Water monitoring and Control of Solar powered Irrigation
systems for small-scale farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati
Canal
By: Michael Nahole
200639463
Research proposal submitted to the faculty of Engineering of the University of Namibia
in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the Honours degree
In Electrical Engineering
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2. Plagiarism declaration
1. I hereby acknowledge that plagiarism means taking and using the writings,ideas,worksor
inventions of someone else as if they were one’s own. I acknowledge that plagiarismnot only
includes precise copying, but also the wide-ranging use of anotherperson’s ideas without proper
acknowledgement (which includes theappropriate use of quotation marks). I also know that
plagiarism covers this manner ofuse of material found in textual sources and from the Internet.
2. I acknowledge and understand that plagiarism constitutes academic dishonesty and that it is
morally and ethically is wrong.
3. I fully comprehend that my research must be accurately referenced. I hereby also establish that
havefollowed the rules and conventions regarding referencing, citation and theuse of quotations
as set out in theDepartmental Guide.
4. This technical review report is my own unique work. I acknowledge that copying someone
else’s review report, or partof it, is wrong and academically unethical and that submitting
matching work to others constitutes aform of plagiarism.
5. I have not permitted, nor will I in the future permit, anyone to copy my workwith the intention
of passing it off as their own work.
Name……………………………………………… Student #...............................................
Signed ……………………………………………. Date …………………………………….
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3. Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to express my eternal gratitude to my maker and sustainer, the
GOD of Abraham, Isaak and Jakob. The GOD of Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego. For the gift
of life and the intelligence and courage to take on and bring to fruition this mammoth task.
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my mentors and Supervisors, Mr Andreas
Tangeni Ndapuka and Dr Tom Wandjekeche, for their continuous encouragement and guidance
throughout my graduate career. They have been great pillars of support and have on numerous
occasions provided me with invaluable advice concerning my report as well as in general.
Finally, I would like to thank all my classmates, old and new. There are far too many to mention,
but thediscussions and jokes we shared will be cherished. You have made my time during my
graduate career thatmuch better.
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4. Table of Contents
2. Plagiarism declaration ......................................................................................................................... 2
3. Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................ 3
4. Abbreviations and acronyms................................................................................................................ 5
5. Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... 6
6. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Orientation of study ............................................................................................................................ 6
Problem Statement ............................................................................................................................ 9
Objectives ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Hypothesis:........................................................................................................................................ 10
Null Hypothesis ................................................................................................................................. 10
Alternate Hypothesis ......................................................................................................................... 10
Significance of the study .................................................................................................................... 10
Limitations and delimitations............................................................................................................. 10
Limitations......................................................................................................................................... 10
Delimitations ..................................................................................................................................... 11
7. Critical Review of the Literature ......................................................................................................... 11
Sensors for agricultural and irrigation purposes in the market ........................................................... 11
Other countries and smart irrigation.................................................................................................. 15
Kenya and Morocco ....................................................................................................................... 15
8. Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 17
Research design................................................................................................................................. 17
Research Procedures ......................................................................................................................... 18
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 19
Research Timeline ............................................................................................................................. 20
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................. 21
References ............................................................................................................................................ 21
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4. Abbreviations and acronyms
SPIS
Solar Powered Irrigation systems
IoT
Internet Of Things
RFID
GSM
GPRS
Wi-Fi
LAN
3G
5G
LTE
GPS
ICT
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5. Abstract
This paper is based on the design work of [1] in which the author designed a Solar powered
water pump system for the small-scale farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati canal and in which
the author suggested future work involving the research, design and implementation of Soil
moisture or water level sensing devices to help control the system irrigation cycles.
This research proposal therefore builds on and proposes a solution to [1]’s design shortcomings
in the form of an automatic Solar powered irrigation system that uses GSM to inform the farmer
of the soil condition and automatically switches the pump on and off based on the soils moisture
content or based on a preplanned schedule.The proposal will challenge the status quo that typical
sensors for agricultural solar powered irrigation systemsSPIS are very expensive and this makes
the smart SPIS unaffordable by small-scale farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati canal.
However,there has been recent advances and breakthroughs with regard to the internet of things
(IoT) and other technologies that have the potential to assist in the design and development of
these systems and in so doing reduce their price drastically. This proposal will therefore study
the current trends and propose the development of the best design and most economically viable
option for the small- scale farmers.
Lastly, we will discuss the challenges and the best practices for the implementation of sensor-based
irrigation systems.
6. Introduction
Orientation of study
According to [2] the population of sub-Saharan Africa is growing at 2.7% per annum. This
growth rate is twice in excess of the growth rate of South Asia at 1.2%. Meaning that every
second year Africa adds the population of France to its population. It is projected that Africa’s
population will double by 2050.The current population of Namibia is 2,549,167 with a
population density of 3 people per Km2as of Monday, September 7, 2020, according to [3] with
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data based on elaborations of the latest United Nations data.This population is recorded to be
growing at 1.86% annually.
With such a growing population Namibia will need to become food self-sufficient fast. Given the
current population density this does not seem to be an unattainable goal but it is heavily
dependent on the availability of water. Also, the growing population accompanied by food
insecurity has necessitated the need for enhanced and innovative irrigation and farming practices
that are tailor made for the Namibian arid conditions, the low rainfall, the high
evapotranspiration, the seasonal farming practices of the majority of Namibian farmers and the
electricity status of the primarily off grid and remote location of the farmers.
With the Namibian government and the authorities of the City of Windhoek talking about turning
Windhoek into a smart city. The notion of the Internet of things becomes a musthave if such a
dream is to be realized. The Internet of Things (IoT) facilitates safe connection and exchange of
data between real physical objects, termed "Things" and applications. The actual connection is
accomplishedusing different network technologies (e.g., RFID, Bluetooth, GSM, GPRS, Wi-Fi,
LAN, 3G, 5G LTE). “Things" are items like computers, smartphones, sensors (e.g., temperature
sensors, moisture sensors, rain sensor, GPS), actuators, wearable devices, homes, buildings,
structures, vehicles, and energy systems. These “Things” are capable of identifying, storing and
collecting information, understanding commands, transmitting and receiving messages and
acting as sensors and actuators.
Moreover, IoT is the backbone for smart cities, it improves the quality of life andof services
provided to citizens. According to [4] “A smart city is a municipality that uses information and
communication technologies (ICT) to increase operational efficiency, share information with the
public and improve both the quality of government services and citizen welfare.” A Smart city
therefore encompassesa wide variety of components such as smart transportation,smart
infrastructure, smart energy, smart healthcare, smart governance, smart education, and smart
farming which is the case under discussion in this paper.
Majority of Namibian farmers whether commercial or subsistent are dependent on rainwater or
boreholes. Smart Solar powered irrigation systems (SPIS) have presented a suitable alternative
for thepresent Namibian energy and water status. Solar powered irrigation would enable all year
round farming even though there is a serious need for SPIS control.Because without an
incentivised water consumption system, SPIS might lead to the overexploitation and to a greater
extend the depletion of already scarce water resources.
The prevalent irrigation system in Namibia and specifically along the Calueque-Oshakati canalis
too labour intensive and inefficient given that even if a conventional farm has a water pump to
pump water from the source to the location of the plants ( like in the case of the system proposed
by [1] along the Calueque-Oshakati canal), the farmer is still burdened by the need to manually
switch the pump on/off. The drawbacks being that the probability of unplanned and unnecessary
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water usage is high and the farmer might forget or fail to activate and deactivate the pump(s) at
the correct intervals and time. The culmination of a number of such eventualities might lead to a
substantial wastage of water which for commercial farmers is an expensive exercise.
This paper is based on the design work of [1]in which the author designed a Solar powered
water pump system for the small-scale farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati canal and in which
the author suggested future work involving the research, design and implementation of Soil
moisture or water level sensing devices to help control the system irrigation cycles.
This research proposal therefore proposes a solution to these drawbacks in the form of an
automatic Solar powered irrigation system that uses GSM to inform the farmer of the soil
condition and automatically switches the pump on and off based on the soils moisture content or
based on a preplanned schedule. The system offers water usage efficiency and reduces the labor
demand.
These type of water control and monitoring systems will also be attractive to home owners who
would like to save water and minimize the human involvement in watering of their lawn or
plants around the household. It is also used in smart greenhouses, golf courses,turfs and
landscapes. So the market is quiet large and according to [5] the smart irrigation market will be
worth 2.1 Billion by the year 2025 with controllers being forecasted to have the largest market
share during the forecasted period and weather based systems to hold the largest market share
between 2020 and 2025. The author also stated that non-agricultural applications will account for
a larger market share from 2020 but given the recent COVID-19 the installation of internet of
things (IoT) devices across the world is expected to increase to optimize irrigation scheduling
and reduce labour requirements on the farm or in smart city farming applications.
These types of automated systems have been proposed and are currently operational in many
countries around the world. The purpose of this research paper is to conduct a desktop research
on the use of smart SPIS for water management around the world, adapt it to a Namibian case in
particular the Calueque-Oshakati canal and study the following.



The paper will mainly attempt to establish from a critical review of current scholarly
undertakings, what the best viable Technical models are for both the small-scale farmers
along the Calueque-Oshakati canal and ISPS module entrepreneurs willing to enter the
market for profit.
This paper will also attempt to weigh the costs against benefits in a Namibian point of
view and establish the viability, cost effectiveness and sustainability of the automated
SPIS with regard to the Calueque-Oshakati canal farming society’s social and economic
spectrum.
It will also look at what policies and management mechanisms andcapacity
development initiatives should be implemented by Government, local authorities or
otherwise to mitigate the risks and hence optimally harness the full potentials of this
system.
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
What the benefits for using the automated SPIS are for small-scale farmersalong the
canal.
Problem Statement
Namibia is a desert country with low rainfall and a high evapotranspiration. Majority of
Namibian farmers practice seasonal farming and are heavily dependent on rainfall and on the
already stressed and scarce underground water resources. Due to the remote and off grid location
of the majority of Namibian farmers and the rising cost of conventional electricity for those near
the National grid, the acquisition of water for farming purposes has become an expensive
endeavourcoupled with the fact that the countries’ water resources are already stressed due to the
fast-growing population and the subsequent need for food self-sustenance. The country has also
in recent years experienced severe drought conditions to the point that it declared a water
national emergency.
All these factors suggest that innovative water management interventions are warranted as a
matter of national urgency. These factors also call for the development and use of Renewable
energy (RE) technologies to put ease on the country’s electricity deficit. Also there exists a need
to spark the drive for Namibia to enter the industrial revolution and without developing the IoT,
that too is bound to remain but a dream for Namibia.
According to [1] the current method employed amongst the small-scale farmers along the
Calueque-Oshakati Canal to pump water to their small-scale farming operations is the
diesel/petrol pump method which has high operational costs and is environmentally
unfriendly.[1] designed a solar water pumping system for irrigation purposes specifically for
these farmers which serves as a replacement for the cost intensive and environmentally
unfriendly solution currently being practiced
However, the solution offered by [1] had its shortcomings as it did not include the control and
automation of the solar powered irrigation system to maximise its efficiency, the water
monitoring and control toprevent the wastage and at the same time undesirable watering cycles.
Nevertheless, the author did suggest smart irrigation systems along the Calueque-Oshakati Canal
as future research work to build on the design.
Objectives


The paper will mainly attempt to establish from a critical review of current scholarly
undertakings, what the best viable Technical models are for both the small-scale farmers
along the Calueque-Oshakati canal and the automated ISPS module entrepreneurs
willing to enter the market for profit.
This paper will also attempt to weigh the costs against benefits in a Namibian point of
view and establish the viability, cost effectiveness and sustainability of the automated
SPIS with regard to the Calueque-Oshakati canal farming society’s social and economic
spectrum.
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

What the benefits for using the automated SPIS are for small-scale farmersalong the
canal.
It will also look at what policies,capacity development initiatives and management
mechanisms should be implemented by Government, local authorities or otherwise to
mitigate the risks and hence optimally harness the full potentials of this system e.g
mitigation of the risk of underground water depletion.
Hypothesis:
The following Supposition/Hypothesis will be tested
Null Hypothesis
An automated water monitoring and control of a Solar powered Irrigation system is both cost
effective and sustainable along the Calueque-Oshakati canal
Alternate Hypothesis
An automated water monitoring and control of a Solar powered Irrigation system is not cost
effective and sustainable along the Calueque-Oshakati canal
Significance of the study
By the analysis and subsequent rejection or failure to reject the null hypothesis as stated. The
author of this document will be in a better statistical position to conclude whether the automated
SPIS costs outweigh the benefits or the benefits outweigh the costs when viewed from the stand
point of the characteristic small-scale farmer along the Calueque-Oshakati canal and to better
establish the viability, cost effectiveness and sustainability of the automated SPIS with regard to
the Calueque-Oshakati canal farming society’s social and economic spectrum.
The results will determine the viability and establish clear benefits that the farmers could reap
from the smart water control and management of Solar powered irrigation systems.
The results of the hypothesis test will also determine and streamline the type of advice the author
should give to the characteristic small-scale farmer along the Calueque-Oshakati canal,
government, local authorities and any interested party with regard to what policies and
management mechanisms should be implemented to mitigate the risks and hence optimally
harness the full potentials of this system according to the vast pool of intellectual knowledge on
the matter of smart irrigation systems and the IoT.
Limitations and delimitations
Limitations

(Sample size and sample profile) No known smart irrigation projects in Namibia to use as
sample for data collection. The sizes of the projects in other countries are different and
the country profiles vary with regard to climate, prices, farmer’s spending power and the
respective governmental interventions and laws.
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


(Time) since this is an academic research proposal and is bound to time constrains the
factor of time provides limitations to the research results.An example being that if the
researcher could have a year onsite to collect water usage data. The results would have
been more accurate.
Limited financial resources for the travelling expenses of the researcherand to provide
incentives to individuals from whom raw data is collected and to pay researchers to
collect data from multiple small-scale farmers with different irrigation projects of
different sizes so as to enlarge the sample size.
Because the study will mainly focus on small-scale farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati
Canal this may reduce the ability of the study to be generalized to other areas in Namibia.
Delimitations
To mitigate the sampling size and sample formatlimitations,and hence formulate a wellinformed proposal, countries with the same climatic conditions and close to the same
problems as the ones in and about the Calueque-Oshakati canal will be chosen for analysis
and inference purposes.
Case studies will be categorized as follows and then inferences will be made and propositions
made for the most adapted automation system that is best suited for the SPIS installations for
small-scale farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati Canal as designed by [1]:


The engineering design specifications employed in overcoming similar problems as
those that may be encountered by small-scale farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati
Canal
The Financial, Investment & Business Models, exploring different subsidy schemes,
investmentprogrammes, innovative business models and other finance-related aspects
of automated SPIS;
7. Critical Review of the Literature
Sensors for agricultural and irrigation purposes in the market
Typical sensors for agricultural solar powered irrigation systems (SPIS) are very expensive and
this makes the smart SPIS unaffordable by small-scale farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati
canal. However, since these products are demand driven like most others, this has created a huge
demand for cheaper sensors and manufacturers and researchers aided by advances in technology
are now offering low-cost sensors that can be connected to output nodes on automated smart
irrigation modules thus enabling low-cost irrigation systems.
The new low-cost sensors and their modes of operations that have been proposed by
researchersare:
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1. A leaf water stress monitoring sensor. This sensor was introduced to smart and precision
agriculture by [6]. Unlike the conventional soil-moisture sensors this sensor senses
measures the temperature difference between the leaf of the plant and air which is
proportional to the plant water stress. It was proposed with a water management smart
SPIS that used low complexity morse code modulation riding on a 878 MHz signal for
communication. The whole module was battery less and was powered only with a
flexible solar panel. It consumed around 20µWand in its outdoor testing itmanaged to
successfully communicate at a maximum distance of 2 meters.
Although this is a very good sensor it’s level of precision is not really what the average
farmer around the Calueque-Oshakati canal needs and its level of sophistication defeats
the very object of simplicity which is what these farmers need.
Also, by the time of publication of this research the price of one leaf sensor on the market
provided by Agrihouse Inc and was valued at 290 USD without the wireless
communication equipment[7]. This is absolutely not a low-cost sensor from the stand
point of a farmer along the Calueque-Oshakati canal.
2. A multi-level soil moisture sensor comprised of copper rings placed along a PVC pipe.
This sensor was proposed in[8]and is uses the concept of capacitance between the low
resistance coper rings to measure the soil water content. These sensors have also been
found to be unaffordable to the average farmer around the Calueque-Oshakati canal
because of their sophistication and price.
3. A water salinity monitoring sensor made with copper coils. This was proposed by [9] to
measure the salt content of water via the concept of conductivity which is defined as the
ease with which a material allows the flow of charge.[9] proposed a sensor made up of a
thyroid that is fed with a sine wave and a solenoid which will detect the magnetic field
induced in the thyroid. This sensor showed promising results during testing and can be
used for were salinity testing is required. But in the case of the average farmer around the
Calueque-Oshakati canal the prime focus is mainly on soil moisture sensing for economic
reasons.
Though there are some research proposed sensors on the market and in the broader intellectual
community, their development to suit the Calueque-Oshakati farmers’ needs is beyond the scope
of this research proposal and point that requires further more specialized research.

However, there are some sensors on the market that are comparatively cheap as compared
to the bulk of the sensors on the market and can be used to accomplish the soil moisture
sensing requirements of the Farmers as can be seen from the following table that lists the
types of sensors by their monitoring techniques and summarises their advantages and
disadvantages along with their costsat the USD-NAD exchange rate of 2020/09/23 13:3[10].
Monitoring
techniques
Feel and
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Advantages

Least
Disadvantages

Subjective
Cost

Labour
Recommen
dation
forthe
CaluequeOshakati
Farmers
Current
appearance

Costly
Method
Multiple
locations


Gravimetric



Tensiometer







Electrical
resistance



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Accurate
Inexpensiv
e
Multiple
locations
Inexpensiv
e
Widely
used and
accepted
Not
affected by
salinity
Continuous
reading
possible
using
transducer
High
frequency
sampling
Minimal
skills
required
Easy to
install

Large
Sample
Area
Can be
used in
moderately
saline soils
Simple and








and
qualitative
assessment
not
quantitative
Difficult
when
working with
layered soils
Time
consuming
and labour
intensive
Time
consuming
and labour
intensive
Time delay
Small
operative
range (0 to
8500 kpa)
Slow
response
time
Need good
contact
between
sensor and
soil
Requires
frequent
maintenance
refilling to
keep the tube
full of water
Operating
range works
for sandy
soils but not
for fine
textured soils
Not
recommende
d for sandy
soils
Because of
slow
response
times as
method






Labour
Oven
drying
Weighing
balance
At the
USD-NAD
exchange
rate of
2020/09/23
13:30
N$ 1003.8
-N$1338.4
(requires 34 sensors)
Plus, N$
2342.2 -N$
2593.15 if
installed
with a
transducer
N$334.6
per sensor.
(three to
four
sensors
required
per
location)
Rec
om
men
ded
Rec
om
men
ded


Frequency
Domain
Reflectometry
(FDR)






Time domain
reflectometry
(TDR)




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inexpensiv
e
Easy to
install
Best suited
for
irrigation
manageme
nt


Remote
access
capability
Fast
response
time
Accurate
after soil
specific
calibration
(+/-1%)
Compared
to TDR,
FDR can
be used in
high saline
soils.
Flexibility
in probe
design
Moderately
inexpensiv
e as
compared
to TDR

Accurate
(+/-1%)
No Soil
specific
field
calibration
required
Not easily
influenced
by
moderate
soil salinity
Remote







water moves
fast in sandy
soil.
Performs
poorly in soil
that shrinks
and swells.
Affected by
soil
temperature
fluctuations.
Small
sensing area
(4.064cm)
Need good
contact
between the
sensors (or
the access
tube) and
soil
Careful
installation
to avoid air
gaps
required.
Sensitive to
soil
temperature,
bulk density,
clay content
and air gaps
Need soil
specific
calibration.

Pluss N$
3346.00 for
hand
manual
reader and
N$ 8365
for data
logger)

N$4182.5
to
N$5019.00
per sensor
(3-4
sensors per
location
Plus N$
8365.00 to
N$
41,825.00
for data
logger
N$8365.00
to N$
16,730.00
for access
tube
installation
kit.
Small
sensing area
(1.016 cm)
Need good
between soil
and sensor
Expensive




N$4182.5
to
N$5019.00
per sensor
(3-4
sensors per
location
Plus,
N$16,730.0
0 to
50,0190 for
data logger
access
capable
Neutron
Scattering



Accurate
and reliable
Unaffected
by salinity
Covers a
large
sample area







Soil specific
field
calibration
required
Highly
regulated
Expensive
Safety
hazard
Heavy and
cumbersome
Reading
close to soil
is difficult
and not
accurate
Manual
reading


Neutron
probe
>N$ 167,
300.00
Plus
N$167.3 N$ 334.6
per access
tube
Table 1: Summary of the advantages and disadvantages of different monitoring techniques and the recommendations of the
best suited sensors for the Calueque-Oshakati canal farmers
From the above literature review and summary of the sensors available for the smart water
management and control of the solar powered irrigation system installation designed for the
farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati Canal the following is concluded.
Only two sensor types fall within the range of affordability by the farmers which are the
Electrical resistance type and the tensiometer type. Although these sensors are cheap they come
cheap at the cost of accuracy and speed of response.
Other countries and smart irrigation
Kenya and Morocco
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The engineering design specifications employed in overcoming similar problems
The Kenyan Meru University of Science and technology developed a sensor based automated
irrigation system that came with its own app. The system monitors the water needs of the soil
and controls the irrigation mechanisms and equipment to water the soil until the required level of
moisture is met. Power from solar panels was used to open a water tank valve and closed again
when the soil moisture was up to the required level.
The initial cost of the system was quite high at N$ 8,030.40 per 1000m2 ≈ 0.001 km2 for the
system containing the app and the irrigation system[11]
. This included the solar panels and two lines for drip irrigation which could further be extended
another 1000m2 ≈ 0.001 km2 for an extra N$ 806.219.
Two US companies AgroSolar and SunCulture have also seen the potential in the Kenyan market
and the two proposed an ingenious automated Solar powered drip irrigation system that did not
require batteries. The system worked by pumping water against a high head by pumping it into a
raised tank or reservoir during the day using water level sensors in the tank and opening the tank
valves for irrigation at night. The water then moves under the influence of gravity through a
filtration system to the crops. The system was however more expensive than the previous one
with a price tag of N$41,825.00 including training on the system usage and irrigation equipment
for an area of 4000m2 ≈ 0.004 km2. Furthermore, the two companies claim unverifiable that
according to experience the farmer could save up to N$167,300.00 every year when the system is
compared to petrol/diesel generators[11].
The Financial, Investment & Business Models
The Kenyan government and Private institutions have instituted the following measures to assist
small-scale irrigation projects in their country.





The Agricultural Sector Development Support Program is an initiative of the government
of Kenya and six other developmental partners with the aim of strengthening the role of
small holders in the agriculture sector
The Kenyan government does not charge value added tax on Solar kits in a bid to make
them more affordable and to make smart irrigation with Renewable Energy more
attractive.
Kenyan banks such as the Equity bank and another Bank owned by farmers called the
Juhudi Kilimo offer tailor made credit lines to farmers such as repayments based on
harvest cycles.
Innovative approaches by irrigation equipment suppliers termed the One-Stop-Shop. In
which the suppliers themselves offer credit lines to their customers
In Morocco some Energy Service Companies called ESCOs have proposed and are
running an innovative business model where the ESCO signs agreements with farmers to
take over engineering, financing, supply, installation and maintenance of the solar power
irrigation equipment with or without the smart water management and control and the
farmers pay for the energy delivered or the water they consume.
16 | P a g e

The Moroccan ESCOs have embarked on a robust marketing scheme where they work
with mosques and Imams to spread the education on solar technologies and smart
irrigation systems.
A good majority of farmers are informal with unregistered land and these financial institutions
require collateral for their schemes, certificates of land ownership and that the farms be
registered as enterprises. It has therefore become difficult for the majority of farmers to access
finance. Financial institutions also require a lot of paperwork which further complicates the
process for the farmers. The farmers in Kenya came up with their own solutions to their
predicament with the following alternative finance methods.



The informal cooperative society called the “MerrygoRound” in which the members pool
and invest their savings.
A hire/purchase arrangement called the “Check of Systems”. With this system suppliers
sell irrigation equipment to farmers and the monthly payments are deducted from their
salaries by their employers.
Loans from friends and Family have also become more attractive as they come without
interest and no cumbersome paperwork is involved.
This literature review on the financial aspect of the installation of automated SPIS in countries
with similar characteristics as Namibia and more specifically the farmers around the CaluequeOshakati canal has yielded the following conclusions:


It was concluded that the problem of affordability albeit universal there are ways the
farmers can negotiate their ways around it
The review has found that there are some attractive technical models of the smart
irrigation systems currently in place in other countries that can be tailor made to the
situation of the small-scale farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati canal and more value to
the system proposed by[1]
Therefore it is necessary that an in-depth research be conducted amongst the small-scale farmers
along the Calueque-Oshakati canal and onsite information be collected to determine the type of
technical model that would best suit the farmers and to gather data that can be used in the
evaluation of the savings in monetary terms if the proposed automated solar powered irrigation
system is to be installed in the area.
8. Methodology
Research design
Information will be collected on site via questionnaires, pictures and visual inspection of the site.
A desktop research of current scholarly undertakings in the smart and precision Solar Powered
Irrigation systems sector will be undertaken, to establish what the best viable Technical models
are for water management and control for both the small-scale farmers along the Calueque17 | P a g e
Oshakati canal and the automated ISPS module entrepreneurs willing to enter the market for
profit.Furthermore, desktop simulations will be made using Proteus and Arduino to see the
operation of the system.
Research Procedures
The research procedure will include:

Questionnaires and interviewing the members of the farming society along the CaluequeOshakati canal. The two forms of data collection will be used since not all farmers are
literate.

Once the average water (From collected data) and energy requirement (varies from plant
to plant type) are determined per m2. The system will be redesigned for site specific
requirements which will either lower or increase the costs depending on size of irrigation
area and method of irrigation chosen.

Determine the costs of a SPIS without anautomated water monitoring and control system
based on the average water demand and consequent energy demand from solar PV
system. The cost of every component will be taken into account including shipping costs
if it can’t be procured locally, inflation and the maintenance costs of any component of
the system requiring regular maintenance.

Determine the costs of a SPIS with an automated water monitoring and control system
based on the average water demand and consequent energy demand from solar PV
system. The cost of every component will be taken into account including shipping costs
if it can’t be procured locally, inflation and the maintenance costs of any component of
the system requiring regular maintenance.

Determine the costs of a battery-less SPIS(similar to the Kenyan system) with and
without an automated water monitoring and control system based on the average water
demand and consequent energy demand from solar PV system. The cost of every
component will be taken into account including shipping costs if it can’t be procured
locally, inflation and the maintenance costs of any component of the system requiring
regular maintenance.

Determine the costs of the diesel/petrol system with and without an automated water
monitoring and control system based on the average water demand and consequent
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energy demand from thediesel/petrol system. The cost of every component will be taken
into account including shipping costs if it can’t be procured locally, inflation and the
maintenance costs of any component of the system requiring regular maintenance.

Statistical Analysis techniques will then be utilized to determine the best option for the
farmers along the Calueque-Oshakati canal based on factors such as (The statistical test
shall assume that all systems deliver the same water in m3/s and demand
the same
electrical or mechanical energy from the respective sources):
o Overall cost of the system
o Water usage of the system
o Maintenance frequency and cost
o Capacity factor of system
Data Analysis
The analysis of the data will be done as follows

The water consumption of all systems will be compared using statistical methods

The monitory costs/m3 of every system will be determined and compared

The performance ratios of all systems will be determined and graphed using bar graph

Overall costs of the systems will be compared and graphed using per unit values relating
them to the Petrol/diesel generator as the base value.

The overall system efficiencies will be calculated and compared

The systems’ capacity factor will be analyzed in terms of both water delivery and energy
production so as to get a measure of the relationship between the quantities actually
produced and the possible quantities that could be produced if the systems were to be as
effective as possible.

In the analysis of the efficiencies of the systems, the diversity factor will also be
considered for farmers with different crops with different water demands.

The results will be simulated to monitor the overall performance of different systems
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Research Timeline
Figure 1: Research timeline guideline
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Figure 2:Research Timeline
Conclusion
References
[1] A. M. Simeon, "DESIGN OF A SOLAR POWERED WATER PUMPING SYSTEM FOR SMALL-SCALE
FARMERS ALONG CALUEQUE-OSHAKATI CANAL," FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY, Onwediva, 2018.
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[2] Economist, "Africa’s population will double by 2050," 26 March 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://www.economist.com/special-report/2020/03/26/africas-population-will-double-by-2050.
[Accessed 28 08 2020].
[3] Wordometer, "Namibia Population Live," [Online]. Available:
https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/namibia-population/. [Accessed 07 09 2020].
[4] M. Rouse, "Smart City," July 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/smart-city. [Accessed 08 09 2020].
[5] M&M, "Smart Irrigation Market worth $2.1 billion by 2025," June 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/PressReleases/smart-irrigation.asp. [Accessed 06 09 2020].
[6] G. G. S. D. A. M. M. T. A. G. S. N. Daskalakis, "A uW Backscatter-Morse-Leaf Sensor for Low-Power
Agricultural Wireless Sensor Networks," IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 18, no. 19, pp. 7889-7898, 1
October 2018.
[7] AgrihouseInc, "Agrihouse Inc online shop," Agrihouse Inc, 2020. [Online]. Available:
https://www.agrihouse.com/secure/shop/item.aspx?itemid=134. [Accessed 22 09 2020].
[8] A. H. I. K. K. R. K. Y. K. M. R. S. S. J P Guruprasadh, "Intelligent soil quality monitoring system for
judicious irrigation," in International Conference on Advances in Computing, Communications and
Informatics (ICACCI), Udupi, 2018.
[9] S. S. V. O. J. L. L PARRA, "Low-cost Conductivity Sensor Based on Two Coils," in Recent Advances in
Intelligent Control, Modelling and Computational Science, Valencia.
[10] V. Sharma, "METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR SOIL MOISTURE MONITORING," University of
Wyoming, Wyoming, 2018.
[11] Malabo_Montpellier, "Water-Wise: Smart Irrigation Strategies in KENYA," Malabo Montpellier
Panel, Dakar, 2018.
[12] L. P. V. O. L. L. S Sendra, "A Low Cost Turbidity Sensor Development," in Seventh International
Conference on Sensor Technologies and Applications, Barcelona, 2013.
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