.Language and Dialogue Techniques Term Allusion Definition A brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical, cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text. E.g. The rise in poverty will unlock the Pandora’s box of crimes. – This is an allusion to one of Greek Mythology’s origin myth, “Pandora’s box”. Anecdote Challenge A short and interesting story or an amusing event often proposed to support or demonstrate some point and make readers and listeners laugh. A call to take part in a contest or competition. Cliché A phrase or opinion that is overused and betrays a lack of original thought. Colloquialism Informal language, conversational language. Connotation Refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly. Can be positive or negative. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings in addition to their literal meanings. E.g. “Wall Street” literally means a street situated in Lower Manhattan but connotatively it refers to “wealth” and “power”. Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. E.g. She said, "What time will you be home?" Indirect speech is a means of expressing the content of statements, questions or other utterances, without quoting them explicitly as is done in direct speech E.g. “He said he went to the shop.” This can include euphemism and technical jargon in order to create distance between the speaker and the emotions associated with particular words. E.g. “We’re going to fire him” “We’ll have to let him go”. Direct Speech Indirect Speech Distancing Language Emotive Language The deliberate choice of words to elicit emotion (usually to influence). Equivocation The use of ambiguous language to conceal the truth or avoid commitment Euphemism Flattery An idiomatic expression which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its unpleasantness. E.g. “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. Excessive and insincere praise that is given to further one’s. Gaps/ Pauses/ Silences Hesitation Moments within the play that have no dialogue but communicate information - physical actions may or may not take place. Halting or faltering speech. High/Low modality An area of meaning having to do with possibility, probability, permission and obligation. E.g. High modality: “I definitely will eat bread tomorrow” Low modality: “I might go to the shop tomorrow, I might not.” Hyperbole Huge exaggeration or overstatement. E.g. You could have knocked me over with a feather. Idiom A phrase or a fixed expression that has a figurative, or sometimes literal, meaning E.g. “kick the bucket” “hang one’s head” Imagery Writing that appeals to the senses. E.g. It was dark and dim in the forest. – The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images. He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee. – “whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell. The children were screaming and shouting in the fields. - “Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing or auditory sense. The fresh and juicy orange are very cold and sweet. – “juicy” and “sweet” when associated with oranges have an effect on our sense of taste. Imperative Language Inclusive/Exclusive Language The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric. – The idea of “soft” in this example appeals to our sense of touch. Used to express demands or commands or instructions. Innuendo Inclusive language is accessible and meaningful to a wide audience, exclusive language uses colloquialisms, dialect, jargon and idioms to make it harder for the audience to understand the meaning. An indirect hint at something about a person or thing that might be derogatory. Interrogation Repeated and consistent questioning of one particular character. Interruptions: to character dialogue by other characters or actions within the play. Irony Jargon A figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. A verbal irony involves what one does not mean. E.g. When in response to a foolish idea, we say, “What a great idea!” it is a verbal irony. Irony may also be a situation that may end up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. (Situational irony) E.g. You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel and the next thing you know, you slipped too. In simple words, it is a difference between the appearance and the reality. The language, and especially the vocabulary, specific to a particular group. Manipulative Language Words used to control or influence (a person or situation) cleverly, unfairly, or unscrupulously; language that attempts to influence the behaviour or emotions of others. Metaphor A comparison that is made directly and claims that one thing IS another. Metonymy It is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and in everyday life. E.g. The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to written words and sword to military force.) Motif An object or idea that repeats itself throughout a literary work. Onomatopoeia Words which describe sounds that also sound like that which they describe. E.g. Crash, splash, howl, screech. Repetition The repetition of words and sentences with purpose and for effect. Rhetorical Questions Sarcasm A question asked solely to produce an effect or to make an assertion and does not elicit or expect a reply. A form of irony wherein the speaker conveys mocking, derision or insult through false appreciation or praise. Simile The comparison of one thing as being ‘like’ or ‘as’ another, used to describe a quality about that thing. E.g. He ran like the wind. She’s as cool as a cucumber. Words that are not a part of standard vocabulary or language and are used informally are called slang. An offensive word, used especially as an expression of anger. Slang Swearing and Expletives Threats Tone A statement of an intention to inflict pain, injury, damage, or other hostile action on someone in retribution for something done or not done. An attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. Verbosity Wordiness or using too many words to express something unnecessarily. Word Choice that Positions the Speaker Anaphora The language choices made by the playwright to position the character in a certain light influences the audience to understand a character in a certain way. the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of every clause. Foreshadowing be a warning or indication of (a future event). Anthropomorphism Anthropomorphism assigns human characteristics to nonhuman entities like animals or inanimate objects. Figurative language the use of words in a way that deviates from the conventional order and meaning in order to convey a complicated meaning, colorful writing, clarity, or evocative comparison Posing a question. Then answering the question. Hyperphora Film techniques Angles/lines Body Language Close-up Shot Colour (Hue/Tones) Composition Contrast Framing Gaze High Angle Shot Law of Thirds Lighting Long/Wide Low Angle Shot Mid Shot Point of View Positioning The ‘direction’ of an image based on the angles or lines within it. Horizontals create a sense of calm, verticals a sense of structure and diagonals a mood of unease or being off balance. Facial expressions, body language and gestures used to show character’s attitudes, moods or personality. Often focussed on overall body movement and positioning. When the frame is mostly or entirely filled with a character’s face, an important object, etc. Used to create viewer focus and show that whatever is being shown is important. Often used on character’s faces in highly emotional images. Colours are symbolic of different emotions, moods, etc. and are used to evoke corresponding responses in audiences. Purple is a colour of royalty, wealth and luxury whereas red symbolises lust, passion, anger and so on. Also consider how saturated colours are (are they bright and vivid or dull and desaturated?). What an image is made up of – where things are placed, how it is framed, the colour and lighting used, etc. This generally refers to the image as a whole. Placing things that are considered opposite close to each other. Contrasts can be between colours (black and white), sizes (large and small), textures (rough and smooth), etc. to create interest and complexity. One small contrasting colour/size/shape in an image is also usually highly salient because it stands out. The camera shots and angles used in images/films to create different audience reactions and emotions. E.g. close-up, extreme close-up, mid shots, aerial shots, etc. Where a character looks, which then directs viewer’s eyes. A ‘demand’ gaze involves direct eye contact between a character and the viewer, an ‘offer’ has the character look at something within the image, drawing the viewer’s eyes there too. Can also be used to express emotion/intent. A shot taken from slightly above something/someone, looking down on it/them. Creates a sense of the character being weak, helpless, intimidated, etc. May also be used to represent someone literally looking down at an object/scene (point of view). By dividing an image into equal thirds along the horizontal, the vertical axis you can break it into 9 equal sections which each have different connotations, Movement is expected to from the left thirds to the right thirds, otherwise it’s read as moving backwards (literally or figuratively). Characters in the top right third are seen as powerful or in control, while those in the bottom left thirds are weaker or being controlled. How a shot is lit or not lit. This includes natural lighting (the sun, open windows, etc.) and manmade lighting (lamps, torches, etc.) as well as feature lighting such as coloured lights, spotlights, moving lights, etc. Lighting has a major impact on the mood and atmosphere of an image (low light is seedy, harsh light is unnerving, soft light is intimate, etc.). A shot that is made up of a large landscape, cityscape or other kind of scene, Generally these are used to get across lots of information at once, such as the layout of a room, the location of an event, the number of people around, etc. A shot taken from slightly below someone/something, used to present them/it as being in a position of power, dominance or control. It may also be used to have someone literally look up at someone/something (point of view) A shot that is approximately half-filled with a figure, object, etc. Usually these are ‘regular’ shots and are very common for character conversations/interactions or showing a select area or object within an area (a desk, chair, etc.). How the shot is framed in reference to the viewer or a character. Does the shot take the character’s point of view (a shot of a character leaning out a window cutting to an aerial shot looking down from a window) or is the audience placed level with, above or below the characters/objects/action? Where have objects and characters been placed in the shot? What is in the foreground, middle ground and background and why have they been placed there? Salience Symbolism Text Vectors How much any section of an image draws the viewer’s eyes – the most salient feature of an image is whatever/wherever the viewer’s eyes are first drawn when they look at it. Salience is always deliberate and usually created through contrast, colour, framing and layout. The use of one image/object to represent an idea or concept that is more complex than it is. Religious symbolism, pop culture symbolism and animal symbolism are all very common. Words used within images to convey a literal or figurative message. Consider the font, colour, size, weight, etc. of the text, where and how often it has been used and the connotations of the words actually used. The lines or paths viewer’s eyes follow when looking at an image, usually vectors are deliberately created to lead the eyes to a focal point or important feature. Because we read left to right we tend to follow vectors in the same direction across an image.
