Avoidance of Collision Air
Right of way- The aircraft on the right has a right of way, the one on the left has to give way.
Head on collision- approaching head on aircrafts, or when 2 aircrafts are approaching head on or
approximately so and there is danger of collision, each shall alter its heading to the right
Converging – When 2 aircrafts are converging at approximately the same level, the aircraft that has
the other on its right shall give way.
Overtaking- an aircraft that has been overtaken has the right of way and the overtaking aircraft
whether climbing, descending or in horizontal flight shall keep out of the way by altering its heading
to the right.
An overtaking aircraft is an aircraft that approaches from the rear on a line forming an angle of less
than 70 degrees.
Landing- an aircraft in flight or operating on the ground or water shall give way to aircraft landing or
in the final stages of an approach to land.
An aircraft on final approach for landing will have priority over any other aircraft.
An aircraft with emergency will have priority over any other aircraft.
An aircraft on the runway will have priority over the aircraft on the taxiway
Generally, long final is 8nm, normal is 5nm
Base leg is reported after completion of turn to the base
FDTL is 8 hours.
PAGB
Power driven flying machines have giveaway to airships, balloons, gliders.
Airships must give way to balloons and gliders.
Gliders must give way to balloon.
Power driven flying machines must give way to towing aircrafts
PAGB
The aircraft which has other aircraft on its right shall give way and the aircraft on the right has the
right of way.
Surface movement of aircraft: In case of danger of collision between 2 aircraft taxing on the
movement area of an aerodrome the following shall apply:
1. When 2 aircrafts are approaching head on or approximately so each shall stop or where
practicable alter its course to the right so as to keep well clear.
2. When 2 aircrafts are on a converging course, the one which has the other on its right shall
give way.
3. An aircraft which is being overtaken by another aircraft shall have the right of way and the
overtaking aircraft shall keep well clear of the other aircraft.
Lights to be displayed by the aircraft
These lights should be displayed from sunset to sunrise (night time- which is 30 minutes
after sunset and 30 minutes before sunrise)
Navigational lights intended to indicate the relative path of the aircraft. No other lights shall
be displayed if they are likely to be mistaken for the navigational lights.
Nav lights ^^^
The angle of coverage for
Red light is parallel to the longitudinal axis to 110 degrees left and for
Green light parallel to the longitudinal axis and 110 degrees to the right and for
White light parallel to longitudinal axis 270 degrees each side
Anti-collision lights shall display at all the times. If it fails in flight, the light is to be repaired
prior to the next flight
Green to green all serine
Red to red go ahead
Red to green you must be seen – we have the right of way
Green to red - you could end up dead (we have to alter the course)
Q) You see a red light on 090 relative bearing. What will you do?
a) Continue on the same heading
b) Alter the course to the right
Q) You see a flashing red and steady white light of another aircraft.
a) The other aircraft flying away from you
b) Continue on the same heading
c) Alter course to the left
Failure of lights
When a pilot is aware that a navigation light has failed, ATC is to be informed and the
aircraft is to land and have the light repaired before continuing the flight
When the anti-collision light fails, the aircraft can continue flight and repair it before the
next flight.
Flight Plan rule
Within 5nm, up to 3000 ft, no flight plan
Flight plan has to be filled at least 60 minutes before departure (EOBT)
For filling a flight plan in flight, the flight plan is to be filled at least 10 minutes before the
aircraft is estimated to reach overhead.
In the event of delay of 30 minutes, in excess of the EOBT for a controlled flight.
A delay of 1 hour for an uncontrolled flight for which the flight plan has been submitted
If the time exceeds then a fresh or new flight plan has to be filled.
If a controlled flight deviates from a flight plan the following action is to be taken.
1. Deviation from track – adjust the heading to regain the desired track as soon as
practicable.
2. Variation in TAS – If TAS at cruising level (or is expected to change) by 5% or more
from that given in the flight plan, inform the ATC.
3. Change in Mach – If Mach at cruising level changes by M0.02 or more
4. Change in ETA – If the ETA changes by more than +- 3 minutes, the ETA is to be
revised to the ATC
UTC clock and ATC clock should match within 30s
Time
1. In all communications, time is to be expressed as UTC, utilizing the 24hr clock.
2. A time check is to be obtained before operating a controlled flight.
UTC is Coordinated Universal Time
Communication Rule
Controlled flight is required to maintain 2 way radio telephonic communication with the
controlling ATC unit
Communication failure in VMC
1. If an aircraft is unable to communicate (receive and acknowledge ATC instructions)
and indicate a state of emergency
2. In addition to squawking 7600 and maintain a visual watch for signals.
3. If flying in VMC, maintain VMC and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome.
4. ATC is to be informed as soon as possible once the aircraft lands.
Communication failure in IMC
1. Maintain the last assigned speed and/or level for 20 minutes after the failure to
report over the last compulsory reporting point.
2. Proceed in accordance with the filed flight plan to the navigation facility serving the
destination aerodrome
3. Descend from the facility at the last received and acknowledged expected approach
time or where no EAT has been issued at that place ETA from the flight plan
4. Fly a normal instrument approach
5. Land 30 minutes within the ETA
Estimated time of arrival
For IFR flights, the time at which it is estimated that the aircraft will arrive over that
designated point, defined by reference to navigation aids, from which it is intended that an
instrument approach procedure will be commenced.
Estimated approach time
The time at which ATC expects that an arriving aircraft, following a delay, will leave the
holding point to complete its approach for a landing.
Rules of the air (VFR/IFR)
During takeoff and landing, VFR flights cannot take off or land at an aerodrome in a
controlled zone or enter an aerodrome traffic zone or traffic pattern when:
1. The ceiling is less than 1500ft
2. Visibility is less than 5km
No VFR flights at night
Minimum heights
A VFR flight shall not be flown:
1. Over a congested areas of cities, towns or over an open air assembly of persons, at a height
less than 300m or 1000ft above highest obstacle within a radius of 600m from the aircraft
2. Elsewhere at a height less than 150m or 500ft above the ground or water.
An IFR flight shall not be flown:
1. Over high terrain or over mountainous areas, at a level which is at least 600m or 2000ft
above the highest obstacle located within 8km of the estimated position of the aircraft.
2. Elsewhere than as specified at a level which is at least 300m or 1000ft above the highest
obstacle located within 8km of the estimated position of the aircraft.
3. IFR is flown whenever weather is below VMC and also when pilot wishes to fly IFR with
proper navigational equipment on board
Weather deterioration below VMC
If it becomes evident that the controlled VFR flight will not remain in VMC, the pilot is to
1. Request an amended clearance to continue to the destination aerodrome by another route
remaining in VMC
2. Land at the nearest useable aerodrome
3. If operating in a controlled zone, request SVFR clearance
4. File an IFR flight plan if you are IR rated
SVFR
SVFR is defined as a clearance to fly within a control zone in conditions less than VMC in which the
pilot remains clear of clouds and in visual contact with the ground and visibility should not be less
than 1500m
Provision of SVFR:
Where a pilot cannot or has good reason not to comply with IFR in a controlled zone. He or she may
request SVFR clearance to:
1. Enter a control zone to land at an aerodrome with within the control zone
2. Takeoff from an aerodrome within a control zone and depart from the control zone.
3. To fly between aerodromes within a control zone
Note: You can request SVFR if at least 1 pilot has current IR and also the aircraft has instruments to
fly SVFR
Note: According to ICAO, a special VFR flight may take off from an aerodrome in a control zone
provided that the ground visibility is not less than 1500m.
Fuel requirements
Piston
1. When alternate aerodrome is required (IFR Flight)
So fuel to destination + fuel to alternate + 45 min of holding fuel
2. When alternate is not required (VFR)
Fuel to destination +45 min of holding fuel
3. When alternate is not available (Isolated aerodrome)
Fuel to destination + 45 min of fuel and 15% of trip fuel
OR
2 hours of fuel at normal consumption (whichever is less)
Jet
1. When alternate aerodrome is required (IFR Flight)
Fuel to destination + fuel to alternate + 30 min of holding fuel over alternate aerodrome at
1500ft agl
2. When alternate is not required(VFR)
Fuel to destination + 30 min of holding fuel at 1500ft agl
3. When alternate is not available (isolated aerodrome)
Fuel to destination + 2 hours of fuel at normal consumption
Semi circular rule – above 3000ft amsl or 1000ft agl
000-179
IFR – Odd
VFR – Odd + 500ft
180-359
IFR – even
VFR – Even + 500ft
Max VFR altitude is FL150
RVSM:
The desired cruising levels for turbojet aircraft is nearly at least flight level FL350 to FL370.
So with semicircular rule we were bound to fly at lower altitudes so another rule has been introduced
which is Conventional Vertical Separation Minima (CVSM). In CVSM the minimum separation between
two aircrafts flying in the same direction was 4000ft and in opposite directions was 2000ft. With this
rule we had less flight levels available. So with the help of more instrument installation in the cockpit
we are able to reduce the minimum separation maintained between these aircrafts also more flight
levels are available This standard is known as Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM). With RVSM
now we can fly maintaining 1000ft separation between aircrafts flying in opposite direction and 2000ft
between aircrafts flying in the same direction.
RVSM Is available from FL290-FL410
Requirements for RVSM
Aircraft must be equipped with
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
2 independent altitude measuring systems
An altitude alerting system
An automatic altitude control system (autopilot)
SSR system with mode C connected to the system used for automatic altitude control system
Additionally operator must be approved for RVSM
Separation Methods and Minima
Horizontal separation: By maintaining an interval between an aircraft operating along the same,
converging or reciprocal tracks expressed in time or distance
Lateral separation: by maintaining aircrafts on different tracks or different geographical locations
1) VOR- at least 15 degrees and at least 1 aircraft is at a distance of 28km or 15nm or more from
the facility
2) NDB – 30degree
3) DR – 45 degree
Longitudinal separation based on time
1) On same track
15 minutes
10 minutes if nav aid permits frequent determination of position and speed
5 minutes If preceding aircraft is maintaining a true airspeed of 37 km/hr or 20kts or more
3 minutes if preceding aircraft is maintaining TAS of 4okts or 74km/hr
A/c on crossing tracks
1) 15 minutes
2) 10 minutes if navaid permits frequent determination of position and speed
A/c climbing or descending on same tracks
1) 15 min – while vertical separation doesn’t exist
2) 10 min – while vertical separation doesn’t exist and only where navaid determines frequent
determination of position and speed
3) 5 minutes – While vertical separation doesn’t exist, provided that the level change is
commenced within 10 minutes of the time the second aircraft has reported over an exact
same reporting point
A/c climbing or descending on crossing tracks
1) 15 min – while vertical separation doesn’t exist
2) 10 min – while vertical separation doesn’t exist and only where navaid determines frequent
determination of position and speed
A/c on reciprocal tracks
Traffic on reciprocal tracks where lateral separation is not provided, vertical separation shall be
provided for at least 10 minutes prior to and after the time the aircraft are estimated to pass or are
estimated to have passed
Longitudinal separation using DME
1) 37km or 20nm Provided each aircraft utilizes on track DME station
2) 19km or 10nm provided the leading aircraft maintains a TAS of 37km/hr or 20kts or more
faster than the succeeding aircraft
On crossing tracks (DME)
1) 37km (20nm) - When the track is less than 90 degrees
2) 19km (10nm) – when the preceding aircraft is flying 20kts or 37km/hr more
Separation of aircraft holding in flight
1) 5 mins of flying time from holding area or prescribed distance
Separation between departing aircraft
The separation is applied between light or medium aircraft taking off behind heavy aircraft meaning
there is no separation between heavy and heavy
1) 1 minute lateral separation – if aircraft is to fly on tracks diverging by at least 45 degrees
immediately after taking off
2) 2 minutes – if the tracks are less than 45 degrees apart. Also when the preceding aircraft is
40kts or more faster than the following aircraft and both aircraft propose to follow the same
track
The above separation is for aircrafts taking off from the same runway
Parallel runway separated less than 760m
Departing a/c
Leading aircraft
Following aircraft
Heavy
Medium or light
Medium
Light
Heavy
(Full length T/O)
Medium or light
Medium
(Full length T/O)
Light
Separation minima
a) same runway
2 minutes
b) parallel runway
separated by less than
760m
Departing from
3 minutes
a) Intermediate
part of the
runway
Or
b) Intermediate
part of a
parallel
runway
Arriving a/c
Leading aircraft
Heavy
Following aircraft
Medium
2 minutes
Heavy or medium
Light
3 minutes
Displaced landing threshold
2 mins separation shall be applied between light medium or heavy aircraft
Wake turbulence category certified take off mass
Heavy = 13600kg or more
Medium =7000 upto 13600kg
Light = less than 7000 kg
Contaminated runway
Hydroplaning: a condition when aircraft tires are riding over a thin film of water
In flight manual if landing distance is not available on a wet runway then pilot must add 15% extra of
that distance calculated on a dry runway
1) Damp runway: a runway is considered damp when the surface is not dry but when the
moisture on it does not give a shiny appearance
2) Wet runway: a runway is considered wet when the runway is covered with water, or
equivalent less than specified in contaminated runway (<3mm), cause runway surface to
appear reflective but without significant areas of standing water.
3) Contaminated runway: a runway is said to be contaminated if more than 25% of the surface
area is covered by surface water more than 3mm deep or by slush or loose snow equivalent
to 3mm of water
4) Aquaplaning
5) Fuel jettison: it is the technique to reduce the weight of the aircraft below maximum landing
weight in emergency only.
Fuel dumping is only allowed above 6000ft agl may be lower if unavoidable.
Fuel jettison valves are near the wing tip that discharges the fuel clear of the aircraft structure
and controllability not compromised.
Aerobatic flight: Maneuvers intentionally performed by an aircraft involving an abrupt change
in altitude, an abnormal attitude or an abnormal variation in speed.
Movement area: The part of an aerodrome to be used for takeoff, landing and taxing of the
aircraft, consisting of the maneuvering area and the apron
(Runway, taxiway, apron)
Maneuvering area: The part of an aerodrome to be used for takeoff, landing and taxing of the
aircraft, excluding aprons
a) No person shall fly acrobatically in the vicinity of the aerodrome at a distance less than 2
nm from the nearest point of the perimeter of the aerodrome unless being flown higher
than 6000ft agl or above aerodrome level.
b) When flying over city, town, village, or populated area except when written permission
by DG is given
c) Aerobatics should commence at such a height so it is to be completed at a height of not
less than 2000 ft agl
d) By a licensed pilot or accompanied by a licensed pilot/instructor
e) Over aerodrome minimum height 6000ft agl
f) No aerobatic flights are allowed in India
Prohibited and restricted area:
Aircraft shall not be flown in a prohibited area or in a restricted area. The particulars of which have
been duly published except in accordance with the permission of the state or conditions of the
restrictions.
If a following signal given by ground indicates a series of projectiles discharged at intervals of 10s
showing by bursting red or green lights.
Indicates  The aircraft is flying in the vicinity of a restricted, prohibited or danger area and should
take necessary actions
Necessary actions includes:
1) Will not fly further into prohibited area
2) Will not descend while still above prohibited area
3) As soon as you are aware of the fact, give the signal of distress “MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY”
on RT
4) Immediately squawk distress code 7700 and land at the nearest aerodrome outside
prohibited airspace
Restricted area: an airspace of defined dimensions above the land areas or territorial waters of our
state, within which the flight of aircraft is restricted in accordance with certain specified conditions
Prohibited area: An airspace of defined dimensions above the land areas or territorial waters of our
state, within which the flight of aircraft is totally prohibited.
Prohibited areas:
Baroda (Nuclear Tower) – Unlimited
Bombay (Tower of Silence) – 1nm (unlimited height)
Mathura refinery - 10km (unlimited)
Rasthrapati Bhawan VVIP area (VIP – 89) – Unlimited
Bhubaneshwar Tower (Nuclear) – 50000 ft
Kalpak Kam (Nuclear)
Danger area – An airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous to the flight of
the aircraft may exist at specified times
Formation flight – Aircraft will not fly in formation except by prearrangement among the pilot in
command of the aircraft taking part in the flight and, for formation flight in controlled airspace in
accordance with the condition prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority
No formation flights in civil aviation
Nationality and registration marking:
1)
2)
3)
4)
VT-ABC is a 5 letter combination registration marking
VT is known as common mark assigned by telecommunication union in ICAO
ABC is assigned by state registry (DGCA)
VT-ABC this registration is valid till the aircraft is destroyed in an accident
5) Registration markings shall be written with no ornamentation
6) Letters XXX, PAN, TTT, shall not be used as registration markings
Cabotage traffic means domestic air services
Open sky policies
a) Free movement of aero planes, crew and passengers not destined for the state in which
aeroplane has landed
Dry lease: If the aircraft is completely given for us
Wet lease: When the aircraft is given but till the crew is flying the plain
ATS
Air traffic control service used for the purpose of
1) Preventing collisions between aircrafts and on the maneuvering area between aircraft and
obstructions
2) Also to expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic.
3) A generic term area control, approach control or aerodrome control tower or FIS used for air
traffic services spaces
Alerting service
A service provided to notify appropriate organizations (rescue coordination center- RCC) regarding
aircraft in need of search and rescue aid and to assist search orginizations as required
Approach control services: Used for arriving and departing controlled flights. It is the most busy control
service
An aerodrome at which air traffic control service is provided to aerodrome traffic
Control zone: a controlled airspace extending upward from the surface of the earth to a specified
upper limit
Control area: a controlled airspace extending upwards from a specified limit above the earth
Class A airspace: Only IFR flights are permitted. All flights are subject to ATC and are separated from
each other.
Class B: IFR and VFR flights are permitted. All flights are subject to ATC and are separated from each
other
Class C: IFR and VFR flights are permitted. All flights are subject to ATC and are separated from each
other. IFR flights are separated from other IFR and VFR flights. VFR flights are separated from IFR flights
and receive information about other VFR flights
Class D: IFR and VFR flights are permitted. All flights are subjected to ATC. IFR separated from IFR and
receive traffic information concerning VFR flights. VFR flights receive traffic information in respect of
all other flights.
Class E: IFR and VFR flights are permitted. IFR flights are subjected to ATC and are separated from
other IFR flights. All flights receive traffic information as far as is practicable. Class E is not used for
controlled zones
Class F: IFR and VFR flights are permitted. All participating IFR flights receive an ATC advisory service
and all the flights receive flight information service if requested
Class G: IFR and VFR flights are permitted and receive flight information service if requested.
ATC service shall be provided to
a) All IFR flights in A,B,C,D
b) All VFR flights in B,C,D
c) All SVFR flights
Note: FIC available from C-G
Vertical separation is provided:
 Between all flights in A and B
 Between IFR flights in C, D, E
 Between IFR flights and VFR flights in C
 Between IFR flights and SVFR flights
ATS route designator
1)
2)
3)
4)
International regional network and not RNAV (A,B,G,R)
RNAV with regional network routes (international) (L,N,M,P)
RNAV not forming part of regional routes (Domestic) (Q,T,Y,Z)
Not forming regional network or RNAV routes (Domestic) (H,J,V,W)
W – Domestic route in India
U – Upper airspace
S – Supersonic route
K – Low level routes (helicopters)
Note: In India we have D,E,F airspaces
NOTAM (Notice to Air Missions)
It is a notice distributed by means of telecommunications containing information concerning the
establishment, condition or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard, the
timely knowledge of which is essential to personal concern with flight operations
NOTAMS are originated by the international NOTAM office located in Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai
The NOTAMS listed for international distribution are known as series A,B,C,D,G as follows
Series A: Contain information in respect to changes / unserviceability of aeronautical facilities likely to
last for more than 2 hours
Series B: Contains information in respect of changes/ unserviceability likely to last for more than 30
minutes but less than 2 hours
Series C: Contain information about domestic flights
Series D: Contain information in respect to changes/ unserviceability of aeronautical facilities in
respect of defense controlled aerodromes only
Series G: Contain information of general lasting character affecting aircraft operations in general. This
Series is operated by the international NOTAM – office Delhi. Issued under DGCA
SNOWTAM: Information concerning snow, ice and standing water on aerodrome pavement areas on
aerodrome pavement areas.
ASHTAM: Information concerning and operationally significant change in volcanic activity, A volcanic
eruption and/or volcanic ash cloud shall when reported by means of ASHTAM in red ink
Aeronautical information service (AIS) (Annex 15): Its object is to ensure flow of information necessary
for the safety, regulatory and efficiency of international air navigation.
Aeronautical information circular (AIC): A notice containing information that does not qualify for the
origination of the NOTAM or for inclusion in the AIP but which relates to flight safety, Air navigation,
Technical, Administrative or legislative matters
Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP): A publication issued by or with the authority of a state and
containing aeronautical information of a lasting character essential to air navigation
AIP shall consist of 3 parts



General
Enroute
Aerodrome
AIP amendment: Permanent changes to the information contained in the AIP.
AIP supplement: Temporary changes to the information contained in the AIP which published by
means of special pages.
Aeronautical information regulation and control (AIRAC): It is a system aimed at advanced notification
based on common effective dates of circumstances that necessitate significant changes in operating
practices EG; change from NDB to VOR in any station.
Information concerning the circumstances listed below shall be distributed under regulated system.
(AIRAC), establishment, withdrawal or significant changes on a series of common effective dates at
intervals of 28 days.
The information shall be distributed by the AIS unit at least 48 days in advance of the effective date
and the information notified shall not be changed for at least another 28 days after the effective date
Information to be notified by AIRAC:


The establishment, withdrawal of, and premediated significant changes including operational
trials to :
o Flight information region
o Control areas
o Control zone.
Position, frequencies, call signs, known irregularities and maintenance periods of radio aids
and communication facilities.
Human factors
Hypoxia: It is a state of oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient to impair functions of the brain and
other organs.
1) Anemic hypoxia: Caused by the inability of the blood to carry oxygen and may be due to a
medical condition (anemia) or to carbon monoxide poisoning.
2) Hypoxic hypoxia: The term for the effects of a shortage of oxygen is hypoxic hypoxia. This
can result from a number of reasons but the most important reason as far as pilots are
concerned is altitude.
Prevention of hypoxia: For protection, pilots are encouraged to use supplementary oxygen above
1000ft during day and above 5000ft for night
Symptoms of Hypoxia:
o
o
o
o
o
Personality change – a sense of well being
Tingling in hands and feet
Hyperventilation
Tunnel vision.
Unconsciousness and ultimately death
Dalton’s law: It explains altitude hypoxia. This law explains that the total pressure is equal to the
sum of partial pressure of gasses.
Chemical composition is 78%Nitrogen 21% oxygen 0.9% argon .03% co2, rest rare gasses
Oxygen combined with hemoglobin in the blood and transported by RBC
Percentage of oxygen is same at all flight levels (21%)
Hyperventilation: It is another word for over breathing, lungs ventilation in excess of body needs,
which means lack of CO2 in body.
Causes:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Stress
Anxiety
Shock
Heat
G-Forces
Motion sickness
Fear
Symptoms:
o
o
o
o
Dizziness
Tingling
Increased heart rate
Loss of consciousness.
Treatment:
o
o
o
o
The classic way to treat a patient suffering from hyperventilation is to make him/her breathe
into a paper bag.
The natural reaction to a shortage of oxygen is for the body to try to obtain more air by
breathing faster or deeper. The hypoxic individual may hyperventilate in an effort to get
more oxygen, but this is of little value when in an environment of low ambient pressure.
At night it can be difficult to distinguish the symptoms of hypoxia and hyperventilation. The
appropriate response of pilot must be to assume the worst. Do not assume hyperventilation
if it could be hypoxia
In case of hyperventilation after unconsciousness, recovery is possible. But in case of
Hypoxia, after unconsciousness – death.
Carbon monoxide poisoning:
Carbon Monoxide is colorless, odorless, tasteless gas contained in exhaust fumes. It can significantly
reduce the ability of blood to carry oxygen and leads to hypoxia. It is also present in the smoke of a
cigarette. Carbon monoxide poisoning is likely to occur in aeroplanes where cabin heat is supplied
from the exhaust coating.
Symptoms:
o
o
o
o
Head ache
Dizziness
Nausea
Impaired vision
Actions to be taken
o
o
o
o
o
Switch off cabin heat
Open cabin ventilation.
Use fresh air
Use oxygen if available.
Land as soon as possible
Cabin decompression:
Loss of cabin pressurization can occur in flight. It might lead to decompression sickness. Due to cabin
pressure loss when flying at high altitudes above 18000ft the release of nitrogen gas bubbles takes
place in the body. It causes bends in the knees, chokes in the lungs, creeps under skin and
neurological symptoms and it is explained by Henry
Passenger suffering from rapid decompression should wait for 12 hours before the next flight.
Symptoms of decompression sickness can appear with a delay after the aircraft is on the ground.
After scuba diving, pilot may develop symptoms of decompression sickness. Even when the altitude
is less than 18000ft. flying immediately after scuba diving is prohibited since it involves risk of
decompression sickness. Do not fly within 12 hours of swimming using compressed air and avoid
flying for 24 hours if a depth of 30ft has been exceeded
EYE
Light enters the eye through the cornea.
Light adaption – when experiencing sudden levels of illumination, the eye quickly adjusts in 10s. The
most common factors affecting night vision are:
o
o
o
o
Age
Mild hypoxia
Cabin altitudes above 8000ft
Smoking
It takes time for our eyes to adapt to darkness. The adaptation takes about 7 minutes for the cones
and 30 minutes for the rods.
Visual defects: Most visual defects are caused by the distorted shape of the eyeball
Hypermetrophia: In long sightedness, hypermetrophia, a shorter than normal eyeball, the image
being formed behind the retina
Myopia: In short sightedness, myopia the problem is that the eyeball is longer than normal and the
image forms in front of the retina. In the absence of anything of focus on the natural focus point of
the eye is not at infinity as was long assumed, but on average at a distance between just under 1m
and 1.5m
Cataracts: Are normally associated with the aging process though some diseases can cause cataracts
at any age. With time, the lenses can become cloudy causing a marked loss of vision.
Glaucoma: In this disease, a pressure rise of the liquid around the eye takes place. The use of contact
lenses by the air crew is permitted under authorized medical supervision
Color blindness: The total color blindness is a bar to the issue of a flying license. It is caused by a
defect in the structure of the color sensitive cones in the retina. It does not affect any other
defective vision and many people go through their lives with no knowledge that they suffer from this
imperfection. It is the ability to discriminate the specific colors
Deficiency of Vitamin A causes night blindness. Since Vitamin A is essential for regeneration of
tissues
Cones are responsible for day vision since they are color sensitive.
Rods are responsible for night vision.
Retina is a light sensitive inner lining containing photo receptors essential for vision.
Peripheral vision is important for detecting moving objects
The amount of light entering the eye is controlled by cornea
The amount of light entering the retina is controlled by the pupil.
Presbyopia: Far sightedness linked with age.
Night vision scanning: scanning technique is to look side to side 15-20 degrees of an object for 5 sec
using off-center view
Accommodation of light is done by crystalline lenses.
Touch down zone marking: They consist of pairs of rectangular markings
symmetrically placed about the runway centerline with the number of pairs to the
landing distance available. These are 150m spaced longitudinally.
Aiming point – The aiming point marking shall commence no closer than the threshold
than the distance indicated in the appropriate, except that on a runway equipped with a
visual approach slope indicator system, the beginning of the marking shall be coincident
with the visual approach slope origin.
A threshold marking is required to be provided at thresholds of paved instrument
runways and paved non instrument runways where the code is 3 or 4 and the runway is
intended for use by international commercial air transport
Runway width:
Code no.
1
2
3
4
A
18M
23m
30m
B
18M
23m
30m
C
23M
30m
30m
45m
D
E
F
45m
45m
45m
60m
Taxiway markings: Taxiway markings are continuous yellow lines. For centerlines it is
one continuous line and for edge line it is 2 solid lines or comparatively thicker yellow
lines
Holding point: 2 yellow dotted and 2 solid
Runway centerline marking: a runway centerline marking shall be provided on a paved
runway. The centerline marking shall be located along the centerline of the runway
between the runway designation markings. They consist of a line of uniformly spaced
strips and gaps. The length of a strip plus a gap shall not be less than 50m or more than
75m. Length of each strip shall be at least equal to the length of the gap or 30m
whichever is greater.
Runway width
18m
23m
30m
45m
60m
Number of stripes
4
6
8
12
16
Aerodrome lighting system
1) Runway edge light – White initially in the direction of landing, last 2000ft (600m) yellow or
amber.
2) Runway threshold lights – Green unidirectional
3) Runway end light – red unidirectional.
4) Runway centerline lights – white - red, white, red - last 300m red
5) Runway touchdown zone light – white
6) Taxiway edge lights – blue color
7) Taxiway centre line lights – green color
8) Runway holding point lights – yellow color
9) ILS critical area holding point – red color
10) Exit taxiway lights- alternate green yellow lights
11) PAPI Lights –
a. 4 red – below glide path
b. 1 white, 3 red – slightly low
c. 2 white, 2 red – on glide path
d. 3 white, 1 red – slightly high
e. 4 white – above glide path
12) Alone PAPI
a. 2 white - above glide path
b. 1 white - 1 red above glide path
c. 2 red - below glide path
13) Aerodrome beacon –
a. flashing white and green for civilian land airport
b. flashing white and yellow for a water airport
c. flashing white, yellow and green for a heliport
d. two quick, white flashes followed by a green flash identifies a military airport
Procedure turn
Tear drop
80-260