TOPIC 1
The evolution of language teaching.
Current trends in the Teaching of English
as a Foreign Language.
The Communicative Approach.
INDEX
1. Introduction
2. The evolution of language teaching
2.1. The Classical Period: The Grammar-Translation Method
2.2. The Reform Movement: The Direct Method
2.3. The Psychological Tradition
2.3.1. The Audio-Lingual Method
2.3.2. The Cognitive Approach
2.4. The Second Language Acquisition Tradition
2.4.1. Total Physical Response
2.4.2. The Natural Approach
2.5. Humanistic Approaches
2.5.1. The Silent Way
2.5.2. Community Language Learning
2.5.3. Suggestopedia
3. The Communicative Approach
3.1. Background
3.2. Principles
3.3. Methodology
4. Current Trends in Language Teaching
4.1. Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
4.2. Task-Based Language Learning
4.3. Cooperative Learning
4.4. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
4.5. E-learning
5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography
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1. INTRODUCTION
The present unit, Unit 1, aims to provide a detailed account of the evolution of
language teaching as well as currents trends in the teaching of English as a foreign
language, especially focusing on the influence of the Communicative Approach. Justifying
this topic in the current legislation, and basing on the
Royal Decree 217/2022, of 29th March, which establishes the organization
and minimum teaching of Compulsory Secondary Education and the Decree
82/2022, of 12th July, which establishes the organization and curriculum of
Compulsory Secondary Education in Castilla-La Mancha, the study of a foreign
language implies the learning of its lexical, syntactical, phonological and sociocultural
features. In this context, this unit has a relevant role in the English curriculum as it deals
with different teaching methods, contributing to the development of the linguistic
competence, the multilingual competence and the personal, social and learning to
learn competence.
According to Richards and Rodgers (1986), innovations in language teaching
methods throughout history have reflected the evolution in the kind of proficiency learners
need. Furthermore, learning a foreign language seems to have reached its peak in our
today’s multicultural and multilingual world (Keith Johnson, 2018). Indeed, The
Common European Framework for the Teaching of Languages (CEFR) establishes
Multilingualism as the natural state of a European citizen, individuals being surrounded
by a plurality of languages.
For the purpose of expounding this unit, we shall present: (2) the evolution
language teaching; (3) the Communicative Approach; (4) Current Trends in Language
Teaching; (5) some didactic implications and a conclusion; along with (6) the
bibliographical references used to develop this unit.
By the same token, for a more in-depth study of the subject, other topics, such as
Topic 2 - General theories on learning and acquisition of a foreign language and
Topic 12 - The concept of grammar: Reflection on language and language learning,
may be taken into consideration.
2. THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING
Modern language education could be said to have its roots in the study of Latin.
Before the 13th century, no languages other than Latin or Greek were formally taught.
Latin was the dominant language of education, government, religion and commerce in
the Western world. Although by the end of the 16th century, French, Italian and
English had displaced Latin, the study of modern languages did not become part
of the curriculum of European schools until the 18th century. Notwithstanding,
students were learning these languages much in the same way as students of Latin had
been, studying grammatical rules and translating abstract sentences. Indeed, innovation
in foreign language teaching did not really begin until the 19th century, and very rapidly
in the 20th century, leading to a number of different methodologies and approaches.
Hereunder, we will elaborate on the evolution of language teaching from the 18 th
century until the 20th century.
2.1. The Classical Period: The Grammar-Translation Method
As modern languages began to enter the curriculum of European schools in the
century, they were taught with the same procedures as the teaching of Latin. By
the 19th century, this approach had become the standard way of studying foreign
languages.
18th
According to Richards and Rodgers (1986), the characteristics of the GrammarTranslation Method were:
1. The goal is to learn a language in order to read its literature or to benefit from
the mental discipline and intellectual development.
2. Reading and writing are the major focus; so little or no systematic attention is
paid to speaking or listening.
3. Language is studied through the analysis of its grammar rules, followed by the
translation of sentences and texts into and out of the target language.
4. Vocabulary selection is based on the texts analysed, and is presented through
bilingual word lists, dictionary study and memorization.
5. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice.
6. Accuracy is emphasized, because students are expected to attain high
standards in translation.
7. Grammar is taught deductively, by presentation and study of grammar rules.
8. The language of instruction is the native language.
9. It is teacher-centered.
This method dominated European and foreign language teaching from the
1840s to the 1940s. Nonetheless, as increased opportunities for communication
amongst Europeans created a demand for oral proficiency in modern languages, new
methods started to develop around the turn of the 20th century.
2.2. The Reform Movement: The Direct Method
As a reaction against the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method
appeared. It was implemented by L. SAUVEUR in his language school in Boston in the
late 1860s and by M. BERLITZ in the 1970s. They believed that language could be learned
without translation if meaning was conveyed through demonstration and action.
Similarly to L1 acquisition, in which oral comprehension and production come first,
reading and writing are postponed until a certain degree of oral fluency is achieved.
Concerning its main features, they were as follows:
1. All communication in the classroom is made in the target language.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
The linguistic goal is everyday vocabulary and sentences.
Oral communication is the highest priority, as well as listening skills.
Grammar is taught inductively.
Vocabulary is contextualised by using direct association of word with object by
means of demonstrations and pictures.
6. Correctness in pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
The Direct Method was quite successful in private language schools, albeit it
was difficult to implement in public secondary schools. Additionally, the rise of
mentalist, behaviourist and cognitive psychology in the 50s, 60s, and 70s brought
with it new approaches in language teaching.
2.3. The Psychological Tradition
2.3.1 The Audio-Lingual Method
Born out of the way in which the army had been teaching language during World
War II, the so-called “Army Method”, the Audio-lingual method appeared in the USA in
the late 1950s. Its origins may be found in Structuralism and Behaviourism. For its
part, Structuralism understood language learning as the mastery of the elements of
the language and the rules by which they are governed. For behaviorists, learning
is a mechanical process of habit formation, which is created by repetition of a
stimulus-answer sequence. Mother tongue processes are the pattern for learning
a second language, which must be done by imitation.
The tenets of this method were:
1. The target language is the only one used in the classroom.
2. New items must be learned following the sequence listening, speaking,
reading, and speaking.
3. New structures or patterns are presented through dialogues.
4. Use of imitation and repetition as an essential way for effective learning.
5. Grammar structures are sequenced and rules are taught inductively from
examples.
6. Vocabulary is limited at initial stages and selected by the teacher.
7. Errors are avoided as they lead to the formation of bad habits.
2.3.2. The Cognitive Approach
In the mid-sixties, the behaviourist theory of learning and the audio-lingual
method were sharply criticized by NOAM CHOMSKY in his book SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES
(1957), who claimed that learning was not based on habit formation, but on rational
acquisition of the finite set of rules, by which an infinite range of experiences could be
expressed.
On the other hand, the Cognitive Approach developed in the 60S was based on
GESTALT psychology and transformational grammar. Its aim was to emphasize that
language learning was an active, intelligent, rule-seeking process in which learners
are encouraged to discuss the way that the target language works. Its main
characteristics were:
1. Instruction was often individualised.
2. Learners are responsible of their own learning.
3. Grammar was taught inductively and central to language learning.
4. Fluency was more important than accuracy.
5. Errors were inevitable and should be used in a constructive way in the learning
process.
Nonetheless, the Cognitive Approach was not a method with a series of step by
step guidelines. Besides, empirical research into first and second language acquisition
paved the way for the development of new methods.
2.4. The Second Language Acquisition Tradition
2.4.1. Total Physical Response
Total Physical Response was developed by ASHER in 1977. He believed that a
second language learning process in an adult is similar to the acquisition of a native
language by a child. Before producing verbal response, a child replies physically to
commands or orders given. Therefore, the adult, as the child, should begin the learning
process through physical action, and reach productive action only after a sufficient
level has been attained.
Concerning its main features, they were as follows:
1. Input is provided through commands in the imperative form.
2. The first group of activities should follow this order: commands, interaction
dialogues, dramatization and role-plays.
3. All activities should include physical action.
4. Learning is inductive rather deductive.
5. Learners are primarily listeners and performers.
6. Teachers plays an active and direct role deciding what to teach.
2.4.2. The Natural Approach
The Natural Approach was developed by KRASHEN and based on his MONITOR
THEORY (1985). This method considers language as communication, so meaning,
rather than grammar is at the core of this method. Just like children when learning their
mother tongue, students do not produce output immediately, production being
delayed until speech ‘emerges’ after a 'silent period'. Hence, a great deal of
communication and acquisition should take place through a stimulating variety of
classroom activities set around everyday language situations. Activities in the form
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of problem-solving, games, affective humanistic activities and those focused on
learning something else in the language (rather than language itself) dominate,
producing unconscious acquisition rather than learning.
2.5. Humanistic Approaches
2.5.1. The Silent Way
This method was developed by C. GATTEGNO in 1972. It rested on both cognitive
and affective arguments. Moreover, it had a very uniform classroom procedure: first
sounds, then words, and afterwards sentences taught through coloured rods of
different shapes which had been previously associated to different linguistic items.
Likewise, learners had to cooperate with each other in the process of solving language
problems.
Regarding its characteristics, some of them were:
1. It was student-centered.
2. Special attention was given to learner’s psychology during the learning
process.
3. The teacher used “silence” as an approximate tool while students worked out
solutions based on the teacher’s minimal input.
2.5.2. Community Language Learning
Based on psychotherapeutical research on language handicap, this method
was grounded on the theories of the American C. CURRAN. It focused on the affective
needs of the learner, which were paramount in order to make the foreign language
learning process possible. Consequently, language is understood as a social process,
in contrast to the classical concept of language as communication. Therefore, social
relationships were established in L1 and then maintained through interpreting into L2
by the teacher.
According to Curran (1982), it aimed at both cognitive and affective learning,
and refers to an individual’s total experience, that is to say, to whole-person learning.
After that process, the learner must become a state of autonomy in his own learning.
2.5.3. Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia was developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist LOZANOV in 1979.
According to his view, the human mind could reach unsuspected memory levels if
learning takes place in the right conditions, which included the decoration, furniture,
and arrangement of the classroom, the use of music and the behaviour of the teacher.
This method tries to exploit the hidden potential of the human mind, by means of
getting the learner into a state of deep relaxation, close to hypnosis, by using yoga,
rhythmic breathing and readings, in synchrony with some background music.
Although these three methods had certain positive aspects, all had their limitations
and were ultimately short-lived. Around the same time, moves were being made towards
an approach that would gain international recognition and wide acceptance, the
Communicative Approach.
3. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
3.1 Background
Communicative language teaching has its origins in diverse factors which
converged in the early 1960s. On the one hand, the works of the linguist CHOMSKY, which
presented the tenets of generative transformational grammar; on the other hand, the
contributions of British applied linguists, who emphasized the functional and
communicative potential of language and established the need to focus language
teaching on communicative proficiency, and not on an exclusive mastery of structures.
The main representatives of this trend are WIDDOWSON and CANDLIN, who applied the
linguistic conceptions of FIRTH and HALLIDAY, as well as the ideas of some American
sociolinguists and philosophers of language, such as GUMPERZ, LABOV, AUSTIN and
SEARLE.
Another major cause for the communicative shift came from the transformation
of educational systems in Europe. The development of the European Common
Market and the Council of Europe focused on education as one of the major strategies
for consolidation. By the same token, WILKINS and his proposal of a notional syllabus
was an excellent base for the creation of communicative language syllabus, in the
sense that it provided an analysis of the communicative meanings that language convey
in real use. He described two types of meanings: notions (time, sequence, quantity,
location, frequency), which are the concepts expressed by the speaker; and functions
(requests, denials, offers, complaints), which refer to the purpose. After the publication
of his book in 1976, the COUNCIL OF EUROPE incorporated his
semantic/communicative analysis into the THRESHOLD LEVEL FOR MODERN LANGUAGE
LEARNING, having a strong influence on communicative language programmes and
textbooks all over Europe. This document led to the consolidation of the new approach
known as the Notional-Functional Approach, or the Communicative Approach.
3.2. Principles
Complementing HALLIDAY's theory of the functions of language (1970), the
Communicative Approach is seen as an approach that aims to develop communicative
competence (Hymes, 1972) as the primary goal of language teaching, probing the
“nature of social, cultural and pragmatic features of language” (Brown, 2001).
Communicative competence, as later described by Canale and Swain (1980),
identifies four dimensions, in which students must be trained if they are to be
communicatively competent:
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 Linguistic competence: grammatical, lexical, semantic and phonological
competence.
 Sociolinguistic and sociocultural competence: the understanding of the
functional aspects of communication (role relationships, social and cultural
context etc.) and the ability to provide appropriate discourse in a given situation.
 Discourse competence: the ability to produce unified written or spoken
discourses that show coherence and cohesion.
 Strategic competence: coping strategies developed to solve the learning
problems and to be autonomous.
Hence, any communicative approach must develop procedures for the teaching
of the four language skills and be based on carefully selected learner activities that
involve real, authentic communication in context which is meaningful to the learner.
Learners are not expected to produce correct sentences or to be accurate, but to be
capable of communicating and being fluent.
3.3. Methodology
Concerning the SYLLABUS, it may be organized around context, language
functions or different situations. One of the first models was WILKIN'S notional
syllabus, albeit it was soon criticized by British linguists as WIDDOWSON. At present
there are several proposals and models for what a communicative syllabus may be,
ranging from structures plus functions to task-based, as well as learner-generated.
Nevertheless, in a general sense, a communicative syllabus must include: structures,
functions, notions, themes, tasks, situations, and cultural and experimental
aspects.
The range of EXERCISE TYPES AND ACTIVITIES is unlimited. According to LITTLEWOOD
(1981) they are of two main kinds: functional communication activities (comparing
pictures, working out sequences of events, following directions, or problem-solving); and
social interaction activities (conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role
plays, simulations, or debates).
In turn, MATERIALS are, in RICHARDS AND RODGERS’ view (2001), of three major
types: text-based (e.g. textbooks), task-based (relying on jigsaw or information-gap
principles), and realia (magazines, advertisement, graphs or charts).
Moreover, the TEACHER has a multidimensional role: needs analyst, in order to
cater adequately for the students’ necessities, counsellor, facilitator and provider of
opportunities for communicative interaction between all classroom participants.
Likewise, LEARNERS become a central and active member in the learning process. They
must negotiate, interact, and cooperate with other participants and should be an
important contributing element to classroom learning. In other words, teaching
becomes learner-centred.
4. CURRENT TRENDS IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
In the last few decades there have been important innovations in theory, research
and classroom experience, which are introducing sound changes in FLT. Hereunder, we
will elaborate on some of them.
4.1. Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an approach to teaching and learning that
gives all students equal opportunity to succeed. The goal of UDL is to use a variety of
teaching methods to remove any barriers to learning. It is about building in flexibility that
can be adjusted for every person’s strengths and needs, beneficiating all learners.
It is based on three main principles:
1. Engagement: it looks for ways to motivate learners and sustain their interest by
giving assignments meaningful to their lives
2. Representation: it offers information in more than one format catering to the
diversity of learning styles
3. Action and expression: it gives learners more than one way to interact with the
material and to show what they know (a group project, an oral presentation, a test,
etc.)
It is worth noting that our current legislation (Organic Law 3/2020, of 29th
December, amending the Organic Law 2/2006, of 3rd May, on Education) incorporates
among the principles and aims of education the application of the principles of Universal
Design for Learning and educational inclusion.
4.2. Task-Based Language Learning
In a task-based lesson the TEACHER does not predetermine what language will
be studied, the LESSON is based around the completion of a central task and the
LANGUAGE studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it.
A typical task based lesson includes the following four key stages:
1. Pre-task stage: the TEACHER introduces the topic and gives clear instructions
of the task.
2. Task stage: the STUDENTS complete a task in pairs or groups using the
language resources they have.
3. Reporting and analysis stage: STUDENTS may prepare a short oral or written
report, which the TEACHER then analyses.
4. Practice Stage: the TEACHER selects language areas to practise based upon
the needs of the STUDENTS, who do practice activities.
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4.3. Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is an approach whereby students work together in
structured groups to reach common goals, aiming to foster cooperation and
develop critical thinking skills. The LEARNERS are direct and active participants in
the learning process. There are five main principles which underlie such an approach
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001):
1. Positive Interdependence: the success or failure of each group member is
linked to that of the group.
2. Individual accountability: both the group and individual members assume
responsibility for achieving set goals.
3. Interpersonal and social skills: they determine the way learners interact.
4. Group formation or group processing: making decisions regarding the size,
make-up and roles of and within the group.
5. Structuring and structures: it alludes to the different ways in which student
interaction can be organised.
As examples of this approach, we may find the Kagan Structures and the
Cooperative Structures (further subdivided into simple and complex). Both of them are
instructional strategies designed to promote cooperation and communication in the
classroom, boost students' confidence and retain their interest in classroom interaction.
They are a particularly powerful tool for teaching a foreign language.
4.4. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is defined by COYLE, HOOD
and MARSH as a dual-focused educational approach in which an additional language
is used for the learning and teaching of both content and language. Moreover, CLIL
is generally defined as a pedagogical approach which has a dual (integrated) aim:
learning of the subject matter (content) and learning of the (second/foreign/target)
language used as the medium of instruction for the content.
This approach is important to mention because is being used and widespread in
different European countries nowadays, having positive consequences in students
and teachers. In fact, Castilla-La Mancha, Comunidad de Madrid and Andalucía this
is the approach behind “bilingual” programmes.
4.5. E-learning
E-learning is the delivery of a learning programme by electronic means. It
includes web-based learning, virtual classrooms, digital collaboration and delivery
of content through internet.
Indeed, there are a number of course sites that serve content that is live or in video
recordings for preparing language proficiency exams such as TOEFFL or Cambridge
English Exams. Likewise, the rise of social networking and online learning is enabling
thousands of students, including teachers, to have lifelong learning thanks to all the
content uploaded on the Internet (most of them free of charge). Platforms such as
Memrise, Quizlet or Anki, as well as Youtube or Instagram, are powerful tools for foreign
language learning, which can be put to great use in our classrooms as a way of presenting
the content in an attractive and entertaining way for our students
5. CONCLUSION
As we have seen the last hundred years have seen fundamental changes in
language teaching. Grammar-Translation Method was seen as an academic exercise
designed to master the grammar of the language. In the 40s and 50s, behaviourism
suggested that conditioning and habit formation was the answer to produce
communicatively competent students. In the 1960s, Chomsky's generative
grammar seemed to solve the problems that the Audiolingual Method could not.
The 1970s brought affective factors to the forefront in some extremely experimental
methods which were short-lived. The late 70s and early 80s saw the beginnings of
what we now recognise to be the Communicative Approach, which has shown its
superiority over the other approaches.
Nowadays, the incorporation of active learning methodologies, such as Flipped
Classroom, Project Based Learning, Cooperative Learning, Visual Thinking or
Gamification, together with the introduction of Neuroscience in the educational
paradigm, is having a significant impact on our students’ knowledge acquisition.
Moreover, technology applied to education is an increasingly essential tool to address
to the diversity and interests of our students. Indeed, it is worth noting that the current
Spanish legislation highlights the importance of creating meaningful and motivational
activities that take into consideration the different learning styles and rates of our
students, as well as fostering competent, autonomous, meaningful and reflective longlive learning,
Without a shadow of a doubt, learning a new language is a mind-expanding
experience that comes with its ups and downs. Besides, it has become an indispensable
factor not only for our professional career but also for our personal development. In Frank
Smith’s words (renowned Canadian psycholinguist): "One language sets you in a corridor
for life. Two languages open every door along the way.".
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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Cook, V. (2008). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Hodder
Arnold.
 Council of Europe (2020). Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment – Companion volume. Council of
Europe Publishing
 Richards, J. and Renandya, W. (2002) Methodology in Language Teaching: An
Anthology of Current Practice. Cambridge University Press.
 Richards, J. and Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.