Nursing Research Week 1 to 7
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1.
Content
Week 1: Intro to nursing research
Week 2: Quantitative Vs Qualitative.
Week 3: Ethics of Research
Week 4: Literature Review
Week 5: Understanding Qualitative Research Design
Week 6: Examining Sampling
Week 7: Data Collection and Data Sources.
Followed by Textbook Summary:
Chapter 1, 18, 2, 3, 4, 11, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 13.
2.
Lecture Slides
Starts here - Vocabs and Concepts.
Week 1: Intro to
nursing research
3.
Nursing Research
Systematic inquiry *designed to develop knowledge*
about phenomena important to nursing practice, profession, education.
4.
CASN
Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing
5.
Basic Nursing
Research
1. Extend base of knowledge
2. Discover general principles.
3. nursing application is not a priority.
(extends general nursing knowledge)
6.
Applied Nursing 1. Finding solutions to existing problems.
Research
2. Designed to show how principles can be applied to
nursing practice.
(tries to solve clinical nursing problem)
7.
Purpose/Focus
of nursing
research
Answer questions on human response to illness and
health promotion.
Research enables nurses to:
1. Improve client health, 2. Build nursing knowledge, 3.
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Plan nursing care, 4. Predict probable outcomes, 5. Control undesirable outcomes.
8.
Medical research study of new drug, surgical technique
9.
Physiotherapy
research
study of new exercise protocol or supportive device.
10. Evidence inThe ongoing process that incorporates evidence from
formed practice research, clinical expertise, client preferences and other
available evidence (CNO, 2014)
11. rigor
n. strictness or severity
12. What are the
evidence found via rigorous research
best types of evidence
13. Research based clinically appropriate, cost effective, result in positive outinterventions
comes for clients, and professionally accountable.
should be
14. Producer-Consumer
Continuum
Producers of nursing research (have direct involvement in
research) -------------Continuum---------------> Consumers
of Nursing Research (Indirect Involvement)
15. Nursing Research Past
1. Nightingale (1859)
2. Focus on nursing education (early 1900s)
3. Nursing research accelerated (1950s)
4. Nursing journals published (1960s)
16. Shift to "prac1. Began in the 1960s & continues to be important focus
tice oriented" re- 2. Focus on clinical nursing research
search:
3. Emphasis on improving patient care
4. Awareness of need for scientific basis for practice.
5. Role of theory in nursing research.
17. Continued
growth of
nursing
1. Increase in number of nursing researchers, and nursing
journals
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research is
related to:
cine.
3. More funding for nursing research.
18. Future Directions
1. Focus on evidence-based practice. (continue to transfer
research to practice, review, critique, utilize findings.)
2. Multiple confirmatory strategies. (Replicate studies with
different sample)
3. Integrative/systematic reviews. (review multiple studies
and draw conclusions eg: Cochrane review.)
4. Promote interdisciplinary collaboration. (nurses and
researchers in similar fields working together)
5. Dissemination of research findings: (promote evidence-based practice)
6. Increased interest in outcomes research (cost effective
care with positive outcomes
7. Increasing the visibility of nursing research. ( Increase
support for nursing research.)
19. Dissemination
(n) the act of dispersing or diffusing something / …, ô
20. Organizations
that Set
Priorities and
support
research in
canada
"Think Tank" = group of nurse researchers.
Academy of Canadian Executive Nurses - ACEN
Canadian Institutes of Health Research - CIHR
Canadian Association of Schools of Nursing - CASN
Canadian Health Services Research Foundation
RNAO
Nursing Research Interest Group - NRIG
Canadian Nursing Research Interest Group - CNRG
21. Source of evidence for nursing practice
1. Tradition and Authority
2. Clinical Experience and Intuition
3. Trial and Error
4. Assembled Information
5. Disciplined Research (EBP)
22. Evidence Based clinical decision-making that integrates the best available
Practice
research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics
and preferences
23.
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Systematic Review
A literature review focused on a research question that
tries to identify, appraise, select, and synthesize all high
quality research evidence relevant to that question
eg) Cochrane review; gathers and summarizes best evidences to guide HCPs make informed choices in treatment.; http://www.cochrane.org
24. meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many
different research studies (*quantitative* )
25. Meta-synthesis
A systematic review that contains only qualitative studies;
a scholarly paper that combines results from qualitative
studies
26. A paradigm is
1. A world view or a general perspective.
2. A way of looking at the world from different angles
27. positivist paradigm
The paradigm underlying the traditional scientific approach, which assumes that there is an orderly reality
that can be objectively studied; often associated with
QUANTITATIVE research. r/t with determinism, uses logic
and objective knowledge to draw conclusion (r/t realism,
determinism, quantitative, truth)
28. naturalistic para- Holistic view of nature and the direction of science that
digm
guides QUALITATIVE research. AKA constructivist paradigm. Reality is subjective, truth or falsity cannot be determined. Addresses emotions, perceptions of participants.
(r/t qualitative, relativism, meaning)
29. determinism
the philosophy that holds that every event, action, and decision results from something independent of the human
will
30. postpositivism
Positivism + recognition of the fact that not everything is
quantifiable. There are separate rules for creating a study
in this style.
31.
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Positivist Vs Nat- Example: Issue of recovering after a stroke.
uralist
Positivist: length of hospital stay of stroke patient vs nursing staffing ratio.
Naturalist: patient's perception of nursing care before and
after stroke.
Similarities in paradigms:
1. Goal is knowledge
2. They are both analyzed empirically
3. cooperation of participants is required.
4. Ethical constraints are always involved.
5. Virtually all studies have limitations.
32. Research Meth- Accepted techniques for data collection and analysis relods
evant to the research question. Research methods are
based on the research question.
33. Quantitative Re- Structured research which uses the controlled scientific
search
method and standardized question to make generalizations and predictions; includes: questionnaires, surveys,
and experiments
structured responses that can be statistically tested to
confirm insights and hypotheses generated via qualitative
research or secondary data
tries to exclude bias.
34. Qualitative Research
Exploratory, in-depth research involving flexible,
open-ended questions; includes: interviews, observation
and focus groups
Research that provides emotional / behavior insights. (ie:
likes, dislikes, needs, wants, interests, hobbies, decision
making processes etc).
Typical Research question: Identify, Characterize, Describe, Understand. verb is followed by a specific topic,
sample, setting. (must be feasible, give boundaries)
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Products of qualitative research:
1. Recurrent themes or hypotheses (most common)
2. Survey instrument measures
3. Taxonomies (classify phenomenon into properties)
4. Conceptual models (or theories)
Themes: Unifying concepts or statements
1. identify and characterize aspects of health care
a. patterns, behaviors
b. group interactions
c. individual perceptions.
2. help to develop testable hypotheses by:
a. identifying salient (notably significant) factors
b. informing predictions about relationships.
35. reductionist
Focuses on small portion of human experience. Narrow focus obscures insights. (limitation of quantitative
research)
36. Quantitative Vs
Qualitative
Qualitative:
Approach: Inductive (does not start with a hypothesis)
Goal: Depth, generate hypothesis
Setting: Natural
Sampling: Purposeful (Samples are chosen)
Data Collection: Interview guides, observation tools
Data Analysis: Iterative interpretation (going to field, collect data, analyse and repeat)
Quantitative:
Approach: Deductive
Goal: Breadth (width), test hypotheses
Setting:Experimental/quasi
Sampling: Random
Data Collection: surveys, administrative/clinical data
Data Analysis statistical tests, modeling.
Research purposes differ:
*Quantitative is exclusively associated with prediction and
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control*, and *qualitative is exclusively associated with
identification* of phenomena.
The 2 method's common purposes are description, exploration, explanation pg16
37. Quasi experiment
a research method that looks like an experiment BUT
*subjects are not randomly assigned* to control and experimental groups (no cause and effect can be drawn)
38. salient
prominent; of notable significance
39. Lecture Slides
Starts here - vocabs and concepts.
Week 2 : Quantitative Vs Qualitative.
40. Exclusive terms Quantitative Terms:
for each research Person contributing information: Respondent
methods.
That which is being studied: Concepts, Constructs, Variables.
Links between concepts: Relationships
Logical reasoning processes: deductive
Quality of evidence: Reliability, Validity, Generalizability.
Qualitative Terms:
Person contributing information: (Key) Informant
That which is being studied: Phenomena and concepts.
Links between concepts: Patterns
Logical reasoning processes: inductive
Quality of evidence: Trustworthiness.
41. conceptual
abstract/theoretical meaning
42. operational
how variables are measured. (variables become operational)
43. data set
pieces of info obtained in a study.
44. Inductive reasoning
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process of developing conclusions from observation,
used in qualitative research, theory is a generated as a
product of inductive reasoning.
45. Deductive reasoning
Process of developing specific predictions from general
principles, used for (usually) quantitative or qualitative
research, research starts with theory then does research
to test theory.
46. Reliability
Refers to the consistency of measurement, specifically,
the extent to which *repeated measurement of the same
event yields the same values*
47. Validity
Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure
48. Trustworthiness Trustworthiness in qualitative research encompasses
several dimensions, including credibility. *Credibility* is
achieved to the extent that the research methods engender condence in the truth of the data and in the
researchers' interpretations. *Triangulation*, the use of
multiple sources or referents to draw conclusions about
what constitutes the truth, is one approach to establishing
credibility.
49. Bias
a mental tendency or inclination; especially an unfair preference to a certain data; not objective
50. Research control holding constant the extraneous factors (confounding
variables)
51. Randomness
lack of pattern
52. Reflexivity
analyzing and critically considering our own role in, and
effect on, our research; focusing to answer only the research question.
53. Generalization
and
transferability
Can the study findings be applies to other groups? Generalization (quantitative term), transferability (qualitative
therm)
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54. Hawthorne effect A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the
awareness of being studied EG) RR different when told
that is being counted
55. Major steps in
a quantitative
study.
1. Conceptualizing and planning
2. Design and planning phase.
3. Empirical phase.
4. Analytic phase.
5. Disseminating the findings.
56. Activities in a
1. Conceptualizing and planning.
qualitative study. 2. Conducting the study.
3. Disseminating the findings.
57. Mixed method
studies
Using both qualitative and quantitative research methods
in the same study.
58. Goal of this
prepare you to read and critique published nursing recourse (Nursing search articles/reports. (CNO Entry to Practice CompeResearch)
tency #34)
59. Research Critique
1. Different from a research summary/synopsis
2. is a careful, critical appraisal of a study's strengths and
limitations.
Process of critical appraisal that objectively and critically
evaluates a research report's content for scientific merit
and application to practice
60. 6 Components of introduction, methods, results, abstract, discussion + refa research arti- erences.
cle. IMRAD + references.
Most articles follow the IMRAD format.
61. Slides Week 3 Ethical aspects
of nursing research
Starts here
62.
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Researcher's re- 1. Study must be conducted in ethical manner, no harm
sponsibility
should come to participants.
2. ethics application must be approved before the study
can start.
63. The nurse's role CNO says, a nurse in a researcher role demonstrates
ethical practice by:
1. providing all information necessary to make informed
decision.
2. Advocating for nursing involvement in ethical review
boards
3. Participating in ethical review of research.
4. Ensuring ethical guidelines are followed to protect research participants.
64. Code of ethics
International Standards:
1. Nuremberg Code
2. Declaration of Helsinki
Canadian Standards:
Tri-Council Policy Statement, under "Ethical Conduct for
Research Involving Humans"
65. Tri-council policy In Canada, official statement of ethical conduct for restatement
search involving humans; researchers and institutions are
expected to adhere to this document to receive federal
research funds
Major principles:
1. Respect for persons: participation is voluntary, provides
informed consent, ensure ethical conduct to ill, disabled,
children, and mentally ill
2. Concern for welfare: Physical, mental, social, spiritual
well being is taken into account, Privacy, confidentiality,
anonymity, inform the participant of potential benefits and
risks.
3. Justice: Participants are treated fairly and equitably; no
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penalty for declining to participate, fair recruiting, power
relationships considered.
66. Privacy
Data must be anonymous or confidential
67. Confidentiality
Person may be identified but information is strictly controlled by the researcher.
68. Anonymity
researcher cannot link data with a particular participant.
69. Institutional Re- Formal committees that review research protocols. In
view Boards
Canada, the *Research Ethics Board* must first review
and approve studies that involve human subjects (In US
Institutional Review Board, IRB is in charge)
70. Critiquing Ethi- 1. Were participants exposed to any harm?
cal Aspects of a 2. Did benefits outweigh particular risks?
Study
3. Was there sign of coercion?
4. Were vulnerable population used?
5. Was their privacy safeguarded?
6. Was research approved by IRB, REB?
71. nuremberg code Formed in 1949 after human experiments were conducted in Nazi Germany. Stated that informed consent is
absolutely necessary for human experimentation.
72. Declaration of
helsinki
international code for ethical conduct by physicians conducting biomedical research followed the Nuremberg
Code and provides more specific guidelines (1964, revised many time since)
73. Week 3 - Lecture Starts here
Notes: Research
problem, questions, hypotheses.
74. A research prob- Arises from a perplexing troubling condition.
lem
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75. A Problem state- A Statement of the problem under study. (statement of
ment
something that requires investigation)
76. Research ques- The specific query the researcher wants to answer to
tion
address the research problem.
77. Purpose statement
States goals or aims of the study, gives a clue to study
design. Clues to finding this statement in an article are
looking for statements such as "The goal of the study, the
study's aim... etc".
78. Phenomenon of A qualitative term, to identify the focus of their research
interest
study.
concept that you want to know/say more about, you use
other concepts to learn/explain it
79. Where do researchers get
their ideas for research?
1. Clinical experience
2. Nursing literature
3. Social issues
4. Theories
5. Ideas from external sources.
80. Research is con- 1. Improves patient care
sidered signifi- 2. Extends the body of nursing knowledge
cant if it..
3. Builds on existing knowledge
4. Contributes to nursing theory development
5. Corresponds to national research priorities.
81. Hypothesis
Tentative prediction about the relationship between two or
more variables in a population under study.
Only used in quantitative research.
Qualitative research can come up with a hypothesis as it's
product. as stated in the following definition of hypothesis:
a testable explanation for a set of observations based on
the available data and guided by inductive reasoning. A
hypothesis is narrower in scope than a theory.
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Purpose of hypothesis: fosters critical thinking, facilitates
interpretation of the data, minimizes acceptance of false
results, states expected relationship between independent variable and dependent variable, basis of statistical
analysis.
Types of hypothesis:
1. Simple: Predicts relationship between 2 variables.
2. Complex: Predicts relationship between two or more
two independent/dependent variables.
3. Directional: specifies expected direction of relationship
between variables.
4. Non-Directional: No stipulation of direction between
variables.
5. Null hypothesis: There is no relationship between the
independent variable and the dependent variable.
Testing Hypothesis:
1. Hypotheses are never proved; they are accepted or
supported.
2. Findings are always tentative (not certain).
82. Critiquing the
problem statement and research questions
1. Among the questions the research reader asks: Is the
research problem clear? Significant for nursing?
2. Is the problem developed as a purpose statement,
question or hypothesis.
3. Are these statements clear? easy to identify?
83. Critiquing hypothesis statements
1. Do the hypotheses flow from theory or previous research?
2. Are hypothesis properly worded?
3. Are they directional/non-directional?
84. Week 4 - LecStarts here
ture slides - Literature Review
85. Purpose of litera- 1. Identify a research problem
ture review for re- 2. Refine research questions or hypotheses
searchers.
3. Know what is known and what is not.
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4. Determine gaps or inconsistencies in knowledge.
5. Identify theoretical conceptual frameworks as the basis
for research.
6. Interpreting research findings and developing implications.
7. Identifying new interventions/theory to be tested.
8. Identifying research designs & data collection methods.
86. Purposes of literature review for
nurses in practice, education,
administration
1. Acquisition of knowledge
2. Evaluate practice/recommendations
3. Develop EB protocols & Interventions.
4. Develop and revise nursing curricula.
5. Develop policy statements & practice guidelines.
87. Sources of litera- 1. Primary Source: A report of a study, written by original
ture
researcher.
2. Secondary sources: Prepared by someone other than
original researcher eg: literature review etc.
88. Conceptual vs
Empirical
1. Conceptual literature (theoretical), published articles.
2. Empirical literature (research), published studies.
89. conceptual arti- used to develop a theory, but doesn't test the theory
cle
90. Theory
An abstract generalization that presents a systematic
explanation about how two or more concepts/phenomena
are interrelated.
91. Conceptual mod- 1. They identify concepts that are related to a common
els
theme.
2. More loosely structured than theories
3. Do not explicitly link concepts.
92. Frameworks
1. The conceptual underpinnings of a study
2. Every study has one!
3. May not be explicitly stated, but all researchers must
give thought to the concepts they are studying before they
begin their research.
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tual framework. Sometime theory is buried in the introduction or literature review section of a research article/report.
93. Role of theory in 1. Provides direction for research
Research
2. Guides the data collection process
3. Allows researchers to pull findings together in a coherent structure
4. Assists in interpreting research findings
5. An ongoing, cyclical process: Observations -> theory
development -> Research -> Theory testing -> back to
therody development.
94. How theories are 1. Theoretical orientation: theory can be used as a "theoused in Qualita- retical lens". It maybe used early on in a qualitative study
tive Research.
*as an orienting world view* and/or to a way of inquiring
about human nature.
2. Theoretical guidance: Theory maybe used for *organizational or interpretive purposes*
3. Theory may be the *end product*: Examples of this
are qualitative studies in which theory is the original end
product of the study.
95. Inductive theo- Researcher makes observations, notes patterns, then
ry and qualitative develops theory inductively grounded in data.
research.
96. inductive Theory r/t Qualitative/Naturalist Paradigm.
Inductive Method: First prescribed by Bacon, is a process
of making numerous observations until one feels confident in drawing generalizations and predictions from them
97. deductive Theo- Researcher starts with theory, develops and tests hyry
potheses, refines theory using deductive approach.
Deductive Method: Method developed by Descartes that
stated a conclusion can be reached using prior known
facts (general to specific)
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98. Critiquing theoretical and conceptual frameworks
1. Is the theory explicitly stated?
2. Is a satisfactory overview of the theory given?
3. Is there a logical flow from the framework to the research problem and hypotheses? (quantitative)
4. Are the conceptual definitions clearly stated?
5. Did the theory/framework guide the study methods
(Quantitative)
6. Does the emerging theory seem clearly presented
logical and supported by the data?
7. Does the researcher use the theory in the discussion
section of the article to discuss the findings?
99. Week 5 - LecStarts here
ture Notes - Qualitative Research
Designs
100. Purpose of quali- 1. When the research goal is to thoroughly *describe,
tative design
understand or explain* a phenomenon from the subjective
(not countable) perspective of the participants.
2. When striving for a holistic (body and *mind*) understanding of a phenomenon.
101. Characteristic of 1. Design is flexible
qualitative de2. Decisions about how, when and from whom data will
sign
be collected from are made before the study but *may
change as it unfolds*.
3. Decisions are made based on what is learned as the
study progresses. AKA emergent design.
102. Emergent design a design that unfolds in the course of a qualitative study as
the researcher makes ongoing design decisions reflecting
what has already been learned
103. Qualitative re1. Focus is the participants subjective experience.
search methods 2. Naturalistic setting
3. Methods: Interviews, direct observation, document review, cultural records.
4. No control of the independent variable; term variable is
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not used at all
5. Group comparisons are not usually done
6. The sample size is small compared to quantitative
studies
7. Data collection may be cross-sectional, or longitudinal
8. Data saturation: data is collected until researcher hears
repetition in participants' experiences. (nothing new)
9. Analysis is artful, progressive
10. Ethical principles of respect, non-manipulation are
highly valued.
104. Phases of a qual- 1. Orientation and overview: Get a handle on what is
itative study.
salient (important) about the phenomenon of interest.
2. Focused exploration: scrutiny and in-depth exploration
of salient information
3. Confirmation and closure: going back and discussing
findings with participants.
105. Researcher's
Role
1. The researcher is "close" to the participants (must have
a good rapport)
2. Researcher has a duty to identify his/her own ideologies, biases and presuppositions (implicit assumption
about the world) early in the process (to eliminate bias)
3. This is often addressed directly in the research report
4. This process makes it easier for the researcher to
acknowledge them and 'bracket' or separate out his/her
own experiences.
106. Types of Qual1. Ethnography
itative Research 2. Phenomenology
Strategies
3. Grounded Theory
4. Participatory action research.
107. Ethonography
1. Arose from anthroppology
2. Goal is to describe cultural/group patterns
3. Strive to gain an "*emic*" or insider's perspective of the
culture.
4. Sample research questions: How do decisions about
daily activities get made in a nursing home? How do seniors adapt to moving to assisted living accommodation?
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5. Methods: Lengthy field work using diaries, photos, observation, interviews etc.
6. Product: in-depth, holistic portrait of group under study.
Ethnography is method in which the researcher attempts
to understand a culture or distinct social group through
participation observation
108. emic vs etic
emic is viewpoint obtained from within the social group
(from the perspective of the subject) and etic is from
outside (from the perspective of the observer).
109. Phenomenology 1. Arose from philosophy.
2. Goal: To describe the "lived experience" of the participants
3. A) Descriptive phenomenology - Describes the meaning of human experience. Researcher "brackets" his/her
experience (excludes bias)
4. B) Interpretive phenomenology (hermeneutics): interpretes human experience. Believes bracketing is not realistic.
5. Sample research questions:" What does it mean to
undergo cancer treatment, to be diagnosed with diabetes,
to have a stillborn child?
6. Small sample often *less than 10*
7. Methods in depth interviews
8. Analysis Search for themes that capture the participants experiences.
110. Grounded theory 1. Arose from sociology
2. Goal: To provide comprehensive explanation of a basic
social process that is grounded in reality.
3. Goes beyond description in that theory is "grounded"
in data.
4. Sample research question: "What processes do families go through when a family member is diagnosed with
an acute brain injury?
5. Methods: In-depth interviews, observation, chart review.
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uses *constant comparison*
6. Sample: No clear rule, usually ranges from *15 to 30*.
Theoretical sampling is used: the researcher analyzes
data and based on findings, seeks out more participants
who will confirm or provide exceptions to the theory that
is being developed.
111. Participatory Ac- 1. Arose from critical social theory
tion Research
2. Goal: to empower participants and reduce social and
political inequalities.
3. Participants active in all aspects of the study: they set
goals for the study, may do the data collection, contribute
to doing/checking analysis, reporting.
4. Sample research question: What are the views and
practices of South East Asian women who move to Ontario regarding PAP tests.?
5. Methods: Interviews, observation, program development.
112. Guidelines for
1. What qualitative design was used? Was it clearly idencritiquing quali- tified?
tative designs
2. Was the research question congruent with the research
design?
3. Were data sources and methods consistent with he
research design?
4. Was the research design thoroughly described?
5. Did the design lend itself to a thoughtful, complete
picture of the phenomenon of interest.
113. Week 6 - Lecture Starts here
Notes - Examining Sample Plans
114. Sampling is
1. Process of selecting participants (= sample population)
2. Why use a sample? because of time and cost.
3. Quantitative samples enable to generalize findings to a
larger group
4. Qualitative participants are selected to provide an indepth understanding of the phenomenon. (eg: study on
homeless people, study on nursing students etc.)
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115. General sam1. Identify target population
pling procedure 2. Identify accessible population
3. Develop sampling plan.
116. Basic Sampling 1. Population
Concepts
1.1 Eligibility (inclusion) criteria
1.2 Target (ideal) Vs. Accessible. (what's available from
target)
2. Sample
2.1 Representativeness (does it represent the segment of
target population)
3. Sampling bias (it's not representative)
4. Strata (segment of population)
5. Probability/random vs. nonprobability/non random
sampling
6. Different approaches used for quantitative and qualitative studies.
117. Inclusion criteria characteristics that the prospective subjects must have if
they are to be included in the study
118. Target population
population experimenter wants to study
119. Accessible pop- Portion of the target population that is accessible to the
ulation
researcher, from which a sample in drawn.
120. Sample Representativeness
refers to how similiar a sample's profile is to the population
it represents
121. Sampling bias
A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.
122. stratified sampling
The process of dividing the population into subgroups
(strata) to create a sample that contains members of
each subgroup in the same proportion that exists in the
same proportion that exists in the larger population. For
example, if the population being studied is 40% Danish
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and 60% Swedish, this would be 40% Danish and 60%
Swedish as well.
123. random / proba- Type of sampling procedure in which one is able to specify
bility sampling the probability that any member of the population will be
included in the sample.
A sample that fairly represents a population because
each member has an equal chance of inclusion
124. non random /
non probability
sampling
Does not use random sampling, sometimes because it is
not possible ( for example, the homeless population) there
are 4 types: reliance on available subjects, purposive
sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling
all of the elements do not have an equal chance of being
selected, not representative of population
125. Two main sampling designs
non random sampling is used in quantitative and qualitative.
random sampling is only used in quantitative research.
126. Qualitative Sam- 1. The goal: to uncover individual experience, to discover
pling
meaning
2. Hence, small sample size, nonrandom selection, sample is chosen (eg: homeless people)
3. Generalizability of findings is not a guiding principle.
(because of small sample size.)
4. Sampling design evolves as study progresses.
Qualitative sampling is non-probability sampling, where
researchers recruit only specific populations to investigate a specific topic or when the total population is unknown or unavailable. there are four types of non-probability sampling.
convenience sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling
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127. convenience
sampling
Consists of only available member of the population
(leads to biased results).
128. purposive sampling
selecting sample members to study because they possess attributes important to understanding the research
topic
129. quota sampling
Used when a specific number of cases are necessary
from various strata (groups).
A nonprobability sampling technique in which researchers divide the population into groups and then
arbitrarily choose participants from each group
130. Snowball sampling
recruitment of participants based on word of mouth or
referrals from other participants
is useful for hard-to-reach or hard-to-identify populations
for which there is no sampling frame, but the members of
which are somewhat interconnected
131. Qualitative Sam- 1. Small in comparison to quantitative
ple Sizes
2. Depends on purpose, quality of informants, & type of
sampling strategy
3. Determined on basis of information needs
4. No fixed rules however, sample size and method varied
according to the different qualitative traditions
5. Guiding principle is data saturation.
132. data saturation
In qualitative research, the time when no new information
is being obtained and repetition of information is consistently heard
133. Sampling in
Slide 11
three main qualitative traditions
134. Ethnographic
study sampling
Ethnographic studies: (25-50) people, use smaller number of key informants, sample events, records artifacts
etc.
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135. Phenomenologi- Typically (but not always) very small numbers (less than
cal study
10), Must have experienced the phenomenon under
sampling
study.
136. Grounded theory Typically 20-30 but may be up to 50 people, uses theoretsampling
ical sampling.
137. Theoretical sam- selecting sample members based on earlier interviews
pling
that suggest that particular types of participants will help
researchers better understand the research topic
138. key informant
Individual who is the main link between the researcher
and group being researched. Provides info on group
139. Critiquing Qual- We examine the sampling section for:
itative sampling 1. Adequacy: Sufficiency and quality of data.
plans
2. Appropriateness: Does the sampling method match the
study design
3. Fittingness: Comparabiliity of the sample from the study
and people in another setting where findings maybe applied.
140. Week 7 - Scruti- Starts here
nizing Data Collection methods
141. Major types of
Data Collection
methods
1. Self-reports (mainly surveys and interviews)
2. Observation
3. Biophysiologic measures (a quantitative technique.)
142. Key Dimensions The data collection methods vary regarding:
of Data Collec- 1. Structure
tion Methods
2. Quantifiability
3. Obtrusiveness
4. Objectivity
143. Chapter 1 Textbook Summary
- *Nursing research* is a systematic inquiry to develop
knowledge about issues of importance to nurses and
serves to establish a base of knowledge for nursing prac23 / 50
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tice.
- Nurses in various settings are pursuing an evidence-based practice(EBP) that incorporates research
ndings into their decisions and their interactions with
clients.
- Knowledge of nursing research methods enhances the
professional practice of all nurses, including both consumers of research (who read, evaluate, and use studies)
and producers of research (who design and undertake
studies).
- Nursing research began with Florence Nightingale but
developed slowly until its rapid acceleration in the 1950s.
Since the 1970s, nursing research has focused on problems related to clinical practice.
- The Canadian Health Services Research Foundation
(CHSRF) has been funding a series of research chairs
and related programs specic to nursing since 1999.
- Future emphases of nursing research are likely to include EBP and research utilization projects, replications
of research, integrative reviews, transdisciplinary studies,
expanded dissemination efforts, and outcomes research.
- Disciplined research is widely considered superior to
other sources of evidence for nursing practice, such as
tradition, authority, clinical experience, trial and error, and
intuition.
- Disciplined inquiry in nursing is conducted mainly within
two broad paradigms, or worldviews with underlying assumptions about the complexities of reality: the positivist
paradigm and the naturalistic paradigm.
- Researchers in the positivist paradigm assume that
there is an objective reality and that natural phenomena
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(observable facts and events) are regular and orderly. The
related assumption of determinism refers to the belief that
events are not haphazard but rather the result of prior
causes. Pure positivism has been replaced with a postpositivist perspective that acknowledges the difculty of
making totally objective observations and knowing reality
with certainty.
- Researchers in the naturalistic paradigm assume that
reality is not a xed entity but is rather a construction of
human minds, and thus "truth" is a composite of multiple
constructions of reality.
- The positivist paradigm is associated with quantitative
research—the collection and analysis of numeric information. Quantitative research is typically conducted within
the traditional scientic method, which is a systematic and
controlled process. Quantitative researchers base their
ndings on empirical evidence (evidence collected by way
of the human senses) and strive for generalizability of
their ndings beyond a single setting or situation.
- Researchers within the naturalistic paradigm emphasize
understanding the human experience as it is lived through
the collection and analysis of subjective, narrative materials using exible procedures that evolve in the eld; this
paradigm is associated with qualitative research.
- Nursing research can be either basic (designed to provide information for the sake of knowledge) or applied
(designed to solve specic problems). Research purposes
include identication, description, exploration, explanation,
prediction, and control.
144. Chapter 18 Text- pg 372-373 Starts here
book Summary
145. Research Utiliza- Research utilization (RU) and evidence-based practice
tion (RU) vs
(EBP) are overlapping concepts that concern efforts to
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Evidence Based use research as a basis for clinical decisions. RU starts
Practice (EBP)
with research ndings that get evaluated for possible use
in practice. EBP starts with a search for the best possible evidence for a clinical problem, with emphasis on
research-based evidence
146. Chapter 2 Textbook Summary
* A study (or investigation) is undertaken by one or more
researchers (or investigators). The people who provide
information in a study are the study participants (in both
quantitative and qualitative research) or informants (in
qualitative research).
* Collaborative research involving a research team with
both clinical and methodologic expertise is increasingly
common in addressing problems of clinical relevance.
* The site is the overall location for the research; researchers sometimes engage in multisite studies. Settings—the more specic places where data collection occurs—range from naturalistic (eld) settings to formal laboratories.
* Researchers investigate phenomena or concepts (or
constructs), which are abstractions or mental representations inferred from behaviour or events.
* Concepts are the building blocks of theories, which are
systematic explanations of some aspect of the world.
* In quantitative studies, concepts are called variables. A
variable is a characteristic or quality that takes on different
values (i.e., varies from one person to another).
* The dependent (or outcome) variable is the behaviour,
characteristic, or outcome the researcher is interested in
explaining, predicting, or affecting. The independent variable is the presumed cause of, antecedent to, or inuence
on the dependent variable.
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* A conceptual denition claries the abstract or theoretical meaning of a concept being studied. An operational
denition species the procedures and tools required to
measure a variable.
* Data—the information collected during the course of a
study—may take the form of narrative information (qualitative data) or numeric values (quantitative data).
* Researchers often focus on the relationship between
two concepts. A relationship is a bond (or pattern of association) between two phenomena; when the independent
variable causes or determines the dependent variable, it
is a causal (or cause-and-effect) relationship.
* Inductive reasoning is the process of developing conclusions from specic observations, whereas deductive
reasoning is the process of developing specic predictions
from general principles.
* Researchers face numerous conceptual, practical, ethical, and methodologic challenges. The major methodologic challenge is designing studies that are reliable
and valid (quantitative studies) or trustworthy (qualitative
studies).
* Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency of
information obtained in a study. Validity is a more complex
concept that concerns the soundness of the study's evidence—that is, whether the ndings are cogent and well
grounded.
* Trustworthiness in qualitative research encompasses
several dimensions, including credibility. Credibility is
achieved to the extent that the research methods engender condence in the truth of the data and in the researchers' interpretations. Triangulation, the use of multiple sources or referents to draw conclusions about what
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ibility.
* A bias is an inuence that distorts study results. In quantitative research, a powerful tool to eliminate bias concerns
randomness—having features of the study established by
chance rather than by design or preference.
* Qualitative researchers often keep personal biases in
check through reexivity, the process of reecting critically
on the self and noting personal values that could affect
data collection and interpretation.
* Quantitative researchers use various methods of research control to hold constant confounding inuences
on the dependent variable so that its relationship to the
independent variable can be better understood. The confounding inuences are extraneous variables—extraneous
to the purpose of the study.
* Generalizability is the criterion used in a quantitative
study to assess the extent to which the ndings can be
applied to other groups and settings.
* A similar concept in qualitative studies is transferability,
the extent to which qualitative ndings can be transferred
to other settings. A mechanism for promoting transferability is thick description, the rich, thorough description of
the research context so that others can make inferences
about contextual similarities.
147. Chapter 3 Textbook Summary
* Quantitative studies are either experimental or nonexperimental. In experimental research, researchers actively introduce a treatment or intervention; in nonexperimental research,researchers make observations of existing
characteristics and behaviour without intervening.
* Qualitative nursing research often is rooted in research
traditions from the disciplines of anthropology, sociology,
and psychology. Three such traditions are ethnography,
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grounded theory, and phenomenology.
* Grounded theory seeks to describe and understand
key social-psychological processes that occur in social
settings.
* Phenomenology is concerned with lived experiences
and is an approach to learning about what people's life
experiences are like and what they mean.
* Ethnography provides a framework for studying the
meanings, patterns, and experiences of a dened cultural
group in a holistic fashion.
* In a quantitative study, researchers progress in a linear
fashion from posing a research question to answering it
in fairly standard steps.
* The main phases in a quantitative study are the conceptual, planning, empirical, analytic, and dissemination
phases.
* The conceptual phase involves dening the problem to
be studied, doing a literature review engaging in clinical
eldwork for clinical studies, developing a framework and
conceptual denitions, and formulating hypotheses to be
tested.
* The design and planning phase entails selecting a research design, formulating the intervention protocol(in
experimental research), specifying the population, developing a sampling plan, specifying methods to measure
the research variables, designing procedures to protect
subjects' rights, and nalizing the research plan (and, in
some cases, conducting a pilot study).
* The empirical phase involves collecting the data and
preparing the data for analysis (e.g., coding the data).
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* The analytic phase involves analyzing the data through
statistical analysis and interpreting the results.
* The dissemination phase entails communicating the
ndings and promoting their utilization.
* The ow of activities in a qualitative study is more exible
and less linear than in a quantitative study.
* Qualitative researchers begin with a broad question that
is narrowed through the actual process of data collection
and analysis.
* In the early phase of a qualitative study, researchers
select a site and then take steps to gain entrée into it;
gaining entrée typically involves enlisting the cooperation
of gatekeepers i stakeholders within the site.
* Qualitative studies typically involve an emergent design: researchers select informants, collect data, and then
analyze and interpret them in an ongoing fashion. Field
experiences help to shape the design of the study.
* Early analysis leads to renements in sampling and data
collection, until saturation (redundancy of information) is
achieved.
* Qualitative researchers conclude by disseminating ndings that can subsequently be used to guide further studies, to develop structured measuring tools, and to inuence
nurses' perceptions of a problem and their conceptualizations of potential solutions.
148. Chapter 4 Textbook Summary
* The most common types of research reports are theses
and dissertations, books, conference presentations (including oral reports and poster sessions), and, especially,
journal articles.
* Research journal articles provide brief descriptions of
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studies and are designed to communicate the contribution the study has made to knowledge.
* Quantitative journal articles (and many qualitative ones)
typically follow the IMRAD format with the following sections: introduction (explanation of the study problem and
its context), method section (the strategies used to address the research problem), results (the actual study
ndings), and discussion (the interpretation of the ndings).
* Journal articles typically begin with a structured abstract
(a brief synopsis of the study) and conclude with references (a list of works cited in the report).
* Research reports are often difcult to read because they
are dense, concise, and may contain a lot of jargon.
* Qualitative research reports are written in a more inviting
and conversational style than quantitative ones, which are
more impersonal and include information on statistical
tests.
* Statistical tests are procedures for testing research hypotheses and evaluating the believability of the ndings.
Findings that are statistically signicant are ones that have
a high probability (p) of being accurate.
* The ultimate goal of this book is to help students to
prepare a research critique, which is a careful, critical
appraisal of the strengths and limitations of a piece of
research, often for the purpose of considering the worth
of its evidence for nursing practice.
149. Chapter 11 Text- 197 Only Starts here
book Summary
150. Mixed method
Integration of qualitative and quantitative data within single studies or coordinated clusters of studies.
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It is believed by some that many areas of inquiry can be
enriched and the evidence base enhanced through the
judicious blending of qualitative and quantitative data. The
following advantages are discussed:
1. Complementarity: can minimize limitations of each
method and look for synergistic effect.
2. Incrementality and validity: Qualitative studies can develop hypothesis to be tested and hypothesis can be tested using quantitative methods and repeated to increase
strength of the results.
3. Creating new frontiers: Inconsistencies between the 2
paradigms can yield insights that can be used to further
develop a line of inquiry.
151. Chapter 5 Text- * Because research has not always been conducted ethbook Summary - ically, and because of the ethical dilemmas researchers
often face in designing studies that are both ethical and
methodologically rigorous, codes of ethics have been
developed to guide researchers.
* In Canada, the Tri-Council Policy Statement on ethical
conduct for research with humans set forth eight key ethical principles: respect for human dignity, respect for free
and informed consent, respect for vulnerable persons, respect for privacy and condentiality, respect of justice and
inclusiveness, balancing harms and benets, minimizing
harm, and maximizing benet.
* Respect for human dignity includes the participants'
right to self-determination, which means participants
have the freedom to control their own actions, including
the right to refuse to participate in the study or to answer
certain questions.
* Informed consent is intended to provide prospective
participants with information needed to make a reasoned
and voluntary decision about participation in a study.
* Full disclosure means researchers have fully described
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the study, including risks and benets, to prospective participants. When full disclosure poses the risk of biased
results, researchers sometimes use covert data collection
or concealment (the collection of data without the participants' knowledge or consent) or deception (withholding
information from participants or providing false information).
* Vulnerable subjects require additional protection as participants. They may be vulnerable because they are not
able to make a truly informed decision about study participation (e.g., children); because of diminished autonomy
(e.g., prisoners); or because their circumstances heighten
the risk of physical or psychological harm (e.g., pregnant
women).
* The principle of justice includes the right to fair and
equitable treatment and to an inclusionary approach to
recruitment of participants.
* Benecenceinvolves the performance of some good, and
the protection of participants from harm and exploitation
(nonmalecence).
* Various procedures have been developed to safeguard
study participants' rights, including the performance of a
risk/benet assessment, implementation of informed consent procedures, and efforts to safeguard participants'
condentiality.
* In a risk/benet assessment,the individual benets of participation in a study (and societal benets of the research)
are weighed against the costs to individuals.
* Informed consent normally involves the signing of a
consent form to document voluntary and informed participation. In qualitative studies, consent may need to be
continually renegotiated with participants as the study
evolves, through process consent procedures.
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* Privacy can be maintained through anonymity (wherein
not even researchers know the participants' identity) or
through formal condentiality procedures that safeguard
the information participants provide.
* Researchers sometimes offer debrieng sessions after
data collection to provide participants with more information or an opportunity to air complaints.
* External review of the ethical aspects of a study by a
Research Ethics Board (REB) or other human subjects
committee is highly desirable and may be required by
either the agency funding the research or the organization
from which participants are recruited.
* Ethical conduct in research involves not only protection
of the rights of human and animal subjects but also efforts
to maintain high standards of integrity and avoid such
forms of research misconductas plagiarism, fabrication of
results, or falsication of data
152. Chapter 12 Text- * Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the
book Summary - population, which is an entire aggregate of cases.
Samples
* An element (the basic unit about which information is
collected) must meet the eligibility criteria to be included
in the sample.
* The main consideration in assessing a sample in a
quantitative study is its representativeness—the extent to
which the sample is similar to the population and avoids
bias. Sampling bias refers to the systematic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some segment of the
population.
* Quantitative researchers usually sample from an accessible population but typically want to generalize to a larger
target population.
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* Nonprobability sampling (wherein elements are selected by nonrandom methods) includes convenience, quota, and purposive sampling. Nonprobability sampling designs are convenient and economical; a major disadvantage is their potential for bias.
* Convenience sampling(or accidental sampling) uses
the most readily available or most convenient group of
people for the sample. Snowball sampling is a type of
convenience sampling in which referrals for potential participants are made by those already in the sample.
* Quota sampling divides the population into homogeneous strata (subgroups) to ensure representation of
those subgroups in the sample; within each stratum, researchers select participants by convenience sampling.
* In purposive (or judgmental) sampling, participants or
types of participants are hand picked based on the researcher's knowledge about the population.
* Probability sampling designs, which involve the random
selection of elements from the population, yield more representative samples than nonprobability designs and permit estimates of the magnitude of sampling error. Probability samples, however, are expensive and demanding.
* Simple random sampling involves the selection of elements on a random basis from a sampling frame that
enumerates all the elements.
* Stratied random sampling divides the population into homogeneous subgroups from which elements are selected
at random.
* Cluster sampling (or multistage sampling) involves the
successive selection of random samples from larger to
smaller units by either simple random or stratied random
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methods.
* Systematic sampling is the selection of every kth case
from a list. By dividing the population size by the desired
sample size, the researcher establishes the sampling
interval, which is the standard distance between the selected elements.
* In addition to representativeness, sample size is another
important concern in quantitative studies, especially with
regard to a study's statistical conclusion validity.
* Advanced researchers use power analysisto estimate
sample size needs. Large samples are preferable to small
ones in quantitative studies because larger samples tend
to be more representative, but even large samples do not
guarantee representativeness.
* Qualitative researchers use the theoretical demands of
the study to select articulate and reective informants with
certain types of experience in an emergent way, capitalizing on early learning to guide subsequent sampling
decisions.
* Qualitative researchers most often use purposive or, in
grounded theory studies, theoretical sampling to guide
them in selecting data sources that maximize information
richness.
* Various purposive sampling strategies have been used
by qualitative researchers. One strategy is maximum variation sampling,which entails purposely selecting cases
with a wide range of variation. Other strategies include
homogeneous sampling (deliberately reducing variation),
extreme case sampling (selecting the most unusual or
extreme cases), and criterion sampling (studying cases
that meet a predetermined criterion of importance).
* Another strategy in qualitative research is sampling
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conrming and disconrming cases,that is, selecting cases
that enrich and challenge the researchers' conceptualizations.
* Samples in qualitative studies are typically small and
based on information needs. A guiding principle is
data saturation, which involves sampling to the point at
which no new information is obtained and redundancy is
achieved.
* Ethnographers make numerous sampling decisions, including not only whom to sample but also whatto sample
(e.g., activities, events, documents, artefacts); these decisions are often aided by key informants who serve as
guides and interpreters of the culture.
* Phenomenologists typically work with a small sample of
people (10 or fewer) who meet the criterion of having lived
the experience under study.
* Grounded theory researchers typically use theoretical
sampling and work with samples of about 20 to 30 people.
* Criteria for evaluating qualitative sampling are informational adequacy and appropriateness; potential for transferability is another issue of concern.
153. Chapter 6 Text- * A research problem is a perplexing or enigmatic sitbook Summary - uation that a researcher wants to address through disEthics
ciplined inquiry. Sources of ideas for nursing research
problems include clinical experience, relevant literature,
social issues, and theory.
* Researchers usually identify a broad topic or focus, then
narrow the scope of the problem and identify questions
consistent with a paradigm of choice.
* A statement of purposesummarizes the overall goal of
the study; in both qualitative and quantitative studies, the
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purpose statement identies the key concepts (variables)
and the study group or population.
* A research questionstates the specic query the researcher wants to answer to address the research problem.
* A hypothesis is a statement of a predicted relationship
between two or more variables. A testable hypothesis
states the anticipated association between one or more
independent and one or more dependent variables.
* A directional hypothesis species the expected direction
or nature of a hypothesized relationship; nondirectional
hypotheses predict a relationship but do not stipulate the
form that the relationship will take.
* Research hypotheses predict the existence of relationships; null hypotheses express the absence of any relationship.
* Hypotheses are never proved nor disproved in an ultimate sense—they are accepted or rejected, supported or
not supported by the data.
154. Chapter 8 Text- * A theoryis a broad characterization of phenomena. As
book Summary - classically dened, a theory is an abstract generalization
that systematically explains the relationships among phenomena. Descriptive theory thoroughly describes a phenomenon.
* The overall objective of theory is to make research
ndings meaningful, summarize existing knowledge into
coherent systems, stimulate and provide direction to new
research, and explain the nature of relationships among
variables.
* The basic components of a theory are concepts. Classically dened theories consist of a set of propositions about
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interrelationships among concepts, arranged in a logical
system that permits new statements to be derived from
them.
* Concepts are also the basic elements of conceptual
models, but the concepts are not linked to one another
in a logically ordered, deductive system.
* Schematic models(or conceptual maps) are symbolic
representations of phenomena that depict a conceptual
model through the use of symbols or diagrams.
* A framework is the conceptual underpinnings of a study.
In many studies, the framework is implicit and not fully
explicated.
* Several conceptual models of nursing have been developed and have been used in nursing research (e.g.,
Moyra Allen's McGill Model of Nursing). The concepts that
are central to models of nursing are person, environment,
health, and nursing.
* Nonnursing theories used by nurse researchers (e.g.,
Lazarus and Folkman's Theory of Stress and Coping) are
referred to as borrowed theories; when the appropriateness of borrowed theories for nursing inquiry is conrmed,
the theories become shared theories.
* In some qualitative research traditions (e.g., phenomenology), the researcher strives to suspend previously
held substantive conceptualizations of the phenomena
under study, but nevertheless there is a rich theoretical
underpinning associated with the tradition itself.
* Some qualitative researchers specically seek to develop grounded theories, data-driven explanations to account for phenomena under study (substantive theories)
through inductive processes.
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* In classical applications of theory, quantitative researchers test hypotheses deduced from a theory. A particularly fruitful approach involves testing two competing
theories in one study.
* In both qualitative and quantitative studies, researchers
sometimes use a theory or model as an organizing framework or as an interpretive tool.
* Researchers sometimes develop a problem, design a
study, and then look for a conceptual framework; such an
after-the-fact selection of a framework is less compelling
than the systematic testing of a particular theory.
155. Chapter 7 Text- * A research literature reviewis a written summary of the
book Summary - state of knowledge on a research problem.
* Researchers undertake literature reviews to determine
knowledge on a topic of interest, to provide a context for
a study, and to justify the need for a study; consumers review and synthesize evidence-based information to gain
knowledge and improve nursing practice.
* Electronic databases, which are important tools for locating references, usually can be accessed through an
online search or by way of CD-ROM. For nurses, the
CINAHL database is especially useful.
* Most database searches begin with a subject search,
but a textword search and an author search are other
possibilities.
* In writing a research review, reviewers should carefully
organize the relevant materials, which should consist primarily of primary source research reports.
* The role of reviewers is to point out what has been
studied to date, how adequate and dependable those
studies are, and what gaps exist in the body of research.
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* Nurses need to have skills in using and critiquing research reviews prepared by others, including traditional
narrative reviews, meta-analyses (the integration of study
ndings using statistical procedures), and qualitative metasyntheses (integrations of qualitative research ndings that
produce new interpretations.)
156. Chapter 13 Text- * Some researchers use existing data in their studies—for
book Summary - example, those doing historical research, meta-analyses,
scrutinizing data secondary analyses, or analyses of available records.
collection
* Data collection methods vary along four dimensions:
structure, quantiability, researcher obtrusiveness, and objectivity.
* The three principal data collection methods for nurse
researchers are self reports, observations, and biophysiologic measures.
* Self-reports are the most widely used method of collecting data for nursing studies. Qualitative studies—especially ethnographies—are more likely than quantitative
studies to triangulate data from different sources.
* Self-report data are collected by means of an oral
interview or written questionnaire. Self-report methods
are an indispensable means of collecting data but are
susceptible to errors of reporting.
* Unstructured self-reports, used in qualitative studies, include completely unstructured interviews,which are conversational discussions on the topic of interest; semistructured (or focused) interviews, using a broad topic guide;
focus group interviews,which involve discussions with
small groups; life histories, which encourage respondents
to narrate their life experiences about a theme; the think
aloud method, which involves having people talk about
decisions as they are making them; diaries, in which
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respondents are asked to maintain daily records about
some aspects of their lives; and the critical incidents technique, which involves probes about the circumstances
surrounding an incident that is critical to an outcome of
interest.
* Structured self-reports used in quantitative studies employ a formal instrument—a questionnaire or interview
schedule—that may contain a combination of open-ended questions (which permit respondents to respond in
their own words) and closed-ended questions (which offer
respondents xed alternatives from which to choose).
* Questionnaires are less costly than interviews, offer the
possibility of anonymity, and run no risk of interviewer
bias; however, interviews yield higher response rates, are
suitable for a wider variety of people, and provide richer
data than questionnaires.
* Social-psychological scales are self-report tools for
quantitatively measuring the intensity of such characteristics as attitudes, needs, and perceptions.
* Likert scales (or summated rating scales) present respondents with a series of items worded favourably or
unfavourably toward some phenomenon; responses indicating level of agreement or disagreement with each
statement are scored and summed into a composite
score.
* The semantic differential (SD) technique consists of a
series of scales with bipolar adjectives (e.g., good/bad)
along which respondents rate their reactions toward phenomena.
* A visual analog scale (VAS) is used to measure subjective experiences (e.g., pain, fatigue) along a line designating a bipolar continuum.
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* Scales are versatile and powerful but are susceptible to
response set biases— the tendency of some people to
respond to items in characteristic ways, independently of
item content.
* Vignettes are brief descriptions of some person or situation to which respondents are asked to react.
* With a Q sort, respondents sort a set of statements into
piles according to specified criteria.
* Direct observation of phenomena, which includes both
structured and unstructured procedures, is a technique
for gathering data about behaviours and events.
* One type of unstructured observation is participant
observation, in which the researcher gains entrée into
the social group of interest and participates to varying
degrees in its functioning while making in-depth observations of activities and events. Logs of daily events and
eld notes of the observer's experiences and interpretations constitute the major data collection instruments in
unstructured observation.
* Structured observations, which dictate what the observer should observe, often involve checklists—tools based
on category systemsfor recording the appearance, frequency, or duration of prespecied behaviours or events.
Alternatively, the observer may use rating scales to rate
phenomena along a dimension of interest (e.g., energetic/lethargic).
* Structured observations often use a sampling plan (such
as time sampling or event sampling) for selecting the
behaviours or events to be observed.
* Observational techniques are a versatile and important
alternative to selfreports, but observational biases can
pose a threat to the validity and accuracy of observational
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data.
* Data may also be derived from biophysiologic measures, which can be classied as either in vivomeasurements (those performed within or on living organisms) or
in vitro measurements (those performed outside the organism's body, such as blood tests). Biophysiologic measures have the advantage of being objective, accurate,
and precise.
* In developing a data collection plan, the researcher must
decide who will collect the data, how the data collectors
will be trained, and what the circumstances for data collection will be.
157. Random True
Starts here
and False Covering week 1-7
158. Provability sam- true
pling is the same
as random sampling
159. provability sam- true
pling is expensive and demanding
160. What is cluster
sampling?
sampling in which elements are selected in two or more
stages, with the first stage being the random selection of
naturally occurring clusters and the last stage being the
random selection of elements within clusters
161. Systematic sam- true.
pling is related
to every nth case
from a list
162.
true.
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key informants
are guides and
interpreters of
the culture
163. power analysis is true
used for estimating sample size
need
164. data collection true
methods vary
along structure,
quantifiability, researcher obtrusiveness and objectivity
165. researcher obtrusiveness
The degree to which participants are aware of the presence of the research.
166. Interview or writ- true
ten questionnaire can be
used for self Self
report
167. Unstructured
self reports are
used in
quantitative
study
false
168. semantic differ- true
ential is related
to good and bad
response
169. visual analog
scale is related
true
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to bipolar continuum
170. Likert scales are true
used to gauge
level of agreement
171. in Q sort, respon- true
dents sort a set
of statements.
172. In a structrue
tured observation, observer is
observes only
events related to
the research
173. In participant ob- true
servation, observer becomes
embedded in the
social group r/t
emic
174. Broad charactrue
terization of
phenomena are
known as theory
175. Descriptive theo- true
ry thoroughly describes a phenomenon
176. Concepts are
components of
theory
true
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177. Conceptual mod- true
els are like theory but not logically ordered.
178. Schematic mod- true
els are AKA conceptual maps
179. Schematic mod- true
els depict a
conceptual model using symbols
and diagrams
180. Framework is
true
conceptual underpinning of a
study, it can be
explicitly mentioned or implicit
181. borrowed theo- true
ries are non
nursing theories
used by nurse researchers
182. shared theories true
are when borrowed theories
become nursing
theories after relevancy is verified
183. example of sub- in grounded theory, a theory that is grounded in data
stantive theory from a single study on a specific substantive area (e.g.,
postpartum depression); in contrast to formal theory
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184. literature review true
is a written summary of the state
of knowledge on
a research problem
185. primary source true
research reports
are written by
the author of the
study
186. meta analyses
true
are related to collection of quantitative, statistical
studies
187. meta syntheses true
are r/t collection of qualitative
studies
188. Research prob- true
lem describes an
unanswered phenomena
189. Statement of pur- true
pose summarizes the goal of
the study
190. null hypothesis true
is absence of any
relationship
191. Full disclosure
means that the
true
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researchers have
fully described
the study (pros
and cons) to participants
192. covert data col- true
lection is used
if full disclosure poses risk
to impartiality of
the study (introduces bias)
193. Beneficence in true
research ethics
refers to protection of participants from harm
and exploitation
194. examples of Vul- true
nerable subjects are children, prisoners,
pregnant women
195. self determitrue
nation means
that participants
have the freedom
to control their
decisions including declining to
answer questions, withdrawing from study.
196. Ethical dilemmas
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Problems about which more than once choice can be
made and the choice made is influenced by the values
and beliefs of decision makers.
197. Clinical trials
studies designed to assess the effectiveness of clinical
interventions often designed in a phases.
198. Randomized
clinical trial
Full experimental test of the treatment
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