Learning Objectives At the end of this chapter, the learners are expected to:
1. Explain the various notions of good,
2. Discuss the definition, its nature, scope, importance, divisions and sources of ethics,
3. Evaluate the process of making decisions, and
4. Demonstrate the process of making decision.
Ethics deals with "good-ness." What "good-ness" in itself? What is a 'good' person?
How to be a 'good' person? What is 'good' in society? And how to be 'good' in society?
Ethics have always existed since men began living together as a community. Tribal
or religious leaders tell their people to refrain from doing such activities that will ruin the
harmony and peace being experienced by the people in the community, such as, raping
women, stealing properties owned by fellow citizens of the tribe and killing people among
others. Besides, if there are bad elements in the tribe, the gods will get angry and every
member of the tribe will suffer, and if there are members of the tribe who will challenge
the long accepted laws or beliefs will be punished. Nobody asks where ethical rules came
from or why they must be obeyed. They just obey these ethical rules without questions to
appease the gods and bring peace to the land. Obeying the rules without question is good
for the tribes.
The Meaning of Good
Then came the Greek philosophers, who admire courage, patriotism and integrity.
Citizens of Greece who are brave and honest are well-liked by Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle. They are considered good citizens of Greece.
What is to be good for the philosophers? In general, the term good in philosophy
is similar to words like necessary, important or valuable. It is applied to everything and to
every human beings, even to concepts and actions. This philosophical goods are good
because of something in themselves and not because people say it is good. For example,
an economist may say that a house is good due to its paint or size. In contrast, a
philosopher may say that a house is good because it sees a shelter.
Let us take Plato. Plato's goodness is in the mind, completely unknowable
unchanging and infinite. We can only know little about it, because it is pure idea, thus it
can't be understood 100% by our senses. There were good people, things or even
concepts, but they can't be considered good in and of themselves simply because people
may disagree due to their own standard of what is good. The good we see, touch or feel
are imperfect, defective and fading. Plato's good is conceptual (pure concept). So for
Plato, a good citizen is a very responsible citizen, somebody who knows perfectly their
job and did it well, something ideal.
Aristotle (384-322 BC), the student of Plato, is not satisfied with the explanation of his
teacher. He says that happiness is the right term for what is good. So, what is good for
Aristotle? The answer is happiness As a result, to achieve the highest good is to attain
ultimate happiness. This can be done only by being good all the time. Therefore, for
Aristotle, to be good is to gain ultimate happiness. What do we mean by this? Aristotle
advises the Greek citizens to be experts (arête or excellent) in their field, meaning to
perfect their skills and talents. Since, perfection is good, and to be good is to achieve
happiness (eudaimonia). For example, if you are a boxer, then know your boxing skills
and be an expert boxer, it is good. Learn your strength and weaknesses inside the ring,
it is good. Win the fight and be happy with your prize.
The problem with the Greek philosophers was, they focused on what was only to
know in order to be good, they failed to discuss so well that being ethical also involved
choosing to do good and not just knowing what is good. Choosing and knowing are two
necessary elements in Ethics. They are inseparable. They make human person truly
good.
Some philosophers think that goodness can be achieve by just following the rules
which is universal like Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804) and Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274)
or obey God or gods like Augustine (354-430) and Abelard (1079 - 1142). Others, like
Jeremy Bentham (1748 - 1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873), who embrace
utilitarianism, identified the good with pleasure. They also teach that we must maximize
the good, that is, bring about the greatest amount of good for the greatest number.
In our contemporary world, it is not easy to be 'good' or to know what is good. Our
world is very complex. We frequently encounter new discoveries, technologies and even
leadership styles. The "paradigm shifts” in science and politics are challenging the
conservative teachings of the institutional religion in many issues in life, such as, on
genetically modified organism, sexuality and family living. Thus to discern what is good is
very difficult.
Ethics Explained
Ethics is a science that deals with moral principles or rules. It influences how
people make decisions and lead their lives. For Jose M. de Mesa, Ph.D., a lay Filipino
theologian and professor of Applied Systematic Theology at De La Salle University,
Manila, ethics is to discern what is "pagiging-tao or may mabuting kalo-oban or asal-tao"
(behave as a good human person or moral) versus "pagiginghayop or may masamang
kalo-oban or asal-hayop" (behave as an evil person or immoral).
Generally. Ethics is the study of norms that people must follow in order to attain
their ultimate goal in life, which is to attain ultimate happiness, in the light of reason alone.
Definition of Norms
Norms, which is derived from the Greek term "nomos" meaning "laws," are rules
and regulations in society. They guide us to behave in a particular way. They tell us what
is the acceptable or fitting behavior in society.me various norms that will help us not to
commit any anti-social activity, such as rape, corruption, murder or fraud, not through faith
but through reason alone. That is why in ethics, we constantly study and evaluate various
ITOU rules, to ensure that citizens and society are behaving correctly within the context
of a reasonable and solidly based norms.
Nature and Goals of Ethics
The goal of ethics is to know or determine the proper or improper, fitting or not
fitting, appropriate or inappropriate behaviors of a human person in society and try to
explain why people behave that way. So, the human person may grow and develop as a
truly human being and avoid to be like a dangerous and irrational "brutes', and in the long
run attains its ultimate goal in life which is ultimate happiness. For the sake of simplicity,
it means that ethics deals with the rightness or wrongness of human behaviors in society
and the attempt to explain them using various ethical principles in order to attain total
happiness.
Whether we accept it or not... there are so many challenges in our life, from the
food we eat to the clothes we wear. Often these challenges move us to decide. Making a
decision is not easy and simple, because there are numerous choices to consider.
Besides, we consider also the people who will be affected, since we are social beings, a
being always in relation with other beings. Unfortunately, we all have to make decisions
all the time, and not to decide, is a decision. A decision not, to decide.
Some people suspend their decisions by incessantly looking for more information
in books, or talking to people with knowledge on the problems whom we call experts or
counsellors, or get recommendations from close relatives, or simply thinking of an alibi.
Others resort to decision-making by taking a vote, gambling, use a “fish-bowl”,
sticking a pin in a list or tossing a coin.
Making Ethical Decision
Ethics offers different ways to make decision by offering various moral principles
available at hand. Such as the "action-based ethics." It teaches that human action is the
measure of one's ethicality. Another one is "result-oriented ethics." It teaches that the end
goal of a person is the measure of one's ethicalness, and many more to mention.
Whatever, ethics is interested to assist people in making decisions by explaining the
concept of good human behavior, through various available moral assumptions. But what
is lucid and vital in the study of ethics is the desire of every individual to achieve its
ultimate goal, which is, to be happy, and build a peaceful and orderly society, for growth
and development. And for those who think that there is God or gods, the goal is to attain
eternal life and be happy with God or gods in eternity.
Ethicists, past and present, are not only satisfied on answering the question “how
things are?" They go further by saying "how things should be?"
For example, findings of an opinion poll may indeed prove illuminating in the
course of ethical debate, but this source is not enough, it does not give a clear response
to the vital ethical question about whether such issue or belief shall be praised or
condemned, like issues on divorce, abortion, death penalty or artificial birth control.
Opinion polls only suggest what the majority thinks, but historical records have shown
and revealed to us, that what the majority thinks is not always right. Try to read the history
of the teaching of the Catholic bishops regarding sexuality and birth control - the
"Humanae Vitae" of Pope Paul VI. In July 1968, he published the encyclical even though
an overwhelming majority of the Pontifical Commission for the Study of the Problems of
Population, Family and Birth supported a change in the Church's teaching. But, of course,
it was very controversial. Pope Paul VI followed the minority.
Making judgment about what is appropriate and inappropriate behavior in society
is indeed, a difficult task, but a necessary and indispensable feature of human life, and it
often produces a great deal of trouble in society. Why? Because ethics involves the
assigning and assuming of moral burdens to individuals. Any laws or rules or beliefs,
make demands upon those who believe them. For example, the Christians are
commanded to "take up the cross and follow the Christ" or the Buddhists are commanded
not to harm insects, they are your brothers and sisters; or soldiers will be commanded to
'obey without questions'. If you are a Christian and you don't follow the cross, then you
are not worthy to be called a 'Christian. If you are a Buddhist and harm the insects, then
you don't pass a Buddhist's standard. If you are a soldier and don't follow the orders of
the generals, then you are dismissed from the military service,
So, it is the task of Ethics to identify those demands or standards, like rules and
regulations in society, city ordinances or church's doctrines or tenets or various ethical
principles to answer questions like, is it right to allow male Muslims to marry 4 women?
Is it right for women to enter into pre-marital or extra-marital sex? Is it right to kill innocent
people or even criminals? Is it right to steal from the government's coffer? Is it right to ask
our own death from our friend doctor?
In schools, ethical principles are also necessary to answer questions like, is it
proper not to wear I.D. cards? Is it proper to leave your garbage inside the
classrooms...etc? All these things need a person who know ethics. And of course through
a prayerful and thoughtful reflection on the issue will be necessary to make serious and
good decision for an appropriate actions.
Etymologically i.e. coming from the root word), the word ethics is derived from the
Greek term "ethos" (noun), which mean distinct attitude or set of moral beliefs. The Greek
philosophers started questioning their people on the proper conduct in society and how
to be a good citizen. The Chinese ancient teachers and philosophers, Confucius (551479 BC) and Mencius (372-289 BC) taught their students good manner and right conduct,
so that they will flourish.
Framework for Ethical Decision Making
There are many ways to make decision, and the one below is one of its way.
A. Awareness of an ethical issue - know the issue by heart.
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Is this issue ruin a relationship - group and individual? Are there good or bad
choices in this issue?
Is this issue talks about legal or religious matters? Are there alternative choices to
this issue?
B. Collate the evidences available regarding the issue
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What are your factual data on this issue? What is the present situation of this
issue? Do I have enough knowledge on the issue to make a decision?
Who are the people involved on the issue? What are the important concern of this
issue? What is to prioritize and what is not? Why?
Do I have options in making decision on this issue? What are these options? Are
those people involved on this issue had been consulted? Do I have a better choice
to solve the problem?
C. Make assessment of alternative actions by asking the following questions:
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Which actions will give the most good and do the least harm? (The Utilitarian
Approach).
Which actions best respects the rights of other people? (The Rights Approach).
Which actions will give partial or impartial judgement? (The Justice Approach).
Which actions help the community more as a whole, and not just some selected
individuals in community? (The Common Good Approach)
Which action reveals the inner beauty or goodness in me? (The Virtue Approach)
A. Test your decision
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Is my choice the best option to act?
If I do this action, how people will react?
B. Make an action and mull over on the result
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Is the action appropriate or inappropriate?
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Is the action hurt other people? Is the action affected the majority or minority in the
community?
Sources of Ethics
Philosophers, both from East and the West, think and believe that ethics basically begins
from the following:
1. A concept of a Supreme Being or beings and all types of doctrines pertaining to all
types of beings - material or spiritual, that have been propagated by the institutional
religions like Catholic religion, to perpetuate their existence or perhaps to spread fear and
gain ultimate power; or maybe because these beings really exist and these religions
experience the mysterious presence of these beings.
2. A desire for the highest achievement in life or 'highest good' or the 'summumbonum',
'ultimate happiness', 'perfect end' or 'salvation' or to be with 'God' for the Christians, to be
like 'Buddha' for the Buddhists or be united with the “Tao' or nature for the Taoists.
3. The examples of good and respected people at home, in the community and in society.
Like parents, political leaders or religious guru.
4. The analysis or assessment of human actions or intentions or behaviors and the effects
of all these things to other people, society and environment.
5. The existence of Political Power' and leaders of society who exemplifies good
governance.
6. To our human conscience, the subjective norms of morality and to our intuitions or
feelings.
Possible Questions in Ethics
Ethics covers the following questions in life, such as:
1. What is Moral decisions making? Do we have the capacity to discern? What is to be
good and how to avoid what is evil?
2. If we have the capacity to discern what is appropriate and inappropriate behavior in
society? Are we free to do it? What is freedom? Do we have rights?"
3. If we are truly free to discern good and bad behaviors or actions, are we responsible
to them? What is responsibility?
4. What is the meaning of right and wrong, good and bad, appropriate and inappropriate?
How to tell the difference between them?
5. How people live a good life and achieve happiness or be successful?
Ethics is not…
Philosophers agree that ethics is not simply about the following:
1. Being just lawful in society, like crossing on a pedestrian lane, casting votes during
election time or paying your taxes on time.
2. Being religious or about one's religious beliefs and obligations, like going to Sunday
Mass, Fasting during Ramadan, or offering incense or food to gods or Buddha or even to
our 'dead relatives'.
3. About what you feel is right or wrong, appropriate or inappropriate, fitting or not fitting...
because feelings is in the mind and it generates emotions. Emotions on the other hand is
the external expression of our feelings, it is directed to mental concept. Feelings combine
with how we understand the concept give rise to either pleasant or unpleasant emotions.
For example, feeling combines with the concept of control' will produce the emotions of
happy and sad. I feel happy if I can control people; I feel sad if people control me. Hence
feelings are vital in assessing human actions or behaviors.
4. About doing what society accepts or imposes to its citizens, like marriage or citizenship
or casting votes during election time. No one can tell us directly what is to be good they
can only give us reminders, recommendations, suggestions or options; or what worse is,
nobody can impose their ethical principles to follow. At the end of the day, we are the one
who makes the final decision to be good or bad.
The use of ethics in our life
Ethics can be very useful to us. But it will not tell us what to think and do. It will not impose
so many rules to observe and obey without questions.
The use of ethics are the following:
1. It helps us solve hard questions in life and encourages us to solve it by ourselves.
2. It evaluates what lies behind our moral judgements.
3. It attempts to explain and evaluate what a good person is like.
4. It can't guarantee that we will always make a correct decision, but it will give us a lucid
and better way of understanding how and why we come to our decision.
The three divisions of ethics
Ethics is divided into 3 divisions. They are the following:
1. Meta-ethics: It studies the origin and meaning of various ethical principles.
Where do ethical principles come from and what do they mean. It centers on the issues
of objective truths, God's will, the use of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of
'good' or 'evil?
2. Normative ethics: It takes on the question 'how to know the principles that will make us
conform to right behavior to avoid wrong conduct. This may include the good character
we should acquire, the role of feelings in making decision, the duties to be obeyed, or the
consequences of our behavior on others.
3. Applied ethics: It involves the evaluation of particular controversial ethical issues, like
abortion, war, animal rights, euthanasia, prohibited drugs, graft and corruption,
environmental concerns, homosexuality, capital punishment, or nuclear war.
Summary
Ethics deals with the study of moral standards human person must follow to attain
his or her goal by reason alone. It began when human beings lived as a tribal community
when tribal and spiritual leaders instructed their people to avoid anti-social activities that
will damage peace and order in their community. But formal ethical reflection started when
ancient Greek philosopher’s cam. They focused on the meaning of "goodness" in society
and for individual person. "Good-ness" according to Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, is not
just about obeying the rules, but to think the reason why there are rules and why obey
them? They even questioned their religious beliefs if these are necessary to be good. The
goal of ethics is to know what is proper and improper behavior in society. Thus, making
decision is not just important but a necessary element to be ethical. The source of ethics
is God or the need to achieve the highest good, or the examples of good people, or good
intentions, or even political power and leaders, and conscience Ethics is better
understood in three areas of concern-meta-ethics, normative ethics and applied ethics.
Ethics assists the human person decide for his or her good life, to attain ultimate
happiness in life.