height of people and intelligence.
68% of data
95% of data
99.7% of data
–3
–2
–1
0
1
2
3
Figure 5 A normal distribution curve
Visual displays
Raw data (and measures of central tendency) can be represented graphically.
There are three main types of visual display: bar charts, histograms and scatter
graphs.
Bar charts
Bar charts are used when data are in categories rather than on a continuous
scale, for example they can be used when the means of sets of data are
calculated. Using the data from the word recall test above, where the two
means were 10.7 and 15.7, the bar chart in Figure 6 can be drawn.
A bar chart should have a full title to show exactly what it is and the axes should
always be fully labelled:
● the x-axis (horizontal) should have the names of the categories/groups/
conditions (e.g. of the IV), in this case ‘noise’ and ‘no noise’ groups
● the y-axis (vertical) should have the scale or frequency (e.g. of the DV), in this
case ‘the mean number of words correctly recalled out of 20’
64
Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
34 Identify four features of a bar
chart.
Answers on p.195
2 Research methods
Mean number of words correctly
recalled out of 20
20
15
10
5
0
Noise
No noise
Figure 6 A bar chart to show the mean number of words correctly recalled out of 20
for ‘with noise’ and ‘without noise’
Histograms
Histograms show the pattern of data and are used when data are on a
continuous scale rather than in categories. It can show a distribution of scores.
As in Figure 7, a bar chart should have a full title to show exactly what it is and
the axes should always be fully labelled:
● the x-axis (horizontal) should have the names of the categories of the
distribution, in this case the grades
● the y-axis (vertical) should have the frequency of occurrences, in this case
the number of students
14
12
Number of students
10
8
6
4
2
0
A*
A
B
C
D
E
A Level examination grades
Figure 7 A histogram to show numbers of students achieving particular grades for
A Level psychology
Scatter graphs
Scatter graphs apply only to correlations (see page 53).
As in Figure 8, a scatter graph should have a full title to show exactly what it is
and the axes should always be fully labelled:
● the x-axis (horizontal) should have the details of one variable, in this case
number of hours deprived of sleep
● the y-axis (vertical) should have the details of one variable, in this case
number of words correctly recalled
Research methods
65
Number of words correctly recalled
2 Research methods
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
5
10
15
20
Number of hours deprived of sleep
Figure 8 A scatter graph to show the correlation between number of words correctly
recalled and number of hours deprived of sleep
Reliability (inter-rater and test/re-test)
If your car always starts first time (or indeed never starts first time) you can
describe it as being reliable. If your car only sometimes starts first time, it is
unreliable. In psychology, the reliability of a psychological measuring device (e.g.
a test or scale) is the extent to which it gives consistent measurements. If an IQ
(intelligence) test was given to a person and a few days or weeks later the same
test was taken again, the same (or very similar) score should be obtained. If the
test gave a very different result, the test would be criticised because it would
lack reliability.
The reliability of an experiment is the extent to which it can be repeated.
Reliability can also be applied to both questionnaires and observations. The
reliability of a questionnaire, for example, can be checked in two main ways:
● The test/re-test method is a system for judging the reliability of a
psychometric test or measurement. It involves administering the same test
to the same person on two different occasions, such as 3 weeks apart, and
comparing the results. The results can then be correlated (see page 53).
● The split-half method involves splitting the test into two and administering
each half of the test to the same person. The scores from the two halves
should be the same (but only if certain test items are balanced equally).
The reliability of an observation can also be checked in two ways. Some types
of observation can be repeated and the findings compared. Observations can
also be checked using inter-rater reliability. This is the extent to which two
(or more) independent observers (coders/raters) agree on the observations that
they have made. The two sets of data can be statistically compared using a
correlation test. Note that inter-rater reliability is merely a test of the extent to
which the observers agree. It does not improve reliability.
Reliability refers to how consistent the
measure of something is.
Now test yourself
35 What is meant by the term
‘reliability’?
Answers on p.195
Now test yourself
36 Using an example, give one
way in which the reliability of a
questionnaire can be checked.
Answers on p.195
Now test yourself
37 Using an example, give one way
in which the reliability of an
observation can be checked.
Answers on p.195
Examples of studies referring to reliability/inter-rater reliability
●
●
66
The study by Bandura et al. on aggression used two observers to check the
reliability of the observations. Bandura found a correlation of 0.89 when
judging pre-existing levels of aggression and ‘high inter-score reliabilities in
the 0.90s’ in the test for delayed imitation.
In the study by Piliavin et al., the two observers in the subway carriage
recorded different things and so the reliability of their observations (i.e. interrater reliability) could not be checked.
Cross check
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Bandura et al., page 26
Piliavin et al., page 36
2 Research methods
Advantages of reliability
●
●
●
If a reliable experimental study is replicated exactly, we would expect to
achieve very similar results.
If an observation has high inter-rater reliability, it means that two or more
observers are agreed on how behaviour should be categorised.
If a questionnaire is reliable then it is consistent in its measurement.
Validity (ecological, generalisability, subjective and objective)
If I devised an intelligence test, how would I know whether it was accurately
measuring intelligence? How would I know if my test was valid? If a person
scored an IQ of 120 on my test and an IQ of 120 on an existing test, then
because the existing test measures intelligence, so must my test. I conclude that
my test is valid.
There are several different types of validity:
● Construct validity sees how the measure matches up with theoretical
ideas about what it is supposed to be measuring.
● Criterion validity compares the measure with some other measure. If the
other measure is assessed at roughly the same time as the original one, then
the type of criterion validity being applied is concurrent validity; if it is
taken much later, then it is predictive validity.
● Predictive validity is used to see if a measure can predict a future
outcome. For example, is IGCSE score a valid predictor of A Level results?
● Face validity is the degree to which a test or measure appears superficially
as though it probably measures what it is supposed to.
Example of studies checking validity
Baron-Cohen et al. checked the validity of words/foils for each set of eyes. The
words were initially chosen by two of the authors and judged by a four-male and
four-female member team. At least five of the judges had to agree that a
particular word was the correct one.
Validity is concerned with whether an
experiment or procedure for collecting
data actually measures or tests what it
claims to measure or test.
Expert tip
Know the difference between
reliability and validity. Never write
‘and this improves the reliability and
validity’ without saying why. Show you
understand both terms and can apply
them.
Now test yourself
38 What is meant by the term
‘validity’?
39 What is the difference between
construct validity and predictive
validity?
Answers on pp.195–6
Ecological validity (and mundane realism)
If the place where a study is conducted is close to (or is) real life, we say that it is
high in ecological validity and we can generalise from it because behaviour is
natural and normal. However, studies with low ecological validity cannot be
used to generalise because they are less true to real life. Experiments low in
ecological validity may be of limited value in psychology. If a study is a laboratory
experiment, ecological validity will be low. If an experiment is a field experiment
then ecological validity will be higher. However, a field experiment may mean
that there are fewer controls. One way of achieving high ecological validity and
achieving a high level of control is to make the study unethical.
Mundane realism is whether the task that participants are required to do is
something they would normally do in real life. If mundane realism is high then
again we can generalise from it because behaviour is natural and normal; studies
that have low mundane realism have limited value.
Ecological validity refers to how
true the location of where a study is
conducted is to real life.
Mundane realism refers to how true
the task that participants are required
to do is to real life.
Research methods
67
2 Research methods
Examples of studies high and low in ecological validity/mundane realism
●
●
The study by Milgram is low in ecological validity because it was conducted
in a laboratory. It is also low in mundane realism because giving electric
shocks to another person is not something people do in everyday life.
In the study by Pepperberg, it isn’t a natural task for a parrot to distinguish
between colours, shapes and materials, and so this suffers from a lack of
mundane realism.
Cross check
Milgram, page 33
Pepperberg, page 31
Advantages of high ecological validity/mundane realism
●
●
If a study is located in a real-life setting, participants are more likely to behave
‘normally’. There are less likely to be demand characteristics, meaning that,
since the participant is not conscious of being studied, there will be no
pressure on him/her to perform in a certain way.
if a study is based on real life, it is more likely that strong generalisations can
be made.
Problems when trying to achieve high ecological validity/mundane realism
●
●
●
It may be impossible, on a practical level, to create a real-life situation or to
make something happen naturally.
Similarly, it may be very difficult to make the task that participants are
required to do (such as when in a brain scanner) a real-life task.
There may be a lack of control over confounding variables. Experimenters
cannot control all variables; they may not be able to isolate one variable from
many others.
Now test yourself
40 What is the difference between
ecological validity and mundane
realism?
Answers on p.196
Generalisations
One of the aims of psychology is to apply the findings of research to people
other than those who participated in the research. This is known as
generalisation. Generalisations are more likely with biological studies (because
human biology is the same for all), whereas they are less likely with social studies
where society has an influence on us. How do people behave in a restaurant?
Shank and Abelson (1973) argued that we all have a very similar mental ‘script’ of
how we behave in a restaurant, so wherever we are in the world we follow the
same script of entering, sitting, ordering, eating, paying and leaving.
Generalisation is the extent to which
the findings of one study apply to
others.
Examples of generalisations in psychological research
●
●
Dement and Kleitman used only five participants in their study on sleep and
dreaming, but this was not a weakness of the study because sleeping is
something that every human does and findings from the study can be
generalised.
Five chimpanzees participated in the Yamamoto et al. study. They were bred
in captivity and housed in a laboratory. The extent to which the findings of
this study can be generalised to other chimpanzees, especially those not in
captivity, is very limited.
Advantages of making generalisations
●
●
●
●
68
Generalisations focus on the similarities between us and, arguably, take a
nomothetic approach to psychology (i.e. one that focuses on the common
features shared by human beings) rather than an idiographic approach (i.e.
focusing on what makes each of us unique).
It means we can predict how people are likely to behave in a particular
situation.
It can simplify complex behaviour.
It helps most people to interact successfully in society – following ‘scripts’.
Cross check
Dement and Kleitman., page 12
Yamamoto et al., page 40
Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
41 What is a ‘generalisation’?
42 What generalisation can be made
from the study by Schachter and
Singer?
Answers on p.196
●
●
●
●
The sample size of the original study might be very small or not very
representative (i.e. the sample is restricted in some way).
The findings of studies performed in one country cannot be generalised to
all countries. This would be ethnocentric (show cultural bias).
A study might be laboratory-based and so might not apply to a real-life
situation. The study might involve some artificial task and so might not apply
to real-life behaviour.
Generalising assumes a nomothetic approach, i.e. it is concerned with rules
and predictability, and so disregards important individual differences.
Objective data are not influenced by
emotions, opinions, or personal feelings
– they are based on fact.
Subjective data are influenced by
emotions, opinions, and personal
feelings.
2 Research methods
Disadvantages of making generalisations
Objective and subjective data
Data that are objective are not under the control or cannot be influenced by
the individual from whom data are being gathered. If a person is being observed
Cross check
without their knowledge then the data are objective; if data are gathered about a
Canli et al., page 10
physiological process, such as a brain scan, then the data are objective. Subjective
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
data are based on personal feelings or judgements. If a person is interviewed or
answers a questionnaire then that person can answer in any way that he or she
chooses, and this may be influenced by demand characteristics, be a socially
Expert tip
desirable answer, or could simply not be the truth. It is often assumed that
Don’t assume quantitative data are
quantitative data are objective. Some are and some aren’t. Some questionnaires
objective and qualitative data are
use a rating scale, so in response to a question a person may score ‘4’. This is
subjective. Some types of quantitative
quantitative but it is subjective because the person can say ‘4’ or whatever
data are subjective.
number he or she chooses.
Examples of objective and subjective data in psychological research
●
●
Canli et al. collected objective data when they scanned the brains of their
participants. That the amygdala is activated when emotional pictures are
viewed is fact and not something that can be changed by a participant.
Saavedra and Silverman used an interview with responses on a ‘feelings
thermometer’. These data are subjective as the boy with the button
phobia gave his own personal judgement as to which number on the scale
represented his feelings. Those data, though, were quantitative.
Now test yourself
43 Give an example of quantitative
data that are objective.
44 Give an example of quantitative
data that are subjective.
Answers on p.196
Research methods
69
3 Approaches and issues and
debates
3.1 Approaches
An approach is an area of research characterised by a particular focus or by
a particular set of themes, outlooks or types of explanation; is a particular
view as to why and how we think, feel and behave as we do. It. There are four
approaches on the syllabus:
● biological
● cognitive
● learning
● social
What follows in this section is a definition and brief explanation of each
approach followed by advantages/strengths and then disadvantages/weaknesses.
Examples from the core studies are also given.
The biological approach
The biological approach concerns the role of genetics, hormones, brain
function, neurotransmitters. It is assumed that all humans and animals function
physiologically and that processes, such as hormone release and brain activity,
determine behaviour (i.e. biological determinism). It is also assumed that human
physiological functioning is the same in all cultures; a cultural universal. This
approach assumes that physiological processes can be measured objectively and
reliably using recording devices such as EEG, fMRI, etc. These data are objective,
so they are more scientific than a self-report. The approach uses the
experimental method, with scientific apparatus and controls to try to determine
cause and effect.
The biological approach explores
human behaviour and experience
by looking at people as if they were
biological machines.
Examples of the biological approach
●
●
The study by Canli et al. investigated the role of the amygdala (a structure
in the medial temporal lobe) in the experience of emotion when viewing
emotionally intense stimuli.
The study by Schachter and Singer shows that although we are often
determined by our ‘biology’, there are many processes that interact with
Cross check
each other, and emotion is a perfect example. The research by Schachter and
Canli et al., page 10
Singer showed that a physiological response needs a cognitive interpretation
Schachter and Singer, page 15
before it is labelled as a particular emotion.
Strengths of the biological approach
●
●
●
●
70
It involves direct observation (such as brain activity), so it is more scientific
than a self-report, which is open to bias from the participant.
It uses the experimental method, with scientific apparatus and controls to
try to determine cause and effect.
The use of recording devices (apparatus) provides consistent (reliable)
measurement. For example, an ECG provides a reliable measure of heart rate.
Human physiological functioning is the same in all cultures.
Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
1 Give one assumption of the
biological approach.
2 Explain why the study by Canli et
al. is an example of the biological
approach.
Answers on p.196
●
●
●
●
It is often reductionist – can we reduce complex intentions and emotions to
a part of the brain/physiological processes?
The findings often show associations (or correlation), but we cannot assume
cause and effect.
The apparatus used may provide false or misleading information – the data
may be reliable but are not necessarily valid.
Subjective (qualitative) data tend not to be used, but can be of equal importance.
Link approaches with issues and
debates. For example, link the
biological approach with the issue of
reductionism, or with determinism and
the nature versus nurture debate for
A Level. It can also be linked with the
cognitive approach, as in the studies by
Schachter and Singer, and Piliavin et al.
The cognitive approach
Cognitive psychology concerns the mind – thinking (rationally and irrationally),
solving problems, perceiving, making sense of and understanding the world,
using and making sense of language; and remembering and forgetting. The main
assumption of the cognitive approach is that how we think is central in
explaining how we behave and how we respond to different people and
different situations. Another assumption is that the cognitive approach sees a
human as rather like a complicated computer – information enters the mind
(input), it is processed and stored, and it is sometimes used again later (output)
through remembering or responding to a situation.
The cognitive approach focuses on
mental processes such as remembering,
perceiving, understanding and
producing language, solving problems,
thinking and reasoning.
3 Approaches and issues and debates
Expert tip
Weaknesses of the biological approach
Examples of the cognitive approach
●
●
Andrade focused on whether the cognitive process of concentration could
be improved by doodling. In her study she found that the participants in
the doodling group had higher memory scores for recall of both names and
places than those in the control group.
Laney et al. successfully implanted a false memory for the liking of asparagus, Cross check
Andrade, page 17
showing that our cognitive processes are not perfect, and are not like a ‘tapeLaney et al., page 23
recorder’ which can be replayed. Laney et al.’s research shows there are real
consequences for participants.
Strengths of the cognitive approach
●
●
●
The cognitive approach typically uses the experimental method, i.e.
manipulation of an IV, and so it is scientific.
This approach deals with the mind, which many psychologists would say is
central to any understanding of human psychology.
It is the part of psychology that genuinely engages in how we think.
Weaknesses of the cognitive approach
●
●
●
Some psychologists say that this approach is less scientific, as we cannot
observe the subject matter directly – we are just inferring or guessing how
people think or process information.
The analogy to information processors is too reductionist. It does not give
account of other factors or levels of explanation, e.g. social, emotional or
behavioural.
It assumes all people’s cognitive processes are the same. Thus, this approach
does not account for individual differences.
Expert tip
Know the strengths and weaknesses of
the cognitive approach, and also know
two assumptions.
Now test yourself
3 Outline what is meant by the
cognitive approach in psychology.
4 Give a weakness of the cognitive
approach.
Answers on p.196
The learning approach
One of the main assumptions of the learning approach is that all behaviour is
learned (nurture) through experience and nothing is inherited (nature). Another
is the view that the subject matter of psychology should have standardised
procedures, with an emphasis on the study of observable behaviour (which is
why people advocating this view are ‘behaviourists’) that can be measured
objectively, rather than a focus on the mind or consciousness. The learning
The learning approach focuses on
observable behaviour rather than
on mental concepts, and explains
behaviour in terms of learning.
Approaches and issues and debates
71
3 Approaches and issues and debates
approach explains phobias and many mental illnesses and a range of behavioural
therapies developed from this approach.
● Classical conditioning theory was outlined by Pavlov, where a dog would
associate a previously neutral object (e.g. a bell) with a positive event (e.g.
receiving food) so that in the future the dog would salivate when hearing
the bell because of the expectation of receiving food.
● Operant conditioning theory (Skinner) is based on the principle that
if the consequences of a behaviour are good, we are more likely to repeat
that behaviour, whereas if the consequences of a behaviour are neutral (or
negative), we are much less likely to repeat it.
● Social learning theory was outlined by Bandura, who believed that humans
learn through observing other people’s behaviour (and the consequences
they receive for their actions).
Examples of the learning approach
●
●
Saavedra and Silverman show how phobias can be learned by association.
The boy tried to take buttons from a bowl on a teacher’s desk, but slipped
and the bowl fell on him. His avoidance of buttons got worse and he
avoided wearing clothes with buttons, especially his school uniform. After 4
years, treatment was needed.
The study by Pepperberg shows how animals can learn through a form of
observational learning. In this case what is called the model/rival technique
is used. However, it shows that learning is possible and supports the nurture
rather than the nature side of that debate.
Strengths of the learning approach
●
●
●
The original learning approach focused on observable data, typically using
the experimental method, and rejected the role of cognitive factors.
This approach claims to explain how all humans and animals learn (by
association, consequences or imitation).
The approach explains how many mental illnesses (such as phobias) are
acquired and also explains how such illnesses can be treated.
Weaknesses of the learning approach
●
●
Cross check
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
Pepperberg, page 31
Expert tip
Link approaches, issues and debates.
For example, link the learning
approach with nature versus nurture
(for AS), and determinism and
reductionism (for A Level).
Now test yourself
Learning is much wider than the original behaviourist view and now
considers the essential role of cognitive factors.
To focus only on learning to explain behaviour is reductionist, and although
this is also a strength, it is a weakness because behaviour is influenced by
many more factors such as the people with whom we interact, and our
‘biology’.
5 Give an assumption of the learning
approach, using an example.
6 Give one everyday application of
the learning approach.
Answers on p.196
The social approach
Social psychologists look at the numerous complex issues that surround human
interactions and human relationships. One assumption is that individual
behaviour can only be understood in relation to other people. A second is how
individual behaviour can be modified by social contexts (situations) that both
frame and direct the individual’s actions and experiences. We like to think that
we are true to ourselves in what we do and say, and that we only follow
everyone else when we want to. However, we may be more susceptible to social
influence than we think. The social approach would say we can only
understand people in the context of how they operate in their interactions and
perceptions of others. So what about animals? Do animals interact socially? The
study by Yamamoto et al. provides a fascinating insight.
72
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
The social approach is concerned with
how humans and animals interact with
each other.
●
●
The study by Yamamoto et al. shows that the behaviour (and cognitions)
of animals, as well as humans, can be influenced by social interactions with
others.
The study by Milgram is a good example of the extent to which many
people have accepted the role of an authority figure in society and obey on
command. Just because they were told to, most of his participants gave
electric shocks they thought were real to another person. That said, some of
the participants did not continue, showing that the decision an individual
makes can be independent of the situation they are in.
Cross check
Yamamoto et al., page 40
Milgram, page 33
Strengths of the social approach
●
●
●
We can see how our behaviour is determined by those around us and the
society in which we interact (e.g. we can understand what processes are at
play in group situations).
We can discover how we are likely to behave in social situations. We follow a
script we have learned from society about society.
It tends to be a ‘holist’ approach (i.e. not reductionist), as it usually looks at
different levels of explanation.
Expert tip
Link approaches with issues and
debates. For example, link the social
approach with the issue of individual
and situational explanations.
Weaknesses of the social approach
●
●
●
●
Social knowledge may become redundant as societies change – i.e. what is
true now may not be true in the future.
Social behaviour is necessarily culture bound. Therefore a study conducted in
one culture may say little or nothing about any other culture.
Because social behaviour is very complex, studying it is difficult in terms of
controlling all the variables.
Problems include distinguishing individual from situational influences, and
ensuring that the social behaviour observed is ecologically valid.
3 Approaches and issues and debates
Examples of the social approach
Now test yourself
7 Give an assumption of the social
approach.
8 Give one weakness of the social
approach.
Answers on p.196
3.2 Issues and debates
What is an issue and what is a debate? An issue is simply a (single) topic for
discussion whereas a debate is a topic for discussion with two opposing
viewpoints. The use of children in psychological research is an issue to be
discussed whereas the nature versus nurture debate has two opposing
viewpoints.
The application of psychology to everyday life
This refers to the contribution that psychology makes to human welfare. Miller
(1969) argued that psychology should aim to improve people’s quality of life, and
that it should be useful to everyone. In psychology, some research is clearly
Expert tip
much more useful than other research. Some research naturally lends itself to
As ‘usefulness’ (or application to
real-life applications and improvements, for example advice on the best way to
everyday life) will be commonly asked
raise and educate children, promote health, and diagnose and treat mental
in examinations, it is essential that you
illnesses.
know at least one way in which all 12
Strengths of useful psychological research
●
If research is useful, it can be of benefit to society. It can improve the world
in which we live, e.g. in understanding crime, mental illness and how students
can learn more effectively.
core studies have a useful application.
Add this to your list of things to do.
Further, rather than everyone in the
class having the same example, impress
the examiner and think of your own!
Approaches and issues and debates
73
3 Approaches and issues and debates
●
●
It helps us to understand social behaviour, our interactions with others,
obedience, etc.
If research is useful to many people, it enhances the value and status of
psychology as a subject.
Expert tip
Is a study useful or not? This is
sometimes difficult to decide and
it may be a matter of opinion. Your
opinion. Which studies do you think
are useful and which studies do you
think are less useful?
Problems when trying to conduct useful psychological research
●
●
●
A study must be ethical – participants should give informed consent and
not be deceived. But a study may need to be unethical to be truly useful,
such as the Milgram study.
A study should be ecologically valid. Studies conducted in a laboratory may
not be useful as they are low in ecological validity. Studies involving tasks
that are not true to real life may be less useful.
A study should use a representative sample (not too small or restricted, e.g.
to males or students) and be generalisable. Useful research should apply
worldwide so there is no ethnocentrism.
Now test yourself
9 What is good about useful
research? Give three benefits.
10 Psychologists want their
research to be useful. Outline
two methodological problems
psychologists should address if they
want their research to be useful.
Answers on p.196
Individual and situational explanations
Individual and situational explanations refer to the way that we describe the
cause of a behaviour as being due to something in that person (individual or
dispositional) or as a response to the situation that they are in (situational).
An individual (dispositional) explanation for an event will look to some feature
or characteristic in the person themselves, whereas a situational explanation will
look at the wider context – the social group, the environment or even other
people influencing our behaviour.
Examples of studies with individual and situational explanations
●
●
The classic example is the Milgram study. Many participants continued
to 450 volts because of the situation they were in. It was too powerful for
them to ignore, so they obeyed. However, some participants stopped before
450 volts because their individuality allowed them to refuse to obey the
demands of the authority figure and the situation they were in.
Piliavin et al. found that the situation participants were in, a face-to-face
event, led them to help the drunk/ill victim. However, the model of response
to emergency situations suggests that people individually weigh up the costs
and benefits before deciding whether to help or not.
Cross check
Milgram, page 33
Piliavin et al., page 36
Strengths of studying individual and situational explanations
●
●
●
If we can discover which behaviours are individually determined and which
are situationally determined, such findings may be useful for society.
Discovering that behaviour may involve a complex interaction between
individual and situational factors opens up new directions for further study.
Reminding ourselves of the power of the situation can help prevent us from
blaming people for their behaviour.
Problems when studying individual and situational explanations
●
●
●
74
Now test yourself
It can be difficult to separate the effects of a situation from the disposition
of a participant.
How can situations be investigated? If investigated in a laboratory there is
low ecological validity; if investigated in a natural setting the situation may be
difficult to control.
Rather than individual or situational factors being exclusive alternatives, there
may be a complex interaction between the two.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
11 What is meant by a ‘dispositional’
explanation of behaviour?
12 Name two studies where the
situation participants were in may
have caused their behaviour.
Answers on p.196
This debate focuses on whether particular behaviours are innate (inborn or
genetically determined) – i.e. nature, or whether they are acquired through
experience and the influence of the environment – nurture. In the past
psychologists would support one extreme or the other and although there are
some who still subscribe to such extremist views, the ‘modern’ version considers
what percentage is inherited and what is learned.
Nature in this sense refers to the part
of us that is inherited and genetic, as
distinct from nurture, which refers
to all influences after our birth (i.e.
experience).
Examples of studies relating to the nature and nurture debate
●
●
Expert tip
The study by Bandura et al. supports the behaviourists’ belief that all
Nurture can be linked to the learning
behaviour is learned (i.e. nurture). Bandura proposed social learning theory to
approach, and both nature and
nurture link to reductionism (for
explain how children learn from adults. The learning environment is crucial
A Level).
for the child. If there is aggression in an environment, a child will observe and
copy it, whereas if there is no aggression, a child cannot see it and so cannot
imitate it. This is environmental determinism.
Cross check
The study by Pepperberg also provides evidence for the nurture side of this
Bandura et al., page 26
debate. Alex, an African grey parrot, was clearly able to distinguish between
Pepperberg, page 31
‘same’ and ‘different’ after observing a human model.
Strengths of studying nature and nurture
●
●
The distinction can help us identify which behaviours are inherited or
learned, or allow us to consider the relative contributions of inheritance and
learning.
It can be valuable to discover that some behaviours are due to nature and
not to inappropriate upbringing by parents.
Now test yourself
13 Prepare for A Level: Why are both
the nature and nurture arguments
deterministic?
14 Prepare for A Level: Why are both
the nature and nurture arguments
reductionist?
Problems when studying nature and nurture
●
●
3 Approaches and issues and debates
Nature versus nurture
It is too simplistic to divide explanations into either nature or nurture, as the
two often combine in complex ways to influence behaviour.
Discovering that a particular behaviour or capacity (e.g. intelligence) is
inherited might lead to the assumption that much more behaviour is
inherited, while failing to consider the effects of the environment. This could
encourage eugenics.
Answers on p.196
The use of children in psychological research
Some people view children as miniature adults, but in reality they are very
different. One question is to what extent can we generalise from children to
adults. Piaget suggested that children under 11 years think differently from adults
and perhaps they learn differently too.
If children are used in any study, there are advantages and disadvantages in
studying them, such as whether they understand the instructions and whether
the researcher understands what the child really means by an answer, rather
than making an assumption. There are also ethical problems, because a child
under 16 years can never give full informed consent. Longitudinal studies with
children allow us to see how they grow, develop and change.
Examples of studies using children
●
●
Bandura et al. studied how behaviour is learned (using aggression as an
example). The children were aged between 37 and 69 months. Consent was
given by the classroom teacher (who observed the children).
Saavedra and Silverman studied a 9-year-old boy with a button phobia.
Consent was given by the mother of the boy and she participated in some
of his treatment sessions.
Cross check
Bandura et al., page 26
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
Approaches and issues and debates
75
3 Approaches and issues and debates
Advantages of studying children
●
●
●
Expert tip
Know the strengths and weaknesses
of the use of children in psychological
studies. Studies using children as
participants come from many different
approaches.
It is important to study children because they represent the most important
and formative period of human development. What happens in early life can
determine many things in adult life.
By understanding children’s thoughts and behaviour, it might help us to
understand adults’ thoughts and behaviour.
In some ways, children are better participants than adults as they are naive
and can be more open and truthful.
Disadvantages when studying children
●
●
●
●
●
Children might not understand the task or the complex language of an
experimenter.
An experimenter might misinterpret what a child says or how the child
behaves.
Children under 16 years cannot give informed consent and, if debriefed, they
might be too young to understand. Children might be more prone to harm
or longer-term effects.
Children might be more prone to demand characteristics – i.e. wanting to
please the researcher.
Studies of child development need to be longitudinal.
Now test yourself
15 Give three reasons why we should
study children.
Answers on p.197
The use of animals in psychological research
Some people argue that animals are no different from humans; they just don’t
have the same influence of society and so we can study much of their behaviour
unimpeded. For example, the brain structures involved in eating behaviour are
located in the same brain region in many higher-species animals as they are in
humans. However, some people argue that animals are different and that what
we know about animals cannot be generalised to humans. As always, some
things can be generalised and some things cannot. There is also the question of
how we can best study animals: in a laboratory (e.g. Pavlov and Skinner) or in a
natural environment?
Examples of studies using animals
●
●
Pepperberg studied Alex the parrot, showing that Alex understood the
difference between ‘same’ and ‘different’ when having to discriminate colour,
shape and material, which is a complex cognitive skill. As in the study by
Yamamoto et al. below, Alex was kept in a laboratory environment; it would
not be possible to study the complex cognitive capacity of any animal in a
natural environment.
Yamamoto et al. studied the flexible targeted helping behaviour of five
Cross check
chimpanzees. It was discovered that the chimpanzees could understand the
Pepperberg, page 31
needs of other chimpanzees by applying flexible targeted helping, which is an
Yamamoto et al., page 40
advanced cognitive process. When the helper could see the partner’s needs
they were significantly more likely to select the correct tool (stick or straw).
Advantages of studying animals
●
●
●
76
Animal research can give us insight into human behaviour, such as animal
navigation systems.
It is easier to do longitudinal studies on animals because their life cycle is
shorter than in humans.
It can tell us what is similar and what is different between humans and
animals.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
●
●
●
We can only observe the way animals behave. We cannot ask about reasons
for behaviour or about feelings.
The behaviour of animals is more biologically determined; humans are more
influenced by culture and society (or so we think).
There are limitations on what can be studied in a natural environment and
what can be studied in a laboratory.
Can we generalise from animals to humans?
There are some instances and behaviours that we can generalise. For example,
we know how motivation centres with regard to hunger and thirst work; we
know animals become stressed in crowded conditions just like humans. We
learn about human navigation by studying how animals way-find. On the other
hand, the behaviour of animals is more biologically determined; humans are
more capable of adaptation and adjustment to their environment.
Now test yourself
16 Should animals be studied in
a laboratory or in the natural
environment? Answer in relation to
controls and ecological validity.
17 Can we generalise from animals to
humans?
Answers on p.197
Approaches and issues and debates
3 Approaches and issues and debates
Disadvantages when studying animals
77
4 AS examination
guidance/questions and
answers
4.1 AS examination guidance
The AS examination is divided into two papers: Paper 1 Approaches, issues and
debates and Paper 2 Research methods
Paper 1 Approaches, issues and debates
Paper 1 lasts for 90 minutes, is worth 60 marks, and consists of shortanswer questions and an essay question about the core studies and how the
approaches, issues and debates apply to the studies. Although the paper is not
divided into different sections, five different question types can be identified. All
questions are compulsory.
Type 1 questions
These are short-answer questions about specific details of the 12 core studies and
consist of:
● Name/identify questions: these are worth just 1 mark and require a oneline answer with no detail or elaboration. Sometimes ‘2 for 2’ questions ask
for two things to be identified, worth 1 mark each.
● Outline/describe/explain questions: these require more than a one-line
answer and to score full marks a little detail or elaboration beyond the basic
answer is needed. Sometimes ‘2 for 4’ questions ask for two things to be
outlined/described/explained, worth 2 marks each.
Examination preparation: there will usually be four questions of this type,
some with a part (a) and part (b) with varying mark allocations, but 16 marks in
total. Spend approximately 24 minutes on these questions.
Expert tip
You will need to learn all the details of all 12 core studies. These questions are
knowledge recall questions, and the more accurate you are, the more marks you
will score.
Type 2 questions
These questions are about outlining/describing/explaining the method or
methodological aspect of a named core study.
They could include part (a) ‘define terms’ or ‘outline theory’, followed by part
(b) asking whether the results of the study support the term/theory or not.
Alternatively, the question could (a) ask for an outline of part of a procedure
of a named study, and (b) ask about the reasons why a particular aspect of a
procedure was followed.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
For the part (a) ‘identify’ questions,
very little detail is needed, but for the
‘outline’ and ‘describe’ questions, more
detail is needed. Give sufficient detail
to guarantee full marks. For part (b),
again give sufficient detail.
For part (a), learn the procedure of all 12 core studies. For part (b), don’t just
learn the procedure, think about the reasons why certain things were done by
the researchers. For example, think about why Dement and Kleitman used a
doorbell.
Type 3 questions
These questions are about how a named approach/issue/debate relates to a
named core study. You will (a) be asked for an assumption about an approach
(or issue or debate), and (b) be asked to describe how a named core study from
the named approach is relevant. Finally, in part (c), you will be asked for a realworld application of the approach.
Examination preparation: you are required to answer one question of this
type. The question will be divided into 3 or 4 parts, each worth between 2 and
4 marks. The total mark will be 8, so spend approximately 12 minutes on this
question type.
For part (a), learn two assumptions from each approach, and ‘what is meant by’
for each issue and debate. For part (b), think about how each core study relates
to each approach and all the issues and debates. For part (c), prepare a realworld application for each core study.
Type 4 questions
These questions are about the methodology of a named core study and how it
is similar to, and different from, another core study. Part (a) generally asks you to
describe an aspect of the method in the named study, such as the apparatus or
materials used, the procedure or the questions participants are asked. Part (b)
asks for a similarity and a difference between the named study and a study from
the same approach, although this could vary.
Examination preparation: you are required to answer one question of this
type. Part (a) is worth 4 marks and part (b) 8 marks. The total mark will be 12, so
spend approximately 18 minutes on this question type.
Part (a) requires knowledge recall from all 12 core studies. Part (b)
requires similarities and differences, so it is worth thinking about these well in
advance of the examination. Think about similarities and differences in the
methods that were used, the participants, and specifics like the experimental
design.
Expert tip
For part (a) describe the procedure
(or whatever is asked) in sufficient
detail to score full marks. Do not leave
any aspect out. Be careful to start
your description at the specific point
that is identified in the question. Do
not write about any other aspect
because it won’t score any marks.
For part (b), you should apply your
methodological knowledge. Write
about standardised instructions and
controls, explaining any decision
the researchers might have made to
make the study better, e.g. controlling
extraneous variables.
Expert tip
For part (a), give an assumption and
an example; there are marks for each.
For part (b), make it clear how the
approach and the study are related to
each other. For part (c), explain your
application clearly – don’t be too brief,
leaving the examiner guessing what
your suggestion is.
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
Examination preparation: you are required to answer two questions of
this type: one worth 6 marks in total and one worth 8 marks in total. Spend
approximately 21 minutes on these two questions.
Expert tip
Part (a) will require description from
any of the core studies. Part (b) is
worth up to 8 marks, 4 marks for
the similarity and 4 marks for the
difference. The best technique is
to state the similarity and then to
explain how it relates to the first study
followed by an explanation of how
it relates to the second study. The
same format is then repeated for the
difference.
Type 5 questions
These questions ask for an evaluation of a named core study in terms of two
strengths and weaknesses, and one strength or weakness must be about a
named issue or debate, or method.
Examination preparation: you are required to answer one question of this
type. It is allocated 10 marks, so you should spend approximately 15 minutes on
the answer.
You can prepare and learn two strengths and two weaknesses of all 12 core
studies before the examination. You cannot prepare for the named issue/debate/
method; instead you will have to think about this and apply it in the
examination. You will know about these issues/debates/methods because of
other questions.
Expert tip
As the question is worth 10 marks,
your answer should be reasonably
detailed. To achieve top marks, the
answer must include four evaluation
points. Three evaluation points can be
of your choice, but at least one must
be specifically about the named issue.
If you do not write about the named
issue, you will fail to score marks.
AS examination guidance/questions and answers
79
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
Paper 2 Research methods
Paper 2 lasts for 90 minutes, is worth 60 marks, and consists of short-answer
questions, scenario-based questions and a design-based question on research
methods and how research methods apply to core studies. The paper is divided
into three sections.
Expert tip
Marks allocated to the Section A
questions vary from 1 to 6 marks.
Questions worth just 1 mark require
a one-line answer with no detail or
elaboration. Questions worth
2 marks require more detail and might
need two things to be identified (or
outlined), worth 1 mark each. There
is often a question worth 6 marks and
this asks for strengths and weaknesses
or similarities and differences (both
sides are plural) between two different
methods or aspects of methodology.
1 mark is allocated for a definition,
for a similarity or difference, and for
examples.
Section A
Section A contains short-answer questions about research methods and
methodological aspects, some of which are based on the methodology of the
12 core studies.
Examination preparation: Section A carries 22 marks and may have 4, 5 or
6 compulsory questions, depending on how many marks are allocated to each
individual question. Approximately 35 minutes should be spent on this section.
You will need to learn about the five main research methods and all the
methodological aspects from the syllabus, and you will need to know how the
methodology applies to each core study.
Section B
Section B contains short-answer, scenario-based questions about applying
research methods and methodological aspects to scenarios unrelated to the
core studies.
Examination preparation: Section B carries 24 marks and always has three
compulsory questions. Approximately 35 minutes should be spent on this
section. Marks allocated to the questions vary from 1 to 4 marks for each
question part.
Expert tip
As for Section A, you will need to learn about the research methods and
methodological aspects from the syllabus. You will have to apply what
you know to a scenario for which you have not prepared. The best
preparation therefore is to answer as many different questions as you can to see
how you manage this type of question. The more you try, the better you will
become.
Section C
Section C contains one compulsory question about designing a study
of your own and considering its limitations. It will involve applying your
knowledge of research methods and methodological aspects to a
given scenario.
Examination preparation: Section C carries 14 marks and approximately
20 minutes should be spent on it. Part (a) carries 10 marks and asks you
to design a study, based on a given scenario, and using a named method
(questionnaire, laboratory experiment, etc).
For the named method, there are a number of specific features that you should
include, for example:
● For experiments: type, IV, DV, controls, experimental design.
● For questionnaires/interviews: type, setting, example questions, scoring/
rating scale, analysis of responses.
● For observations: type, setting, response categories, sampling frame,
number of observers.
In addition, your design should include general methodological aspects such
as the sampling technique and details of the sample, the type of data, ethical
considerations, reliability, validity and data analysis.
Your design does not need to include all these features to score full marks – five
specific or general features described in reasonable detail will be sufficient.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
In these three questions you will have
to think! They are not about writing
knowledge you have memorised;
instead you have to apply your
knowledge to something new.
Questions worth just 1 mark require
a one-line answer with no detail or
elaboration. Questions worth
2 marks require more detail and might
need two things to be identified (or
outlined), worth 1 mark each.
Expert tip
This ‘formula’ of what to include in your answer also applies to the A Level
questions appearing on Paper 4.
Part (b) asks you to evaluate your design and suggest how it could be resolved.
Your evaluation could be in relation to a practical or methodological limitation,
or an aspect of the procedure of your study. 4 marks are allocated to this
question part.
4.2 AS questions and answers
This section contains exam-style questions followed by
example answers. The answers are followed by expert
comments (shown by the icon ) that indicate where
credit is due. In the weaker answers, they also point out areas
for improvement, specific problems and common errors
such as lack of clarity, weak or non-existent development,
irrelevance, misinterpretation of the question and mistaken
meanings of terms.
Paper 1 Approaches, issues and debates
Question 1
(a) Identify two features of the sample in the study
by Canli et al.
[2]
(b) Describe how the equipment was used in the
study by Dement and Kleitman on sleep and
dreaming.[4]
Answer A
Answer B
(a) The female participants were chosen by opportunity
sample.
This is a partially correct answer. 1 mark is scored for
‘female’ but ‘opportunity sample’ is incorrect for two
reasons. First, the question asks about the sample and not the
sampling technique. You should know the difference
between these two. Second, the study states that participants
volunteered but it isn’t known how they volunteered. If a
study doesn’t state the technique then do not guess.
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
Again, you will need to learn about the research methods and methodological
aspects from the syllabus. You will have to apply what you know to a scenario
for which you have not prepared. To prepare, try answering as many different
practice questions as you can. The more you try, the better you will become. In
part (b), you have to suggest a limitation of your design, so ensure you have a
number of possibilities that you can use.
(b) The electrodes of an EEG (electroencephalogram) were
connected to the scalp of the participant, and electrodes
of an EOG were connected around the eyes. Both of these
were connected to the EEG machine in the room next
door. The EEG records the electrical activity of the brain
and the EOG records eye movement. A doorbell was used
to wake up the participant, giving a loud and standardised
sound. A tape-recorder was also used so that the precise
details of any dream could be recorded immediately on
waking up.
(a) Right-handed, female.
This is a correct answer and scores 1 mark for ‘righthanded’ and 1 mark for ‘female’. For this type of
question there is no need to add any more detail.
(b) The equipment included EEG, EOG, EMG and a taperecorder.
The weakness here is that the candidate identifies items
of equipment but does not describe how they were
used, as the question asks. The items identified are correct,
but without description of what they are or what they do, a
maximum of 2 marks can be awarded. Note that EMG, which
records muscle movement, is incorrect because it was not
used in this study.
This answer identifies four different pieces of
equipment, the EEG, EOG, tape-recorder and doorbell.
The answer includes a description of how each is used, and
there is ample detail here to score the full 4 marks. Note that
only one machine records activity from the different
electrodes. If it records ‘brain waves’, it is called an EEG; if it
records eye movement, it is an EOG.
Question 2
(a) Describe the procedure of the Milgram study
from when the participants arrive at the
laboratory until the word-pairs learning
begins.[4]
(b) Describe why it was important for
the researchers to follow the same
procedure.[2]
AS examination guidance/questions and answers
81
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
Answer A
(a) The participants arrive at the laboratory, and Mr Williams
explains to the two participants that the study is about
learning and memory. He explains that one is to be teacher
and the other is to be learner. They draw lots but this is
fixed with the stooge always being the teacher. To confirm
the authenticity, the teacher is given a 45 volt shock
and then the teacher sees the learner, Mr Wallace being
strapped to the electrodes from the shock generator. The
study then begins.
This is a good answer which explains the procedure
clearly and in good detail. Did you spot the error? In the
answer it states ‘with the stooge always being the teacher’
when the stooge (i.e. Mr Wallace) is always the learner.
Although this is incorrect, no answer is negatively marked and
a one-word error will not prevent a maximum mark being
awarded.
(b) The answer is that every participant then does the same
thing which makes the study more valid and reliable.
The opening sentence merely repeats the question but
adds that it ‘makes the study more valid and reliable’.
This is partially correct but the lack of elaboration suggests
that the candidate doesn’t know what these terms mean and
has just written them because they sound good. Doing this is
not a good idea because without elaboration the terms are
meaningless and will score no marks. If the terms are
understood then a little elaboration could lead to full marks
being awarded.
Answer B
(a) Participants arrive at the laboratory and lots are drawn and
each person is allocated their teacher and learner roles. The
learner is connected to the equipment which will deliver
the (fake) shocks and the study begins. If the teacher wants
to stop the study, the experimenter gives a prod such as
‘please continue’ and the study continues, either up to 450
volts or when the participant walks out of the room.
This answer is correct and scores 2 marks out of 4 for
‘drawing lots’ and ‘connected to the equipment’. But
the answer then describes the prods and beyond and this is
not asked for in the question. However accurate and detailed
an answer might be, if it is not asked for in the question it will
score no marks, and so there is no point in doing it. Always
read the question fully!
(b) It is important that every participant does the same thing
because then extraneous variables do not confound the
experiment. If participants did different things then any
result might be due to those differences, meaning that the
study is not measuring what it claims and it loses its validity.
This answer is written by someone who has studied
psychology and knows the relevant jargon. The answer
is sufficient for the full 2 marks. Compare this answer with
that for Answer A above.
82
Question 3
(a) Give one assumption of the cognitive
approach using an example from a core
study.[2]
(b) Describe how doodling can be explained
by the cognitive approach.
[4]
(c) Outline another real-world application
based on this study.
[2]
Answer A
(a) One assumption of the cognitive approach is that how
we think is central in explaining how we behave and how
we respond to different people and different situations.
This is shown in the study by Baron-Cohen et al. because
people with autism struggle to think about emotions and
this means that they can’t respond to people in certain
emotional situations.
This is an appropriate assumption of the cognitive
approach and it scores 1 mark. The example from the
study by Baron-Cohen is really good because it matches the
assumption. The example scores 1 mark, gaining the full
2 marks overall.
(b) Doodling is a cognitive process because it is a ‘thinking
process’. The study by Andrade raised a good question
when asking whether doodling can aid concentration or
whether it hinders it.
Doodling is a cognitive process and the comment is a
relevant one, but it doesn’t answer the question. The
answer is worth 1 mark, but no more.
(c) There might be quite a few things that help us to
concentrate and if we can identify them all then we might
have more effective cognitive processing. Similarly there
might be things that hinder our processing which we
should identify.
This response doesn’t answer the question that is set
either. The comment is quite right but no actual realworld application is stated. This answer scores 0 marks.
Answer B
(a) One assumption is that the cognitive approach sees a
human like a computer – information enters the mind
(input), it is processed and stored, and it is sometimes used
again later (output), through remembering or responding
to a situation. The study by Laney et al. shows how the
computer model isn’t quite right because memory is
reconstructive and shows we can remember things that
were not true, such as liking asparagus.
This is a correct assumption and the answer uses a good
example to support the comment about the approach.
Full marks here.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
This is a really good, thoughtful answer. There is no
detail but the range of suggestions is impressive,
showing that the candidate is thinking about the doodling
study and thinking about how doodling can be used to
enhance cognitive processes. This scores the full 4 marks.
(c) One real world application is that students can use
doodles to help them concentrate. Teachers can suggest
this to all students and then students can develop their
own type of doodle which helps them to concentrate
better when they are taking notes in class.
This is a really good suggestion that could actually be
used in the real world. This answer scores 2/2 without
any doubt.
Question 4
(a) Describe the assessment interview given to the
boy with a button phobia and his mother in the
study by Saavedra and Silverman.
[4]
(b) Explain one similarity and one difference
between this study and another study
[8]
from the learning approach.
Answer A
(a) The assessment interview was the child-parent anxiety
disorders interview schedule. This is a structured interview
where the therapist asks questions about two things: (i)
the symptoms of the disorder which require ‘yes’ or ‘no’
answers, and (ii) questions about whether the symptoms
cause clinically significant impairment. The answers are
judged by the therapist on a ‘feelings thermometer’, a
9-point scale with ‘clinically significant’ being a score of 4
or more.
This is an appropriately detailed answer and the
candidate provides a number of correct pieces of
information. There is the name of the assessment interview,
and it is also stated that it is a structured interview, that there
are two components, plus there is a description of the
answers that are required (yes/no and 9-point scale), and that
it is called a ‘feelings thermometer’. In addition, it is clear that
the candidate understands what they are writing about. This
answer scores the full 4 marks because at least four different
points about the procedure are provided.
(b) One similarity is that both studies I will write about are
based on the learning approach. This is obvious, but it is
the fact that it means that no behaviour is inherited that is
important. It also means that the learning environment is
important and this is also evidence for the nurture side of
the nature–nurture debate. Bandura’s study was based on a
type of learning called observational learning, which means
that if a child observes a behaviour, they are likely to copy or
imitate that behaviour. In the study, this is what the children
did, copying behaviour they had seen and not behaving in
ways they had not seen. In the Saavedra study, the type of
learning was expectancy learning because the previously
neutral object (the bowl of buttons) was associated with
a potentially threatening negative event (falling on him)
so that he became fearful of the expectation that buttons
were dangerous. Although different, both these are forms of
learning and that is their similarity.
These two studies are different because of the ways in
which they could be generalised or not. Generalisations are
the ways in which the findings of one study apply to those
not involved in the study. In the Bandura study, there were
many children and what was found (children see, children
do) could be generalised, according to Bandura, to all
children and not just for aggression, but for all behaviours.
However, although the principles of learning a phobia can
be generalised, the specifics of any person’s phobia cannot
be generalised. So, it is highly unlikely that bowls full of
buttons fall onto children and if they do, it is unlikely that
they will develop a button phobia. So whereas the Bandura
study has things that can be generalised, the Saavedra study
is quite specific.
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
(b) Doodling can help cognitive processing because it can act
as a kind of mind-map or spider diagram. As learning any
list is verbal and as any doodle is visual or pictorial, then
the doodle can act as a ‘back-up’ system. The doodle can
act as ‘summary notes’, or it can act as an ‘aide memoire’ to
help the person remember the details of what they need
to remember.
This is an impressive answer which shows excellent
understanding. The similarity is well explained and the
marks are guaranteed because there is elaboration where the
answer is related to the nature–nurture debate. There is an
example from the Bandura study and there is an example
from the Saavedra study, and these are very detailed. For the
similarity, this answer scores a very clear 4 marks out of 4.
The difference is a relevant issue, that of generalisations.
There could be a little more detail here, but it is sufficient.
The example from the Bandura study shows that the
candidate understands what can be generalised. The example
from the Saavedra study shows that the candidate
understands what cannot be generalised, hence the
difference between the two, and in addition the candidate
makes the excellent point that the principles underlying the
learning of all phobias can be generalised. The difference plus
the example from one study and the example from the other
study give this part of the answer 4 marks. Overall, it scores
the full 8 marks.
Answer B
(a) The child is interviewed by a therapist who asks questions
about the disorder. Answers are judged on a feelings
thermometer and the higher the score, the worse the
disorder is.
AS examination guidance/questions and answers
83
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
This answer is quite brief for a question carrying
4 marks. The first sentence merely repeats the question,
so stating that ‘it is an interview by the therapist’ scores no
marks. The candidate is correct in stating that a feelings
thermometer is used and is also correct in stating that the
higher the score, the worse the disorder is. This answer scores
2 marks out of 4.
(b) The similarity between the Saavedra and parrot studies is
that they both show learning. Although they are different
types of learning, it is still learning.
The difference is that Alex is a parrot and the child in the
Saavedra study is not a parrot. There are lots of differences
between humans and animals, but these studies showed that
both can learn.
It is a correct statement that they both show learning,
but this is too obvious and is repeating the question.
Unlike Answer A, this answer adds nothing more, when more
is needed to score marks. Note that 4 marks are allocated for
the similarity and 4 marks for the difference, so much more
than one sentence is needed to score top-band marks.
For the difference, it is true that Alex is a parrot rather than a
child, but this is a very basic statement. The answer states that
there are lots of differences between humans and animals,
but doesn’t say what any of them are. It also picks up on the
human/animal difference, but any difference could have been
used, such as a methodological difference. This answer scores
no marks for the similarity and no marks for the difference.
Answers should be based on psychological knowledge rather
than very basic common sense.
Question 5
Evaluate the study by Bandura et al. in terms of
two strengths and weaknesses. One evaluation
point must be about reliability.
[10]
Answer A
One strength of the study by Bandura et al. is the controls
that were employed. Controlling variables is an essential
part of any experiment because it reduces confounding
variables and makes the result more likely to be due to the
independent variable. One control in the study was that
the toys in the third room, the test room, were always in
the same location in the room for every participant. If they
were not, then a different placing may have suggested more
or less aggression to a child. For example, if the mallet had
been left next to the bobo doll for one child then it might
lead to that child being more aggressive than another.
Another strength of the study was the use of inter-rater
reliability to check pre-existing levels of aggression. Interrater reliability is where two independent people observe
the same behaviour and then later compare their ratings
84
to see if they agree. If they do agree there is consistency,
another word for reliability. In the study, one observer was
the classroom teacher and another observer was one of the
experimenters. They rated each child on four aspects (e.g.
physical aggression and verbal aggression), using a 5-point
scale. The level of agreement for pre-existing levels of
aggression using a correlation was +0.89 meaning that the
observations were reliable.
One weakness of the study is that it isn’t true to real life
– it was low in ecological validity. Children don’t normally
go somewhere to observe an unknown adult behave
aggressively to a bobo doll, and they are then not put into
a room with toys to play with. It might be that the results
were created by being in that situation and if the study was
repeated in a more natural situation a different result may
have been found.
Another weakness is that the findings can’t be generalised.
The study was done on just one relatively small group of
boys and girls from one nursery school in one city in the
United States. The study doesn’t automatically generalise
to all children in all cultures. Some cultures are based on
co-operation rather than competition and so aggression
would never be used to show Bandura’s theory. That said,
what can be generalised is the idea of ‘children see, children
do’ because all children will copy an adult.
This is a very impressive answer and it scores the full
10 marks. The marks are gained for one evaluation
point about reliability, as the question requests; and two
strengths and two weaknesses, each clearly related to the
study. Although it carries no marks, this candidate shows
where each strength and weakness starts and that is good
organisation. On the negative side, the candidate does get
carried away by including unecessary information. The
examiner needs to see the strength and weakness and an
example, but not the full story of each point.
Answer B
One strength is that there were many controls, for example
all the children went through exactly the same procedure.
Another strength is that the model in the first room went
through the same actions in front of each child. One
weakness, for example, is that the bobo doll was always
male.
This short answer is not going to receive top-band
marks. It scores some marks for naming a strength,
which is ‘controls’, with a correct example. While this is good,
there is no elaboration about why ‘controls’ is a strength. The
second strength given is just another example of controls. An
example is provided for the weakness, but no weakness is
stated. And there is nothing on reliability at all. The answer
scores 3 marks because there is a general strength and an
example (2 marks) and the mention of a weakness takes the
mark up to a maximum of 3 marks. What is required for full
marks is an explicitly stated strength (or weakness) with an
example to support the strength (or weakness).
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Question 6
(a) What is a hypothesis?
(b) Write a suitable null hypothesis for the
study by Andrade on doodling.
[1]
[2]
Answer
(a) A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the
outcome of a study.
This is a fully correct answer that states exactly what a
hypothesis is. This answer scores 1 mark.
(b) There will be no significant difference in the mean number
of correct names between the doodling and the nondoodling/control group. This scores the full 2 marks. The answer begins ‘there
will be no significant difference’ and this is the way a
null hypothesis is written. The answer continues with
‘doodling and non-doodling’ and this is unambiguously the
Andrade study, as the question requests.
Question 7
This answer also scores the full 2 marks. A number of
sampling techniques were used in this study, one of
which was self-selecting sampling. The answer correctly
identifies this technique and then adds some additional detail
to guarantee full marks. For example, there are comments
about how the target population heard about the study (the
advert in a magazine), how the participants were volunteers,
and how the sample consisted of 15 males with autism.
(c) One disadvantage is that all the participants were male.
Another disadvantage is that they were all volunteers and
they might have been different in some important way to
the people with autism who decided not to volunteer.
The candidate provides two answers. The first is
incorrect and so it is ignored. It is incorrect because the
sample being ‘all male’ is a weakness of the sample and not
the sampling technique. The weakness of ‘this’ sampling
technique (i.e. the one chosen) is that people who self-select
are volunteers and a disadvantage is that they might be
different from non-volunteers. Note that volunteers might be
different, but they might not.
Question 8
Describe the similarities and differences
between a controlled and a naturalistic
observation using examples.
[6]
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
Paper 2 Research methods
Answer
(a) What is the difference between the sample and
the sampling technique?
[2]
(b) Describe one of the sampling techniques used
in the study by Baron-Cohen et al. to gather
participants with autism.
[2]
(c) Give one disadvantage with this sampling
technique.[2]
Answer
(a) The sample is the people who participate in the study. The
sampling technique is how those participants are selected
to take part in the study.
The question requires two things which are each
allocated 1 mark. The answer has a correct statement
about the sample (and scores 1 mark) and it has a correct
statement about the sampling technique (which also scores
1 mark).
(b) One sampling technique was self-selecting sampling
where an advertisement was placed in the Autistic Society
magazine and 15 males with autism volunteered to take
part.
A controlled observation usually takes place in a laboratory
whereas a naturalistic observation will take place in an
environment that is natural for the participant. The purpose
of a controlled observation is to provide a setting that is
standardised which can be replicated for every participant.
The study by Bandura et al. was a controlled observation
with the toys in the test room always being the same and
in the same place for each child. The idea of a naturalistic
observation is to have participants who do not know they
are taking part in a study and so their behaviour is natural.
This was the case in the study by Piliavin et al. where the
participants did not know they were participating or
being observed. In both studies the observations were
structured. For example, Bandura et al. used categories such
as ‘imitative verbal aggression’ and the Piliavin et al. study
always timed how long it took for the first person to help.
There is sufficient in this answer to score the full
6 marks. There is 1 mark for a similarity, 1 mark for one
example and 1 mark for a second example. The same marks
are allocated for the difference. The answer also includes a
controlled observation with an example and a naturalistic
observation with an example, from two studies.
AS examination guidance/questions and answers
85
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
Question 9
Kim thinks that it is the type of doodling that is
done that affects concentration levels. She asks
participants firstly to doodle specific objects and
then to doodle anything from their imagination.
(a) Write a one-tailed (directional) hypothesis for
this study.
[2]
(b) Write an appropriate null hypothesis for this
study.[2]
(c) Identify the independent variable in this
experiment.[2]
(d) Suggest how Kim’s ‘concentration levels’ could
be operationalised.
[2]
(e) Suggest what experimental design would be
used.[2]
(f) Give one weaknesses that might arise when
using this design in this study.
[2]
Answer
(a) Specific object doodling will result in significantly higher
levels of concentration than doodling from imagination.
This is a correct one-tailed hypothesis and it scores the
full 2 marks. The answer is telling us that ‘specific object
doodling’ will be significantly better than ‘doodling from
imagination’ and this is what makes it directional (or onetailed). The wording used in this answer is taken directly from
the stem of the question so there is no ambiguity in what is
written.
Answer
(b) There will be no difference between specific object
doodling and doodling from imagination in levels of
concentration.
This is a correct null hypothesis and scores the full
2 marks. It is correct because it uses the words ‘no
difference’. There is no need to state ‘no significant
difference’ because if there is no difference there will
automatically be no significant difference. The words used
appear in the correct order, meaning that ‘there will be no
difference’ appear at the start. It is sometimes argued that
the null hypothesis should be written exactly like the
directional hypothesis but with the word ‘no’ inserted. This is
not quite correct. Also note that although the null hypothesis
looks like a non-directional hypothesis, it isn’t. Never think
that the null is a non-directional form of a directional
hypothesis.
Answer
(c) The independent variable consists of two conditions:
specific object doodling and doodling from imagination.
86
The two conditions of the independent variable have
been correctly identified from the words used in the
question stem about what Kim thinks. To do this correctly,
you must understand what an independent variable is and
apply to the words in the stem. This answer scores the full
2 marks.
Answer
(d) ‘Concentration levels’ is too vague and something specific
and testable is needed. I would measure the number of
names of food types correctly recalled out of 25.
Again, the answer scores full marks. It isn’t possible to
test ‘concentration levels’ because it is too vague and
there is nothing to quantify. If ‘concentration levels’ are
operationalised then something directly testable is needed. In
this case, the answer suggests using types of food (although
anything else could have been equally valid) and the number
of food types that could be correctly identified is 25. Note
that the directional hypothesis could now be worded even
more precisely – rather than stating ‘result in significantly
higher levels of concentration’ it would be more precise to
write ‘result in significantly more food types correctly recalled
out of 25’.
Answer
(e) The experimental design would be repeated measures with
each participant taking part in all the conditions of the
independent variable so participant variables are controlled.
The chosen design was repeated measures and the
answer gives a correct definition. Many candidates think
that repeated measures means repeating the experiment. It
does not, so never make this mistake. Repeated measures
means that all participants take part in all the conditions of
the independent variable. Note that an independent measures
design could also have been chosen. This answer scores full
marks.
Answer
(f) One weakness is that by using a repeated measures design
there might be a cross-over effect, meaning that the
doodling condition that is first may affect the doodling
condition which comes second and this order effect
could confound the results. Is the result due to the IV or
the order of presentation? This could be resolved either
by using counter-balancing or by using an independent
measures design.
One weakness of using repeated measures design is
that there might be order effects. The answer not only
explains this but also suggests what the implication of an
order effect is – that of confounding. The answer goes on to
suggest how this can be resolved, although this isn’t required
by the question and gains no marks. The full 2 marks are
scored.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Tatiana and Mariana are discussing whether sleep
deprivation affects memory recall more in younger
or older people.
(a) Design a laboratory experiment to investigate
how sleep deprivation might affect memory
recall.[10]
(b) Identify one weakness with the methodology
of your study and suggest how this
methodological weakness could be
resolved.
[4]
Answer
(a) My study will be conducted in a laboratory, as the
question requests. The independent variable will be sleep
deprivation and no sleep deprivation and the dependent
variable will be the score on a memory test. All participants
are shown 25 objects for 3 minutes and asked to memorise
them. Participants with no sleep deprivation will sleep in
the laboratory and will sleep for their normal number of
hours. Those deprived of sleep will be kept awake in the
laboratory for 6 hours and allowed to sleep for only 2 hours.
In the morning, both groups will complete a memory test
to recall the number of objects they can remember. My
directional hypothesis will be ‘participants who are not
sleep deprived will recall significantly more objects out
of 25 than participants who are sleep deprived’. The null
hypothesis will be there will be no difference in memory
recall scores out of 25 between participants who are
sleep deprived and those who are not. The design will be
independent measures because participants cannot take
part in both conditions. The quantitative data can have the
mean difference calculated and a bar chart can be drawn.
This is an excellent answer. It addresses the question
and it uses the stated method of laboratory experiment.
The answer includes at least five different aspects of
methodology: there is an IV, a DV, a hypothesis, a null
hypothesis, an experimental design, a comment about data
analysis and a mention of the sampling technique. What is
written about all these features is correct and the details of
the study are consistent and without ambiguity. The answer
has relevant terminology showing good understanding. It
scores the full 10 marks.
Answer
(b) One weakness is that participants are not sleeping in their
own bed. This is a weakness because participants in the
normal sleep group might not sleep well or maybe not
sleep at all and this might make them as sleep deprived as
the sleep deprivation group, which would confound the
result. This weakness could be resolved if participants slept
in their own bed. It would mean that an experimenter
would need to go to their home to give the test before
sleep and test again after sleep, but this inconvenience is
irrelevant if the result is worth it.
Two marks are allocated to the weakness and 2 marks
to how the weakness can be resolved. The weakness is
appropriate and the mention of confounding is good, scoring
2 marks. The answer then makes an appropriate comment on
how the weakness can be resolved, also scoring 2 marks.
AS examination guidance/questions and answers
4 AS examination guidance/questions and answers
Question 10
87
5 Specialist options
5.1 Methods, issues and debates
It is very important at the start of this A Level component to post a reminder
that all the methods, issues and debates that were included for the AS
component are also required here. In addition, there are a few more for you to
know about at A Level. They appear below with examples given as they apply to
each option.
Cultural bias
The findings of research conducted in one culture don’t automatically mean
that those findings will apply to another culture. If the assumption is made that
they do, then it is cultural bias. The findings of the study by Milgram cannot
automatically be generalised to all cultures, for example. However, some findings
can be generalised to all cultures, such as sleep, as all people have REM and
NREM sleep (unless they have a sleep disorder). Studies from the biological
approach are much more likely to apply to all cultures; studies from the social
approach much less so.
Cultural bias is when people make
assumptions about another culture
based on their own culture.
Examples of potential cultural bias
●
●
Health: the study by Lau et al. (1990) on health change in adolescents uses
students and parents from the USA. The findings from the study apply just
to the USA and may not apply to other countries/cultures which are very
different.
Consumer: the study by Robson et al. (2005) on table spacing gathers data
from people in the USA. There are cultural differences in personal space, so
the table spacings suggested by Robson may not apply to all cultures.
Cross check
Lau et al. (1990), page 157
Robson et al. (2005), page 122
Reasons for studying cultural bias
●
●
●
It allows us to discover that not all cultures are the same; to discover the
diversity of behaviour and experience that people all over the world have.
It might allow us to discover the causes of prejudice; to realise that our
values are not the only ones possible. It educates us not to make value
judgements.
It might allow us to discover what behaviours are inherited and what
behaviours are learned through conducting cross-cultural studies.
Problems when studying different cultures
●
●
●
88
The sample in a study may be very small or representative of just one culture,
and so the findings cannot be generalised to all countries/cultures.
Many cultures have different philosophies and so cannot be compared.
Some cultures are based on cooperation, others on conflict.
Researchers might speak a different language from participants, so there
might be problems in the giving of instructions and the understanding of
tasks. There might be misinterpretation of behaviour by the experimenters.
Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
1 What is meant by the term ‘cultural
bias?’
Answer on p. 197
Reductionism is the view that complex behaviour can be explained by simple
Reductionism is the process of
principles; that we can break something down into its component parts and
explaining complex psychological
study each more effectively. There is nothing wrong in doing this, but if we break
phenomena by reducing them to their
something down into parts, we need to be able to put all the parts back
component parts. This is the opposite
together again. If we do not, we may have an explanation that is too simplistic,
of holism, where the total is more than
exists in isolation and ignores other important aspects or factors that interact to
the sum of the parts.
form the whole. A holistic view looks at a person as whole, or at least looks at a
complex of factors that together might explain a particular behaviour. It is often
Expert tip
said that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.
Examples of studies relating to the reductionism/holism debate
●
●
Health: the health belief model reduces health beliefs into component
parts and allows each component (perceived seriousness, perceived
susceptibility, cues to action, etc.) to be studied individually. However,
each component interacts to form a whole that is greater than the sum of
the parts.
Consumer: Turley and Milliman (2000) studied retail atmospherics (holism)
and placed 56 different variables into five main categories (e.g. external
variables, interior variables, layout and design variables, point-of-purchase and
decoration and human variables). Each of these should be studied
individually (reductionism).
Strengths of reductionism
●
●
It helps us to understand the world, because a fundamental way of
understanding is to analyse, break things down into component parts, test
them and then build them back up again. This is important in studying the
world in a scientific way.
In theory it is easier to study one component rather than several interacting
components. If one component is isolated and others are controlled then
the study is more objective and scientifically acceptable.
Weaknesses of reductionism
●
●
The components may be difficult to isolate and so manipulate. If a study
looks at an isolated behaviour in a laboratory, then it may lack ecological
validity.
If a factor is studied in isolation, this may not give a proper, valid and full
account of a behaviour. A behaviour might not be meaningful if it is studied
in isolation from the wider social context.
5 Specialist options
Reductionism
Note that although holism isn’t
included on the syllabus, it is logical to
have some knowledge of what it is and
how it contrasts with reductionism.
Cross check
The health belief model, page 142
Turley and Milliman (2000), page 112
Expert tip
It is often assumed that reductionism
is something negative. In some ways
it is, but in many more ways it is
positive. If complex phenomena were
not broken down, they could not
be studied. The scientific method
is reductionist and as psychology
is a science using the experimental
method, most psychological research is
reductionist.
Now test yourself
2 Outline what is meant by the
reductionism/holism debate in
psychology.
3 Give two arguments supporting
reductionism.
Answer on p. 197
Psychometrics
Psychometrics literally means measurement of the mind. More formally it is
the science of psychological assessment. The emphasis is on questionnaires and
tests mainly of intelligence and personality.
Psychometrics is the scientific study of
psychological assessment.
Psychologists develop tests to assess features of personality or specifically for use
in organisations and employment or for assessing mental illnesses. For example
at AS, Saavedra and Silverman assessed a phobia using the child-parent
anxiety disorders interview schedule (page 29). The fundamental aim is to
ensure that any psychometric test is both valid (page 67) and reliable (page 66).
Psychometric tests are standardised, meaning that anyone taking a test can be
compared with a sample of results already obtained. For example, if you take
an IQ test, we know that the score you get can be placed on the same scale as
everyone else, with the average score of 100.
Specialist options
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5 Specialist options
Examples of psychometric measures
●
●
Advantages of using psychometric measures
●
●
●
Cross check
Abnormality: the Maudsley obsessive–compulsive inventory (MOCI) assesses
obsessive–compulsive behaviour. It has 30 questions/items with four subscales: checking, cleaning/washing, slowness and doubting. The extent and
severity of the OCD is determined by a score out of 30.
Organisations: Walton’s quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire uses a
5-point scale: very dissatisfied, dissatisfied, neither satisfied nor dissatisfied,
satisfied, very satisfied. It has 35 questions, an example of which is ‘Regarding
a fair and appropriate salary: How satisfied are you with your salary
(renumeration)?’
Maudsley obsessive-compulsive
inventory (MOCI), page 109
Quality of working life (QWL)
questionnaire, page 177
Expert tip
The use of standardised measures is objective/scientific.
They allow comparisons/generalisations to be made with others on a
standardised scale.
Standardised tests are said to be reliable and valid.
Psychometric testing is used in many
different topic areas: tests are used
to assess mental disorders (such as
OCD) and to assess various aspects of
organisations.
Disadvantages of psychometric measures
●
●
●
●
●
The measure might not be valid. What does an intelligence test actually
measure?
Not all people will be familiar with the tests or test items.
People often generalise and make assumptions about test results that could
be culturally biased.
Once labelled by a test it can be difficult to remove that label.
Often tests assume that people do not change. People do.
Now test yourself
4 Give two definitions of the term
‘psychometrics’.
Answers on p.197
Determinism (and free will)
Determinism represents the view that all behaviours and mental acts
(thoughts, judgements, decisions) are determined by factors out of our control.
Free will represents the view that our behaviours and mental acts all come
about as a result of our own choices and volition, i.e. we can exercise our own
free will.
Determinism is the view that we
have no (or very little) control over
our behaviour or our destiny, but
are controlled by factors such as
our biology or genetics, or by the
environment.
We have biological determinism (see the biological approach, page 71) –
our genetics or our hormones cause us to behave in certain ways – and
environmental determinism, which means the environment in which we live,
our education and our work cause us to behave in certain ways. There is also
climatological determinism – the view that the climate or weather determines
our behaviour. Architectural determinism is the view that architecture
determines the way that we behave. For example, the design of a gambling
casino (with high or low ceiling) or a shopping mall can have a significant effect
on our behaviour inside the building.
Determinism is at the opposite end of the scale from free will, with possibilism
and probabilism in between. Things are not so black and white as ‘hard
determinism’ would have us believe. There is ‘soft determinism’, which says that,
although as humans we do have choices to make and can exercise free will,
these choices are often constrained (or determined) by other factors. Indeed,
some choices are more likely than others, and this is determined by, say, previous
experiences.
90
Free will is the view that we have a
choice over what we do and the ways
in which we behave.
Expert tip
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Note that although free will isn’t
included on the syllabus, it is logical to
have some knowledge of what it is and
how it contrasts with determinism.
●
●
Abnormality: any genetic explanation is ‘biological determinism’. Oruc et al.
(1998) found that first-degree relatives of people diagnosed with depression
are significantly more likely to be diagnosed with depression than non firstdegree relatives.
Organisations: the study by Oldham and Brass (1979) investigated the effects Cross check
of newspaper employees moving from conventional multi-room offices to an
Genetic explanation of depression,
open plan office (an office with no interior walls or partitions; just partitions
page 97
between desks). Worker satisfaction decreased. This shows how the work
Open plan office spaces, page 171
environment determines worker attitudes.
5 Specialist options
Examples of studies relating to the determinism and free will debate
Strengths of determinism
●
●
If we can establish cause and effect (X causes Y), it makes the world more
understandable and predictable. This suggests that it might be worthwhile
trying to change certain things (e.g. education systems) because it could
benefit everyone.
Determinism is the purpose and goal of science: to explain the causes of
things (of behaviour, in the case of psychology). This makes the subject of
psychology more acceptable to society, with its explanations, scientific basis
and objectivity.
Weaknesses of determinism
●
●
It does not allow (especially in hard determinism) for free will. A hard determinist
would say that we think we have choice, but free will is just an illusion.
It is often reductionist. Determinism can never fully explain behaviour
because behaviour might be far too complex.
Now test yourself
5 aGive one example of
environmental determinism.
b Give one example of biological
determinism.
Answers on p. 197
Longitudinal studies
A longitudinal study takes place over a period of time, usually following one or
more participants throughout the period (or visiting them at regular intervals) to
monitor changes.
In contrast, a snapshot study takes place just at one point in time – a one-off
picture – perhaps involving a participant in a study for just a few minutes. It may
well isolate a behaviour and it may not be known why a participant performed
in a particular way.
Examples of longitudinal studies
●
●
Health: in the field experiment by Tapper et al. (2000) over a 5-month
period, children in an experimental group were presented with fruit and
vegetables at lunchtime. Levels of fruit and vegetable consumption were
measured at baseline, intervention and a 4-month follow-up.
Organisations: the study by Fox et al. (1987) using token economy. The
system continued to be used at one mine for 12 years (until it closed) and
was used at the other for at least 11 years.
Cross check
Tapper et al. (2000), page 155
Fox et al. (1987), page 174
Advantages of longitudinal studies
●
●
The development of an individual (or number of participants) is tracked.
A baseline is recorded at the start, and changes that occur over time
(e.g. 5 years) in attitudes and behaviour can be measured.
Studying the same participant means that individual differences such as
intelligence are controlled.
Specialist options
91
5 Specialist options
●
●
The effects of ageing can be seen, which makes this approach perfect for
studying development, both within childhood and beyond.
The long-term effects of a disorder or treatment, or exposure to a particular
situation, can be observed.
Disadvantages of longitudinal studies
●
●
●
●
Participant attrition – participants may drop out for a variety of reasons:
they may have changed address; they may have died; or they may simply
have decided not to continue with the study.
Once started, the study cannot be changed or new variables introduced.
The researchers may become attached to the participants. Bias may be
introduced, and the study can become less objective.
Cross-generational effects – those from one generation cannot be compared
to another generation due to the social conditions of society changing over
time.
Now test yourself
6 aWhat is meant by the term
‘longitudinal study’?
b Give one strength of
longitudinal studies.
c Give one potential weakness of
longitudinal studies.
Answers on p. 197
5.2 Psychology and
abnormality
What is abnormality? What is mental illness?
Mental health diagnosis differs according to where in the world the assessment
takes place. In most places its diagnosis is based on the person’s report of
symptoms, his or her ability (or inability) to function in society appropriately and
an observation of the person’s attitudes and behaviour. Reference is then made
to one of two classificatory guides that list all recognised mental illnesses:
● The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual) which began in 1952. The
latest version is DSM-V (2013).
● The ICD (International Standard Classification of Injuries and Causes of
Death) which began in 1958 and is now in its 10th edition, ICD-10.
Introduction: approaches to mental illness
Specific to the abnormality option are a number of approaches that relate to
each topic in this option. For example, the biomedical approach, which includes
genetic, chemical and neurochemical aspects, is referred to in all five topic areas.
The assumptions of each approach are summarised below.
The biomedical approach
The biomedical approach to abnormality focuses only on biological factors to
understand a person’s illness and excludes psychological and social factors. The
model includes all possible biological bases for behaviour – chemical, genetic,
physiological, neurological and anatomical. The approach is summarised in a
classic quotation from Maher (1966):
Deviant behaviour is referred to as psychopathology, is classified
on the basis of symptoms, the classification being called
diagnosis, the methods used to try to change the behaviours are
called therapies, and these are often carried out in mental or
psychiatric hospitals. If the deviant behaviour ceases, the patient
is described as cured.
92
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Abnormality is a subjectively defined
behavioural characteristic, assigned
to people with ‘non-normal’, rare or
dysfunctional conditions.
5 Specialist options
The biomedical model of abnormality assumes the following:
● Dysfunctional behaviour has a biological cause.
● Mental disorders are the same as physical illnesses, but are just located in a
different part of the body.
● Mental illnesses can be diagnosed and treated in the same ways as physical
illnesses – mainly with drugs, but with the options of surgery or
electro-convulsive therapy.
The behavioural approach
The behavioural model of abnormality assumes the following:
● All behaviour (adaptive and maladaptive) is learned through the principles of
classical conditioning (association) and operant conditioning (reinforcement).
● Dysfunctional (maladaptive) behaviour is learned in exactly the same way.
● Dysfunctional behaviour can be treated with behaviour therapies, or with
behaviour modification, in which maladaptive behaviour is replaced with
adaptive behaviour.
The psychodynamic approach
The psychodynamic model of abnormality assumes the following:
● It emphasises the roles of the unconscious mind: the id, ego and superego.
● Adult behaviour is determined through early childhood experiences and by
ego defence mechanisms (repression, displacement, etc.).
● The unconscious (the psyche) can be understood through dreams and
‘Freudian slips’ – psychoanalysis.
● The theory of psycho-sexual development proposes stages (oral, anal, etc.)
through childhood. Supporting evidence is the study of Little Hans.
The cognitive approach
The cognitive model of abnormality assumes the following:
● Cognitive psychologists believe that thinking determines all behaviour and
that dysfunctional behaviour is caused by inappropriate or faulty thought
processes.
● Cognitive therapy involves helping people to restructure their thoughts and
to think more positively about themselves, their life and their future.
Schizophrenic and psychotic disorders
Characteristics
Definition and types
Psychotic disorders are characterised by an impaired sense of reality and
schizophrenia is one type of psychotic disorder.
Symptoms of schizophrenia can be ‘positive’ or ‘negative’. ‘Positive’ (common)
symptoms include:
● hallucinations – hearing, smelling, feeling or seeing something that is not
there
● delusions – believing something completely even though others do not
believe it
● disorganised thinking – finding it hard to concentrate and drifting from one
idea to another
● feeling controlled – that thoughts are vanishing, or that they are not your
own, or being taken over by someone else
● catatonic behaviour, involving impairment of motor activity – where the
person often holds the same position or performs repetitive movements for
hours.
Schizophrenia can be defined as the
disintegration of the process of thinking
and of emotional responsiveness.
Now test yourself
7 Outline three positive symptoms
of schizophrenia.
Answer on p. 197
Specialist options
93
5 Specialist options
‘Negative’ (not very common) symptoms include:
● loss of interest, energy and emotions
● feeling uncomfortable with other people.
Delusional disorder is another type of psychotic disorder. It is where a person
has delusions for at least 3 months and they must be specific to the person.
There are no other symptoms and general functioning is not impaired. There are
several types:
● persecutory – being watched, followed, drugged, etc. by others who intend
harm
● grandiose – a belief that they have an unrecognised skill, talent, knowledge
or status
● erotomatic – a belief that another person, usually of higher social status is in
love with him or her.
A delusion is a false fixed belief that
cannot be changed.
Now test yourself
8 Outline two types of delusional
disorder.
Answer on p. 197
Symptom assessment: virtual reality
Freeman (2008) believes that virtual reality ‘allows one of the key variables in
understanding psychosis, social environments, to be controlled, providing
exciting applications to research and treatment’. Freeman outlines seven
applications of this method, two of which are symptom assessment and
treatment.
Symptom assessment usually involves a practitioner/doctor and patient sitting
in a clinic room talking, recalling events of the past week or month. The
practitioner has no idea of how the patient actually behaves in the real world
(or whether they are telling the truth). Use of virtual reality (VR) could assess
how a patient behaves in certain situations, particularly when misinterpreting
other people’s behaviour (persecutory ideation, the belief of being harmed or
mistreated by others), and then a treatment (how the patient can respond to
the situation) can be applied.
Freeman developed a VR program about a 5-minute ride on the London
underground where people could ‘check each other out’. He trialled it on
students rather than actual patients and found that these ‘normal’ students
reported comments that were positive, neutral and paranoid (‘the lady sitting
down laughed at me when I walked past’). This adds validity to Freeman’s view
that VR can be useful in assessing and treating aspects of schizophrenia.
Freeman lists other applications of VR, for example to treat people with a height
phobia or a public speaking anxiety.
Strengths of VR
●
●
●
It can be used in a safe environment for both patient and public.
It shows how patients with schizophrenia (and other disorders) actually
behave rather than having them anecdotally describe their behaviour (which
may not be truthful).
A wide range of situations can be created which can even be tailored to the
needs of the individual patient.
Weaknesses of VR
●
●
●
94
The patient may have side-effects, such as dizziness, nausea and headaches,
i.e. experience ‘simulator sickness’.
VR is only as good as the programmer’s ability to write an appropriate
programme.
Despite increased ecological validity, VR is laboratory-based and whether it
transfers to real-world situations remains to be seen.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Virtual reality (VR) is an interactive
immersive computer environment.
●
●
Cultural bias may exist here in two ways: definitions of abnormality such
as the DSM are based on the cultural norms of the USA (weakness); the
virtual reality program by Freeman (2008) is also based on western cultures,
e.g. travel on the London underground (weakness).
Freeman’s VR has higher ecological validity (strength) but it has not been
tested on ‘real’ patients (weakness).
Cross check
Cultural bias, page 88
Ecological validity, page 67
Explanations of schizophrenia and delusional disorder
There are many explanations of schizophrenia, three of which are the genetic,
the biochemical and the cognitive explanations.
5 Specialist options
Evaluation
The genetic explanation: studies show that 1 in 10 people with schizophrenia
have a parent with the illness. While this does not provide proof of a genetic link
for schizophrenia, such figures add support. Twin studies are also important.
Gottesman and Shields (1972) examined the records of 57 schizophrenics
(40% monozygotic twins and 60% dizygotic twins) between 1948 and 1964.
In this sample, they found concordance rates (the probability of a twin having
schizophrenia if the other twin has it) of 42% for monozygotic twins and 9% for
dizygotic twins. This again provides evidence for a genetic link for schizophrenia.
The biochemical explanation: this suggests that schizophrenia is caused by
changes in dopamine function in the brain. An excess of dopamine causes
the neurones that use dopamine to fire too often and therefore transmit
too many messages, overloading the system and causing the symptoms of
schizophrenia. Lindstroem et al. (1999) gave 10 people with and 10 people
without schizophrenia L-Dopa, a drug that increases dopamine levels, and found
that those with the disorder took up the drug quicker than those without
schizophrenia.
The cognitive explanation: this suggests that schizophrenia is a result of ‘faulty
information processing’ due to specific ‘cognitive deficits’. It claims that
schizophrenia sufferers have problems with meta-representation, which is
involved with giving us the ability to reflect upon our thoughts, behaviours and
feelings, as well as giving us the sense of self-awareness. Frith (1992) took this
further and argued that several symptoms of schizophrenia could be explained
by mentalising impairment (impairment of the ability to attribute mental
states such as thoughts, beliefs and intentions to people, allowing an individual
to explain, manipulate and predict behaviour) and that theory of mind is
impaired in schizophrenics.
Evaluation
●
●
All three explanations are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). If
schizophrenia is genetic then it is ‘nature’ rather than ‘nurture’ compared
with the other explanations.
The individual–situational debate is also relevant as all three explanations
locate the disorder in the person rather than offer a situational or social
explanation (strengths and weaknesses).
Now test yourself
9 Outline the cognitive explanation of
schizophrenia proposed by Frith (1992).
Answer on p. 197
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Individual–situational debate, page 74
The cognitive approach, page 71
Treatment and management of schizophrenia
and delusional disorder
The use of biochemicals (drugs) is very common in the treatment of
schizophrenia and has gone through a number of phases. The first
anti-psychotics (or neuroleptics) were produced in the 1950s. The first such
drug was chlorpromazine, which has a powerful calming effect and was known
as the ‘chemical lobotomy’. Other phenothiazines act as tranquillisers, sedating
the patient and relieving the symptoms of psychosis such as delusions and
hallucinations. The second generation of drug treatments were the atypical
anti-psychotics, which act mainly by blocking dopamine receptors. They
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also reduce many of the side-effects of the first-generation drugs. The third
generation of drugs, such as Aripiprazole, are thought to reduce susceptibility to
metabolic side-effects associated with the second-generation atypical
anti-psychotics.
Strengths of using drugs
●
●
●
A chemical imbalance is best treated with a drug to restore balance.
Drugs can be given on a fixed schedule (e.g. one pill every 8 hours).
Little effort or inconvenience for the patient – all they have to do is to
swallow a pill at regular intervals.
Weaknesses of using drugs
●
●
●
Cross check
Drugs may have many side-effects such as nausea, even impotence (see
Bulpitt, page 142) which may make a person feel worse.
Many drugs are addictive and so can only be taken for a short period of
time.
Drugs often alleviate symptoms rather than remove the cause.
Treatment and management of
depression: chemicals/drugs, page 98
Treatment and management of OCD:
biomedical, page 110
Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) was originally developed as a treatment for
Cross check
schizophrenia in 1938 by Cerletti. In its early days it was given bilaterally, where
Treatment and management of
electrodes were placed on each side of the patient’s head. However, it was found
depression: electro-convulsive therapy,
to be ineffective in reducing psychotic symptoms. It is now used mainly as a
page 100
treatment for severe depression and is usually only administered when drug
treatment has failed. It is sometimes used to treat catatonic schizophrenia.
Paul and Lentz (1977) found that the use of a token economy was successful
Expert tip
in reducing bizarre motor behaviour and in improving social interactions with
Token behaviour can also be used to
staff and other patients. Originally devised by Ayllon and Azrin (1968), the token
promote safety behaviour. See page
economy system is based on the behaviourist principle of positive reinforcement,
155 if you study the Health option.
which involves giving tokens for good or desirable behaviour; these can later be
exchanged for rewards. However, the token economy system does not have any
impact on hallucinations and delusions, and any improvements tend not to last
once the patients are released.
Sensky et al. (2000) used cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) to treat
schizophrenia. The participants had schizophrenia for at least 6 months, despite
drug treatment with chlorpromazine. After CBT sessions for at least 2 months,
patients showed significant improvements. At the 9-month follow-up evaluation,
patients who had received CBT continued to improve and this was not due to
changes in prescribed medication. It was concluded that CBT is effective in
treating negative as well as positive symptoms in schizophrenia.
Evaluation
●
●
●
Cross check
Biomedical treatments such as drugs and electro-convulsive therapy each
have strengths and weaknesses.
Token economy and cognitive–behaviour therapy have limited use
(weaknesses) for patients with schizophrenia and delusional disorders.
Different treatments reflect different approaches to mental illnesses
(strengths and weaknesses).
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on schizophrenic and psychotic disorders. For part
(a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the
exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the
‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two
issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than
18 minutes on part (b).
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Strengths and weaknesses of ECT,
page 99
Approaches to mental illness, page 92
Characteristics
Definitions and types
The term ‘affect’ relates to mood or feelings. A person with depression will have
intense feelings of negativity or despair, while a person who is manic will have
intense feelings of happiness and ‘over-activity’. A person can have depression
(unipolar) or they can be bipolar which is the alternative name for manic
depression, where a person has swings of mood from one extreme to the other.
Features of depressive episodes include:
physically lethargic; a loss of energy
● loss of interest; feelings of unhappiness, inadequacy, worthlessness; possibly
thoughts of suicide
● continual urges to cry
● difficulty in concentrating and an inability to think positively, often with
hopeless feelings of guilt
● difficulty in sleeping; possible loss of appetite and weight; avoiding other
people.
●
Abnormal affect concerns disorders
of mood and emotion, most typically
depression and mania or manic
depression (bipolar disorder).
Common misconception
5 Specialist options
Bipolar and related disorders
Many students think ‘abnormal affect’
is a generalised term that concerns
all ‘abnormal’ disorders. It does not. It
concerns disorders of mood or feelings.
Features of manic episodes include:
● feeling very excited; having lots of energy and enthusiasm
● quickly moving from one thing to another; spontaneous and full of good
ideas
● outbursts of exuberance, heightened good humour; often entertaining those
present
● talking quickly; feeling less inhibited; making spur-of-the-moment decisions.
Measuring depression
The Beck depression inventory (BDI) is a 21-item, self-report rating inventory
that measures characteristic attitudes and symptoms of depression. Originally
devised in 1961, the latest version is BDI-II (1996). It is scored on a 4-point scale
from 0 (symptom is absent) to 3 (symptom is severe). Scores can range from 0 to
63 with a score over 40 indicating extreme depression. Typical questions are:
0 – I do not feel sad
1 – I feel sad
2 – I am sad all the time and I can’t snap out of it
3 – I am so sad and unhappy that I can’t stand it
0 – I am not particularly discouraged about the future
1 – I feel discouraged about the future
2 – I feel I have nothing to look forward to
3 – I feel the future is hopeless and that things cannot improve
Evaluation
●
●
There is cultural bias because definitions of depression are based on the
DSM and the cultural norms of the USA (weakness). The BDI is also based
on US culture (weakness).
The BDI is a psychometric test. It is reliable and valid. It gathers
quantitative data only. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Cross check
Cultural bias, page 88
Psychometric tests, page 89
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Quantitative data, page 60
Explanations of depression
Biological (genetic and neurochemical) explanations: depression may be
genetic. The closer the genetic relationship, the more likely people are to be
diagnosed with depression. First-degree relatives (close family members) share
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50% of their genes and according to Oruc et al. (1998), first-degree relatives of
people diagnosed with depression are significantly more likely to be diagnosed
with depression than non-first-degree relatives.
Depression may be caused by neurochemicals. Schildkraut (1965) suggested
that too much noradrenaline causes mania and too little causes depression.
However, serotonin was found to exist in low levels for both depression and
mania. What is known is that both serotonin and noradrenaline imbalances are
involved in affective disorders.
Cognitive explanation: Beck (1979) proposes a cognitive theory, believing that
people react differently to aversive stimuli because of the thought patterns that
they have built up throughout their lives. Schemas (core beliefs) are formed in
early life, for example a self-blame schema makes the person feel responsible for
everything that goes wrong, while an ineptness schema causes them to expect
failure every time. These predispose the person to have negative automatic
thoughts (NATs), but they will only surface if an event triggers them. When that
happens, cognitive errors maintain the negative beliefs. Depression results from
the negative cognitive triad, comprising unrealistically negative views about the
self, the world and the future.
Learned helplessness/attributional style: Seligman et al. (1988) extended
the original theory of learned helplessness, suggesting that a person’s
attributional style determined why people responded differently to adverse
situational events. If a person makes an internal attribution (they are the cause),
and if they believe that this is stable and global (the cause is consistent and this
applies everywhere), then they may feel helpless and may experience depression.
However, if they make other attributions (e.g. that the cause is external or
situational; or unstable and specific), then helplessness and depression are
unlikely. Attributional style is assessed using the attributional style
questionnaire (ASQ). Seligman and others have found depression to be
associated with an internal/global/stable pattern. After therapy, depression is
again assessed and the attributional style is indeed less internal/global/stable.
Expert tip
Many students write ‘X is reductionist’
without further elaboration or
explanation. Doing this will score no
marks. An explanation is needed of
why ‘X’ is reductionist along with a
strength or weakness of reductionism.
Cross check
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
Reductionism, page 89
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
The nature–nurture debate is applicable here (strengths and weaknesses)
because the extremes of genetics (nature) and nurture (learning) are shown
by Oruc et al. and Seligman.
Each explanation is reductionist, focusing on one aspect only (strengths
and weaknesses).
Determinism also applies (strengths and weaknesses), because any genetic
explanation is ‘biological determinism’.
The individual–situational debate applies (strengths and weaknesses)
because genetic and cognitive explanations focus on the individual whereas
for Seligman situational factors play a role.
Expert tip
Many students refer to ‘antidepressants’ to cover a wide range of
drug treatments (including those for
schizophrenia). It is far more accurate
to refer to the drug type (e.g.
SSRIs) and then apply it to treating
depression, obsessive–compulsive
disorder, etc.
Treatment and management of depression
Biochemicals: there are three main types of drug that relieve the symptoms of
depression:
● MAOIs (monoamine oxidase inhibitors, e.g. Marplan, Nardil, Parnate, Emsam)
● SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, e.g. Citalopram, Escitalopram)
● SNRIs (serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, e.g. Venlafaxine,
Duloxetine)
Anti-depressants affect neurotransmitters. Those relevant to depression are
serotonin and noradrenaline. SRRIs inhibit serotonin and SNRIs inhibit both
serotonin and noradrenaline. MAOIs inhibit a wider range of neurotransmitters
such as adrenaline and melatonin in addition to serotonin and noradrenaline.
Anti-depressants do not remove the cause of depression but instead relieve the
symptoms.
98
Now test yourself
10Outline the drug treatments used
for depression.
Answer on p. 197
Cross check
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
‘Strengths and weakness’ of changes,
page 96
Cross check
Treatment and management of
schizophrenia: electro-convulsive
therapy, page 96
Strengths of using ECT
●
●
●
It has a higher success rate for depression than any other treatment.
ECT is immediate, quicker than taking anti-depressants or any other form of
treatment.
It can be applied to anyone without restriction (some people cannot take
anti-depressants because of side-effects).
5 Specialist options
Electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) was originally developed as a treatment for
schizophrenia in 1938 by Cerletti. In its early days it was given bilaterally, where
electrodes were placed on each side of the patient’s head. ECT is now used to
treat severe depression when other treatments are ineffective. A patient is given
a general anaesthetic (unlike in the early days) and an electrical pulse is given to
the head. Bilateral ECT (both sides of the head) is more common as this is more
effective than unilateral ECT. Some patients are confused afterwards and some
suffer memory problems.
Weaknesses of using ECT
●
●
●
ECT is not a permanent solution; people often relapse so either follow-up
ECT is needed or it is used alongside other treatments (such as antidepressants).
ECT has short-term side-effects: confusion and memory loss.
ECT has long-term side-effects, sometimes severe, such as permanent
memory loss, loss of skills or a change in personality.
Cognitive restructuring: Beck et al. (1979) believe in cognitive restructuring.
This is done in a six-stage process, starting with an explanation of the therapy.
Next the person is taught to identify unpleasant emotions, the situations in
which these occur and associated negative automatic thoughts. Then the
person is taught to challenge the negative thoughts and replace them with
positive thoughts. Finally, the person can begin to challenge the underlying
dysfunctional beliefs before the therapy ends. Dobson (1989) compared
restructuring scores on the Beck depression inventory (BDI) with other
treatments: 98% were better than controls; 70% better than those in antidepressant drug treatments; and 70% better than those in some other form of
psychotherapy.
Rational emotive therapy: Ellis (1962) outlined rational emotive therapy,
which developed into rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). Ellis
focused on how illogical beliefs are maintained through:
A: an activating event, perhaps the behaviour or attitude of another person
B: the belief held about A
C: the consequences – thoughts, feelings or behaviours – resulting from A.
Now test yourself
11 Outline the rational emotive
behaviour therapy proposed by Ellis.
Answer on p. 197
Ellis described the illogical or irrational beliefs using the terms musterbating (I
must be perfect at all times) and I-can’t-stand-it-itis (the belief that when
something goes wrong it is a major disaster). In order to change to rational
beliefs, Ellis expands the ABC model to include:
D: disputing the irrational beliefs
E: the effects of successful disruption of the irrational beliefs.
Evaluation
●
●
●
Biomedical: drug treatments and electro-convulsive therapy both have
strengths and weaknesses.
Different treatments reflect different approaches to mental illnesses
(strengths and weaknesses).
The issues of nature–nurture, determinism, reductionism and
the individual–situational debate applying to the treatment and
management of schizophrenia also apply here (see page 95).
Cross check
Strengths and weaknesses of drugs,
page 96
Approaches to mental illness, page 92
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
Reductionism, page 89
Individual–situational debate, page 74
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Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on bipolar and related disorders. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you
should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’
part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues
in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on
part (b).
Impulse control and non-addictive substance disorders
Characteristics
Definitions
People can be addicted to many things, not just drugs. People can be addicted
to alcohol (alcoholics) and to nicotine (most smokers). However, the focus of
attention here is on non-substance addictive disorders.
An addiction is a condition produced
by repeated consumption of a natural
or synthetic substance, in which the
person has become physically and
psychologically dependent on the
substance.
Simply, people can be addicted to anything, so what is the definition of an
addiction?
Griffiths (2005) believes there are six components that help define any
addiction (even to coffee, chocolate and the internet):
● Salience – when an activity becomes the single most important activity in
the person’s life and dominates their thinking, feelings and behaviour.
● Euphoria – the experience people report when carrying out their addictive
behaviour, such as a ‘rush’, a ‘buzz’ or a ‘high’.
● Tolerance – where an increasing amount of activity is required to achieve
the same effect.
● Withdrawal – the unpleasant feelings and physical effects that occur when
the addictive behaviour is suddenly discontinued or reduced.
● Conflict – with those around them (interpersonal conflict), with other
activities (job, schoolwork, social life, hobbies and interests) or from within
the individual themselves (intrapsychic conflict).
● Relapse – chances of relapse are very high, even after a long time.
Expert tip
Impulse control disorders have three typical features:
● before committing the act there is a growing tension
● during the act the person feels pleasure from acting, and often feels relief
from the urge
● afterward the person may or may not feel guilt, regret or blame.
Types of impulse control disorder
Pyromania is where a person has the urge to deliberately start a fire (and often
to watch the fire or emergency services). Specifically, before setting the fire,
the person must have felt some feelings of tension or arousal, must show that
attraction to fire, must feel a sense of relief or satisfaction from setting the fire
and witnessing it, and must not have other motives for setting the fire.
Burton et al. (2012) distinguished between fire-setting, arson and pyromania:
● Fire-setting includes both the accidental (e.g. falling asleep with a cigarette)
and intentional setting of fires (with or without criminal intent).
● Arson, a subtype of fire-setting, is a criminal act in which one wilfully and
maliciously sets fire to, or aids in setting fire to, a structure, dwelling, or
property of another.
● People with pyromania engage in intentional and pathological fire-setting,
but do not always commit the crime of arson.
Fire-setting is a behavior, arson is a crime, and pyromania is a psychiatric
diagnosis.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
The syllabus does not include
addictions to substances, so you do
not need to know anything about
drugs, alcoholism, physical dependence
and associated terms.
An impulse control disorder is a
failure to resist a temptation, urge or
impulse.
5 Specialist options
Kleptomania is the repetitive, uncontrollable stealing of items not needed for
personal use. Kleptomania is different from shoplifting because shoplifters plan
the stealing of objects and usually steal because they do not have money to
purchase the items.
Kleptomania has the following diagnostic criteria:
● recurrent failure to resist stealing impulses unrelated to personal use or
financial need
● feeling increased tension right before the theft
● feeling pleasure, gratification or relief at the time of the theft
● thefts are not committed in response to delusions or hallucinations or as
expressions of revenge or anger.
Problem gambling (a term now much preferred to pathological gambling) is
where a person has to gamble to gain euphoria or relieve tension. This typically
includes feelings of gratification or relief afterward. The term ’compulsive’ is
often used because compulsions are recurring actions that the individual has a
need to carry out.
Blaszczynski and Nower (2002) identifed common influences in all problem
gamblers: availability and access, classical and operant conditioning
reinforcements, arousal effects and biased cognitive schemas. They outline three
pathways into problem gambling:
● Behaviourally conditioned problem gamblers who gamble excessively as a
result of poor decision-making strategies and bad judgements.
● Emotionally vulnerable problem gamblers who use gambling as a means
of modifying mood states and/or to meet specific psychological needs.
● ‘Antisocial impulsivist’ problem gamblers who have biological
dysfunctions, either neurological or neurochemical. They are characterised by
antisocial personality disorder and impulsivity.
Now test yourself
12 What are the typical characteristics
of impulse control disorders?
Answer on p. 198
Measure of impulse control disorder
The kleptomania symptom assessment scale or K-SAS (Grant and Kim,
2002) is an 11-item, self-rated scale designed to assess the change of kleptomania
symptoms during treatment. It includes four main sections:
● four questions examine urges/impulses to steal
● three questions examine thoughts of stealing
● two questions ask about the degree of emotional distress immediately
prior to and after the act of theft
● two questions examine emotional distress and impairment due to stealing.
All items ask for an average symptom in the last 7 days. A maximum score is 44
and any reduction shows improvement. Typical questions are shown in Figure 9.
3. During the past week, how many hours (add up hours) were you preoccupied
with your urges to steal?
None
1 hr or less
1 to 4 hr
4 to 10 hr
over 10 hr
0
1
2
3
4
9. During the past week, how much emotional distress (mental pain or anguish,
shame, guilt, embarrassment) had your stealing caused you?
None
Minimal
Moderate
Much
Very much
0
1
2
3
4
Figure 9 Typical questions from the kleptomania symptom assessment scale (K-SAS)
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Evaluation
●
●
Cross check
Generalisations: the features of addiction are said to apply to the
addiction of anything (strengths and weaknesses).
The K-SAS is a psychometric test. It is reliable and valid. It gathers
quantitative data only. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Generalisations, page 68
Psychometric tests, page 89
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Causes of impulse control and non-addictive substance
disorders
Biochemical causes: when dopamine is released it gives feelings of pleasure
and satisfaction. These feelings of satisfaction become desired, and to satisfy that
desire the person will repeat the behaviours that cause the release of dopamine.
This means that there is a complex relationship between physiological and
psychological factors.
Behavioural causes (positive reinforcement): according to Skinner, positive
reinforcement is when a behaviour is likely to repeated because of the addition
of a reinforcing stimulus (a reward). If a person gambles and wins, the reward
(and the thrill experienced) means the person is likely to repeat the behaviour.
The thrill of stealing or setting fires and the release of dopamine explain why
some people repeat this behaviour. The thrill (or high) is so intense that the
person cannot resist and will do all they can to repeat the experience.
Cognitive causes (feeling-state theory): people often become addicted to
something to reduce negative affect – to relieve anxiety and tension – or for
positive affect – stimulation, relaxation and pleasure. The feeling-state theory
(Miller, 2010) argues that disorders are created when intense positive feelings
(‘intense desire’) become linked with specific behaviours (a ‘triggering event’),
and this creates a state-dependent memory or a ‘feeling-state’ (Figure 10).
+
Intense desire
Intense positive
experience
Feeling-state
Figure 10 Creation of the feeling-state
To generate the same feeling-state, the person compulsively repeats the same
behaviour, even if it is detrimental. This re-enactment creates the impulsecontrol disorder (Figure 11).
Feeling-state
+
Triggering event
Desired feeling
+
Compulsive
behaviour
Figure 11 Creation of the impulse-control disorder
‘Feelings’ refers to the total complex of sensations, emotions (physiological
sensations) and thoughts related to an event (both positive and negative). There
are three associated sets of beliefs:
● pre-existing negative beliefs that created the need to engage in a particular
behaviour (‘I’m a loser’)
● positive beliefs that result from having an intense positive experience when
performing the behaviour (‘I’m a winner’)
● negative beliefs that result when the behaviour becomes out of control
(the ICD) (‘I mess up everything’).
This theory explains pyromania, kleptomania and gambling.
Evaluation
●
●
102
The behavioural explanation is based on the work of Skinner and the
learning approach. This is the nurture side of the nature–nurture
debate. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
However, the dopamine hypothesis is based on the physiological and
biochemical approaches and the nature side of the nature–nurture
debate. The dopamine hypothesis is biological determinism and
individual rather than situational. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Cross check
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
The learning approach, page 71
The biological approach, page 70
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
Individual–situational debate, page 74
5 Specialist options
Treating and managing impulse control and non-addictive
substance disorders
Biochemical treatments such as selective serotonin uptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
have been used to treat pyromania, kleptomania and sometimes gambling.
Grant (2006) questions the use of SSRIs and suggests that other medications
(such as opioid antagonists) have shown early promise in treating kleptomania.
Grant et al. (2008) treated gamblers with the opiate antagonists nalmefene and
naltrexone, which work by reducing the urge to engage in the addictive
behaviour. The study invited 284 diagnosed problem gamblers and assigned half
randomly to a 16-week course of nalmefene (or placebo) and the others to an
18-week course of naltrexone (or placebo). Using scores on a Yale-Brown
obsessive–compulsive scale (see page 109) for gambling, Grant et al. found a
significant reduction in urges to gamble.
Cross check
Strengths and weakness of drugs,
page 96
Cognitive–behavioural treatments
Covert sensitisation involves an aversive stimulus in the form of anxietyproducing imagery (such as being caught or feeling nauseous) being paired
with the undesirable behaviour to change that behaviour. It is covert because
it involves imagery about the undesired behaviour rather than the actual
behaviour (which would be overt).
Glover (1985, 2011) reported the case of a 56-year-old woman who had been
stealing from shops every day for 14 years. Every morning on awakening she
would have the obsessive thought that she must shoplift later that day. Glover
decided to use imagery of nausea and vomiting paired with the act of stealing. As
she imagined approaching the item to steal, she would imagine vomiting which
would attract the attention of other shoppers. The vomiting would cease as she
replaced the article and left the shop. At her final appointment, 19 months after
completion of covert sensitisation, she had not once lapsed into stealing.
Similarly, Kohn and Antonuccio (2002) used kleptomania-specific covert
sensitisation (images of getting arrested, going to court and spending time in jail)
successfully.
Imaginal desensitisation involves teaching progressive muscle relaxation
and then the person visualises themselves being exposed to the situation that
triggers the drive to carry out the impulsive behaviour. The aim is to reduce the
strength of the drive. Blaszcznski and Nower (2003) found this technique was
particularly effective with gamblers. There are six steps in a typical treatment
sequence:
1 Initiating the urge.
2 Planning to follow through on the urge.
3 Arriving at the venue.
4 Getting arousal and excitement with the behaviour.
5 Having ‘second thoughts’ about the behaviour.
6 Decreasing the attractiveness of the behaviour.
Sessions are initially conducted with the therapist but can then be conducted at
home. The ‘home’ pack includes:
● Tape 1 so the client can listen to the imaginal desensitisation process.
● Handout 1: a table to be completed regarding situations, feelings and
thoughts that trigger the need to carry out the behaviour.
● Handout 2: a script for conducting progressive muscle relaxation.
● Handout 3: a sheet to record each day the number of times Tape 1 is
listened to.
At the end of the programme the client should report a significant reduction in
the frequency and intensity of urges to act on impulse.
Expert tip
In the Blaszcznski and Nower
study, the client is conducting and
recording details of their own therapy.
Think about the advantages and
disadvantages of a client conducting
their own therapy at home.
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Impulse control therapy is outlined by Miller (2010). Based on his theory
of feeling-states, he believes that both cognitive and behaviour change is
necessary to control the disorder. Miller proposed the impulse-control
disorder protocol (ICDP) developed from EMDR. EMDR is eye-movement
desensitisation and reprocessing, which was originally devised by Shapiro
(1998) to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). EMDR treatment involves
identifying the traumatic image, identifying the negative feelings and beliefs
associated with the image, and then using eye movements to process the image
and feelings and install positive beliefs and feelings.
Miller outlines a 12-step process summarised as:
identifying the specific aspect of the compulsive behaviour that has the
most emotional intensity
● identifying the specific positive feeling (and physical sensations) associated
with this behaviour and calculating its PFS* rating
● forming an image linking the behaviour, feelings and sensations
● performing eye movements (EMDR)
● setting homework and conducting follow-up sessions
●
* Baseline and progress can be assessed using the positive feelings scale (PFS)
with 10 being the most positive feelings.
Miller cites the case study of ‘John’, a 35-year-old male with a gambling problem
who had lost more than $1,000,000 playing poker. John’s ‘feeling-states’ were
identified, e.g. a time when he won $16,000 and felt excitement. His PFS was
rated as 10. John followed the 12-step process and in his follow-up interview
3 months later he reported that his poker compulsion had not returned.
Evaluation
●
●
●
The biological treatments are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses) but
so are the cognitive-behavioural treatments.
Biochemical treatments are based on the physiological and biochemical
approaches (strengths and weaknesses) and the nature side of the
nature–nurture debate.
Biological treatments are biological determinism and individual rather
than situational. The two case studies reported here have many strengths
and weaknesses.
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Case studies, page 51
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on impulse control and non-addictive substance
disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and
exclude). In the exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part.
For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a
range). Choose two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no
more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Anxiety disorders
Characteristics
Definitions and types
Some people have generalised anxiety disorder, meaning they might have
a ‘panic attack’ but do not know its cause. The characteristics of generalised
anxiety disorder are as follows:
● Excessive, uncontrollable and often irrational worry, which interferes with
daily functioning.
● Physical symptoms of headaches, nausea, numbness in hands and feet, muscle
tension, difficulty swallowing and/or breathing, trembling, twitching and sweating.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Anxiety is a general feeling of dread
or apprehensiveness accompanied by
various physiological reactions such
as increased heart rate, sweating,
muscle tension, and rapid and shallow
breathing.
●
Feeling anxious most days and struggling to remember the last time they felt
relaxed; as soon as one anxious thought is resolved, another may appear
about a different issue.
It is a long-term condition that causes feelings of anxiety about a wide range
of situations and issues, rather than one specific event.
A phobia is a persistent fear of an
object or situation in which the sufferer
does anything possible to avoid the
feared object.
On the other hand, some people know the actual cause and this is called a
phobia. In everyday life people say ‘I have a phobia of…’ when they don’t like
something. To be diagnosed formally as phobic there must be anxiety ‘attacks’
and the person must have ‘difficulty in social and occupational functioning’
because of it. For example, a person with agoraphobia may not have left their
home for 6 months or more, they will have closed curtains and never go to a
door because of their fear of the outside world.
5 Specialist options
●
There are many different phobias, some very common and some quite rare.
Acoraphobia (heights) and agoraphobia (the ‘outside’) are common, while
koumpounophobia (buttons) is rare. Blood-injection phobia (a blood phobia is
hemophobia) often results in the person fainting (see below and page 107).
There are two classic case studies about phobias in psychological literature: the
case of Little Albert (based on classical conditioning – see page 29) and the case
of Little Hans (based on the psychodynamic approach of Freud – see page 93).
McGrath et al. (1990) report a case study about Lucy, a 9-year-old girl with a
phobia of specific loud bangs such as fireworks and popping balloons. She was
treated successfully with systematic desensitisation (see treatments of phobias,
page 107).
Saavedra and Silverman (2002) report on a 9-year-old with a fear of buttons. A
large bowl of buttons fell on him while at school and from that point he would
not wear clothes with buttons. Small, plastic buttons caused him most distress.
Slow exposure with associated positive reinforcement led to improvements, but
it was then discovered that he found buttons disgusting when they touched his
body.
Cross check
Case studies, page 51
Saavedra and Silverman, page 29
Measures of anxiety disorders
Blood injection phobia can be assessed using the blood-injection phobia
inventory (BIPI) devised by Mas et al. (2010). The BIPI is a self-administered
questionnaire of three parts:
● 50 items about diverse situations related to blood, injections, and the dentist.
Items include:
13. When I feel the needle go into the vein of my arm to extract blood.
26. When I get local anaesthesia.
●
●
29. When I see a bloody wound or cut.
It measures the frequency of a patient’s different types of response
(cognitive, physiological and behavioural) to the situations on a 4-point scale
ranging from 0 (never), 1 (sometimes), 2 (almost always) to 3 (always).
It appraises both ‘situational anxiety’ and ‘anticipatory anxiety’ responses.
Generalised anxiety disorder can be measured using GAD-7 (Spitzer et al.,
2006). The ‘GAD score’ is calculated by assigning scores of 0 (not at all), 1 (several
days), 2 (more than half the days), and 3 (nearly every day), respectively. A GAD-7
total score for the seven items ranges from 0 to 21. Scores represent: 0–5 mild
anxiety, 6–10 moderate anxiety, 11–15 moderately severe anxiety and 15–21
severe anxiety.
Specialist options
105
5 Specialist options
Typical items include:
‘Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by the following
problems?’
Q1: Feeling nervous, anxious or on edge (0, 1, 2, 3)
Q3: Worrying too much about different things (0, 1, 2, 3)
Q4: Trouble relaxing (0, 1, 2, 3)
Evaluation
●
●
Cross check
BIPI and GAD-7 anxiety questionnaires gather quantitative data. Both
questionnaires claim that they are reliable and valid because they are
psychometric. [Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
These tests may have cultural bias (weakness). The case study of ‘button
boy’ has strengths and weaknesses.
Quantitative data, page 60
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Cultural bias, page 88
Case studies, page 51
Explanations of phobias
Behavioural explanations: classical conditioning assumes that fears are
acquired by a process of association. A previously neutral object (e.g. white rat) is
associated with a potentially threatening negative event (e.g. loud noise) so that
in the future the person is fearful because of the expectation of what will happen
when coming into contact with the object (in Albert’s case, the white rat).
Watson and Raynor (1920) classically conditioned Little Albert. Initially, Albert
was not afraid of animals, and his favourite was a white rat. But then, every
time the rat was presented to Albert, a loud noise, made by banging two metal
bars together, made him jump and frightened him. Albert associated the fear
with the rat, and this fear of the rat generalised to other animals too. This
demonstrated that fears and phobias can be learned.
Psychoanalytic explanations: the Freudian psychoanalytic theory suggests
that phobias are a defence mechanism against the anxiety created by the
unresolved conflicts between the id and the superego. The ego attempts to
resolve these conflicts by using the coping mechanisms of repression and
displacement. In repression, the ego attempts to ‘forget’ that the conflict exists.
In displacement the ego re-channels the anxiety, which is displaced from the
feared impulse (such as hatred towards one’s father) and moved towards an
object or situation that is symbolically connected to it (such as Little Hans’s
father resembling a horse).
Freud (1909) writes about the case of Little Hans, who apparently had a phobia
of horses. Freud’s interpretation was that Hans was really afraid of his father but
displaced this onto horses.
Biomedical (genetic) explanations: genes may predispose some people to
anxiety (and phobic) disorders. Kendler et al. (1992) argue that the genetic factor
common to all phobias strongly predisposes a person to specific phobias such as
blood phobia.
Ost (1992) sampled 81 blood phobics and 59 injection phobics. Ost discovered
that 61% of those with a specific phobia for blood injuries had 61% of firstdegree relatives (parent or sibling) who had the same phobia. Ost et al.
concluded that ‘The high percentage of blood phobics with the same fear could
mean that a heredity component is of importance.’
Cognitive explanations: DiNardo et al. (1988) suggested a cognitive
explanation for phobias. They found that only half of people who had
a traumatic experience with an animal, even when pain was inflicted,
developed a phobia of animals. Why? DiNardo et al. believed that people
who have any traumatic experience (e.g. with animals) but do not develop
a phobia must interpret the event differently from those who do develop a
phobia. This means that it is the way people think about their experience
that makes the difference. It is an exaggerated expectation of harm in some
people that leads to the development of a phobia.
106
Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
13 Describe one study supporting the
cognitive explanation for phobias.
Answer on p. 198
●
●
●
All the approaches here are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
The nature–nurture debate (strengths and weaknesses) applies because
genetic and psychoanalytic explanations are nature, and behavioural
explanations are nurture.
Behavioural approaches emphasise environmental determinism whereas
biochemical approaches emphasise biological determinism.
Treating and managing anxiety disorders
Systematic desensitisation, based on classical conditioning, was developed
by Wolpe in 1958, specifically for the counter-conditioning of fears, phobias and
anxieties. The aim is to replace the conditioned fear, which is maladaptive, with
relaxation, which is adaptive and desirable. It involves three phases:
● An anxiety hierarchy is constructed – a range of situations or events with
which the fear is associated. These are arranged in order from the least
fearful (e.g. imagining exposure) to the most fearful (e.g. in vivo).
● The person is trained in deep muscle relaxation and deep breathing
techniques. This counteracts the effects of anxiety-related hormones such
as adrenaline.
● The person then thinks about, or is brought into contact with, the least
fearful item and applies relaxation techniques. When relaxed, the next item
in the hierarchy is presented. This continues systematically until all the items
in the hierarchy have been removed and the person is desensitised.
Applied tension (Ost et al., 1989) is specifically for people with blood and
injection phobias. At the sight of blood, blood pressure drops sharply (called
vasovagal response), often leading the person to fainting (passing out). Applied
tension involves tensing the muscles in the arms, legs and body for about 10–15
seconds, relaxing for 20–30 seconds and then repeating both these five times to
raise blood pressure. Ost et al. found that 73% of patients were improved (i.e. no
fainting) at the end of the treatment and 77% were improved at follow-up.
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
The learning approach, page 71
The cognitive approach, page 71
The behaviourist approach, page 93
The biomedical approach, page 92
The psychodymanic approach, page 93
Determinism, page 90
5 Specialist options
Evaluation
Now test yourself
14 Describe the applied tension
technique for treating blood and
injection phobias.
Answer on p. 198
Cognitive therapy is based on the principle that certain ways of thinking can
trigger, or ‘fuel’, various disorders. The aim is to change ways of thinking to avoid
these ideas. Behaviour therapy aims to change any behaviours that are harmful
or not helpful. Cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) is a mixture of cognitive
and behaviour therapies combined because behaviour often reflects thoughts
about certain things or situations.
Ost and Westling (1995) compared CBT with applied relaxation in the
treatment of panic disorder. Over 12 weekly sessions those in the applied
relaxation group received training in deep muscle relaxation only. The CBT
group also received training in restructuring the thoughts associated with the
panic attacks. Results: the CBT group had a significant reduction in the number
of panic attacks after treatment (74%), and 89% at follow-up.
Evaluation
●
●
The learning approach underlies systematic desensitisation and CBT.
Applied tension is a biological approach. (Strengths and weaknesses for
both.)
The learning approach is the nurture side of the nature–nurture debate
(strengths and weaknesses), whereas the biological approach is nature.
Cross check
The learning approach, page 71
The biological approach, page 70
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on anxiety disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part,
decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend
no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a
range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Specialist options
107
5 Specialist options
Obsessive–compulsive and related disorders
Characteristics
Definitions and types
People can have obsessions, compulsions or both, with obsessive–compulsive
disorder (OCD) being one of the most common anxiety disorders. Some estimate
69% of those diagnosed have obsessions and compulsions (with 25% just
obsessions and 6% just compulsions). Generally, there is some trigger event,
followed by obsessive thoughts, which cause discomfort if not resolved (e.g.
something might not have been done, or something might happen or cause a
problem). There might then be the ritual of checking (e.g. to confirm something
has been done) or washing (e.g. to remove a contamination). The compulsion
involves repeating the action continually.
An obsession is a recurring and
persistent thought that interferes with
normal behaviour.
A compulsion is a recurring action a
person is forced to enact.
Obsessive–compulsive disorder is
where irresistible thoughts and actions
must be acted on.
Examples of obsessions include:
● fearing contamination from dirt, bacteria, etc. when touching surfaces
● imagining a fire breaking out in every building entered.
Compulsions include:
● washing hands many times until they are thoroughly clean
● checking fire exits or exit route in every building entered
● doubting and so reading an email many times before sending it to ensure it is
correct
● touching repeatedly, such as a door, to see if it is closed.
Hoarding has the following features:
● accumulation of things that have little or no value
● difficulty in discarding or parting with things
● indecision about what to keep or where to put things
● severe anxiety when attempting to discard things
● difficulty categorising or organising things.
Expert tip
Hoarding is a pattern of behaviour
that is characterised by excessive
acquisition and an inability or
unwillingness to discard large
quantities of objects that cover the
living areas of the home and cause
significant distress or impairment.
The ‘things’ people hoard include newspapers, magazines, paper and plastic
bags, cardboard boxes, photographs, household supplies, and often animals.
They hoard them for the following reasons:
● Prevention of harm: people fear harm if things are thrown away.
● Deprivation hoarding: people feel that they might need the thing at some
point in the future.
● Emotional: a belief that the thing has some emotional significance.
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) has three main features:
A preoccupation with some imagined defect in appearance in a normal
appearing person. If a slight physical anomaly is present, the person’s concern
is markedly excessive.
● The preoccupation causes clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational or other important areas of functioning.
● The preoccupation is not better accounted for by another mental disorder.
●
Expert tip
The most commonly disliked body areas are: skin (73%), hair (56%) and nose (37%)
but can it also be eyes, feet, or any other body part. Typical BDD behaviours include:
● camouflaging (91%) with body position or posture, with clothing, make-up,
etc.
● comparing the body part with others (88%)
● checking appearance in mirrors (i.e. mirror gazing) (87%)
72% of people with BDD seek cosmetic/plastic surgery but this is of little use because
BDD is a psychological disorder and any physical change will not ‘cure’ the person.
Both hoarding and BDD are best treated with cognitive behaviour therapy.
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Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a
condition marked by an excessive preoccupation with an imaginary or minor
defect in a facial feature or localised
part of the body.
A case study of OCD is that of ‘Charles’ by Rapoport (1989). When aged 12,
Charles started to wash compulsively. He followed the same ritual each day in
the shower, which would take him up to 3 hours. Getting dressed would take
another 2 hours. Charles was treated by Rapoport who prescribed the drug
Anafranil and linked this with a behavioural management programme, such as
washing in the evening. For a while the symptoms disappeared. Over time
Charles went on to cope with his disorder.
Cross check
Case studies, page 51
An example of a BDD sufferer is Kayla who never goes out and spends hours
looking in a mirror: ‘I hate my face, my eyes, my nose, my jaw, my mouth’. She
is clinically significantly distressed about her appearance. She has had nine
operations on her nose, but because she is delusional (a false fixed belief that
cannot be changed) she is considering further surgery.
5 Specialist options
Examples and case studies
Measures
The Maudsley obsessive–compulsive inventory (MOCI) is a psychometric
test originally designed by Hodgson and Rachman (1977) to assess OCD. It is
a self-report questionnaire using a forced-choice ‘yes’ or ‘no’ format. It has 30
questions/items with four sub-scales:
● Checking (9 items), for example ‘I frequently have to check things (gas or
water taps, doors etc.) several times’.
● Cleaning/washing (11 items), for example ‘I am not unduly concerned
about germs and diseases’ (reverse scored).
● Slowness (7 items), for example ‘I am often late because I cannot seem to
get through everything on time’.
● Doubting (7 items), for example ‘I have a very strict conscience’.
A person can have a total score between 0 (no symptoms) and 30 (maximum
presence of symptoms). This determines the nature, extent and severity of the
OCD.
The Yale–Brown obsessive–compulsive scale (Y-BOCS) is designed to rate
the severity and type of symptoms in patients with OCD. It is intended to be
used as a semi-structured interview, which means in addition to the standard
questions, the interviewer is free to ask additional questions for purposes of
clarification and the patient can give more information at any time during the
interview.
There are questions about obsessions and about compulsions such as:
How much of your time is occupied by obsessive thoughts?
0 None
1 Mild, less than 1 hr/day or occasional intrusion
2 Moderate, 1 to 3 hrs/day or frequent intrusion
3 Severe, greater than 3 and up to 8 hrs/day or very frequent intrusion
4 Extreme, greater than 8 hrs/day or near constant intrusion
How much time do you spend performing compulsive behaviours (or how
frequently are they performed)?
Overt Covert
0
None
0
1
Less than 1 hr/day or occasional performance of compulsive
1
behaviour
2
Between 1 and 3 hrs/day, or frequent
2
3
Between 3 and 8 hrs/day, or very frequent
3
4More than 8 hrs/day or near constant performance (too
4
numerous to count)
Now test yourself
15 Describe one way in which
obsessive–compulsive disorder
has been measured using a
questionnaire.
Answer on p. 198
Specialist options
109
5 Specialist options
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
The MOCI and YBOCS questionnaires gather quantitative data, and
the YBOCS has the option via interviews to gather qualitative data.
(Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Both questionnaires claim that they are reliable and valid because they are
psychometric. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
These tests may have cultural bias (weaknesses).
The case study of Charles and example of Kayla have strengths and
weaknesses.
Cross check
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative data), page 60
Interviews, page 50
Psychometric tests, page 89
Questionnaires and ratings, page 49
Case studies, page 51
Explanations of obsessive–compulsive and related
disorders
Biological (genetic, biochemical and neurological) explanations: studies on
genetics have shown that the SLITRK family of genes is linked to aspects of OCD.
Studies have linked SLITRK1, SLITRK3 and SLITKR5 to OCD in mice. Other studies
show the gene PTPRD is also linked, along with DRD4, a dopamine receptor.
Biochemical explanations have been proposed. The hormone oxytocin has been
associated with aspects of OCD and Humble et al. (2011) found that levels of
oxytocin positively correlated with OCD symptoms.
Neurological studies have shown that people with OCD show abnormal
functioning in the orbital region of the frontal cortex and/or the caudate nuclei.
These regions are responsible for converting sensory input into thoughts and
behaviours, and if these regions do not regulate activity (e.g. they become
over-stimulated), this could account for the recurring thoughts and behaviour.
Evidence for this is gained from brain scans and studies of people with brain
injury in these regions (e.g. Paradis et al., 1992).
Cognitive and behavioural explanations: the behavioural explanation
suggests that people associate a particular ‘thing’ with fear and so they learn
to avoid that ‘thing’ and perform ritualistic behaviour (the compulsion) to help
reduce the anxiety and fear. The cognitive side looks at why people misinterpret
their thoughts associated with the ‘thing’ and how these become obsessive.
Psychodynamic explanations: the psychodynamic explanation of OCD
follows the same principles as with other mental disorders: there is a conflict
between the id and the ego, which creates anxiety. The impulsive nature of the
id may be responsible for the creation of obsessive thoughts, while the ego, in an
attempt to control the id, may create compulsive behaviour to try to counteract
the obsessive thoughts and resolve the conflict.
Psychoanalytic psychotherapy encourages the verbalisation of all the patient’s
thoughts, including free associations, fantasies and dreams, from which the
analyst formulates the nature of the unconscious conflicts which are causing the
patient’s symptoms and character problems.
Evaluation
●
●
●
Cross check
All the approaches here are reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
The nature–nurture debate (strengths and weaknesses) applies because
genetic and psychoanalytic explanations are nature and behavioural
explanations are nurture.
Behavioural approaches emphasise environmental determinism whereas
biochemical approaches emphasise biological determinism.
Treatment and management of obsessive–compulsive and
related disorders
Biomedical treatments assume that if OCD is caused by low serotonin levels,
then drugs can be used to increase the activity of serotonin in the brain. This is
exactly what clomipramine does. About 60% of patients with OCD improve
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Reductionism, page 89
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Determinism, page 90
Cross check
Strengths and weaknesses of drug
treatments, page 96
Psychological treatments
Cognitive–behaviour therapy (CBT) is a mixture of cognitive and behaviour
therapies combined because behaviour often reflects thoughts about certain
things or situations. Research by Lovell et al. (2007) aimed to compare the
effectiveness of CBT delivered by telephone with the same therapy given face to
face in the treatment of OCD. Seventy-two patients diagnosed with OCD were
randomly given either face-to-face therapy (ten 1-hour sessions) or ‘telephone’
therapy (initial face-to-face therapy then eight ‘home/telephone’ sessions of
30 minutes’ duration and one face-to-face final session). The study concluded
that cognitive–behaviour therapy delivered by telephone was equivalent to
treatment delivered face to face and similar levels of satisfaction were reported
by patients.
Now test yourself
16 Describe the assumptions of
cognitive–behavioural therapy
regarding obsessions and
compulsions.
5 Specialist options
with medication but a high dose of the drug needs to be taken for at least
12 weeks. Of those patients who do respond, at least 75% will relapse in the
months after stopping the drug.
Answer on p. 198
Exposure and response prevention (ERP): exposure means facing or
confronting the feared stimuli and/or situations repeatedly until the fear
associated with them subsides, and response prevention means not carrying
out the compulsive, avoidant or escape behaviour. ERP targets the behavioural
component of CBT.
Lehmkuhl et al. (2008) reported on the use of ERP to treat a 12-year-old boy
with OCD with autism, an autistic spectrum disorder (see page 20). Jason
experienced contamination fears, avoiding ‘contaminated’ items (e.g. door knobs,
library books, etc.). He would not sit on chairs, turn pages with his hands, or
touch papers that other children had touched. Jason reported significant anxiety
when prevented from completing his rituals (e.g. hand washing, using hand
sanitiser) and this began interfering with his everyday functioning. Jason spent
several hours per day at home washing his hands or worrying about potentially
contaminated items throughout the house. In early therapy sessions, Jason was
required to touch items in the hospital such as elevator buttons and door
handles until his anxiety was much reduced. When touching, Jason had to
repeat coping statements such as ‘I know that nothing bad will happen.’ Jason
even reported being proud of himself when exposures were successfully
completed. In later sessions other feared stimuli were targeted, also with success.
Evaluation
●
●
●
The case study of Jason has strengths and weaknesses.
Biomedical treatments are reductionist, are nature rather than nurture
and are deterministic. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
CBT (and ERP) are based on the learning approach and nurture.
(Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on
obsessive–compulsive and related
disorders. For part (a), the ‘describe’
part, decide what you need to include
(and exclude). In the exam, you should
spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’
part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two
issues in addition to the named issue.
You should spend no more than 18
minutes on part (b).
Cross check
Case studies, page 51
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Reductionism, page 89
Determinism, page 90
5.3 Psychology and
consumer behaviour
The physical environment
Retail/leisure environment design
The term ‘retail atmospherics’ refers to all of the physical and psychological
elements of a store that can be controlled in order to enhance (or restrain) the
behaviour of both customers and employees (Eroglu and Machleit, 1993).
Specialist options
111
5 Specialist options
Turley and Milliman (2000) reviewed the evidence for retail atmospherics.
They divided 56 different variables into five main categories:
1 External variables (e.g. entrances, exterior window displays, signs, size of
building and surrounding stores).
2 General interior variables (e.g. colour scheme, lighting, music, odour, aisles,
temperature, cleanliness).
3 Layout and design variables (e.g. space design, placement of merchandise
and cash registers, traffic flow).
4 Point-of-purchase and decoration (e.g. signs, product displays, price
displays).
5 Human variables (e.g. employee characteristics, employee uniforms,
crowding, customer characteristics).
Atmospheric variables are generally measured in three ways:
1 Sales/purchase behaviour: e.g. in 25 of 28 studies, Turley and Milliman
found that atmospheric variables had some significant influence on
consumer sales.
2 Time spent in store: most time = music, colour and pleasure; least =
lighting.
3 Approach-avoidance behaviour: including pleasure (the degree to which
a person felt happy or satisfied in a place), arousal (the degree of stimulation
caused by an atmosphere), and dominance (the degree to which a person
feels in control in a situation). This is the ‘PAD’ model (page 115).
A review collects and critically
analyses multiple research studies
or papers.
Now test yourself
17 According to Turley and Milliman,
what are the three components
of approach-avoidance behaviour
when measuring atmospheric
variables?
Answer on p. 198
Leisure environments: one type of leisure environment is a gambling casino.
Finlay et al. (2006) examined the influence of the physical design of gambling
venues on emotion. Two designs were identified:
● The Kranes (1995) playground model has features designed to induce
pleasure, legibility and restoration. The design has open space, high ceilings,
vegetation and an entertaining, fantasy environment that is comfortable and
pleasant.
● The Friedman (2000) design lists 13 principles of effective casino design,
the most important of which is to focus on the gambling equipment (e.g.
slot machines). Ceilings should be low with no signs and compact gambling
areas (a maze-like design), so it is hard to find the exit, which encourages
continuous playing of the machines.
To determine preference, Finlay et al. sampled 48 participants (26 male, 22
Expert tip
female) in six different casinos (three of each design) in Las Vegas, USA. They
Think about the layout of a casino:
were given $5 and 30 minutes in each casino. At the end, participants completed
it is ‘maze-like’ and has no windows
a questionnaire, rating 18 items including pleasure, arousal and restoration
or clocks. Why not? IKEA stores have
exactly the same layout.
(feeling relaxed and comfortable). Findings showed that the Kranes-type design
gave more pleasure, arousal and restoration than the Friedman-type design.
Store interior layout: there are three major types of store layout (see figure 12).
● Grid: a rectangular arrangement of displays with long aisles that run parallel
to one another. This makes efficient use of selling space with increased
product display space. Shopping is simplified with clear, distinct traffic aisles.
However, the customer is forced to follow a certain path in the store.
● Free form: arranges displays and aisles in a free-flowing and asymmetric
pattern using different sizes, shapes, and styles of displays. It is used by large
department stores to increase the time spent in the store.
● Racetrack/boutique: arrangement is in individual, semi-separate areas,
each built around a theme to create an unusual, interesting and entertaining
shopping experience. The design leads customers through specific paths to
visit as many sections as possible. It encourages impulse purchasing.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
(b) Free form
5 Specialist options
(a) Grid
(c) Racetrack/boutique
Figure 12 Types of store layout
Vrechopoulos et al. (2004) conducted a laboratory experiment to investigate
the three layout types (IVs) in a virtual environment: 60 participants in the UK
and 60 in Greece were given £20 to make purchases in an online grocery store.
The design was independent measures. At the end of the ‘shopping trip’,
participants completed questionnaires in relation to:
● perceived usefulness (e.g. ‘the store enables me to search and buy products
faster’)
● ease of use (e.g. ‘the store is easy to use’)
● entertainment (e.g. ‘the store was fun to browse’).
In addition, the time taken to complete the ‘trip’ was recorded.
Results showed that the free form layout was the most useful, the grid layout was
easiest to use, and the free form was most entertaining. The fastest was the grid
layout (mean of 747.5 seconds), the slowest was the racetrack layout (971.3 seconds).
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
The study by Turley and Milliman was a review of many studies.
Experiments were used in both Finlay et al. and Vrechopoulos et al.
(Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Both studies also used questionnaires and gathered quantitative
data, some of which was objective (e.g. time in virtual store) and some
subjective. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
The Vrechopoulos et al. study had low ecological validity. Participants in
different countries may experience shopping and gambling differently, so
there is potential for cultural bias (weakness).
All three theories have strengths and weaknesses. For example, do the
theories have any evidence to support them? To what extent can the theory
be generalised from one organisation to another and does the theory
apply in all cultures? (potential cultural bias). Theories are often based on
organisations in the USA and this is another source of bias. Theories were
also based on industrial life in the 1970s and 1980s and these theories may
not be useful in today’s society.
Now test yourself
18 Describe the main features of the
racetrack/boutique store layout.
Answer on p. 198
Cross check
Questionnaires, page 49
Experiments, page 43
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Subjective and objective data, page 69
Virtual reality, page 94
Ecological validity, page 67
Cultural bias, page 88
Sound and consumer behaviour
Music in restaurants: North et al. (2003) conducted a field experiment
in a restaurant to investigate the effect of type of music on the amount of
money spent. The study was conducted over 3 weeks so that each of the three
conditions of the IV could be tested on different days. They were: classical music,
pop music and no music. A total of 393 people (who did not know they were in
a study) ate in the restaurant over 3 weeks and listened to only one type, so the
design was independent measures. The dependent variable was actual spend in
pounds broken down into starters, main course, dessert, coffee, bar drinks and
wine. Total spend was also calculated. Results showed that most money was
spent with classical music being played at £32.51, compared with pop music at
£29.46 and no music at £29.73. There was very little difference in the amount
spent on main course and the greatest difference was spending on coffee:
classical £1.06, pop £0.80 and no music £0.53.
North et al. suggest the most likely reason for the overall difference in total
spend (and on coffee) is that classical music promotes an upmarket atmosphere
which primes people to spend more money.
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Music in open-air markets: music, particularly classical, is associated with
spending more money inside a restaurant, but will music played outside lead to
increased spending? Guéguen et al. (2007) conducted a field study outside the
stall of an open-air market. The music was chosen for its association with toys
and trinkets (which the stall sold) and was joyful. Participants were 154 men and
86 women who were randomly allocated to the music or no music conditions
(the IV) on arrival at the stall in a town in France. There were three DVs: length
of stay at the stall (observed with a stop-watch), number of purchases and
amount spent (in euros) on purchases.
Results:
Time at stall: with music = 5.27 minutes’ stay, without music 3.72 minutes’
stay.
● Number of purchases: with music 18.3% made purchases, without music
10%.
● Amount spent: with music €6.34, without music €5.67.
●
Guéguen et al. concluded that playing music (appropriate to the items on sale)
leads to customers staying longer, buying more and spending more.
Background noise and food perception: the perception of food is influenced
not only by taste and smell but also by colour and sound. Woods et al. (2010)
investigated the effects of auditory background noise on the perception of levels
of sugar and salt and liking in Experiment 1, and overall flavour, food crunchiness
and food liking in Experiment 2.
Students were the participants in both laboratory experiments. In Experiment 1
participants tasted Pringles crisps (salty and crunchy), Cathedral City cheese (salty
and soft), Nice biscuits (sweet and crunchy) and a flapjack (sweet and soft). They
tasted (with their eyes closed) small amounts of each (repeated measures design)
while being presented with (through headphones) noise of three types: white
noise of 45–55 dB (quiet), white noise of 75–85 dB (loud) and a no-white noise
condition. After tasting, they rated saltiness, sweetness and liking. Results showed
that both sweetness and saltiness were rated lower in the loud noise condition.
In Experiment 2 (different participants) sweet and salty were again used
(different foods from Experiment 1) and a ‘dummy’ (neutral food) with no noise,
quiet and loud conditions. ‘Flavorsomeness’, liking and crunchiness were the DVs.
Participants also rated the liking of the background noise. Results showed that
crunchiness was rated higher in the loud noise condition. Overall, sweetness and
saltiness were reduced with loud noise while crunchiness (sound-mediated food
cue) was increased. Liking the noise was correlated with liking the food.
Evaluation
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●
●
●
●
●
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Cross check
All three studies were experiments (two field and one laboratory), so there
were many strengths and weaknesses.
The two field experiments had high ecological validity (strength) and
the participants did not know they were participants, so there were no
demand characteristics (strength).
There are elements of reductionism (strengths and weaknesses) in all
three: the North et al. study had data that could be reduced to individual
items, but with a total (holistic) amount spent. The Guéguen et al. study
was just one stall with a certain product.
Whether the findings that music leads to more spending can be
generalised is debatable (strengths and weaknesses).
Observations (with no inter-rater reliability) were used in the Guéguen et
al. study (strengths and weaknesses).
The North et al. and Guéguen et al. studies gathered objective
quantitative data, whereas the Woods et al. study gathered subjective
quantitative data (strengths and weaknesses). There could be cultural
bias because all three studies were located in one place in a specific country
(weaknesses).
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Experiments, page 43
Reductionism, page 89
Ecological validity, page 67
Generalisations, page 68
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Subjective and objective data, page 69
Cultural bias, page 88
The Mehrabian and Russell (1974) pleasure/arousal/dominance (PAD)
model: retail atmospherics (music, scent, etc.) have an effect on the emotional
state of the consumer, which in turn causes behavioural changes, both positive
(approach, buy more, stay longer, etc.) and negative (avoid, buy less, leave earlier,
etc.) Mehrabian and Russell (1974) outlined the PAD model which proposes that
emotions can be measured along three dimensions:
● Pleasure (the degree to which a person is contented, happy, satisfied,
pleased, relaxed, important, cares, hopeful).
● Arousal (the degree to which a person is stimulated, excited, jittery, aroused,
frenzied, autonomous, wide-awake, controlling).
● Dominance (the extent to which a person feels in control of the situation
(rather than being controlled) and is able to act freely).
Now test yourself
19 Describe the three measures of the
‘PAD’ model.
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Lighting, colour and smell
Answer on p. 198
Customer reactions, according to Mehrabian and Russell, can be either
approach or avoidance. These include: store patronage intentions, exploration
inside a store, desire to communicate with others, and satisfaction and
performance, including time and money expenditures.
The cognition–emotion model: the simple view is that our appraisal of a
situation (the cognitive component) causes an emotional (or affective) response
that is going to be based on that appraisal. This is the gist of the Lazarus (1991)
cognition–emotion model. A stimulus in the environment/situation can be
consciously or unconsciously processed (our appraisal of it) and this leads us to
be aroused and experience emotion (which both happen at the same time). In
sum, cognition then emotion.
Expert tip
This congnition–emotion model is
used by many studies to assess the
effects of the consumer environment
on shopper behaviour. Look out for it
being used.
However, Zajonc and Markus (1984) propose the emotion–cognition model,
suggesting that emotion can occur because of cognitions (appraisal), but it can also
occur because of biological or other sensory events. In sum, emotion with or without
cognition.
The purpose of researching the physical (and psychological) environment is to
create a ‘servicescape’ (Bitner, 1992) which is the first aspect of the environment
(lighting, colour, smell, etc.) that is perceived by the customer that is likely to
form impressions of the level of service they will receive.
Lighting and colour in retail stores: research shows that:
people are drawn to light; light can draw attention to products
● under ‘bright lighting’ conditions, products are more often examined and
touched than under ‘dim lighting’ conditions; bright light is associated with
‘quick’ purchases; low-level light encourages customers to stay longer
● lighting influences the attractiveness of products in a store – products under
high light levels were found to be more appealing than products under lower
light levels
● consumers spent significantly more time at displays with the additional
accent lighting.
●
Research on colour is ambiguous: one study showed cool-coloured stores are
preferred (create better feelings for purchase intentions), but other research
shows warm-coloured stores are more up-to-date.
In sum, a well-designed lighting and colour scheme in a store can create
dramatic spaces which motivate customers to purchase merchandise. It attracts
customers and reinforces the image of the store.
Kutlu et al. (2013) investigated how a high-quality brand is affected by colour
and light. They used what they called the ‘square method’, which allowed
consideration of how the variables of store image and product design interact.
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A total of 121 shoppers visiting four stores in Istanbul (aged 15–60; 85% female)
completed an eight-item questionnaire about the psychological effects of store
image and product design.
Now test yourself
20Describe the ‘square method’
outlined by Kutlu et al. (2013).
Results showed that 72.7% thought that the interior colour scheme had an
effect on brand image. Participants also thought that the store image was stylish
(83.3%), the light-colour scheme was relaxing (31.7%), and it was pleasing and
matched the merchandise (24%).
Answer on p. 198
Effects of odour on shopper arousal and emotion: the use of ambient scent
in the retail environment can be beneficial if it is congruent with the shopping
environment. However, the same fragrance can become totally inefficient, or
worse, have negative effects if used inappropriately.
Chebat and Michon (2003) conducted a field experiment in a shopping
mall in Montreal. In the first week there was no odour (the control) and in the
second week a light citrus scent was emitted between two major retailers for
3 seconds every 6 minutes from ten diffusers. A total of 145 participants in the
scent condition and 447 in the control condition completed a questionnaire
about their pleasure and arousal (i.e. the PAD model) and also about their
spending and the quality of the mall in general.
Results showed that the ambient scent directly affected shoppers’ perceptions,
enhancing mood and improving shoppers’ perception of their shopping
environment. They concluded that the cognitive theory of emotions, rather than
the PAD model, better explains the effect of ambient scent.
A specific scent can be associated with and enhance purchases of a specific
product, or associated with a specific store (e.g. the company Hollister releases a
fragrance in its stores and its clothes often smell of this scent).
Evaluation
●
●
Cross check
There are different models of the effects of ambience – these can’t easily
be evaluated. The study by Kutlu et al. has high ecological validity, but as it
was conducted in just one city there may be cultural bias (weakness) and
the findings may or may not be generalised (strengths and weaknesses).
Exactly the same applies to the study by Chebat and Michon (one shopping
mall in one city).
The Chebat and Michon study was a field experiment and both studies
gathered data using a questionnaire. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Cultural bias, page 88
Generalisations, page 68
Experiments, page 43
Questionnaires, page 49
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on the physical environment. For part (a), the ‘describe’
part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should
spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part,
choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition
to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
The psychological environment
Environmental influences on consumers
Cognitive maps of retail locations: shoppers remember the design layout
of many different stores and if they want to locate a specific item quickly they
apply their ‘cognitive map’ to take them directly to the item. Shoppers also
have cognitive maps for the actual location of the store (i.e. where it is in the
city). If the cognitive maps of shoppers could be known, then this could have
implications for store patronage (the store they prefer to go to).
However, cognitive maps are internal to the individual and cannot be measured
directly. A common method is a sketch map or ‘draw-a-map’ technique (first
used by Lynch, 1960). Another ‘graphic’ technique is to draw lines indicating
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
A cognitive map is a pictorial or
semantic image in our head of
how places are arranged.
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distances between two points. A third technique is multi-dimensional scaling
(MDS), which creates a map displaying the relative positions of a number of
objects, based on the distances between them.
Mackay and Olshavsky (1975) approached 78 shoppers randomly in eight
different supermarkets in Indiana, USA, inviting them to participate in a
laboratory experiment. Shoppers had to have a car and had to have ‘heard of’
all the other stores. At the laboratory, participants were interviewed, ranked all
eitht stores in order of preference and rated the stores on other variables, but
most importantly they were asked to draw a (sketch) map of their departure point
(e.g. their home) and of the eight supermarkets (with as much or as little detail
as they wished). This was followed by an ordering of all possible pairs of the eight
supermarkets and their place of departure in terms of their geographical proximity
(i.e. MDS). It was concluded that better cognitive maps were related to store
preference and that sketch maps are more like actual maps than are MDS maps.
Crowding in retail environments: one variable that might have a negative
effect on the experience of pleasure, arousal and particularly dominance is the
perceived crowding in a retail store. Whereas density is physical (spatial density
is the store size and social density is the number of people), crowding is
psychological, meaning that two shoppers in the same store may perceive
different levels of crowding.
The study by Machleit et al. (2000) hypothesised that:
1 High levels of perceived retail crowding would lead to lower levels of shopper
satisfaction (i.e. an inverse/negative correlation), and the opposite would also
apply.
2 People who tolerate crowds (i.e. tend not to perceive crowding) would be
less affected by high crowding levels than others.
3 The type of store will affect perceived crowding. In discount-type stores (low
cost and high value), high levels of crowding should not affect shopping
satisfaction.
Crowding is a ’psychological state
determined by perceptions of
restrictiveness when exposed to
spatial limitations’ (Stokols, 1972).
Now test yourself
21 What were the three hypotheses in
Study 1 by Machleit et al. (2000) on
crowding.
Answer on p. 198
In Study 1 the participants were 722 students who were asked to take home a
questionnaire and, following a shopping trip, complete it fully. Questions were
asked about:
● perceived crowding (e.g. ‘the store was a little too busy’) on a Likert-type
scale
● the type of store
● crowding tolerance questions (e.g. ‘I avoid crowded stores whenever
possible’)
● satisfaction/emotional measurement questions (‘I enjoyed shopping at the
store’) on a 7-point scale.
Study 2 replicated Study 1 because the authors were concerned that a student
sample was too restricted.
Study 3, a laboratory experiment, was conducted (on 231 students) because
Studies 1 and 2 were retrospective (questionnaires completed after the
shopping trip) and because many other variables could not be controlled (such
as type of store). Participants watched one of four videotapes of a bookstore
(different levels of density) and then answered questions like those in the
previous studies.
A retrospective study is one that
is based on information that has
occurred in the past.
Overall hypothesis 1 was confirmed as was hypothesis 2. Study 3 showed that in
the discount store condition, crowding is significantly correlated with satisfaction
(because of the type of store it is).
Shopper movement patterns: it is often assumed that shoppers move in
similar ways when shopping in a supermarket where the store layout is regular.
Research by Gil et al. (2009) suggests this is not the case. Using 480 participants
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in a supermarket in the UK, they first briefly interviewed people entering the
store, gaining consent and information about age, gender, etc. and giving them a
coloured tag. Then, using CCTV, they tracked their movement around the store,
and finally on exit, they asked about the aim of the trip, use of shopping list,
money spent, etc. From the results, Gil et al. identified four types of movement
pattern clusters and five types of shopper behaviour patterns.
Movement pattern clusters:
● Short trip: shoppers on a simple, short trip in and out of the store with few
specific targets that can be located anywhere in the store, not necessarily
visiting the most popular products.
● Round trip: shoppers moving up and along the top corridor and aisles,
visiting the vegetable, fruit and bread at the start; returning along the main
corridor with various types of incursions into aisles; generally exiting near
fruit and vegetables.
● Central trip: shoppers progressing in and out of the store using the main
corridor; with various types of incursions into the aisles, mainly visiting the
top aisles first and the bottom ones when returning.
● Wave trip: shoppers in linear progression through the store along the main
corridor, zigzagging through the aisles; most exiting near the far end of the store.
Shopper behaviour patterns.
Now test yourself
● The specialist: short-trip shoppers who focus on a few products, and are
22Contrast the explorer and raider
mainly on ‘top-up’ (42%) or ‘non-food’ (31%) missions; 58% take baskets and
types of shopper as outlined by
30% a shallow trolley.
Gil et al. (2009).
● The native: shoppers who make long trips visiting only relevant aisles.
Answer on p. 198
Interactions with products are likely to result in purchases; 37% on ‘main’ and
58% on ‘top-up’ missions; 90% take a trolley.
● The tourist: fast-moving shoppers on short to medium trips. Prefer main
corridors and don’t go far from the entrance. They look more than buy; 68% Expert tip
take a trolley and 82% are on a ‘top-up’ mission.
The question above asks for a contrast.
● The explorer: shoppers making the longest trips, going everywhere more
This isn’t merely a ‘describe one then
than once, slowly, with long interactions with the products and buying a lot.
describe the other’ task. A contrast
asks how the two are different, so
They cover all the aisles in the store and 82% are on a main mission; 62% are
write that ‘X’ does this, whereas ‘Y’
female alone; 87% take a trolley.
does that. Then contrast on a different
● The raider: fast shoppers, both in moving and making decisions, with clear
aspect. Look at the answer to the
preference for main corridors, going far into the store if necessary, on ‘top-up’
question above to see how it is done.
or ‘food for tonight’ missions. They have the highest ratio of male shoppers.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
Cross check
All three studies gathered participants outside stores and conducted
experiments (strengths and weaknesses). These studies have high
ecological validity and have high mundane realism.
All three studies were conducted on shoppers in the USA and so there
could be cultural bias (weakness) as shopper attitudes might differ
significantly from one country to another.
The study by Gil et al. tracks shopper movement, so this is objective
quantitative data (strengths and weaknesses).
Part of the study by Machleit was retrospective (questionnaires completed
after the shopping trip), so this may involve demand characteristics/social
desirability (weaknesses). This study also used a questionnaire (strengths
and weaknesses).
Menu design psychology
The menu is one of the most important features of any food establishment.
The menu is used for planning (items to be included), pricing, and operating
(quality, hygiene and cost of food items). The menu design (the position and
description of menu items) can directly influence not only what customers
will order, but how much they will spend. It directly influences sales revenue;
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Experiments, page 43
Ecological validity/mundane realism,
page 67
Cultural bias, page 88
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Questionnaires, page 49
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introduces the customer to your restaurant; and its design should complement
the décor, service, food quality and price range of the restaurant. The menu is
the restaurant’s business card (Pavesic, 2005).
Eye movement patterns, framing and common menu mistakes: Pavesic
(2005) lists common menu mistakes:
● Hard to read: poor font size, paper colour and font style; crowded pages
with too many items; printing on dark paper with dark ink.
● Monotonous design: using the same graphic design so nothing stands out.
● Poor salesmanship: not emphasising with graphics, fonts and colour items
that bring more profit.
● Incongruence: failing to design the menu to fit the décor and personality
of the restaurant. The menu should: visualise your décor, type of food, price
range and whether you offer casual or upscale dining.
● Too big: oversized menus can be awkward to hold; the size should match
the size of the table, the place setting and the table appointments.
Pavesic also reviewed other menu design research:
Customers will spend 109 seconds reading a menu or rather scanning it. The
eye is drawn to the first and last items rather than the middle items (see the
Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011) research below) unless there are ‘eye magnets’. An
eye magnet draws the eye by treating a particular section differently from
the others. This could be a box, a larger font, different colour, use of icons or
symbols and even descriptions such as ‘heart healthy’. Figure 13 shows the
typical pattern when scanning a menu.
●
Upper left
corner
Upper right
corner
First
eye
focus
Bottom left
corner
Bottom right
corner
Figure 13 Typical eye movement patterns when scanning a menu
●
●
●
●
Never have more than 24 menu items: 60–70% of sales are from 18–24 items;
fewer items means less cooking, so reducing stock and wasted food.
It is better to offer fewer items that can be prepared well rather than many
items done poorly.
Menu formats: single page (or card); two-page/single-fold and three-panel,
two-fold (as in Figure 13 above) are common.
Research on menu design can be conducted using eye-tracking techniques
(see page 130)
Primacy, recency and menu item position: trade publications on menu
design suggest that ‘people tend to remember the top two items on a list and
the bottom item’ and that ‘the most frequently selected items are those in the
first and last position in the category list’. (Primacy = first items, and recency =
last or most recent items.) This ‘edge bias’ was studied by Dayan and Bar-Hillel
(2011) who manipulated the position of different foods on a restaurant menu.
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For Study 1 Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011) created four menus (with no prices)
consisting of four appetisers, ten main courses, six soft drinks and eight desserts.
Each item was ‘randomised’:
● Menu 1 ‘baseline’: appetisers A1, A2, A3 and A4
● Menu 2 ‘mirror’: appetisers A4, A3, A2 and A1
● Menu 3 ‘inside out’ base: appetisers A2, A1, A4, A3
● Menu 4 ‘inside out’ mirror: appetisers A3, A4, A1, A2
A total of 240 Hebrew University (Israel) students were asked to choose a single
item from each category of the menu. The results were quite clear: participants
were significantly more likely to choose items at the extremes rather than those
placed in the middle (see Figure 14).
Extremes
Middle
70
60
Percentage choice
50
40
30
20
10
0
Appetisers
Entrées
Desserts
Soft drinks
Total
Figure 14 Results from Study 1 by Dayan and Bar-Hillel (2011)
However, a significant weakness was that participants were making hypothetical choices
rather than actual choices that they would make if they were eating/purchasing the item.
Study 2, a field experiment, was conducted in a small Tel Aviv café with ‘real’
customers over a 30-minute period. The IV was menu type (original and ‘inside
out’) and the DV was the orders placed from each menu type (recorded by the
waiters). A total of 459 orders were placed from the base menu and 492 from
the ‘inside-out’ menu.
The results confirmed those of Study 1, giving the overall conclusion that items placed
at the beginning or the end of the list of their category options (primacy and recency)
were up to twice as popular as when they were placed in the centre of the list.
Sensory perception and food name: menu item position affects choice
but does the wording of the item also affect choice? Further, can menu item
descriptive names suggestively influence the perceived taste of restaurant food?
In a 6-week field experiment conducted in a café at the University of Illinois, USA,
Wansink et al. (2005) manipulated the names of six menu items as shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Descriptive and regular names of six menu items
120
Descriptive name
Regular name
Traditional Cajun Red Beans with Rice
Red Beans with Rice
Succulent Italian Seafood Filet
Seafood Filet
Tender Grilled Chicken
Grilled Chicken
Homestyle Chicken Parmesan
Chicken Parmesan
Satin Chocolate Pudding
Chocolate Pudding
Grandma’s Zucchini Cookies
Zucchini Cookies
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
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The descriptive and regular named items were rotated (or left off the menu), so
each item was available six times in the 6-week period. After choosing and paying
for the menu item, 140 participants completed a questionnaire. Using a 9-point
Likert scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 9 = strongly agree, questions were asked
such as: ‘this item was appealing to the eye’, ‘this item tasted good’ and ‘I felt full
and satisfied’. They were also asked to estimate how many calories each item
contained. These quantitative data were supported with a ‘comment on the
food’ open-ended question, providing qualitative data.
Results showed that when the descriptive name was used the item was more
appealing (6.66 v 5.87); tasted good (7.31 v 6.83); and participants felt full (6.83 v
4.47). The descriptive items also received significantly more positive comments
when the open-ended answers were analysed. However, the descriptive items
were said to have more calories (366 versus 302).
Wansink et al. (2005) concluded that adding a few extra words to menu items
can have a positive effect on how food is perceived by diners.
Evaluation
●
●
●
The two studies are field experiments, so have many strengths and
weaknesses. Field experiments have high ecological validity and the
participants did not know they were participants, so there were no
demand characteristics.
There could be cultural bias (weakness) because the Wansink et al. study
was conducted in the USA (and menu names may not influence people in
all cultures: some cultures use pictures rather than names) and one in Israel,
although primacy and recency effects could generalise to all cultures.
The Dayan and Bar-Hillel study gathered objective quantitative data
while the Wansink et al. study gathered quantitative and qualitative
subjective data. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Cross check
Field experiments, page 44
Ecological validity, page 67
Cultural bias, page 88
Generalisations, page 68
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Subjective and objective data, page 69
Personal space
Theories of personal space: Hall (1966) outlines four zones of personal space:
● intimate – for people in a relationship, close friends and family
● personal – for friends and family
● social – for interacting work colleagues
● public – for speaking in public, e.g. a lecture.
Personal space is an invisible bubble
surrounding us.
Alpha personal space is an objective, externally measurable distance and beta
personal space is the subjective, individual experience.
Personal space has a number of functions:
● Overload – personal space prevents others coming too close and overstimulating us with sensory experience (e.g. with their smell).
● Arousal – when space is invaded we are aroused. Are we happy with this, or
fearful? The answer will determine how we respond (e.g. we may move away).
● Behaviour constraint – suggests we maintain space to prevent our
behavioural freedom from being taken away (e.g. if others are too close, we
may feel crowded).
Space at restaurant tables: personal space is our ‘personal’ bubble but
this can be extended (such as when we are in a car or at a restaurant table).
When sat in a restaurant, how much space is ‘adequate’ between the table
we are at and that of another customer? Many restaurants minimise the
amount of space to maximise their profit, but this could alienate customers
(e.g. early departure or a disinclination to spend) who like more space to
relax when eating.
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Robson et al. (2011) used a web-based questionnaire to investigate
‘adequate’ table spacing. The questionnaire included photographs of tables
spaced apart at distances of 6 inches (Hall’s ‘intimate’ zone), 12 inches and
24 inches (Hall’s ‘personal’ zone). (1 inch = 2.5 centimetres.) Questions were
also asked about three types of dining: for business purposes, with a friend
and while on a romantic date (also linked to Hall’s zones). This presented
nine different combinations and participants were randomly assigned to
just one of these.
The participants were people responding to the web-based questionnaire and
included: 461 male and 537 female; 182 from a major city, 230 from a rural area
with others between these; 63 dined (in a restaurant) more than three times per
week, through to 319 who dined less than once per month.
The above information was gathered in the first part of the questionnaire. In
the second part there were 32 statements such as: ‘I would feel like I was being
watched’, ‘I would feel comfortable’, ‘I would be overheard by other diners’.
These were rated on a 7-point scale from 1 = strongly disagree, 4 = neither agree
nor disagree to 9 = strongly agree.
Several conclusions were drawn:
respondents strongly objected to closely spaced tables in most
circumstances, particularly in a ‘romantic’ context
● women were much less comfortable than men in tight quarters (i.e. 6-inch
spacing)
● diners may be less likely to return to a restaurant with uncomfortable table
spacing.
●
It was also found that diners did not like banquette-style seating (a long benchtype seat which can sit many people close together).
Defending place in a queue: what is a queue? According to Milgram et al.
(1986) a queue:
● regulates the sequence in which people gain access to goods or services
● gives ordering a distinctive spatial form
● maintains its line when there is a shared knowledge of appropriate standards
of behaviour.
The aim of the study was to see what would happen if an intruder pushed into
a queue. Milgram used a field experiment in different locations in New York
City. The IVs were the number of intruders (one or two), and the number of
buffers/stooges (zero, one or two) who allowed the invader to push into the
queue. The DVs (gathered by observation) were qualitative verbal comments
and quantitative behaviours (physical actions and non-verbal behaviours). The
study was repeated 129 times. The intruders were stooges.
People in the queue responded with (response categories):
1 Physical action (10.1%) including touching, tugging at the sleeve, tapping
the shoulder of the intruder and even pushing the intruder firmly out of the
line.
2 Verbal objection (21.7%), which was either directly to the intruder, ‘Excuse
me, you have to go to the back of the line’, or generalised, ‘Excuse me, it’s a
line.’
3 Non-verbal objections (14.7%) including hostile stares and gestures to the
invader to get out of the line.
It was also found that two intruders provoked more of a reaction that one
intruder, and in buffer conditions the responses were less than without any
buffer.
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●
●
●
●
The Robson et al. study used a questionnaire while the Milgram et al.
study was a field experiment which used observation. (Strengths and
weaknesses of all.)
The Milgram study invaded personal space which is unethical and it also
used stooges. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
The Milgram study gathered quantitative and qualitative data, both were
objective; the Robson et al. study gathered quantitative data which were
subjective. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
Both studies were conducted in the USA. There may be cultural
differences (weakness) both in queuing behaviour and in table spacing
in restaurants. The Robson et al. study has low ecological validity (using
photographs rather than actual table spacings) (weakness).
Cross check
Questionnaires, page 49
Experiments, page 43
Observations, page 51
Ethics, page 57
Use of stooges, page 59
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Subjective and objective data, page 69
Cultural bias, page 88
Ecological validity, page 67
5 Specialist options
Evaluation
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on the psychological environment. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you
should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’
part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues
in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on
part (b).
Consumer decision-making
Models, strategies and theories
Should I buy this or not? What thoughts are in a shopper’s mind before they
make a decision to purchase or not? How do consumers make decisions? There
are three models: utility theory, satisficing and prospect theory.
Utility theory (Neumann and Morgernstern, 1953) is the method of ranking
preferences. It states that consumers will chose the option with the highest
utility (or value). This assumes that people are rational in making decisions and
that they can consistently rank order their options based on their preferences.
Each individual has different preferences, but common ones include: ‘more-isbetter’ and ‘mix-is-better’.
However, consumers are not completely rational; they are often inconsistent and
are often unaware about the factors that determine their decisions.
Satisficing (Simon, 1956) is a combination of the words ‘satisfy’ and ‘suffice’ and
unlike in utility theory, rather than considering all options and deciding on the
one with the best utility score, Simon believes we select the first option that
appears to meet the need, or which appears to meet most needs. Simply put:
‘why continue searching for an item when this one will do? This is more efficient
in time and resources, even though it might not be 100% perfect.
However, although satisficing might explain consumer decisions, it is of little help
to the seller. Prospect theory combines elements of both the above models.
Prospect theory, first proposed by Kahneman and Tversky (1979), suggests that
value (or utility) is not a single ‘thing’ but is based on a decision-making process
of weighting costs and benefits. Further, costs and benefits are valued differently
and if there are two alternatives, the one presented in terms of benefits will be
chosen over the one presented in terms of possible losses (this is loss aversion).
What also affects value is the endowment effect, which is where people put
more value on things that they own. The theory involves four stages:
1 The editing process, which tries to make things simpler using ‘rule of
thumb’ shortcuts, such as the representative heuristic, the availability
heuristic and anchoring and analogy.
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2 Coding – setting a point of reference on which the outcome of the decision
can be measured.
3 Value (as described above).
4 Weighting and risk assessment (e.g. ‘framing’ where ‘95% chance of
recovery compared to 5% chance of death’).
Strategies of decision-making: there are three strategies: compensatory, noncompensatory and partially compensatory.
In compensatory decision strategies, an attractive or high value on one
attribute of a thing can compensate for an unattractive or low value on another
attribute. For example, in choosing between birthday cake-makers, all the
attributes (cost of cake, delivery charges, quality of cake) that have an impact
on the final decision must be considered. Attractive attributes (e.g. cake quality)
can compensate for unattractive attributes (e.g. high cost). The cake company
chosen is the one with the highest value.
By contrast, in non-compensatory decision strategies, consumers making
choices consider attributes sequentially, and benefits on some attributes may
not overbalance shortfalls on others. Three strategies apply:
● Lexicographic: if the first product has high value attributes, there is no
reason to look further.
● Satisficing: we select the first option that appears to meet the need or
which appears to meet most needs (see above).
● Elimination by aspects: sets a cut-off value and any product not meeting
the desired value is eliminated.
Partially compensatory strategies combine aspects of the other models:
● The majority of conforming dimensions is where two competing
products are evaluated across all attributes, and the one that has higher
values across more attributes is retained. This winner is then evaluated
against the next competitor, and so on.
● The frequency of good and bad features is where all products are
simultaneously compared and the product that has the highest frequency of
good attributes is the winner.
Marketing theories:
● Consideration is simply where we make a logical decision based on salient
factors. We could name 25 restaurants in the area, but if we needed the
closest, the nearest one would come to mind.
● Involvement is where the amount of effort put into making a decision is
directly related to the importance of acquiring that product.
Choice heuristics
Kahneman outlines heuristics and biases. Heuristics are mental shortcuts or
‘rules of thumb’ that people use to help them make judgements. However, these
sometimes go wrong, and these cognitive ‘errors’ are known as biases. There are
many heuristics and biases, for example:
● Avaliability: this is the ease with which a particular idea can be brought
to mind; how easily we remember things. The bias is that we remember
‘spectacular things’; we think aeroplane crashes are common, when they are
not.
● Representativeness: this is where we make a judgement of similarity;
whether a thing is representative of a category. Sometimes things are similar,
but (the bias is that) often they are not. The quote ‘if it looks like a duck,
walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, then it must be a duck!’ comes to
mind. The associated bias is sometimes called the illusory correlation bias
– there may be no relationship at all.
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Anchoring: this is the tendency to rely on the first piece of information
provided (the anchor). It is where people make estimates based on an initial
value – for example, we estimate a number and then adjust from that
starting point. The bias is that the starting point may be very wrong. See
below for an experimental study on anchoring.
Confirmation bias: this is where a person is biased towards evidence that
confirms their view rather than seeking evidence that challenges it.
Anchoring is where people tend to
rely on (are biased by) the first piece of
information when making a decision.
Anchoring and purchase quantity decisions: Wansink et al. (1998) reported
five experiments to show how a simple anchoring and adjustment judgement
process can influence consumer decisions at point of purchase.
Study 1: Multiple unit pricing: over 1 week, 43 stores used single unit pricing
and 43 stores used multiple pricing for 13 categories of items. Results showed
that, for example, for bathroom tissue, ‘buy 4 for $2’ resulted in 45% more sales
than ‘buy 1 for $0.50’. The anchor of ‘4’ resulted in more purchases.
Now test yourself
Purchase quantity limits: being told there is a limited number available leads
people to purchase more than they would without the quantity limit.
Answer on p. 198
5 Specialist options
●
23Using an example, describe what
is meant by ‘multiple unit pricing’.
Study 2: a field study using end-aisle displays to advertise Campbell’s soups for
$0.79 per can. A sign was then placed on the display stating ‘Limit of 12 per person.’
Expert tip
The results show that purchase limits increased sales; shoppers with no limit
In questions that ask for an example
purchased an average of 3.3 cans, whereas buyers with limits purchased an average
make sure you do include an example.
of 7 cans of soup. The brain anchors with the number 12 and adjusts downward.
Many students describe the term and
Study 3 also looked at purchase quantity limits, this time with items being
advertised at a limit of 7, 14, 28 or 56, or in their original ‘shipped-in box size’.
Results confirmed those of Study 2.
Study 4 looked at suggestive selling (slogans) with and without anchors. The
slogan ‘Buy Snickers Bars for Your Freezer’ was compared with ‘Buy 18 Snickers
Bars for Your Freezer’. Results showed that sales increased with both anchors.
Study 5 aimed to provide an answer for this.
forget about the example. Don’t make
up an example of your own – always
use an example that you have studied.
To answer the above question, use an
example from the Wansink et al. study.
Study 5: this investigated the question: can shoppers counter external anchors
with their own self-generated ‘internal’ anchor? This experiment used well-known
products offered at a 20–30% discount (e.g. Snickers, Wrigley’s gum, Sunkist
oranges, and diet or regular Coke). The external anchor had four quantity limit
conditions of none, 14, 28 and 56. The internal anchor had three conditions of
none, default and expansion. The results supported the anchoring model by
showing that both low (past purchase quantities) and high (future usage
quantities) anchors overpowered the effects of external (purchase limit) anchors.
Pre-cognitive decisions: the aim of the study by Knutson et al. (2007) was to
determine whether distinct neural circuits in the brain respond to product
preference versus excessive prices, and to explore whether anticipatory
activation extracted from these brain regions could independently predict
subsequent decisions to purchase.
A novel task was created called SHOP (save holdings or purchase) where images
of a product were shown for 4 seconds (product period), the price shown for
4 seconds (price period), then a ‘choice period’ followed, also 4 seconds, where
the participant had to choose whether to purchase the product or not (by
pressing ‘yes’ or ‘no’). After a 2-second pause, the next trial would begin. Crucially,
the task was done while the participants were in an MRI scanner which could
pinpoint the region of the brain associated with each of the three task stages.
1 In the product period, preference would be associated with an anticipated gain.
2 During the price period, excessive prices would be associated with
anticipated loss.
3 Any brain activation before the purchase period would predict whether ‘yes’
or ‘no’ would be pressed.
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Results showed that anticipated gain (product preference) was associated with
the NAcc (nucleus accumbens) region; excessive prices (price period) activated
the insula and deactivated the mesial prefrontal cortex (MFPC). Purchasing the
product caused deactivation in the insula.
Knutson et al. concluded: ‘Activity from each of these regions independently
predicted immediately subsequent purchases above and beyond self-report
variables. These findings suggest that activation of distinct neural circuits related
to anticipatory affect precedes and supports consumers’ purchasing decisions.’
Evaluation
●
●
Cross check
Generalisations (strengths and weaknesses) is a relevant issue in relation
to the work by Kahneman, Wansink et al. and Knutson et al. Does every
person in the world use heuristics and biases, or is there cultural bias?
(weaknesses) Does the same brain region activate for every consumer? Does
multiple-unit pricing work in every store, or just in the USA?
The study by Wansink et al. was a field experiment gathering objective,
quantitative data (whether people purchase items or not), and the
laboratory experiment by Knutson et al. used an MRI scanner so that data
were also quantitative and objective. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Experiments, page 43
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Intuitive thinking and its imperfections
Thinking fast and thinking slow: Schleifer (2012) summarises Kahneman’s
work, explaining that we think fast and we think slow, according to Kahneman
(2011). Kahneman calls these System 1, which corresponds to thinking fast, and
System 2, thinking slow.
System 1 is the first thing that comes to mind. This type of thinking is intuitive,
automatic, unconscious and effortless; it answers questions quickly through
associations and resemblances; it is non-statistical, gullible and heuristic. It is the
first response a person makes when answering a quiz question.
System 2 in contrast is ‘second thoughts’. It is conscious, slow, controlled,
deliberate, effortful, statistical, suspicious and lazy. It is when we begin to doubt
our first response to the quiz question (and we change our minds and then find
that the first answer was correct)!
Kahneman also outlines heuristics and biases. Heuristics are mental shortcuts
or ‘rules of thumb’ that people use to help them make judgements. However,
these sometimes go wrong, and these cognitive ‘errors’ are known as biases.
These biases are imperfections in our intuitive thinking. See above for more
details.
Choice blindness: this is another imperfection in our thinking and decisionmaking.
Hall et al. (2010) asked 180 participants at a supermarket in Sweden to
participate in a field experiment. They used three pairs of jam and three pairs
of tea. These pairs were chosen by judges prior to the study for being middle to
dissimilar to each other. The jam pairings were: blackcurrant vs blueberry, ginger
vs lime and cinnamon-apple vs grapefruit. The tea flavours were apple pie vs
honey, caramel and cream vs cinnamon and Pernod (aniseed) vs mango.
Participants tasted one jam (or tea) and then rated their liking on a 10-point
scale (not at all good to very good) before tasting and rating the other jam
(or tea). After tasting, an experimenter ‘flipped’ the container over, so the
opposite flavour was uppermost. The participants could not see the contents
of the container, so they thought it was still the same. After tasting both, they
were asked which they preferred and then to taste again. The tasting would
automatically be the one they did not prefer, but would the participants notice?
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Choice blindness is where people
are blind to their own choices and
preferences.
5 Specialist options
There were three possible answers:
1 Concurrent detection was if the participants voiced any concerns
immediately after tasting or smelling the manipulated jam or tea.
2 Retrospective detection was if the participants (either before or after the
debriefing) claimed to have noticed the manipulation.
3 Sensory-change detection was where the experimenters registered any
reason for the choice being somehow different the second time around (i.e.
tasting/smelling stronger, weaker, sweeter, etc.)
Results: 33% of the jam and 32.2% of the tea trials were detected (combining all
the above possibilities), meaning that in two-thirds of the trials participants were
blind to the mismatch between the intended and the actual outcome of their
choice, and instead believed that the taste or smell they experienced in their
final sample corresponded to their initial choice.
Advertising and false memory: Braun-LaTour et al. (2004) suggested that
advertising can exert a powerful retroactive effect on how consumers remember
their past experiences with a product. Put another way, through reconstructive
memory, could information received after an event produce a false memory for
that event? They conducted two experiments.
False memory is where people
remember events differently
from the way they happened or
they remember events that never
happened at all.
Experiment 1: 66 students were randomly allocated to one of two conditions
(independent measures design) based on an experience at Disneyland.
● a ‘truthful’ advertisement featuring the probable event of shaking hands with
Mickey Mouse
● a ‘false’ advertisement featuring the shaking of hands with Bugs Bunny
A picture of either Bugs Bunny or Mickey Mouse appeared at the bottom of the
advertisement. Note that Bugs Bunny is a Warner Brothers character and would
never have been part of a childhood experience at Disneyland.
Participants were told to read the advertisement and then rate their attitude
toward Disneyland and the likelihood of visiting it in the future. They had to
recall their memories of visiting Disneyland.
Two independent judges coded the replies. The result was that 22% of the ‘false’
group said they had shaken hands with Bugs Bunny, i.e. they had a false memory
for the event; 7% of the ‘true’ group said they had shaken hands with Bugs
Bunny, even though Bugs Bunny was not on the advert or ever at Disneyland,
showing people confuse things without any experimental manipulation!
Experiment 2 had three conditions:
1 Pictorial condition with Bugs Bunny at the bottom of the advertisement.
2 Verbal condition with a headline ‘Bugs Bunny Says It’s Time to Remember
the Magic’.
3 Both pictorial and verbal conditions combined.
Results showed that the advertisements with pictures (‘pictorial’ 48% and ‘both’
32%) had the largest number of false memories compared to ‘verbal’ with just
17%. Interestingly there were more ‘Bugs Bunny detectors’ (those who noticed
the discrepancy that Bugs Bunny in Disneyland was false) in the ‘verbal’ group:
31% compared with 12% and 8% in the other groups.
Experiment 3 used the same advertisements as Experiment 2. The results were
similar: more false memories in ‘pictorial’ (52%) and more Bugs Bunny detectors
in ‘verbal’ (34%). In addition, it was found that participants remembered most
items from the ‘both’ condition (6.2%), compared to 5.1% from ‘pictorial’ and
4.7% from ‘verbal’, showing deeper processing, and so more likelihood of creating
false memories, in pictorial conditions.
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Evaluation
●
●
The Hall et al. study was a field experiment, and the sample was people
shopping. The study by Braun-LaTour et al. was a laboratory experiment
and the sample was students. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Both studies gathered quantitative data and the Braun-LaTour et al. study
gathered qualitative data. The data in both studies was subjective, rather
than objective. The study by Hall et al. uses deception which could be
considered unethical. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Samples, page 56
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Ethics, page 57
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on consumer decision-making. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you
should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’
part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues
in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on
part (b).
The product
Packaging, positioning and placement
The packaging of a product influences how quickly and easily a product catches
the eye. Important features include its colour, font style and size (labels), images,
brand name and logo. Also important are the quality of the packaging (whether
it is innovative, whether it is environmentally friendly), its shape and its design.
Inexpensive items are packaged, so are food items and so are luxury items and gifts.
Gift-wrapping: in a study by Howard (1992) on gift-wrapping and mood, when
participants were asked why they prefer to have their gifts wrapped, many
replied that ‘gifts are supposed to be wrapped’. Why are gifts wrapped?
● Wrapping creates an expectation of what is inside.
● Wrapping shows attention to detail; that the person giving the gift cares.
● Wrapping meets individual and social expectations of what a gift should
look like.
● Wrapping can create a positive impression in a recipient being met for the first time.
Howard et al. suggested that gifts can be either ‘naked’ (unwrapped),
traditionally wrapped (looks like a gift) or non-traditionally wrapped (e.g. in plain
paper) and that this creates different expectations in recipients.
Porublev et al. (2009) used three methods to collect data:
Observation of a Christmas gift-wrap stall (to see different wrappings and
how gifts are wrapped).
● In-depth interviews with 20 participants aged 25–35 from Victoria, Australia
(to reflect on gift-wrapping) with questions such as ‘Do you prefer to receive
gifts that are wrapped or unwrapped?’ and ‘In what instances do you wrap/
not wrap gifts?’
● Six projective workshops where participants in pairs were asked to
wrap two gifts, one for someone they are close to and the other for an
acquaintance, and have a discussion about gift-wrapping while doing so.
●
Findings:
● People like wrapped gifts (in Victoria, Australia and presumably some other
cultures) simply because there was a ‘Christmas gift-wrap stall’.
● Gifts should be wrapped: ‘I prefer wrapped. I like the reveal’, and ‘I enjoy
receiving gifts that are wrapped’.
● Gifts should look like gifts: gifts created at the workshops, 24 in total, all
looked like a gift using traditional wrappings, decorative bag with ribbons,
bows or other embellishments.
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Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
24 Give three findings from the
study by Porublev (2009) on giftwrapping.
Answer on p. 198
5 Specialist options
Product colour and associative learning: one aspect of product packaging
is the colour of the package/wrapping because colour plays an important role
in the purchase decision. Colour associations are much more general: yellow,
orange and red are associated with warm (i.e. the sun) and white and blue with
cool/cold (snow and ice).
Grossman and Wisenblit (1999) suggested that colour associations can be
understood through classical conditioning/associative learning (see the
learning approach, page 71). For example, Stuart et al. (1987) paired a brand of
toothpaste with images of water scenes and subjects developed more favourable
attitudes toward the toothpaste than a control group. If colour associations are
learned, then there will be cultural differences. In the West, green is associated
with hopefulness, white with purity, black with mourning; in China, white
is associated with righteousness and yellow with trustworthiness; black is
associated with dullness and stupidity. There are also cross-cultural colours: blue
is associated with boys and pink with girls in many cultures. Colours such as red
are associated with danger and green with safety (e.g. traffic lights). Worldwide
brands are associated with specific colours, such as cans of Coca-Cola being red.
Colours indicate the attributes of products: kitchen goods are usually white to
indicate cleanliness, and in washing powder blue is chosen because it signifies
cleanliness, while yellow is not perceived as clean.
The implications of colour association is that marketers should consider their
product’s colour, the colour of packaging and any colours that are associated
with the product in advertising, as an essential part of their marketing strategy.
Attention and shelf position: the positioning and placement of an item on
a shelf can have a major effect on sales. Research suggests that people gaze at
products in the horizontal centre (the gaze cascade effect) and these are more
likely to be chosen. The aim of the studies by Atalay et al. (2012) was to test
‘horizontal centrality’.
Three experiements were conducted: 1a, 1b and 2. Participants in all three
studies were students. Experiments 1a and 1b, laboratory experiments, used
eye-tracking screens, so when an item is viewed on the screen an infra-red
camera records the exact location of where the eyes are looking on the screen.
In Experiment 1a to test gaze centrality, the planograms were in a 3 × 3 matrix,
including stimuli of fictitious brands Priorin, Alpecin and Labrada for vitamins, and
Bega, Niran and Salus for meal replacement bars. Each participant reviewed the
two product categories, made a choice and then responded to a questionnaire.
The questionnaire asked for ratings, on a 9-point scale (1 = low, 9 = high), of
quality, popularity and attractiveness.
A planogram is a visual diagram or
drawing that provides detail of where
every product in a retail store should be
placed.
Results showed that products in the centre were looked at for longer and
received more fixations. Central products were chosen more often.
Experiment 1b was conducted as a control to test whether the central gaze
cascade effect was due to horizontal centrality of the brand or merely the
centrality of the computer screen. This time the planogram was moved off
centre, either to the right or to the left of the screen. The stimuli were energy
drinks with the fictitious names of Cebion, Niran and Viba.
Results showed that, as in Experiment 1a, participants fixated on the central
column items, confirming the ‘centrality effect’.
Just because an effect is shown in a laboratory it does not mean that it is
automatically transferred to real-life settings. In Experiment 2 the energy drinks
were presented on a horizontal shelf layout along with filler items. Participants
were positioned in the middle, and were required to choose an energy drink
from the three when placed to the left or right of the shelf. Results showed that
the central item was chosen more often, leading to the conclusion that the
central gaze effect is confirmed.
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Strengths of using eye-movement tracking
●
●
●
Eye-movement tracking uses scientific equipment which is reliable.
The data recorded are objective: where the person looks is clear and
unambiguous.
It can be used on any person and to study things other than consumer
behaviour.
Weaknesses of using eye-movement tracking
●
●
●
Participants can choose to look in whatever direction they wish – they know
their eye movements are being tracked.
There may be cultural differences in where people are socialised to look.
It tells us where the participant has looked but it does not tell us why a
person looked in a particular direction
Evaluation
●
●
●
The Porublev et al. study focused on people giving gifts for certain religious
festivals, which can be generalised (strengths and weaknesses) to some
cultures (but not others), so there is cultural bias (weaknesses).
The Atalay et al. study had two laboratory experiments, but low
ecological validity, so Experiment 2 was conducted (strengths and
weaknesses). A questionnaire was also used. The central gaze effect
perhaps can be generalised and so be useful to anyone placing products
on a shelf.
The study by Grossman and Wisenblit supports the nurture/learning
approach rather than nature (strengths and weaknesses) which shows
cultural differences exist, although there are some cultural universals
(same in all cultures).
Cross check
Selling the product
Sales techniques: traditionally, salespeople are stereotyped by the public for
having one goal in mind: to sell. However, it isn’t quite so simple…the role of any
sales person is to manage a portfolio of different buyer–seller relationships.
DelVecchio et al. (2003) outlined three buyer–seller relationships: customer
focused, product focused and competition focused.
Product focused:
● The product is everything and once the customer is educated, the sale will
be made.
● As in competition-focused selling, the customer is unimportant.
● The salesperson needs to have excellent product/technical knowledge
regarding the features of the product.
Many companies have unique products, such as Apple, and people visit Apple
stores to be told more about the product they are interested in.
Competition focused:
Assumes that every buyer is the same with no individual differences.
● The salesperson already knows the needs of the customer and there is no
need to ask questions.
● The salesperson tries to convince the customer using examples of other
customers.
● Usually the cost of a product is the same in other stores – it is then the
task of the salesperson to emphasise the advantages of their store, such as
extended guarantees, after-sales service or half-price (or free) extras, or to
offer a discount.
●
Many stores sell the same product as their competitors, so focusing on technical/
product knowledge is irrelevant. A television, for example, can be bought from a
competitor, so the emphasis needs to be on being better than the competition.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Experiments, page 43
Ecological validity, page 67
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
The learning approach, page 71
5 Specialist options
Customer focused:
● A customer’s problems are viewed as unique and a good salesperson will
address the individual needs of the customer.
● The salesperson actively engages the buyer; is a consultant rather than a
persuader.
● The salesperson seeks information and input from the buyer rather than
telling the buyer what he or she wants.
This approach tends to create loyal customers, and if a customer is happy, they
are likely to ‘spread the word’ and tell their friends.
Interpersonal influence techniques: how can people best be persuaded to
make a purchase? One compliance technique is based on the ‘Pique technique’
(Santos et al.,1994) but goes further by using the need for cognitive closure with
anything ambiguous.
The disrupt-then-reframe (DTR) technique (Kardes et al., 2007) involves
deliberately confusing consumers with a disruptive message (or confusing
information) and then re-wording (reframing) in a much clearer way so that
the consumer understands what is being said, and is happy. This reduces the
number of counter-arguments and can close a sale. This technique is said to
work because the consumer has a need for ‘cognitive closure’ (NFCC), i.e.
resolving the ambiguity rather than it being left ambiguous.
Experiment 1: in this field experiment, 147 participants were approached in a
supermarket with a box of candy. In the DTR condition the salesperson said ‘The
price is now 100 eurocents [approximately 100 pennies]’, then after a 2-second
pause, ‘that’s 1 euro. It’s a bargain!’ In the reframe only, the salesperson said ‘The
price is now 1 euro. It’s a bargain!’ Of the participants, 54% bought the box of
candy, 64% from the DTR and 44% from the control.
Experiment 2: in this field experiment 155 participants were asked if they
would give €3 to a student group in the Netherlands. The DTR condition
was ‘You can now become a member for half a year for 300 eurocents
[approximately 300 pennies]’, followed by a 2-second pause and ‘That’s 3 euros.
That’s a really small investment!’ In the reframe only it was ‘You can now
become a member for half a year for 3 euros. That’s a really small investment!’
Groups then completed a 20-item questionnaire assessing the need for cognitive
closure; 30% in the DTR group donated compared to 13% in the control group.
Of the DTR group, 43% were high NFCC scorers, showing the need for cognitive
closure.
Experiment 3: this laboratory experiment compared three groups (of students):
DTR, reframe only and disrupt only. Participants watched a video clip, heard
one of the three statements, and completed additional questionnaires. Results
showed again that DTR was effective because of the need for cognitive closure.
Ways to close a sale: there is no one agreed way to close a sale, and many
suggestions are based on successful experiences of closing sales with customers.
Psychologist Cialdini (1984) suggests there are six ways to get people to say ‘yes’:
● Reciprocity: I’ll give you something (a free gift) if you give me something
(the sale). This could include a free trial.
● Commitment and consistency: getting people to agree to something
small (a micro-commitment) can lead to them agreeing to something larger.
This is also known as the step-by-step technique.
● Liking: not just the product, but the salesperson, the store and everything
else associated, demonstrated by similarity: people like people like
themselves; humour (done in an appropriate way) can be effective.
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●
●
●
Social proof: positive customer reviews on social media for example are
positively reinforcing.
Authority: be an expert, know the product. People will buy from someone
who answers all their questions. Know the competition.
Scarcity and urgency: if it is in short supply, people are more likely to buy.
Sales with ‘last few days’, ‘when it’s gone its gone’, ‘only two rooms/seats left
at this price’ are typical strategies. The ‘best time close’ strategy is an example
of this – emphasise that now is the best time to buy because…
Now test yourself
25 Describe three ways to close a sale.
Answer on p. 198
Expert tip
Other techniques include
● Yes set close: get the customer saying ‘yes’ and they’ll keep saying yes.
● The alternative or choice is a powerful form of closing sales technique. It
gives the client the choice of two alternatives, either of which confirms the
sale: for example, ‘Would you like to have it this week or next week?’
The question above requires three
ways to close a sale and Cialdini
suggests six. Choose the ‘best three’.
Don’t choose the shortest or any that
you don’t understand. Choose three
that have enough detail to score full
marks and that you understand.
Evaluation
●
●
There are different sales techniques, but whether these generalise or
not (strengths and weaknesses), and whether there is cultural bias
(weaknesses), is debatable. Sales techniques and ‘ways to lose a sale’ are
based largely on consumers in the USA and these techniques may not even
generalise to other Western societies.
The Kardes et al. study used a questionnaire as part of its laboratory
experiment and observation in the field experiments. (Strengths and
weaknesses for all.)
Cross check
Buying the product
Purchase decisions: the theory of reasoned action (extended to the theory
of planned behaviour) was first outlined by Fishbein and Azjen (1962) and
proposed that a person’s overall attitude toward an object is derived from his
beliefs and feelings about various attributes of the object.
According to Azjen (1991), three determinants explain behavioural intention:
1 The attitude (opinions of oneself about the behaviour): for example, ‘I like
Apple products’.
2 The subjective norm (opinions of others about the behaviour): for example,
‘many people like Apple products’.
3 The perceived behavioural control (self-efficacy towards the behaviour):
for example, ‘I can afford an Apple product’.
These three components feed into the behavioural intention (what I intend
to do): for example, ‘I intend to go and purchase an Apple product’.
There is then the assumption that having the intention to purchase will
automatically result in the behaviour (the purchase happening) although this
might not happen in some instances (see Figure 15).
Attitude
Subjective
norm
Intention
Behaviour
Perceived
behavioural
control
Figure 15 Theory of planned behaviour (Azjen, 1991)
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Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Questionnaires, page 49
Experiments, page 43
5 Specialist options
The model has been shown to be predictive of the purchase of a specific brand
of grape drink (Bonfield, 1974) and toothpaste (Wilson et al., 1975), for example.
Studies have shown that is predictive of consumer behaviour across cultures. For
example, Bagozzi et al. (2000) found it predicted fast-food restaurant patronage
in samples from the USA, Italy, Japan and the People’s Republic of China.
The black-box model: this is based on the early stimulus–response models of
behaviourism. The model has three components:
1 The stimulus is the environment which includes marketing stimuli
(product, price, place and promotion – McCarthy’s 4Ps) and environmental
factors (demographic, economic, socio-cultural, technological, ecological and
political factors). These feed into the…
2 …(buyers) black box which includes buyer characteristics (cultural,
psychological) and buyer decision-making (problem recognition, information
search) which determine the…
3 …response which includes purchase behaviour (what, when, where and how
much, i.e. brand choice, dealer choice, etc.)
The consumer decision model: this was originally developed by Engel et al.
(1968). The model has seven stages: need recognition, search of information
both internal and external, pre-purchase evaluation of alternatives, purchase,
consumption, post-consumption evaluation, and divestment. These decisions are
influenced by two main factors: stimuli received will be associated with memories
of previous experiences, and external variables in the form of either environmental
influences (culture, class, etc.) or individual differences (consumer resources, lifestyle).
Blackwell (2006) has revised the above model into the five stages of consumer
decision-making:
1 Problem/need recognition: when an individual recognises the difference
between what they have and what they want/need to have.
2 Information search: an internal search refers to consumers relying on their
personal experiences and beliefs, and an external search involves a wide
search for information from the media, advertising or feedback from others.
3 Evaluation of alternatives: the consumer considers all the types and
alternatives, taking into account factors such as size, quality and price.
4 Purchase decision: the decision is made to purchase or not.
5 Post-purchase evaluation: the consumer’s experience of their product/
purchase.
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on the
product. For part (a), the ‘describe’
part, decide what you need to include
(and exclude). In the exam, you should
spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’
part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose
two issues in addition to the named
issue. You should spend no more than
18 minutes on part (b).
Advertising
Types of advertising and advertising techniques
Advertising media and persuasive techniques: how are products advertised?
There are many different forms of advertising media, all of which have strengths
and weaknesses, and the type of media used often depends on the product
being advertised.
Shavitt et al. (2004) compared six different types of advertising in over 2,500
respondents in the USA, concluding that catalogues/specific magazines were
most preferred because they could be specifically selected by the respondents,
and television advertising was least preferred because of its intrusive nature
(whether the product is wanted or not).
Advertising media refers to
the advertising vehicles such as
billboards, magazines, newspapers,
radio, television, direct mail, product
placement and internet/social media
by which promotional messages are
communicated to the public using
words, speech and pictures.
The ‘classic’ model of persuasive techniques is the Yale model of
communication which appears in the next sub-section (see page 154).
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Marketing mix models: according to McCarthy (1960), to effectively market
a product or service there are four things to get right: product, price, place and
promotion. These four elements are known as the marketing mix or the 4Ps.
● Product: this could be the physical (or basic) product or it could be the
extensive product, the product with added qualities such as its packaging,
brand name, service and guarantee. The total product includes all the above
plus the emotional value that a customer may attach to the product.
● Price: the amount a customer pays for the product (including aspects such
as discount, special offer, sale price, etc.)
● Place: the location of where the product is sold (retail park, shopping mall,
online).
● Promotion: includes all the communications the company makes about the
product, such as advertising.
Later models write about the 7Ps, adding people, process and physical evidence
to the original four.
Alternatively, Lauterborn (1990) outlines the 4Cs:
● Consumer wants and needs (product): the focus is on selling only what
the customer specifically wants to buy. There must be something unique,
different, something that makes it desirable.
● Cost to satisfy (price): a focus on the cost for satisfaction will mean that
there is more important information being taken into account than just the
purchase price.
● Convenience to buy (place): a marketer needs to be aware of how a
particular customer group like to make their purchases in order to make it
convenient for them to buy.
● Communication (promotion): this is a tool to put information about the
product in front of the customer.
Product placement is an advertising
technique used by companies to
subtly promote their products (brands)
through a non-traditional advertising
technique, usually within the context
of film, television or other media rather
than as an explicit advertisement.
Product placement in films: product placement can happen in films, as part
of television programmes or in social media. There are famous examples in films:
Converse shoes in I, Robot, Mini Cooper cars in The Italian Job; Pizza Hut in
Wayne’s World, but what about product placement in children’s films?
Auty and Lewis (2004) investigated the influence on children of branded
products in film and television. The participants were 105 children, 48 aged
11–12 and 57 aged 6–7 from schools in the UK. Parents and teachers gave
consent for the children to participate. This laboratory experiment
(conducted in the school of the children) included two independent groups
exposed to an IV of a 1 minute 50 second clip of the film Home Alone, a
sequence where a bottle of Pepsi is evident throughout and is referred to
explicitly by name: ‘Fuller, go easy on the Pepsi’. The control group watched a
clip from the same film that has no branded products on display. Later the
children were interviewed, and invited to help themselves to a drink with cans
of both Pepsi and Coke on display. The child’s choice of drink was recorded (the
DV). The children were asked questions like ‘what were they (the people in the
film) drinking?’, ‘was it a cola?’ and ‘what was the name of the cola?’
Results: the experimental group chose the Pepsi over Coke (62% to 38%) and
the control group chose the Coke over Pepsi (58% to 42%). Although age was
manipulated (11–12 and 6–7 year olds), there was no significant difference
between the groups. It was concluded (on the basis of the interviews) that it is
not simply exposure to the film, but rather previous exposure together with a
reminder in the form of recent exposure that affects choice.
134
Now test yourself
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
26 What is meant by ‘product
placement’?
Answer on p. 198
●
●
●
The study by Auty and Lewis is an experiment conducted at the school of
the children. The use of children in psychology studies is relevant. Controls
and typical design features were applied. Ethics were a consideration, but
the researchers gained consent from parents and teachers. (Strengths and
weaknesses of all.)
The children were interviewed (strengths and weaknesses). Quantitative
objective data were gathered through observation of the drink chosen and
quantitative subjective data were gathered from interview responses.
The 4Ps and 4Cs are based on work largely in the USA, so whether the
findings can generalise (weaknesses) or whether there is cultural bias
(weaknesses) can be debated.
Cross check
Experiments, page 43
Children in studies, page 75
Ethics, page 57
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
5 Specialist options
Evaluation
Communication and advertising models
Changing attitudes and models of communication: Hovland et al.’s (1953)
Yale model of communication looked at persuasive communications: ‘Who
says what to whom and with what effect’.
● The source of the message (the communicator or ‘who’): is the presenter
of the message credible, an expert, trustworthy?
– Expertise: experts are more persuasive than non-experts.
– Popular and attractive communicators are more effective than unpopular
or unattractive ones.
– People who speak rapidly are more persuasive than people who speak
slowly.
● The message itself (the communication or ‘what’): is it clear and direct,
colourful and vivid, is it one-sided or two-sided?
– Persuasion can be enhanced by messages that arouse fear in the
audience.
– Sometimes a two-sided argument is better than a one-sided one.
– The order in which arguments are presented can make a difference.
● The medium: is the message personal, what media are used, via television,
radio or printed?
● The target audience (to ‘whom’): who is the target audience? School
children, communities?
Expert tip
● The situation: where will the message be presented? In the home, a medical
The Yale model of communication can
surgery?
also be used when promoting health.
All of these features contribute to the success (or failure) of persuasive
communication.
See page 154 if you study that option.
The AIDA model: this model (Lewis, 1899) describes the stages a consumer
goes through from when they first become aware of a product through to
making a purchase decision. The stages are:
A gaining attention (the consumer becomes aware of a product or brand
(through advertising).
I holding interest (the consumer becomes interested in finding out more
about the product), so the challenge is to build on the initial attention.
D arousing desire (the consumer develops desire toward the product).
Attention has been grabbed and kept. The product now needs to be made
irresistible.
A obtaining action (the consumer intends to purchase the product) and the
sale is closed/deal done.
The original model is over 100 years old and there are updates of it. One simple
one is the same four factors, with ‘satisfaction’ added at the end to form AIDAS
or ‘confidence’ added to form AIDCA.
An alternative model is DAGMAR (Colley, 1961) which is used to measure the
results of an advertising campaign. DAGMAR stands for Defining Advertising
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Goals for Measured Advertising Results. There are five phases regarding the
product – is the consumer unaware, aware, has comprehension, has conviction
and will take action – while also setting specific, measurable objectives to
determine the overall success of the campaign.
Hierarchy of effects models: these models focus on the steps that consumers
go through when making purchase decisions. The AIDA model is an example.
The specific ‘hierarchy of effects model’ was proposed by Lavidge and Steiner
(1961). It has six steps, as shown in Figure 16.
Awareness
Knowledge
Liking
Preference
Conviction
Purchase
Figure 16 The six steps of the hierarchy of effects model
Cognitive (thinking):
● Awareness: the customer becomes aware of the product through
advertising.
● Knowledge: the customer needs knowledge and information about the
product, for example through the internet (websites), retail advisers and
product packaging.
Affective (feeling):
Liking: the customer must develop favourable attitudes towards the
product.
● Preference: the customer must prefer your product over all others. There
needs to be a unique selling point (USP).
●
Behavioural (action):
● Conviction: a customer’s desire for a product can be enhanced by free
samples (e.g. of food, fragrances or test driving a car).
● Purchase: the customer has not withdrawn at any of the above stages and
purchases the product.
Evaluation
●
●
Cross check
All these models break things down into component parts, which is
reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
Whether these models generalise (strengths and weaknesses) or whether
there is cultural bias (weaknesses) can be debated.
Advertising applications
Brand recognition is the extent to which a consumer can correctly identify a
product just by viewing the product’s logo, tag line, packaging or advertising
campaign. Some brands have become synonymous with their function: people
‘Hoover’ the carpet, have ‘Kellogg’s’ for breakfast, etc.
A study by Donoghue et al. (1980) suggested that children as young as 3 years
understand the purpose of television advertising but at what age do children
recognise brands?
Brand recognition in children: Fischer et al. (1991) suggested that children:
● are major consumers from a young age: food, toys and games, etc.
● influence household decisions, maybe what a family will eat, where a family
will go, etc.
● are consumers of the future, and brand awareness in children may transfer to
adulthood
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Reductionism, page 89
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Brand recognition is the consumer’s
ability to recognise a firm from its
distinctive logo, motto or artistic
symbol.
5 Specialist options
In Fischer et al.’s study, 229 children aged 3–6 years participated while at preschool. Twenty-two brand logos were selected. All parents signed a consent
form. Seven were children’s brands (including Disney Channel, McDonald’s,
Dominos Pizza, Pepsi and Nike). Five were cigarette brands (including ‘Old Joe’
and Marlboro) and seven were ‘adult brands’ (including Ford, Apple and NBC).
Each child was tested for brand recognition using a game of matching cards
with products. A game board included 12 products (e.g. a burger, a pizza) and
the child had to match each of 22 different logo cards to the product. The
responses of the children were scored 1 = correct or 0 = incorrect.
Results: recognition rates were (top three overall): Disney Channel 91.7%,
McDonald’s 81.7%, Burger King 79.9%. The top cigarette brand was ‘Old Joe’ at
51.1% and the top adult brand was Chevrolet at 54.1%. Recognition increased in
relation to age (3 year olds recognised 49% of children’s brands while for 6 year
olds it was 81%). There was no race or gender difference. There is no doubt that
very young children see, understand and remember advertising.
Advertising and consumer personality: are different personalities affected by
advertising? One possibility is that people who are more aware of their
surroundings and change their behaviour to fit are more susceptible to
advertising than people who are not. Snyder (1974) distinguished between high
and low self-monitors (based on scores on his self-monitoring scale). The selfmonitoring scale had 25 questions, each answered with a ‘true’ or ‘false’, with
scores over 15 indicating ‘high’ and under 8 indicating ‘low’.
Self-monitoring is self-observation and
self-control guided by situational cues to
social appropriateness (Snyder, 1974).
Snyder and DeBono (1985) conducted three studies (after classifying
participants into high or low self-monitors).
Study 1: 50 students looked at three sets of pairs of magazine advertisements
about whisky, coffee and cigarettes. Each pair had an image-oriented slogan (e.g.
for Barclay cigarettes ‘You can see the difference’) and a quality-oriented slogan
for the product (for Barclay ‘You can taste the difference’). The students then
completed a 12-item questionnaire asking, for example, ‘Overall, which ad do
you think is better?’ Results showed that high self-monitors preferred image
whereas low self-monitors preferred quality.
Study 2: participants viewed the same image-oriented and quality-oriented
adverts then filled out a questionnaire, with the critical item: ‘How much would
you be willing to pay for this product?’ Possible answers were $0.50–$1.50,
$2.00–$5.00 and $5.00–$15.00. Results showed that for high-self monitors images
suggested more money, whereas for low self-monitors quality suggested more
money.
Study 3: participants were telephoned at home (telephone interview) and
invited to try a new shampoo. In explaining more about the shampoo, half the
participants were given an ‘image-related message’ and the other half a ‘qualityrelated message’. When asked how willing they would be to use the shampoo,
high self-monitors were more swayed by the image-oriented information and
low-self monitors by the quality-oriented information.
Snyder and DeBono concluded that their study had discovered how two
personality types are influenced differently by two types of advertising – and
that many more studies are needed.
Effective slogans: a brand name gives a product its core identity – the anchor.
Logos serve as visual cues for faster processing and universal recognition of
brands. Slogans are a key element of a brand’s identity because they say
something about the image of the product, thereby making it possible to
communicate what the brand is about.
Popular slogans include: ‘Because you’re worth it’, I’’m lovin it’, ‘The ultimate
driving machine’ and ‘Maybe its Maybelline’. (Can you guess whose these are?)
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According to Kohli et al. (2007), slogans enhance a brand’s image, aid in its
recognition and recall, and help create brand differentiation in consumers’
minds. Based on their investigation, they proposed guidelines for the strategy
behind slogans, and for creating and utilising effective slogans:
● Keep your eye on the horizon: slogans are not just about now, but also about
the future.
● Slogans should be ‘positioned’ clearly: it provides reassurance to the
consumer and can reinforce brand loyalty.
● Link the slogan to the brand: the slogan should be linked with everything to
do with the product, not just the packaging.
● Please repeat that: the slogan should be consistent across all advertising.
● Jingle, jangle: jingles can be easy to remember initially, so they should be used.
● Use slogans at the outset: slogans are fundamental, so they should be used
from the start.
● It’s okay to be creative: don’t keep it simple, be creative, but make sure the
audience ‘gets it’.
Evaluation
●
●
Cross check
The Fischer et al. study was an experiment and the participants were
children and ethical issues may have arisen. The data gathered were
objective (recognition data). (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
The Snyder and DeBono study used questionnaires (self-monitoring), the
scores of which were quantitative, but respondents could give any answer
they wished, so it was subjective. Telephone interviews were also used.
(Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
Experiments, page 43
Children in studies, page 75
Ethics, page 57
Questionnaires, page 49
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Interviews, page 50
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on advertising. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part,
decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend
no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a
range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
5.4 Psychology and health
The patient–practitioner relationship
Practitioner and patient interpersonal skills
In any medical consultation interpersonal skills such as verbal and nonverbal skills are displayed by both the patient and the practitioner. Argyle (1975)
suggested that non-verbal communication is four times more powerful and
effective as verbal communication, but it should match verbal communication.
Non-verbal communications: the study by McKinstry and Wang (1991)
looked at how acceptable patients found different styles of doctors’ clothing and
whether patients felt that this influenced their respect for his or her opinion.
This study was a field experiment using interviews. The sample included 475
patients in five medical practices who were asked to look at photographs and
then answer a few questions.
The photographs (the IV) were of the same man and same woman. The man
was dressed in five different styles: white coat over formal suit; formal suit, white
shirt and tie; tweed jacket, informal shirt and tie; cardigan, sports shirt and slacks;
and denim jeans and open-neck short-sleeved shirt. The woman was dressed in
three different styles: white coat over skirt and jumper; skirt, blouse and woollen
jumper; and pink trousers, jumper and gold earrings.
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Non-verbal communication is the
process of communication through
sending and receiving wordless (mostly
visual) messages.
Results: most acceptable was the male and female doctor wearing a white coat;
least acceptable was the man in cardigan and the woman in trousers; 41% had
more confidence in a formally dressed doctor.
Conclusions: the majority of patients thought that the way the doctor dresses is
of some importance, with many patients feeling that they would have more
confidence in a doctor dressed in one of the more traditional styles.
Design your own study: think about
what method (questionnaire or
experiment) you would choose to
investigate the preferred dress style
worn by doctors in a hospital near
where you live. What would be your
reasons for choosing this method?
5 Specialist options
The patients were asked questions and scored the ‘acceptability’ of each, from 5
to 0 for each model. First question was ‘Which doctor would you feel happiest
about seeing for the first time? Then they were asked about their confidence in
the ability of the doctors, whether they would be unhappy about consulting any
of them, and which one looked most like their own doctor. After that, a series of
Expert tip
closed questions followed about doctors’ dress in general.
Verbal communications: Ley (1988) investigated verbal communication –
specifically what people remember about a consultation after consulting a
practitioner. They were asked what the practitioner had told them to do and
this was compared with what had actually been said. Ley found that:
● patients remembered about 55% of what was said
● they remembered the first thing they were told (the primacy effect)
● they remembered information that had been categorised
● they remembered more if they had some medical knowledge (note how this
finding links with the McKinlay study below)
McKinlay (1975) randomly sampled 81 women registered with a pre-natal clinic
in Aberdeen, Scotland. Using doctors on a maternity ward, a list of 57 regularly
used words was compiled with 13 finally selected for the study: antibiotic,
breech, enamel, glucose, membranes, mucus, etc. The women were divided into
two types: utilisers (regular attenders) and under-utilisers. When visiting the
women at home, an interview was conducted asking about their understanding
of the terms. McKinlay concluded that the utilisers had a better understanding
of terms than the under-utilisers and that users of medical services have a better
understanding of medical terminology.
Evaluation
●
●
McKinstry and Wang’s (1991) study was a field experiment (so controlled
with IV and DV) (strength), using interviews (structured with rating scale)
(strength). It had high ecological validity (conducted in waiting rooms)
(strength) but also cultural bias (different views in different cultures)
(weakness). Quantitative data (statistical analysis) were gathered (strength
and weakness), but also subjective data (participants might not been
honest).
McKinlay’s (1975) study used interviews (structured with rating scale)
(strength), but may have had cultural bias (the study was conducted in
Scotland and this might not generalise to other cities in Scotland/UK or the
rest of the world) (weakness). The sample were all women (weakness), not
a problem, but do women understand more terms than men or fewer? The
study stated a random sample was used (strength), but with no details of
how this was acquired. Ecological validity/mundane realism was high
(strength), as the study was conducted on women registered with a clinic
using ‘pregnancy-related’ terms.
Cross check
Field experiments, page 44
Interviews, page 50
Ecological validity/mundane realism,
page 67
Cultural bias, page 88
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Patient and practitioner diagnosis and style
Practitioner style: a medical practitioner can show a ‘personality style’ when
a patient consults them. After analysing 2,500 tape-recorded surgery interviews,
Byrne and Long (1976) distinguished first between a ‘diagnostic phase’ and a
‘prescribing phase’, and then went on to distinguish between a doctor-centred
style (dominated by his or her professional expertise) and a patient-centred
style (chatting and discussing with the patient and allowing a contribution) for
managing the consultation.
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In a more up-to-date study, Savage and Armstrong (1990) conducted a field
experiment on 359 randomly selected patients in a London medical practice.
When the patient entered the consulting room the doctor turned over a card
that determined the style – either a sharing consulting style (patient-centred),
e.g. ‘what do you think is wrong?’, or a directive consulting style (doctor-centred),
e.g. ‘you are suffering from’. After the consultation, and at home a week later, the
patient completed a questionnaire. Significantly higher levels of satisfaction
were recorded for the directive style, particularly so for patients with physical
problems, those who had excellent understanding of terminology and patients
receiving a prescription.
Now test yourself
Practitioner diagnosis: a medical practitioner hopes to correctly diagnose an
ill person as ill and a healthy (not-ill) person as healthy. However, sometimes
errors do occur. If a practitioner makes a type 2 error, they diagnose the person
as ill when they are not. This means that the person might, for example, take
some medicine for no reason. But it is better to be safe than sorry and, if in
doubt, it is better to diagnose illness. This is what the psychiatrists did in the
study by Rosenhan (1973). The worst decision a practitioner can make (a type 1
error) is to diagnose an ill patient as being well. This is medical negligence and
the consequences for the person can be very serious indeed.
Expert tip
27 Give two ways in which the
directive consultation style was
found to be significantly better
than a patient-centred style in the
study by Savage and Armstrong.
Answer on p. 198
Note the use of different terms in the
question above. Savage and Armstrong
used ‘sharing’ and ‘directive’ styles,
whereas Byrne and Long used ‘doctorcentred’ and ‘patient-centred’. The
syllabus uses the latter terms, but it
does not matter which terms you
use – as long as you know which style
is which.
Disclosure of information: to correctly diagnose, a medical practitioner needs
information from a patient (self-disclosure). Some studies have looked at
whether males or females will disclose more to a male or female doctor.
Robinson and West (1992) studied 69 patients attending a sexually transmitted
disease centre. Information about their symptoms was taken in three ways: by a
computerised interview, a paper questionnaire or a ‘standard physician interview’.
The results showed that more information about symptoms and undesirable
behaviours was given to a computer (e.g. the number of sexual partners) than
the paper questionnaire and both these methods were more informative than a
face-to-face consultation with a doctor. It was concluded that the use of
computers to compile symptoms is a satisfactory method.
Evaluation
●
●
Cross check
Savage and Armstrong (1990) conducted a field experiment (so controlled
with IV and DV) (strength); with high ecological validity (conducted at
surgery) (strength); questionnaires (structured with rating scale) were
used (strength), but there may have been cultural bias (the study was
conducted in London and these participants might not generalise to other
cities in the UK or the rest of the world) (weakness).
Robinson and West (1992) also conducted a field experiment (so
controlled with IV and DV) (strength); with high ecological validity
(conducted at a medical clinic) (strength); using interviews (structured)
(strength) and questionnaires (structured) (strength). The study may
not been generalisable and may have had cultural bias (the study was
conducted in one clinic and these findings might not generalise to other
clinics wherever they are in the world) (weakness).
Misusing health services
Misuse of health services is the extent to which people do not use health
services in the usual way. Pitts (1991) suggests that people under-use services for
the following reasons:
● Persistence of symptoms – people take a ‘wait-and-see’ approach and only
seek advice if symptoms persist.
● Expectation of treatment – people seek medical advice only if it is thought it
will do some good.
● People do not want to waste valuable practitioner time, seeking advice only
for serious symptoms.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Field experiments, page 43
Ecological validity/mundane realism,
page 67
Questionnaires, page 49
Cultural bias, page 88
Generalisations, page 68
Interviews, page 50
Now test yourself
28 Give three reasons why people
might delay seeking help from a
medical practitioner.
Answer on p. 198
5 Specialist options
Delay in seeking treatment: Safer et al. (1979) interviewed 93 patients in
four hospital waiting rooms about delay in seeking medical treatment. Questions
asked included: ‘What was your very first symptom?’ and ‘When did you decide
to see a doctor? They were scored on a 9-point scale ranging from ‘not at
all’ to ‘very much’ with ‘moderately’ as a mid-point. The total delay time was
calculated and in addition:
● appraisal delay – number of days from the first symptom to the patient
deciding they were ill
● illness delay – number of days from deciding they were ill until deciding to
seek medical attention
● utilisation delay – number of days from deciding to seek medical attention
until actual appointment
Variables affecting delay included: perceptual experience (pain or bleeding), selfappraisal processes (see if symptoms change), coping responses (try home
remedies), emotional reactions (fear or distress), imagined consequences (maybe
surgery needed) and situational barriers (such as cost).
Hypochondriasis: hypochondriacs interpret real but benign bodily sensations as
symptoms of illness. They worry excessively about their own health, monitor their
bodily sensations closely, make frequent and unfounded medical complaints, and
believe they are ill despite reassurances by physicians that they are not.
Hypochondriasis is a preoccupation
with health involving exaggerated
concerns about having a serious illness.
Barlow and Durand (1995) present the case study of Gail, a married 21-year-old
female. Minor symptoms (e.g. a headache) would result in extreme anxiety, and
reading newspaper or seeing television reports caused her to believe she had a
serious illness. She avoided exercise and even laughing, and noted anything that
could be a symptom. Hearing about a real illness in her family would
incapacitate her for days at a time. Doctors would always say ‘There’s nothing
wrong with you; you’re perfectly healthy.’ Gail thus avoided going to see any
more doctors.
Munchausen syndrome is where people seek out excessive medical attention,
often going from city to city to get a new diagnosis and new surgical
intervention. In very exceptional circumstances, known as Munchausen
syndrome by proxy, people seek excessive and inappropriate medical contact
through the ‘illness’ of a relative such as a child.
Munchausen syndrome includes
pathologic lying, peregrination
(travelling or wandering), and recurrent,
feigned or simulated illness.
Aleem and Ajarim (1995) presented the case study of a 22-year-old female
who had a painful swelling above her right breast. After many tests an infection
was diagnosed and treatment began. Despite treatment the infection got worse
and spread to the left breast area. A nurse found needles and a syringe full of
faecal material, which the girl had been injecting into herself. Munchausen
syndrome was diagnosed.
Evaluation
●
●
The Safer et al. study used face-to-face interviews allowing patients to
express their views (strength). However, the interviews were retrospective
(weakness) so people may not remember accurately. The sample
were people who were waiting to see a practitioner and so were there
legitimately (high ecological validity) (strength). However, the study did
not include people who were not there (and so may have still been delaying
seeking treatment) (weakness). Can these results generalise to others? The
theory (weakness) of delay can also be explained by health beliefs model.
Barlow and Durand and Aleem and Ajarim both presented case studies
(strength) which each reported the specific details of a unique case.
However, each is a specific case of only one individual and so should not be
generalised (weakness). These were a genuine cases reported by doctors
in a hospital and so they have high ecological validity (strength). How
useful (weakness) are the findings from these studies? Do they help our
understanding of patient–practitioner interactions?
Cross check
Interviews, page 50
Sampling, page 56
Ecological validity, page 67
Generalisations, page 68
Case studies, page 51
Specialist options
141
5 Specialist options
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on the patient–practitioner relationship. For part
(a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the
exam, you should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b),
the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose
two issues in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than
18 minutes on part (b).
Adherence to medical advice
Types of non-adherence and reasons why patients don’t
adhere
Types of non-adherence: adherence to medical advice includes:
● adhering to requests for short-term treatment regimens (e.g. ‘take these
tablets twice a day for 3 weeks’)
● attending a follow-up appointment
● making a lifestyle change (e.g. quitting smoking)
● engaging in more preventative measures (e.g. a healthy diet and exercising).
Non-adherence refers to the
patients’ tendency not to comply
with prescriptions, appointments
or engagement in preventative
measures as advised by medical
practitioners.
Expert tip
Taylor (1990) suggests that 93% of patients fail to adhere to some aspect of their
treatment regime, while Sarafino (1994) suggests that people adhere ‘reasonably
closely’ to treatment regimes about 78% of the time for short-term treatments,
and about 54% for chronic conditions. The main consequences of non-adherence
are that most people will have a longer recovery period, needing more time off
work, a stay in hospital, a second prescription or a second visit to the doctor.
Why patients do not adhere: one reason why patients do not adhere to
health requests is that they do not believe it is in their interests to do so. The
patient is making a rational decision not to adhere (they are exercising their
free will). They might believe that the treatment will help them get better, or
they might believe that the treatment will cause more problems than it solves.
Bulpitt (1998) studied male participants taking a new drug for hypertension
(high blood pressure). Taking the drug did reduce the number of headaches and
the extent of their depression compared to pre-drug states, but on the negative
side, the men experienced more problems with ejaculation and impotence.
Given such side-effects many of the men made the rational decision to stop
taking the medicine.
The health belief model: this model (Becker and Rosen stock, 1974) outlines
the factors that explain the beliefs and consequent decisions people make about
their health (see Figure 17).
1 Individual perception of the health problem, including:
● perceived seriousness – the more serious a person believes the
consequences will be, the more likely they will be to adhere
● perceived susceptibility – the more vulnerable a person perceives
themselves to be, the more likely they will adhere.
2 Modifying factors:
● demographic variables – including age, sex, race
● socio-psychological variables – including personality traits, social class
and social pressure
● cues to action – people who are reminded/alerted to a potential
problem are more likely to adhere.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Don’t get confused. This topic area
is about patients’ non-adherence. If a
patient adheres to medical requests
then there is no problem.
INDIVIDUAL PERCEPTIONS
MODIFYING FACTORS
LIKLIHOOD OF ACTION
Demographic
variables
Perceived benefits of
preventative action
minus perceived barriers
to preventative action
Socio-psychological
variables
Perceived susceptibility
to disease ‘X’
Perceived seriousness
Perceived threat of
disease ‘X’
5 Specialist options
3 The likelihood of taking action depends on the perceived benefits (such
as being healthier or reducing the health risks) against the perceived barriers
or costs (such as financial considerations).
All these factors interact and determine whether people will adhere to medical
requests or not.
Likelihood of taking
recommended
preventative health
action
Cues to action
Figure 17 The health belief model
Evaluation
●
●
The health belief model is reductionist (strength). Breaking health beliefs
into component parts allows the study of each component, but each
component interacts to form a whole that is greater than the sum of the
parts (holism) (strength). There is an element of free will here (rather
than determinism) – people have many choices and decisions to make for
themselves.
The health belief model is generalisable (strength) – it applies to anyone in
any culture as it was designed for that reason. Rational non-adherence can
also apply to anyone; it is the specifics of the study by Bulpitt that cannot
be generalised (weakness).
Cross check
Reductionism, page 89
Determinism, page 90
Generalisations, page 68
Measuring non-adherence
Subjective measures of adherence: Pitts et al. (1991) suggested that asking a
medical practitioner to estimate the level of non-adherence (a subjective selfreport) is ‘particularly pointless’. Asking a patient is also of little use because of
over-reporting, self-administration or the person may simply not know. People
also give socially desirable answers: they will not always tell the truth, in order to
present a good impression to the health practitioner.
Riekert and Drotar (1999) suggested that people who do not adhere are
unlikely to participate in non-adherence research. In their study, 94 patients,
11–18 year olds with diabetes (and their family), were invited to take part. There
were three types of family:
● those completing all parts of the study (n = 52)
● non-returners who did not return the postal questionnaire (n = 28)
● non-consenters refusing to participate at the first contact (n = 14).
Cross check
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Those in the first two groups completed a semi-structured interview
(subjective, quantitative data) and blood sugar levels (a biochemical test) were
recorded (objective, quantitative data). A follow-up ‘demographics’ postal
questionnaire was given to be completed at home (which the non-returners
did not return). Medical records for all 94 participants showed that the
‘completers’ adhered to treatment programme much more closely than the
‘non-returners’ and the poorest adherence (e.g. in testing daily blood sugar levels)
was in the ‘non-consenters’.
Specialist options
143
5 Specialist options
Objective measures of adherence: objective ‘quantity accounting’, or pill
counting, is where the number of pills remaining in a medication dispenser is
counted by the practitioner. However:
● the fact that the pill has left the bottle does not mean it has been taken
● patients may simply throw away unconsumed medication
● supplies are divided up; pills may be transferred to other containers.
Now test yourself
Medication dispensers record and count the number of times they are used.
Chung and Naya (2000) developed TrackCapTM where a microprocessor in the
pill bottle cap records the date and time the bottle cap is removed and replaced.
Over 12 weeks, 57 patients who took oral medication for asthma participated
in the study (but only 47 completed it). Patients were told that compliance
was being assessed but given no specific detail. Chung and Naya devised a
formula to distinguish between compliance and adherence, finding that the
median adherence rate (precise dose on a daily basis) was 71% and the median
compliance rate was 89%.
Biochemical tests such as blood or urine tests can be used to measure
adherence. Roth and Caron (1987) reviewed different adherence measures on
patients with a peptic ulcer and treatment by antacid. They found that: patient
estimates (of antacid taking) averaged 89% whereas actual intake averaged 47%;
and for patients claiming 100% compliance actual intake ranged from 2% to
130% with a median of 59%. Practitioner estimates were better than patient
estimates, but a correlation between practitioner estimates and actual intake
was only +0.48. Roth and Caron concluded that objective, quantitative measures
such as blood and urine levels are the best available measures of medicine intake.
They quote research by Willcox et al. who found, when analysing urine samples,
that only 31% were taking medication as prescribed. Gordis et al. found that of
103 children who should have been taking penicillin, a urine test revealed only
42% were compliant despite 73% of mothers claiming they had given it to their
children.
Weaknesses of biochemical tests:
●
●
●
●
Biochemical tests do not measure the degree of adherence; the presence of a
drug merely shows that the patient has taken an amount of the drug. It does
not indicate that the patient took the proper amount at the proper time.
People differ in the absorption and metabolism of drugs and this can lead to
differences in the recordings of people who are equally compliant.
Biomedical checks must be carried out frequently to accurately assess
compliance rates.
Biomedical tests can be expensive, so this method is unlikely to be used to
determine levels of non-adherence.
Repeat prescriptions: another objective measure of adherence is recording the
number of repeat prescriptions from a pharmacy. Sherman et al. (2000) studied
116 children with asthma. Adherence was checked by telephoning the patient’s
pharmacy (a telephone interview) to assess the ‘refill rate’. It was assumed that if
the medication (the ‘refill’) was not collected from the pharmacy, then it could
not have been taken, whereas if it was collected then the original prescription
must have been taken. They found that the pharmacy information was 92%
accurate, and so concluded that telephoning a patient’s pharmacy is an accurate
method and can be used as basis for estimating medicine use.
Perhaps the best measure of adherence is recording the number of
appointments kept. This is 100% accurate. It is reliable and valid. It is not timeconsuming and does not involve the patient in any direct assessment.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
29 Suggest why pill counting may
not be a valid measure of nonadherence.
Answer on p. 198
●
●
Patient and practitioner subjective estimations (weakness) provide
information but this is often inaccurate. Objective measures (strength) such
as pill counting and the use of medication dispensers in Chung and Naya
(2000) is reliable (produces consistent results) (strength), but may not be
valid (does not measure whether the medicine is actually taken) (weakness).
Measures such as repeat prescriptions (gathered through telephone
interview) in Sherman et al. (2000) or in semi-structured interviews in
Riekert and Drotar (1999) have strengths and weaknesses. Biochemical tests
Roth and Caron (1987) provide objective data (strength and weaknesses).
Cross check
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Validity, page 67
Reliability, page 66
Interviews, page 50
Improving adherence
5 Specialist options
Evaluation
Improve practitioner style: studies have shown that adherence can be
improved through:
● changing practitioner behaviour (DiMatteo and DiNicola, 1982)
● changing practitioner communication style (Inui et al., 1976)
● changing information presentation techniques (Ley et al., 1988).
Ley (1988) recommends that practitioners:
● emphasise key information by stating why it is important and stating it early
in the interaction
● simplify instructions and use clear and straightforward language (no medical
jargon)
● use specific statements such as ‘you should…’ and have the patient repeat
the instructions in their own words
● use written instructions, breaking down complex instructions into simpler ones
● use a combination of oral and visual information (such as diagrams).
Lewin et al. (1992) looked at how effective providing information in an
instruction manual would be when the patients were discharged from
hospital after a heart attack. Patients who received the Heart Health Manual
adhered more to medical advice. They were judged to have better psychological
adjustment, visited the doctors less, and were less likely to be readmitted to
hospital than the control group (less than 10% readmission compared with 25%).
This also applies to the topic of health promotion.
Behavioural techniques: behavioural methods (e.g. Burke et al., 1997) are also
effective in enhancing patients’ motivation to adhere, and include:
● customising the treatment, where the treatment programme is designed
to be compatible with the patient’s habits and daily routine, for example
taking a pill at breakfast
● providing prompts and reminders by telephone, text or email to take
medicine or attend appointments
● behavioural contracting, whereby the practitioner and patient negotiate
treatment activities and goals in writing and specify the rewards the patient
will receive for adhering, such as being healthy again.
Now test yourself
30 Suggest three ways in which
medical practitioners can improve
their communications with
patients in order to improve
adherence.
Answer on p. 198
On the other hand, punishments can be used. Wesch et al. (1987) introduced a
service charge for missed appointments, which significantly increased adherence.
Yokley and Glenwick (1984) investigated applied community interventions,
using a field experiment, with 1,133 randomly assigned participants. Six
different interventions were used (independent measures):
1 The general prompt group (n = 195) received a mailed prompt containing
general inoculation information and instructions that ‘your child’ needs
inoculations.
2 The specific prompt group (n = 190) received a mailing naming the target
child and the particular inoculations that the child needed and giving the
clinic’s location and hours.
Specialist options
145
5 Specialist options
3 The increased access group (n = 185) received the same as the specific
prompt plus a second page giving additional clinic opening hours.
4 The monetary incentive group (n = 183) received the same as the specific
prompt plus a second page with a statement about ‘giving away $175 in cash
prizes’ for those attending the clinic.
5 The contact control group (n = 189) received telephone contact (but
no mailing) requesting basic inoculation demographic information from
the parents but no explicit prompt (i.e. information that their child was
immunisation deficient).
6 The no-contact control group (n = 191) received no contact at all during
the study.
Findings: the most effective intervention was group 4 ‘monetary incentive’
followed by group 3 ‘increased access’. All the experimental groups were more
effective than the two control groups.
Watt et al. (2003) invented the Funhaler which teaches children how to
inhale their asthma medication properly while having fun (created with
breath-driven spinning toys and whistles). The stronger the child breathes, the
faster the toys spin and the louder the sound of the whistles, so the greater
the reward enjoyed.
Watt et al. tested the Funhaler on 32 children (ages 1.5–6 years, 10 male and
22 female) for 2 weeks. When surveyed at random using a questionnaire, 38%
more parents were found to have medicated their children the previous day
when using the Funhaler, compared to their existing device (Breath-a-Tech) (22/27
versus 16/27, respectively), and 60% more children took the recommended four
or more cycles (24/30 versus 15/30) when using the Funhaler compared with the
old inhaler.
Evaluation
●
●
Cross check
The studies by Yokley and Glenwick (1984) and Watt et al. (2003) are
field experiments (strengths and weaknesses) with IV, DV and controls.
Each has an independent measures design. The Watt et al. study uses a
questionnaire (strengths and weaknesses).
Each improvement in this section is based on the learning approach
(strengths and weaknesses) with the reward of a cash prize, spinning toys
and whistles (positive reinforcement) or a fine (‘service charge’ for a missed
appointment) (positive punishment). The principles of all these studies can
be generalised (strength), but not necessarily the specifics (weakness).
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on adherence to medical advice. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you
should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part,
choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition
to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
146
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Field experiments, page 44
Questionnaires, page 49
The learning approach, page 71
Generalisations, page 67
Usefulness, page 73
Types and theories of pain
There are different types of pain:
● Acute pain is when, after a relatively brief time period, the pain subsides, the
damage heals and the individual returns to a pre-damage state.
● Chronic pain is when the pain does not subside even though the damage is
apparently healed, and may continue for many months or years.
● Psychogenic pain describes episodes of pain that occur as the result of
some underlying psychological disorder, rather than in response to some
immediate physical injury.
● Phantom limb pain is the feeling that a missing (amputated) body part is
still there. Many amputees describe it as a burning, tingling or itching feeling
that may or may not be painful. Most amputees have at least some phantom
limb pain after limb loss.
Specificity theory of pain: this was proposed by Descartes (1644) and his
analogy of bell ringing is a good one: ‘pull the rope at the bottom and the bell will
ring in the belfry’. The theory proposes that there are four sensory receptors
(warmth, cold, pressure and pain) in bodily tissue that connect to a pain centre in
the brain. Evidence from many sources – clinical evidence (e.g. phantom limb pain),
physiological evidence and psychological evidence – show that this theory is wrong.
In 1965, Melzack and Wall proposed the gate control theory – the idea that
physical pain is not a direct result of activation of pain receptors, but rather that
the spinal cord contains a neurological ‘gate’ that either blocks pain signals or
allows them to continue on to the brain. Crucially, pain is seen as a combination
of both physiological and psychological factors. This explains how the sensation
of pain can be dampened or manipulated by thoughts, and explains all the
clinical, physiological and psychological evidence that specificity theory could not.
A nursing definition of pain is:
‘whatever the experiencing person says
it is, existing whenever he says it does’.
Now test yourself
5 Specialist options
Pain
31 Give one similarity and one
difference between acute and
chronic pain.
Answer on p. 199
A theory of pain is an analytic
structure designed to explain an
unpleasant sensory and emotional
experience associated with actual or
potential tissue damage.
Measuring pain
Self-report measures: it is logical to ask a person in pain (in a clinical
interview conducted by a practitioner) to describe their pain and find out all
about it to help diagnose the cause of the pain. However, this subjective selfreport method is notoriously unreliable, particularly when many people do not
know where the liver, kidneys or stomach, for example, are located in their body.
Psychometric measures: a quantitative alternative is a visual rating scale. The
visual analogue scale, for example, has a 10 cm line with the descriptors ‘no pain’ at
one end to ‘pain as bad as it could be’ at the other. An alternative is the box scale
(Figure 18), which is the same as the visual analogue but with numbers, while the
category (verbal) scale (Figure 19) uses a line with descriptors.
Box scale
No
pain
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Worst
pain
possible
Figure 18 The box scale of pain
Verbal rating scale
No pain
Some pain
Considerable pain
Worst pain possible
Figure 19 The category (verbal) scale of pain
Specialist options
147
5 Specialist options
For people with chronic pain, Melzack (1975) developed the McGill pain
questionnaire (MPQ). This is a psychometric measure including words and
drawings and consisting of four parts:
1 ‘Where is your pain?’ Patients mark on a drawing where their pain is.
2 ‘What does your pain feel like?’ Patients use descriptor words in 20
categories: for example, Category 2: jumping/flashing/shooting; Category 8:
tingling/itchy/smarting/stinging.
3 ‘How does your pain change with time?’ Is the pain continuous/steady/
constant or, rhythmic/periodic/intermittent or brief/momentary/transient?
4 ‘How strong is your pain?’ This includes a visual analogue type scale using six
questions with five descriptors: 1 mild, 2 discomforting, 3 distressing,
4 horrible, 5 excruciating. Questions include: ‘Which word describes your
pain right now?’ ‘Which word describes it at its worst?’
Now test yourself
Behavioural/observational measures of pain: when in pain we display
characteristic pain behaviour. According to Turk et al. (1985), these are:
● facial/audible expression of distress, e.g. grimace, groan
● distorted ambulation or posture, e.g. limping, rubbing and holding
● negative affect, e.g. being irritable, in a bad mood
● avoidance of activity, e.g. staying at home, resting, opting out.
32 Suggest three behaviours people
may display when they are in pain.
Answer on p. 199
The UAB pain behaviour scale outlined by Richards et al. (1982) is for use
by nurses (for example) who observe people in hospital for a week or more.
Nurses observe each patient daily and rate each of 10 behaviours, such as
mobility and down-time, on a 3-point scale, scoring 0/0.5/1 for each. Ratings
are totalled so that pain behaviour over a period can be recorded.
Table 5.2 The UAB pain behaviour scale
1 Vocal complaints: verbal
Date
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
None
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Occasional
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
Frequent
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2 Vocal complaints: non-verbal (moans, groans, gasps etc.)
Date
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
None
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Occasional
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
½
Frequent
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Pain measures for children: the children’s comprehensive pain
questionnaire (McGrath, 1987) uses pictures of smiley and sad faces and a
child’s body on which the site of the pain can be drawn/pointed to. The Wong–
Baker scale is similar. Figure 20 shows a typical example.
0
No pain
1
2
3
4
5
Extreme
pain
Figure 20 Example from the Wong–Baker scale
The paediatric pain questionnaire (Varni and Thompson, 1976) gets children
to pick colours and then colour a box – ‘no hurt’, ‘a little hurt’, ‘more hurt’ and
‘a lot of hurt’ – with a coloured pencil or crayon. The child then chooses the
colour from the ‘hurt boxes’ to colour the part of the body that is hurting.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
●
●
This section includes measuring pain by a clinical interview (face-toface) but the qualitative data (strength and weakness) are subjective
(weakness). Psychometric measures also assess pain quantitatively
(strength) and these are claimed to be reliable and valid (strengths). The
MPQ includes a questionnaire (strengths and weaknesses).
Pain can be assessed using observations (structured and quantitative).
Pain in children is assessed using visual displays of faces with quantitative
rating scales. There are specific pain scales for children. (Strengths and
weaknesses of both.)
Cross check
Interviews, page 50
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Psychometric measures, page 89
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Questionnaires, page 49
Observations, page 51
Children, page 75
5 Specialist options
Evaluation
Managing and controlling pain
Medical techniques: pain can be managed by medical techniques. Surgery
such as amputation is possible but can lead to phantom limb pain. Pain can be
managed with chemicals (medicines or drugs):
● Peripherally acting analgesics act on the peripheral nervous system (e.g.
aspirin, ibuprofen, paracetamol).
● Centrally acting analgesics work directly on the central nervous system
(e.g. morphine).
● Local anaesthetics can work when ‘rubbed in’ but are more effective when
injected into a site (e.g. tooth extraction, epidural).
Psychological techniques: psychological techniques can be used to help
manage pain, all based on ‘controlling the gate’. These include:
● Attention diversion where a person focuses on a non-related stimulus in
order to be distracted from the discomfort. It can be passive (e.g. looking at
a picture) or active (e.g. singing a song). Even watching television can distract
the patient.
● Non-pain imagery, where a person tries to alleviate discomfort by creating
or imagining a mental scene that is unrelated to or incompatible with the
pain.
● Cognitive redefinition, where a person replaces negative thoughts about
pain with constructive (positive) thoughts. For example, a person can think
‘it’s not the worst thing that could happen to me’.
Alternative techniques: one alternative technique to manage pain is a
stimulation therapy based on the principle ‘fight pain with pain’, or using counterirritation that directs attention away from the stronger pain to the milder pain. One
example is transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) which is selfadministered. Electrodes are placed on the skin near where the patient feels pain
and mild electric shocks are given, causing distraction. Acupuncture involves
inserting between 5 and 25 very fine stainless steel needles to stimulate the body’s
14 major meridians (through which life energy or ‘qi’ is said to flow) to increase the
release of neurotransmitters called endorphins, which block pain.
Evaluation
●
●
Reference can be made to different approaches, the cognitive approach,
(attention diversion, etc.) and the learning and biochemical approaches
(strengths and weaknesses of each).
There are many aspects to compare and contrast. Medical techniques are
reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
The term alternative technique is
used to describe any intervention that is
not medical or psychological.
Cross check
The cognitive approach, page 71
The learning approach, page 71
Reductionism, page 89
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on pain. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide
what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no
more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a
range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
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Stress
Sources of stress
Physiology of stress: stress involves an interaction of cognitive and
physiological factors. Each can be assessed through questions such as ‘When
you are stressed or pressured, do you: notice your heart rate or breathing
change?; feel knots in your stomach or feel nauseous?; think first of the
negative things that may happen?; after an event is over do you replay it in
your mind?
A potentially stressful event triggers a series of interactions between the brain,
neurotransmitters and hormones. For example, the pituitary gland secretes
hormones that stimulate the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex. The
adrenal cortex produces corticosteroids (one of which is cortisol) and the
adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines (one of which is adrenaline). The effect
is to increase breathing to increase the intake of oxygen. This consequently
increases blood pressure and the heart rate increases to pump oxygenated
blood to muscles. A person is then in a state of heightened physiological arousal
to ‘fight’ or take ‘flight’. Which of these two is acted on is determined by a
person making a (cognitive) decision to take flight or not.
Selye (1956), following laboratory studies on rats, proposed the general
adaptation syndrome (GAS), with three stages to explain the above processes:
1 An alarm reaction, such as the flight-or-fight response: this mobilises the
body’s resources and increases physiological arousal.
2 Resistance: an attempt is made to counteract the earlier effects and reduce
the higher state of arousal.
3 Exhaustion: if the high levels of arousal are prolonged, eventually some part
of the physiological system will break down.
Selye’s third stage is crucial for health. The body cannot remain in a heightened
state of physiological arousal forever, and at some point one or more parts
of the system will become exhausted and break down. Major effects include
high blood pressure, which may cause a blood vessel in the brain to burst (a
hemorrhagic stroke); it might cause a myocardial infarction (‘heart attack’) and
minor effects might be a stomach ulcer.
Causes of stress: stress can be caused by work, life events or personality.
● Work: work can be stressful and certain types more than others. Chandola
et al. (2008) studied 10,308 male and female civil servants (working for
the government) in London. Starting in 1985, the longitudinal study
was completed in 2004. Data were gathered using self-report postal
questionnaires and a clinical examination assessing biological risk factors
(coronary heart disease (CHD), blood pressure, cortisol levels and waist
circumference) and behavioural factors (diet, exercise, alcohol consumption
and smoking). Results showed that work stress was associated with lack of
exercise and poor diet; work stress was more common in those under 50
years of age; and the more stress that was reported, the more likely there
was to be a report of CHD.
● Life events: it is believed that changes in the routine of life cause stress.
Holmes and Rahe (1967) devised the social readjustment rating scale
(SRRS) to examine the life events and experiences (both positive and
negative) that cause stress. The scale included 43 life events ranging from
‘death of spouse’ to minor violations of the law. They found that people
scoring 300 life change units (in the last 12 months) or more were more
susceptible to illnesses ranging from sudden cardiac death to sports injuries
(see also below for SRRS).
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Stress is the condition that results
when a person’s environment/
transactions lead them to perceive
a discrepancy (whether real or not)
between the demands of a situation
and the resources of the person’s
biological, psychological or social
systems (Sarafino, 1990).
Personality: it is believed that people who have a particular type of
personality are more prone to stress and consequently are more likely to
suffer illnesses. Friedman and Rosenman (1974) originally observed that
some behaviours shown by their patients suffering from coronary heart
disease were different from other people. These behaviours they called Type A
and people without these behaviours were labelled a Type B personality.
Type As are:
– Aggressive and assertive. Type As tend to be easily aroused to anger
or hostility, which they may or may not express overtly.
– Competitive. Type As tend to be very self-critical and to strive towards
goals without feeling a sense of joy in their efforts or accomplishments.
– Time conscious. Type As tend to be in a constant struggle against the
clock. Often they quickly become impatient with delays and
unproductive time, schedule commitments too tightly, and try to do
more than one thing at a time, such as reading while eating or watching
television (see also below for Type A test).
Evaluation
●
●
The physiology of stress is the biological approach which by its nature
is biologically determinist and reductionist. It is nature rather than
nurture. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
Stress is located in the individual and Type A personality is individual,
but work stress is situational. Life events have many weaknesses including
cultural bias. (Strengths and weaknesses for all.)
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●
Cross check
The biological approach, page 70
Determinism, page 90
Reductionism, page 89
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Cultural bias, page 88
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Measures of stress
Physiological measures: these include recording devices and sample tests.
Blood pressure tests. Goldstein et al. (1992) found that paramedics’
blood pressure (obtained using a sphygmomanometer) was higher during
ambulance runs or when at the hospital, compared with other work
situations or when at home.
● Galvanic skin response (GSR). This calculates the electrical resistance of the
skin, an indicator of arousal in the autonomic nervous system.
● Sample tests of blood, urine and salivary cortisol. Lundberg (1976)
collected urine samples to measure the levels of stress caused by commuting
to work. Evans and Wener (2007) also measured commuting to work.
They studied 139 men and women travelling from home to work on a train
journey taking an average of 83 minutes. They measured physiological
arousal using a salivette to measure cortisol (which appears in saliva) and
they took psychological measures in the form of a proofreading task, and
also mood (measured using a 5-point semantic differential (e.g. contented–
frustrated). Like Lundberg, they found crowding on the train was stressful for
commuters.
● Recording devices. Wang et al. (2005) used an MRI scanner to investigate
the source of activation of the stress response in the brain. Wang et al.
created a ‘low’ and a ‘high’ stress task and found that performing these tasks
was associated with increased activity in the ventral right pre-frontal cortex
(RPFC). To determine whether the stress tasks were valid, Wang et al. used
physiological measures of heart rate and salivary cortisol, and self-report
psychological measures of stress and anxiety (1–9 scale) and the amount
of effort, task difficulty and frustration (1–9 scale). Compared with baseline,
all measures showed an increase for the low stress task and an even higher
increase for the high stress task before all returned to ‘normal’ levels at the
post-task baseline, showing the stress tasks were valid.
●
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Psychological measures include self-report questionnaires:
● Holmes and Rahe (1967) devised the social readjustment rating scale
(SRRS) in order to examine the events and experiences that cause stress.
They compiled a list of major and minor events and gave each a rank and
a mean value. At the top of the list (rank 1 with a mean value of 100) was
‘death of spouse’; at the bottom of the list (rank 43 and a mean value of 11)
was ‘minor violations of the law’. They believed that both positive as well
as negative events cause stress, if these events were a change from normal
routine. They thus listed Christmas and vacation/holiday as stressful, with
12 points with 13 points, respectively. A person’s total SRRS is calculated by
adding the mean value of any event that has happened in the previous 12
months. Holmes and Rahe found that people scoring 300 life change units
or more were more susceptible to both physical and mental illness, ranging
from sudden cardiac death to athletics injuries.
● Friedman and Rosenman (1974) devised the Type A personality
questionnaire. There are short and long versions, some requiring yes/no
answers and others scoring on a 1–4 scale. A typical ‘yes/no’ questionnaire
assesses these behaviours with questions being:
– ‘Do you find it intolerable to watch others perform tasks you know
that you can do faster?’
– ‘Do you feel guilty when you relax when there is work to be
done?’
– ‘Do you always move, walk and eat rapidly?’
– ‘Do you feel there are not enough hours in the day to do all the
things you must do?’
Now test yourself
33 Describe two studies in which
stress has been measured using a
questionnaire.
34 Using examples, give two ways
in which stress can be measured
physiologically.
Answer on p. 199
According to Friedman and Rosenman, people with high scores are more
likely to suffer from coronary heart disease and other stress-related illnesses.
Evaluation
●
●
Cross check
Physiological measures using recording devices are objective, reliable and
can be generalised because all people function physiologically (strengths).
Such devices produce quantitative data (strength). The measures are valid
(strength) such as using a sphygmomanometer to measure blood pressure,
but the cause of (high) blood pressure can only be assumed (weakness).
Questionnaires have strengths and weaknesses and although they produce
quantitative data (strength), the data are subjective (weakness) as a person
may not be truthful. Questionnaires unlike physiological measures have cultural
bias (weakness). The SRRS is based on middle-aged males from the USA in
the 1960s. It includes Christmas but not other religious or cultural festivals.
Management of stress
Physiological measures, page 151
Objective and subjective measures,
page 69
Quantitative data, page 60
Generalisations, page 68
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Questionnaires, page 49
Cultural bias, page 88
Use of drugs, page 96
Medical techniques: there are a number of different ways in which stress can
be managed. Those adhering to the medical approach would opt for drug
treatment. Two common drugs are benzodiazepines (e.g. Valium, Librium) and
beta-blockers (e.g. Inderal), which both reduce physiological arousal and feelings
of anxiety by blocking neurones stimulated by adrenaline. Drugs like these are
addictive, so are for short-term use only.
Psychological techniques: stress can be managed using biofeedback. For
example, we can slow down our heartbeat just by thinking about it.
Budzynski and Stoyva (1969) conducted an experiment using biofeedback
on 15 people suffering headaches in their frontalis (forehead muscle). The
biofeedback device could provide auditory feedback with the pitch of the tone
determined by the level of muscle tension.
Participants were divided into three groups:
1 The experimental group were told the tone reflected the level of muscle
tension and they were told to relax as much as possible.
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Biofeedback is the control of
physiological functions through
cognitive processing.
Over the 20 trials there was a significant difference between the three groups,
particularly in the percentage decline. The feedback group showed a 50%
decrease, the no feedback group a 24% decline and the irrelevant feedback
group a 28% increase in forehead muscle tension.
Imagery: stress can also be managed using imagery. The aim of the study by
Bridge et al. (1988) was to see whether stress could be alleviated in 154 patients
being treated for early breast cancer.
There were three groups:
1 Control (encouraged to talk about themselves).
2 Relaxation only (taught concentration on individual muscle groups).
3 Relaxation and imagery (taught relaxation and also taught to imagine a
peaceful scene of their own choice to enhance relaxation).
Imagery is a technique in therapy
where a person focuses on pleasant
mental images in order to distract
from discomfort and evoke feelings of
relaxation.
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2 The ‘constant low tone irrelevant feedback’ group were told to relax (and the
low tone would not change).
3 The silent group were told to relax (and there was no tone feedback).
The relaxation and relaxation plus imagery groups were given a tape-recording
repeating the instructions and told to practise at least 15 minutes a day. Initial
stress levels were measured by profile of mood states and the Leeds general
scales for depression and anxiety, and initial scores were the same in all groups.
After 6 weeks of intervention these measures of mood states were taken again.
Findings showed that mood disturbance scores were significantly less in the
intervention groups; women in the imagery and relaxation group were more
relaxed than those receiving relaxation training only; mood in the control group
was worse. Bridge et al. concluded that patients with early breast cancer benefit
from imagery and relaxation training.
Preventing stress: Meichenbaum (1985) prevented stress with selfinstructional training and stress inoculation therapy. He believed stress was
caused by thinking about events in catastrophising ways. Stress inoculation training
focuses on replacing maladaptive statements with positive, coping statements and
relaxation, which leads the person to respond to stress in more positive ways.
Stress inoculation training has three stages:
● Conceptualisation: the trainer talks to the person about their stress
experiences, such as how they would normally cope with stress. Negative
thought patterns are identified.
● Skill acquisition: the person is educated about the physiological and
cognitive aspects of stress and techniques used to manage stress, e.g.
replacement of negative thought patterns with positive ones.
● Application and follow-through: the application of the new skills through
a series of progressively more threatening situations to prepare the person for
real-life situations.
Evaluation
●
●
Medical techniques (drugs) are short term only and have many strengths
and weaknesses. Biofeedback links biological functions with cognitive
processes (see the Schachter and Singer study, page 15).
The studies by Budzynski and Stoyva and by Bridge et al. are experiments
(strengths and weaknesses). The techniques in these studies can be
generalised as can the model by Meichenbaum.
Cross check
Biochemical treatments, page 96
Field experiments, page 44
Generalisations, page 68
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on stress. For part (a), the ‘describe’ part, decide
what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should spend no
more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a
range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Specialist options
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5 Specialist options
Health promotion
Strategies for promoting health
Fear arousal: the idea behind fear arousal is that if an appeal is very upsetting it
scares people into changing their behaviour.
Health promotion aims to enhance
good health and prevent illness.
Janis and Feshbach (1953) conducted a laboratory experiment on oral/dental
hygiene. There were four groups: a minimal fear group, a moderate fear group, a
strong fear group and a control group. They assessed the effectiveness of each
level of fear through self-report questionnaires given before, immediately after,
and 1 week after the fear presentations. It was found that although the strong
fear group did arouse most fear, the minimal fear presentation was most
effective in conformity to oral hygiene behaviour. The minimal fear presentation
group showed 36% agreement with the advice but agreement was just 8% with
the strong (scary) presentation, suggesting that low levels of fear are best.
Fear arousal involves a message being
presented to a target audience with the
aim of scaring or creating fear in them
in order to change their perceptions
and motivate them to act.
Linking fear arousal and providing information strategies: a successful
television media campaign was on the dangers of chip-pan fires. Cowpe (1989)
reported on how two television regions in the UK received the 12-week
campaign. The strength of the campaign lay in the use of both providing
information and fear arousal. One television advert was presented by a woman
who told of the dangers of a chip-pan fire and then, in three simple steps, what
to do should a fire break out. However, in her case, she had not followed these
steps and had been burned in a chip-pan fire; the advert showed a close-up of
her disfigurement. The success of the campaign was then measured through
actual fire brigade statistics. During the campaign one television region saw a
32% reduction in the number of fires, and in the 25 weeks after the campaign,
although the reduction in the number of fires did decrease, it was still 17%
less than before the start of the campaign. Up to a year after the campaign
had started, there was still an 8% reduction from baseline. This study recorded
objective data in the form of fire brigade statistics. Its effectiveness over time
could be assessed and it showed the need for any health-promotion campaign
to be repeated periodically.
Yale model of communication: Hovland et al.’s (1953) Yale model of
communication looked at persuasive communications:
● The source of the message – is the presenter of the message credible, an
expert, trustworthy?
● The message itself – is it clear and direct; colourful and vivid; is it one-sided
or two-sided?
● The medium – is the message personal; done via television, radio or
printed?
● The target audience – who is the target audience? School children;
communities?
● The situation – where will the message be presented? In the home; a
medical surgery?
Expert tip
All of these features contribute to the success (or failure) of persuasive
communication.
Providing information: if people want to live healthier lives, they need to know
what to do; they need to be provided with information. Posters placed in medical
settings can be a major source of information. Better still is when a practitioner
provides information to a patient, but studies have shown (e.g. Ley, 1988) that
patients do not remember most of what they are told. Written information is better.
The Heart Health Manual was devised by Lewin et al. (1992) and is ‘the UK’s
leading home-based cardiac rehabilitation programme, providing a standardised
approach and contributing to the recovery of more than 10,000 heart attack
patients every year’.
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This model of communication also
applies to advertising. See page 135 if
you study consumer behaviour.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
The fear arousal and providing information strategies both have strengths
and weaknesses and can be compared and contrasted. Too much fear may
be unethical (weakness).
Supporting studies are experimental: Janis and Feshbach (1953) is
laboratory and Lewin et al. (1992) is a field experiment, so both have many
strengths and weaknesses. Both are useful.
There may be cultural differences (weakness) in the way in which
coronary heart disease is prevented and treated in different countries.
The Lewin et al. study is longitudinal (strengths and weaknesses).
Cross check
Ethics, page 57
Laboratory experiments, page 43
Field experiments, page 44
Longitudinal studies, page 91
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Does this providing information approach work? In a field experiment, using a
double-blind, 176 patients were randomly allocated either to the Heart Health
Manual group or to a control group. Patients were assessed at 6 months and
1 year. Key findings: patients with the manual were judged to have better
psychological adjustment, visited the doctors less, and were less likely to be
readmitted to hospital in the first 6 months compared with the control group
(less than 10% readmission compared with 25%).
Health promotion in schools, worksites and communities
Schools: children in schools can be targeted before bad health habits begin. In
the UK, Tapper et al. (2000) used role models called the ‘Food Dudes’ and
devised a programme aimed at promoting the eating of fruit and vegetables in
schools. This field experiment was longitudinal. It included:
● a Food Dude adventure video with six 6-minute adventure episodes
● a set of Food Dude rewards
● a set of letters from the Food Dudes (for praise and encouragement)
● a Food Dude home-pack (to encourage children to eat fruit and vegetables
in the home context as well as at school)
● a teacher handbook and support materials.
Over a 5-month period, children in an experimental and a control school were
presented with fruit and vegetables at lunchtime. Levels of fruit and vegetable
consumption were measured at baseline, intervention and a 4-month
follow-up.
Results: lunchtime and home consumption in the experimental school was
substantially higher than in the control group, so the programme was effective.
Compared to the control school, lunchtime consumption in the experimental
school was substantially higher. There were also significant increases in fruit
and vegetable consumption at home and the programme was effective in
bringing about substantial increases in children’s consumption of fruit and
vegetables.
Cross check
Children, page 75
The learning approach, page 71
Now test yourself
35 Briefly describe one health
promotion campaign that has been
conducted in a school.
Answer on p. 199
Worksites: to promote healthy worksite behaviour, Fox et al. (1987) studied the Expert tip
use of a token economy system at two open-cast mines (one coal and one
Token economy can also be used to
help people with schizophrenia. See
uranium ore). Employees could earn stamps/tokens (to gain rewards) for working
page 96, if you study the Abnormality
without time lost for injury; not being involved in accidental damage to
option.
equipment; and behaviour that prevented accidents or injuries. Stamps were lost
for unsafe behaviour that could cause accidents.
Result: there was a dramatic decrease in days lost through injury and the number
of accidents was reduced. The system continued to be used at one mine for
12 years (until it closed) and was used at the other for at least 11 years. The token
economy is based on the learning approach and Skinner’s positive reinforcement.
Communities: in a follow-up to a 1976 three-community study, Farquhar
et al. (1985) undertook the Stanford five-city project. The premise was that a
community-wide education programme could reduce cardiovascular disease.
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This longitudinal programme lasted for 6 years, with five cities in northern
California, USA being studied. The experimental group (122,800 participants)
and control group (197,500 participants) each had a wide age range of
participants. The programme provided information on television and radio,
and in newspapers, books and pamphlets. Behavioural measures included a
questionnaire about health beliefs and several physiological measures were
taken, including weight and blood pressure. Urine samples were also taken to
assess cholesterol levels. Results showed reductions in cholesterol levels (2%),
blood pressure (4%), resting pulse rate (3%) and smoking (13%).
Evaluation
●
●
●
Cross check
All three studies used field experiments (strengths and weaknesses). The
Tapper et al. and Fox et al. studies gathered quantitative data (strengths
and weaknesses) and the five-city project gathered both quantitative and
qualitative data. This study had both objective measures (e.g. the urine
samples) and subjective measures (health belief questionnaires).
All three studies gathered data over a period of time, so they were
longitudinal (strengths and weaknesses).
The Tapper et al. study used children (strengths and weaknesses).
Field experiments, page 44
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Longitudinal studies, page 91
Use of children, page 75
Individual factors in changing health beliefs
Unrealistic optimism: unrealistic optimism or optimistic bias is a reason why
many people continue to smoke cigarettes even though they cause lung and
many other cancers – people falsely believe that it won’t happen to them.
Another term for this is ‘illusion of invulnerability’ and it is the reason why the
Titanic sank in 1912. The captain thought that the ship would never sink.
Weinstein (1980) tested the main hypothesis that people believe that negative
events are less likely to happen to them than to others, and they believe that
positive events are more likely to happen to them than to others.
In Study 1, 258 college students estimated what their own chances were of
experiencing 42 events (18 positive and 24 negative events). Positive events
included ‘owning your own home’ and negative events ‘developing cancer’. The
events were scored ‘compared to other students studying here and the same sex
as you’ on the following scale: 100% less, 80% less, 60% less, 40% less, 20% less,
10% less, average, 10% more, 20% more, 40% more, 60% more, 80% more, and
100% more.
Overall, the participants rated their own chances to be above average for
positive events and below average for negative events, supporting the main
hypothesis.
Study 2, using 120 female college students, tested the idea that people are
unrealistically optimistic because they focus on factors that improve their own
chances but fail to realise that other people are just the same. When these
participants realised they were the same, unrealistic optimism decreased, but
was not eliminated altogether.
Transtheoretical model: this model of behaviour change (Prochaska et al.,
1997) assesses, through a series of six stages, whether a person is ready to change
to a new, healthier behaviour.
● Stage 1 pre-contemplation: where a person is not intending to change
their behaviour in the next 6 months.
● Stage 2 contemplation: where a person is intending to change their
behaviour in the next 6 months. They are aware of the benefits of changing
but are also mindful of the costs.
● Stage 3 preparation: people are intending to change behaviour in the near
future and have a plan of action.
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Unrealistic optimism is the
mistaken belief that one’s chances of
experiencing a negative event are lower
(or a positive event higher) than those
of one’s peers.
●
●
Stage 4 action: people have taken action, however for health benefits the
next stage is needed.
Stage 5 maintenance: the action continues without relapse and hopefully
this stage will continue for at least 6 months and maybe up to 5 years.
Stage 6 termination: at this point the person has 100% changed with no
chance at all of relapse.
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●
Health change in adolescents: Lau et al. (1990) studied the stability and
change of health beliefs and behaviour in young adults/students (97% were aged
17–19 years).
Baseline questionnaires, returned by 1,029 students, focused on six behaviours:
alcohol consumption, eating habits, exercise, sleeping, smoking and wearing
seatbelts. This longitudinal study required the questionnaires to be completed
again after 1, 2 and 3 years. Those responding dropped significantly (from 1,029
to 879 in year 2, and from 635 to 532 in year 3).
Lau et al. (1990) outlined three models:
● Lifelong openness model: people are always open to persuasion from
influential socialising agents; parents have no status.
● Windows of vulnerability model: parental influence persists unless the
child is exposed to important social models (e.g. other students) who have
different and more influential views.
● Enduring family socialisation model: where preventive health beliefs and
behaviour are learned from the family during childhood and remain fairly
stable throughout life because parents are the primary socialising agents.
Analysis of the results showed substantial change in health behaviour while at
college, but that parents are much more important, providing support for the
third model.
Evaluation
●
●
●
The studies by Weinstein and Lau et al. used questionnaires and
gathered quantitative data. Both studies used students in their sample
and Weinstein only used female participants in Study 2. (Strengths and
weaknesses for all.)
Both studies used participants from the USA only, so there could be
cultural bias. The Lau et al. study gathered data over a period of time, so it
is longitudinal. (Strengths and weaknesses for both.)
The model by Prochaska et al. could be generalised to all people and all
health behaviour change (strength).
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on health
promotion. For part (a), the ‘describe’
part, decide what you need to include
(and exclude). In the exam, you should
spend no more than 12 minutes on
this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’
part, choose a range of issues to
include (three is a range). Choose two
issues in addition to the named issue.
You should spend no more than 18
minutes on part (b).
Cross check
Questionnaires, page 50
Quantitative data, page 60
Samples, page 56
Longitudinal studies, page 91
Generalisations, page 68
5.5 Psychology and
organisations
Motivation to work
Need theories of motivation
All people have needs (e.g. to eat and drink) and we are motivated to satisfy
them. We also have needs as people in a society and the need for achievement.
Hierarchy of needs: Maslow’s (1954) needs theory proposed a five-tier
hierarchy:
1 Physiological: food, drink, warmth, etc.
2 Safety: protection from harm, need for law and order.
A theory of motivation is an analytic
structure designed to explain the force
that energises, directs and sustains
behaviour.
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3 Social: need for affection, relationships and family.
4 Esteem: need for achievement, mastery of skills, status.
5 Self-actualisation: realising potential; fulfilment.
Maslow believed that lower-level or basic needs had to be satisfied before
progressing to higher levels. Maslow added two additional needs in 1970, and
an eighth later on:
6 Cognitive: having knowledge and understanding.
7 Aesthetic: the appreciation and search for beauty.
8 Transcendent: helping others to achieve self-actualisation.
Expert tip
Every student knows Maslow’s five
needs. But there is much more to it
than this. Go beyond the basics –
Maslow has eight needs not just five,
and there are other needs theories in
addition to Maslow’s.
ERG theory: Aldefer (1972) re-categorised Maslow’s hierarchy into three
‘simpler’ categories, or ERG (see figure 21):
E Existence needs (physiological and safety needs) – the need for the basic
material necessities of life.
R Relatedness needs (social and self-esteem needs) – the need to have and
maintain interpersonal relationships both at work and at home.
G Growth needs (self-actualisation) – the need for self-development and
advancement.
Growth needs
Selfactualisation
needs
Esteem needs
Relatedness needs
Social needs
Safety/security needs
Existence needs
Physiological needs
Figure 21 Maslow and Alderfer compared
Achievement motivation: McClelland’s achievement–motivation theory (1961)
suggests that we have three work-related needs:
● Need for achievement – the need to get a job done, to master a task, to
be successful. People want to achieve on the basis of their hard work and
effort rather than on the basis of luck.
● Need for affiliation – the need to be liked and accepted by other people;
effort is applied to creating and maintaining social relationships and
friendships.
● Need for power – this concerns being influential in the lives of others and
also in the control of others; the need for discipline is important.
Now test yourself
McClelland believed that a good manager should have the need for power, not
necessarily the need for achievement and certainly not the need for affiliation.
McClelland used thematic apperception tests (TAT), involving looking at
pictures followed by a description of the story they suggest. It is a projective test,
so it does not have the reliability of a psychometric test.
158
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
36 What are the three work-related
needs outlined by McClelland?
Answer on p. 199
●
●
●
●
All three theories have strengths and weaknesses. For example, does a
theory have any evidence to support it? To what extent can the theory be
generalised from one person to another and does it apply in all cultures?
Theories were often based on people in organisations in the USA and this is
another source of cultural bias. Theories were also based on industrial life in
the 1970s and 1980s and these theories may not be useful in today’s society.
Is motivation individual or situational? (strengths and weaknesses).
Need theories can be compared and contrasted with cognitive/rational
theories.
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Individual–situational debate, page 74
5 Specialist options
Evaluation
Cognitive theories of motivation
Goal-setting theory: a person can be motivated by setting a goal and when
it is achieved a sense of achievement and success follows. This is the basic
principle underlying the application of management by objectives. One of the
best ways of setting effective goals is to make them ‘SMART’: goals should be
specific, measurable, attainable/agreed, realistic/relevant and time-based.
Cognitive (or rational) theories of
motivation view workers as rational,
decision-making beings who cognitively
assess (think about) costs and benefits
before acting.
In the 1960s, Locke suggested that working toward a goal provided a major source of
motivation to reach the goal and with appropriate feedback improved performance.
Latham proposed similar ideas and the combined goal-setting theory by Latham
and Locke became popular. They believe goal-setting has five principles:
1 Clarity: when a goal is clear and specific it is unambiguous and measurable. Expert tip
2 Challenge: goals that are relevant and linked to rewards are good
If a question asks you to explain ‘a
motivators.
theory of’, ensure you refer to what a
theory is in your answer.
3 Commitment: goals must be understood and agreed to be effective.
4 Effectiveness: goal-setting must involve feedback on progress and
achievement.
5 Task complexity: tasks must be achievable and in a particular time period.
VIE (or expectancy) theory: in this theory (Vroom, 1964) workers are rational
and decision-making is guided by potential costs (negative outcomes) and
rewards (positive outcomes). The theory is summarised by the equation:
M = E × I × V or motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence
M (motivation) is the amount a person will be motivated by the situation in
which they find themselves, which is determined by E (expectancy), which is the
person’s perception of the extent to which the amount of effort correlates with
performance. I (instrumentality) is the person’s perception of how performance will
be rewarded. It is the extent to which the amount of reward matches the amount
of effort required. V (valence) is the perceived strength of the reward or punishment.
If the reward is small then so will be the motivation, even if I and E are high.
Equity theory: equity theory (Adams, 1963) assumes that workers expect to achieve
pay, status and recognition according to what they bring to a job. When people feel
fairly treated they are more likely to be motivated. However, when workers feel unfairly
treated they are prone to feelings of disaffection and demotivation. Equity is where
employees seek to balance the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that
they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others. If there is
perceived inequality, the worker will become de-motivated.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
All three theories have strengths and weaknesses. For example, does a
theory have any evidence to support it? To what extent can the theory be
generalised from one person to another and does it apply in all cultures?
Theories were often based on people in organisations in the USA and this is
another source of cultural bias. Theories were also based on industrial life in
the 1970s and 1980s and these theories may not be useful in today’s society.
Is motivation individual or situational? (strengths and weaknesses).
Need theories can be compared and contrasted with cognitive/rational
theories.
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Specialist options
159
5 Specialist options
Motivators at work
Intrinsic motivation is an internal desire to perform a particular task because it
gives pleasure or develops a particular skill. Motivation comes from the actual
performance of the job or task and gives a sense of achievement and
satisfaction. Praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging
are said to be far more powerful motivators than money.
Extrinsic motivation is the desire to do something because of an external
reward such as money. Extrinsic rewards include: pay, promotion and fringe
benefits such as commission and bonuses. Promotions and competitions/
incentive schemes can be used against sales objectives such as volume,
profitability and new account development. Extrinsic motivation can also
include merchandise incentives such as a company car.
Now test yourself
37 Using examples, what is the
difference between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation?
Answer on p. 199
Reward systems: types of reward systems include:
Pay (money) – many people are motivated by money, and the more money
they can earn, the better. All other factors are unimportant, with job
satisfaction irrelevant.
● Bonuses can be given in various ways, such as an end-of-year monetary
payment, or in the form of a gift or other non-monetary reward. Bonuses
can be given for meeting sales targets, for example.
● Profit-sharing is where workers share a percentage of the company profit
if productivity or sales have exceeded annual (or monthly) targets. For
example, workers could receive 1%, in the form of a cash payment, of above
target profit.
● Performance-related pay – this motivates workers to work harder to meet
a target if the target is reasonable and achievable. If the target can never be
achieved then the worker will be demotivated.
●
A reward system consists of intrinsic
and extrinsic rewards used by an
organisation to motivate employees.
Non-monetary rewards: these include:
Praise – a simple ‘well done’ can often be all a worker needs to keep them
happy and motivated. Praise needs to be done fairly and consistently to be
effective.
● Respect – gaining the respect (‘respect is earned’) of managers is a good
psychological/intrinsic motivator.
Expert tip
● Recognition – respect and recognition both come from working hard
Prepare an exam-style essay on
and showing responsibility, leadership, organisation and other skills the
motivation to work. For part (a), the
organisation values.
‘describe’ part, decide what you need
● Empowerment – this is where a worker becomes stronger and more
to include (and exclude). In the exam,
confident in what they do. It may come about as a result of completing a
you should spend no more than 12
task or achieving a target. It motivates intrinsically because the worker knows
minutes on this part. For part (b), the
‘evaluate’ part, choose a range of issues
they are competent have mastered a task or skill and can look toward
to include (three is a range). Choose
achieving more.
two issues in addition to the named
● Sense of belonging – this is linked to organisational commitment and is
issue. You should spend no more than
where a worker, because they are valued, recognised and have respect, feels
18 minutes on part (b).
part of the organisation; they feel proud to part of it.
●
Evaluation
●
●
160
Cross check
It would be reductionist (strengths and weaknesses) to suggest that there
is one thing that motivates all workers. There are individual differences.
Indeed there are a number of factors that motivate each person.
Workers’ motivation can be determined (strengths and weaknesses) by
the culture in which they work (comparing individualistic and collectivist
cultures).
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Reductionism, page 89
Determinism, page 90
Cultural bias, page 88
Traditional and modern theories of leadership
Leadership can be said to be a form of social influence, where a person gains
the aid or support of others to achieve a goal or task. This can apply to many
different things in addition to an organisation. A manager works in an
organisation and is concerned with the day-to-day planning, organising,
controlling and coordinating of those for whom he or she is responsible. A
manager may not be the leader, instead implementing the ideas and
instructions of a leader. A leader can be a ‘great person’ or be charismatic, but a
manager need not be.
Universalist theories: these look at the major characteristics that are common
among effective leaders. The great man–woman theory (e.g. Wood, 1913)
argues that ‘great leaders are born, not made’ because they possess the personal
qualities and abilities to make them great. Charismatic (or transformational)
leaders are said to have the determination, energy, confidence and ability to
inspire followers.
A theory of leadership is an analytic
structure designed to explain the ability
to guide a group to achieve a goal.
Management style is the way in
which a people are directed toward the
attainment of goals.
5 Specialist options
Leadership and management
A universalist theory of leadership
is an analytic structure designed to
explain the major characteristics that
are common among all effective
leaders.
McGregor (1960) outlined two types of leader belief: theory X is where workers
are seen as unmotivated and will avoid work; theory Y is where workers are
perceived as being self-motivated, will work hard and have organisational
commitment.
Behavioural theories: these look at the actual behaviour shown by leaders to
determine which behaviours are successful and which are not. Researchers at
Ohio State University (e.g. Halpin and Winer, 1957) developed the leader
behaviour description questionnaire (LBDQ) with 1,800 statements. Analysis
suggested two types of leader:
● Leaders with initiating structure – the degree to which they define and
structure their role. They initiate, organise, clarify and gather information.
● Leaders with consideration – the degree to which they act in a friendly
and supportive manner to workers. They encourage, observe and listen, as
coaches and mentors.
A behavioural theory of leadership
is an analytic structure designed to
explain the behaviour shown by leaders
to determine which behaviours are
successful and which are not.
These two dimensions determine four styles, dependent on whether structure is
high or low and whether consideration is high or low.
Researchers at the University of Michigan identified task-oriented behaviours
(similar to ‘initiating structure’) where the main concern is production rather
than workers, and relationship-oriented behaviour (similar to ‘consideration’)
where the concern is for people. This extended into Blake and Moulton’s (1985)
managerial grid where the two styles resulted in five types of leader: countryclub, team, impoverished, authority-compliant and middle-of-the-road.
Adaptive leadership: this looks at whether individuals and organisations can
adapt to changing conditions or not. These changing conditions may result from
changing markets, rising costs, environmental changes – in fact anything internal
or external that challenges the existence of the organisation. Heifetz (1997)
believes ‘adaptive leadership is the practice of mobilising people to tackle tough
challenges and thrive’.
The process of adaptive leadership involves observing events and patterns;
interpreting what is observed; and designing interventions to address the
challenge. To design interventions, Heifetz suggests ‘getting on the balcony’;
stepping back and looking at the whole picture rather than individual components.
His leadership model is based on a number of principles:
● Successful adaptation builds on the past.
● Adaptive leadership is specifically about change that enables the capacity to
thrive.
Specialist options
161
5 Specialist options
●
●
●
●
Adaptation occurs through experimentation.
Adaptation relies on diversity.
New adaptations significantly displace, reregulate and rearrange.
Adaptation takes time.
Three levels of leadership: this model (Scouller, 2011) is a tool for developing
leadership presence, awareness and skills, i.e. what leaders must do in order to
bring leadership to their group, and how to develop themselves technically and
psychologically as leaders. Leadership is not something given (inherited); it is a
skill that can be learned. There are three levels of leadership: public, private and
personal (Figure 22).
Public
Outer levels
Private
Inner level
Personal
Figure 22 The three levels of leadership model
Public – when a leader interacts with a group of people. Thirty-four behaviours
must be addressed, organised into five categories:
● setting the vision
● organising and delegating tasks (or power) to others
● problem solving, decision-making and idea creation
● execution
● group building and maintenance.
Private – handling individuals on a one-to-one basis. Each person should
be treated with respect because they have different knowledge, experience,
motivation and confidence. There are 14 private leadership behaviours in two
categories:
● individual purpose and task, such as appraising, disciplining, setting goals
● individual building and maintenance, e.g. building relationships, recognising
talent.
Now test yourself
Personal – the personal characteristics of the leader. This has three elements:
● technical know-how and skill, e.g. having emotional intelligence, assertiveness,
time management skills, etc.
● attitudes towards others, e.g. having appreciation, showing caring, etc.
● self-mastery, e.g. self-awareness.
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
162
38 What is the difference between a
leader and a manager?
Answer on p. 199
Cross check
Traditional theories that ‘leaders are born not made’ are nature, not
nurture, whereas other theories are nurture (strengths and weaknesses).
Behavioural theories focus on the behaviour of individuals rather than
features of the situation (see situational theories, page 163).
Most leadership theories are based on Western industry and so there may
be cultural bias (weakness).
Models break each aspect of leadership into individual components, which
is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Nature–nurture debate, page 75
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Cultural bias, page 88
Reductionism, page 89
5 Specialist options
Leadership style
Effectiveness (contingency theory): Fiedler (1976) assumed that a leader’s
ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including, for
example, the leader’s preferred style, and the capabilities and behaviours of
followers (workers). This means that the same person can behave differently in
different situations.
Fielder used the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) scale, a questionnaire
with 16 items, where leaders were asked about the person with whom they
least prefer to work. This determines whether the leader is relationshiporiented (high LPC score) or task-oriented (low LPC score). Situational factors
are dependent on:
● Leader–member relations – the extent to which the leader is trusted and
liked by workers, and their willingness to follow the leader’s guidance.
● Task structure – the extent to which the group’s task has been defined
and the extent to which it can be carried out.
● Position power – the power of the leader and the degree to which the
leader can exercise authority over workers.
The effectiveness of a leader is determined by the interaction of the leader’s
style of behaviour and the favourableness of the situational characteristics.
Situational leadership: this approach argues that no single leadership
style best fits all situations. Instead, successful leaders are those who can
adapt their leadership style to the group they are attempting to lead. In the
1980s, the theories by Hersey and by Blanchard were merged and their
combined theory has two main components: leadership styles and
maturity levels.
Situational leadership is the view
that there is no one ‘best style’.
Instead the best style is that which is
appropriate to the task and the group
being led; the specific situation.
Leadership styles – telling, selling, participating and delegating. These four
styles result from variations in task behaviour and relationship behaviour:
● Telling (directing): high task (giving specific direction), low relationship.
● Selling (coaching): high task (explaining task direction), high relationship.
● Participating (supporting): low task, high relationship (sharing task
decisions).
● Delegating: low task, low relationship (workers make task decisions).
Which style is used depends on the maturity levels of the followers/workers.
Maturity levels (readiness) of workers – high, moderate (2 levels) or low:
● High: workers capable and willing (= delegating style).
● Moderate: workers capable but unwilling/insecure (= participating style).
● Moderate to low: workers lack capability but are willing (= selling style).
● Low: workers lack capability and are unwilling (= telling style).
Now test yourself
39 What is meant by a ‘situational
theory of leadership’?
Answer on p. 199
Styles of leader behaviour: Muczyk and Reimann (1987) argue for four ‘pure’
patterns or styles of leader behaviour. They believe that leaders can differ in the
extent to which they:
● involve others in decision-making, so the degree of employee participation
can be either high or low
● are involved in the execution of the decision, which again can either be high
or low
Combinations of these two dimensions produce four styles of leader behaviour
as shown in Figure 23.
Specialist options
163
Amount of leader direction
5 Specialist options
Degree of participation in decision making
Low
High
High
Directive
autocrat
Directive
democrat
Low
Permissive
autocrat
Permissive
democrat
Figure 23 Styles of leader behaviour
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
Cross check
Situational theories focus on adapting styles to the situation rather than
focusing on the behaviour of individuals (see behavioural theories,
page 161).
Most leadership theories are based on Western industry and so there may
be cultural bias (weakness).
Models break each aspect of leadership into individual components, which
is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
The research by Fielder used a questionnaire (strengths and weaknesses).
Leaders and followers
In any organisation there are managers (or leaders) and there are workers. Often
the satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) experienced by workers is determined by the
relationship with management. A number of models, mostly based on leader–
member exchange or LMX, have been proposed to explain the manager–worker
relationship.
Leader–member exchange model: Dansereau et al. (1975) proposed the
vertical dyad linkage theory (VDL theory). The model suggested that leaders
treat followers differently with respect to mutual trust, respect and obligation,
creating an in-group (a small number of trusted followers) and an out-group
(a larger number where the relationship remains a formal one). Since then
research has gone in two directions. VDL theory became the leader–member
exchange model and an alternative individualised leadership model by
Danserau et al. (1995) was proposed where each follower is considered to be
independent from others and each leader is viewed as unique.
Followership: what makes a good follower? According to Kelley (1988) there
are two key features of good followers:
● independent critical thinking contrasted with dependent, uncritical thinking
● whether the individual has active or passive participation
These two dimensions result in five different followership styles (see Figure 24):
● Exemplary (‘star’) followers are people who think for themselves, have
positive energy, and are actively engaged. They agree with and challenge their
leaders.
● Alienated followers are predominantly negative, think for themselves but
do not contribute to the positive direction of the organisation.
● Passive followers (‘the sheep’) are passive in their thinking and
engagement and are motivated by their leader rather than themselves.
164
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Cultural bias, page 88
Reductionism, page 89
Questionnaires, page 49
●
Conformist followers (‘the yes people’) allow their leader to do the
thinking and acting for them but are generally positive and always on the
leader’s side.
Pragmatist followers exhibit a minimal level of independent thinking and
engagement; they change to suit the situation and get involved when they
see the direction in which the situation is heading.
5 Specialist options
●
Independent, critical thinking
Alienated
followers
Exemplary
followers
Pragmatist
followers
Passive
Passive
followers
Active
Conformist
followers
Dependent, uncritical thinking
Figure 24 Styles of followership (Kelley, 1988)
Measuring leadership: according to Kouses and Posner (1987), ‘After
conducting hundreds of interviews, reviewing thousands of case studies, and
analysing more than 2 million survey questionnaires there emerged five practices
of exemplary leadership’. The five are:
● Model the way: leaders establish principles, create standards of excellence
and then set an example for others to follow.
● Inspire a shared vision: leaders believe that they can make a difference, see
the future and enlist others in their dreams.
● Challenge the process: leaders seek change, looking for innovative ways to
improve things in an organisation.
● Enable others to act: leaders foster collaboration and build teams. They
actively involve others. They strengthen others, making each person feel
needed and a part of a team.
● Encourage the heart: leaders keep hope and determination alive, and
recognise the contribution that each individual makes. Rewards are shared.
The leadership practices inventory (LPI) is a questionnaire that contains 30
behavioural statements (six for each of the five practices). Individuals complete
the LPI Self, rating themselves on the frequency with which they believe they
engage in each of the 30 behaviours. Five to ten other people complete the LPI
Observer, indicating the frequency with which they think the leader engages in
each behaviour. Each person can then see their own score compared with the
average rating from the other participants.
Ratings are done on a 10-point scale: 1 almost never, 2 rarely, 3 seldom, 4 once in
a while, 5 occasionally, 6 sometimes, 7 fairly often, 8 usually, 9 very frequently, 10
almost always.
Typical statements include:
27. Speaks with genuine conviction about the higher meaning and purpose of
work (inspire).
25. Finds ways to celebrate accomplishments (encourage).
19. Supports the decisions that people make on their own (enable).
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on
leadership and management. For part
(a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what
you need to include (and exclude). In
the exam, you should spend no more
than 12 minutes on this part. For part
(b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range
of issues to include (three is a range).
Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no
more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Specialist options
165
5 Specialist options
Evaluation
●
●
●
Cross check
Both Kelley and Kouses and Posner break aspects of leadership down into a
number of types which is reductionist (strengths and weaknesses).
Kouses and Posner (the LPI) use questionnaires and gather quantitative
data. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
A debate could be had as to whether these models are useful and the
extent to which they can be generalised. (Strengths and weaknesses of
both.)
Reductionism, page 89
Questionnaires, page 49
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Generalisations, page 68
Group behaviour in organisations
Group development and roles
Group development: Tuckman (1965) outlines four stages of group
development:
● Forming – where individuals begin to come together, get to know each
other and agree on tasks and goals.
● Storming – where individuals will present ideas and sometimes these will be
accepted and sometimes they will cause conflict.
● Norming – when members of the group agree a strategy, some members
realising that for the good of the group their ideas are not accepted.
● Performing – when the group functions as a coherent unit, working
effectively and efficiently without conflict.
A group in an organisation refers to
individuals who combine skills and
resources to achieve a common goal.
Now test yourself
A fifth stage (adjourning), where the group has completed a task and breaks
up, was added in 1977.
Team roles: according to Belbin (1981) ‘What is needed is not well-balanced
individuals, but individuals who balance well with each other.’ A successful team
with group cohesiveness will be promoted by the extent to which members
correctly recognise and adjust themselves to the relative strengths of the team,
both in expertise and in ability to engage in specific team roles.
The nine team roles identified by Belbin are:
● Thought-related roles:
– the plant, the creative innovator who proposes new ideas and
approaches
– the monitor-evaluator, who is a critical thinker, analyses and evaluates
ideas, sees all options
– the specialist, who has the specialised knowledge needed to get the job
done.
● People-related roles:
– the co-ordinator, who is mature, confident and a good chair-person
– the resource investigator, who explores options and outside
opportunities, develops contacts
– the team worker, who encourages co-operation among team members,
diplomatic and good negotiator.
● Action-related roles:
– the shaper, who challenges the team to improve, sees obstacles as
challenges, thrives on pressure
– the implementer, who gets things done, works systematically and
efficiently and is well organised
– the completer-finisher, who ensures a project is completed, and is
good at meeting deadlines, a perfectionist
Belbin believes that an ideal team would include: one coordinator (or shaper);
one innovator; one monitor-evaluator; and one or more implementer, team
worker, resource investigator and finisher-completer.
166
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
40 Identify the four stages of team
development proposed by
Tuckman.
Answer on p. 199
Team building (or development) is the
process of enhancing the effectiveness
of teams.
Group cohesiveness is the team spirit
developed by people working in unity.
5 Specialist options
Measuring team roles: the Belbin team-role self-perception inventory
(BTRSPI) uses observer assessments to examine how people behave in teams.
Belbin states that it is not a psychometric test because observation is used to
assess the team role rather than it being a self-report measure of personality. He
prefers observation because it is objective rather than subjective, and it is based
on the observations of people who work with the person in question.
The BTRSPI measures the nine team roles and has one scale known as ‘dropped
points’ which measures claims about oneself (giving 360 º feedback). The
inventory includes eight sections, and each section has ten statements, one
per team role and a tenth item representing ‘dropped points’. Ten points are
allocated to each section and if one statement applies, all 10 points are allocated
to that statement. If two statements apply equally then each receives 5 points.
A typical section would include statements like:
● I enjoy solving problems
● My work is always delivered on time
● I am a team player
Evaluation
●
●
The BTRSPI uses observation, gathering objective rather than subjective
data which are quantitative rather than qualitative. (Strengths and
weaknesses for all.)
Team roles are said to apply to all teams, i.e. they can generalise (strengths
and weaknesses) but there may be cultural differences in the way teams
operate (weakness).
Decision-making
Cross check
Observations, page 51
Objective and subjective data, page 69
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Decision-making is said to be one of the most important and frequent tasks
among managers and employees in an organisation. The entire process is
dependent upon the right information being available to the right people at the
right time.
The decision-making process: Wedley and Field (1984) examined the
decision-making process and suggested that pre-planning for decision-making
leads to solutions of high quality, acceptability and originality. Pre-planning
involves choosing a style of leadership, whether to involve others, how to gather
information, who is to contact, and how to generate alternative solutions.
Group decision-making is a mental
process of considering alternatives,
resulting in a choice.
There are different views (going back as far as Lewin et al., 1939) about which
decision-making style the leader (or manager) will use. The main ones are as
follows:
● Autocratic (directive or authoritarian) – the leader gives clear expectations
of what needs to be done, when and how. There is little or no input from
the group.
● Consultative – the leader consults, gathers information and then makes the
decision.
● Participative (democratic or collaborative) – the problem is explained, with
everyone being encouraged to participate, including the leader.
● Delegative (or laissez-faire) – the leader gives the responsibility for the
decision to the group/team, with no structure or guidance.
Groupthink: this is when the adoption of group norms unintentionally erodes
the ability of an individual to evaluate independently. Groupthink means that
discussion is limited, and that there is an absence of alternatives, support for
confirming information, and a failure to plan for when things might go wrong. It
has three main causes: high cohesiveness of the decision-making group; specific
structural characteristics; and stressful internal and external characteristics of the
situation.
Groupthink is a syndrome
characterised by a concurrence-seeking
tendency that overrides the ability
of a cohesive group to make critical
decisions (Janis, 1965).
Specialist options
167
5 Specialist options
Janis (1972) suggested that groupthink has eight features, including:
● an illusion of invulnerability – the belief that nothing can go wrong
● an illusion of unanimity – the belief that group members who respect each
other will automatically agree.
The six additional features are: unquestioned beliefs, stereotyping, direct pressure
to conform, ‘mindguards’, self-censorship and rationalising.
Strategies to avoid groupthink include:
● encouraging individual evaluation
● promoting open enquiry
● breaking a full group into sub-groups
● admitting shortcomings
● holding second-chance meetings
● not rushing to a quick solution.
Cognitive limitations and errors: Forsyth (2006) focused on cognitive
limitations and errors. Group decision-making often puts group members under
substantial cognitive demands. As a result, cognitive errors and motivational
biases can adversely affect group decision-making. Forsyth outlined three
categories of potential biases that a group can fall victim to when engaging in
decision-making:
● Sins of commission – errors in the use of information, including:
– Belief perseverance: a group continues to use information in their
decision-making that has previously been dismissed.
– Sunk cost bias: a group remains committed to a decision because of
the time and effort that has already gone into that plan, even though the
plan may have become inappropriate.
– Extra-evidentiary bias: a group uses information despite having been
told it should be ignored.
– Hindsight bias: the group falsely over-estimates the accuracy of their
past knowledge.
● Sins of omission – ignoring useful information. This can include:
– Base rate bias: group members ignore information about basic trends/
tendencies.
– Fundamental attribution error: group members base decisions
on inaccurate appraisals, such as overestimating internal factors (e.g.
personality) and underestimating external or situational factors.
● Sins of imprecision – relying on rules that over-simplify complex decisions,
for example:
– Availability heuristic: group members rely on information that is
readily available.
– Representativeness heuristic: group members rely too heavily on
decision-making factors that seem meaningful but are, in fact, more or
less misleading.
Evaluation
●
●
●
168
Cross check
All three studies break decision-making into component parts, which is
reductionist (strengths and weaknesses). This is good because it provides a
full analysis of each component and covers a range of different aspects.
The extent to which these features can be generalised is worth debate, as
is the extent to which each is useful. (Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Another useful debate is whether individuals determine decision-making
or whether they are influenced by the group situation that they are in.
(Strengths and weaknesses of both.)
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Reductionism, page 89
Generalisations, page 68
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Levels and causes of group conflict: conflict can occur on four levels, ranging
from interpersonal to organisational:
● Intra-individual – conflict occurs when an individual is faced with a choice
and must make a decision.
● Inter-individual – conflict between two people.
● Intra-group – conflict between a person and a group.
● Inter-group – conflict between two groups.
Group conflict is when individuals
or groups express different or
incompatible ideas.
There are different causes of conflict:
Distrust – lack of trust among individuals; lack of trust of another company/
organisation.
● Helplessness – because views and decisions are never accepted; the
organisation is too powerful.
● Injustice – mistreatment by another individual or mistreatment by an
organisation.
● Superiority – one person thinks that he or she is better than others; one
organisation thinks it is better than another.
● Vulnerability – a position or job is under threat and needs defending; there
is uncertainty and fear about the future.
5 Specialist options
Group conflict
●
To these can be added:
● Task conflict – when group members disagree over shared tasks.
● Process conflict – when members disagree over the way in which
something should be done.
● Personal conflict – this can happen when two people simply do not like
each other.
Positive and negative effects of conflict: conflict can be negative – it can
harm group cohesiveness; it can inhibit effective communication and even lead
to rumour and distrust; and it can lead to more ‘fighting’ and less productivity
and goal achievement.
Conflict can be positive: it might energise the group, reducing complacency; it
might stimulate creativity and innovation; it can increase the quality of decisionmaking as each member contributes more.
Managing group conflict: Thomas (1976) suggests five strategies to resolve
conflict:
1 Competition (continue until one wins and the other loses).
2 Accommodation (one side ‘gives in’).
3 Compromise (both sides give up something).
4 Collaboration (co-operation to reach an agreed solution).
5 Avoidance (withdrawing or backing down from the conflict).
Now test yourself
41 Outline two ways in which conflict
can be positive and two ways in
which it can be negative.
Answer on p. 199
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on group
behaviour in organisations. For part
(a), the ‘describe’ part, decide what
you need to include (and exclude). In
the exam, you should spend no more
than 12 minutes on this part. For part
(b), the ‘evaluate’ part, choose a range
of issues to include (three is a range).
Choose two issues in addition to the
named issue. You should spend no
more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Organisational work conditions
Physical and psychological work conditions
The conditions of the physical and psychological working environment should
make people feel safe and comfortable and they should not experience any
negative effects, whether physical or mental. By the nature of the work, many
environments are very aversive.
Physical conditions:
● Illumination – lighting levels need to be appropriate to the task; not too
dim or too bright. The type of light and glare, even from computer screens,
can cause eyesight problems. Some workers must wear protective glasses.
Grandjean (1988) makes recommendations for reducing glare.
Specialist options
169
5 Specialist options
●
●
●
Temperature – some jobs require workers to experience very high or very
low temperatures, but in an office, for example, temperature should be
neither too high nor too low. Fanger (1970) found that raising the humidity
of a room significantly decreases worker performance.
Loud noise might be unavoidable for some, and ear protectors have to be
worn. For most people, loud noise is aversive and noise should be within
acceptable levels.
Some workers experience extreme motion. For example, those working with
heavy, vibrating machinery can experience long-term effects on their ability
to hold things.
Common misconception Temporal
conditions of whole enviornments
relate to time. ’Temporal’ has nothing
to do with temperature.
The ‘Hawthorne effect’ is a common term in psychology referring to the
potential confounding of a study when participants become aware of being
observed and change their behaviour. The term results from research conducted
by lead researcher Mayo in 1924 at the Hawthorne plant of the General Electric
Company. Wickstrom and Bendix (also researchers in the original study)
reviewed the study in 2000.
F.W. Taylor (1911) outlined ‘scientific management’ and conducted ‘time and
motion’ studies to investigate scientifically the best conditions for optimal
work. In a field experiment at the Hawthorne plant, the effect of illumination
(lighting) was studied. Productivity levels were recorded (the DV) at baseline
lighting levels (the IV). Lighting for the control group remained constant. In the
experimental group, lighting levels were decreased and productivity levels were
recorded. After one week production had increased. In the second week, levels
were reduced further and productivity increased again. Finally, lighting levels
were decreased to ‘moonlight’ but productivity didn’t change. The researchers
concluded that lighting levels were irrelevant; other factors were more important
and top was the personal relations between workers and management. The
workers knew they were being observed, feared for their jobs so worked harder,
and the longer the study went on, the harder they worked!
Psychological conditions: psychological work conditions include feelings of
a lack of privacy or crowding, which can be experienced if too many people
work in a small space (where social density is high). The opposite occurs where
a worker may have an absence of social interaction, being unable to talk to
another person for large parts of their working day. For some workers, a sense
of status is important to them (and so they wear badges identifying their role,
e.g. ‘Supervisor’), while for others being anonymous is important.
Bullying can also occur at work. Einarsen (1999) has reviewed the nature and
causes of bullying at work. He believes there are five types of bullying behaviour:
1 Work-related bullying, which may involve a change of work tasks or making
them difficult to perform.
2 Social isolation.
3 Personal attacks (or attacks on private life) by ridicule, insulting remarks or
gossip.
4 Verbal threats including criticism, being yelled at or humiliated in public.
5 Physical violence (or threats of violence).
Bullying has four phases:
1 Aggressive behaviour: subtle aggression is directed against one or more people.
2 The aggression becomes more open, direct and frequent. Here the victim
has problems in defending him/herself for various reasons.
3 Stigmatisation and victimisation.
4 Severe trauma likened to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
There are three causes of bullying: competition concerning status and job
positions, envy, and the aggressor being uncertain about his/her self.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Bullying occurs when someone at
work is systematically subjected to
aggressive behaviour from one or more
colleagues or superiors over a long
period of time, in a situation where the
target finds it difficult to defend him
or herself or to escape the situation
(Einarsen, 1999).
To help categorise future investigations, Einarsen suggests the following concepts:
● Dispute-related bullying due to highly escalated interpersonal conflict. It
develops out of grievances and involves social control reactions to perceived
wrong-doing.
● Predatory bullying where the victim personally has done nothing
provocative that may reasonably justify the behaviour of the bully.
Expert tip
A question could ask you to suggest
how you would investigate bullying
at work. Think about what method
you would use and the strengths and
weaknesses of your chosen method.
5 Specialist options
Victims have been described as:
● overachievers with an unrealistic view both of their own abilities and
resources and the demands of their work tasks
● highly rigid
● viewing themselves as more accurate, honest and punctual
● those who are perceived as annoying.
Open plan offices: the physical work environment (environmental
determinism) can have a significant effect on both productivity and the
psychological well-being of workers. The study by Oldham and Brass (1979)
investigated the effects of 128 newspaper employees moving from conventional
multi-room offices to an open plan office (an office with no interior walls or
partitions; just partitions between desks). Three time-point measures were
taken: 8 weeks before the move, 9 weeks after the move, and 18 weeks after the
move. There were three groups of participants: the experimental group (76) who
moved offices; the control group (5) who stayed in the original building; a group
(26) who moved but did not complete the baseline measure before the move.
At each time point, all workers completed the same questionnaire (using a
7-point scale) which included job characteristics of autonomy, skill variety, task
identity, task significance and task feedback. Specific measures taken were:
● Work satisfaction: the degree to which an employee is satisfied and happy
with the job.
● Interpersonal satisfaction: the degree to which an employee is satisfied
with co-workers and supervisors at work.
● Internal work motivation: the degree to which an individual experiences
positive internal feelings when performing effectively on the job.
Findings: although there was very little change on a number of factors, there was
a decrease in many others, such as work satisfaction (means of 5.37, 5.19 and 5.11 –
taken at the three time points). Similarly, interpersonal satisfaction decreased from
5.22 to 4.95 to 4.90, and internal work motivation decreased from 6.05 to 5.89 to 5.86.
In addition, participants were interviewed to gather qualitative data. Many
employees described the new office space as a ‘fishbowl’, ‘cage’ or ‘warehouse’,
reflecting on an inability to concentrate, to develop close friendships and to
complete a job. It was impossible in the open office to engage in a private
conversation either with co-workers or with supervisors.
Evaluation
●
●
The Hawthorne study was conducted in 1924 and while aspects may
not generalise to today, the ‘Hawthorne effect’ can generalise to any
situation where people are observed. Jobs are very varied, so physical
and psychological working conditions may or may not generalise and
their effects may depend more on an individual than or the situation.
(Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
The study by Einarsen on bullying is a review paper, but bullying is more
problematic in some cultures than others, so there is cultural bias. The
Oldham and Brass study was conducted in the USA (so cultural bias agian)
but it was real-life so has ecological validity. Workers in other cultures may
experience different levels of job satisfaction because of the environment
in which they work (environmental determinism). (Strengths and
weaknesses of all.)
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Cultural bias, page 88
Environmental determinism, page 90
Specialist options
171
5 Specialist options
Temporal conditions of work environments
The number of hours people work varies significantly and how those hours are
organised is important:
● Many people work for 8 hours per day for 5 days per week (a 40-hour week).
● Those who are self-employed often work more hours than people who are
employed. Some businesses (e.g. a shop) might open for 12 hours per day, for
7 days per week.
● A compressed working week might mean working 12 hours per day, for
3 days per week.
● People such as doctors work an on-call system, where they work as needed
or all the time over a 36-hour period, for example.
● A flexi-time system means people work the same hours per week but can
work whenever they choose (e.g. 7 am to 3 pm or 11 am to 7 pm).
● Many workers work shifts and usually there are three 8-hour shifts in a
24-hour period: 6 am until 2pm, 2pm until 10pm and 10pm until 6am (the
‘graveyard’ shift). A common type is rapid rotation theory, which involves
frequent shift changes (e.g. once per week) and is preferred by workers doing
the same shift for a short time. There are two types (and the rota continues,
giving an equal balance of working all 7 days per week over time):
– Metropolitan rota: work two early (6 am to 2 pm), two late
(2 pm to 10 pm), two night (10 pm to 6 am), two rest.
– Continental rota: work two early, two late, three night, two rest, then
two early, three late, two night, three rest.
Shiftwork causes sleep disturbances, and physical and mental fatigue. Pheasant
(1991) suggests it causes primary chronic fatigue. More extreme is the view that
shiftworkers die younger compared with non-shiftworkers. Shiftwork is also
associated with an increased likelihood of an accident. Pheasant suggests that
shift patterns can be organised to minimise negative health effects.
Temporal conditions of work
environments refer to the time workers
spend at work.
Expert tip
A question could ask you to suggest
how you would organise a shiftwork
pattern if you were manager. You
could also be asked to explain why you
have chosen the theory you have.
Now test yourself
Slow rotation theory suggests shift change as infrequently as possible (the
same shift for a least a month). This minimises health effects but is not popular
for social reasons (workers want time with their families).
Effects of shiftwork on health: Knutsson (2003) reviewed the effects of
shiftwork on health and found that shift work is associated with specific
pathological disorders, particularly peptic ulcer disease, coronary heart disease
and compromised pregnancy outcome. Other findings include:
● There is no evidence to suggest that shiftwork affects mortality or cancer.
● Gastrointestinal disorders (peptic ulcer disease) are more common in
shiftworkers than in day workers.
● There is strong evidence in favour of an association between shiftwork and
coronary heart disease.
● There is strong evidence of an association between shiftwork and pregnancy
in terms of miscarriage, low birth weight and pre-term birth.
Shiftwork and accidents: Gold et al. (1992) investigated the effect of shiftwork
on the number of accidents in nurses. There were six different types of shift:
1 Day/evening (but no nights)
2 Night (8 night shifts in a month with no day or evening)
3 Rotator (4 day/evening and 4 night shifts)
4 Day/evening with occasional night
5 Night with occasional day/evening
6 Part-time rotator (4–7 night shifts and up to 3 day/evening shifts
Pheasant would predict the rotator shift to be worst (for health/accidents) because of
the rapid rotation. A total of 878 workers were given the questionnaire: 687 (78%)
returned it, 36 refused to participate and 155 failed to return it. It was found that:
● Rotating shift work is associated with frequent lapses of attention and increased
reaction time, both leading to increased error rates on performance tasks.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
42 a What is meant by the ‘rapid
rotation theory’ of shiftwork.
b Describe two examples of rapid
rotation theory.
Answer on p. 199
●
Rotators had twice the odds of nodding off while driving to and from work;
compared to day/evening nurses, rotators had 3.9 times the odds and night
nurses had 3.6 times the odds of nodding off while driving to or from work
in the preceding year.
Rotators had more sleep/wake cycle disruption and nodded off more at
work. Nodding off on the night shift occurred at least once per week in
35.3% of rotators, 32.4% of night nurses and 20.7% of day/evening nurses who
worked occasional nights.
Evaluation
●
●
Types of work (flexi, compressed, etc.) will generalise (strengths and
weaknesses) to some organisations but not others. Shiftwork can be
generalised to jobs that must involve work for 24 hours (hospital workers,
police, etc.) but not to others (e.g. teaching). Similarly, research on shiftwork
health and accidents will be useful in some instances but be useless in
others.
The study by Gold et al. may have cultural bias and may generalise to
other nurses. This study used questionnaires gathering quantitative,
subjective data. (Strengths and weaknesses of all.)
Cross check
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Questionnaires, page 49
Subjective and objective data, page 69
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
5 Specialist options
●
Health and safety
Accidents at work: should we fit the person to the job, or fit the job to the
person? We do not want a person to experience stress or make an error. Instead,
a happy, efficient, healthy and productive worker is highly desirable!
When operating a machine, Chapanis (1976) outlined the operator–machine
system, comprising: the operator (his or her senses, information-processing/
decision-making ability and ability to control) and the machine system (its
controls, the way it is operated and its displays – feeding back to the senses).
Regarding the machine:
● Controls (such as knobs, switches, buttons, pedals and levers) should match
the operator’s body, be clearly marked and mirror the machine actions they
produce.
● Displays can be visual (e.g. clock, speedometer) and need to be appropriate
and legible, with optimal luminance, and not cause eye strain. Auditory
displays (e.g. bell, buzzer, alarm) must have an appropriate tone and volume.
Studies of visual displays focus on legibility, positioning, accuracy and speed
(of reading).
Human decision-making when operating a machine is just as important as the
machine. Riggio (1990) suggests that when operating machines there can be:
● errors of omission – failing to do something, such as forgetting to turn
something off
● errors of commission – performing an act incorrectly, i.e. doing something
wrong
● sequence errors – doing something out of order
● timing errors – doing something too quickly, or too slowly.
Errors can be due to tiredness/fatigue, the use of alcohol and or drugs (including
medications for illnesses), or accident proneness. When something does go wrong it
is often because people apply what are known as motion stereotypes: a behaviour
that is familiar, and done without thinking about it. People make substitution errors
– where one instrument is confused with another. With shiftwork there are more
errors during an 8 pm to 6 am shift than at any other time.
An accident is an unplanned,
unforeseen or uncontrolled event that
has negative consequences (Pheasant,
1991).
Ergonomics (or human factors in
work design) is the scientific study of
matching the design of tools, machines,
work systems and work places to fit the
skills and abilities of workers.
Now test yourself
43 Describe two types of error in
operator-machine systems.
Answer on p. 199
Reason (2000) made the distinction between two causes of accident:
● Theory A – accidents are caused by the unsafe behaviour of people.
● Theory B – accidents are caused by unsafe (poorly designed) systems of
work.
Specialist options
173
5 Specialist options
Errors such as these can be rectified either by:
● changing the design of the machine – fitting the job to the person
● selecting people who can operate the machine system that is being used –
fitting the person to the job.
Reducing accidents at work: Fox et al. (1987) studied the use of a token
economy system at two open-cast mines (one coal and one uranium ore).
Employees could earn stamps/tokens (to gain rewards) for working without time
lost for injury; not being involved in accidental damage to equipment; and
behaviour that prevented accidents or injuries. Stamps were lost for unsafe
behaviour that could cause accidents.
Result: there was a dramatic decrease in days lost through injury and the
number of accidents was reduced. The system continued to be used at one
mine for 12 years (until it closed) and was used at the other for at least 11 years.
The token economy is based on the learning approach and Skinner’s positive
reinforcement.
Expert tip
There is a cross-over here with the
topic of health promotion (page 154).
This isn’t a problem; there is minor
overlap with other syllabus sub-topics.
The study reported by Cowpe also
applies to health promotion. See
page 154.
Reorganising shiftwork can also reduce accidents at work. Using slow rotation
rather than a rapid rotation might also be effective (page 172).
Safety promotion campaigns: a successful television media campaign was on
the dangers of chip-pan fires. Cowpe (1989) reported on how two television
regions in the UK received the 12-week campaign. The strength of the campaign
lay in the use of both providing information and fear arousal. One television
advert was presented by a woman who told of the dangers of a chip-pan fire
and then, in three simple steps, what to do should a fire break out. However, in
her case, she had not followed these steps and had been burned in a chip-pan
fire; the advert showed a close-up of her disfigurement. The success of the
campaign was then measured through actual fire brigade statistics. During the
campaign one television region saw a 32% reduction in the number of fires, and
in the 25 weeks after the campaign, although the reduction in the number of
fires did decrease, it was still 17% less than before the start of the campaign. Up
to a year after the campaign had started, there was still an 8% reduction from
baseline. This study recorded objective data in the form of fire brigade statistics.
Its effectiveness over time could be assessed and it showed the need for any
health-promotion campaign to be repeated periodically.
Evaluation
●
●
●
Safety behaviour is maintaining a
healthy existence through safe practices
at work and in the home.
Cross check
Errors and accidents can be due to individual factors or situational
factors (or systems) and both have strengths and weaknesses.
The study by Fox et al. is based on the learning approach. Both Fox et
al. and Cowpe are longitudinal. Both these studies are useful. There may
be cultural differences because ‘chip-pan fires’ (overheating of hot oil)
may not happen in other countries. Both studies gathered quantitative
data that are objective (Cowpe used official statistics). (Strengths and
weaknesses of all.)
The ‘fear arousal’ and ‘providing information’ strategies in Cowpe have
strengths and weaknesses and can be compared and contrasted.
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on organisational work conditions. For part (a), the
‘describe’ part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you
should spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’
part, choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues
in addition to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on
part (b).
174
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Individual–situational debate, page 74
The learning approach, page 71
Longitudinal studies, page 91
Cultural bias, page 88
Ecological validity, page 67
Quantitative data, page 60
Objective data, page 69
Theories of job satisfaction
Two-factor theory: Herzberg proposed a two-factor theory (1959), believing
that the factors causing job satisfaction and factors causing job dissatisfaction
are separate. Herzberg distinguished between:
● Hygiene factors (dis-satisfiers) – company policy, supervision, work
conditions, salary, relationships with peers and job security.
● Motivational factors (satisfiers) – achievement, recognition, responsibility,
advancement and growth.
Job satisfaction is how content or
happy a person is with his or her
job of work.
5 Specialist options
Satisfaction at work
Hygiene factors include:
Salary – the pay should be appropriate and reasonable. It should be equal
and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
● Company policies – company policies should be fair and clear, and include
flexible working hours, dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.
● Fringe benefits – employees should be offered healthcare plans, benefits
for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.
● Physical working conditions – these should be safe, clean and hygienic.
Work machinery/equipment should be well maintained.
● Interpersonal relations – the relationship of the employees with peers,
superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There
should be no conflict or bullying.
●
Motivational factors include:
Recognition – employees should be praised and recognised for their
accomplishments by managers.
● Sense of achievement – employees should have a sense of achievement.
● Growth and promotional opportunities – employees should have
opportunities for advancement.
● Responsibility – employees should be responsible and accountable for their
work.
● Meaningfulness of the work – the work itself should be meaningful,
interesting and challenging for the employee.
●
Job characteristics theory: the Hackman and Oldham (1976) job
characteristics model looks at the outcomes resulting from the characteristics of
a job interacting with the psychological state of workers.
The core job characteristics are skills variety; task identity and task
significance; responsibility (autonomy); and knowledge of outcome (feedback
from the job). These job characteristics lead to the calculation of a motivating
potential score (MPS).
The psychological states are experiencing the work as meaningful;
experiencing personal responsibility; and having knowledge of the actual result
or outcome of the work.
Outcomes can be internal motivation to work, job satisfaction and general
satisfaction. However, if any of the psychological states is absent then both
motivation and job satisfaction are weakened.
Techniques of job design: job satisfaction can also be influenced by job design.
Job rotation is where workers are moved from one task to another. This might
be done on a daily, weekly or monthly basis, depending on the task. Job rotation
can prevent boredom and monotony. It can enable a worker to widen his or her
range of skills, giving an understanding of the overall work process. Job rotation
does not change the amount of responsibility.
Job design involves matching the
aims of producing a successful
product and having happy,
contented and satisfied workers.
Specialist options
175
5 Specialist options
Job enlargement widens jobs and allows workers to take on additional tasks.
This isn’t working harder or repetitively; instead a number of workers may work
together as a team to complete the product. It is working more holistically
rather than in a reductionist way. There can be an increase in responsibility and
there can be an increased feeling of job satisfaction.
Job enrichment is where workers are given more responsibility in the task they
do. This might include redesigning a task (as they are the user, the expert), or it
might involve being responsible for a team of workers completing a task. Job
enlargement is a ‘horizontal’ extension of a person’s job; job enrichment is a
‘vertical’ extension.
Evaluation
Cross check
The two theories and techniques of job design have strengths and
weaknesses. For example, do the theories have any evidence to support them?
To what extent can the theory be generalised from one organisation to
another and does the theory apply in all cultures? (potential cultural bias).
Theories are often based on organisations in the USA and this is another
source of bias. Theories were also based on industrial life in the 1970s and
1980s and these theories may not be useful in today’s society.
●
●
Generalisations, page 68
Cultural bias, page 88
Usefulness/application to everyday life,
page 73
Measuring job satisfaction
Rating scales and questionnaires: job satisfaction (and dissatisfaction) can be
measured using self-report questionnaires and scales.
The job descriptive index (JDI) devised by Smith et al. (1969) measures
employees’ satisfaction with their jobs. Workers are asked to think about specific
‘facets’ of their job and rate their satisfaction with those specific facets. There
are five facets: pay, promotions and promotion opportunities, co-workers,
supervision, and the work itself.
Each item is rated using a ‘yes’, ‘no’ and ‘?’ (don’t know) scale. Positively worded
items are scored 3, 1 and 0, and negatively worded item are scored 0, 1 and 3
(for Y, ? and N, respectively). Two example questions are shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Example questions from the job descriptive index
Pay
Opportunities for promotion
Think of the pay you get now. How well does each of the
following words or phrases describe your present pay? In
the blank beside each word or phrase below, write:
Y for ‘Yes’ if it describes your pay
Think of the opportunities for promotion that you have
now. How well does each of the following words or phrases
describe these? In the blank beside each word or phrase
below, write:
N for ‘No’ if it does not describe it
Y for ‘Yes’ if it describes your opportunities for promotion
? for ‘?’ if you cannot decide
N for ‘No’ if it does not describe them
Income adequate for normal expenses[P]
? for ‘?’ if you cannot decide
Fair[P]
Good opportunities for promotion[P]
Barely live on income[N]
Opportunities somewhat limited[N]
Bad[N]
Promotion on ability[P]
Comfortable[P]
Dead-end job[N]
Less than I deserve[N]
Good chance for promotion[P]
Well paid[P]
Very limited[N]
Enough to live on[P]
Infrequent promotions[N]
Underpaid[N]
Regular promotions[P]
Fairly good chance for promotion[P]
Source: Bowling Green State University, owners of the job descriptive index
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
5 Specialist options
Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ): some argue that the
Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ) devised by Weiss et al. (1967)
measures the degree to which vocational needs and values are satisfied on a
job. The MSQ long form takes 15 to 20 minutes to complete. The short form
requires about 5 minutes.
The long form measures 20 aspects using 100 questions, so covering a wide
range of job-related aspects. It uses a 5-point scale as follows:
Very dissatisfied – Dissatisfied – Neither dissatisfied nor satisfied – Satisfied –
Very satisfied.
Weiss et al. found the MSQ had good reliability (test/re-test) and validity
(construct validity).
Quality of working life questionnaire: Walton (1974) explained quality of
work life (QWL) in terms of eight broad conditions of employment that
constitute desirable quality of work:
1 Adequate and fair compensation (e.g. fair renumeration, wage balance, extra
benefits).
2 Safe and healthy environment.
3 Opportunity to use and develop human capacities.
4 Opportunity for career growth and security.
5 Social integration in the workforce.
6 Constitutionalism in the work organisation.
7 Work and quality of life.
8 Social relevance of work.
To measure these conditions, Walton devised a questionnaire with 35 questions
spread across the eight categories, using a 5-point scale:
Very dissatisfied – Dissatisfied – Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied – Satisfied –
Very satisfied.
Typical questions included:
Quality of working life (QWL)
has been defined as ‘a generic
phrase that covers a person’s
feelings about every dimension of
work including economic rewards
and benefits, security, working
conditions, organisational and
interpersonal relationships’
(Guest, 1979).
Expert tip
A ‘design a study’ question could
ask you to suggest how you would
measure job satisfaction other than by
a questionnaire. Think about it now
rather than in the examination.
Regarding a fair and appropriate salary:
Question 1.1 How satisfied are you with your salary (renumeration)?
Regarding your working conditions:
Question 2.2 According to your workload (quantity of work) how do you feel?
Regarding the social integration at your work:
Question 5.1 Regarding your relationships with your colleagues and bosses at work, Cross check
how do you feel?
Types of data (quantitative data and
Evaluation
●
●
●
●
All three questionnaires (JDI, MSQ and QWL) gathered quantitative rather
than qualitative data (strengths and weaknesses).
All questionnaires claimed that they were reliable and valid (strengths and
weaknesses) because they are psychometric.
These tests may have cultural bias (weaknesses) and worker satisfaction
may be determined by the situation rather than the individual.
The MSQ and QWL used 5-point rating scales (strengths and weaknesses).
qualitative), page 60
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Psychometric tests, page 89
Cultural bias, page 88
Individual–situational debate, page 74
Questionnaires/rating scales, page 49
Attitudes to work
Some workers might be happy with their work and show organisational
commitment, remaining with the organisation for a long time, showing loyalty
and support. Alternatively, lack of job satisfaction can cause job withdrawal,
absenteeism and sabotage.
Specialist options
177
5 Specialist options
Workplace sabotage: sabotage can be motivated by:
● frustration – spontaneous actions that indicate the powerlessness workers
feel
● attempts to ease the work process – likely in industries where workers are
paid by the hour and wages are dependent on output
● attempts to assert control–that is, to challenge authority.
Industrial sabotage is ‘rulebreaking which takes the form
of conscious action or inaction
directed towards the mutilation
or destruction of the work
environment’ (Taylor and
Walton, 1971).
The first two are ‘demonstrative sabotage’ and the latter is ‘instrumental
sabotage’.
Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987) conducted studies which classified sabotage
into different methods and different reasons.
Methods or ‘forms of sabotage’ include the ways/methods/forms that workers
actually do, the actions they take to express their feelings. Giacalone and
Rosenfeld identified four main types: work slowdown; destruction of machinery,
premises or products; dishonesty; and causing chaos. They then listed 29 ‘forms’
or examples that action might take including: stealing to compensate for poor
pay; creating work slowdowns; and ‘forgetting’ to turn on/off a switch.
Reasons: why do people sabotage? In addition to the general reasons above,
Giacalone and Rosenfeld identified 11 reasons including: revenge; release of
frustration; and to protect one’s job.
To measure the methods and reasons, Giacalone and Rosenfeld created
a questionnaire for each. The sabotage methods questionnaire asked
participants to rate each of the 29 ‘forms’ on a 7-point scale. The sabotage
reasons questionnaire asked participants to rate each of the 11 reasons
using the same 7-point scale. The scale was: 1 (not at all justifiable) to 7 (totally
justifiable) with a mid-point (neither/nor).
Now test yourself
Participants could be divided into ‘high reason accepters’ and ‘low reason
accepters’. The highest ‘justifiable’ methods were ‘calling upon the union to
intervene’ (4.68) and ‘carrying out management directives to the letter’ (4.26).
The highest two ‘reasons’ were ‘to protect one’s job’ (3.47) and ‘self-defence’
(3.37).
Absenteeism: withdrawal behaviours are when a person becomes physically
and/or psychologically disengaged from the work or the organisation. Physical
withdrawal includes lateness, and while sometimes lateness is unavoidable,
chronic lateness is a sign of job dissatisfaction. Absenteeism might be
involuntary (due to illness) but it can also be voluntary (another indicator of
job dissatisfaction). Psychologically, disengagement can include minimal effort
and passive compliance, and it can result in poor-quality work and mistakes.
Whether these behaviours are genuine or not can be judged according to their
pattern, frequency and duration (Blau, 1994).
Blau and Boal (1987) presented a model to categorise how job involvement
and organisational commitment affect turnover and absenteeism. Their
model categorises involvement and commitment into high and low, creating
four categories:
1 High job involvement – high organisational commitment.
2 High job involvement – low organisational commitment.
3 Low job involvement – high organisational commitment.
4 Low job involvement – low organisational commitment.
These categories have implications for absenteeism. If a worker has high job
involvement and is committed to the organisation then the reasons for and
types of absence are different from if a worker has low job involvement and
low organisational commitment. According to Blau and Boal, these four absence
categories are:
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
44 Give three reasons why workers
might commit industrial sabotage.
Answer on p. 200
Organisational commitment: Mowday et al. (1979) believed that
organisational commitment can be characterised by at least three related factors:
● a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and values
● a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation
● a strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation.
Organisational commitment can be measured using an organisational
commitment questionnaire (OCQ), where self-report questions are answered
using a 7-point scale from 1 = ‘strongly agree’ through to 7 = ‘strongly disagree’.
The questionnaire includes 15 statements that represent feelings an individual
may have about the organisation (that relate to the three factors above). Sample
statements are:
3. I feel very little loyalty to this organisation [R]
6. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organisation.
15. Deciding to work for this organisation was a definite mistake on my part [R]
5 Specialist options
1 Medical (category 1, high JI and high OC): response to various infrequent
and uncontrollable events such as illness, injury, funeral leave and family
demands (sick spouse or child). For the organisation this is sporadically
occurring, excused absence.
2 Career-enhancing (category 2, high JI and low OC): absence is depicted as
a mechanism that allows the employee to further task- and career-related
goals.
3 Normative (category 3, low JI and high OC): absence is viewed less as
a motivated behaviour and more as a habitual response. Rather than
absenteeism being random, as with the medical category, definite patterns
will emerge and be predictable.
4 Calculative (category 4, low JI and low OC): absence would be (for the most
apathetic worker) the maximum permitted amount of excused and
unexcused absences by the organisation before sanctions (such as warnings
or termination of employment) are applied.
Now test yourself
45 Describe one type of absence from
work.
Answer on p. 200
Organisational commitment
is the relative strength of an
individual’s identification with
and involvement in a particular
organisation (Mowday et al.,1979).
Note that six of the 15 statements are reverse scored [R] items to reduce
response bias.
Mowday et al. sampled 2,563 employees in nine different organisations including
public employees and employees in universities, hospitals, banks and telephone
companies. It also included scientists and engineers, auto company managers,
psychiatric technicians and retail management trainees. The study test/re-test
reliability showed correlations of up to 0.75 and 0.62. The study also showed
various types of validity, perhaps predictive validity being the most important.
Evaluation
●
●
All three studes base their findings on workers in the USA in the 1980s. This
could be out of date (weakness) and include cultural bias (weakness) as
worker attitudes differ significantly from one country to another.
All three questionnaires gathered quantitative data. All claimed that
they were reliable and valid because they were psychometric. The
questionnaires also used rating scales (e.g. 7-point). (Strengths and
weaknesses of all.)
Cross check
Cultural bias, page 88
Types of data (quantitative and
qualitative), page 60
Questionnaires/rating scales, page 49
Reliability, page 66
Validity, page 67
Psychometric tests, page 89
Expert tip
Prepare an exam-style essay on satisfaction at work. For part (a), the ‘describe’
part, decide what you need to include (and exclude). In the exam, you should
spend no more than 12 minutes on this part. For part (b), the ‘evaluate’ part,
choose a range of issues to include (three is a range). Choose two issues in addition
to the named issue. You should spend no more than 18 minutes on part (b).
Specialist options
179
6 A Level examination guidance/
questions and answers
6.1 A Level examination guidance
The A Level examination consists of two papers: Paper 3 Specialist options:
theory and Paper 4 Specialist options: application. The format of both
examination papers is rather confusing, so make sure you know exactly what
you are doing.
Paper 3 Specialist options: theory
All options appear on the same paper. You have studied only two specialist
options so you only answer questions from those two options. Do not attempt
questions from any other option, however easy you think the question might
be. Look at the specimen paper or look at a past exam question for clarification.
Common misconceptions
There are no sections on this paper: you simply answer both the questions in
your first chosen option, and then the two questions in your second chosen
option. Put another way, if you have studied the abnormality and health options,
you answer all the abnormality questions (two questions) and all the health
questions (two questions).
There are two types of question which appear in all four options.
Type 1 questions
These are short-answer questions made up of three parts, (a), (b) and (c):
● Part (a) asks for an explanation/description of a term, or some aspect of the
syllabus. This question carries 2 marks.
● Part (b) asks for a description of the procedure of a study, or a description of
a questionnaire that has been used in a study. It carries 4 marks.
● Part (c) asks for evaluation or discussion where you give a strength/advantage
and a weakness/disadvantage. It requires you to have a mini-discussion on
occasion. It carries 6 marks.
Type 2 questions
These are traditional essays in two parts, (a) and (b):
● Part (a) asks for a description of an option sub-topic. Think about this: there
are 15 different essay questions that could be asked for each option.
● Part (b) asks for evaluation of the same topic area. It will also ask you to
include a discussion about an evaluation issue that is named.
The part (a) question assesses your descriptive skills, and is concerned with
what you know about psychology and whether you understand it. It is the same
for any of the sub-topics you have chosen. You should only spend 10 minutes on
part (a), so you can’t describe everything in detail. Instead, mention some things
briefly. The mark scheme is flexible and there is no one correct answer that
everyone writes. You are writing your essay and if you choose to mention, for
example, clinical interviews in detail, that is acceptable. If someone else describes
behavioural/observational measures in more detail and clinical interviews in less
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Do not choose to answer questions
from options that you have not
studied simply because you think you
have had sufficient life experience in,
say, healthcare or shopping! You need
to be able to apply the appropriate
psychological theory and evidence.
To summarise, you need to:
● describe the topic accurately and coherently using appropriate terminology
● organise your answer logically
● show that you understand what you write.
The part (b) question assesses your evaluation skills. You can evaluate with
any aspect, whether it is from the AS or A Level syllabus. Think about:
● methodology – experiments, observations, questionnaires, case studies
● methodological issues – ethics, ecological validity, generalisations, validity,
reliability, longitudinal, quantitative data vs qualitative data, controls,
objective and subjective data
● issues – usefulness of research, psychometrics, use of children, use of
animals, cultural bias
● debates – determinism, reductionism, nature–nurture, individual–situational
● approaches – cognitive, biological, social, learning (or an approach specific
to an option, such as ‘biomedical for abnormality).
Expert tip
Think about what you are going to
include in your part (a) answer. And
think about the evaluation issues that
clearly relate to your part (a) answer.
Use those issues for part (b).
How to construct an evaluation: the best way to evaluate is through a
number of ‘mini debates’ or ‘mini discussions’. A debate in its simplest form looks
like this (an AS example has been chosen as this is familiar to everyone whatever
A Level options you have chosen):
● Claim – the samples used by Schachter and Singer in their study of emotion
cannot be generalised.
● Reason – this is because Schachter and Singer only used male psychology
students who were paid to carry out the research.
● Conclusion – we should be cautious when applying the findings from male
psychology students who are paid to actual emotion in the ‘real’ world.
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
detail then that is also perfectly acceptable. This applies to every sub-topic area
from every option.
An answer looking like this would receive some marks because it is evaluation.
But it could be taken to a higher level. Consider how much stronger your debate
would be if you used evidence as well as reason to support your claim:
● Claim (as previously)
● Reason (as previously)
● Evidence – Schachter and Singer used participants who were all male
college students taking classes in introductory psychology at the University
of Minnesota. Some 90% of students in these classes volunteered and
received two extra points on their final exam for every hour they served as
participants.
● Conclusion (as previously)
Now go one step further. Add evaluative comment to the evidence quoted:
● Claim (as previously)
● Reason (as previously)
● Evidence (as previously)
● Evaluative comment – the problem with this is that male psychology
students who are getting credit for their degrees by taking part are likely to
show uncharacteristic behaviour (different from females or non-students or
people not being paid) by perhaps being more willing to give the researchers
the findings they want. This is because they will be familiar with what is
being tested from their own reading and may be tuned in to any cues the
researcher may unconsciously give, and are also more likely to guess the
researcher’s aim. This is called showing demand characteristics.
● Conclusion (as previously)
A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
181
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
Using this format you are well on the way to a really impressive evaluative
answer. To be very thorough in demonstrating your understanding, you could
add a counter-comment or argument:
● Claim (as previously)
● Reason (as previously)
● Evidence (as previously)
● Evaluative comment (as previously)
● Counter-comment/argument – on the other hand, Schachter and Singer
needed to start their research somewhere. They needed the convenience of
an opportunity sample who happened to be their own students to be able
to complete their research in a reasonable time and against a limited budget.
Also, from this initial research other studies could be done using different
participants and a different topic area.
● Conclusion (as previously)
If you repeat this formula three (or more) times, you will have a complete
answer. Crucially, you do not have to follow this format exactly to achieve the
full 12 marks. This format is simply the best way to show a range of high-level
evaluative skills.
To summarise, you need to:
evaluate comprehensively with a range of evaluation issues (e.g. three)
● include the one named evaluation issue as one of those three issues
● show that you have planned, organised and selected examples to support
the issues
● show that you understand what you write
● use examples from your description in part (a) to support your answer.
●
Exam technique
Paper 3 lasts for 90 minutes and is worth 60 marks. The questions for each
option are broken down as follows:
Question type
Parts
Marks
Timings
Type 1
(a), (b) and (c)
2, 4 and 6
marks
20 minutes on all
three parts
Type 2
(a) Describe
8 marks
10 minutes
(b) Evaluate
10 marks
15 minutes
Total for each option
30 marks
45 minutes
Total for both options
60 marks
90 minutes
Examination preparation
For type 1 questions: know the definitions of things, explanations of what
things are. Know the essential details of all the studies on the syllabus for your
options. You won’t need a lot of detail because you will be summarising one
part of it. Know the advantages and disadvantages of everything. Do this as you
go along – use the cross checks to help you.
For type 2 questions: you could, in theory, prepare 30 essays (15 per option),
but this is a lot of work. Instead, make sure you know how much detail you can
write in 10 minutes for part (a) – approximately three-quarters to one side of
examination paper) – and more than this for part (b). Practise writing answers.
For part (b), think about which issues are the best for each of the 15 subtopic areas. Use the relevant sections of this book to help you. The evaluation
question part carries the most marks, so make sure you prepare the issues fully.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
All options appear on the same paper, and questions from all the options appear
in Sections A, B and C. Look at the specimen paper or look at a past exam
question for clarification.
You have studied only two specialist options, so you only answer questions from
those two options. Do not attempt questions from any other option, however
easy you think the question might be.
Section A
There are four questions in Section A (i.e. one question from each option) and
you answer two questions from the options you have studied. The questions are
short-answer ones in four parts, (a), (b), (c) and (d):
● Part (a) asks for an explanation of a term or method, or of results presented in
the stimulus material appearing at the beginning of the question. Two marks
are allocated to this part and your answer should include enough detail to
score full marks, so a few words or single sentence will be insufficient.
● Parts (b) and (c) are similar in that they both carry 4 marks and look for two
similarities or two differences plus examples, or for two suggestions plus
examples. Questions will be from a sub-topic (or even a specific study).
● Part (d) asks for advantages/strengths and disadvantages/weaknesses (note
the plural), so four things are required plus a conclusion. Five marks are
allocated, so some detail is required in your answer.
Section B
There are four questions in Section B and you are required to answer one.
Choose one from either option you have studied. The question is a design-based
question in two parts, (a) and (b), where you must design a study of your own
and then explain the psychological and methodological evidence for your design.
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
Paper 4 Specialist options: application
The Section B question is not an opportunity to describe research that has
already been conducted; instead it is where you have to think for yourself and
apply your methodological and psychological knowledge. It is an extension of
what you did for Paper 2 at AS.
Expert tip
Part (a): you must design an investigation using the named method if one
is stated, or if no specific method is stated, then it is entirely your choice of
If the question states ‘design a field
experiment’, then you must design
method. Your answer should include the research method and methodological
a field experiment. If you design an
aspects of the research process (see page 54). So for example, if you are designing
investigation using a different method
an experiment, it is expected that you will include the type of experiment
then you will score no marks at all.
(laboratory, field or natural), IV, DV, one or more controls and the experimental
Answer the question!
design (repeated or independent). The methodological aspects will include
things like the sample and sampling technique, type of data (qualitative or
quantitative), ethics, reliability or validity. A comment could also be made about
how your data would be analysed (e.g. using a bar chart).
The examiner is not expecting you to include all these features because if
you did the answer would be nothing more than a list with no explanations
about anything. It is better to have five or six features described clearly and
unambiguously. For example, don’t write ‘I would have a random sample’ in
isolation; explain how that random sample would be obtained.
Part (a) carries 10 marks and you are advised to spend 15 minutes on this
question part.
Part (b): this part invites you to explain the psychological and methodological
evidence on which your study is based. In other words, the question asks you to
say why you did what you did in part (a). The wording of this question is always
the same, whatever the question or option.
A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
183
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
Part (b) carries 8 marks with 4 marks allocated to explaining appropriate
psychological evidence and 4 marks for explaining the methodological evidence.
You are advised to spend 10 minutes on this question part.
Expert tip
Well ahead of the examination you
can set your own questions: ‘Use
a
(insert method) to
investigate
(insert
specific part of a topic area)’ and you
can do as many sample answers as you
wish. In designing your study, think
about why you did what you did in
psychological and methodological
terms because this question part will
always be asked.
In addition to knowledge of the topic area, you should know advantages and
disadvantages of each method and methodological aspect. These are what you
covered for the AS course and these appear in Chapter 2. Apply these
advantages and disadvantages. You always have to draw a conclusion, so think
about this ahead of time.
Section C
There are four questions in Section C and you are required to answer one. Choose
one from either option you have studied. You can choose the same option for the
Section B and Section C questions, or these can be from different options.
The Section C question is a ‘discuss’ question where you must present
two sides of a debate in relation to a named statement from a sub-topic
area. You should present at least two arguments or points in support of the
statement and at least two arguments or points against the statement. These
arguments/points could be what is written in a specific study, they could be
methodological, or they could relate to approaches, issues, or indeed anything
psychological or methodological you wish to throw into the debate. Credit is
given for detail, understanding and drawing a conclusion. Note that there is no
correct or incorrect conclusion. You consider the evidence and then you draw
your own conclusion.
Expert tip
This question carries 12 marks and so you should spend 20 minutes on this
question part.
Examination technique is essential
here. Include two points in favour of
the statement and two points against
it. If you have fewer, you will fail to
score marks, and if you have three
points in favour and one against, the
imbalance will also mean you fail to
score marks. Two plus two points is
optimal. Draw a conclusion; if you do
not, again you will fail to score marks.
Exam technique
Paper 4 lasts for 90 minutes and is worth 60 marks. The questions are broken
down as follows:
Section
Parts
Marks
Timings
Section
A (two
questions)
(a), (b), (c)
and (d)
2, 4, 4 and 5 marks
45 minutes (22½
minutes × 2)
Section
B (one
question)
(a) Design
10 marks
15 minutes
(b) Explain
8 marks
10 minutes
Section
C (one
question)
Discuss
12 marks
20 minutes
60 marks
90 minutes
Total
(15 + 15 = 30 marks in
total)
6.2 A Level questions and answers
This section contains exam-style questions followed by example answers.
The answers are followed by expert comments (shown by the icon ) that
indicate where credit is due. In the weaker answers, they also point out areas for
improvement, specific problems and common errors such as lack of clarity, weak
or non-existent development, irrelevance, misinterpretation of the question and
mistaken meanings of terms.
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Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Question 1
Answer B
(a) A false memory is a memory that isn’t true.
(a) What is meant by a ‘false memory’? [2]
(b) Describe the conditions and procedure in
Experiment 2.
[4]
(c) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of selfreports as used in the Braun-LaTour study. [6]
Answer A
(a) A false memory is where people remember events
differently from the way they happened or they remember
events that never happened at all. Braun-LaTour et al.
successfully planted false memories of Bugs Bunny.
This answer is a spot-on definition and scores full marks.
Although candidates are discouraged from learning
precise definitions, in response to questions like this, a learned
definition will score full marks. There is even a relevant
example to support the definition.
(b) In Experiment 2 the researchers had three conditions:
a pictorial condition with a picture of Bugs Bunny, a
verbal condition with a headline and words, and a ‘both’
condition that combined the verbal and the pictorial. After
reading the advertisement, participants had to self-report
what they could remember about the advertisement.
This answer has enough detail to score full marks. Both
components of the question are addressed, i.e. the
conditions and the procedure. The ‘conditions’ are correct
because there were three of them and the answer correctly
describes all three. 2/2 marks for this component. The
procedure was to look at an advert and then describe what
could be remembered. There could be a little more detail here,
but this answer has sufficient for 2/2 marks, giving 4/4 overall.
(c) Self-reports have the advantage of allowing participants
to say what they think and in the study this meant that
the participants would report any false memory. There
is also the advantage. Weaknesses are that participants
might give socially desirable answers, for example they
might report false memories to please the researchers.
Another weakness is that the researchers might not fully
understand what the participant is saying and so record a
false memory when it isn’t really there.
This answer has an appropriate strength but is only
vaguely related to the study. The answer does not have
a second strength. It looks like the person answering
this question paused for thought, forgot where they were and
continued with the weaknesses. Some candidates do make
this error, and they fail to score marks. If you have ever done
this, doodle a simple checklist where you can write everything
needed in the answer and then tick off when it has been
answered. For example S, S, W, W with ticks. There are two
This is correct but it is vague, lacking elaboration,
understanding or an example. This answer scores
1 mark, because the statement is correct, but there isn’t
enough for the second available mark to be awarded.
(b) In Experiment 2 there was a number of conditions which
involved some information being given to participants. The
information included just words in some and just pictures
in others. The procedure was to look at the advertisement
and then to see if any of the false information was
remembered.
This answer shows a vague understanding of what the
conditions involved, but is very imprecise in knowing
exactly what the three conditions were. The answer scores a
generous 1 mark because the answer isn’t entirely wrong. For
the second component of the answer the procedure is again
correct but very vague and basic. As previously, this isn’t
wrong so it has to score 1 mark out of the 2 available. Note
that this answer scores 2/4 marks overall (or 50%), which is
sufficient to achieve a pass mark and low grade. Candidates
should aim to score full marks and the addition of a little
more detail would make a significant difference. Look at how
this answer compares with answer A.
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
weaknesses and again these are related to the answer, but
only vaguely and with little elaboration. This is a good answer,
and scores 4 marks out of 6.
Paper 3 Specialist options: theory
(c) Self reports are: (i) good for participants to say what they
think, giving the ‘why’ answers; (ii) data may be both
quantitative and qualitative depending on the self-report.
Weaknesses are: (i) participants may provide socially
desirable answers; (ii) participants may respond to demand
characteristics.
This is a typical answer provided by candidates in
examinations. It isn’t good, so don’t let this be you! This
answer simply lists strengths and weaknesses that have been
learned. There is no elaboration to explain what each means and
more importantly there is no clue as to what study is being written
about. This answer shows learning, but that is the only skill on
show. There are many other skills that need to be demonstrated
before any more than basic marks can be awarded. The maximum
mark for an answer like this is 3, but without any elaboration this
answer scores 2 marks. The answer does have both strengths and
weaknesses, and they are not incorrect.
Question 2
(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered
about measuring pain.
[8]
(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
about measuring pain and include a discussion
of psychometric tests.
[12]
A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
185
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
186
Answer A
(a) According to Mershey and Bogduch (1974), pain is defined
as unpleasant sensory and emotional feelings along with
potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such
damage. Psychologists have discovered many different
types of pain. These include injury without pain, which
includes episodic analgesia and congenital analgesia. The
main purpose of pain is to defend yourself when you
know you are hurt, for example removing your hand once
you touch something hot. Secondly, pain also helps us
take remedial actions, once we experience the feeling.
Psychologists have discovered many theories of pain, which
include the ‘specificity’ and the ‘gate-control’ theories.
Specificity theory was discovered by Von Frey (1895) who
explained that tissue damage was the only explanation of
pain, whereas the ‘gate-control’ theory by Melzach and
Wall (1988) explained pain in terms of biological as well
as psychological and social factors. It is called the ‘biopsychological’ approach to pain. It explains that there’s a
gate in the body which either stops the pain messages or
lets them travel to the brain.
Since everyone has the right to ‘no pain’, psychologists first
discovered the techniques for measuring pain, to ensure
the remedies for it. One of the best ways to measure pain is
through self-reported methods, especially clinical interviews,
as self-reports can tell us about the six elements that were
defined by Karoly (1965), which must be present in selfreports – for example, neurophysiological factors, social
factors etc. Although self-reports provide us with in-depth
data, they may not always be reliable as patients might
respond to demand characteristics through attentionseeking behaviour etc.
Pain can be measured through psychometrics and rating
scales such as one devised by Melzack, known as the
‘McGill pain questionnaire’, which includes many words
that the patient must choose to describe his pain. It is one
of the most widely used methods for measuring pain. The
behavioural method is also another way for measuring pain
and it uses tools such as the UAB pain behaviour scale,
devised by Richards et al. (1987). Furthermore, psychologists
have also discovered pain-measuring methods for children.
One such tool was made by Varni et al, named the ‘VarniThompson paediatric pain questionnaire’, which has visual
analogue scales, on which the children point out their
indication or severity of the pain. However, children who
are too young to talk cannot use this technique, so the best
method for them is an observational method performed by
parents or physicians.
Remedial actions have also been taken and psychologists
have discovered techniques for measuring pain. These
include chemical treatments such as different painkillers,
for example analgesics acting at the site of pain. Surgical
attempts are also made but only as a last resort. Behavioural
and cognitive therapies are also used, such as non-pain
imagery attention diversion but these may not be helpful for
everyone or every type of pain. Alternative therapies such
as microwave diathermy and acupuncture are also used.
Techniques using electrical stimulation are also used, which
include Pens and Tens, and must be used as a last resort.
This answer has fallen into the trap of answering
everything that is known about pain, rather than
answering the question that is asked, specifically measuring
pain. This means that only the second paragraph beginning
‘since everyone’ is relevant. Here, the candidate has written
so much on measuring pain that for the 8 marks available the
mark will be quite good. However, far too much time has
been wasted on parts of an answer that score no marks at
all. Candidates might be frustrated that they can’t
demonstrate their full knowledge, but an examination
assesses far more skills than mere learning. Do not waste
time writing what isn’t required! On the positive side, the
answer does mention a number of ways in which pain can be
measured, including the MPQ and other rating scales,
behavioural observations, such as Karoly and the UAB, and
mentions measuring pain in children. There is a reasonable
range of different measures here, and overall this answer
scores 4 marks.
(b) One issue is ecological validity which means whether a
study is true to real life. Pain is true to real life because
people experience it, so this is an advantage. Another
issue is validity. Measures of pain are valid because they
measure what they claim, i.e. they measure pain. Another
issue is reliability and measures of pain are reliable because
scientific equipment is reliable. One issue is ethics. Ethics
mean that participants should leave a study in the same
way as they entered and if this is not the case then the
study is unethical.
This sample answer is designed to show all the things
not to do. Instead, you should (i) always include the
named issue. If the named issue is not included, you will
automatically fail to score marks. (ii) Always choose issues
carefully. Sometimes the same small number of issues are
used whatever the question is and whether they apply are
not. It is as if candidates only know four issues, which they
write about whatever the question is. (iii) Always evaluate,
which means giving strengths and weaknesses, having a
debate and providing evidence/examples to support that
debate. Look at the formula on page 182 to see all the things
that make up a decent evaluation. The answer above identifies
a range of issues but does nothing more. There is nothing on
psychometrics, the named issue. This answer scores 2–3
marks, again, because what is written isn’t incorrect, so some
basic marks have to be given.
Answer B
(a) There are a number of ways in which pain can be
measured. One basic way is for a doctor (or nurse) to ask a
patient about their pain. This clinical interview is subjective
and the patient can answer any way they wish because
they have no reference point. Perhaps a better way is to use
a quantitative scale such as a visual analogue scale or a box
which has numbers say from 1 to 10 where 1 is no pain and
10 is the worst pain ever. This gives the practitioner an idea
of how bad the pain is compared to other people using the
same scale. A much more detailed psychometric measure
of pain is the MPQ which has four sections: where is your
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Although it could be better, this answer does everything
that is needed to score full marks. It specifically answers
the question set, namely measures of pain. A full range of
different measures is included (subjective/clinical,
psychometric and behavioural) and very good understanding
is shown. There might not be specific details, but that is
countered by the candidate understanding the purpose of the
measure (as illustrated by the UAB). The detail is accurate –
the MPQ does have four parts, as the candidate correctly
explains. The answer is a good length, not too short and not
too long. It scores top marks and time isn’t wasted with
unnecessary detail (as in answer A).
(a) One issue is psychometric tests, defined as a measure of
the mind. One advantage of these tests is that they are
reliable, recording the same information every time. For
example, the MPQ records the same information from
every participant completing it. This means that some of
the quantitative scores can be compared to every other
person completing the MPQ, and this ability to generalise
is another advantage of psychometric tests. However,
psychometric tests have disadvantages. One disadvantage
is that they are open to bias by the person completing
the test. Whereas for example, blood pressure is objective,
the psychometric test is subjective, meaning that a person
can exaggerate their pain if they wish to. This means
comparisons are not quite as scientific or objective as first
appears. Another disadvantage of psychometric tests is
they require the person to understand the questions and
if a person doesn’t, the score is invalid. This is why the PPQ
for children was invented. This means that a false score
might be obtained by misunderstanding. For example, the
MPQ uses words like ‘lancinating’, whatever that means.
Another issue is observations. Pain can be measured using
observation and this has a number of advantages. An
observation can be covert and so the person being observed
behaves naturally. This is good for measuring pain because
the person being observed will behave naturally and a true
measure can be taken. Another advantage is that there is no
subjectivity with observations, only objective quantitative
data, and if two nurses observe the same person then their
scores can be compared, checking for inter-rater reliability.
With the UAB there are response categories, an advantage
of a structured observation, so nurses know what they are
looking for. However, observations have weaknesses. There is
no involvement from the person. They behave, but there is
no opportunity for them to explain why they are behaving as
they do. With a UAB, a nurse might record that a person has
‘level 5 pain’ but does not know why that person is in pain
without asking.
Another issue is the biological approach. The strength of
this is that pain involves biological or physiological processes
that are the same in every person across the world, except
for a few rare people who feel no pain. This means that
pain measures always measure the same thing and painkilling drugs work for everybody. Another advantage is
that there are no cultural differences or cultural bias in
pain. There may be minor individual differences, but pain is
pain! However, pain isn’t purely physiological and cognitive
aspects are relevant. This is confirmed not only by the
gate control theory, but when measuring pain there are
cognitive differences, and then subjective answers on pain
questionnaires may be open to cultural differences with
some cultures being more or less likely to report pain.
This answer does everything that is needed to score full
marks. It has a range of issues (three) and it includes the
named issue. The issues are identified and the three chosen are
all relevant to the question. The biological approach isn’t
directly relevant, but the author of the answer is competent
enough to make it relevant to measuring pain. Each advantage/
disadvantage has a supporting example and good
understanding is shown of the relationship between the issues,
examples and what is written overall. There is a good balance
across all issues in terms of the amount written and the answer
is a good length for the time allowed in an examination.
Overall this answer scores the full 10 marks out of 10.
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
pain (people draw on a body); what does your pain feel like
(patients choose the words that describe their pain); how
does your pain change with time (to give the doctor an idea
if it is chronic or acute); and how strong is your pain (using
a scale from ‘mild’ to ‘excruciating’). An alternative measure
is simply to watch people and note their expressions (face
screwed up) and the way they behave. Richards et al. created
the UAB originally to observe how the pain of people in a
hospital bed changed over time. By ticking boxes this gave
a quantitative measure. Specific pain measures have been
created for children because of their limited understanding
and inability to express themselves fully. The Wong–Baker
scale provides a number of faces and children simply point
to the face ‘like theirs’. Varni and Thompson (1976) created
the PPQ, which is like the MPQ but for children.
Paper 4 Specialist options: application
Section A
The style of the doctor
In research conducted recently by psychologists
Savage and Armstrong they found that some
people prefer doctors to not talk to them, instead
just to tell them what was wrong and what their
treatment would be. Other people preferred to go
along and have a friendly chat with the doctor and
talk about their illnesses as they went along.
(a) Describe what is meant by a ‘patient-centred
style’.[2]
(b) Outline ‘random allocation’ and explain
how it was used in the study by Savage and
Armstrong.
[4]
(c) Suggest two alternative methods that could be
used in this study.
[4]
(d) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using
one of these alternative methods. You should
include a conclusion in your answer.
[5]
A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
187
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
Answer B
(a) A patient-centred style is a patient–practitioner
relationship where the conversation is led by the patient
rather than the doctor.
This answer is correct, but other than stating the
obvious there is nothing more to allow the scoring of
more than 1 mark. More detail, a little elaboration, would
score the second available mark.
(b) Random allocation is where the sample is chosen
randomly. In the Savage and Armstrong study people
walking in to see the doctor were just ‘random people’ and
so they were studied.
Random allocation is not the same as a random sample.
Random allocation is when participants in the sample
(who have already been chosen) have a 50/50 chance of being
in either condition. Random sampling is a sampling technique
to acquire a sample. It is when all participants in a target
population have an equal chance of participating. This part of
the answer is incorrect and scores 0/2 marks. For the second
component, the candidate incorrectly relates the term to the
study, so the for second part of the question the candidate
scores 0/2 marks, and 0/4 marks overall.
(c) A questionnaire could be used which would ask patients
questions about their preferred style. I would have 20
questions, starting with asking about name, age and
occupation and then going on to ask about preferred
styles. My second suggestion would be an observation.
When a patient leaves the doctor’s room, I could observe
their expression and if they are smiling or look angry, I
could ask them which style had been used by the doctor.
This answer correctly suggests using a questionnaire,
but says nothing about the type of questionnaire. It
suggests questions asking for personal details (and this is
quite a common thing that candidates think they should ask)
which are irrelevant to the study and do not maintain
confidentiality and so are unethical. Personal details should
never be asked for.
The second suggestion is observation, but with no details of
the type, etc., followed by the patient being asked about their
preferred style. Is the second method an observation or an
interview? This looks like an instance of not thinking through an
answer before starting to write – making it up as it goes along.
A few seconds, thought would make a significant difference.
(d) There are strengths and weaknesses in my second
suggestion. Observations have two strengths. The first is
that the participant doesn’t know they are being observed
and so acts naturally. A second is that observations provide
quantitative data. Weaknesses include the fact that there
would be no qualitative data, so I wouldn’t know the
reason ‘why’. I conclude that an observation is not a good
method to use.
188
This is a poor answer. The candidate lists two strengths
of observations but they are ‘learned’ strengths, written
without any understanding and without relating them to the
study that is being written about. There is only one weakness
when there should be two. There is a conclusion, but this
bland statement says nothing useful. The answer scores
2 marks out of the 5 available (because some strengths and
a weakness are present in the answer).
Answer B
(a) A patient-centred style of consulting is where the doctor
chats with the patient, allowing them to contribute and
discuss their illness. For example, the doctor might ask
about how they prefer to take pills and so prescribe drugs
to fit the person’s lifestyle.
This answer tells us what the style is, it elaborates on the
basic definition and it provides an example of the
difference that a patient-centred style can make. This answer
scores 2 marks out of 2.
(b) Random allocation is how participants are allocated to
conditions of the independent variable, meaning that they
have an equal chance of being either in one condition or
the other. In the Savage and Armstrong study, randomly
allocating meant that the next participant had a 50/50
chance of being in the doctor-centred or patient-centred
conditions.
This answer scores full marks, 4/4. The first component,
random allocation, is clearly and correctly described and
scores 2/2. The second component, relating it to the study, is
also done correctly and also scores 2/2. Both question parts
are addressed in a clear style and an appropriate amount of
detail. Enough to score full marks, but not too much to waste
time.
(c) One alternative is to conduct a structured interview with
open-ended questions. This would allow participants
to be asked the same questions but be open ended
so they could give their opinions about each style.
Another method would be to conduct a study using a
questionnaire. Rather than patients being interviewed,
where there might be demand characteristics, a closed
questionnaire could be mailed to the home of all the
patients and then their views gained using a Likert-type
rating scale to find out their preferred style.
This is an excellent answer and scores the full 4/4 marks.
The first suggestion shows excellent knowledge of the
types of interview, and when the candidate elaborates, good
understanding is shown. The same applies to the second
suggestion with appropriate terminology being used.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
This is an excellent answer and scores the full 5 marks.
The answer has appropriate examination technique –
there are two strengths and two weaknesses and there is a
conclusion. The answer shows very good understanding
because, rather than just listing strengths and weaknesses,
they are related to the method of investigating the doctor–
patient relationship throughout. On the negative side, this
answer is too long for just 4 marks. Avoid spending too much
time on one question and then running out of time on
another question.
Section B
Question 4
IKEA stores used a ‘maze’ store layout designed
to keep shoppers for longer so they can see more
products.
(a) Design a field experiment to investigate
whether this is true compared to a different
[10]
type of store design.
(b) Explain the methodological and psychological
evidence on which your suggestion is based. [8]
Answer A
(a) I would use a field experiment and I would have two
conditions to my independent variable: shoppers going
around an IKEA store (maze layout) and shoppers going
around a similar type of store that uses a grid layout. My
participants would go around just one store to eliminate
extraneous variables so the experimental design would be
independent measures. My participants would be typical
shoppers at furniture-type stores so they would be family
people aged 25–45. I would place an advertisement in a
local newspaper inviting people to participate who had
never been to either of the stores in my experiment, so
this would be a self-selecting sample of volunteers. They
would be offered a £20 voucher to give them an incentive.
I would also give them a questionnaire to find out the
type of shopper they are and I would only include ‘raiders’,
excluding ‘explorers’ to control for shopper type.
The participants would then enter the store and I would
start a stopwatch. I would then wait at the exit and stop the
watch as they leave. My dependent variable is time taken
to go around the store. My one-tailed hypothesis would be
‘participants going around a maze layout will take more time
(in minutes) than participants going around a grid layout’. My
data would be quantitative and I could calculate the mean
difference between the two groups and produce a bar chart
of the mean scores.
This is an excellent answer because it answers the
question – it uses the stated method; it is coherent
throughout and shows very good understanding of
methodological knowledge; and although not needed for
maximum marks, it shows thinking in relation to other
studies, that by Gil et al. The number of appropriate
methodological aspects is impressive. In relation to the
experiments there is an IV, a DV, a design and an important
control (of shopper type). There is even a hypothesis, which is
correctly stated and tailed (and this is not an easy thing to do
in the pressure of an examination). Sampling is appropriate in
that the sampling technique is identified and explained, and
there are a few details of the sample of participants. There
are a few details of the procedure. There is a comment about
the type of data and how this would be analysed and
presented. Overall, this is a superb answer and scores the
maximum marks.
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
(d) There are strengths about conducting a structured
interview with open-ended questions. First, the same
questions are asked of each patient rather than having
something different for each patient, and this means that
everyone is treated equally. Even the same instructions
would be said to each patient. Second, using openended questions would mean that qualitative data
would be gathered, telling the reason for the preference.
If quantitative data were gathered it would tell me
which style was preferred, but not the reason why it was
preferred. However, using this specific method might lead
to demand characteristics. The patient might guess which
style they thought the doctor would wish to hear and so
answer following that rather than giving a true, honest
answer. A second problem is that gathering qualitative
data means that a judgement would have to be made as
to which style the person preferred, but a greater problem
would be having no quantitative data. I would know
which style was preferred, but not how much the style
would be preferred. Overall, I think that the strengths of
conducting an interview would outweigh the weaknesses.
For example, there might be no demand characteristics
at all and if I asked a closed question, I could gather both
quantitative and qualitative data.
(b) Two methodological decisions I made were having
an independent measures design and to ask for new
shoppers to the stores. If I had not done this, there may be
extraneous variables which might confound the result. If I
had used a repeated measures design then the participants
might deliberately take more or less time in one type of
store. If they go to only one store then this is eliminated.
In my advert I asked for shoppers who had never been
to the store because if they had been, they might ignore
certain products and leave more quickly. The psychological
evidence I used was the study by Gil et al. who identified
different types of shopper. If I had used ‘explorers’, they
go to stores for long time periods anyway. I chose ‘raiders’
because they usually spend less time in stores, so this is a
good way to see if they stay longer. I chose to compare the
maze design with a grid design because Vrechopoulos et
al. say that a grid design with long aisles means shoppers
have to go a long way around, rather than a free-form
where short-cuts could be taken.
A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
189
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
This answer is very impressive. The two methodological
decisions are correct and include all the relevant jargon,
such as ‘extraneous variables’ and ‘confounding’. The
explanations for the decisions (and the question asks for
explanation) are really good, i.e. comments about ‘this is why I
did this’. There is also the psychological evidence because
good use is made of the studies by Gil et al. and Vrechopoulos
et al. and this is mentioned in the answer appropriately. This
means that the studies are not described in detail; instead only
what is needed in the answer is included and nothing else.
This is applying information rather than simply describing it, a
higher-level skill.
There is evidence that this answer has been thought through
before starting to write, because this part (b) clearly informed
what was written about in part (a). This is a simple thing to
do. Think through the whole design of your study before
you start to write the answer. It will give you a significant
advantage because your answer will be coherent throughout.
Answer B
(a) I would do a field experiment with shoppers in an IKEA
store. My participants would be a random sample taken by
asking people walking past the store to participate. I would
ensure that there was a representative sample of ages, males
and females, people from different cultures, etc. I would
attach a tag to them when they entered the store and this
would track their GPS position as they walked around the
store which I could observe. I could then calculate how
long they spend in each section of the store and compare
the different sections. The GPS would tell me when they
are about to leave the store so I could then go along and
interview them about their feelings about the store. I would
then ask them to go with me to a store with a different
layout and I would replicate the study in exactly the same
way in that different store. At the end, I could compare the
results and do some statistics to tell me the difference.
This answer scores some basic marks because the design
is based on a reasonable idea. There are several
methodological aspects included, such as ‘random sample’,
‘interview’ and ‘replicate’, although some of these are
ambiguous. The main weakness in this answer is that it hasn’t
been thought through fully, and opportunities to include
correct terminology have not been taken. People walking past
is not a random samples, it is an opportunity sample. There is
nothing wrong with an opportunity sample – but the
terminology needs to be correct. There are lots of details
about the sample, but such a balance would be hard to
achieve. Tracking via a GPS (global positioning system) is a
good idea, but there is no psychological evidence to base this
on. If tracking via CCTV were used instead, the study by Gil et
al. could be included in part (b). The answer mentions
interviews, but there are no details about the type of
interview, and asking about feelings is not what the question
requires. The answer also mentions observation, but there are
no details about the type of observation at all. Two missed
opportunities here for expansion that would score marks. At
the end, the answer suggests repeating the study, but only
after an interview, and so the answer shows a lack of
awareness that this would confound the study.
190
(b) I chose to use three methods, experiment, observation
and interview so I could gather a range of different types
of data. I chose to use GPS because it is up to date and I
could record shopper movements on my smartphone. I
chose a random sample of participants because it avoids
bias. For psychological evidence, there is the grocery store
study which looked at different types of store layout
and there are many psychologists who successfully used
experiments, observations and interviews.
This is a very poor answer. Using three methods doesn’t
automatically gather different types of data; all three
methods could gather quantitative data, for example. Choosing
three methods is usually done by weak candidates who merely
identify the different methods and don’t know very much
about any method (as shown in this answer). Using more than
the named method will not score more marks. However, it is
legitimate to use an experiment and to gather data using
another method. This answer does not show knowledge of
what a random sample is. The use of GPS is good, but a decent
psychology student would take the opportunity to say that GPS
data are objective (rather than subjective), and if the person
does not know they are being tracked, even better. The
comments about psychological evidence are weak with a
vague reference to the Vrechopoulos et al. study. This answer
scores bottom-band marks, 1 mark overall.
Section C
Question 5
‘Shiftwork is not bad for your health.’
To what extent do you agree with this statement?
Use examples from research to support your
answer.[12]
Answer A
Shiftwork is bad for people for many reasons, firstly because it
disrupts their lives. For example, if a shift is worked during the
day and then it moves to the evening and then it moves to the
night, there is nothing consistent to help family life. Another
reason is that it disrupts sleep. I would find it hard to keep
changing shift and I would lose sleep. The study by Dement and
Kleitman supports this.
However, shiftwork is good because it pays higher wages than
non-shiftwork and pay is a good motivator. Another reason
is that shiftwork is necessary because people who work as
police or doctors have to work shifts. Many doctors live long
lives, and if shiftwork was bad for them, such as making them
stressed, they would not do it because they would know all the
negatives in relation to health.
Overall, if it were me, I would not mind working at night
because I could stay in bed each morning, and as it would
pay me more, that would not be a bad thing. I agree with the
statement that shiftwork is not bad for your health.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
Answer B
Shiftwork is bad for health. There are reasons why this is true.
First, Knutsson (2003) found shiftwork was bad for health as it
caused stomach ulcers and heart disease, although he didn’t
find that it caused cancer. Second, in a study of 878 nurses,
Gold et al. (1992) found that shiftwork caused more accidents
(which are bad for health). This was particularly so on the
rotating shift. Third, shiftwork causes sleep disturbances, and
physical and mental fatigue (Pheasant.) Fourth, studies have
shown that people make more substitution-error accidents
when working the graveyard shift. Accidents and effects on
health occur most during rapid rotation shifts.
On the other hand, shiftwork can be said not to be bad for
health. An accident might cause a machine to break, but it
doesn’t automatically mean that it is bad for health. Second,
if slow-rotation shiftwork is used, then health isn’t affected as
much. If the metropolitan or continental rota is used, effects
on health would be much less. In conclusion, if people are told
of the health effects of rapid rotation then they may wish to
choose slow rotation, and it would be even better if people
worked each shift permanently and have no change at all.
This answer is good on examination technique in that,
like answer A, it addresses both sides of the debate and
provides more than one reason. The answer is impressive in
the range of studies that are mentioned (Knutsson, Gold et
al., and Pheasant), and also the different types of shifts, such
as slow and rapid rotation and the metropolitan and
continental rotas. However, other than a brief mention, there
is no additional detail here, no elaboration. For 12 marks the
answer should have more detail, and explaining more about
the studies would be advantageous. For example, what is a
slow-rotation shift pattern? What is a metropolitan rota? A
little elaboration would show depth of knowledge and
understanding. The conclusion at the end is rather vague,
but there is a conclusion. Overall, this answer does not score
top-band marks, but scores 8–9 out of 12.
A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
6 A Level examination guidance/questions and answers
There are some positives in this answer – there are at
least two points for and two points against the
statement and there is an overall conclusion. In other words,
the exam technique is correct. However, what is written is
very basic and anecdotal and shows little evidence of any
psychological knowledge. There is reference to the study by
Dement and Kleitman, but what is written is of little value.
This answer is bottom band and scores no more than 1 mark.
191
Now test yourself answers
192
Now test yourself
answers
1 The core studies
1 A repeated measures design is where participants perform in
all conditions of the independent variable.
2 Scientific equipment is reliable, which means that it gives
consistent recordings. It is also objective. If a person has an
MRI scan, the images are objective (‘fact’) and the way in
which it records what is happening in the brain will be the
same every time for every person.
3 The quantitative data were the self-report percentages of
forgotten, familiar and remembered with certainty; and the
functional images of 11 frames per trial resulting in a ‘pixel
count’.
4 One assumption is that all humans and animals function
physiologically, and processes such as brain activity
(amygdala activation) determine behaviour (experience of
emotional intensity).
5 This would increase the ecological validity of the study. It
might have no effect on the results because people nearly
always have REM and NREM sleep. But there might be more
REM and dreaming with more detail.
6 Scientific equipment is reliable, which means that it gives
consistent recordings. It is also objective. For example, if a
person is entering REM sleep, the EEG records it without
input from the participant.
7 Any two from: (i) all participants were asked not to drink
alcohol (a depressant) or caffeine (a stimulant). Note alcohol
and caffeine are two aspects of the same variable; (ii) all
participants were asked to report to the laboratory at
their normal bedtime; (iii) the way in which participants
were woken (by a bell) and the way in which dreams were
recorded (tape-recorder) were standardised.
8 a Self-reports were used when participants were woken up
and asked to record any dream into the tape-recorder
next to the bed.
b Observation was used by the experimenters. They
observed the EEG print-out to determine when REM and
NREM sleep began and ended, and to determine the
direction of eye movements.
9 Physiological arousal and psychological (or cognitive)
interpretation.
10 The observer can record data covertly, without the
participant knowing, and so the participant behaves as
they would normally without responding to demand
characteristics.
11 a The physiological component was manipulated by placing
the participants into one of four groups: EPI MIS, EPI INF,
EPI IGN and the placebo/control group.
b The psychological component was manipulated by
placing the participants into either a euphoric or an
anger-suggesting situation.
12 a The experiment could not work without the stooge
suggesting to the participant a behaviour (euphoria or
anger) to explain the physiological arousal. Without a
stooge, the participants would probably have just stood
and chatted to each other.
b One problem is that the use of any stooge in any research
is deception and is therefore unethical.
13 The study was looking at whether doodling can improve
concentration levels. As concentration is part of thinking,
a cognitive process, this study is part of the cognitive
approach.
14 Random allocation is where each participant has an equal
chance of being in any of the conditions of the IV.
15 Drawing a bar chart involves x- and y-axes which should be
fully labelled with the IV and DV. IV is the doodling group
and the control group. DV is mean number of correct names
(out of 8). The doodling group should be 7.8 and the control
group 7.1.
16 Any one from: (i) the sample was restricted: all were from
Plymouth (UK) and all were regular volunteers for research;
(ii) participants were told to ‘shade in the squares and circles’
and this may not be their preferred method of doodling, or
the preferred method of people generally.
17 The first test of theory of mind was the ‘Sally-Anne test’
devised by Baron-Cohen which looked at whether children
could ‘think what Sally was thinking’.
18 There were eight different problems. Most people start with
the first two, which are:
– The original involved a forced choice between two
alternatives, meaning that there was a 50/50 guess.
– The results of the original test did not sufficiently
discriminate between those with AS disorders and those
without (such as a parent).
19 Any two from:
– The AS/HFA (autistics) will score lower on the eyes test
than other groups.
– The AS/HFA (autistics) will score higher on the AQ test
than other groups.
– Females will score higher than males on the eyes test.
– Males in the normal group will score higher than females
on the AQ.
– Scores on the AQ and eyes test will be inversely
correlated.
20 Any one from:
– All the photographs were black and white; as real faces
are in colour, coloured photographs could have been
used.
– All the photographs were static; moving images (e.g. video
clips) could have been used.
– Females had more positive emotions than negative,
and males had more negative emotions than positive.
An equal balance of male/female positive and negative
emotions could be used.
21 A false memory is where people remember events differently
from the way they happened or they remember events that
never happened at all.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide
32 Observational learning is where an animal or child (or adult)
observes a model and then will copy/imitate that model.
Observational learning also appears in the study by Bandura
et al.
33 Any two from: (i) Tests on objects (of categories) that were
familiar, such as another colour or material. These objects
meant that the pairings were always novel. (ii) Transfer tests
with novel objects. Alex was presented with pairs of objects
never used in training to find out if Alex could generalise to
new situations. (iii) Probes: to ensure Alex was concentrating,
questions were asked which included a wrong answer in
addition to correct ones.
34 It is double-blind. Testing was done by ‘secondary trainers’
who had not trained Alex. This meant that neither Alex
not the principal trainer knew what was going to be
asked. Double-blind is where neither the experimenter nor
participant knows the answer to the question (or where the
experimenter does not know which group a participant is
in). A single-blind design is where the participant is unaware
of the behaviour that is expected of them (i.e. they are
not told whether they are in the experimental or the
control group, or they are not told what behaviour is being
measured, or why).
35 a An advert was placed in a newspaper advertising a study
on ‘learning and memory’ and saying that $4 would be
paid (plus $.50 for travel). Forty males aged 20–50 with
various occupations were chosen to participate. As people
volunteered, the sample is self-selecting.
b Any one from: (i) People who volunteer might have
personality characteristics different from those who do
not volunteer. (ii) Certain types of people may not read
that newspaper or certain types of people may choose
not to respond to such things.
36 Three features include: covert (participants did not
know they were being observed); controlled (the study/
observations took place in a controlled environment (the
laboratory); non-participant and unstructured (initially the
observers did not know what was going to happen so there
were no response categories).
37 a The experimenter said that he was in charge and so was
responsible; the ‘stern’ manner of the experimenter; his
wearing of a grey lab-coat.
b The study was conducted at the prestigious Yale
University; it was a scientific experiment; it was
conducted in a psychology laboratory; the shock
generator and the electrodes and paste all added
authenticity.
38 a Any two from: informed consent; deception; right to
withdraw; physical and psychological harm.
b Confidentiality; debriefing.
39 In 1964, Catherine ‘Kitty’ Genovese was attacked and
murdered by Winston Moseley in the Queens borough
of New York. Although it was claimed that 38 different
witnesses saw or heard the event, not one of them reported
it to the police.
40 If there is one person witnessing an event, he or she is
100% responsible for helping. If there are more people,
responsibility is diffused among them. If there are 10 people
Now test yourself answers
Now test yourself answers
22 A null hypothesis would be ‘There will be no difference
between believers and non-believers in susceptibility to false
memory manipulation.’
23 Similarity: in Experiments 1 and 2 the participants were
undergraduates/students. Differences: in Experiment 1, 128,
77% were female, average age 20.8 years; in Experiment 2,
103, 62% were female, average age 19.9 years.
24 a A standard deviation is a measure of spread of data
around the mean.
b The standard deviations were calculated in relation to
photograph ratings for believers (SD 2.05), non-believers
(SD 2.63) and controls (SD 4.00).
25 a Inter-rater reliability is where two independent observers
record the same behaviour and compare answers at the
end for the similarity between their records.
b It was used in determining the levels of pre-existing
aggression, and it was used in the test room to check the
agreement of the children’s behaviours.
26 a Bandura et al. used time sampling. In this study a record
was made every 5 seconds and, as the test lasted for
20 minutes, 240 instances of behaviour were recorded.
b This meant that the observer had time to see the
behaviour, look down at the sheet of response categories,
find the correct box, tick it and be looking up and ready
for the next behaviour.
27 The categories were: imitative physical aggression; imitative
verbal aggression; partial imitation – mallet aggression, sits
on bobo doll; non-imitative aggression – punches bobo,
aggressive gun play. (Be precise – imitative aggression, for
example, is not a category.)
28 a The children were matched by the experimenter and
nursery teacher by rating each child on four aspects (e.g.
physical aggression and verbal aggression) using a 5-point
scale.
b They were matched to achieve a balanced sample in each
group to help prevent the result from being confounded
(where it is not known whether the result is due to the IV
or due to come confounding variable).
29 Semi-structured interview. There were structured questions
because the boy completed the ‘child-parent anxiety
disorder interview schedule’ which includes specific
questions. There were also unstructured questions because
Saavedra would ask the boy and his mother to talk about
his problem. This combination makes it a semi-structured
interview.
30 Cognitive restructuring ‘reorganises thoughts’, replacing
negative thoughts with positive thoughts (or realistic
thoughts).
31 a One advantage is that as it is a study in detail, in this case
of one person, then much more information can be found
out about the specific problem.
b One disadvantage is that it is a study of one boy and his
specific problem, so it is not possible to generalise any
aspect to another child with a button phobia. However,
although the specifics can’t be generalised, the treatment
programme itself can be useful for others.
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then they are each only 10% responsible. This means that
they are less likely to help.
Any two from:
– An individual who appears to be ill is more likely to
receive aid than is one who appears to be drunk, even
when the immediate help needed is of the same kind.
– Given mixed groups of men and women, and a male
victim, men are more likely to help than are women.
– Given mixed racial groups, there is some tendency for
same-race helping to be more frequent. This tendency
is increased when the victim is drunk as compared with
apparently ill.
– There is no strong relationship between number of
bystanders and speed of helping.
– The longer the emergency continues without help
being offered:
– the less impact a model has on the helping behaviour
of observers
– the more likely it is that individuals will leave the
immediate area; that is, they appear to move
purposively to another area in order to avoid the
situation
– the more likely it is that observers will discuss the
incident and its implications for their behaviour
The two major features of this model are physiological
arousal and cognitive (or psychological) decision-making
where we weigh up the costs and the benefits.
It is controlled because it is taking place in an environment
where the experimenters can place specific items (stick,
straw, hose, etc.) to be used in testing. It is structured
because the observers are looking for specific behaviours
(response categories).
Any two from: (i) data can be observed by two or more
observers and checked for inter-rater reliability; (ii) time
sampling can be done because the videotape can be paused
at any point; (iii) the videotape can be watched as many
times as is necessary to ensure all analysis is 100% accurate.
A repeated measures design is where participants take
part in all conditions of the independent variable. In this
study, the chimpanzees performed in all three phases of the
experiment, the ‘can see’, ‘cannot see’ and ‘can see’ trials.
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2 Research methods
1 One similarity is that both are experiments, having an IV, a
DV and control of variables in common. One difference is
that one is conducted in a laboratory – a potentially artificial
situation but where conditions can be very tightly controlled
– and the other is conducted in a relatively natural
environment where control of variables is more difficult.
2 One disadvantage of conducting a study in a laboratory
is that it is low in ecological validity because the setting is
artificial as the participants are travelling there. Another
is that the task participants are required to do may be
something they would never normally do in real life; the
study would lack mundane realism.
3 One advantage of conducting a field experiment is that
it may be higher in ecological validity than a laboratory
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experiment. A second is that it is an experiment and there is
an IV and a DV and a number of controls are applied.
A repeated measures design is where each participant takes
part in all conditions of the independent variable.
One way in which order effects can be overcome is to
counterbalance. Participant 1 does condition A then B,
participant 2 does condition B then condition A and the
format is repeated for all participants.
Random allocation is done by giving each participant a
50/50 chance of being in either condition. This can be done
by tossing a coin. It can only be done for an independent
groups measures design.
Psychologists try to control for extraneous variables to try
to ensure that the DV is the result of the IV (i.e. cause and
effect) and not some extraneous variable.
Situational variables, experimenter variables and participant
variables
(i) The victim always wore the same clothes, such as an
Eisenhower jacket; (ii) the victim fell over 70 seconds after
leaving the station; (iii) the same subway line was used for
each trial; (iv) the victim was always male.
Open-ended questions are simply questions that ask the
participant to give a response in his or her own words with
no pre-determined way to answer. Closed questions on the
other hand require the participant to choose from a range of
pre-determined answers.
This is where the questionnaire ‘forces’ the respondent to
commit themselves to either a positive or negative response.
There is no neutral or ‘opt-out’ choice. The advantage is that
it prevents a respondent from giving a neutral answer to
everything, resulting in data that surround a mid-point.
In a structured interview each participant is asked exactly
the same questions in the same order. In an unstructured
interview the researcher asks different questions, depending
on where the discussion takes him or her. Semi-structured
includes both structured and unstructured questions.
(i) Face-to-face interview between the interviewer and
the interviewee; and (ii) telephone interview where the
interviewer and interviewee do not see each other.
Three disadvantages are:
– Participants may provide socially desirable responses;
they may not give truthful answers; they may respond to
demand characteristics.
– Researchers have to be careful about using leading
questions, which can affect the validity of the data
collected.
– Answers to open-ended questions may be timeconsuming to categorise and difficult to analyse.
(i) A case study is a detailed study of a single ‘unit’ such
as an individual person. (ii) The study can give in-depth
information about the unit using a range of different
methods.
Similarity, any one from: both observations were covert
(participants did not know they were being observed); both
observations were non-participant; both observations were
structured (what was being observed decided before the
study). Difference: the study by Bandura et al. was controlled
(conducted in a laboratory, an artificial environment)
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naturally. Schachter and Singer used a stooge as a model to
suggest to participants how they should behave.
A disadvantage of using a stooge is that it is deception and
deception is unethical. Milgram used Mr Wallace as a fake
participant who received the fake electric shocks, and who
responded to the different voltages in ways pre-scripted by
Milgram.
One weakness of quantitative data is that they do not
give us a reason why participants behaved as they did. In
his study Milgram knew that 63% of participants went to
450 volts but he did not ask them why they did so; instead
he assumed he knew the reason for their continuation with
the study or their early withdrawal.
Two examples are:
– The study by Dement and Kleitman on sleep and
dreaming which gathered qualitative data by asking
participants to report the content of a dream. One
participant reported that they had a dream about two
people throwing tomatoes at each other.
– Schachter and Singer who gathered qualitative data
through asking two open-ended questions (on other
physical or emotional sensations).
Qualitative data are in the form of words. Examples
include descriptions of events, quotes from participants, or
descriptions of participants’ responses to a task. Qualitative
data can help us understand why people behave in a
particular way.
Descriptive statistics describe data using tables, summary
statistics (mean, median, mode and range) and in visual
formats such as a graph. Inferential statistics infer, and this
is where a statistical test is calculated in order to draw
conclusions about hypotheses.
Nominal data simply name; they put data into named
categories. Ordinal data organise data into order or ranks.
First place is different from second place, etc.
The x-axis (horizontal); the y-axis (vertical); axes should be
fully labelled (with descriptors and scales); a full title to show
exactly what the bar chart shows.
Reliability is how consistent something is. Think about
the example of a car always starting or never starting. For
example, the reliability of a questionnaire could be tested
using test/re-test and if the results are the same then the test
is said to be reliable.
Checking the reliability of a questionnaire involves
administering the same test to the same person on two
different occasions, such as at intervals 3 weeks apart, and
comparing the results. The results can then be correlated.
This is test/re-test. The split-half method can also be used,
which involves splitting the test into two and administering
each half of the test to the same person.
The reliability of an observation can be checked using interrater reliability. This is where two or more observers watch
the same behaviour and score it independently. The study
by Bandura et al. had two observers and their agreement,
measured by using a correlation test, was over 0.9.
Validity is whether an experiment or procedure for collecting
data actually measures or tests what it claims to measure or
test. Concurrent validity can be checked by comparing the
Now test yourself answers
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whereas the study by Piliavin et al. was naturalistic
(conducted in a natural environment for a participant).
One advantage of an observation is that the observed
behaviour is natural and can be measured objectively. In
the study by Piliavin et al. participants did not know they
were in a study and so responded as they would have
done normally. A disadvantage of an observation is that
participants cannot explain why they behaved in a particular
way. In the study by Piliavin et al. participants could not
say why they behaved as they did. If they had been asked,
they might have been upset when realising they had been
deceived.
With a positive correlation, as one variable increases the
other variable also increases (or both decrease). With a
negative correlation, as one variable increases the other
variable decreases (or one decreases while the other
increases).
However strong a relationship might be, all we can
conclude is that the two variables are related. We can never
automatically assume that one variable causes another.
An aim is a more general statement describing the purpose
of the study whereas a hypothesis is a testable statement
that predicts the outcome of a study.
The null hypothesis states that the result is due to chance
(i.e. that there will be no difference) unlike the hypothesis
which makes a prediction. The null hypothesis is never
directional and if there is no difference we never need to
write that there is no significant difference.
The sample concerns the features of the participants
themselves, their age, gender, whether or not they are
students, where they are from, etc. The sampling technique
is how the participants are selected from a population
(opportunity, self-selecting, etc.)
Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test); Milgram (obedience).
A random sample is a sample that has been selected in
a way that means everyone in the target population has
an equal opportunity of being chosen. One way to try
to eliminate participant variables is to randomly allocate
participants to conditions. Random allocation is part of an
independent groups design and is done by (for example)
tossing a coin for each participant, giving them a 50/50
chance of doing condition 1 or condition 2 first.
a Deception is when an experimenter (or stooge) acts or
speaks in a way that induces a false belief in a participant.
b At the end of a study participants are told what was
happening, asked if they have any concerns, and given any
explanations they require. Anything that may have caused
stress is smoothed over so that the participants can leave
the study in the same state in which they arrived.
Studies should be ethical because no one should be harmed
or deceived in the pursuit of knowledge. Something may
go wrong with a procedure and the participants may be
harmed for life even though they may claim they are fine
at the time of the study. However, it could be said that
unethical studies are good because deceiving participants
keeps them naive and they respond as they normally would.
The ends might justify the means.
An advantage of using a stooge is that it ensures a procedure
is maintained, that the participant behaves naively or
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result of a test with an alternative that is known to measure
what it claims to measure.
Construct validity shows how the measure matches up with
theoretical ideas about what it is supposed to be measuring.
Predictive validity is whether a measure can predict a future
outcome. Can IGCSE results accurately predict A Level
results?
Ecological validity refers to how true the location of where a
study is conducted is to real life. Mundane realism refers to
how true the task that participants are required to do is to
real life
A generalisation is when a finding is said to apply to people
who did not participate in the study.
Schachter and Singer claim that emotion results from
physiological arousal and cognitive (or psychological)
interpretation. Perhaps this does apply to everyone rather
than being just a generalisation.
Any example that uses observation (if it is seen, it is
believed) or any example that uses physiological data (brain
scans, sample tests, salivary cortisol). Think of two examples
to which these comments apply.
Any example that uses self-report such as questionnaires.
While the data gathered may be numbers, the source of
the numbers isn’t objective: a person can lie, give socially
desirable answers, etc. Think of two examples to which these
comments apply.
3 Approaches and issues and debates
1 One assumption is that all humans and animals function
physiologically and that processes, such as hormone release
and brain activity, determine behaviour (i.e. biological
determinism). This ‘biology’ is the same for all people in all
cultures; a cultural universal.
2 The study by Canli et al. looks at the regions of the brain
that are activated, specifically the amygdala, when presented
with emotionally intense stimuli. This region of the brain
should be the same in every person in the world.
3 Cognitive psychology concerns the mind – thinking
(rationally and irrationally), solving problems, perceiving,
making sense of and understanding the world, using and
making sense of language; and remembering and forgetting.
4 Some psychologists say that the cognitive approach is less
scientific, as we cannot observe the subject matter directly
– we are just inferring or guessing how people think and
process information.
5 Everyone goes for the ‘all behaviour is learned’ assumption,
so instead use another assumption: the subject matter of
psychology should have standardised procedures, with
an emphasis on the study of observable behaviour (why
people advocating this view are behaviourists) that can be
measured objectively, rather than a focus on the mind or
consciousness.
6 The learning approach explains how mental illnesses, such
as phobias, can be learned. This was first shown in 1920
by Watson who conditioned Little Albert to be afraid of a
white rat (and this generalised to other similar things).
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7 An assumption is that we can only understand people in
the context of how they operate in their interactions and
perceptions of others. Why does someone behave in a
particular way in a particular situation? We only know by
looking at the context of the people around them.
8 Social behaviour is bound by culture, meaning that what
happens in one culture cannot be assumed to happen in
another culture. If we made this assumption, we would
be ethnocentric. Some things might be universal but
many more things will not be. Think about what might be
common to all cultures.
9 If research is useful:
– It can be of benefit to society. It can improve the
world in which we live, for example in understanding
crime, mental illness and how students can learn more
effectively.
– It helps us to understand social behaviour, our
interactions with others, obedience, etc.
– It enhances the value and status of psychology as a
subject.
10 Any three from:
– Useful studies should be ethical – participants should give
informed consent and not be deceived. However, a study
may need to be unethical to be really useful.
– Studies conducted in a laboratory may not be useful as
they are low in ecological validity.
– Studies should use a representative sample and be
generalisable. Useful research should apply worldwide so
there is no ethnocentrism.
11 An individual or dispositional explanation for behaviour will
look to some feature or characteristic within the person
rather than situational causes.
12 The study by Milgram showed that some participants
obeyed the authority in the laboratory situation. The study
by Yamamoto et al. could not have been conducted in
‘real life’. Only the situation of the environment led to the
behaviour of the chimpanzees.
13 The nature view believes that all behaviour is genetically
(biologically) determined. The nurture view believes that
behaviour is mainly, or entirely, acquired through experience
and that the influence of the environment is crucial. This is
environmental determinism. As you can see, determinism
isn’t anything complicated.
14 The nature view believes that all behaviour is genetically
(biologically) determined and so this is reductionist (it
reduces behaviour to just one factor). The nurture view
believes that behaviour is learned, determined by the
environment, and so this too is reductionist. Again, not
complicated at all.
15 It is important to study children because:
– They represent the most important and formative period
of human development. What happens in early life can
determine many things in adult life.
– By understanding children’s thoughts and behaviour, it
might help us to understand adult thought and behaviour.
– In some ways, children are better participants than adults
as they are naive and can be more open and truthful.
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1 Cultural bias is when people make assumptions about
another culture based on their own culture.
2 Reductionism is the process of explaining complex
psychological phenomena by reducing them to their
component parts. This is the opposite of holism, where the
total is more than the sum of the parts.
3 In support of reductionism:
– It helps us to understand the world because a
fundamental way of understanding is to analyse, break
things down into component parts, test them and then
build them back up again. This is important in studying
the natural world and humans in a scientific way.
– In theory it is easier to study one component rather than
several interacting components. If one component is
isolated and others are controlled then the study is more
objective and scientifically acceptable.
4 Two definitions:
– ‘Metrics’ refers to measurement and ‘psycho’ refers
to psychological abilities, so psychometrics is the
measurement of the mind.
– Psychometrics is the science of psychological
assessment.
5 a One study that shows environmental determinism is that
by Oldham and Brass (1979) because moving from one
type of office to another resulted in a reduction in job
satisfaction.
b One study of biological determinism is that by Oruc et
al. (1998) who found that first-degree relatives of people
diagnosed with depression are significantly more likely
to be diagnosed with depression than non-first-degree
relatives.
6 a A longitudinal study takes place over a period of time,
usually following one or more participants throughout the
period (or visiting them at regular intervals) to monitor
changes.
b The development of an individual (or number of
participants) is tracked. A baseline is recorded at the
start, and changes that occur over time (e.g. 5 years) in
attitudes and behaviour can be measured.
c One problem is that it can be difficult to track
participants over a long period of time – for example,
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they may move house or may not want to continue
participating. Thus, longitudinal studies tend to lose
participants as they go along. This is called ‘participant
attrition’.
Any three from:
– Hallucinations – hearing, smelling, feeling or seeing
something that is not there.
– Delusions – believing something completely even though
others do not believe it.
– Disorganised thinking – finding it hard to concentrate
and drifting from one idea to another.
– Feeling controlled – that thoughts are vanishing, or that
they are not your own, or being taken over by someone
else.
– Catatonic behaviour, involving impairment of motor
activity, where the person often holds the same position,
or performs repetitive movements for hours.
Any two from:
– Persecutory – being watched, followed, drugged, etc. by
others who intend harm.
– Grandiose – belief they have an unrecognised skill, talent,
knowledge or status.
– Erotomatic – belief that another person, usually of higher
social status, is in love with him or her.
Frith (1992) argues that schizophrenics have faulty
information processing, particularly with ‘mentalising’, which
is impairment in attributing mental states (thoughts, beliefs
and intentions) to other people. They apparently have an
impaired ‘theory of mind’.
Be careful here. The question refers to ‘drug’ and not ‘medical’
treatments, so ECT cannot be included.
There are three types of drug used: MAOIs, SSRIs and SNRIs.
Anti-depressants work by affecting neurotransmitters. Those
most involved in depression are thought to be serotonin and
noradrenaline. SRRIs inhibit serotonin and SNRIs inhibit both
serotonin and noradrenaline. MAOIs inhibit a wider range
of neurotransmitters, such as adrenaline and melatonin, in
addition to serotonin and noradrenaline.
REBT focuses on how illogical beliefs are maintained such
as musterbating (I must be perfect at all times), and I-can’tstand-it-itis (the belief that when something goes wrong
it is a major disaster). The A, B, C, D and E are: A for the
activating event, B for the belief held about A, and C for the
consequences – thoughts, feelings or behaviours – resulting
from A. To change to rational beliefs, Ellis suggests we must:
D, dispute the irrational beliefs and E experience the effects
of successful disruption of the irrational beliefs.
(i) Before committing the act there is a growing tension.
(ii) During the act the person feels pleasure from acting, and
often feels relief from the urge. (iii) Afterwards the person
may or may not feel guilt, regret or blame.
DiNardo et al. (1988) found that only half of all people who
had a traumatic experience with an animal, even when pain
was inflicted, went on to develop a phobia of animals. They
believe that people who have any traumatic experience (e.g.
with animals) but do not develop a phobia must interpret
the event differently from those who do develop a phobia.
This means that it is the way people think about their
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16 There is no right or wrong answer to this one; it is asking
you what you think. In a laboratory the experimenter has
more control, but on the other hand, such control is low in
ecological validity and does not enable us to observe the
behaviour of an animal in its natural environment. Which
method is best? It depends on what is being studied.
17 Yet another one to ponder. What do you think? Again
the answer is a matter of opinion and it is just a matter of
weighing up the advantages and disadvantages and making
a judgement. For example, Yamamoto et al. studied helping
in animals in a laboratory. Piliavin et al. took their study into
the ‘real world’ and their findings were different from those
found in laboratory experiments.
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experience that makes the difference. They suggest it is an
exaggerated expectation of harm in some people that leads
to the development of a phobia.
When people see blood or a needle, their blood pressure
drops sharply, often leading the person to faint or pass out.
The way to counter the drop in blood pressure is to raise
blood pressure. Ost et al. (1989) proposed using applied
tension. This involves tensing the muscles in the arms, legs
and body for about 10–15 seconds, relaxing for 20–30
seconds and then repeating both these five times.
The Maudsley obsessive–compulsive inventory (MOCI) is a
psychometric test to assess obsessive–compulsive behaviour.
It is a self-report questionnaire using a forced-choice ‘yes’ or
‘no’ format. It has 30 questions/items with four sub-scales:
checking, cleaning/washing, slowness and doubting. When
all the items are totalled, a person can have a score between
0 (no symptoms) and 30 (maximum presence of symptoms).
The extent and severity of the OCD is determined by the
score out of 30. The Yale–Brown obsessive–compulsive scale
(Y-BOCS) is an acceptable alternative.
Cognitive–behavioural therapy changes the way a person
thinks (the cognitive part) and the way a person behaves
(the behavioural part). It may focus on how a person
responds to a particular situation. This is done not by going
back to the cause of the problem, but by focusing on the
present symptoms. It works by looking at how a person
thinks about how an event has affected how he/she felt and
what he/she did. If negative thoughts can be reinterpreted
or changed for more positive or realistic thoughts, then the
person will feel better and their behaviour will change.
The three components of approach-avoidance behaviour
when measuring atmospheric variables are pleasure (the
degree to which a person felt happy or satisfied in a place),
arousal (the degree of stimulation caused by an atmosphere),
and dominance (the degree to which a person feels in
control in a situation).
Racetrack/boutique layout: the store is arranged in individual,
semi-separate areas, each built around a theme. This creates
an unusual, interesting and entertaining shopping experience.
The design leads customers through specific paths to visit as
many sections as possible. It encourages impulse purchasing.
The PAD model stands for pleasure (the degree to which
a person is contented, happy, satisfied, pleased, relaxed,
important, cares, hopeful); arousal (the degree to which
a person is stimulated, excited, jittery, aroused, frenzied,
autonomous, wide-awake, controlling); dominance (the
extent to which a person feels in control of the situation
(rather than being controlled) and is able to act freely).
The ‘square method’, a term coined by Kutlu et al., allows
consideration of how the different variables of the store
image and interact with the product design.
Machleit et al. (2000) hypothesised that: (i) high levels of
perceived retail crowding would lead to lower levels of
shopper satisfaction (i.e. an inverse/negative correlation),
and the opposite would also apply; (ii) people who tolerate
crowds (i.e. tend not to perceive crowding) would be less
affected by high crowding levels than others; (iii) the type of
store will affect perceived crowding. In discount-type stores
(low cost and high value), high levels of crowding should not
affect shopping satisfaction.
22 Explorers make long trips, raiders make short trips. Explorers
go everywhere and spend time, raiders are fast shoppers.
Explorers are mainly female, raiders are mainly male.
23 Multiple unit pricing is done to suggest that buying more
items makes the overall cost less than when the items are
priced individually. For example, the study by Wansink et al.
found that bathroom tissue offered at ‘buy 4 for $2’ resulted
in 45% more sales than ‘buy 1 for $0.50’. The anchor of ‘4’
resulted in more purchases.
24 (i) People like wrapped gifts. (ii) Gifts should be wrapped.
(iii) Gifts should look like gifts.
25 Cialdini suggested six ways but perhaps the best three are:
– Reciprocity: I’ll give you something (a free gift) if you give
me something (the sale). This could include a free-trial.
– Liking: not just the product, but the salesperson, the
store and everything else associated, demonstrated by
similarity: people like people like themselves; humour
(done in an appropriate way) can be effective.
– Scarcity and urgency: if it is in short supply, people are
more likely to buy. Sales with ‘last few days’; ‘when it’s
gone its gone’, ‘only two rooms/seats left at this price’ are
typical strategies.
26 Product placement is an advertising technique used by
companies to subtly promote their products (brands)
in a non-traditional way, usually within the context of
film, television, or other media rather than as an explicit
advertisement.
27 Savage and Armstrong found significantly higher levels of
satisfaction were recorded for the directive style, particularly
so for patients with physical problems, those who had
excellent understanding of terms and patients receiving a
prescription.
28 Safer (1979) suggests: (i) appraisal delay – have I got any
symptoms? do I feel ill? (ii) illness delay – do I need medical
help? (iii) utilisation delay – will the treatment work? can I
afford it?
29 Validity refers to whether a measure actually measures what
it intends. Pill counts should measure adherence. However,
the fact that the pill has left the bottle does not mean it has
been taken – a patient may simply throw away unconsumed
medication, supplies are often divided up, pills may be
transferred to other containers.
30 Ley (for example) suggests (any three from):
– Emphasise key information by stating why it is important
and stating it early in the interaction.
– Simplify instructions and use clear and straightforward
language.
– Use specific statements (‘you should…’) and have the
patient repeat the instructions in their own words.
– Use written instructions, breaking down complex
instructions into simpler ones.
– Use a combination of oral and visual information (such as
diagrams).
31 There is no difference in the intensity of acute and chronic
pain. Each can hurt just as much as the other. The difference
is that acute pain is short-lived and does not last for very long,
whereas chronic pain goes on for a longer period of time.
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organisation for whom he or she is responsible. A manager
might not be the leader, but instead implements the ideas
and instructions of a leader.
The situational leadership approach argues that there is
no one leadership style that is best and fits all situations.
Instead the most successful leaders are those who can adapt
their leadership style to the individual or group they are
attempting to lead.
The four stages are:
– Forming: where individuals begin to come together, get to
know each other and agree on tasks and goals.
– Storming: where individuals present ideas and sometimes
these will be accepted and sometimes they will cause
conflict.
– Norming: when members of the group agree a strategy,
some members realising that for the good of the group
their ideas are not accepted.
– Performing: when the group functions as a coherent unit,
working effectively and efficiently without conflict.
Positive (any two from): (i) it might energise the group,
reducing complacency; (ii) it might stimulate creativity and
innovation; (iii) it can increase the quality of decision-making
as each member contributes more. Negative (any two from):
(i) it can harm group cohesiveness; (ii) it can inhibit effective
communication and even lead to rumour and distrust; (iii)
it can lead to more ‘fighting’ and less productivity and goal
achievement.
a The rapid rotation theory is based on frequent shift
change (e.g. once per week) and so it is preferred by
workers who only do same shift for a short time.
b There are two ways to organise a rapid rotation (and the
rota continues, giving an equal balance of working all
7 days per week over time):
– Metropolitan rota: work two early (6 am to 2 am), two
late (2 pm to 10 pm), two night (10 pm to 6 am), two
rest.
– Continental rota: work two early, two late, three night,
two rest, then two early, three late, two night, three rest.
Any two from:
– Omission – failing to do something, such as forgetting to
turn something off.
– Commission – performing an act incorrectly (i.e. doing
something wrong).
– Sequence errors – doing something out of order.
– Timing errors – doing something too quickly, or too
slowly.
Sabotage can be motivated by:
– frustration – spontaneous actions that indicate the
powerlessness workers feel
– attempts to ease the work process – typical of industries
where workers are paid by the hour and wages are
dependent on output
– attempts to assert control: that is, to challenge authority.
Any one from:
– Medical (high JI and high OC): response to various
infrequent and uncontrollable events such as illness,
Now test yourself answers
Now test yourself answers
32 Turk suggests that people will show (any three from):
– facial and/or audible expressions of distress, such as
groaning and pulling a face
– distorted ambulation or posture, meaning that they
might limp or hold the painful area
– irritability/bad mood
– avoidance activity, such as staying at home or resting.
33 Two studies are:
– Holmes and Rahe (1967) who used the SRRS to measure
life events, giving each a rank and a mean value. At the
top of the list is ‘death of spouse’; at the bottom is ‘minor
violations of the law’. Points are added to give a total
score.
– Friedman and Rosenman (1974) who devised the Type
A personality questionnaire to measure the behaviour
of people who are said to be aggressive, assertive,
competitive and time conscious.
34 Any two from:
– Blood pressure tests: Goldstein et al. (1992) found
that paramedics’ blood pressure (measured using a
sphygmomanometer) was higher during ambulance
runs or when at the hospital, compared with other work
situations or when at home.
– Evans and Wener (2007) collected salivary cortisol from
commuters on a train. People sat in a middle seat (of a
row of three) were more stressed than those not sitting in
a middle seat.
– Wang et al. (2005) identified the area of the brain where
the ‘stress response’ is located using an MRI scanner. It is
the ventral right pre-frontal cortex (RPFC).
35 In the UK., Tapper et al. (2000) used the ‘Food Dudes’
campaign aimed at promoting the eating of fruit and
vegetables in schools. Extensive resources were provided: a
Food Dude video; Food Dude rewards; a set of letters (for
praise and encouragement); a home pack; and a teacher
handbook and support materials. Levels of fruit and
vegetable consumption were measured and it was found
that lunchtime and home consumption was higher than in
the control group.
36 (i) The need for achievement is the need to get a job done,
to master a task, to be successful. (ii) The need for affiliation
is the need to be liked and accepted by other people.
(iii) The need for power concerns being influential in the
lives of others and also in control of others.
37 Intrinsic motivation is an internal desire to perform a
particular task. It gives pleasure, achievement and satisfaction
or develops a particular skill. For example, praise, respect,
recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging are
said to be far more powerful motivators than money.
Extrinsic motivation is the desire to do something because
of an external reward like money, which can include pay,
promotion and fringe benefits such as commission and
bonuses.
38 A leader may have some charismatic characteristics (be a
‘great’ man or woman), exerting social influence to gain
the aid or support of others in achieving a goal or task.
A manager is concerned with the day-to-day planning,
organising, controlling and coordinating of those in an
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Now test yourself answers
200
injury, funeral leave and family demands (sick spouse or
child). For the organisation this is sporadically occurring,
excused absence.
– Career-enhancing (high JI and low OC): absence is
depicted as a mechanism that allows the employee to
further task- and career-related goals.
– Normative (low JI and high OC): absence is viewed less as
a motivated behaviour and more as a habitual response.
Rather than absenteeism being random, as with the
medical category, definite patterns will emerge and be
predictable.
– Calculative (low JI and low OC): absence would be (for
the most apathetic worker) the maximum permitted
amount of excused and unexcused absences by the
organisation before sanctions (such as warnings or
termination of employment) are applied.
Cambridge International AS and A Level Psychology Revision Guide