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Dk ching summary notes architecture form space and order
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1
FRANCIS D.K. CHING – ARCHITECTURE FORM, SPACE AND ORDER
SUMMARY NOTES
CHAPTER 1 – PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF FORM
o Each element is first considered as a conceptual element, then becomes a visual element in
architectural design. Prime generators of form are:
 Point – indicates a position in space
 Line – with length, direction and position
 Plane – with length, width, shape, surface, orientation and position
 Volume – with length, width and depth, form and space, surface, orientation, position
 Point – can be stable (centered) or aggressive (off-center) which creates visual tension.
 Line – described by two points connected; can be considered as a segment of a longer path; can
suggest an axis; can describe direction, movement or growth; can have different qualities; the
configuration of linear elements can define planes which can also define a space.
 Note: an axis is an ordering device to organize building forms and spaces
 Vertical linear elements are used to commemorate significant points – i.e. columns, obelisks,
towers.
 Plane – line extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction. Shape is the primary identifying
characteristic of a plane which is determined by the contour of the edges. The true shape of a plane
can only be view frontally. It serves to define the limits or boundaries of a volume.
 Supplementary properties – surface color, pattern and texture (which affects the visual weight
and stability).
 Three generic types of plane in architecture: overhead plane, wall plane and base plane. The
ground plane influenced much in architecture (topography) as well as the floor plane.
 Volume – plane extended in direction other than its intrinsic direction; consisting of points or vertices,
lines or edges and planes or surfaces; can be solid that has a mass or a void.
 Note: Form is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume.
 Plan and section – space defined by wall, floor and ceiling or roof planes.
 Elevation – space displaced by the mass of a building.
CHAPTER 2 - FORM
 Form – the formal structure of a work (in art and design), the manner of arranging and coordinating the
elements and parts of a composition so as to produce a coherent image. It suggests reference to both
internal structure and external outline and the principle that gives unity to the whole.
 The visual properties of form include:
 Shape – the characteristic outline or surface configuration of a particular form, a principal aspect
in identifying and categorizing forms. Perception of shape depends on the visual contrast of the
figure ground and background. We attribute shapes to different architectural elements such as
floors, walls, ceiling, window openings, sillhouttes and building forms.
 The primary shapes are circle, triangle and square.
 Circle – centralized, introverted figure, normally stable and self-centering.
 Triangle – signifies stability; stable on its side, dynamic on its corners
 Square – represents pure and the rational, bilaterally symmetrical figure with two
equal and perpendicular axes.
 Size – determined by the physical dimensions which also determine the proportion.
 Scale – determined by size relative to other forms in its context
 Color – phenomenon of light and visual perception, most clearly distinguishes the form from its
background and also affect the visual weight
 Texture – visual and tactile quality due to the surface configuration, also determines the
reflectance or absorption of light
 The relational properties of form which govern the pattern and compositions of elements include:
 Position – location of form relative to environment or the visual field
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Orientation – direction of form relative to the ground plane, compass points, other forms or the
person viewing it
 Visual Inertia – degree of concentration and stability of a form which depends on its geometry
and orientation
Surfaces – any figure with two dimensions and can also refer curved two-dimensional surfaces that
defines the boundary of a 3D solid (i.e. curved surface of a cylinder). Curved surfaces have fluid quality,
can be symmetrical (i.e. domes and barrels) or asymmetrical. Curved surfaces include:
 Cylindrical surfaces – generated by sliding a straight line along a plane curve or vice versa; also
regarded a translational or ruled surface.
 Translational surfaces – generated by sliding a plane curve along a straight line or over
another plane curve.
 Ruled surfaces – generated by the motion of a straight line; easier to construct.
 Rotational surfaces – generated by rotating a plane curve about an axis (i.e. sphere).
 Paraboloid surfaces – contains planar intersections that are either parabolas and ellipses or
parabolas and hyperbolas.
 Parabolas – plane curves generated by a moving point that remains equidistant from a
fixed line and a fixed point not on the line.
 Hyperbolas – plane curves formed by the intersection of a right circular cone with a
plane that cuts both halves of the cone.
 Hyperbolic paraboloid surfaces – generated by sliding a parabola with downward
curvature along a parabola with upward curvature or by sliding a straight line segment
with its ends on two skew lines; also considered as both translational and ruled surface.
 Saddle surfaces – with upward curvature in one direction and downward on
perpendicular direction; basically a double curved surface.
 Shell structure – a structural system that uses double curved surfaces and usually made
of thin, plates of reinforced concrete. It transmits forces by compressive, tensile and
shear stresses acting in the plane of the curved surfaces (i.e. Los Manantiales
Restaurant by Felix Candela, made of 8 hyporbolic paraboloid segments).
 Gridshell structure – pioneered by Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov which also rely
on double curved geometry but made of grid or lattice. It also relies on computer
modelling programs for irregular curved surfaces.
Primary solids – are volumetric forms generated by extending or rotating the primary shapes and which
creates a distinct, regular and easily recognizable forms.
 Sphere – generated by revolving semicircle about its diameter and all points are equidistant
from the center; centralized and highly concentrated; also self-centering and normally stable;
retains its circular shape from any direction.
 Cylinder – generated by revolving a rectangle about one of its sides; centralized about the axis;
stable if resting on the circular sides and unstable if the central axis is incline from the vertical.
 Cone – generated by revolving a right triangle about one of its sides; highly stable when resting
on circular side and unstable on its tips.
 Pyramid – polyhedron having a polygonal base and triangular faces meeting at a common point
or vertex; stable on any of its faces; basically hard and angular compared to the soft cone.
 Cube – a prismatic solid bounded by six equal square sides with right angles of intersection;
static form without apparent movement.
Regular and Irregular Forms – both can be generated from transformations of forms, and can be both
used in building forms in multiple ways.
 Regular Forms – with parts related in consistent and orderly manner, generally stable in
nature, symmetrical about one or more axes (i.e. sphere, cylinder, cone, cube and
pyramid)
 Irregular Forms – with parts that are dissimilar in nature and related in inconsistent
manner, generally asymmetrical and more dynamic.
Transformation of Forms – All other forms can be understood to be transformations of the primary
solids or variations of its dimensions.
 Dimensional transformation – altering one of its dimensions, results in the same familiar form.
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Subtractive Transformation – subtracting a portion of its volume, may or may not retain its initial
identity; also known as mutilated forms; ambiguity of the original form results if the portion
removed from its volume erodes its edges and alters the profile;
 Additive Transformation – by addition of elements to its volume, may or may not retain its initial
identity.
 The basic possibilities for grouping two or more forms are:
 Spatial tension – relies of close proximity of the forms or sharing common trait
such as shape, color or material
 Edge-to-edge contact – share common edge and can pivot about that edge
 Face-to-face contact – requires that the two forms have corresponding planar
surfaces which are parallel to each other.
 Interlocking volumes – the forms interpenetrate each other’s space, the forms
need
not share any visual traits.
 Additive groupings of forms or categories of additive forms according to the nature of
their relationship that exist among the components (basically similar with spatial
organizations):
 Centralized Form – secondary forms clustered about a dominant central parentform; requires the visual dominance of a geometrically regular and central form
such as sphere, cone or cylinder; ideal as freestanding structures isolated within
their context; can embody sacred or honorific places.
 Linear Form – series of forms arranged in a row or proportional change in the
form’s dimensions; can be segmented or curvilinear; can front on or define an
edge; can be manipulated to enclose a space; can be oriented vertically as a
tower element to establish or denote a point in space; can serve as organizing
element with attached secondary forms. Examples are agora, tree-lined canals,
mile-high tower by FLW.
 Radial Form – linear forms extending outward from central form in a radial
manner; basically combination of centrality and linearity; can create a network of
centers linked by linear forms; form is best viewed from aerial view.
 Clustered Form – collection of forms grouped together by proximity or the sharing
of common visual trait or function; it lacks geometric regularity and introvertness
of centralized form but it is flexible for different types of forms; can be organized
by attachment to a larger component, related by proximity or interlock with other
volumes.
 Grid form – set of modular forms related and regulated by a three-dimensional
grid which is a system of two or more intersections of the grid lines; most
common grid is based on squares which is nonhierarchical and bidirectional and
can be projected to create a spatial network of grid (3D).
Formal Collisions of Geometry – when two different forms collide each other boundaries, tension for
visual supremacy and dominance is created which the following forms can evolve:
 Two forms subverting their individual identities and create a new form
 One of the form receives the other totally within its volume
 Two forms can share volumes and still retain their individual identities
 Two forms can separate and be linked by a third element
 Forms with different orientation can also be incorporated into a single form for different effects
such as for accentuating, to generate contrast, to articulate, to reinforce symmetry or respond to
contrasting geometries of the surroundings. Examples are circle and squares and rotated grid.
Articulation of Form – the manner in which the form surfaces come together to define its shape and
volume which clearly reveals the precise nature and relationships of parts and the whole; making the
surfaces appear discrete planes with distinct shapes and legible and easily perceived; accentuating the
joints between parts to express their individuality.
 Articulation of form can be done by:
 differentiating adjoining planes with change in material, color, texture and pattern
 developing corners as distinct linear elements independent of the abutting planes
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 removing corners to physically separate neighboring planes
 lighting the form to create sharp contrasts in tonal value and along edges/corners
To de-emphasize joints and joinery (in contrast to articulation):
 the corners can be rounded and smoothed to emphasize continuity of surfaces
 similar materials, color or texture carried across the corner or adjoining surfaces
Edge conditions is critical to the definition and clarity of a form. The angle of the corners is
important in the perception of the adjoining surfaces. A slight bent on the wall may not create a
formally active corner that can be perceived.
 If the corner or edge is unadorned, the presence of corner depends on the visual
treatment of the adjoining surfaces and will only emphasize the volume of the form.
 If the corner becomes a distinct element independent from the surfaces, the linear
condition of the corner is visually reinforced and becomes a feature of the form.
 If opening is introduced to one side of the corner, one of the planes will appear to bypass
the other. The corner and the definition of the volume is weakened which now instead
emphasize the planar qualities of surfaces. The effect is the same if two planes are
neither extended to define the corner.
 If the corner is rounded off, the continuity of the bounding surfaces of the form is
emphasized along with the compactness of volume and the softness of contour. It the
curvature radius is small, the corner becomes visually insignificant and if too large, it
affects the interior spaces and exterior appeal.
Surface Articulation – perception of space is influenced by the surface properties and visual
context. Surface can be clarified by distinct contrast, by viewing from the front, by putting
familiar objects within its visual context to perceive size and scale, by differentiating color and
texture or by optical patterns that can distort the shape or exaggerate the proportions of a plane.
Some examples of surface articulation include:
 Linear elements on the surfaces such as sun-shading devices, linear textures etc.
 Pattern of openings and cavities
 Characteristics of materials used (smooth or rough)
CHAPTER 3 – FORM AND SPACE
 Space is created, enclosed, molded and organized by the spatial boundaries defined by elements of
form.
 Visual field is understood by organizing its elements into two opposing groups – positive elements
(figures) and negative elements (background). Our understanding of compositions depends on our
visual field and the interaction of its elements. We recognize a figure because its profile is distinct, it
contrasts with or isolates from the background. Remember that the positive elements (figures) will not
exist without a contrasting background.
 Architecture form occurs at the juncture between mass and space. The symbiotic relationship of the
forms of mass and space in architecture can be examined and found to exist at several different scales
(room scale to urban scale). Buildings can define a space, can be an object within a space, embedded
or dominating in a landscape space, etc.
 At the scale of buildings, wall configurations are the positive elements of a plan. The form and
enclosure of each space in a building either determines, or is determined by, the form of the spaces
around it.
 A three-dimensional form naturally articulates the volume of space the volume of space surrounding it
and generates a field of influence or territory which it claims as its own. Horizontal and vertical elements
of form generate different types of spaces.
 Horizontal Elements Defining Space – horizontal elements can also define vertical boundaries implicitly.
 Base Plane – simple figure contrasted from the background, with continuous flow around
 Elevated Base Plane – creates specific domain within a larger context, flow is interrupted;
depending on the height, visual continuity and spatial continuity may be interrupted; can be
natural or artificially constructed; can act as transitional space to the interior such as a porch or
veranda;
 Depressed Base Plane – different effects are produced by the height of the depressions.
Examples are sunken plaza, step wells, sunken lobby or floors.
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Overhead Plane – defines a space between itself and the ground plane; can define a discrete
volume of space virtually by itself; columns can reinforce the spatial limits it creates; examples
are roof plane (major building element) and ceiling plane.
Vertical Elements Defining Space – has greater presence in our visual field than horizontal planes;
provides a sense of enclosure, privacy and climatic protection; serves as structural supports for floor
and roof planes.
 Example configurations are vertical linear elements, single vertical plane, L-shaped planes,
parallel planes, U-shaped planes, four planes (closed).
 Vertical Linear Elements - A column within a defined volume of space will generate a spatial
field about itself and interact with the spatial enclosure. It can assert itself as the center of the
field when placed center in a space. Linear elements also define edges and corners which are
important to establish the volume of spaces. Vertical linear elements can be arranged in multiple
ways to define volumes, support overhead planes or terminate an axis (i.e. colonnades,
tetrastyle, grids).
 Single Vertical Plane – has frontal qualities and established the edges of two distinct spatial
fields; but to define a dimensional volume of space, it must interact with other elements of form;
vertical planes depend on its height by eye level to visually describe space.
 L-shaped Vertical Plane – defines a field of space along a diagonal formed from its corner
outward; ther other edges are ambiguous; open-ended, flexible space-defining elements; one
good example is a typical L-shaped houses with open courtyard
 Parallel Vertical Plane – defines a field of space between them; has directional quality and axis;
extroverted in nature; openings introduce secondary axes to the field and modulate the
directional quality of the space; corresponds naturally to circulation movement; examples are
parallel interior walls, streets, colonnade, promenade etc.
 U-shaped Planes – with inward focus and outward orientation; secondary zones are created
when openings are provided at the corners; has inherently the ability to capture and define
outdoor space; has specific orientation towards the open ends;
 Four Planes (Closure) – most typical and strongest type of spatia definition, natural introverted;
appears in multiples scales from rooms to urban scale; examples are building skins, thin shells,
diagrid which enclose building spaces
Openings – provide spatial and visual continuity, establish visual relationships between adjacent spaces.
 Locations of Openings
 Openings within Planes
 At corners – provides diagonal orientation
 Between planes
 Effect of Openings on the Qualities of Architectural Space - The spatial qualities of form,
proportion, scale, texture, light and sound depend on the properties of the enclosure of a space.
The size, shape and location of openings affecr the degree of enclosure (form of the space),
view or outlook (focus of the space) and light (illumination of its surfaces and forms).
 Degree of Enclosure – determined by the configuration of defining elements and the pattern of
openings;
 Openings within the wall planes do not weaken the edges and the sense of enclosure
 Openings located along the edges weaken the corners and the volume boundaries, but
promote visual continuity and interaction with adjacent spaces750mm
 Openings between the surrounding planes isolate them and articulate their individuality
 Light – animates the space of the room and articulates the forms within it; the amount of
openings is regulated by multiple factors such as climate, materials, code requirements, privacy
and exterior effect; provision and regulation of light can be done by sun-shading devices,
orientation of windows and buildings; the articulation of the openings also affect the quality of
light such as the design and pattern of the windows.
 View – considering focus and orientation; different configuration of openings provide different
views.
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CHAPTER 4 - ORGANIZATION
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Spaces in a building are not usually solitary and are instead composed of a number of related spaces
and organized by function, proximity or movement.
Spatial Relationships – Spaces can be related to each other – as space within a space, interlocking
spaces (overlapping volumes), adjacent spaces (abutting or sharing common border) and spaces
linked by a common space (with intermediary space).
 Space within a Space – the larger enveloping space serves as a three-dimensional field for the
smaller space; the contained space is relatively smaller in size; configuration of the contained
space can vary and produce different effects.
 Interlocking Spaces – overlapping of two spatial fields and the emergence of a shared space
 Adjacent Spaces – the most common type of spatial relationship; each space is clearly defined;
visual and spatial continuity depends on the nature of the plane that both separates them; the
separating plane can be physical (wall) or ambiguous (change in elevation).
 Spaces linked by a Common Space – the visual and spatial relationship between two spaces
depends on the nature of the third linking space; the linking space can be large, centralized,
linear or similar to the linked spaces.
Spatial Organizations – can be influenced by different requirements or factors such as function,
flexibility of the space, privacy, accessibility, etc.
 Centralized Organization – has a central dominant space about which a number of secondary
spaces are grouped; inherently nondirectional, introverted. The central unifying space is
generally regular in form and large while the secondary spaces may be different or similar to the
central space.
 Linear Organization – a linear sequence of repetitive spaces or essentially a series of spaces;
can be directly linked together or linked to a linear space; each space has exterior exposure;
express direction and signify movement, extension and growth; inherently flexible and can
respond to different site conditions; the elements can also have hierarchy and could express
movement.
 Radial Organization – a central space from which linear organizations of space extend in a
radial manner; combination of both centralize and linear organization, extroverted; the central
space is generally regular in form with radial arms. Examples are pinwheel pattern.
 Clustered Organization – spaces grouped by proximity or the sharing of a common visual trait or
relationship; with repetitive, cellular spaces that can be similar or dissimilar in terms of function,
size or orientation; flexible and does not have a rigid geometrical layout; important spaces are
articulated to gain dominance; symmetry and axis can be used to strengthen and unify portions
of a clustered organization
 Grid Organization – spaces organized within the field of a structural grid or other threedimensional framework; the organizing power of grid results from regularity and continuity of its
pattern which is a stable field of reference for organizing any type of spaces; one usual example
is the structural grid of columns and beams. Transformation of the grid can also be possible by
making irregular pattern in one or two directions, by interruption, dislocation or rotation etc.
CHAPTER 5 - CIRCULATION
 Path of movement links the spaces since we move in time throug a sequence of spaces. The circulation
system in a building affect our perceptions of the forms and spaces of the building.
 Circulation Elements
 Approach – distant view
 Entrance – from outside to inside
 Circulation of the Path – sequence of spaces
 Path-Space Relationships – edges, nodes and terminations of the path
 Form of the Circulation Space – corridors, halls, stairways and rooms
 Approach – first phase of the circulation system;
 Frontal – leads directly to the entrance along a straight axia path
 Oblique – enhances the perspective, can be redirected to delay or prolong the approach.
 Spiral – prolongs the sequence of the approach and emphasizes the three-dimensional form of
a building
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Entrance – involves the act of penetrating a vertical plane that distinguishes the inside and outside; the
act of entering can be subtle (holewith change in level) or articulated (grand gateway); best signified by
a vertical plane perpendicular to the path of the approach.
 Flush – maintans the continuity of the surface of a wall and can be deliberately obscured
 Projected – forms a transitional space announcing its function to the approach
 Recessed – provides shelter and receives a portion of the exterior into the interior
 In terms of location, it can be centered, symmetrical or asymmetrical.
 Visual reinforcement of the entrance can be done by making the opening lower, wider or
narrower than anticipated, making the entrance deep and circuituous and articulating the
opening with ornamentation or decorative embellishment.
Circulation of the Path – all types of movement paths are linear in nature with starting point and
destination; contour and characteristics of path depends on the mode of transportation; intersection of
paths are important because of decision-making for the person approaching it; nature of path
configuration is influenced by the spaces it links. Configuration of paths include:
 Linear – can be straight, curvilinear or segmented, intersecting, branched or looped
 Radial – with linear paths extending from a central common point
 Spiral – single, continuous path originating at central point then revolving around it
 Grid – two sets of parallel paths intersecting at regular intervals
 Network – consists of paths that connect established points in space
 Composite – combination of the configurations above
Path-Space Relationships - paths are related to the spaces they link in the following ways:
 Pass by Spaces – each space has maintained integrity, configuration of path is flexible,
mediating spaces can be used to link the path with the spaces
 Pass through Spaces – path creates patters of rest and movement within the penetrated space
 Terminating in a Space – the location of the space establishes the path, used to approach and
enter functionally or symbolically important spaces
Form of the Circulation Space – varies according to its boundaries, form of the spaces, scale,
proportion, light and view qualities, entrances opening onto it and changes in levels. A circulation space
may be:
 Enclosed – stairs or corridoer
 Open on One Side – balcony or gallery
 Open on Both Sides – colonnade
CHAPTER 6 – PROPORTION AND SCALE
 Scale alludes to the size of something compared to a reference standard or to the size of something
else. Proportion refers to the proper or harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole.
 Proportions
 Material Proportions - All materials have rational proportions that dictate its inherent strengths
and weaknesses.
 Structural Proportions – size and proportion of certain elements are directly related to their
structural function (i.e. depth of a beam is a critical dimension and the depth-to-span ratio is an
indicator of its structural role)
 Manufactured Proportions – standard size and proportions due to manufacture process and
mass- production.
 Proportioning Systems or Theories of Proportion
 In architectural design, the form and proportion of spaces are influenced by the functional use of
the space. The intent of all theories of proportion is to create a sense of order and harmony
among the elements in a visual construction.
 According to Euclid, a ratio refers the quantitative comparison of two similar things, while
proportion refers to the equality of ratios. A proportioning system establishes a consistent set of
visual relationships between the parts of a building, as well as between the parts and the whole.
 Theories of Proportions include Golden Section, Classical Orders, Renaissance Theories,
Modulor, Ken, Anthropometry and Scale.
 Types of Proportion – Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic
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Golden Section – defined as the ratio between sections of a line, or the two dimensions of a plane
figure, in which the lesser of the two is to the greater is to the sum of both. It is expressed algebraically
by the equation of two ratios: a/b = b/(a+b). The Fibonacci Sequence close approximates the Golden
Section. Golden Section can be seen in the façade of the Parthenon, Tempietto and other famous
buildings.
 Golden Rectangle – a rectangle whose sides are proportioned according to the Golden Section.
 Regulating Lines – lines that indicate common alignment of elements (i.e. parallel diagonals of
two rectangles with similar proportions).
Classical Orders – represented the proportioning of elements with perfect expression of beauty and
harmony. The basic unit dimension was the diameter of the column from which other measurements
are derived.
 Intercolumniation is the spacing between columns based on column diameter.
 Pycnostyle, Systyle, Eustyle, Diastyle and Araeostyle
Renaissance Theories - the architects of the Renaissance, believing that their buildings had to belong
to a higher order, returned to the Greek mathematical system of proportions.
 Palladio’s 7 ideal plan shapes
 Palladio’s Room Height Determination – based on the dimensions of the room and Pythagorean
theorem
Modulor – developed by Le Cobusier to order “the dimensions of that which contains and that which is
contained” based on the Golden Section. Le Corbusier published “The Modulor: A Harmonious
Measure to the Human Scale Universally Applicable to Architecture and Mechanics” in 1948 and
“Modulor II” in 1954.
 The principal work exhibiting the use of Modulor is the Unite’ d’Habitation in Marseilles, France.
Ken – a modular grid based from the unit of ken
 The traditional Japanese unit of measure, the shaku, was originally imported from China which
is almost equivalent to English foot and divisible into decimal units.
 Ken was standardized for residential architecture and was originally used to simplify column
intervals.
 Two methods are Inaka-ma method and the Kyo-ma method.
Anthropometry – functional type of proportions, based on the theory that forms and spaces in
architecture are either containers or extensions of the human body and should therefore be determined
by its dimensions.
 The dimensions of the human body affect the structural elements of the building and the volume
of spaces, and even how we locate ourselves within the space (proxemics).
Scale – basically comparison of one thing or another
 Visual scale – refers not to the actual dimensions but rather how small or large an object
appears in relation to its normal size or the size of other things in its context.
 Mechanical scale – size or proportion of something relative to an accepted standard of
measurement.
 Human scale – based on the dimensions and proportions of the human body.
CHAPTER 7 - PRINCIPLES
 Principles that can be utilized to create order in an architectural composition.
 Order refers not simply to geometric regularity, but rather a condition in which each part of a whole is
properly disposed with reference to other parts and to its functions so as to produce a harmonious
arrangement.
 Ordering Principles include:
 Axis – a line established by two points in space, about which forms and spaces can be arranged
in a symmetrical or balanced manner.
 Considered as the most elementary ordering principle
 Symmetry – the balanced distribution and arrangement of equivalent forms and spaces on
opposite sides of a dividing line or plane or about a center or axis; requires the balanced
arrangement of equivalent patterns of form and space on opposite sides of a dividing line or
plane or about a center or axis.
 Two types of symmetry – bilateral symmetry and radial symmetry.
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Hierarchy – the articulation of the importance or significance of a form or space by its size,
shape or placement relative to the other forms and spaces of the organization.
 Visual significance or emphasis is achieved by using a form with exceptional size,
unique shape or a strategic location.
 Hierarchy by size
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 Hierarchy by shape
 Hierarchy by placement
Rhythm – a unifying movement characterized by a patterned repetition or alternation of formal
elements or motifs in the same or a modified form; incorporates the fundamental notion of
repetition as a device to organize forms and spaces in architecture.
 Principle of repetition utilizes the concepts of proximity and similarity to order recurring
elements in a composition. The simplest form of repetition is a linear pattern of
redundant elements (i.e. structural columns).
Datum – a line, plane or volume that, by its continuity and regularity, serves to gather, measure
and organize a pattern of forms and spaces.
 Datum organizes a random pattern of elements through its regularity, continuity and
constance presence.
 Datum need not be linear, can also be planar or volumetric in form.
Transformation – the principle that an architectural concept, structure or organization that can be
altered through a series of discrete manipulations and permutations in response to a specific
context or set of conditions without a loss of identity or concept.
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