CHAITANYA BHRATHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY(A), HYD – 075.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICAION OF ENGINEERING
MANUAL
for
ELECTRONIC WORKSHOP AND NETWORKS LAB
(COURSE CODE: 20EC C06)
PREPARED BY:
M.V.NAGABHUSHANAM,
Assistant Professor, Dept. of E.C.E.
0
EXPERIMENTS LIST
S.
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Exp. Name
Study of RLC components, Bread board,
Regulated power supply, Function generator,
CRO Measurement of R, L, C components using
color code, multimeter and LCR - Q Meter.
Practice of Soldering and de -soldering for simple
circuits on single and Multi-Layer PCBs.
Verification of Superposition theorem and
Tellegen‟s theorem.
Verification of Maximum power transfer theorem
and Reciprocity theorem.
Verification of Compensation theorem and
Millman‟s theorem. Verification of Transient
Response in RC, RL Circuits
Design and Verification of Series Resonance.
Determination of two-port network parameters
(Z,Y, h,T).
Design & verification of Constant-K low-pass
filter.
To sense and measure ambient temperature by
Pmod TMP3 sensor with My RIO kit.
Structured Enquiry: Design and Verification of
Parallel Resonance.
Open ended Enquiry: Design and Verification of
Constant-K high-pass filter.
Page No.
Date of
Exp.
Grade
2
34
38
45
51
63
67
75
80
83
88
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1. STUDY OF RLC COMPONENTS, BREAD BOARD, REGULATED POWER
SUPPLY, FUNCTION GENERATOR, CRO, MEASUREMENT OF R, L, C
COMPONENTS USING COLOR CODE, MULTIMETER AND LCR - Q METER
PART (A):
AIM: To study RLC components, bread board, multimeter, function generator, CRO and
regulated power supply.
APPARATUS:
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors
Bread board
Multimeter
Function generator
Regulated power supply
CRO
THEORY: An electronic component is a basic electronic element and may be available in a
discrete
form
(a discrete
device or discrete
component)
having
two
or
more
electrical terminals (or leads). These are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering
to a printed circuit board, in order to create an electronic circuit (a discrete circuit) with a
particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Basic electronic
components may be packaged discretely, as arrays or networks of like components, or integrated
inside the packages such as semiconductor integrated circuits, hybrid integrated circuits, or thick
film devices.
Components may be classified as passive or active. The strict physics definition treats passive
components as ones that cannot supply energy themselves; whereas a battery would be seen as an
active component since it truly acts as a source of energy. However, the electronic
engineers performing circuit analysis use a more restrictive definition of passivity. When we are
only concerned with the energy due to signals it is convenient to ignore the so-called DC circuit
and pretend that the power supplying components such as transistor integrated circuits is absent
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(as if each such component had its own battery built in) although it may in reality be supplied by
the DC circuit which we are ignoring. Then the analysis only concerns the so-called AC circuit,
an abstraction which ignores the DC voltages and currents (and the power associated with them)
present in the real-life circuit. This fiction, for instance, allows us to view an oscillator as
"producing energy" even though in reality the oscillator consumes even more energy from a
power supply, obtained through the DC circuit which we have chosen to ignore. Under that
restriction we define the terms as used in circuit analysis as follows:

Passive components are ones which cannot introduce net energy into the circuit they are
connected to. They also cannot rely on a source of power except for what is available from the
(AC) circuit they are connected to. As a consequence they are unable to amplify (increase the
power of a signal), although they may well increase a voltage or current such as is done by a
transformer or resonant circuit. Among passive components are familiar two-terminal
components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers.

Active components rely on a source of energy (usually from the DC circuit, which we have
chosen to ignore) and are usually able to inject power into a circuit although this is not part of
the definition. This includes amplifying components such as transistors, triode vacuum
tubes (valves), and tunnel diodes etc.,
Passive components can be further divided into lossless and lossy components:

Lossless components do not have a net power flow into or out of the component. This would
include ideal capacitors, inductors and transformers.

Lossy or dissipative components do not have that property and generally absorb power from
the external circuit over time. The prototypical example is the resistor. In practice all nonideal passive components are at least a little lossy, but these are typically modeled in circuit
analysis as consisting of an ideal lossless component with an attached resistor to account for
the loss.
Most passive components with more than two terminals can be described in terms of two-port
parameters satisfying the principle of reciprocity, although there are some rare exceptions. In
contrast, active components (which have more than two terminals) generally lack that property.
1. Terminal:
A terminal is the point at which a conductor from an electrical component, device or network
comes to an end and provides a point of connection to external circuits. A terminal may simply be
3
the end of a wire or it may be fitted with a connector or fastener. In network analysis, terminal
means a point at which connections can be made to a network in theory and does not necessarily
refer to any real physical object. In this context, especially in older documents, it is sometimes
called a "pole".
The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, or may require a tool for assembly
and removal, or may be a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices.
2. Electrical Connector:

An electrical connector is an electro-mechanical device for joining electrical circuits as an
interface using a mechanical assembly. The connection may be temporary, as for portable
equipment, require a tool for assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint
between two wires or devices.

There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors. Connectors may join two lengths of
flexible copper wire or cable, or connect a wire or cable or optical interface to an electrical
terminal.

In computing, an electrical connector can also be known as a physical interface (compare
Physical Layer in OSI model of networking). Cable glands, known as cable connectors in the
U.S., connect wires to devices mechanically rather than electrically and are distinct from
quick-disconnects performing the latter.
Cable:
A cable is most often two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted or braided
together to form a single assembly, but can also refer to a heavy strong rope. In mechanics cables,
otherwise known as wire ropes, are used for lifting, hauling and towing or conveying force
through tension. In electrical engineering, cables are used to carry electric currents. An optical
cable contains one or more optical fibers in a protective jacket that supports the fibers.
Electric cables discussed below are mainly meant for installation in buildings and industrial sites.
For power transmission at distances greater than a few kilometers, high voltage cable, power
cables and HVDC are preferred.
Electrical cables: Electrical cables may be made more flexible by stranding the wires. In this
process, smaller individual wires are twisted or braided together to produce larger wires that are
more flexible than solid wires of similar size. Bunching small wires before concentric stranding
4
adds the most flexibility. Copper wires in a cable may be bare, or they may be plated with a thin
layer of another metal, most often tin but sometimes gold, silver or some other material. Tin, gold,
and silver are much less prone to oxidation than copper, which may lengthen wire life, and
makes soldering easier. Tinning is also used to provide lubrication between strands. Tinning was
used to help removal of rubber insulation. Cables can be securely fastened and organized, such as
by using trucking, cable trays, cable ties or cable lacing. Continuous-flex or flexible cables used
in moving applications within cable carrier scan be secured using strain relief devices or cable
ties.
At high frequencies, current tends to run along the surface of the conductor. This is known as the
skin effect.
Cables and Electromagnetic Fields
Coaxial cable
Twisted pair
Any current-carrying conductor, including a cable, radiates an electromagnetic field. Likewise,
any conductor or cable will pick up energy from any existing electromagnetic field around it.
These effects are often undesirable, in the first case amounting to unwanted transmission of
energy which may adversely affect nearby equipment or other parts of the same piece of
equipment; and in the second case, unwanted pickup of noise which may mask the desired signal
being carried by the cable, or, if the cable is carrying power supply or control voltages, pollute
them to such an extent as to cause equipment malfunction.
The first solution to these problems is to keep cable lengths in buildings short, since pick up and
transmission is essentially proportional to the length of the cable. The second solution is to route
5
cables away from trouble. Beyond this, there are particular cable designs that minimize
electromagnetic pickup and transmission. Three of the principal design techniques are shielding,
coaxial geometry, and twisted-pair geometry.
Shielding makes use of the electrical principle of the Faraday cage. The cable is encased for its
entire length in foil or wire mesh. All wires running inside this shielding layer will be to a large
extent decoupled from external electric fields, particularly if the shield is connected to a point of
constant voltage, such as earth. Simple shielding of this type is not greatly effective against lowfrequency magnetic fields, however - such as magnetic "hum" from a nearby power transformer.
A grounded shield on cables operating at 2.5 kV or more gathers leakage current and capacitive
current, protecting people from electric shock and equalizing stress on the cable insulation.
Coaxial design helps to further reduce low-frequency magnetic transmission and pickup. In this
design the foil or mesh shield has a circular cross section and the inner conductor is exactly at its
center. This causes the voltages induced by a magnetic field between the shield and the core
conductor to consist of two nearly equal magnitudes which cancel each other.
A twisted pair has two wires of a cable twisted around each other. This can be demonstrated by
putting one end of a pair of wires in a hand drill and turning while maintaining moderate tension
on the line. Where the interfering signal has a wave length that is long compared to the pitch of
the twisted pair, alternate lengths of wires develop opposing voltages, tending to cancel the effect
of the interference.
3. Switch:
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a
computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch.
Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to
indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position
to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure,
6
temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to
automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used
to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called
a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches
are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be
pad-locked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to
prevent electric shock.
4. Resistor:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as
a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the
resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the
intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented by Ohm's
law : 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors
are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
Units: The ohm symbol (Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a
very large range of values, the derived units of milli ohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilo ohm (1 kΩ =
103Ω), and mega ohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in siemens (SI unit),
sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, siemen is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1. Although
the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always
specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Resistor – fixed value
7


Power resistor – larger to safely dissipate heat generated

SIP or DIP resistor network – array of resistors in one package
Variable resistor

Rheostat – Two terminal variable resistor (often for high power)

Potentiometer – Three terminal variable resistor (variable voltage divider)

Trim pot – Small potentiometer, usually for internal adjustments

Heater – heating element

Resistance wire, Nichrome wire – wire of high-resistance material, often used as heating
element

Thermistor – temperature-varied resistor

Humistor – humidity-varied resistor

Varistor – Voltage Dependent Resistor, MOV – Passes current when excessive voltage
present
5. Capacitor:
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at
least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common
construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are
widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge
on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by
a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on
each conductor to the potential difference between them.
8
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor;
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction.
In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has
an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the
resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems
for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.

Capacitor – fixed capacitance



Capacitor network (array)
Variable capacitor – Adjustable capacitance

Tuning capacitor – Variable capacitor for tuning a radio, oscillator, or tuned circuit

Trimmer capacitor – Small variable capacitor usually for internal adjustments
Varicap diode – AC capacitance varies according to the DC voltage applied.
6. Inductor:
An inductor (also choke, coil or reactor) is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
stores energy in its magnetic field. For comparison, a capacitor stores energy in an electric field,
and a resistor does not store energy but rather dissipates energy as heat. Any conductor has
inductance although the conductor is typically wound in loops to reinforce the magnetic field.
Due to the time-varying magnetic field inside the coil, a voltage is induced, according to
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current
that created it. Inductors are one of the basic components used in electronics where current and
voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.
9
Inductor
A selection of low-value inductors
Passive
Type
Working principle Electromagnetic induction
First production
Michael Faraday (1831)
Electronic symbol

Inductor, coil, choke

Variable inductor

Saturable Inductor

Transformer

Magnetic amplifier (toroid)

Ferrite impedances, beads

Motor / Generator

Solenoid

Speaker / Microphone
10
7. Network:
An interconnection of two or more elements or components RC network – forms an RC circuit,
used in Snubbers.

LC Network – forms an LC circuit, used in tunable transformers and RFI filters
Wires and connections
Component
Circuit Symbol
Function of Component
To pass current very easily from one part of a
Wire
circuit to another.
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are
connected (joined), but it is sometimes omitted.
Wires joined
Wires connected at 'crossroads' should be
staggered slightly to form two T-junctions, as
shown on the right.
In complex diagrams it is often necessary to draw
wires crossing even though they are not
Wires not joined
connected. I prefer the 'bridge' symbol shown on
the right because the simple crossing on the left
may be misread as a join where you have
forgotten to add a 'blob'!
Power Supplies
Component
Circuit Symbol
Function of Component
Supplies electrical energy.
Cell
The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
A single cell is often called a battery, but strictly a
battery is two or more cells joined together.
Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than
Battery
one cell.
The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
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Supplies electrical energy.
DC supply
DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one
direction.
Supplies electrical energy.
AC supply
AC = Alternating Current, continually changing
direction.
A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the
Fuse
current flowing through it exceeds a specified value.
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.
Transformers are used to step up (increase) and step
Transformer
down (decrease) AC voltages. Energy is transferred
between the coils by the magnetic field in the core.
There is no electrical connection between the coils.
A connection to earth. For many electronic circuits
Earth
this is the 0V (zero volts) of the power supply, but
(Ground)
for mains electricity and some radio circuits it really
means the earth. It is also known as ground.
Resistors
Component
Circuit Symbol
Function of Component
A resistor restricts the flow of current, for
example to limit the current passing through an
Resistor
LED. A resistor is used with a capacitor in a
timing circuit.
Some publications still use the old resistor
symbol:
This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a
Variable Resistor
(Rheostat)
rheostat) is usually used to control current.
Examples include: adjusting lamp brightness,
adjusting motor speed, and adjusting the rate of
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flow of charge into a capacitor in a timing
circuit.
This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a
potentiometer) is usually used to control
Variable Resistor
voltage. It can be used like this as a transducer
(Potentiometer)
converting position (angle of the control
spindle) to an electrical signal.
This type of variable resistor (a preset) is
operated with a small screwdriver or similar
tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is
Variable Resistor
made and then left without further adjustment.
(Preset)
Presets are cheaper than normal variable
resistors so they are often used in projects to
reduce the cost.
Capacitors
Component
Circuit Symbol
Function of Component
A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor
Capacitor
is used with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can
also be used as a filter, to block DC signals but
pass AC signals.
A capacitor stores electric charge. This type
Capacitor,
polarized
must be connected the correct way round. A
capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to block
DC signals but pass AC signals.
Variable Capacitor
A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.
13
This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is
operated with a small screwdriver or similar
Trimmer
tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is
Capacitor
made and then left without further adjustment
.
Meters and Oscilloscope
Component
Circuit Symbol
Function of Component
A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
Voltmeter
The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference',
but most people prefer to say voltage!
Ammeter
Galvanometer
Ohmmeter
An ammeter is used to measure current.
A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is
used to measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or less.
An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most
multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.
An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of
Oscilloscope
electrical signals and it can be used to measure their
voltage and time period.
8. Bread Board:
An experimental version of a circuit generally lay out on a flat board and assembled with
temporary connections so that circuit elements may be easily substituted or changed. The name
originates from the fact that early electrical circuits were actually wired on wood bread boards.
It is used to connect an electronic circuit temporarily for testing and experimentation. A typical
bread board is shown in the following Fig.
14
Bread Board Front view
Bread Board Back view
9. Circuit Connections:
Series Connection
15
Parallel Connection
Star and Delta Connections
Resistor Color Code:
The resistance value and tolerance of carbon resistor is usually indicated by color coding. Color
bands are printed on insulating body. They consist of four color bands or 5 color bands & they
are read from left to right.
A typical resistor with color bands is shown in figure
The above resistor has 4 color bands.
The first band represents first digit
The second band represents second digit
16
The third band represents multiplier (this gives the no. of zeros after the 2 digits)
The 4th band represents tolerance in %
The color codes are presented in below table:
First digit
Second digit
Multiplier digit
for the 1st
for the 2nd
for the 3rd
band
band
band
Black
0
0
100
-
Brown
1
1
101
±1%
Red
2
2
102
±2%
Orange
3
3
103
±3%
Yellow
4
4
104
-
Green
5
5
105
-
6
COLOR
Resistance
tolerance
Blue
6
6
10
-
Violet
7
7
107
-
Gray
8
8
108
-
White
9
9
109
-
Gold
-
-
10-1
±5%
Silver
-
-
10-2
±10%
No color
-
-
-
±20%
If third band is gold the first two digit are multiplied by 10-1
If the third band is silver the first two digits are multiplied by 10-2
If the 4th band is gold the tolerance is ±5%
If the 4th band is silver is the tolerance is ±10%
If the 4th band is no color the tolerance is ±20%
The numerical value associated with each color
17
B
B
R
O
Y
G
B
V
G
W
Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
White
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Example:
The resistor has a color band sequence Brown, black, red and silver identify the resistance value.
1st Band
2nd band
3rd band
4th band
1st digit
2nd digit
multiplier
tolerance
1
0
10^2
±5%
The resistance value =10x10^2±5%
=1000Ω±5%
Therefore the resistance should be within the range of 995Ω to 1005Ω
Calculating the value of capacitor:
Capacitors with values below 100 pF may be marked in two ways: Either with just two digits (22
pF = "22") or three digits (22 pF = "220"). In the latter case, the third digit signifies the number
of zeros following the first two digits. "220" = 22 pF, "221" = 220 pF, "222" = 2200 pF.
Examples:
Code: 104
- 10 ∗ 104 𝑝𝐹 - 0.1µF
Code: 103
- 10 ∗ 103 𝑝𝐹 - 0.01µF
18
Specifications of RLC components:

Resistor
1. Resistance value:
This is the value of the resistance expressed in ohms.
Ex: 10Ω, 1MΩ
2. Tolerance:
This is the variation in the value of the resistance i.e. expected from exact
indicated value usually tolerance is represented in %
Ex: 1%, 2%, 20% etc.,
3. Power rating:
The power rating is very important in the sense that it determines the maximum
current that a resistor can withstand without being destroyed.
The power rating of resistor is specified as so many watts at a specific temperature
such as one or two watts at 70 degree.

Capacitor
1. Value of capacitance
2. Tolerance
3. Voltage rating
4. Temperature coefficient
5. Leakage resistance
19
6. Frequency range
7. Dielectric constant
8. dielectric strength
9. power factor
10. Stability

Inductor
1. Inductor value:
The inductance is defined as the ability of an inductor which opposes the change in
current. It is denoted by the letter “L” and its unit is Henry (H).Ex:1H.2H…
2. Mutual inductance:
It is the ability of a varying current in one inductor L1, to induce voltage in
another nearby inductor L2.
It is represented by „M‟ and is measured in Henry „H‟.
𝑀 = 𝐾 𝐿1 𝐿2
Coefficient of coupling: It is defined as the ratio of flux linkages between L1 and L2 to the
total flux produced by L1. It is represented by „K‟ and its typical value is 1.
𝐾=
𝑀
𝐿1 𝐿2
3. Permeability:
It is denoted by μ, where μ=B/H.
Where B=flux density
H=Flux intensity
10. Regulated power supply:
Power supplies provided by a regulated DC voltage facilitate fine and coarse adjustments
and monitoring facilities for voltage and current. They will work in constant voltage and current
mode depending on current limit and output load.
20
The current limit has good stability, load and line regulations. Outputs are protected
against overload and short circuit damages. They are available in single and dual channel
models with different voltage and current capacities. Overload protection circuit of constant self
restoring type is provided to prevent the unit as well as the circuit under use.
The power supplies are specially designed and developed for well regulated DC output.
These are useful for high regulation laboratory power supplies, particularly suitable for
experimental setup and circuit development in R&D.
11. Function generator:
21
Designation
Specifications
Wave form
: Sine, squares, triangles, TTL Square waves
Amplitude
: 0-20V for all the functions.
Sine distortion
: Less than 0.5%.
Offset
: Continuously variable 10V
Frequency range
: 0.5 Hz to 5ΜHz in ranges.
Output impedance
: 600 ohms, 5%.
Square wave duty cycle
: 49% to 51%.
Differential linearity
: 0.5%
Range selectors: Decode frequency by multiplying the range selected with the frequency
indicated by dial gives the output frequency, which applies for all functions.
Function selectors: Selected desired output wave form which appears at 600Ω output.
VCO input: An external input will vary the output frequency. The change in frequency is
directly proportional to input voltage.
TTL output: A TTL square wave is available at this jack. The frequency is determined by the
range selected and the setting of frequency dial. This output is independent of amplitude and
D.C OFFSET controls.
Amplitude control: Control he amplitude of the output signal, which appears at 600ohms.
OFFSET control: Control the DC offset of the output. It is continuously variable for ±5V,
±100V.
Fine frequency dial: Multiplying the setting of this dial to the frequency range selected gives
the output frequency of the wave forms at the 600ohms.
22
12. Multimeter:
Digital Multimeter: A multimeter is a versatile instrument and is also called Volt-Ohm-Milli
ammeter (VOM). It is used to measure the d.c and a.c voltages and resistance values.
A digital multimeter essentially consists of an analog to digital converters. It converts analog
values in the input to an equivalent binary form. These values are processed by digital circuits to
be shown on the visual display with decimal values. The liquid crystal display system is
generally employed. Actually all the functions in DMM depend on the voltage measurements by
the converter and comparator circuits.
13. CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope):
C.R.O is a versatile instrument used for the display of wave forms and is a fast x-y plotter. The
main parts are:
1. Electron gun: - It is used to produce sharply focused beam of electron accelerated to very high
velocity.
23
2. Deflection system: - It deflects the electron both in horizontal and vertical plane.
3. Florescent screen: - The screen which produces the spot of visible light, when a beam of
electrons is incident on it. The other side of tube is coated with phosphorus material.
Front panel:
1. ON-POWER: Toggle switch for switching on power.
2. INTENCITY: Controls trace intensity from zero to maximum.
3. FOCUS: It controls sharpness of trace. A slight adjustment of focus is done after changing
intensity of trace.
4. AC-DC-GROUND: It selects coupling of AC-DC ground signal to vertical amplifier.
5. X-MAG: It expands the length of time base from 1-5 times continuously and to maximum
time base to 40 ns/cm.
6. SQUARE: This provides square wave 2V (p-p) amplitude and enables to check y calibration
of scope.
7. SAWTOOTH WAVE FORM: This provides saw tooth wave form output coincident to
sweep speed with an output of saw tooth wave 2V (p-p)
Vertical section:
7. Y- POSITION: This enables the movement of display along y-axis.
8. Y-INPUT: It connects input signal to vertical amplifier through ac-dc- ground coupling
switch
24
9. CALIBRATION: 15mv – 150mv dc signal depending on position selection is applied to
vertical amplifier.
10. DC BALANCE: It is control on panel electrostatic ally in accordance with waveforms to be
displayed.
11. VOLTS/CM: Switch adjusts sensitivity.
Horizontal section:
12. X-POSITION: This control enables movement of display along x-axis.
13. TRIGGERING LEVEL: It selects mode of triggering.
14. TIMEBASE: This controls or selects sweep speeds.
15. VERNUIS: This controls the fine adjustments associated with time base sweep.
16. EXITCAD: It allows time base range to be extended.
17. HORIZANTAL INPUT: It connects external signal to horizontal amplifier.
18. Ext SYN: it connects external signal to trigger circuit for synchronization.
Applications of CRO:
1. Measurement of voltage
2. Measurement of Time period
3. Calculation of frequency
4. Calculation of current
5. Calculation of power
6. Calculation of phase angle
7. To trace and measuring signals of RF, IF and AF in radio and TV.
8. To trace visual display of sine waves.
PROCEDURE:
1. To study the operation of C.R.O:
Connect a sinusoidal source to any one of the channels of the oscilloscope and adjust the source
until you get proper waveform on the screen. Then study the effect of the following controls on
the pattern
1) Sensitivity
2) Time Base
3) Intensity Control
5) X-Y Mode
6) Positions X and Y Shifts 7) Level Control
4) Focus Control
8) Channel Selector
25
2. To Measure Unknown Voltage and Current:
a. Measurement of unknown voltage: Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1 below to measure
the unknown D.C voltage.
Fig. 1
Select DC/GND/AC switch to GND first. Adjust the trace to a known horizontal line on the
screen. Then change to DC position. Adjust the volt/division switch to such a position, so that
trace is visible on the screen. Measure the displacement in number of divisions. Calculate the
unknown D.C voltage using the following formula
Unknown D.C voltage = Displacement in no. of divisions  Volts/Division
b. Measurement of unknown current:
Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.2 below to measure the unknown DC Current.
Fig. 2
Measure the unknown voltage across 10 K resistor using the procedure as in 2 (a).
Calculate the unknown DC current using equation:
Unknown D.C Current is =
UnknownDCVoltage
UnknownDCVoltage
=
10 K
R
26
3. Measurement of unknown frequency:
(a) The Unknown frequency of a signal can be measured directly using CRO. The sinusoidal
signal from function generator is applied to CH1 or CH2 of C.R.O. Adjust the time base Switch
/Trigger Source and Volts/div switch to obtain a stable display of 2 cycles on the screen Measure
the horizontal displacement for one cycle. Multiply with Time/Div to obtain the time period „T‟
of the sinusoidal signal. Calculate the frequency using the relationship
f 
1
T
Where „T‟ is the time period in seconds
(b) The unknown frequency is measured with the help of “LISSAJOUS” figure. The circuit is
connected as shown below in Fig. 3
Fig. 3
Connect two function generators to the two channels of the C.R.O. Use X-Y mode. Adjust
the frequency and amplitude of the sources so that you get the following figures.
4. To Measure Phase Angle Between Two Sinusoidal Signals:
Make the connections as shown in Fig. 4 below:
Fig. 4
27
Use X-Y mode. The display pattern on oscilloscope will be elliptical as shown in fig 5. The phase
angle is  = Sin –1(B/A)
Fig. 5
Vary the frequency from 100 Hz to 3 KHz and measure the phase angle. Calculate the
theoretically and compare the two.
OBSERVATIONS:
Measurement of Resistance:
Value of
BAND
S.No.
Resistor by
color coding or
by inspection
1
2
3
Value of
Resistor by
Multimeter
Error
4
1
2
3
4
28
Measurement of Capacitance:
S.No.
BAND
1
2
3
4
Value of
Value of
Capacitor by
Capacitor
color coding or
by
by inspection
Multimeter
Error
1
2
3
4
Measurement of unknown Voltage:
DC Voltage
S.No.
DC Voltage CRO measurement
power supply
reading
Unknown
Voltage (V)
Displacement
Volt/div
1
2
3
4
5
Calculation of unknown Current:
S.No.
Ammeter reading
(mA)
DC Voltage using CRO
I
V
, (R = 1 K)
R
1
2
3
4
5
29
Calculation of unknown frequency:
S.No.
Freq. of the Signal
No. of
Time/div
Generator (Hz)
divisions
Readings
1
500
2
1K
3
5K
4
10K
5
100K
Time T
f 
1
T (Hz)
Calculation of phase angle between two sinusoidal signals:
Practical value
S. No
f (Hz)
A (cm)
B (cm)
–1
 = Sin ( B/A)
Theoretical
value
 = Tan–1(RC)
1
2
3
4
5
RESULT:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
30
PART (B):
AIM: To measure R, L and C components using LCR-Q meter
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors
LCR-Q meter
Connecting probes and wires
THEORY:
An LCR meter is an instrument used to measure the inductance (L), capacitance (C), and
resistance (R) of a component, sensor or other device, whose operation depends upon capacitance,
inductance or resistance. In the simpler versions of this instrument the true values of these
quantities are not measured, rather the impedance is measured internally and converted for display
to the corresponding capacitance or inductance value. Readings will be reasonably accurate if the
capacitor or inductor device under test does not have a significant resistive component of
impedance. More advanced designs measure true inductance or capacitance, and also
the equivalent series resistance of capacitors and the Q factor of inductive components.
PROCEDURE:
1. By noting down the color code of the given resistors, calculate their resistance values. Measure
the same resistor values with LCR meter. Compare both.
2. Take an inductor; calculate the theoretical value. Measure the same with LCR meter. Compare
the two values.
3. Note down the theoretical value of the capacitor given to you by observing its color code or
value written on it. Measure the same with RLC meter. Compare the theoretical value with the
practical value.
31
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No.
Name of the
Theoretical value of the
Value of the component by using
component
component
LCR-Q meter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
RESULT:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
32
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Mention the measuring units for R, L and C components?
2. Define Q factor of a circuit
3. What are the linear components? Why they are called linear?
4. Give the different characteristics of the R, L and C?
5. What is the Q factor of series resonant circuit?
6. Where LCR meter is used?.
7. On what principle does a Q-meter operate?
8. What is the resonance frequency? Give expression for resonance frequency?
9. What are characteristics of series resonance?
33
2. PRACTICE OF SOLDERING AND DE -SOLDERING FOR SIMPLE CIRCUITS
ON SINGLE AND MULTI-LAYER PCBS
AIM: To solder, test and de-solder a series and parallel resistor combinations
APPARATUS:
Soldering iron
Solder flux
Resistors
General purpose zero PCB board
Multimeter
THEORY:
Soldering is a process of joining metal parts with the aid of molten metal, where the
melting temperature is situated below that of material joined and where by the surface of part are
coated without turn in becoming molten.
A soldering connection ensures metal continuity on the other hand. When two metals are joined,
they behave like a single solid metal.
Types of soldering:
1. Iron soldering
2. Mass soldering
3. Dip soldering
4. Wave soldering
Solder alloys:
Tin lead, Tin antimony, Tin lead antimony, Tin silver, Tin Zinc.
Soldering is an alloying process between two metals with which it divides some of the metal, with
which it comes into contact. A flux is used to remove this oxide from the area to be soldered.
Higher composition of tin increases the electrical as well as thermal conductivity. It also gives
brightness to the joint flux.
Flux: To aid the soldering process, a substance called flux is used. Flux has below three purposes:
1. Removes the film of burnish from the metal surface to be soldered.
34
2. Prevents the base metals from being re-exposed to oxygen in the air to avoid oxidation
during heating, which means rotation of welding by preventing from oxidation.
3. Assists in the transfer of heat to metal being soldered.
The soldering process involves
1. Melting the solder which makes the higher flux and brings the impurities suspended in
it to the surface.
2. Partial dissolution of some metals in the connection by solder.
3. Cooling and fusing solder with the metal quest often for locating a problem in the
functioning of the circuit.
It is necessary to remove a component from the printed circuit board and carryout the requisite
tests on it.
The process of repair usually involves
1. Disassembly of a particular component.
2. Testing of component
3. Replacing of the component found defective.
In this process of removal and replacement of electronic devices, the process of soldering is
employed. Specific gravity of Sn63/ pb37 is also lesser than that of Sn60/pb40 that makes the
equipment lighter.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
R1
R2
R3
1kΩ
2.2kΩ
4.7kΩ
Req=R1+R2+R3
Series Connection
35
Parallel Connection
PROCEDURE:
Soldering:
1. Identify the physical values of the given resistor.
2. Calculate the total of effective resistance at the terminals.
3. Clean the leads of the components.
4. Solder the resistors on the groove board by mounting & soldering them properly.
5. Tabulate the theoretical and practical effective resistances.
De-soldering:
1. Remove the components using a de-soldering pump
Note: Take necessary precautions while soldering
OBSERVATIONS:
S. No
Combination
1
Serial
2
Parallel
REq (Theoretical) Ω
REq (Practical) Ω
%Error
36
RESULT:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is a soldering? List the different types of soldering.
2. List out various soldering irons used for soldering?
3. What is the material used for soldering and give the percentages?
4. List the precautions to be taken while soldering?
5. What is “cold solder “and “dry joint”?
6. Which method of soldering is used for PCB boards recently?
37
3. VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION AND TELLEGEN’S THEOREM
AIM 1(for Superposition Theorem): To verify the superposition theorem and determine the
current following through the load resistance.
AIM 1(for Tellegen’s Theorem): To verify the Tellegen‟s theorem
APPARATUS:
Regulated Power Supply (RPS)
Ammeter:
(0-200) mA
Resistors:
1KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 3.9KΩ
Bread Board
Connecting wires
THEORY:1. Superposition Theorem:
The principle of superposition states that the response (a desired current or voltage) in a linear
circuit having more than one independent source can be obtained by adding the responses caused
by the separate independent sources acting alone.
In this the response (voltage or current) in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having
more than one independent source equals the algebraic sum of the responses caused by each
independent source acting alone, where all the other independent sources are replaced by their
internal impedances.
In removing the sources, ideal voltage sources are short circuited, practical voltage sources
replaced by internal resistances, while the ideal current sources are open circuited, practical
current sources replaced by internal resistances.
2. Tellegen’s Theorem: states that: In any electrical network which satisfies Kirchhoff's laws
any given time, the summation of instantaneous power in all the branches is equal to zero. Thus
for
branch, this theorem states that,
38
n being the number of branches,𝑉𝐾 the drop in the branch and 𝐼𝐾 the through current.
Explanation:
1. Superposition Theorem:
Given Circuit:
R1
R3
A
1kΩ
2.2kΩ
R2
V1
V2
3.9kΩ
4V
5V
B
Considering both V1&V2 (To find I):R1
1kΩ
V1
4V
RPS CH1
A
R3
2.2kΩ
I
R2
3.9kΩ
V2
5V
RPS CH2
B
Fig. (1)
Considering only V1 (To find I1):-
Fig. (2)
39
Considering only V2 (To find I11):-
Fig. (3)
2. Tellegen’s Theorem:
Fig. (4)
PROCEDURE:
1. Superposition Theorem:
1. Connect the circuit as per the Fig. (1).
2. Adjust both the channels to appropriate values (CH1 set to 4V and CH2 set to 5V).
3. Note down the response (current I) through the branch of interest i.e. AB.
4. Now set the source V2 (5V) to 0V.
5. Note down the response (current, I1) through the branch AB (ammeter reading).
6. Now set the source V1 (4V) to 0V and V2 to 5V.
7. Note down the response (current, I11) through the branch AB (ammeter reading).
8. Reduce the output voltages of the sources V1 and V2 to 0V and switch off the supply.
9. Disconnect the circuit.
40
2. Tellegen’s Theorem:
1. Connect the circuit as per the Fig. (4).
2. Measure voltage across each branch & current through each branch. (Take the directions of
the currents and voltages in the circuit).
3. Verify the Tellegen‟s theorem by
n being the number of branches,𝑉𝐾 the drop in the branch and 𝐼𝐾 the through current.
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
1. Superposition theorem:
R1=1KΩ, R2=3.9KΩ and R3=2.2KΩ
From Fig.(2),
I1=
V1
R 1 + R 2 ||R 3
I1 =I1*
R3
R 2 +R 3
=
From Fig.(3),
I2=
V2
R 3 + R 1 ||R 2
R
1
Il1 = I2 R +R
=
1
2
Total current I = Il + Il1
2. Tellegen’s Theorem:
41
OBSERVATIONS:
From Fig.(1)
Applied voltage
Applied voltage
Current
V1 (V)
V2 (V)
I (mA)
S. No.
From Fig.(2)
Current
S. No.
Applied voltage
V1 (V)
I1 (mA)
From Fig.(3)
S. No.
S. No
Current
Applied voltage V2 (V)
I11 (mA)
Load current
1
When Both sources are acting, I
2
When only source V1 is acting, Il
3
When only source V2 is acting, Ill
Theoretical Value Practical Value
RESULT: Thus the superposition theorem was verified
42
2. Tellegen’s Theorem:
S.No.
Element
Currents
Power
Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical
1
2
3
4
5
Theoretical
S.No.
1
2
Practical
Power delivered
Power absorbed
RESULT:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
43
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What do you mean by unilateral network and bilateral network? Give the limitations
of Superposition theorem.
2. What are the equivalent internal impedances for an ideal voltage source and for a
Current source?
3. Transform a physical voltage source into its equivalent current source.
4. Can superposition theorem be applied to nonlinear circuit?
5. Why superposition theorem is not valid for power?
6. Why an independent voltage source is deactivated by short circuiting it?
7. If all the three, star connected impedances are identical and equal to Z, then what will
be the values of delta connected resistors?
8. State super position theorem?
9. What are the applications of superposition theorem?
10. Is it possible to apply Superposition theorem to nonlinear circuit?
11. Is it possible to apply Superposition theorem to ac as well as dc circuit?
44
4. VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM AND
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
AIM 1 (for Maximum Power Transfer Theorem):
To find the resistance RL in which
maximum power is transferred to the load resistance and
AIM 2 (for Reciprocity Theorem): To verify Reciprocity theorem and to determine the current
flow through the load resistance.
APPARATUS:
Regulated Power Supply (RPS)
Ammeter:
(0-200) mA
Voltmeter
(0-30)V
Resistors:
3.9KΩ, 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ
Rheostat
Bread Board
Connecting wires
THEORY:
1. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
The maximum power transfer theorem states that in a linear, bilateral network, maximum
power is delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of a
source.
In circuits, maximum power is transferred from a source to load when the load impedance
is made equal to the complex conjugate of the internal impedance of the source as viewed from
the load terminal with load removed and all other sources, replaced by their internal resistance.
Consider a voltage source „V‟ of internal resistance „Rs‟ delivering power to a load RL.
We shall prove that when RL = Rs, the power transferred is maximum.
Proof:
Total current I =
Vs
R S +R L
P = I2 RL
=
VS
R S +R L
2
. RL
45
For maximum Power
d
=> dR
Vs
L
2
R s +R L
=> Vs2 R s + R L
=>
1
R s +R L 2
𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑅𝐿
=0
. RL = 0
2
− R L 2R s + 2R L
=0
− 2R s R L − 2R2L =0;
=> R2s + R2L − 2R2L = 0
=> R2s − R2L = 0
=> R2s = R2L
=>
Rs=RL
2. Reciprocity theorem:
In any passive linear bilateral network, if the single voltage source V x in branch x produces the
current response Iy in branch y, then the removal of the voltage source from branch x and its
insertion in branch y will produce the current response Iy in branch x.
In a linear, bilateral network a voltage source of „V‟ volt in a branch gives rise to a current „I‟, in
another branch. If V is applied in the second branch the current in the first branch will be I. This
𝑉
𝐼
is called transfer impedance or resistance. On changing the voltage source from 1 to branch 2,
the current in branch 2 appears in branch 1.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
1. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
46
Model Graph:
2. Reciprocity theorem:
Given circuit:
1) To find I1 :
R1
R2
1kΩ
2.2kΩ
V1
5V
R3
3.9kΩ
2) To find I2 :
PROCEDURE:
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram Fig.(1).
2. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value (Say 5V).
3. Vary the load rheostat. in steps, and note down the response (current) through the load for
each step (ammeter reading) & load voltage.
4. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.
5. Disconnect the circuit.
6. Calculate the power absorbed by the load, PL for each step using the formula PL=IL2 RL.
7. Plot the graph by taking „RL‟ on X-axis and PL on Y-axis.
47
8. Get the practical value of the load resistance for which it will gain the maximum power
from the source.
Reciprocity Theorem:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the supply and note down the corresponding ammeter readings.
3. Find ratio of input voltage to output current.
4. Interchange the position of the ammeter and power supply. Note down the
Corresponding ammeter readings
5. Verify the reciprocity theorem by equating the voltage to current ratio.
OBSERVATIONS:
Maximum power transfer theorem:
Load Resistance
Voltage
Current
(Ω)
VL (V)
IL (A)
S.No.
Practical
P=VLIL
Power (W)
Theoretical
P=I2RL=
𝑽
𝑹𝑺 +𝑹𝑳
𝟐
𝑹𝑳
RESULT: Thus the value of unknown resistance in which the maximum power is transferred the
load was found.
Theoretical load resistance =
Practical load resistance
=
Maximum Power
=
48
Reciprocity Theorem:
V1(V)
I1 (mA)
V2(V)
I2 (mA)
𝑽𝟏
𝑰𝟏
𝑽𝟐
𝑰𝟐
Practical
Theoretical
RESULT: Thus the reciprocity theorem was verified.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. State maximum power transfer theorem?
2. Derive the condition for maximum power transfer theorem.
3. What is the condition for maximum current transfer to the load?
4. Where and why maximum power transfer theorem is applied?
5. What is the efficiency of the circuit at the maximum power transfer Condition & why?
49
6. Derive the condition for maximum power transfer theorem for a.c. Circuits.
7. State reciprocity theorem?
8. What are the applications of reciprocity theorem?
9. What are the limitations of superposition & reciprocity theorem?
10. Is it possible to apply both theorems to ac as well as dc circuit?
11. Is Reciprocity is applicable for unilateral and bilateral networks?
50
5. VERIFICATION OF COMPENSATION THEOREM AND MILLMAN’S
THEOREM & VERIFICATION OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE IN RC AND RL
CIRCUITS
PART (A):
AIM: To verify the compensation theorem and to determine the change in current.
APPARATUS:
NAME
RANGE
QUANTITY
Bread Board
Resistors
Ammeter
1K
3 No.s
560 
1 No
(0-25mA )
2 Nos
THEORY:
1. Compensation Theorem:
Compensation theorem states that any element in the linear ,bilateral network can be replaced by a
voltage source of magnitude equal to the current passing through the element multiplied by the
value of current , provided the currents and voltages of the other parts of the circuit remain
unaltered. This theorem is useful in finding the changes in current or voltage when the value of
resistance is changed in the circuit. If the resistance of any branch of a network is changed from R
to (R+▲R) where the current flowing in that branch originally is I, the change of current in the
other branches can be calculated by placing a voltage source of the value I(▲R) in the modified
branch with all the other sources made ineffective. This theorem is particularly useful in
analyzing the networks where the values of the branch elements are varied and for studying the
effect of tolerance on such values.
51
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in CIRCUIT-1, Note down the values of I1 and I2
using milli ammeters.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in CIRCUIT-2, Note down the value of I‟2.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in CIRCUIT-3, where VC(Compensating voltage) =
( I‟2 - I2) 560 
4. Note down the reading of ammeter as I.
5. If I = I‟2 - I2 , Compensating Theorem is verified.
OBSERVATIONS:
I1
I2
I‟1
I‟2
VC
Calculated I
Measured I
(mA)
(mA)
(mA)
(mA)
(v)
(mA)
(mA)
RESULT:
52
PART (B):
AIM: To verify the Millman‟s Theorem.
APPARATUS:
NAME
RANGE
QUANTITY
Bread Board
Resistors
1.8 KΩ
Voltmeter
(0-20)V
3 No.s
1 No
STATEMENT:
This theorem states that in any network, if the voltage sources V1,V2,…….,Vn in series with their
internal resistances R1,R2,…. ,Rn respectively are in parallel, then these sources may be replaced
by a single voltage source, V eq in series with a single resistance, R eq. where,
𝑉𝑒𝑞 =
𝑉1 𝐺1 + 𝑉2 𝐺2 + … … + 𝑉𝑛 𝐺𝑛
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + … … + 𝐺𝑛
Where Gn is the conductance of nth branch and
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
1
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + … … + 𝐺𝑛
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
53
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in CIRCUIT-1 and Note down the reading of voltmeter as
VL1.
2. Connect the equivalent circuit as shown in CIRCUIT-2 , by calculating
3. 𝑉𝑒𝑞 =
𝑉1 𝐺1 +𝑉2 𝐺2
𝐺1 +𝐺2
and 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝐺
1
1 +𝐺2
4. Note down the reading of the voltmeter as V L2.
5. If V L1 = V L2, the Millman‟s Theorem is verified.
OBSERVATIONS:
V L1
V L2
(V)
(V)
RESULT:
PART (C):
AIM: To verify the transient response in RC and RL circuits
APPARATUS:
Function Generator
Resistors -
1KΩ
Capacitor -
0.1µF
Inductor
10mH
-
CRO
Bread board
Connecting wires
54
THEORY:
Electrical devices are controlled by switches which are closed to connect supply to the device, or
opened in order to disconnect the supply to the device. The switching operation will change the
current and voltage in the device. The purely resistive devices will allow instantaneous change in
current and voltage. An inductive device will not allow sudden change in current and capacitance
device will not allow sudden change in voltage. Hence when switching operation is performed in
inductive and capacitive devices, the current & voltage in device will take a certain time to
change from pre switching value to steady state value after switching. This phenomenon is known
as transient.
The study of switching condition in the circuit is called transient analysis. The state of the circuit
from instant of switching to attainment of steady state is called transient state. The time duration
from the instant of switching till the steady state is called transient period. The current & voltage
of circuit elements during transient period is called transient response.
Time Constant (τ): A measure of time required for certain changes in voltages and currents in
RC and RL circuits. Generally, when the elapsed time exceeds five time constants (5τ) after
switching has occurred, the currents and voltages have reached their final value, which is also
called steady-state response.
1. RC circuit:
The time constant of an RC circuit is the product of equivalent capacitance and the Thevenin
resistance as viewed from the terminals of the equivalent capacitor.
τ = RC
A Pulse is a voltage or current that changes from one level to the other and back again. If a
waveform‟s height time equals its low time, as in figure, it is called a square wave. The length of
each cycle of a pulse train is termed its period (T).
55
The pulse width (tp) of an ideal square wave is equal to half the time period. The relation between
pulse width and frequency is then given by,
𝑓=
1
2𝑡𝑝
From Kirchhoff laws, it can be shown that the charging voltage VC (t) across the capacitor is
given by: VC (t) =V (1- e-t/RC)
for t ≥ 0
Where, V is the applied source voltage to the circuit for t ≥ 0. RC = τ is the time constant. The
response curve is increasing and is shown in Figure 2.
56
Figure 2: Capacitor charging for Series RC circuit to a step input with time axis normalized by 𝜏
The discharge voltage for the capacitor is given by: VC (t) = Vo e-t/RC
for t ≥ 0
Where Vo is the initial voltage stored in capacitor at t = 0, and RC = τ is time constant. The
response curve is a decaying exponentials as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Capacitor discharging for Series RC circuit to a step input with time axis normalized by 𝜏
2. RL circuit:
The time constant of an RL circuit is the equivalent inductance divided by the Thevenin resistance
as viewed from the terminals of the equivalent inductor.
𝐿
τ=𝑅
57
A Pulse is a voltage or current that changes from one level to the other and back again. If a
waveform‟s height time equals its low time, as in figure, it is called a square wave. The length of
each cycle of a pulse train is termed its period (T). The pulse width (tp) of an ideal square wave is
equal to half the time period.
In an R-L circuit, voltage across the inductor decreases with time while in the RC circuit the
voltage across the capacitor increased with time. Thus, current in an RL circuit has the same form
as voltage in an RC circuit. They both rise to their final value exponentially according to
1 – e-t/τ.
The expression for the current build-up across the Inductor is given by
𝑉
iL(t) = 𝑅 ( 1 – e-(R/L)t )
for t ≥ 0
Where, V is the applied source voltage to the circuit for t ≥ 0. The response curve is increasing
and is shown in figure 5.
58
The expression for the current decay across the Inductor is given by:
iL(t) = i0 e-(R/L)t
t≥0
Where, i0 is the initial current stored in the inductor at t = 0
L/R = τ is the time constant.
The response curve is a decaying exponential. Since it is not possible to directly analyze the
current through Inductor on a Scope, we will measure the output voltage across the Resistor. The
resistor waveform should be similar to inductor current as VR=ILR. From the resistor voltage on
the scope, we should be able to measure the time constant τ which should be equal to
τ = L / Rtotal.
Here, Rtotal is the total resistance and can be calculated from Rtotal = Rinductance+ R. Rinductance is the
measured value of inductor resistance and can be measured by connecting inductance to an ohmmeter prior to running the experiment.
59
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
RC Circuit:
Model Graph:
VR
RL Circuit:
Model Graph:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuits as shown in fig above.
2. Apply a 10V
p-p
square wave as input voltage to the circuit.
3. Observe the response of the circuit for t >> 5τ, and record the results.
p
t >> 5τ : Set the frequency of the input waveform, such that the capacitor has enough
p
time to fully charge and discharge during each cycle of the square wave. So Let t = 15τ
p
and determine the time constant from the waveforms obtained on the Oscilloscope panel.
4. Plot the graph
60
OBSERVATIONS:
Type of
circuit
Time Constant
(s)
τ=RC
RC
Charging
Discharging
τ=
RL
𝐿
𝑅
Charging
Discharging
Frequency
(Hz)
𝟏
Output Voltage at time
(V)
𝟏
τ
f = 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪
2τ
3τ
4τ
5τ
Theoretical
Practical
Theoretical
Practical
𝟏
𝑹
f=𝝉=𝑳
Theoretical
Practical
Theoretical
Practical
RESULT:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
61
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Define steady state response.
2. Define transient response.
3. Define natural response.
4. Define forced response.
5. What is transient?
6. Why transient occurs in electric circuits?
7. Define time constant of RL circuit.
8. Define time constant of RC circuit.
9. Voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Justify.
10. Current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously. Justify.
11. What is the initial condition of the elements capacitor and inductor that have no initial
energy storage?
12. What is the final condition of the elements inductor and capacitor?
13. What is damping ratio?
14. What is Compensation theorem?
15. Is it possible to apply compensation theorem to ac as well as dc circuit?
16. State Millman‟s theorem.
17. State application of Millman‟s theorem
62
6. DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF SERIES RESONANCE
AIM: To determine the performance of the series circuit at resonance
APPARATUS:
Signal generator
Resistors
-
1KΩ
Inductor
-
10mH
Capacitor
-
10µF
Decade Inductance Box
-
(0-40)mH
Ammeter
-
(0-200)mA
CRO
Bread board
Connecting wires
THEORY:
Resonance is a particular type of phenomenon inherently found normally in every kind of
system, electrical, mechanical, optical, Acoustical and even atomic. There are several definitions
of resonance. But, the most frequently used definition of resonance in electrical system is studied
state operation of a circuit or system at that frequency for which the resultant response is in time
phase with the forcing function.
Series resonance:
A circuit is said to be under resonance, when the applied voltage „V‟ and current are in
phase. Thus a series RLC circuit, under resonance behaves like a pure resistance network and the
reactance of the circuit should be zero. Since V & I are in phase, the power factor is unity at
resonance. The frequency at which the resonance will occur is known as resonant frequency.
Resonant frequency, fr = 2𝜋
1
𝐿𝐶
Thus at resonance the impedance Z is minimum. Since I = V/Z, the current is maximum.
63
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
Given circuit:
Model graph:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. By varying the frequency, note down the corresponding values of f, and current „I‟.
3. At a particular value of frequency the current reaches its maximum, as it is a series resonant
circuit. At that instant of frequency, VC = VL and VR = VS.
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
For Series Resonance circuit:
1. Resonant frequency fr = 2𝜋
1
𝐿𝐶
2. Lower cut-off frequency fl = 2𝜋
1
−𝑅
1
𝑅
3. Upper cut-off frequency f2 = 2𝜋
2𝐿
+
+
2𝐿
𝑅 2
2𝐿
𝑅 2
2𝐿
+
+
1
𝐿𝐶
1
𝐿𝐶
64
4. Band width = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
5. Quality factor Q =
w0L
R
=
2πfrL
6. Current at Resonance Io =
R
=w
1
0 CR
V Ro
R
OBSERVATIONS: Vi = 5V
S.No.
Frequency (Hz)
V1(V)
I=
𝐯𝐢 −𝐯𝟏
𝑹
(mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Imax=
8
9
10
11
12
13
Series Resonant circuit
S.No
Parameter
1
Resonant Frequency (fr)
2
Band width
3
Quality factor
Theoretical
Practical
Values
Values
RESULT:
65
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Definition of resonance?
2. Define the series resonance?
3. Applications of resonance?
4. What is the condition of voltage &current at the resonance condition?
5. What is voltage across capacitor and inductor in Resonance?
CONCLUSION:
1. Since the current at the resonance is maximum, the series resonant circuit is called as acceptor
circuit.
2. As the resistance of the circuit decreases, the Q-factor increases and selectivity of the circuit
will be better, and the variation of the resistance does not affect the resonant frequency.
66
7. TWO PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS
AIM: To determine the Z, Y, h, g, ABCD and inverse ABCD parameters of the given two port
network
APPARATUS:
Regulated Power Supply
Multimeters
-
2
Resistors:
-
3.9KΩ, 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ
Bread Board
Connecting wires
THEORY:
A port is normally referred to as pair of terminals of a network though which we can have
access to network of calculating current in any part of network. A two-port network is
an electrical network or circuit or device with two pairs of terminals to connect to external
circuits. Two terminals constitute a port if the currents applied to them satisfy the essential
requirement known as the port condition. The electric current entering one terminal must equal
the current emerging from the other terminal on the same port. The ports constitute interfaces
where the network connects to other networks, the points where signals are applied or outputs are
taken. In a two-port network, often port 1 is considered the input port and port 2 is considered the
output port.
If we relate the voltage of one port to the current of the same port, we get driving point
immittance. On the other hand, if we relate the voltage of one port to the current at another port,
we get transfer immittance. Immittance is a general term used to represent either the impedance or
the admittance of a network.
We will consider a general two-port network composed of linear, bilateral elements and
no independent sources. Dependent sources are permitted. It is represented as a black box with
two accessible terminals pairs as shown in. The voltage and current at port -1 are V1 and I1 and at
port-2 are V2 and I2. The position of V1 and V2 and the directions of I1 and I2 are customarily
selected. Out of four variables, I1, V1, V2 and I2 only two are independent. The other two are
expressed in terms of the dependent variables of network.
67
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
Given circuit:
When V1 = 0:
When I1 = 0:
When V2 = 0:
68
When I2 = 0:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagrams.
2. Open the port-1(I1=0) and find the values of V1, V2 and I2.
3. Short circuit the port-1(V1 =0) and find the values of I1, V2 and I2.
4. Repeat the steps 2 and 3 for port-2 and find the values of (V1, I1 and V2) and (V1, I1 and I2)
respectively.
5. Find all the parameters of two port networks i.e., Z, Y, ABCD, AI BI CI DI, h, g
parameters from the above data.
OBSERVATIONS:
Theoretical Values
V1
I1
V2
I2
(V)
(mA)
(V)
(mA)
V1=0
I1=0
V2=0
I2=0
69
Practical Values:
V1
I1
V2
I2
(V)
(mA)
(V)
(mA)
V1=0
I1=0
V2=0
I2=0
Calculations for parameters:
Z-parameters:
𝑉
Z11 = 𝐼1 |I2=0
1
𝑉
Z12 = 𝐼1 | I1=0
2
𝑉
Z21 = 𝐼2 | I2=0
1
𝑉
Z22 = 𝐼2 | I1=0
2
=
=
=
=
Y – Parameters
𝐼
Y11 = 𝑉1 | V2=0
1
𝐼
Y12 = 𝑉1 | V1=0
2
𝐼
Y21 = 𝑉2 | V2= 0
1
Y22 =
𝐼2
𝑉2
=
=
=
| V1= 0 =
70
ABCD parameters:
𝑉
A = 𝑉1 | I2= 0
2
B=
−𝑉1
| V2= 0
𝐼2
𝐼
C = 𝑉1 | I2= 0
2
D=
−𝐼1
| V1=0
𝐼2
=
=
=
=
h – Parameters:
h11 =
𝑉1
𝐼1
| V2 =0
𝑉
h12 = 𝑉1 | I1=0
2
𝐼
h21 = 𝐼 2 | V2 =0
1
𝐼
h22 = 𝑉2 | I1 =0
2
=
=
=
=
g- Parameters:
𝐼
g11 = 𝑉1 | I2 =0
1
g12 =
g21 =
g22 =
𝐼1
𝐼2
𝑉2
𝑉1
𝑉2
𝐼2
| V1=0
=
=
| I2=0
=
|V1=0
=
71
A1B1C1D1 Parameters:
A1 =
𝑉2
B1 =
−𝑉2
𝑉1
𝐼1
| I1=0
| V1=0 =
𝐼
C1 =- 𝑉2 | I1=0
1
D1 =
−𝐼2
𝐼1
=
|V1=0
=
=
Theoretical
Practical
Values
Values
S. No.
Parameter
S. No. Parameter
1
Z11
9
h11
2
Z12
10
h12
3
Z21
11
h21
4
Z22
12
h22
5
Y11
13
A
6
Y12
14
B
7
Y21
15
C
8
Y22
16
D
Theoretical Practical
Values
Values
RESULT: Z and Y parameters are determined for the given circuit and theoretical & practical
values are compared
72
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What is a port?
2. What is a port? Write the 2-port network equations in terms of hybrid parameter?
3. Define image impedance?
4. What is Z- parameter?
5. Write the network equations of Y- parameter
6. Write the condition of symmetry for Z,Y,h and Transmission parameters?
7. Write the condition of Reciprocity for Z,Y,h and Transmission Parameters?
8. How many number of possible combinations generated by four variables taken two at a
time in a two port network?
9. If Z11=2Ω; Z12=1Ω; Z21=1Ω and Z22=3Ω, what is the determinant of admittance matrix?
10. What is h-parameter? Why we use it?
11. What is lattice network? Where do we use it?
12. What are the applications of Z&Y parameters?
13. What is the condition for reciprocity & symmetry in Z-parameters?
73
14. What is the condition for reciprocity & symmetry in Y-parameters?
15. What are basic equations for transmission & hybrid parameters?
16. What are the applications of transmission & hybrid parameters?
17. What is the condition for reciprocity & symmetry in transmission parameters?
18. What is the condition for reciprocity & symmetry in Hybrid - Parameters?
19. What are the units for each parameter in transmission & hybrid parameters?
74
8. DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF CONSTANT-K LOW PASS FILTER
AIM: To design and verify Constant-K low pass Filters and draw the frequency
response.
APPARATUS:
 Signal generator
 CRO
 Capacitors
 Inductors & Resistors
THEORY:
The low pass filter is a filter that transmits all frequencies from zero unto some designated
frequency called the cut-off frequency and offer great attenuation at all other higher frequencies.
A Constant-k filter is a T or TT network in which the series and shunt impedances, Zl and Z2 are
connected by the relationship Z1.Z2=RK2, where RK is a real constant or it is termed as design
impedance or nominal impedance of Constant-K filter. A HPF is a filter that transmits all
frequencies above a designated cut-off frequency but attenuates frequencies below this.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
Circuit for Low-Pass Filter:
L1
R1
680Ω
V1
1 Vrms
1000 Hz
0°
100mH
C1
220nF
C2
220nF
RL
680Ω
CRO
Ch1
Circuit for High-Pass Filter:
75
C1
R1
680Ω
C2
220nF
V1
1 Vrms
1000 Hz
0°
220nF
L1
RL
100mH
680Ω
CRO
Ch1
DESIGN EQUATIONS:
For LPF:
Given RL=680Ω, fc=2KHz, Rs=680 Ω. R1=Rs=Rk
1
𝐶 = 𝜋𝑓 𝑅
𝑐 𝐾
R=Rk/fc
For HPF:
Given RL=Rs=Rk
Given RL=680Ω, fc=2 KHz, Rs=680 Ω. Rl=Rs=Rk
1
𝑅
𝐾
𝐶 = 𝜋𝑓 𝑅 , L= 4𝜋𝑓
𝑐 𝐾
𝑐
PROCEDURE:
1. Design L and C values with the help of formulae and connect them in the circuit.
2. Set the input voltage Vi=5v using signal generator and vary the frequency from1Hz-lMHz in
regular intervals.
3. Note down the corresponding output voltage.
4. Calculate gain in dB.
5. Plot the frequency response of HPF & LPF.
OBSERVATIONS:
Constant KHPF:
76
S.No. Frequency
(HZ)
Output
Gain
Voltage Vo (V) Av=Vo/Vi
Gain In
dB
20 Log
{Gain}
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Constant KLPF:
S.No. Frequency
(HZ)
Output
Gain
Voltage Vo (V) Av=Vo/Vi
Gain In
dB
20 Log
{Gain}
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
MODEL GRAPHS:
77
Constant KHPF:
Constant KLPF:
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Wires should be checked for good continuity
2. Vary the frequency carefully.
RESULT:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
78
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What are the applications of k-derived filters
2. What are the merits of k- derived filter?
3. What are the demerits of constant filters?
4. Define filter?
5. Define high pass filter
6. Define low pass filter
7. Define design impedance?
8. What are advantages of active filter over passive filter?
79
9. TO SENSE AND MEASURE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE BY PMOD TMP3
SENSOR WITH MY RIO KIT.
AIM: To sense and measure ambient temperature by Pmod TMP3 sensor with My RIO kit.
APPARATUS:
1. NI myRIO kit.
2. NI labVIEW software
3. Temperature sensor (PmodTMP3)
4. Jumper wires, F-F (5)
5. Breadboard
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the Connections as per the Circuit Diagram
2. Open the project Temperature Sensor demo.lvproj contained in the subfolder
Temperature Sensor demo
3. Expand the hierarchy button (a plus sign) for the myRIO item and then open Main.vi
by double-clicking,
4. Confirm that NI myRIO is connected to your computer, and
5. Run the VI either by clicking the Run button on the toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+R
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
NI myRIO Embedded Systems Kit temperature sensor
80
Demonstration setup for temperature sensor connected to NI myRIO MXP Connector B
Expected Results:
81
Lab VIEW Block Diagram
Result: By using temperature sensor, measure the ambient temperature, Configure the ALERT
output polarity, comparator, and interrupt modes
82
10. DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF PAREALLEL RESONANCE
AIM: To determine the performance of the parallel circuit at resonance
APPARATUS:
Signal generator
Decade Resistance Box
Capacitor
-
0.1 µF
Decade Inductance Box
-
10 mH
Ammeter
-
(0-200) mA
CRO
Bread board
Connecting wires
THEORY:
The parallel circuit consisting branches with single pure elements R, L & C is an ideal
circuit. However the performance of such a circuit is of interest in the general subject of
resonance. This ideal parallel circuit is of interest in the general subject of resonance.
Lower cut-off frequency is above the resonant frequency at which the current is reduced to
1
2
times of its minimum value. Upper cut-off frequency is above.
Quality factor is the ratio of reactance power inductor (or) capacitor to its resistance. Selectivity is
the reciprocal of the quality factors.
83
Model graph:
I(mA)
2 ∗Imin
Imin
f1
f0
f2
f(Hz)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. By varying the frequency note down the corresponding values of frequency, I, VC, VL and VR.
3. At a particular value of frequency (Resonant frequency), the current reaches its Minimum. At
that instant of frequency, VC = VL and VR = VS in series Resonance circuit.
84
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
1
1
1. Resonant frequency, fr = 2𝜋
−
𝐿𝐶
1
2. Lower cut-off frequency, fl = 2𝜋
1
3. Upper cut-off frequency, f2 = 2𝜋
−𝑅
𝑅 2
𝐿
1
2𝐿
+2
𝑅
1
+2
2𝐿
𝑅 2
𝐿
𝑅 2
𝐿
+
+
4
𝐿𝐶
4
𝐿𝐶
Band width, BW = f2 – f1
4.
fr
5. Quality factor, Q = BW
OBSERVATIONS:
Input
S.No
Frequency
(Hz)
VL
VC
VR
(V)
(V)
(V)
I (mA)
Parallel Resonant circuit
S.No.
Parameter
1
Resonant Frequency, fr
2
Band width, BW
3
Quality factor, Q
Theoretical
Practical
Values
Values
85
RESULT:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. Define resonance?
2. Define series resonance?
3. Define parallel resonance?
4. What are the applications of resonance?
5. What is the condition of voltage &current at the resonance?
86
CONCLUSION:
1.
As the resistance of the circuit decreases, the Q-factor increases and selectivity of the circuit
will be better.
2.
Since the current at resonance is minimum, the parallel resonant circuit is called as rejecter
circuit.
3.
The variation of the resistance does not affect the resonant frequency.
87
11. DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF CONSTANT-K LOW PASS FILTER
AIM: To design and verify Constant-K high pass Filter and draw the frequency
response.
APPARATUS:
 Signal generator
 CRO
 Capacitors
 Inductors & Resistors
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
Circuit for High-Pass Filter:
C1
R1
680Ω
C2
220nF
V1
1 Vrms
1000 Hz
0°
220nF
L1
RL
100mH
680Ω
CRO
Ch1
DESIGN EQUATIONS:
For HPF:
Given RL=Rs=Rk
Given RL=680Ω, fc=2 KHz, Rs=680 Ω. Rl=Rs=Rk
1
𝑅
𝐾
𝐶 = 𝜋𝑓 𝑅 , L= 4𝜋𝑓
𝑐 𝐾
𝑐
THEORY:
88
A High Pass Filter (HPF) is a filter that transmits all frequencies above a designated cutoff frequency but attenuates frequencies below this A Constant-k filter is a T or TT network in
which the series and shunt impedances, Zl and Z2 are connected by the relationship Z1.Z2=RK2,
where RK is a real constant or it is termed as design impedance or nominal impedance
of Constant-K filter..
PROCEDURE:
1. Design L and C values with the help of formulae and connect them in the circuit.
2. Set the input voltage Vi=5v using signal generator and vary the frequency from1Hz-lMHz in
regular intervals.
3. Note down the corresponding output voltage.
4. Calculate gain in dB.
5. Plot the frequency response of HPF.
OBSERVATIONS:
Constant KHPF:
S.No. Frequency
(HZ)
Output
Gain
Voltage Vo (V) Av=Vo/Vi
Gain In
dB
20 Log
{Gain}
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
89
MODEL GRAPHS:
Constant KHPF:
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Wires should be checked for good continuity
2. Vary the frequency carefully.
RESULT:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
S.No.
Parameter
Max. Marks
1
Observations and analysis including
learning Outcomes
5
2
Completion of experiment,
Discipline and Cleanliness
5
Signature of Faculty
Marks Obtained
Total marks obtained
90
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. What are the applications of k-derived filters
2. What are the merits of k- derived filter?
3. What are the demerits of constant filters?
4. Define filter?
5. Define high pass filter
6. Define low pass filter
7. Define design impedance?
8. What are advantages of active filter over passive filter?
91