BY STEPHEN JAY GOULD IN
NORTON PAPERBACK
EVER SINCE DARWIN
Reflections in Natural History
THE PANDA'S THUMB
More Reflections in Natural History
THE MISMEASURE OF MAN
Revised and Expanded
HEN'S TEETH AND HORSE'S TOES
Further Reflections
in Natural History
THE FLAMINGO'S SMILE
Reflections in Natural History
AN URCHIN IN THE STORM
Essays about Books and Ideas
ILLUMINATIONS
A Bestiary (with R. W. Purcell)
WONDERFUL LIFE
The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History
BULLY FOR BRONTOSAURUS
Reflections
in Natural History
FINDERS, KEEPERS
Treasures amd Oddities of Natural History
Collectors from Peter the Great to Louis Agassiz
(with R. W. Purcell)
THE MISMEASURE OF MAN
T o the m e m o r y o f G r a m m y and Papa Joe,
who came, struggled, and prospered,
Mr. G o d d a r d notwithstanding.
Contents
Acknowledgments
15
Introduction to the Revised and Expanded
Edition:
Thoughts
at
Age
Fifteen
19
T h e f r a m e of The Mismeasure of Man, 1 9
W h y r e v i s e The Mismeasure of Man a f t e r fifteen y e a r s ? , 26
R e a s o n s , history a n d revision of The Mismeasure of Man, 36
2. American Polygeny and Craniometry before
Darwin: Blacks andlndians as Separate,
Inferior Species
Cfolj
A shared context of culture,
63
P r e e v o l u t i o n a r y styles o f scientific r a c i s m : m o n o g e n i s m a n d
polygenism,
71
Louis A g a s s i z — A m e r i c a ' s theorist of polygeny,
74
Samuel George Morton—empiricist of polygeny,
82
The case of Indian inferiority: C r a n i a A m e r i c a n a
The case of the Egyptian catacombs: C r a n i a A e g y p t i a c a
The case of the shifting black mean
The final tabulation of 1849
62
CONTENTS
IO
Conclusions
T h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l a n d slavery,
101
3. Measuring Heads: Paul Br oca and the Heyday
ofCraniology
/ -4f^"yi
T h e allure of numbers,
105
Introduction
Francis
Galton—apostle
of quantification
A curtain-raiser with a moral: numbers do not guarantee truth
M a s t e r s o f c r a n i o m e t r y : P a u l B r o c a a n d his s c h o o l ,
The great circle route
Selecting
characters
Averting
anomalies
BIG-BRAINED GERMANS
SMALL-BRAINED MEN OF EMINENCE
LARGE-BRAINED CRIMINALS
FLAWS IN A PATTERN OF INCREASE THROUGH TIME
Front and back
THE CRANIAL INDEX
THE CASE OF THE FORAMEN MAGNUM
Women's brains
Postscript,
140
4. Measuring Bodies:
Two Case Studies on the
Apishness of Undesirables
T h e a p e i n all o f us: r e c a p i t u l a t i o n ,
j^C^
142
T h e ape in some of us: criminal anthropology,
151
Atavism and criminality
Animals and savages as born criminals
The stigmata: anatomical, physiological, and social
Lombroso's retreat
The influence of criminal anthropology
Coda
Epilogue,
173
114
CONTENTS
II
5. The Hereditarian Theory of IQ: An American
ij6
Invention
A l f r e d Binet and the original purposes of the Binet
scale,
176
Binet flirts with craniometry
Binet's scale and the birth of IQ
The dismantling of Binet's intentions in America
H . H . G o d d a r d a n d the m e n a c e o f t h e f e e b l e - m i n d e d ,
18&
Intelligence as a Mendelian gene
GODDARD IDENTIFIES THE MORON
A UNILINEAR SCALE OF INTELLIGENCE
BREAKING THE SCALE INTO MENDELIAN COMPARTMENTS
THE PROPER CARE AND FEEDING (BUT NOT BREEDING) OF
MORONS
Preventing the immigration and propagation of morons
Goddard recants
L e w i s M . T e r m a n a n d the mass m a r k e t i n g o f i n n a t e I Q ,
204
Mass testing and the Stanford-Binet
Terman's technocracy of innateness
Fossil IQ's of past geniuses
Terman on group differences
Terman recants
R. M. Yerkes and the A r m y Mental Tests: IQ comes of
age,
222
Psychology's great leap forward
Results of the army tests
A critique of the Army Mental Tests
THE CONTENT OF THE TESTS
INADEQUATE CONDITIONS
DUBIOUS AND PERVERSE PROCEEDINGS: A PERSONAL TESTIMONY
FINAGLING THE SUMMARY STATISTICS: THE PROBLEM OF ZERO
VALUES
FINAGLING THE SUMMARY STATISTICS: GETTING AROUND
OBVIOUS CORRELATIONS WITH ENVIRONMENT
Political impact of the army data
CAN DEMOCRACY SURVIVE AN AVERAGE MENTAL AGE OF
THIRTEEN?
CONTENTS
THE ARMY TESTS AND AGITATION TO RESTRICT IMMIGRATION I
BRIGHAM'S MONOGRAPH ON AMERICAN INTELLIGENCE
THE TRIUMPH OF RESTRICTION ON IMMIGRATION
BRIGHAM RECANTS
The Real Error of Cyril Burt: Factor Analysis
and
the
Reification
T h e case o f Sir C y r i l B u r t ,
of
Intelligence
264
C o r r e l a t i o n , c a u s e , a n d f a c t o r analysis,
269
Correlation and cause
Correlation in more than two dimensions
Factor analysis and its goals
The error of reification
Rotation and the nonnecessity of principal components
Charles S p e a r m a n and general intelligence,
286
The two-factor theory
The method of tetrad differences
Spearman's g and the great instauration of psychology
Spearman's g and the theoretical justification of IQ
Spearman's reification of g
Spearman on the inheritance of g
Cyril B u r t a n d the hereditarian synthesis,
The source
of Burt's
303
uncompromising hereditarianism
BURT'S INITIAL "PROOF" OF INNATENESS
LATER ARGUMENTS
BURT'S BLINDNESS
BURT'S POLITICAL USE OF INNATENESS
Burt's extension of Spearman's theory
Burt on the reification of factors
Burt and the political uses of g
L . L . T h u r s t o n e a n d the v e c t o r s o f m i n d ,
Thurstone's critique and reconstruction
The egalitarian
interpretation
Spearman and Burt react
of PMA's
326
2 64
CONTENTS
13
Oblique axes and second-order g
Thurstone on the uses of factor analysis
Epilogue: A r t h u r Jensen and the resurrection of
S p e a r m a n ' s g,
A final t h o u g h t ,
347
350
7 . A Positive Conclusion
357
D e b u n k i n g a s positive s c i e n c e ,
Learning by debunking,
351
352
Biology and h u m a n nature,
354
365
Epilogue
Critique
The Bell Curvv.
of
The
Bell
Curve
367
Disingenuoumess
of content
Disingenuousness^of
Disingenuousness
argument
ofprogram
G h o s t s o f B e l l C u r v e s pasX
379
Three Centuries' Perspectives on Race
and Racism
\.
A g e - o l d fallacies o f t h i n k i n g a n d s t i n k i n g ^
Racial g e o m e t r y ,
367
39
1
391
401
T h e m o r a l state o f T a h i t i — a n d o f D a r w i n ,
Bibliography
425
Index
433
Acknowledgments
GENES MAY BE SELFISH in a l i m i t e d m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e , b u t t h e r e c a n
b e n o g e n e f o r selfishness w h e n I h a v e s o m a n y f r i e n d s a n d colleagues willing to offer their aid. I thank Ashley M o n t a g u , not only
f o r his specific s u g g e s t i o n s , b u t also f o r l e a d i n g t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t
scientific r a c i s m f o r s o m a n y y e a r s w i t h o u t b e c o m i n g c y n i c a l a b o u t
h u m a n possibilities. S e v e r a l c o l l e a g u e s w h o h a v e w r i t t e n , o r a r e
w r i t i n g , t h e i r o w n b o o k s o n b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m willingly s h a r e d
t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n a n d e v e n let m e u s e t h e i r o w n f i n d i n g s , s o m e times
before
they
could
publish
them
themselves:
G.
Allen,
A. Chase, S. Chorover, L. Kamin, R. Lewontin. Others heard of
m y e f f o r t s a n d , w i t h o u t solicitation, s e n t m a t e r i a l a n d s u g g e s t i o n s
that enriched the b o o k greatly: M. Leitenberg, S. Selden. L. Meszoly p r e p a r e d t h e o r i g i n a l illustrations i n C h a p t e r 6 . P e r h a p s K r o p o t k i n w a s r i g h t a f t e r all; I shall r e m a i n w i t h t h e h o p e f u l .
A note on references: In place of conventional footnotes, I h a v e
u s e d t h e s y s t e m o f r e f e r e n c e s u n i v e r s a l l y f o u n d i n scientific literat u r e — n a m e of a u t h o r a n d year of publication, cited in parentneses
a f t e r t h e r e l e v a n t p a s s a g e o f text. ( I t e m s a r e t h e n listed b y a u t h o r
and by year for any o n e author in the bibliography.) I know that
m a n y r e a d e r s m a y b e d i s c o n c e r t e d a t f i r s t ; t h e t e x t will s e e m clutt e r e d t o m a n y . Y e t , I a m c o n f i d e n t t h a t e v e r y o n e will b e g i n t o " r e a d
t h r o u g h " t h e citations a f t e r a f e w p a g e s o f e x p e r i e n c e , a n d will
then discover that they d o not interrupt the f l o w o f prose. T o m e ,
t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f this s y s t e m f a r o u t w e i g h a n y aesthetic d e f i c i t —
no m o r e flipping back and forth from text to end-notes (no p u b lisher will set t h e m all a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p a g e a n y m o r e ) , o n l y t o
f i n d that a t a n t a l i z i n g little n u m b e r y i e l d s n o j u i c y tidbit o f subsid-
i6
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
iary i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t o n l y a d r y b i b l i o g r a p h i c c i t a t i o n ; * i m m e d i a t e
access t o t h e t w o essential bits o f i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a n y historical
i n q u i r y — w h o a n d w h e n . I b e l i e v e that this s y s t e m o f r e f e r e n c i n g i s
o n e o f the f e w p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s that scientists, n o r m a l l y n o t
a v e r y literate lot, m i g h t s u p p l y t o o t h e r f i e l d s o f w r i t t e n s c h o l a r ship.
A n o t e on title: I h o p e that an a p p a r e n t l y sexist title will be
t a k e n in t h e i n t e n d e d s p i r i t — n o t o n l y as a play on P r o t a g o r a s '
f a m o u s a p h o r i s m , b u t also a s a c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e p r o c e d u r e s o f
biological determinists discussed in the book. T h e y did, i n d e e d ,
s t u d y " m a n " (that is, w h i t e E u r o p e a n m a l e s ) , r e g a r d i n g this g r o u p
as a s t a n d a r d a n d e v e r y b o d y else as s o m e t h i n g to be m e a s u r e d
u n f a v o r a b l y a g a i n s t it. T h a t t h e y m i s m e a s u r e d " m a n " u n d e r s c o r e s
t h e d o u b l e fallacy.
* T h e relatively small number of truly informational footnotes can then be placed
at the bottom of the page, where they belong.
T H E MISMEASURE OF MAN
Introduction to the Revised
and Expanded Edition
Thoughts at Age Fifteen
The frame of The Mismeasure of Man
T h e o r i g i n a l title f o r The Mismeasure of Man w o u l d h a v e h o n o r e d
m y h e r o C h a r l e s D a r w i n f o r t h e w o n d e r f u l l y incisive s t a t e m e n t that
h e m a d e a b o u t b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m t o c l i m a x his d e n u n c i a t i o n o f
slavery in the Voyage of the Beagle. I w a n t e d to call this b o o k Great Is
Our Sin—from D a r w i n ' s line, cited as an e p i g r a p h on my title p a g e :
" I f t h e m i s e r y o f o u r p o o r b e c a u s e d n o t b y the laws o f n a t u r e , b u t
b y o u r institutions, g r e a t i s o u r sin."
I d i d n o t follow my initial i n c l i n a t i o n — a n d I am s u r e that I
m a d e t h e r i g h t d e c i s i o n — b e c a u s e I k n e w d a m n e d well that m y w o r k
w o u l d t h e n b e m i s s h e l v e d t o o b l i v i o n i n t h e r e l i g i o n section o f m a n y
b o o k s t o r e s (as my v o l u m e of e v o l u t i o n a r y essays, The Flamingo's
Smile, e n d e d up in t h e o r n i t h o l o g y division of a g r e a t B o s t o n institution that shall r e m a i n n a m e l e s s ) . T h i n g s c a n always be w o r s e . I o n c e ,
i n a n e q u a l l y p r e s t i g i o u s B o s t o n e m p o r i u m , f o u n d a c o p y o f that
1960s u n d e r g r a d u a t e m a n i f e s t o The Student as Nigger on a s h e l f
marked "Race Relations." My friend Harry K e m e l m a n , author of
t h e m a r v e l o u s m y s t e r y series f e a t u r i n g t h e o l o g i c a l sleuth D a v i d
S m a l l , told me that his first e n t r y in t h e series—Friday the Rabbi. . .—
o n c e a p p e a r e d in a list of c h i l d r e n ' s titles as " F r e d d y the Rabbit. . . ."
B u t tables d o t u r n occasionally. M y b u d d y A l a n D e r s h o w i t z told
me that a w o m a n successfully a c q u i r e d his Chutzpah by telling the
20
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
b o o k s t o r e c l e r k : "I w a n t a c o p y of that b o o k w h o s e title I can't p r o n o u n c e b y t h e a u t h o r w h o s e n a m e I can't r e m e m b e r . "
I e v e n t u a l l y d e c i d e d on The Mismeasure of Man b e c a u s e t h e ess e n c e o f m y b o o k , i n a p a r a d o x i c a l w a y that c o n f e r r e d s t a y i n g p o w e r
o v e r t h e s e fifteen y e a r s since initial p u b l i c a t i o n , lies in its limitation
of s c o p e . The Mismeasure of Man is n o t f u n d a m e n t a l l y a b o u t the
g e n e r a l m o r a l t u r p i t u d e o f fallacious biological a r g u m e n t s i n social
settings (as m y o r i g i n a l a n d b r o a d e r title f r o m D a r w i n w o u l d h a v e
i m p l i e d ) . I t i s n o t e v e n a b o u t t h e full r a n g e o f p h o n y a r g u m e n t s f o r
t h e g e n e t i c basis of h u m a n inequalities. The Mismeasure of Man treats
one particular form of quantified c l a i m a b o u t t h e r a n k i n g of h u m a n
g r o u p s : t h e a r g u m e n t that i n t e l l i g e n c e c a n b e m e a n i n g f u l l y a b s t r a c t e d as a single n u m b e r c a p a b l e of r a n k i n g all p e o p l e on a l i n e a r
scale o f intrinsic a n d u n a l t e r a b l e m e n t a l w o r t h . F o r t u n a t e l y — a n d I
m a d e m y d e c i s i o n o n p u r p o s e — t h i s limited subject e m b o d i e s t h e
d e e p e s t ( a n d m o s t c o m m o n ) p h i l o s o p h i c a l e r r o r , w i t h the m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l a n d f a r - r a n g i n g social i m p a c t , f o r the e n t i r e t r o u b l i n g
subject o f n a t u r e a n d n u r t u r e , o r t h e g e n e t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n t o h u m a n
social o r g a n i z a t i o n .
If I h a v e l e a r n e d o n e t h i n g as a m o n t h l y essayist f o r m o r e t h a n
t w e n t y y e a r s , I h a v e c o m e t o u n d e r s t a n d the p o w e r o f t r e a t i n g g e n eralities by p a r t i c u l a r s . It is no use w r i t i n g a b o o k on " t h e m e a n i n g of
l i f e " ( t h o u g h w e all l o n g t o k n o w t h e a n s w e r s t o s u c h g r e a t q u e s t i o n s ,
w h i l e r i g h t l y s u s p e c t i n g that t r u e solutions d o n o t exist!). B u t a n
essay on " t h e m e a n i n g of 0.400 h i t t i n g in b a s e b a l l " can r e a c h a
g e n u i n e conclusion with surprisingly extensive relevance to such
b r o a d topics a s t h e n a t u r e o f t r e n d s , the m e a n i n g o f e x c e l l e n c e , a n d
e v e n (believe i t n o r not) t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f n a t u r a l reality. Y o u h a v e
t o s n e a k u p o n g e n e r a l i t i e s , n o t assault t h e m h e a d - o n . O n e o f m y
f a v o r i t e lines, f r o m G . K . C h e s t e r t o n , p r o c l a i m s : " A r t i s limitation;
the e s s e n c e o f e v e r y p i c t u r e i s t h e f r a m e . "
( M y c h o s e n title d i d g e t m e i n t o s o m e t r o u b l e , b u t I m a k e n o
a p o l o g i e s a n d r e l i s h e d all t h e discussion. The Mismeasure of Man is
a n i n t e n d e d d o u b l e e n t e n d r e , n o t a vestige o f u n t h i n k i n g s e x i s m .
M y title p a r o d i e s P r o t a g o r a s ' s f a m o u s a p h o r i s m a b o u t all p e o p l e ,
a n d also n o t e s t h e reality of a truly sexist past that r e g a r d e d m a l e s as
standards for humanity and therefore tended to mismeasure men,
w h i l e i g n o r i n g w o m e n . I stated this r a t i o n a l e u p f r o n t , i n t h e o r i g i nal p r e f a c e — s o I c o u l d always use u n t h i n k i n g criticism as a test to
REVISED
AND
EXPANDED
EDITION
21
see w h o liked t o m o u t h o f f w i t h o u t r e a d i n g the b o o k f i r s t — l i k e M r .
D o l e criticizing t h e v i o l e n c e i n m o v i e s h e has n e v e r s e e n , a n d w o u l d
n o t e v e n d e i g n t o w a t c h . [ I d o n ' t , o f c o u r s e , m i n d criticism o f the
title b a s e d o n d i s a g r e e m e n t with m y stated rationale.] I n a n y case,
m y title a l l o w e d m y c o l l e a g u e C a r o l T a v r i s t o p a r o d y m y p a r o d y a s
a n a m e f o r h e r m a r v e l o u s b o o k The Mismeasure of Woman—and I am
at least m i g h t i l y g l a d f o r that.*)
The Mismeasure of Man r e s i d e s in a t h r e e f o l d f r a m e , a set of limitations that a l l o w e d m e t o c o n t a i n o n e o f t h e largest o f all intellectual
subjects w i t h i n a c o h e r e n t a n d r e a s o n a b l e c o m p r e h e n s i v e n a r r a t i v e
a n d analysis.
1. I restricted my t r e a t m e n t of biological d e t e r m i n i s m to the
m o s t historically p r o m i n e n t (and r e v e a l i n g l y fallacious) f o r m o f
quantified a r g u m e n t about mentality: the theory of a measurable,
g e n e t i c a l l y f i x e d , a n d u n i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e . A s I w r o t e i n the I n t r o d u c t i o n to link the p s e u d o s c i e n t i f i c claim with its social utility:
This book, then, is about the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity, its
location within the brain, its quantification as one number for each individual, and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series of
worthiness, invariably to find that oppressed and disadvantaged g r o u p s —
races, classes, or sexes—are innately inferior and deserve their status. In
short, this book is about the Mismeasure of Man.
T h i s p a r t of the f r a m e also e x p l a i n s w h a t I left o u t . I h a v e , f o r
e x a m p l e , o f t e n b e e n a s k e d w h y I o m i t t e d so influential a m o v e m e n t
as p h r e n o l o g y in my account of quantified theories for mental funct i o n i n g . B u t p h r e n o l o g y i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y c o n t r a r y t o t h e subject o f
*A linguist friend did correctly anticipate the one curious problem that my title
would entail. For some reason (and I have done this myself, so I am not casting
blame but expressing puzzlement), people tend to mispronounce the first word as
"mishmeasure"—leading to unwanted levity and embarrassment in introductions
before talks, or in radio interviews. Apparently, or so my friend explained, we anticipate the zh sound to come in "measure"—and we unconsciously try to match the
first part of the word to the later sound, therefore saying "mish" instead of "mis." I
find this error fascinating. After all, we make the mistake in anticipation of a sound
as yet unsaid, thus indicating (or so I suppose) how our brain monitors language
before the fact of expression. Isn't the form of the error also remarkable? Are we
driven to prefer these alliterative, pleasantly repeated combinations of sounds?
Does this consonance occur merely for ease of articulation, or is something deeper
about cerebral patterning thus revealed? What do such phenomena have to say
about the origin and form of poetry? What about the nature and organization of
our mental functioning?
22
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
The Mismeasure of Man. P h r e n o l o g i s t s c e l e b r a t e d t h e t h e o r y of richly
m u l t i p l e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t i n t e l l i g e n c e s . T h e i r v i e w led t o T h u r stone and Guilford earlier in o u r century, and to H o w a r d G a r d n e r
a n d o t h e r s t o d a y — i n o t h e r w o r d s , t o t h e t h e o r y o f m u l t i p l e intellig e n c e s : the m a j o r c h a l l e n g e t o J e n s e n i n t h e last g e n e r a t i o n , t o
Herrnstein and M u r r a y today, and to the entire tradition of rankable, unitary intelligence m a r k i n g the mismeasure of man. By readi n g e a c h b u m p o n t h e skull a s a m e a s u r e o f " d o m e s t i c i t y , " o r
" a m a t i v e n e s s , " o r " s u b l i m i t y , " o r "causality," the p h r e n o l o g i s t s div i d e d m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g into a rich c o n g e r i e s o f l a r g e l y i n d e p e n d e n t a t t r i b u t e s . W i t h s u c h a view, n o single n u m b e r c o u l d possibly
express general h u m a n worth, a n d the entire concept of IQ as a
u n i t a r y b i o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t y b e c o m e s n o n s e n s e . I do c o n f e s s to a
w a r m s p o t i n m y h e a r t f o r the p h r e n o l o g i s t s (do h e a r t s h a v e b u m p s
o f g r e a t e r heat?), f o r t h e y w e r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y o n t h e r i g h t t r a c k —
w h i l e t h e y w e r e a b s o l u t e l y j u s t a s w r o n g a s t h e m i s m e a s u r e r s o f this
b o o k i n t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r y o f cranial b u m p s . ( H i s t o r y o f t e n
heaps irony u p o n irony. Cranial b u m p s may be nonsense, but und e r l y i n g cortical localization o f h i g h l y specific m e n t a l p r o c e s s i n g i s
a reality o f e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g fascination i n m o d e r n n e u r o l o g i c a l r e search.)
In a n y case, p h r e n o l o g y , as a false v e r s i o n of t h e p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t
t h e o r y of m u l t i p l e i n t e l l i g e n c e s , w o u l d f o r m a m a j o r c h a p t e r in a
b o o k o n c r a n i a l m i s m e a s u r e m e n t i n g e n e r a l , b u t falls o u t s i d e t h e
subject o f this v o l u m e o n t h e history o f fallacies i n t h e t h e o r y o f
u n i t a r y , i n n a t e , linearly r a n k a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e . I f I e x c l u d e p h r e n o l o g y o n t h e g r o u n d s o f " r i g h t subject, d i f f e r e n t t h e o r y , " I also o m i t
an ocean of material for the related, if opposite, reason of " w r o n g
subject, s a m e t h e o r y " — i n o t h e r w o r d s , all claims f o r u n i l i n e a r inn a t e r a n k i n g s b a s e d o n b i o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s o t h e r t h a n the q u a n t i fication of intelligence. I therefore, for e x a m p l e , include no explicit
c h a p t e r on t h e e u g e n i c s m o v e m e n t ( t h o u g h I treat the subject in its
i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h I Q ) b e c a u s e m o s t a r g u m e n t s relied o n the p u t a t i v e
possession o f p a r t i c u l a r g e n e s f o r i n n a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d traits, n o t o n
m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e insides o r o u t s i d e s o f h e a d s .
2 . 1 f o c u s e d u p o n t h e " g r e a t " a r g u m e n t s a n d e r r o r s o f historical
o r i g i n a t o r s , n o t o n t r a n s i e n t a n d e p h e m e r a l m o d e r n u s a g e s . Five
y e a r s f r o m n o w , w h o will r e m e m b e r ( w h o w o u l d e v e n c a r e t o recall)
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t h e r a p i e r s o f r h e t o r i c , o r the t e n d e n t i o u s a r g u m e n t s o f o u r c u r r e n t
a n d l a r g e l y d e r i v a t i v e g l a d i a t o r s ; b u t w e c a n (and must) n e v e r f o r g e t
t h e brilliance o f D a r w i n a n d t h e truly g r e a t a n d i n f o r m a t i v e e r r o r s
m a d e b y his last g e n e r a t i o n o f creationist o p p o n e n t s , A g a s s i z a n d
S e d g w i c k ? T h e f o u n d a t i o n stones a r e f o r e v e r ; m o s t c u r r e n t skirm i s h e s follow t h e j o u r n a l i s t ' s o l d m a x i m : y e s t e r d a y ' s p a p e r w r a p s
today's garbage.
The Mismeasure of Man, as a s e c o n d essential f e a t u r e of its f r a m e ,
restricted a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o r i g i n s , a n d t o the e n d u r i n g f o u n d e r s , o f
the t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , linearly r a n k a b l e , i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h i s
d e c i s i o n p e r m i t t e d a n e a t division o f t h e b o o k into t w o h a l v e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g the c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y s e q u e n t i a l c e n t e r p i e c e s f o r this t h e o r y
d u r i n g t h e past t w o h u n d r e d y e a r s o f its p r o m i n e n c e . T h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o c u s e d o n physical m e a s u r e m e n t o f skulls, e i t h e r
t h e o u t s i d e (by r u l e r a n d c a l i p e r s , a n d b y c o n s t r u c t i n g v a r i o u s indices a n d ratios f o r t h e s h a p e s a n d sizes o f h e a d s ) o r the inside (by
m u s t a r d s e e d o r l e a d shot, t o f i l l t h e c r a n i u m a n d m e a s u r e t h e volu m e of the braincase). T h e twentieth century m o v e d to the putatively m o r e d i r e c t m e t h o d o f m e a s u r i n g t h e c o n t e n t o f b r a i n s b y
i n t e l l i g e n c e testing. I n s h o r t , f r o m m e a s u r i n g the physical p r o p e r ties o f skulls t o m e a s u r i n g the i n t e r i o r s t u f f i n b r a i n s .
I b e l i e v e in this restriction to g r e a t f o u n d a t i o n a l d o c u m e n t s
f r o m the d e p t h of my scholar's soul, b u t I also realize that this d e c i sion c o n f e r r e d a n e n o r m o u s practical benefit u p o n this r e v i s e d version. T h e o l d a r g u m e n t s h a v e s t a y i n g p o w e r , " l e g s " i n m o d e r n
p a r l a n c e . W e will n e v e r q u i t e attain the C h r i s t i a n ' s q u i e t c o n f i d e n c e
of verbum Dei manet in aeternum, but we will c a r e a b o u t B r o c a , B i n e t ,
a n d B u r t s o l o n g a s s c h o l a r s h i p a n d a fascination with history e n d u r e . B u t I s u s p e c t that the w o r l d will little n o t e , n o r l o n g r e m e m ber, Jensen, Murray, Herrnstein, Lewontin, and Gould.
Since I wrote about the great and original a r g u m e n t s , and virtually i g n o r e d t h e m o d e r n avatars o f 1 9 8 1 , this revision r e q u i r e d few
c h a n g e s , a n d t h e m a i n t e x t o f t h e c u r r e n t v e r s i o n d i f f e r s v e r y little
f r o m the o r i g i n a l b o o k ; t h e n o v e l t y in this revision lies in this i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d i n t h e a p p e n d e d section o f essays a t t h e back. T h e h o t
topics o f 1 9 8 1 a r e n o w legless history; I d o u b t that H e r r n s t e i n a n d
M u r r a y will p e n e t r a t e t h e m i l l e n n i u m , t h o u g h the basic f o r m o f t h e
a r g u m e n t n e v e r g o e s a w a y a n d c o n t i n u e s t o r e c u r e v e r y few y e a r s —
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h e n c e the necessity f o r this b o o k a n d its f o c u s u p o n t h e e n d u r i n g
sources of continual recurrence.
As I w r o t e in t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n to the first e d i t i o n :
I have said little about the current resurgence of biological determinism
because its individual claims are usually so ephemeral that their refutation
belongs in a magazine article or newspaper story. Who even remembers
the hot topics o f t e n years ago [from 1981]: Shockley's proposal; for reimbursing voluntarily sterilized individuals according to their number of
IQ points below t o o , the great XYY debate, or the attempt to explain
urban riots by diseased neurology of rioters. I thought that it would be
more valuable and interesting to examine the original sources of the arguments that still surround us. These, at least, display great and enlightening
errors.
3 . T h e t h i r d m a j o r a s p e c t o f f r a m i n g arises f r o m m y o w n p r o f e s sional c o m p e t e n c e s . I am a w o r k i n g scientist by t r a d e , n o t a histor i a n . I h a v e i m m e n s e fascination f o r history; I r e a d a n d s t u d y the
subject intensely, a n d I h a v e w r i t t e n m u c h , i n c l u d i n g t h r e e b o o k s
a n d scores of essays, on p r e d o m i n a n t l y historical subjects. I feel
that I h a v e a d e c e n t a n d p r o p e r g r a s p o f t h e logic a n d e m p i r i c s o f
a r g u m e n t s a b o u t b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m . W h a t I lack, f o r w a n t o f
p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g , is t h e t r a d e s m a n ' s " f e e l " — t h e sine qua non of
f i r s t - c l a s s s c h o l a r s h i p — f o r b r o a d e r political c o n t e x t s ( a n t e c e d e n t s
a n d b a c k g r o u n d s ) , t h e s t a g e o n w h i c h biological a r g u m e n t s i m p a c t
society. In the p r o f e s s i o n ' s j a r g o n , I am fully up to s n u f f (I w o u l d
e v e n b e a r r o g a n t a n d say " b e t t e r t h a n most") o n the " i n t e r n a l i s t "
t h e m e s o f intricacies i n a r g u m e n t s a n d m e a n i n g s , a n d i n fallacies o f
supporting data, but woefully u n d e r p r e p a r e d on the "externalist"
side o f b r o a d e r historical c o n t e x t , the "fitting" o f scientific claims
i n t o social settings.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e o l d tactic o f e x t r a c t i n g v i r t u e
f r o m necessity, I e x p l o r e d a d i f f e r e n t p a t h in t r e a t i n g t h e history of
b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m , o n e that w o u l d use m y special skills a n d
competences, but not suffer u n d u l y from my inadequacies. I would
not have written the book at a l l — I would not have even contemp l a t e d s u c h a p r o j e c t in the first p l a c e — i f I h a d n o t b e e n able to
d e v i s e a p r e v i o u s l y u n c h a r t e d w a y t o t r e a t this i m p o r t a n t a n d b y n o
m e a n s n e g l e c t e d subject. ( I h a v e a p e r s o n a l h o r r o r o f d e r i v a t i v e
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5
w r i t i n g , a n d h a v e n e v e r d a b b l e d — w i t h o n e small e x c e p t i o n a s a
p e r s o n a l f a v o r t o a d e a r , o l d e r , a n d r e v e r e d c o l l e a g u e — i n the g e n r e
of t e x t b o o k s ; life is t o o short.)
My special skill lies in a c o m b i n a t i o n , n o t a u n i q u e n e s s . I was able
t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r t w o salient a n d richly i n t e r a c t i n g c o m p o n e n t s e a c h v o u c h s a f e d b y itself t o t h e c o m p e t e n c e o f m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s ,
b u t r a r e l y c o m b i n e d i n o n e p e r s o n ' s interest. N o o n e b e f o r e m e h a d
systematically u n i t e d t h e s e t w o c o m p e t e n c e s a t b o o k l e n g t h a n d i n
g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w o f t h e subject.
W o r k i n g scientists a r e g e n e r a l l y g o o d a t a n a l y z i n g d a t a . W e a r e
t r a i n e d t o s p o t fallacies o f a r g u m e n t a n d , especially, t o b e h y p e r c r i t i cal o f s u p p o r t i n g d a t a . W e scrutinize c h a r t s a n d l o o k a t e v e r y d o t o n
a g r a p h . S c i e n c e m o v e s f o r w a r d a s m u c h b y c r i t i q u i n g the c o n c l u sions of o t h e r s as by m a k i n g n o v e l d i s c o v e r i e s . I was t r a i n e d as a
statistically m i n d e d p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , with special e x p e r t i s e in h a n d l i n g l a r g e m a t r i c e s o f d a t a o n variation i n p o p u l a t i o n s a n d historical c h a n g e within l i n e a g e s . ( T h e m i s m e a s u r e o f m a n resides i n the
s a m e t h e m e s — d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e a n a l o g t o variation i n p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d m e a s u r e d disparities a m o n g g r o u p s a s the
a n a l o g to t e m p o r a l d i f f e r e n c e s in l i n e a g e s t h r o u g h time.) I t h e r e f o r e felt p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p e t e n t t o a n a l y z e t h e d a t a , a n d s p o t the
fallacies, i n a r g u m e n t s a b o u t m e a s u r e d d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g h u m a n
groups.
B u t a n y w o r k i n g scientist c o u l d s o p r o c e e d . W e n o w c o m e t o t h e
g r e a t p a r o c h i a l i s m o f m y p r i m a r y p r o f e s s i o n . M o s t scientists d o n ' t
c a r e a f i g a b o u t history; m y c o l l e a g u e s m a y n o t q u i t e follow H e n r y
F o r d ' s d i c t u m that history is b u n k , b u t t h e y do r e g a r d t h e past as a
m e r e r e p o s i t o r y o f e r r o r — a t best a s o u r c e o f m o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n i n
pitfalls a l o n g p a t h s t o p r o g r e s s . S u c h a n a t t i t u d e d o e s n o t c r e a t e
s y m p a t h y f o r , o r interest in, historical f i g u r e s o f o u r scientific past,
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e folks w h o m a d e m a j o r mistakes. T h u s , most scientists c o u l d , in p r i n c i p l e , a n a l y z e t h e o r i g i n a l data sets of b i o l o g i c a l
determinism, but w o u l d never be inclined even to contemplate such
an effort.
P r o f e s s i o n a l h i s t o r i a n s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o u l d r e r u n t h e statistics a n d criticize t h e g r a p h s o f t h e i r subjects. T h e p r o c e d u r e i s
really n o t all that a r c a n e or difficult. B u t a g a i n we e n c o u n t e r a
trade's p a r o c h i a l i s m : historians s t u d y social c o n t e x t s . A historian
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w o u l d want to know h o w Morton's conclusion about the inferiority
o f c r a n i a l capacity i n A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s i m p a c t e d t h e d e b a t e s a b o u t
w e s t w a r d e x p a n s i o n — b u t w o u l d not g e n e r a l l y t h i n k a b o u t sitting
d o w n with M o r t o n ' s tables o f skull m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d t r y i n g t o f i g u r e o u t w h e t h e r M o r t o n h a d r e p o r t e d his d a t a c o r r e c t l y .
I t h e r e f o r e f o u n d my special n i c h e , f o r I c o u l d a n a l y z e t h e d a t a
w i t h s o m e statistical e x p e r t i s e a n d attention to d e t a i l — a n d I do l o v e
to s t u d y the historical o r i g i n of g r e a t t h e m e s that still s u r r o u n d us. I
c o u l d , in s h o r t , c o m b i n e the scientist's skill with t h e historian's c o n c e r n . The Mismeasure of Man t h e r e f o r e f o c u s e s u p o n t h e analysis of
g r e a t d a t a sets i n t h e history o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m . T h i s b o o k i s
a c h r o n i c l e of d e e p a n d i n s t r u c t i v e fallacies (not silly a n d superficial
e r r o r s ) i n the o r i g i n a n d d e f e n s e o f t h e t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , linearly
r a n k e d , innate, and minimally alterable intelligence.
The Mismeasure of Man is t h e r e f o r e u n a b a s h e d l y " i n t e r n a l i s t " in
t r e a t i n g m e a s u r e d i n t e l l i g e n c e . I r e a n a l y z e t h e d a t a o f history's
g r e a t c l a i m s — i n a w a y , I h o p e , m o r e a k i n to f o r e n s i c a d v e n t u r e (a
subject o f g e n e r a l fascination) t h a n o f c a t a l o g u e s a s d r y a s d u s t . W e
will e x p l o r e M o r t o n ' s switch f r o m m u s t a r d seed to l e a d shot in the
m e a s u r e m e n t o f c r a n i a l c a p a c i t y ; B r o c a ' s m e t i c u l o u s statistics i n t h e
o d d light o f his u n c o n s c i o u s social p r e j u d i c e s ; G o d d a r d ' s a l t e r e d
p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e i m b e c i l e line o f K a l l i k a k s i n t h e N e w J e r s e y p i n e
b a r r e n s ; Y e r k e s ' s s u p p o s e d test o f i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e (but actual
i n d e x o f familiarity w i t h A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e ) g i v e n t o all a r m y r e c r u i t s
in W o r l d W a r I ( a n d also, by y o u r s truly, to classes of H a r v a r d
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s ) ; C y r i l B u r t ' s g r e a t , c r u c i a l , a n d g e n u i n e e r r o r (not
his insignificant a n d later o v e r t f r a u d ) i n t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l justification of i n t e l l i g e n c e as a single f a c t o r .
T w o f a m o u s a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y q u o t a t i o n s c a p t u r e the interest
a n d p o t e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f this e n d e a v o r , this t h i r d a s p e c t o f m y
f r a m e f o r t h e m i s m e a s u r e o f m a n . G o d d w e l l s i n t h e details; s o d o e s
the devil.
Why revise The Mismeasure of Man after fifteen years?
I r e g a r d the c r i t i q u e of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m as b o t h timeless
a n d timely. T h e n e e d f o r analysis i s timeless b e c a u s e the e r r o r s o f
b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m a r e s o d e e p a n d insidious, a n d b e c a u s e t h e
a r g u m e n t a p p e a l s t o t h e w o r s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f o u r c o m m o n na-
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t u r e . T h e d e p t h r e c o r d s t h e link o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m t o s o m e
o f t h e oldest issues a n d e r r o r s o f o u r p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n s —
i n c l u d i n g reductionism, o r the d e s i r e t o e x p l a i n partly r a n d o m , l a r g e scale, a n d i r r e d u c i b l y c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n a b y d e t e r m i n i s t i c b e h a v ior o f smallest c o n s t i t u e n t parts (physical objects b y a t o m s i n m o t i o n ,
m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g by i n h e r i t e d a m o u n t of a c e n t r a l stuff); reification, or t h e p r o p e n s i t y to c o n v e r t an abstract c o n c e p t (like intellig e n c e ) into a h a r d entity (like an a m o u n t of quantifiable b r a i n s t u f f ) ;
dichotomization, o r o u r d e s i r e t o p a r s e c o m p l e x a n d c o n t i n u o u s reality i n t o divisions b y t w o (smart a n d s t u p i d , black a n d w h i t e ) ; a n d
hierarchy, or o u r inclination to o r d e r items by r a n k i n g t h e m in a
l i n e a r series o f i n c r e a s i n g w o r t h ( g r a d e s o f i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e i n
this case, t h e n o f t e n b r o k e n into a t w o f o l d division by o u r u r g e s to
d i c h o t o m i z e , as in n o r m a l vs. f e e b l e - m i n d e d , to use the f a v o r e d
t e r m i n o l o g y o f e a r l y d a y s i n I Q testing).
W h e n w e j o i n o u r t e n d e n c i e s t o c o m m i t these g e n e r a l e r r o r s
w i t h t h e sociopolitical reality of a x e n o p h o b i a that so o f t e n (and so
sadly) r e g u l a t e s o u r a t t i t u d e t o " o t h e r s " j u d g e d i n f e r i o r , w e g r a s p
the p o t e n c y of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m as a social w e a p o n — f o r " o t h e r s " will b e t h e r e b y d e m e a n e d , a n d their l o w e r s o c i o e c o n o m i c status
v a l i d a t e d as a scientific c o n s e q u e n c e of their i n n a t e i n e p t i t u d e
r a t h e r t h a n society's u n f a i r c h o i c e s . M a y I t h e r e f o r e r e p e a t D a r w i n ' s
g r e a t line: " I f t h e m i s e r y o f o u r p o o r b e c a u s e d n o t b y the laws o f
n a t u r e , b u t b y o u r institutions, g r e a t i s o u r sin."
B u t c r i t i q u e s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m a r e also timely a t c e r t a i n
m o m e n t s (including the present) b e c a u s e — a n d you may now
choose your favorite image, f r o m heads of the Lernaean H y d r a if
y o u r tastes b e classical, t o b a d p e n n i e s o r r e t u r n i n g cats i f y o u p r e f e r
f a m i l i a r p r o v e r b s , t o c r a b g r a s s o n s u b u r b a n lawns i f y o u f a v o r vern a c u l a r m o d e r n i t y — t h e s a m e b a d a r g u m e n t s r e c u r e v e r y few y e a r s
with a predictable a n d depressing regularity. No sooner do we deb u n k o n e v e r s i o n t h a n the n e x t c h a p t e r o f the s a m e b a d text
emerges to ephemeral prominence.
No mystery attends the reason for these recurrences. T h e y are
n o t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s o m e u n d e r l y i n g cyclicity, o b e y i n g a n a t u r a l
law that m i g h t be c a p t u r e d in a m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a as c o n v e n i e n t
a s I Q ; n o r d o these e p i s o d e s r e p r e s e n t a n y h o t item o f n e w d a t a
o r s o m e p r e v i o u s l y u n c o n s i d e r e d n o v e l twist i n a r g u m e n t , f o r t h e
t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e , i n n a t e , a n d effectively u n c h a n g e a b l e
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i n t e l l i g e n c e n e v e r alters v e r y m u c h i n e a c h s e q u e n t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n .
E a c h s u r g e t o p o p u l a r i t y w o r k s with t h e s a m e fallacious logic a n d
flawed information.
T h e r e a s o n s f o r r e c u r r e n c e a r e sociopolitical, a n d n o t far t o
seek: r e s u r g e n c e s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m c o r r e l a t e with e p i s o d e s
o f political r e t r e n c h m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y with c a m p a i g n s f o r r e d u c e d
g o v e r n m e n t s p e n d i n g o n social p r o g r a m s , o r a t t i m e s o f f e a r a m o n g
r u l i n g elites, w h e n d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s sow s e r i o u s social u n r e s t
o r e v e n t h r e a t e n t o u s u r p p o w e r . W h a t a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t social
c h a n g e c o u l d b e m o r e c h i l l i n g l y e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e claim that established o r d e r s , w i t h s o m e g r o u p s o n t o p a n d o t h e r s a t t h e b o t t o m ,
exist a s a n a c c u r a t e reflection o f t h e i n n a t e a n d u n c h a n g e a b l e intell e c t u a l capacities o f p e o p l e s o r a n k e d ?
W h y s t r u g g l e a n d s p e n d t o raise the u n b o o s t a b l e I Q o f r a c e s o r
social classes a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e e c o n o m i c l a d d e r ; b e t t e r s i m p l y t o
a c c e p t n a t u r e ' s u n f o r t u n a t e dictates a n d save a passel o f f e d e r a l
f u n d s ; (we c a n t h e n m o r e easily sustain tax b r e a k s f o r the w e a l t h y ! ) ?
W h y bother yourself about underrepresentation of disadvantaged
g r o u p s i n y o u r h o n o r e d a n d r e m u n e r a t i v e bailiwick i f s u c h a b s e n c e
r e c o r d s t h e d i m i n i s h e d ability o r g e n e r a l i m m o r a l i t y , biologically
imposed, of most m e m b e r s in the rejected g r o u p , a n d not the legacy
o r c u r r e n t reality o f social p r e j u d i c e ? ( T h e g r o u p s s o s t i g m a t i z e d
m a y b e r a c e s , classes, s e x e s , b e h a v i o r a l p r o p e n s i t i e s , r e l i g i o n s , o r
n a t i o n a l o r i g i n s . B i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m is a g e n e r a l t h e o r y , a n d
p a r t i c u l a r b e a r e r s o f c u r r e n t d i s p a r a g e m e n t act a s s u r r o g a t e s f o r all
o t h e r s subject t o similar p r e j u d i c e a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d places. I n
this s e n s e , calls f o r solidarity a m o n g d e m e a n e d g r o u p s s h o u l d n o t
b e d i s m i s s e d a s m e r e political r h e t o r i c , b u t r a t h e r a p p l a u d e d a s
p r o p e r reactions to c o m m o n reasons for mistreatment.)
Please n o t e that I am d i s c u s s i n g t h e cyclical surge to popularity of
innatist a r g u m e n t s f o r u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e , n o t the episodic f o r m u l a t i o n o f s u c h claims. T h e g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t i s always
p r e s e n t , always available, always p u b l i s h e d , always e x p l o i t a b l e . E p i sodes of intense public attention therefore record swings in the pend u l u m o f political p r e f e r e n c e s t o w a r d t h e r i g h t position f o r
e x p l o i t i n g this h o a r y o l d fallacy with a s e r i o u s n e s s b a s e d on naive
h o p e o r cynical r e c o g n i t i o n o f e v i d e n t utility. R e s u r g e n c e s o f b i o l o g ical d e t e r m i n i s m c o r r e l a t e w i t h p e r i o d s o f political r e t r e n c h m e n t
a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o f social g e n e r o s i t y .
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29
T w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a has e x p e r i e n c e d t h r e e m a j o r epis o d e s , e a c h s o c o r r e l a t e d . T h e f i r s t constitutes o n e o f t h e s a d d e s t
i r o n i e s of A m e r i c a n history, a n d sets t h e l o n g e s t c h a p t e r in The
Mismeasure of Man. We like to t h i n k of A m e r i c a as a l a n d with g e n e r ally e g a l i t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n s , a n a t i o n " c o n c e i v e d in liberty a n d d e d i cated to the p r o p o s i t i o n that all m e n are c r e a t e d e q u a l . " W e
r e c o g n i z e , au contraire, that m a n y E u r o p e a n nations, with their l o n g
histories o f m o n a r c h y , f e u d a l o r d e r , a n d social stratification, h a v e
b e e n less c o m m i t t e d t o ideals o f socialjustice o r equality o f o p p o r t u nity. S i n c e t h e I Q test o r i g i n a t e d i n F r a n c e , w e m i g h t n a t u r a l l y ass u m e that t h e false h e r e d i t a r i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s o c o m m o n l y a n d s o
h a r m f u l y i m p o s e d u p o n t h e tests, a r o s e i n E u r o p e . Ironically, this
r e a s o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n i s e n t i r e l y false. A s d o c u m e n t e d i n C h a p t e r
6, A l f r e d B i n e t , the F r e n c h i n v e n t o r , n o t o n l y a v o i d e d a h e r e d i tarian i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f his test, b u t explicitly (and f e r v e n t l y ) w a r n e d
a g a i n s t s u c h a r e a d i n g as a p e r v e r s i o n of his d e s i r e to u s e the tests
f o r i d e n t i f y i n g c h i l d r e n w h o n e e d e d special h e l p . ( B i n e t a r g u e d that
a n innatist i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u l d o n l y stigmatize c h i l d r e n a s u n t e a c h a b l e , t h u s p r o d u c i n g a result o p p o s i t e to his i n t e n t — a f e a r e n t i r e l y
a n d tragically j u s t i f i e d by later history.)*
T h e hereditarian interpretation of IQ arose in America, largely
t h r o u g h p r o s e t y l i z a t i o n o f the t h r e e p s y c h o l o g i s t s — H . H . G o d d a r d ,
L . M . T e r m a n , a n d R . M . Y e r k e s — w h o translated a n d p o p u l a r i z e d
the tests in this c o u n t r y . If we ask h o w s u c h a p e r v e r s i o n c o u l d o c c u r
i n o u r l a n d o f liberty a n d j u s t i c e f o r all, w e m u s t r e m e m b e r that t h e
y e a r s j u s t f o l l o w i n g W o r l d W a r I , t h e t i m e o f p e a k activity f o r t h e s e
scientists, f e a t u r e d a n a r r o w , p a r o c h i a l , j i n g o i s t i c , isolationist "nativist" ( W A S P , n o t I n d i a n ) , r a l l y - r o u n d - t h e - f l a g , t i n h o r n p a t r i o t i s m
u n m a t c h e d by any other period d u r i n g our century, even in the
h e y d a y o f M c C a r t h y i s m d u r i n g t h e e a r l y 1950s. T h i s was t h e a g e
o f restriction u p o n i m m i g r a t i o n , t h e s p r e a d o f J e w i s h q u o t a s , t h e
execution of Sacco and Vanzetti, the height of lynchings in the
S o u t h e r n states. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , m o s t o f t h e m e n w h o built b i o d e t e r m i n i s m i n the i g 2 o s r e c a n t e d t h e i r o w n c o n c l u s i o n s d u r i n g t h e libe r a l s w i n g o f t h e 1930s, w h e n P h . D . ' s w a l k e d d e p r e s s i o n b r e a d l i n e s
a n d p o v e r t y c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e e x p l a i n e d b y i n n a t e stupidity.
T h e t w o m o s t r e c e n t e p i s o d e s also c o r r e l a t e with political swings.
T h e first i n s p i r e d me to write The Mismeasure of Man as a positive
r e a c t i o n w i t h an a l t e r n a t i v e vision (not, I trust, as a negativistic
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d i a t r i b e ) ; t h e s e c o n d has p r o m p t e d m e t o p u b l i s h this r e v i s e d v e r sion.
A r t h u r J e n s e n l a u n c h e d t h e f i r s t o f these r e c e n t e p i s o d e s i n 1 9 6 9
w i t h a n o t o r i o u s l y fallacious article on the s u p p o s e d i n n a t e n e s s of
g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n I Q (with e m p h a s i s o n disparity b e t w e e n whites
a n d blacks in A m e r i c a ) . His c h i l l i n g o p e n i n g line b e l i e d all his later
c l a i m s that he h a d o n l y p u b l i s h e d as a d i s i n t e r e s t e d s c h o l a r , a n d n o t
as a m a n with a social a g e n d a . He b e g a n with an e x p l i c i t attack u p o n
t h e f e d e r a l H e a d S t a r t p r o g r a m : " C o m p e n s a t o r y e d u c a t i o n has
b e e n tried a n d i t a p p a r e n t l y has f a i l e d . " M y c o l l e a g u e R i c h a r d
H e r r n s t e i n fired a s e c o n d m a j o r salvo in 1 9 7 1 , with an article in the
Atlantic Monthly that b e c a m e t h e o u t l i n e a n d e p i t o m e of The Bell
Curve, p u b l i s h e d w i t h C h a r l e s M u r r a y i n 1 9 9 4 , a n d t h e i m m e d i a t e
p r o d f o r this r e v i s e d v e r s i o n of The Mismeasure of Man.
As I stated a b o v e , articles on this subject by p e o p l e of n o t o r i e t y
a p p e a r e v e r y m o n t h i n p r o m i n e n t places. I n a n a l y z i n g w h y J e n s e n ' s
p i e c e b e c a m e s u c h a cause celebre, r a t h e r t h a n o n e m o r e i g n o r e d
m a n i f e s t o w i t h i n a w e l l - k n o w n g e n r e , we m u s t t u r n to social c o n t e x t .
S i n c e J e n s e n ' s article c o n t a i n e d n o n o v e l a r g u m e n t , w e m u s t seek
t h e newly fertile soil that a l l o w e d s u c h a n o l d a n d e v e r - p r e s e n t s e e d
to g e r m i n a t e . As I also stated a b o v e , I am no social p u n d i t , a n d my
view on this issue m a y be naive. B u t I well r e m e m b e r these politically
active times o f m y y o u t h . I recall t h e g r o w t h o f o p p o s i t i o n t o the
V i e t n a m W a r , t h e assassination o f M a r t i n L u t h e r K i n g i n 1 9 6 8 (and
t h e f e a r i n s p i r e d b y a t t e n d a n t u r b a n riots), t h e s t e p p i n g d o w n o f
L y n d o n J o h n s o n , inside a n d o u t s i d e strife a t t h e C h i c a g o D e m o cratic Party C o n v e n t i o n o f 1 9 6 8 , a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g e l e c t i o n o f Richard N i x o n as p r e s i d e n t — w i t h the onset of a conservative reaction
that always e n g e n d e r s r e n e w e d a t t e n t i o n f o r t h e false a n d o l d , b u t
n o w a g a i n u s e f u l , a r g u m e n t s of biological d e t e r m i n i s m . I w r o t e The
Mismeasure of Man at t h e a p o g e e of this r e a c t i o n , s t a r t i n g in t h e m i d 1 9 7 0 s . T h e f i r s t e d i t i o n a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 8 1 , a n d t h e b o o k has b e e n
v i g o r o u s l y i n p r i n t e v e r since.
I h a d no p l a n s f o r a r e v i s e d v e r s i o n . I am n o t a m o d e s t p e r s o n ,
t h o u g h I d o try t o k e e p m y a r r o g a n c e t o m y s e l f (not always successfully, I s u p p o s e ) . B u t I felt no n e e d f o r an u p d a t e b e c a u s e I h a d
m a d e w h a t I still r e g a r d as a wise d e c i s i o n w h e n I first w r o t e the
b o o k (and s u r e l y n o t b e c a u s e I view this f l a w e d , b u t p r o u d , child of
m i n e as u n i m p r o v a b l e ! ) . The Mismeasure of Man r e q u i r e d no u p d a t e
REVISED
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1
o v e r the first f i f t e e n y e a r s b e c a u s e I h a d f o c u s e d o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n
d o c u m e n t s of biological determinism, a n d not on " c u r r e n t " usages
s o q u i c k l y s u p e r a n n u a t e d . I h a d stressed t h e d e e p p h i l o s o p h i c a l
e r r o r s that d o n o t c h a n g e r a t h e r t h a n t h e i m m e d i a t e (and s u p e r f i cial) m a n i f e s t a t i o n s that b e c o m e o b s o l e t e y e a r b y y e a r .
T h e t h i r d m a j o r e p i s o d e t h e n k i c k e d o f f i n 1 9 9 4 , with p u b l i c a tion of The Bell Curve by R i c h a r d H e r r n s t e i n a n d C h a r l e s M u r r a y .
A g a i n , their l o n g b o o k c o n t a i n e d n o t h i n g n e w , t h o u g h the a u t h o r s
s p u n o u t t h e o l d a r g u m e n t s o v e r e i g h t h u n d r e d p a g e s f i l l e d with
c o p i o u s c h a r t s a n d g r a p h s that b a m b o o z l e p e o p l e i n t o c o n f u s i n g
b o t h n o v e l t y a n d p r o f u n d i t y w i t h their f e a r o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n .
(In fact, The Bell Curve is e m i n e n t l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . T h e a r g u m e n t
i s o l d , u n c o m p l i c a t e d , a n d f a m i l i a r ; t h e m a t h e m a t i c s , t h o u g h lab o r e d t h r o u g h s e v e r a l h u n d r e d p a g e s b y i t e r a t i n g e x a m p l e after
e x a m p l e , represents o n e study, appropriately simple in concept,
a n d easy e n o u g h t o c o m p r e h e n d . M o r e o v e r , f o r all m y s e v e r e criticism of t h e a u t h o r s ' c o n t e n t , I will h a p p i l y g r a n t that they w r i t e well
a n d clearly.) W h e n I m e t C h a r l e s M u r r a y i n d e b a t e a t H a r v a r d ' s
Institute of Politics, I c o u l d o n l y t h i n k to b e g i n w i t h a f a v o r i t e line
f r o m S h a k e s p e a r e ' s Love's Labour Lost: " H e d r a w e t h o u t the t h r e a d
o f his v e r b o s i t y f i n e r t h a n t h e staple o f his a r g u m e n t . "
T h e r e m a r k a b l e i m p a c t of The Bell Curve m u s t t h e r e f o r e , a n d
o n c e a g a i n a s a l w a y s , b e r e c o r d i n g a s w i n g o f the political p e n d u l u m
to a sad p o s i t i o n that r e q u i r e s a r a t i o n a l e f o r a f f i r m i n g social inequalities as dictates of b i o l o g y . (If I m a y m a k e a s o m e w h a t l u r i d , b u t
I t h i n k a propos, b i o l o g i c a l a n a l o g y , the t h e o r y of u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e ,
i n n a t e , u n a l t e r a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e acts like a f u n g a l s p o r e , a d i n o f l a g ellate cyst, or a t a r d i g r a d e t u n — a l w a y s p r e s e n t in a b u n d a n c e , b u t in
a n inactive, d o r m a n t , o r r e s t i n g stage, w a i t i n g t o s p r o u t , e n g o r g e ,
or awake w h e n fluctuating external conditions terminate slumber.)
S o m e r e a s o n s f o r The Bell Curve's i m p a c t m u s t be i d i o s y n c r a t i c —
a c a t c h y title, a fine j o b of e d i t i n g by a l e g e n d a r y figure on t h e N e w
Y o r k s c e n e , a brilliant publicity c a m p a i g n (I will c o n f e s s to j e a l o u s y ,
a n d a d e s i r e to find t h e p e o p l e r e s p o n s i b l e so that I c a n h i r e t h e m
a w a y f o r m y o w n b o o k s ) . B u t t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r factors m u s t c o u n t f o r
little in c o m p a r i s o n with the o v e r a r c h i n g g e n e r a l i t y : n e w l y fertile
political soil. S h o u l d a n y o n e be s u r p r i s e d that p u b l i c a t i o n of The
Bell Curve c o i n c i d e d exactly w i t h t h e e l e c t i o n of N e w t G i n g r i c h ' s
C o n g r e s s , a n d w i t h a n e w a g e o f social m e a n n e s s u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n
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m y lifetime? Slash e v e r y p r o g r a m o f social services f o r p e o p l e i n
g e n u i n e n e e d ; t e r m i n a t e s u p p o r t f o r t h e arts (but d o n ' t c u t a d i m e ,
h e a v e n f o r f e n d , f r o m t h e military); b a l a n c e the b u d g e t a n d p r o v i d e
tax r e l i e f f o r the w e a l t h y . P e r h a p s I a m c a r i c a t u r i n g , b u t c a n w e
d o u b t the c o n s o n a n c e o f this n e w m e a n s p i r i t e d n e s s w i t h a n a r g u m e n t that social s p e n d i n g c a n ' t w o r k b e c a u s e , c o n t r a D a r w i n , t h e
m i s e r y o f the p o o r d o e s result f r o m t h e laws o f n a t u r e a n d f r o m the
innate ineptitude of the disadvantaged?
I w o u l d a d d a n o t h e r r e a s o n f o r the p a r t i c u l a r a p p e a l o f g e n e t i c
e x p l a n a t i o n s i n t h e 1990s. W e a r e l i v i n g i n a r e v o l u t i o n a r y a g e o f
scientific a d v a n c e f o r m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y . F r o m t h e W a t s o n - C r i c k
m o d e l o f 1 9 5 3 t o t h e i n v e n t i o n o f P C R a n d the r o u t i n e s e q u e n c i n g
of D N A — f o r purposes as varied as O. J. Simpson's blood signature
to d e c i p h e r i n g the phylogeny of b i r d s — w e now have unpreced e n t e d access t o i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e g e n e t i c c o n s t i t u t i o n o f individuals. We naturally favor, a n d tend to o v e r e x t e n d , exciting
n o v e l t i e s i n v a i n h o p e that t h e y m a y s u p p l y g e n e r a l solutions o r
p a n a c e a s — w h e n s u c h c o n t r i b u t i o n s really c o n s t i t u t e m o r e m o d e s t
(albeit vital) pieces o f a m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x p u z z l e . W e h a v e s o
t r e a t e d all g r e a t insights a b o u t h u m a n n a t u r e i n t h e past, i n c l u d i n g
n o n g e n e t i c t h e o r i e s r o o t e d i n f a m i l y a n d social d y n a m i c s , m o s t
n o t a b l y (of c o u r s e ) F r e u d ' s n o t i o n o f p s y c h o s e x u a l stages, w i t h n e u rosis a r i s i n g f r o m s u p p r e s s e d o r m i s d i r e c t e d d e v e l o p m e n t i n o n t o g eny. If insightful nongenetic theories could be so egregiously
e x a g g e r a t e d i n the past, s h o u l d w e b e s u r p r i s e d that w e a r e n o w
r e p e a t i n g this e r r o r b y o v e r e x t e n d i n g the g e n u i n e e x c i t e m e n t w e
feel a b o u t g e n e t i c e x p l a n a t i o n ?
I a p p l a u d t h e d i s c o v e r y o f g e n e s that p r e d i s p o s e c a r r i e r s t o certain illnesses, o r that c a u s e disease directly i n n o r m a l e n v i r o n m e n t s
( T a y - S a c h s , sickle-cell a n e m i a , H u n t i n g t o n ' s c h o r e a ) — f o r t h e g r e a t est h o p e of c u r e lies in identification of a m a t e r i a l substrate a n d a
m o d e o f a c t i o n . A s t h e f a t h e r o f a n autistic s o n , I also c e l e b r a t e the
h u m a n e a n d l i b e r a t i n g v a l u e o f i d e n t i f y i n g i n b o r n b i o l o g i c a l bases
f o r c o n d i t i o n s o n c e d e e m e d p u r e l y p s y c h o g e n i c , a n d t h e r e f o r e subtly b l a m e d o n p a r e n t s (especially b y p r o f e s s i o n a l s w h o s w o r e u p a n d
d o w n t h e y h a r b o r e d n o s u c h intent, b u t m e r e l y m e a n t t o specify
s o u r c e s i n t h e interest o f f u t u r e p r e v e n t i o n ; a u t i s m , a t d i f f e r e n t
t i m e s a n d b y v a r i o u s p s y c h o l o g i s t s , b e c a m e a result e i t h e r o f t o o
m u c h , o r o f t o o little, m a t e r n a l love).
T h e b r a i n , a s a n o r g a n o f t h e b o d y , i s a s subject t o disease a n d
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g e n e t i c d e f e c t as a n y o t h e r . I w e l c o m e the d i s c o v e r y of g e n e t i c
causes or influences for such scourges as schizophrenia, bipolar
manic depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. No pain can
m a t c h that of a p a r e n t w h o " l o s e s " a v i b r a n t a n d p r o m i s i n g child to
t h e r a v a g e s o f s u c h illnesses, w i t h their f r e q u e n t l y d e l a y e d o n s e t
n e a r the e n d o f life's s e c o n d d e c a d e . L e t u s c e l e b r a t e t h e release o f
p a r e n t s f r o m c o n s u m i n g guilt a n d , m o r e i m p o r t a n t o f c o u r s e , t h e
possibility o f a m e l i o r a t i o n , o r e v e n c u r e , s u p p l i e d b y identification
of causes.
B u t all t h e s e g e n u i n e d i s c o v e r i e s i n v o l v e definite a n d specific
p a t h o l o g i e s , diseases, o r c o n d i t i o n s that t h w a r t w h a t w e m a y still
legitimately call " n o r m a l " d e v e l o p m e n t — t h a t is, the bell c u r v e . (Bell
c u r v e s a r e t e c h n i c a l l y called n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s ; t h e y arise w h e n
v a r i a t i o n i s d i s t r i b u t e d r a n d o m l y a r o u n d the m e a n — e q u a l l y i n b o t h
d i r e c t i o n s , w i t h g r e a t e r probability o f v a l u e s n e a r t h e m e a n . ) S p e cific p a t h o l o g i e s d o n o t fall o n the bell c u r v e , b u t usually f o r m
c l u m p s o r clusters f a r f r o m t h e c u r v e ' s m e a n v a l u e a n d a p a r t f r o m
the n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e c a u s e s o f t h e s e e x c e p t i o n s t h e r e f o r e
d o n o t c o r r e s p o n d with r e a s o n s f o r v a r i a t i o n a r o u n d the m e a n o f
t h e bell c u r v e itself.
J u s t b e c a u s e p e o p l e with D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e t e n d t o h a v e q u i t e
s h o r t stature a s the result o f a n e x t r a twenty-first c h r o m o s o m e , w e
w o u l d n o t i n f e r that s h o r t - s t a t u r e d p e o p l e i n the n o r m a l distribution o f t h e bell c u r v e o w e t h e i r h e i g h t t o possession o f a n e x t r a
c h r o m o s o m e . Similarly, t h e d i s c o v e r y o f a g e n e " f o r " H u n t i n g t o n ' s
chorea does not imply the existence of a g e n e for high intelligence,
o r low a g g r e s s i v i t y , o r h i g h p r o p e n s i t y f o r x e n o p h o b i a , o r special
attraction t o f a c e s , b o d i e s , o r legs o f a s e x u a l p a r t n e r — o r f o r a n y
o t h e r g e n e r a l f e a t u r e that m i g h t be d i s t r i b u t e d as a bell c u r v e in t h e
full p o p u l a t i o n . " C a t e g o r y m i s t a k e s " a r e a m o n g t h e m o s t c o m m o n
e r r o r s o f h u m a n t h o u g h t : w e c o m m i t a classic c a t e g o r y m i s t a k e i f
w e e q u a t e t h e c a u s e s o f n o r m a l v a r i a t i o n with the r e a s o n s f o r p a t h o l o g i e s (just as we m a k e a c a t e g o r y e r r o r in a r g u i n g that b e c a u s e
I Q has m o d e r a t e heritability w i t h i n g r o u p s , t h e c a u s e s f o r a v e r a g e
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s m u s t b e g e n e t i c — s e e m y r e v i e w o f The
Bell Curve in essay 1 at t h e b a c k ) . T h u s , we s h o u l d be e x c i t e d a b o u t
a d v a n c e s i n i d e n t i f y i n g the g e n e t i c c a u s e s o f c e r t a i n diseases, b u t w e
s h o u l d n o t m o v e f r o m this style o f e x p l a n a t i o n t o t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f
behavioral variation in o u r general population.
O f all t h e b a l e f u l false d i c h o t o m i e s that stymie o u r u n d e r s t a n d -
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i n g o f t h e w o r l d ' s c o m p l e x i t y , n a t u r e vs. n u r t u r e m u s t r a n k a m o n g
t h e t o p two o r t h r e e ( a p h o n y division o n l y e n h a n c e d b y t h e e u p h o n y o f t h e s e n a m e s ) . I d o n ' t t h i n k that a n y s m o k e s c r e e n i n f u r i ates m e m o r e t h a n t h e b i o d e t e r m i n i s t ' s f r e q u e n t c l a i m " B u t w e a r e
the sophisticated ones; o u r o p p o n e n t s are p u r e environmentalists,
s u p p o r t e r s o f n u r t u r e a l o n e ; w e r e c o g n i z e that b e h a v i o r s arise b y
an interaction of nature and nurture." May I then emphasize again,
as t h e text of The Mismeasure of Man d o e s t h r o u g h o u t , that all parties
t o t h e d e b a t e , i n d e e d all p e o p l e o f g o o d will a n d d e c e n t i n f o r m a t i o n ,
s u p p o r t the u t t e r l y u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l s t a t e m e n t that h u m a n f o r m a n d
b e h a v i o r arise f r o m c o m p l e x m i x t u r e s o f g e n e t i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n tal i n f l u e n c e s .
E r r o r s o f r e d u c t i o n i s m a n d b i o d e t e r m i n i s m take o v e r i n s u c h
silly s t a t e m e n t s as " I n t e l l i g e n c e is 60 p e r c e n t g e n e t i c a n d 40 p e r c e n t
e n v i r o n m e n t a l . " A 60 p e r c e n t (or w h a t e v e r ) "heritability" f o r intellig e n c e m e a n s n o s u c h t h i n g . W e shall n o t g e t this issue s t r a i g h t until
w e r e a l i z e that t h e " i n t e r a c t i o n i s m " w e all a c c e p t d o e s n o t p e r m i t
s u c h s t a t e m e n t s as " T r a i t x is 29 p e r c e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d 71
p e r c e n t g e n e t i c . " W h e n c a u s a t i v e factors ( m o r e t h a n t w o , b y t h e
way) interact so complexly, and t h r o u g h o u t growth, to p r o d u c e an
intricate a d u l t b e i n g , w e c a n n o t , i n p r i n c i p l e , p a r s e that b e i n g ' s b e h a v i o r into q u a n t i t a t i v e p e r c e n t a g e s o f r e m o t e r o o t c a u s e s . T h e
a d u l t b e i n g i s a n e m e r g e n t entity w h o m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a t his
o w n level a n d i n his o w n totality. T h e truly salient issues a r e malleability a n d flexibility, n o t fallacious p a r s i n g by p e r c e n t a g e s . A trait
m a y be 90 p e r c e n t h e r i t a b l e , y e t e n t i r e l y m a l l e a b l e . A t w e n t y - d o l l a r
p a i r o f e y e g l a s s e s f r o m the local p h a r m a c y m a y fully c o r r e c t a d e f e c t
of vision that is 100 p e r c e n t h e r i t a b l e . A "60 p e r c e n t " b i o d e t e r m i n i s t
is n o t a subtle interactionist, b u t a d e t e r m i n i s t on t h e "little bit p r e g nant" model.
T h u s , for example, Mr. Murray, in high d u d g e o n about my
r e v i e w of The Bell Curve ( r e p r i n t e d h e r e as t h e first essay in the
c o n c l u d i n g section), w r i t e s in t h e Wall Street Journal ( D e c e m b e r 2,
1994), excoriating my supposed unfairness to him:
Gould goes on to say that "Herrnstein and Murray violate fairness by converting a complex case that can yield only agnosticism into a biased brief for
permanent and heritable differences." Now compare Mr. Gould's words
with what Richard Herrnstein and I wrote in the crucial paragraph summarizing our views on genes and race: "If the reader is now convinced that
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35
either the genetic or environmental explanations have won out to the exclusion of the other, we have not done a sufficiently good j o b of presenting
one side or the other. It seems highly likely to us that both genes and the
environment have something to do with racial differences. What might the
mix be?"
D o n ' t y o u g e t it y e t , M r . M u r r a y ? I d i d n o t state that y o u a t t r i b u t e
all d i f f e r e n c e t o g e n e t i c s — n o p e r s o n w i t h a n iota o f k n o w l e d g e
w o u l d say s u c h a foolish t h i n g . My q u o t e d line d o e s n o t so c h a r g e
y o u ; m y s e n t e n c e states a c c u r a t e l y that y o u a d v o c a t e " p e r m a n e n t
a n d h e r i t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s " — n o t that y o u a t t r i b u t e all d i s p a r i t y t o
g e n e t i c s . Y o u r o w n d e f e n s e s h o w s that y o u d o n ' t g r a s p the m a j o r
p o i n t . Y o u r s t a t e m e n t still p o r t r a y s t h e issue as a battle of t w o sides,
w i t h e x c l u s i v e victory p ote nti ally available t o o n e . N o o n e b e l i e v e s
such a thing; e v e r y o n e accepts interaction. Y o u then portray yourself a s a b r a v e a p o s t l e o f m o d e r n i t y a n d scholarly c a u t i o n f o r p r o c l a i m i n g it " h i g h l y likely . . . that b o t h g e n e s a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t
h a v e s o m e t h i n g t o d o with racial d i f f e r e n c e s . " Y o u h a v e o n l y stated
a t r u i s m e n t i r e l y o u t s i d e the r e a l issue. W h e n y o u m a k e the p r o p e r
distinction b e t w e e n heritability a n d f l e x i b i l i t y o f b e h a v i o r a l e x p r e s sion, t h e n w e m i g h t h a v e a real d e b a t e b e y o n d t h e r h e t o r i c o f
phrasing.
I shall n o t p u r s u e my c r i t i q u e o f The Bell Curve h e r e , f o r I p r e s e n t
this e f f o r t in t h e first t w o essays of the c o n c l u d i n g section. I o n l y
wish to state that I d e c i d e d to p r o d u c e this r e v i s e d v e r s i o n of The
Mismeasure of Man as a r e s p o n s e to this latest cyclic e p i s o d e of b i o d e t e r m i n i s m . I t m i g h t s e e m o d d that a b o o k w r i t t e n fifteen y e a r s a g o
c o u l d s e r v e as a r e b u t t a l to a m a n i f e s t o issued in 1 9 9 4 — m o r e t h a n
o d d , i n fact, since o u r basic n o t i o n s o f causality m a y b e t h e r e b y
i n v e r t e d ! A n d yet, as I r e r e a d The Mismeasure of Man, a n d m a d e so
few c h a n g e s b e y o n d c o r r e c t i n g t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r s a n d e x c i s i n g
the few r e f e r e n c e s e n t i r e l y topical t o 1 9 8 1 , 1 r e a l i z e d that m y fifteen
y e a r old b o o k is w r i t t e n as a r e b u t t a l to The Bell Curve. (Lest this
s t a t e m e n t s e e m a b s u r d l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c , I h a s t e n to p o i n t o u t that
H e r r n s t e i n ' s 1 9 7 1 Atlantic Monthly article, a p o i n t by p o i n t e p i t o m e
of The Bell Curve, d i d f o r m an i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e c o n t e x t f o r The
Mismeasure of Man.) B u t my c l a i m is n o t a b s u r d l y a n a c h r o n i s t i c f o r
a n o t h e r m o r e i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n . The Bell Curve p r e s e n t s n o t h i n g
n e w . T h i s e i g h t h u n d r e d p a g e m a n i f e s t o i s little m o r e t h a n a l o n g
b r i e f f o r the h a r d - l i n e v e r s i o n o f S p e a r m a n ' s g—the t h e o r y o f intel-
THE
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l i g e n c e as a u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e , genetically b a s e d , a n d m i n i m a l l y alt e r a b l e t h i n g in t h e h e a d . The Mismeasure of Man is a logical,
e m p i r i c a l , a n d historical a r g u m e n t against this v e r y t h e o r y o f intellig e n c e . O f c o u r s e I c o u l d n o t k n o w the specifics o f w h a t the f u t u r e
w o u l d bring. But j u s t as Darwinism can provide as g o o d an argum e n t against f u t u r e e p i s o d e s o f c r e a t i o n i s m a s against the a n t i e v o l u tionists of D a r w i n ' s o w n d a y , I trust that a c o g e n t r e f u t a t i o n of a
b a n k r u p t t h e o r y will h o l d , with all its m e r i t intact, if s o m e o n e tries
to float a d e a d issue with no n e w s u p p o r t at s o m e f u t u r e m o m e n t .
T i m e , b y itself, h o l d s n o a l c h e m y t o i m p r o v e a case. I f g o o d a r g u m e n t s c a n n o t t r a n s c e n d t i m e , t h e n w e m i g h t a s well t h r o w o u t o u r libraries.
Reasons, history and revision ofThe Mismeasure of Man
i.
Reasons
My o r i g i n a l r e a s o n s f o r w r i t i n g The Mismeasure of Man m i x e d t h e
p e r s o n a l with t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l . I c o n f e s s , first of all, to s t r o n g feelings on this p a r t i c u l a r issue. I g r e w up in a family with a t r a d i t i o n of
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in c a m p a i g n s f o r social j u s t i c e , a n d I w a s active, as a
s t u d e n t , in t h e civil r i g h t s m o v e m e n t at a t i m e of g r e a t e x c i t e m e n t
a n d success in the e a r l y 1960s.
Scholars are often wary of citing such c o m m i t m e n t s , for, in the
s t e r e o t y p e , an ice-cold i m p a r t i a l i t y acts as the sine qua non of p r o p e r
a n d d i s p a s s i o n a t e objectivity. I r e g a r d this a r g u m e n t a s o n e o f the
m o s t fallacious, e v e n h a r m f u l , claims c o m m o n l y m a d e i n m y p r o f e s sion. I m p a r t i a l i t y (even if d e s i r a b l e ) is u n a t t a i n a b l e by h u m a n b e i n g s
w i t h inevitable b a c k g r o u n d s , n e e d s , beliefs, a n d d e s i r e s . I t i s d a n g e r o u s f o r a s c h o l a r e v e n t o i m a g i n e that h e m i g h t attain c o m p l e t e
n e u t r a l i t y , f o r t h e n o n e stops b e i n g vigilant a b o u t p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s a n d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e s — a n d t h e n o n e truly falls victim t o t h e
dictates o f p r e j u d i c e .
Objectivity m u s t b e o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d a s fair t r e a t m e n t o f
d a t a , not a b s e n c e o f p r e f e r e n c e . M o r e o v e r , o n e n e e d s t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d a c k n o w l e d g e inevitable p r e f e r e n c e s i n o r d e r t o k n o w
t h e i r i n f l u e n c e — s o that fair t r e a t m e n t o f d a t a a n d a r g u m e n t s c a n
be attained! No conceit could be worse than a belief in one's o w n
intrinsic objectivity, n o p r e s c r i p t i o n m o r e suited t o t h e e x p o s u r e o f
fools. ( P h o n y psychics like U r i G e l l e r h a v e h a d p a r t i c u l a r success
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in b a m b o o z l i n g scientists with o r d i n a r y stage m a g i c , b e c a u s e o n l y
scientists a r e a r r o g a n t e n o u g h t o t h i n k that t h e y always o b s e r v e with
r i g o r o u s a n d objective scrutiny, a n d t h e r e f o r e c o u l d n e v e r b e s o
f o o l e d — w h i l e o r d i n a r y m o r t a l s k n o w p e r f e c t l y well that g o o d p e r f o r m e r s c a n a l w a y s f i n d a w a y t o trick p e o p l e . ) T h e best f o r m o f
objectivity lies in explicitly i d e n t i f y i n g p r e f e r e n c e s so that their inf l u e n c e c a n b e r e c o g n i z e d a n d c o u n t e r m a n d e d . ( W e d e n y o u r prefe r e n c e s all t h e t i m e in a c k n o w l e d g i n g n a t u r e ' s factuality. I really do
h a t e t h e fact o f p e r s o n a l d e a t h , b u t will n o t base m y biological views
o n s u c h distaste. Less facetiously, I really d o p r e f e r t h e k i n d e r L a m a r c k i a n m o d e o f e v o l u t i o n t o w h a t D a r w i n called t h e m i s e r a b l e ,
low, b u n g l i n g , a n d inefficient w a y s o f his o w n n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n —
but nature doesn't give a d a m n about my preferences, and works in
D a r w i n ' s m o d e , a n d I t h e r e f o r e c h o s e t o d e v o t e m y p r o f e s s i o n a l life
to this study.)
W e m u s t identify p r e f e r e n c e s i n o r d e r t o c o n s t r a i n their influe n c e o n o u r w o r k , b u t w e d o n o t g o astray w h e n w e use s u c h p r e f e r e n c e s t o d e c i d e w h a t subjects w e wish t o p u r s u e . L i f e i s s h o r t , a n d
p o t e n t i a l s t u d i e s infinite. W e h a v e a m u c h b e t t e r c h a n c e o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g s o m e t h i n g significant w h e n w e follow o u r passionate interests a n d w o r k i n a r e a s o f d e e p e s t p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g . O f c o u r s e s u c h
a s t r a t e g y increases d a n g e r s of p r e j u d i c e , b u t the g a i n in d e d i c a t i o n
c a n o v e r b a l a n c e a n y s u c h w o r r y , especially i f w e r e m a i n e q u a l l y
c o m m i t t e d t o t h e o v e r a r c h i n g g e n e r a l g o a l o f fairness, a n d f i e r c e l y
c o m m i t t e d t o c o n s t a n t v i g i l a n c e a n d scrutiny o f o u r p e r s o n a l biases.
( I h a v e n o d e s i r e t o give M r . M u r r a y a m m u n i t i o n f o r f u t u r e
e n c o u n t e r s , b u t I h a v e n e v e r b e e n able t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y h e insists
o n p r o m u l g a t i n g t h e d i s i n g e n u o u s a r g u m e n t that h e has n o p e r sonal stake or p r e f e r e n c e in t h e subject of The Bell Curve, b u t o n l y
t o o k u p his s t u d y f r o m d i s i n t e r e s t e d p e r s o n a l c u r i o s i t y — t h e claim
that d i s a b l e d h i m i n o u r d e b a t e a t H a r v a r d , f o r h e s o lost credibility
t h e r e b y . A f t e r all, his o v e r t r e c o r d o n o n e political side i s far
s t r o n g e r t h a n m y o w n o n the o t h e r . H e has b e e n e m p l o y e d b y r i g h t w i n g t h i n k t a n k s f o r y e a r s , a n d t h e y d o n ' t h i r e f l a m i n g liberals. H e
w r o t e the b o o k , Common Ground, that b e c a m e R e a g a n ' s bible as m u c h
as M i c h a e l H a r r i n g t o n ' s Other America m i g h t h a v e i n f l u e n c e d K e n n e d y D e m o c r a t s . If I w e r e h e , I w o u l d say s o m e t h i n g like: " L o o k ,
I'm a political c o n s e r v a t i v e , a n d I'm p r o u d of it. I k n o w that t h e
a r g u m e n t of The Bell Curve m e s h e s well w i t h my politics. I r e c o g -
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n i z e d this f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g . I n fact, this r e c o g n i t i o n led m e t o b e
especially vigilant a n d c a r e f u l w h e n I a n a l y z e d the d a t a o f m y b o o k .
B u t I r e m a i n c a p a b l e o f b e i n g fair w i t h d a t a a n d logical i n a r g u m e n t ,
a n d I b e l i e v e that t h e available i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p o r t s m y view. B e sides, I am n o t a c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c a p r i c i o u s r e a s o n s . I b e l i e v e that
the w o r l d d o e s w o r k i n t h e m a n n e r o f t h e bell c u r v e , a n d that m y
political views r e p r e s e n t t h e best w a y t o constitute g o v e r n m e n t s i n
the l i g h t o f t h e s e realities." N o w this a r g u m e n t I c o u l d r e s p e c t ,
w h i l e r e g a r d i n g b o t h its p r e m i s e s a n d s u p p o r t i n g d a t a a s false a n d
m i s i n t e r p r e t e d . ) I w r o t e The Mismeasure of Man b e c a u s e I h a v e a
d i f f e r e n t political vision, a n d b e c a u s e I also b e l i e v e (or I w o u l d n o t
m a i n t a i n t h e ideal) that p e o p l e a r e e v o l u t i o n a r i l y c o n s t i t u t e d in a
w a y that m a k e s this vision a t t a i n a b l e — n o t inevitable, L o r d o n l y
k n o w s , b u t attainable w i t h s t r u g g l e .
I t h e r e f o r e s t u d i e d this subject with passion. I h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d
in t h e l u n c h c o u n t e r sit-in p h a s e of t h e civil r i g h t s m o v e m e n t . I h a d
attended Antioch College in southwestern O h i o , near Cincinnati
a n d t h e K e n t u c k y state l i n e — t h e r e f o r e " b o r d e r " c o u n t r y , a n d still
largely segregated in the 1950s. T h e r e I had taken part in m a n y
actions t o i n t e g r a t e b o w l i n g alleys a n d s k a t i n g r i n k s ( p r e v i o u s l y with
" w h i t e " a n d " N e g r o " n i g h t s ) , m o v i e t h e a t e r s ( p r e v i o u s l y blacks i n
the b a l c o n y a n d whites d o w n s t a i r s ) , r e s t a u r a n t s , a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
a Y e l l o w S p r i n g s b a r b e r s h o p r u n by a s t u b b o r n m a n ( w h o m I c a m e
to respect in an o d d way) n a m e d G e g n e r (meaning "adversary" in
G e r m a n and therefore contributing to the symbolic value) w h o
s w o r e that h e c o u l d n ' t c u t a black m a n ' s h a i r b e c a u s e h e d i d n ' t k n o w
h o w . (I first m e t Phil D o n a h u e w h e n he c o v e r e d this story as a
c u b r e p o r t e r f o r t h e Dayton Daily News.) I s p e n t a g o o d p a r t of an
u n d e r g r a d u a t e y e a r i n E n g l a n d , effectively r u n n i n g a n e x t e n s i v e
a n d successful c a m p a i g n w i t h a n o t h e r A m e r i c a n ( t h o u g h w e
c o u l d n ' t b e p u b l i c s p o k e s p e o p l e , g i v e n o u r " w r o n g " accents) t o integ r a t e the l a r g e s t d a n c e hall i n B r i t a i n , t h e M e c c a L o c a r n o b a l l r o o m
in B r a d f o r d . I h a d j o y s a n d s a d n e s s e s , successes a n d d e f e a t s . I felt
c r u s h e d w h e n , i n a w a v e o f u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h o u g h l a m e n t a b l e narr o w n e s s , t h e black l e a d e r s o f t h e S t u d e n t N o n - V i o l e n t C o o r d i n a t i n g
C o m m i t t e e d e c i d e d t o r e m o v e whites f r o m t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
A l l m y g r a n d p a r e n t s w e r e i m m i g r a n t s t o A m e r i c a , a n d i n the
g r o u p o f Eastern E u r o p e a n Jews w h o m G o d d a r d and c o m p a n y
w o u l d h a v e so s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d . I d e d i c a t e d The Mismeasure of Man
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t o m y m a t e r n a l H u n g a r i a n g r a n d p a r e n t s (the o n l y o n e s I k n e w
well), b o t h brilliant p e o p l e with n o access t o m u c h f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n .
M y g r a n d m o t h e r c o u l d s p e a k f o u r l a n g u a g e s fluently, b u t c o u l d
only write her a d o p t e d English phonetically. My father became a
leftist, a l o n g w i t h s o m a n y o t h e r idealists, d u r i n g u p h e a v a l s o f the
d e p r e s s i o n , t h e S p a n i s h Civil W a r , a n d t h e g r o w t h o f n a z i s m a n d
fascism. H e r e m a i n e d politically active until p o o r h e a l t h p r e c l u d e d
f u r t h e r stress, a n d politically c o m m i t t e d t h e r e a f t e r . I shall a l w a y s
b e gratified t o t h e p o i n t o f tears that, a l t h o u g h h e n e v e r saw The
Mismeasure of Man in final f o r m , he lived j u s t l o n g e n o u g h to r e a d
t h e galley p r o o f s a n d k n o w (shades, I r e c o g n i z e , o f A l j o l s o n s i n g i n g
K o l N i d r e a s his d y i n g f a t h e r listened) that his s c h o l a r son h a d n o t
f o r g o t t e n his r o o t s .
S o m e r e a d e r s m a y r e g a r d this c o n f e s s i o n a l a s a s u r e sign o f t o o
m u c h f e e l i n g to w r i t e a p r o p e r w o r k in n o n f i c t i o n . B u t I am w i l l i n g
t o b e t that p a s s i o n m u s t b e t h e c e n t r a l i n g r e d i e n t n e e d e d t o lift
s u c h b o o k s a b o v e t h e o r d i n a r y , a n d that m o s t w o r k s o f n o n f i c t i o n
r e g a r d e d b y o u r c u l t u r e a s classical o r e n d u r i n g a r e c e n t e r e d i n
t h e i r a u t h o r ' s d e e p beliefs. I t h e r e f o r e s u s p e c t that m o s t o f m y coll e a g u e s in this e n t e r p r i s e c o u l d tell similar stories of a u t o b i o g r a p h i c
p a s s i o n . I w o u l d also a d d that, f o r all my c o n v i c t i o n s a b o u t social
j u s t i c e , I feel e v e n m o r e p a s s i o n a t e a b o u t a closer b e l i e f c e n t r a l to
m y p e r s o n a l life a n d activities: m y m e m b e r s h i p i n the " a n c i e n t a n d
u n i v e r s a l c o m p a n y o f s c h o l a r s " (to cite t h e w o n d e r f u l l y a r c h a i c line
used by Harvard's president in conferring Ph.D.'s at our annual
c o m m e n c e m e n t ) . T h i s t r a d i t i o n r e p r e s e n t s , a l o n g with h u m a n
kindness, the greatest, most noble, and most e n d u r i n g feature on
t h e b r i g h t side o f a m i x e d p a n o p l y d e f i n i n g w h a t w e call " h u m a n
n a t u r e . " S i n c e I am b e t t e r at s c h o l a r s h i p t h a n at k i n d n e s s , I n e e d to
cast my fealty w i t h h u m a n i t y ' s g o o d n e s s in this s p h e r e . M a y I e n d
u p n e x t t o J u d a s Iscariot, B r u t u s , a n d C a s s i u s i n t h e devil's m o u t h
at t h e c e n t e r of hell if I e v e r fail to p r e s e n t my m o s t h o n e s t assessm e n t a n d best j u d g m e n t o f e v i d e n c e f o r e m p i r i c a l t r u t h .
My p r o f e s s i o n a l r e a s o n f o r w r i t i n g The Mismeasure of Man was
also, i n l a r g e p a r t , p e r s o n a l . T h e s a d d e s t p a r o c h i a l i s m i n a c a d e m i c
l i f e — t h e d e p r e s s i n g c o n t r a r y to t h e ideals I m e n t i o n e d in t h e last
p a r a g r a p h — l i e s i n t h e petty s n i p i n g that s m a l l - m i n d e d m e m b e r s o f
one profession unleash when someone credentialed in another
w o r l d d a r e s t o say a n y t h i n g a b o u t activities i n the sniper's p a r i s h .
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T h u s has i t a l w a y s b e e n , a n d t h u s d o w e d i l u t e b o t h t h e small p l e a s u r e s a n d f i e r c e j o y s o f s c h o l a r s h i p . S o m e scientists g r i p e d a t G o e t h e
because a " p o e t " should not write about empirical nature (Goethe
did interesting and e n d u r i n g work in mineralogy and botany; happily, e a c h s n i p e r t e n d s t o b e p a r r i e d b y b e t t e r scientists with g e n e r o s ity o f spirit, a n d G o e t h e n u m b e r e d m a n y biologists, especially
E t i e n n e G e o f f r o y S a i n t - H i l a i r e , a m o n g his s u p p o r t e r s ) . O t h e r s
g r o u s e d w h e n Einstein o r P a u l i n g e x p o s e d t h e i r h u m a n i t y a n d
wrote about peace.
T h e m o s t c o m m o n , n a r r o w - m i n d e d c o m p l a i n t a b o u t The Mismeasure of Man g o e s : G o u l d is a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , n o t a p s y c h o l o g i s t ;
he c a n ' t k n o w t h e subject a n d his b o o k m u s t be bullshit. I w a n t to
o f f e r t w o specific r e b u t t a l s o f this n o n s e n s e , b u t w o u l d f i r s t r e m i n d
m y c o l l e a g u e s that w e all m i g h t c o n s i d e r g i v i n g m o r e t h a n lip service
t o t h e ideal o f j u d g i n g a w o r k b y its c o n t e n t , n o t t h e a u t h o r ' s n a m e
or rank.
F o r m y f i r s t specific r e b u t t a l , h o w e v e r , I d o w a n t t o p u l l r a n k .
T r u e , I am n o t a p s y c h o l o g i s t a n d I k n o w little a b o u t t h e technicalities of item selection in m e n t a l testing or t h e social use of results in
c o n t e m p o r a r y A m e r i c a . H e n c e , I c a r e f u l l y said n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e s e
subjects ( a n d w o u l d n o t h a v e w r i t t e n t h e b o o k i f I h a d j u d g e d mastery o f s u c h m a t e r i a l a s essential f o r m y i n t e n t i o n s ) . M y b o o k , b y t h e
w a y , has b e e n c o m m o n l y p o r t r a y e d , e v e n (to m y c h a g r i n ) o f t e n
p r a i s e d , as a g e n e r a l attack u p o n m e n t a l testing. The Mismeasure of
Man is no s u c h t h i n g , a n d I h a v e an a g n o s t i c a t t i t u d e ( b o r n l a r g e l y
o f i g n o r a n c e ) t o w a r d m e n t a l t e s t i n g i n g e n e r a l . I f m y critics d o u b t
this, a n d r e a d these lines a s a s m o k e s c r e e n , j u s t c o n s i d e r m y e x p r e s s e d o p i n i o n a b o u t Binet's o r i g i n a l I Q t e s t — s t r o n g l y a n d e n tirely positive (for B i n e t r e j e c t e d the h e r e d i t a r i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
a n d o n l y w a n t e d to u s e t h e test as a d e v i c e to identify c h i l d r e n in
n e e d o f special h e l p ; a n d f o r this h u m a n e g o a l , I h a v e n o t h i n g b u t
p r a i s e ) . The Mismeasure of Man is a critique of a specific t h e o r y of
i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t e n s u p p o r t e d by particular i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a certain
style o f m e n t a l testing: t h e t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , g e n e t i c a l l y b a s e d , u n changeable intelligence.
T h e subject that I d i d c h o o s e f o r The Mismeasure of Man r e p r e sents a c e n t r a l a r e a of my p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r t i s e — i n fact, I w o u l d
g o f u r t h e r a n d say ( n o w t u r n i n g t o m y a r r o g a n t m o d e ) that I h a v e
u n d e r s t o o d this a r e a b e t t e r t h a n m o s t p r o f e s s i o n a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s
REVISED
AND
EXPANDED
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4
1
w h o h a v e w r i t t e n o n t h e history o f m e n t a l testing, b e c a u s e t h e y d o
n o t h a v e e x p e r t i s e in this vital subject, a n d I d o . I am an e v o l u t i o n a r y
biologist by t r a i n i n g . V a r i a t i o n is t h e focal subject of e v o l u t i o n a r y
b i o l o g y . I n D a r w i n i a n t h e o r y , e v o l u t i o n o c c u r s (to p u t the p o i n t
technically f o r a m o m e n t ) b y t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f variation within p o p u l a t i o n s into d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n p o p u l a t i o n s . T h a t i s (and n o w
m o r e s i m p l y ) , i n d i v i d u a l s d i f f e r , a n d s o m e o f this v a r i a t i o n has a
g e n e t i c basis. N a t u r a l selection w o r k s b y d i f f e r e n t i a l l y p r e s e r v i n g
t h e v a r i a t i o n that c o n f e r s b e t t e r a d a p t a t i o n i n c h a n g i n g local e n v i r o n m e n t s . A s a c a r i c a t u r e , f o r e x a m p l e , h a i r i e r e l e p h a n t s will d o
b e t t e r a s ice sheets a d v a n c e o v e r Siberia, a n d w o o l l y m a m m o t h s will
e v e n t u a l l y e v o l v e as selection, a c t i n g statistically a n d n o t a b s o l u t e l y ,
preserves m o r e hirsute elephants generation after generation. In
other words, variation within a population (some elephants hairier
t h a n o t h e r s a t a n y m o m e n t ) b e c o m e s c o n v e r t e d into d i f f e r e n c e s
t h r o u g h t i m e (woolly m a m m o t h s a s d e s c e n d a n t s o f e l e p h a n t s w i t h
o r d i n a r y a m o u n t s o f hair).
N o w c o n s i d e r t h e subjects o f this m i x : g e n e t i c a l l y b a s e d v a r i a t i o n
within populations, and development of differences between p o p u l a t i o n s — a n d w h a t do y o u h a v e ? Voila: t h e subject of the The Mismeasure of Man. My b o o k is a b o u t t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of s u p p o s e d l y
genetically based variation in intelligence a m o n g m e m b e r s of a p o p u l a t i o n (the a i m of IQ testers assessing all the kids in a c l a s s r o o m , or
o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c r a n i o m e t r i c i a n s m e a s u r i n g t h e h e a d s o f all
t h e w o r k e r s i n a f a c t o r y , o r w e i g h i n g t h e b r a i n s o f their d e a d acad e m i c c o l l e a g u e s ) . M y b o o k i s also a b o u t the p u t a t i v e r e a s o n s f o r
m e a s u r e d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s (racial i n w h i t e vs. black, o r
class-based in rich vs. p o o r , f o r e x a m p l e ) . If I k n o w the t e c h n i c a l
basis of a n y subject, I u n d e r s t a n d this m a t e r i a l best (and m a n y psyc h o l o g i s t s d o n ' t b e c a u s e they h a v e n o t h a d t r a i n i n g in a p r o f e s s i o n
like e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g y that r e g a r d s the m e a s u r e m e n t o f g e n e t i cally b a s e d v a r i a t i o n as c e n t r a l to its b e i n g ) .
F o r my s e c o n d specific r e b u t t a l , I e n t e r e d p a l e o n t o l o g y in the
m i d 1960s, at an i n t e r e s t i n g t i m e in the p r o f e s s i o n ' s history, w h e n
t r a d i t i o n s o f subjective a n d i d i o s y n c r a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o yield t o calls f o r m o r e q u a n t i t a t i v e , g e n e r a l i z e d , a n d t h e o r e t ically b a s e d a p p r o a c h e s to fossil o r g a n i s m s . (I a m , by the w a y , no
l o n g e r so b e g u i l e d by t h e l u r e of q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t I was so t r a i n e d
a n d was o n c e a t r u e b e l i e v e r . ) W e y o u n g T u r k s o f this m o v e m e n t
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
all d e v e l o p e d e x p e r t i s e i n two a r e a s , t h e n m o s t u n f a m i l i a r (if n o t
a n a t h e m a ) t o p r a c t i c i n g p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s : statistics a n d c o m p u t e r s .
I w a s t h e r e f o r e t r a i n e d in t h e statistical analysis of genetically
b a s e d v a r i a t i o n within a n d b e t w e e n p o p u l a t i o n s — a g a i n , t h e k e y
subject of The Mismeasure of Man (for Homo sapiens is a variable biological species, n o d i f f e r e n t i n this r e g a r d f r o m all the o t h e r o r g a n isms I h a d s t u d i e d ) . I t h i n k , in o t h e r w o r d s , that I a p p r o a c h e d the
m i s m e a s u r e o f m a n w i t h requisite a n d u n c o n v e n t i o n a l e x p e r t i s e
f r o m a n a p p r o p r i a t e p r o f e s s i o n that has n o t o f t e n e n o u g h p r o m o t e d its special say a b o u t a subject so close to its c e n t e r .
In w r i t i n g n u m e r o u s essays on the lives of scientists, I h a v e
f o u n d that b o o k s o n g e n e r a l topics o r full systems usually o r i g i n a t e
in tiny p u z z l e s or little t r o u b l i n g issues, n o t usually f r o m an abstract
o r o v e r a r c h i n g d e s i r e t o k n o w t h e n a t u r e o f totality. T h u s , t h e seve n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s c r i p t u r a l g e o l o g i s t T h o m a s B u r n e t built u p t o a
g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f t h e e a r t h b e c a u s e h e w a n t e d t o k n o w the s o u r c e
o f w a t e r f o r N o a h ' s flood. T h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y g e o l o g i s t J a m e s
H u t t o n d e v e l o p e d a n e q u a l l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e system f r o m a n initial
n i g g l i n g p a r a d o x : i f G o d m a d e soil f o r h u m a n a g r i c u l t u r e , b u t soil
d e r i v e s f r o m e r o s i o n o f r o c k s ; a n d i f t h e e r o s i o n o f r o c k s will ultim a t e l y d e s t r o y the l a n d a n d p u t t h e e n t i r e e a r t h u n d e r w a t e r , t h e n
how could G o d choose a means of o u r eventual destruction as a
m e t h o d f o r m a k i n g t h e soil that sustains us? ( H u t t o n a n s w e r e d b y
i n f e r r i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f i n t e r n a l f o r c e s that raise m o u n t a i n s f r o m
the d e e p , t h u s d e v e l o p i n g a cyclical t h e o r y o f e r o s i o n a n d r e p a i r —
a n a n c i e n t w o r l d w i t h n o v e s t i g e of a b e g i n n i n g , o r p r o s p e c t o f
an end.)
The Mismeasure of Man also b e g a n with a tiny i n s i g h t that s t u n n e d
m e with a frisson o f r e c o g n i t i o n . O u r y o u n g T u r k g e n e r a t i o n o f
p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s l i n k e d statistics a n d c o m p u t e r s b y l e a r n i n g t h e techn i q u e o f m u l t i v a r i a t e a n a l y s i s — t h a t is, the s i m u l t a n e o u s statistical
consideration of relationships a m o n g many measured properties of
o r g a n i s m s ( l e n g t h o f b o n e s , p e r h a p s , f o r fossil species, p e r f o r m a n c e
o n n u m e r o u s m e n t a l tests f o r h u m a n s i n t h e m i s m e a s u r e o f m a n ) .
T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a r e n o t all c o n c e p t u a l l y difficult; m a n y h a d b e e n
p a r t l y d e v e l o p e d o r e n v i s i o n e d e a r l i e r i n t h e c e n t u r y . B u t practical
utility r e q u i r e s i m m e n s e l y l o n g c o m p u t a t i o n s that o n l y b e c a m e possible with the d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o m p u t e r s .
I was t r a i n e d p r i m a r i l y in the g r a n d d a d d y of m u l t i v a r i a t e tech-
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n i q u e s (still v i g o r o u s l y i n v o g u e a n d e m i n e n t l y u s e f u l ) : f a c t o r analysis. I h a d l e a r n e d this p r o c e d u r e as an abstract m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y
a n d h a d a p p l i e d f a c t o r analysis t o t h e s t u d y o f g r o w t h a n d e v o l u t i o n
i n v a r i o u s fossil o r g a n i s m s (for e x a m p l e , m y P h . D . thesis, p u b l i s h e d
i n 1 9 6 9 , o n B e r m u d i a n l a n d snails; a n d o n e o f m y f i r s t p a p e r s ,
published in 1967, on growth and form in pelycosaurian reptiles—
t h o s e p e c u l i a r c r e a t u r e s with sails on their b a c k s , a l w a y s i n c l u d e d in
sets o f plastic d i n o s a u r s , b u t really a n c e s t o r s o f m a m m a l s a n d n o t
d i n o s a u r s at all).
F a c t o r analysis allows o n e t o f i n d c o m m o n a x e s i n f l u e n c i n g sets
o f i n d e p e n d e n t l y m e a s u r e d variables. F o r e x a m p l e , a s a n a n i m a l
g r o w s , m o s t b o n e s g e t l o n g e r — s o g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e in size acts as a
c o m m o n f a c t o r b e h i n d t h e positive c o r r e l a t i o n s m e a s u r e d f o r t h e
l e n g t h o f b o n e s i n a series o f o r g a n i s m s v a r y i n g f r o m small t o l a r g e
w i t h i n a s p e c i e s . T h i s e x a m p l e is trivial. In a m o r e c o m p l e x case,
subject t o n u m e r o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , w e g e n e r a l l y m e a s u r e positive
c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g m e n t a l tests g i v e n t o t h e s a m e p e r s o n — t h a t is,
i n g e n e r a l a n d with m a n y e x c e p t i o n s , p e o p l e w h o d o well o n o n e
k i n d o f test t e n d t o d o well o n o t h e r s . F a c t o r analysis m i g h t d e t e c t a
g e n e r a l axis that c a n , in a m a t h e m a t i c a l s e n s e , c a p t u r e a c o m m o n
e l e m e n t i n this j o i n t v a r i a t i o n a m o n g tests.
I h a d s p e n t a y e a r l e a r n i n g t h e intricacies of f a c t o r analysis. I
was t h e n historically n a i v e , a n d n e v e r d r e a m e d that s u c h a v a l u a b l e
a b s t r a c t i o n , w h i c h I h a d a p p l i e d o n l y to fossils with m i n i m a l political
i m p o r t , m i g h t h a v e a r i s e n in a social c o n t e x t to t o u t a p a r t i c u l a r
t h e o r y o f m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g with definite political m e a n i n g . T h e n
o n e d a y I was r e a d i n g , q u i t e aimlessly a n d o n l y f o r l e i s u r e , a n article
a b o u t the history o f m e n t a l testing, a n d I r e a l i z e d that S p e a r m a n ' s
g—the c e n t r a l c l a i m o f t h e u n i t a r y t h e o r y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d the
o n l y justification that s u c h a n o t i o n has e v e r h a d (The Bell Curve is
f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l o n g d e f e n s e of g, explicitly so s t a t e d ) — w a s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n the f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t o f a f a c t o r analysis o f
m e n t a l tests. M o r e o v e r , I l e a r n e d that S p e a r m a n h a d i n v e n t e d the
t e c h n i q u e o f f a c t o r analysis specifically t o s t u d y t h e u n d e r l y i n g basis
o f positive c o r r e l a t i o n a m o n g tests. I also k n e w that p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s o f f a c t o r a n a l y s e s a r e m a t h e m a t i c a l abstractions, n o t e m p i r ical r e a l i t i e s — a n d that e v e r y m a t r i x subject to f a c t o r analysis c a n be
r e p r e s e n t e d j u s t a s well b y o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e style o f f a c t o r analysis a p p l i e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r
44
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
case. S i n c e the c h o s e n style is l a r g e l y a m a t t e r of r e s e a r c h e r ' s p r e f e r e n c e , o n e c a n n o t c l a i m that p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s h a v e e m p i r i c a l
reality (unless t h e a r g u m e n t c a n b e b a c k e d u p with h a r d d a t a o f
a n o t h e r sort; t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l e v i d e n c e a l o n e will n e v e r suffice,
b e c a u s e w e c a n a l w a y s g e n e r a t e a l t e r n a t i v e a x e s with entirely d i f f e r ent meanings).
T h e r e c a n o n l y b e a few s u c h m o m e n t s — t h e e u r e k a s , the scales
d r o p p i n g f r o m t h e e y e s — i n a scholar's life. M y p r e c i o u s a b s t r a c t i o n ,
the t e c h n i q u e p o w e r i n g m y o w n r e s e a r c h a t t h e t i m e , h a d n o t b e e n
d e v e l o p e d t o a n a l y z e fossils, o r t o p u r s u e the i d e a l i z e d p l e a s u r e
o f m a t h e m a t i c s . S p e a r m a n h a d i n v e n t e d f a c t o r analysis t o p u s h a
c e r t a i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m e n t a l t e s t s — o n e that h a s p l a g u e d o u r
c e n t u r y with its b i o d e t e r m i n i s t i m p l i c a t i o n s . (I am c o n f i d e n t a b o u t
t h e o r d e r o f causality b e c a u s e S p e a r m a n h a d b e e n d e f e n d i n g the
t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r y e a r s with o t h e r n o n m u l t i v a r i a t e
t e c h n i q u e s b e f o r e h e i n v e n t e d f a c t o r analysis. T h u s w e k n o w that
h e d e v e l o p e d f a c t o r analysis t o s u p p o r t the t h e o r y — a n d that the
t h e o r y d i d n o t arise s u b s e q u e n t l y f r o m t h o u g h t s i n s p i r e d b y t h e first
results of f a c t o r analysis.) A frisson of m i x e d fascination a n d a bit
of a n g e r passed up a n d d o w n my spine, as m u c h of my previous
idealization of science c o l l a p s e d (ultimately to be r e p l a c e d by a far
m o r e h u m a n e a n d sensible v i e w ) . F a c t o r analysis h a d b e e n i n v e n t e d
f o r a social use c o n t r a r y to my beliefs a n d v a l u e s .
I felt p e r s o n a l l y o f f e n d e d , a n d this b o o k , t h o u g h n o t w r i t t e n
until s o m e ten y e a r s later, u l t i m a t e l y a r o s e f r o m this i n s i g h t a n d
f e e l i n g of violation. I felt c o m p e l l e d to write The Mismeasure of Man.
M y f a v o r i t e r e s e a r c h tool h a d a r i s e n f o r a n alien social u s e . F u r t h e r more, and in another irony, the harmful hereditarian version of I Q
h a d n o t d e v e l o p e d i n E u r o p e , w h e r e B i n e t h a d i n v e n t e d the test f o r
benevolent purposes, but in my o w n country of America, honored
f o r e g a l i t a r i a n t r a d i t i o n s . I am a patriot at h e a r t . I h a d to w r i t e t h e
b o o k t o m a k e c o r r e c t i o n a n d ask f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
2.
History and revision
I p u b l i s h e d The Mismeasure of Man in 1981; t h e b o o k has certainly
h a d a n active a n d f a s c i n a t i n g history e v e r since. I was p r o u d w h e n
Mismeasure w o n the N a t i o n a l B o o k Critics C i r c l e a w a r d i n nonfiction, f o r this p r i z e is t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l ' s a c c o l a d e , g i v e n by t h o s e w h o
do the reviewing. T h e reviews themselves followed an interesting
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45
p a t t e r n — u n i f o r m l y w a r m i n t h e serious p o p u l a r press, p r e d i c t a b l y
v a r i o u s i n t e c h n i c a l j o u r n a l s o f p s y c h o l o g y a n d the social sciences.
M o s t o f t h e l e a d i n g m e n t a l testers i n t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n tradition
w r o t e m a j o r r e v i e w s , a n d o n e m i g h t well g u e s s their thrust. A r t h u r
J e n s e n , f o r e x a m p l e , d i d not like the b o o k . B u t m o s t o t h e r p r o f e s sional p s y c h o l o g i s t s w r o t e with p r a i s e , o f t e n c o p i o u s a n d u n s t i n t i n g .
T h e n a d i r c e r t a i n l y a r r i v e d (with a bit o f h u m o r i n the a b s u r d i t y )
in t h e Fall 1 9 8 3 issue of an a r c h c o n s e r v a t i v e j o u r n a l , The Public
Interest, w h e n my d y s p e p s i c c o l l e a g u e B e r n a r d D. Davis p u b l i s h e d a
r i d i c u l o u s p e r s o n a l attack o n m e a n d t h e b o o k u n d e r the title " N e o L y s e n k o i s m , I Q , a n d t h e Press." His thesis m a y b e easily s u m m a r i z e d : G o u l d ' s b o o k g o t terrific r e v i e w s i n t h e p o p u l a r press, b u t all
a c a d e m i c w r i t e r s p a n n e d i t u n m e r c i f u l l y . T h e r e f o r e the b o o k i s
politically m o t i v a t e d c r a p , a n d G o u l d h i m s e l f isn't m u c h b e t t e r i n
a n y t h i n g h e d o e s , i n c l u d i n g p u n c t u a t e d e q u i l i b r i u m a n d all his e v o lutionary ideas.
L o v e l y stuff. I firmly b e l i e v e in n o t a n s w e r i n g u n f a i r n e g a t i v e
r e v i e w s , f o r n o t h i n g c a n s o d i s o r i e n t a n a t t a c k e r a s silence. B u t
this was a bit t o o m u c h , so I c a n v a s s e d a m o n g f r i e n d s . B o t h N o a m
C h o m s k y a n d S a l v a d o r L u r i a , g r e a t s c h o l a r s a n d h u m a n i s t s , said
essentially t h e s a m e t h i n g : n e v e r r e p l y unless y o u r a t t a c k e r has
floated a d e m o n s t r a b l y false a r g u m e n t , w h i c h , if u n a n s w e r e d , m i g h t
d e v e l o p a "life of its o w n . " I felt that Davis's d i a t r i b e fell into this
c a t e g o r y a n d t h e r e f o r e r e s p o n d e d i n t h e S p r i n g 1984 issue o f the
s a m e j o u r n a l (my o n l y p u b l i c a t i o n in j o u r n a l s o f that ilk).
A s I e x p l a i n e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d , M r . Davis h a d o n l y r e a d a few
r e v i e w s , p r o b a b l y i n p u b l i c a t i o n s that h e l i k e d , o r that h a d b e e n sent
to h i m by c o l l e a g u e s s h a r i n g his political p e r s u a s i o n s . I, t h a n k s to
my p u b l i s h e r ' s p r o d i g i o u s c l i p p i n g service, h a d all t h e r e v i e w s . I
p i c k e d o u t all t w e n t y - f o u r w r i t t e n b y a c a d e m i c e x p e r t s i n p s y c h o l o g y a n d f o u n d f o u r t e e n positive, t h r e e m i x e d , a n d s e v e n n e g a t i v e
(nearly all o f t h e s e b y h e r e d i t a r i a n m e n t a l t e s t e r s — w h a t else w o u l d
o n e e x p e c t ? ) . I was p a r t i c u l a r l y p l e a s e d that C y r i l B u r t ' s o l d p e r i o d i cal The British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, h a d
w r i t t e n o n e o f t h e m o s t positive a c c o u n t s : " G o u l d has p e r f o r m e d a
v a l u a b l e service i n e x p o s i n g t h e logical basis o f o n e o f t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t d e b a t e s i n t h e social sciences, a n d this b o o k s h o u l d b e
required r e a d i n g for students and practitioners alike."
T h e b o o k has sold s t r o n g l y e v e r since p u b l i c a t i o n a n d has n o w
6
4
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s u r p a s s e d 250,000 c o p i e s , p l u s translations into t e n l a n g u a g e s . I
have b e e n particularly gratified by the w a r m and challenging corres p o n d e n c e that has c o n t i n u a l l y c o m e m y w a y (and a t least a m u s e d
b y s o m e o f t h e h a t e mail, i n c l u d i n g a few threats f r o m n e o - N a z i s
a n d a n t i - S e m i t e s ) . I am p a r t i c u l a r l y g l a d , in r e t r o s p e c t , that I c h o s e
to w r i t e in a w a y that s u r e l y p r e c l u d e d m a x i m a l eclat at p u b l i c a t i o n
(as a b r e e z i e r style w i t h m o r e r e f e r e n c e s to i m m e d i a t e issues w o u l d
h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d ) , b u t that g a v e t h e b o o k s t a y i n g p o w e r ( a f o c u s
on f o u n d i n g arguments, analyzed by consulting original sources in
their original languages).
The Mismeasure of Man is n o t easy r e a d i n g , b u t I i n t e n d e d t h e
b o o k f o r all s e r i o u s p e o p l e w i t h interest in t h e subject. I f o l l o w e d
t h e t w o c a r d i n a l r u l e s that I u s e in w r i t i n g my essays. First, do n o t
waffle on a b o u t g e n e r a l i t i e s (as I f e a r I h a v e d o n e a bit in this i n t r o d u c t i o n — s i n s o f m y m i d d l e a g e , n o d o u b t ! ) . F o c u s o n t h o s e small,
b u t f a s c i n a t i n g , details t h a t c a n p i q u e p e o p l e ' s interest a n d illustrate
generalities far better than overt a n d tendentious discussion. T h i s
s t r a t e g y p r o v i d e s a b e t t e r b o o k f o r r e a d e r s , b u t also m a k e s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n s o m u c h m o r e f u n f o r m e . I g o t t o r e a d all t h e o r i g i n a l
s o u r c e s ; I h a d all t h e p l e a s u r e o f p o k i n g i n t o B r o c a ' s d a t a a n d f i n d ing the holes a n d unconscious prejudices, of reconstructing Yerkes's
test t o a r m y r e c r u i t s , o f h e f t i n g a skull f i l l e d w i t h l e a d shot. H o w
m u c h m o r e r e w a r d i n g t h a n easy r e l i a n c e o n s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s , a n d
c o p y i n g a few c o n v e n t i o n a l t h o u g h t s f r o m o t h e r c o m m e n t a t o r s .
S e c o n d , simplify w r i t i n g b y e l i m i n a t i n g j a r g o n , o f c o u r s e , b u t
do not adulterate concepts; no compromises, no d u m b i n g down.
P o p u l a r i z a t i o n is p a r t of a g r e a t h u m a n i s t i c t r a d i t i o n in s e r i o u s
s c h o l a r s h i p , n o t a n e x e r c i s e i n d u m b i n g d o w n f o r p l e a s u r e o r profit.
I t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t shy f r o m difficult, e v e n m a t h e m a t i c a l m a t e r i a l .
S i n c e I've b e e n h o l d i n g b a c k f o r f i f t e e n y e a r s , p e r m i t m e a f e w
p a r a g r a p h s f o r p u r e b r a g g i n g a n d s a y i n g w h a t has p l e a s e d m e m o s t
about the book.
T h e history o f m e n t a l testing i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y h a s t w o
m a j o r s t r a n d s : scaling a n d r a n k i n g b y m e n t a l a g e a s r e p r e s e n t e d
b y I Q testing, a n d analysis o f c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g m e n t a l tests a s
m a n i f e s t e d i n f a c t o r analysis. Effectively e v e r y p o p u l a r w o r k o n
m e n t a l t e s t i n g e x p l a i n s t h e I Q t h r e a d i n detail a n d virtually i g n o r e s
f a c t o r analysis. T h i s s t r a t e g y i s f o l l o w e d f o r a n o b v i o u s a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e r e a s o n : t h e I Q story i s easy t o e x p l a i n a n d c o m p r e h e n d ;
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f a c t o r analysis, a n d m u l t i v a r i a t e t h i n k i n g i n g e n e r a l , a r e e n o r m o u s l y difficult f o r m o s t p e o p l e a n d h a r d t o e x p r e s s w i t h o u t c o n s i d erable mathematics.
B u t s u c h c o n v e n t i o n a l w o r k s c a n n o t a d e q u a t e l y p r e s e n t t h e history o f the h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e — f o r this n o tion relies s o crucially o n b o t h parts. W e m u s t u n d e r s t a n d w h y
p e o p l e e v e r t h o u g h t that a u n i l i n e a r r a n k i n g c o u l d o r d e r p e o p l e b y
m e n t a l w o r t h — t h e I Q t h r e a d , usually well t r e a t e d . B u t w e c a n n o t
g r a s p o r i n t e r p r e t t h e t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y i n t e l l i g e n c e until w e k n o w
t h e basis f o r t h e p r i o r c l a i m that i n t e l l i g e n c e c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d as a
single entity (that m i g h t t h e n be m e a s u r e d by a single n u m b e r like
I Q ) . T h i s r a t i o n a l e d e r i v e s f r o m f a c t o r analysis a n d its s u p p o s e d
v a l i d a t i o n of S p e a r m a n ' s g—the u n i t a r y t h i n g in the h e a d . B u t factor analysis has usually b e e n i g n o r e d , t h u s p r e c l u d i n g all possibility
o f real u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
I r e s o l v e d that I w o u l d treat f a c t o r analysis h e a d - o n — a n d I h a v e
n e v e r s t r u g g l e d so h a r d to r e n d e r m a t e r i a l in a m a n n e r accessible
to g e n e r a l r e a d e r s . I k e p t failing b e c a u s e I c o u l d n o t translate the
mathematics into understandable prose. T h e n I finally realized, in
o n e o f t h o s e " a h a " insights, that I c o u l d use T h u r s t o n e ' s a l t e r n a t i v e
g e o m e t r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f tests a n d a x e s a s v e c t o r s (arrows) radiating from a c o m m o n point, rather than the usual algebraic f o r m u lations. T h i s a p p r o a c h s o l v e d m y p r o b l e m b e c a u s e most p e o p l e
grasp pictures better than numbers. T h e resulting C h a p t e r 7 is by
no m e a n s easy. It will n e v e r r a n k h i g h in p u b l i c a c c l a i m , but I h a v e
n e v e r b e e n s o p r o u d o f a n y t h i n g else I e v e r w r o t e f o r p o p u l a r a u d i e n c e s . I t h i n k I f o u n d t h e k e y f o r p r e s e n t i n g f a c t o r analysis, a n d
o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t scientific issues o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y
c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t t r e a t i n g this subject. N o t h i n g has
e v e r gratified m e m o r e t h a n n u m e r o u s unsolicited c o m m e n t s f r o m
p r o f e s s i o n a l statisticians o v e r the y e a r s , t h a n k i n g m e f o r this c h a p ter a n d a f f i r m i n g that I h a d i n d e e d s u c c e e d e d in c o n v e y i n g f a c t o r
analysis, a n d t h a t I h a d d o n e so a c c u r a t e l y a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l y . I
am n o t n e a r l y r e a d y , b u t I will e v e n t u a l l y c h a n t my Nunc dimittis
in p e a c e .
O n e f i n a l a n d p e r i p h e r a l p o i n t a b o u t f a c t o r analysis a n d C y r i l
B u r t : M y c h a p t e r o n f a c t o r analysis b e a r s t h e title " T h e Real E r r o r
o f C y r i l B u r t : F a c t o r A n a l y s i s a n d t h e Reification o f I n t e l l i g e n c e . "
B u r t h a d b e e n c h a r g e d with o v e r t f r a u d i n m a k i n g u p data f o r his
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s t u d i e s , d o n e a t the e n d o f a l o n g c a r e e r , o n identical twins s e p a r a t e d
e a r l y in life a n d r e a r e d in d i f f e r e n t social c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Inevitably,
I s u p p o s e , s o m e r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e tried t o rehabilitate B u r t
a n d t o cast d o u b t u p o n t h e c h a r g e s . I r e g a r d t h e s e a t t e m p t s a s w e a k
a n d d o o m e d t o f a i l u r e , f o r the e v i d e n c e o f B u r t ' s f r a u d s e e m s c o n clusive a n d o v e r w h e l m i n g to m e . B u t I wish to e m p h a s i z e that I
r e g a r d t h e subject a s u n f o r t u n a t e , d i v e r s i o n a r y , a n d u n i m p o r t a n t —
a n d t h e title o f m y c h a p t e r t r i e d t o e x p r e s s this view, t h o u g h p e r h a p s
i n a p u n t o o o p a q u e . W h a t e v e r B u r t d i d o r d i d n o t d o a s a pitiful
o l d m a n (and I e n d e d u p f e e l i n g q u i t e s y m p a t h e t i c t o w a r d h i m , n o t
g l o a t i n g o v e r his e x p o s u r e , b u t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s o u r c e s o f his
a c t i o n in p e r s o n a l p a i n a n d possible m e n t a l illness), this late w o r k
h a d n o e n d u r i n g significance i n t h e history o f m e n t a l testing. B u r t ' s
earlier, d e e p , and honest error embodies the fascinating and port e n t o u s i n f l u e n c e o f his c a r e e r . F o r B u r t was t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f
p o s t - S p e a r m a n i a n f a c t o r analysts (he i n h e r i t e d S p e a r m a n ' s acad e m i c p o s t ) — a n d t h e k e y e r r o r o f f a c t o r analysis lies i n reification,
o r t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f a b s t r a c t i o n s into p u t a t i v e r e a l entities. Factor
analysis i n the h e r e d i t a r i a n m o d e , n o t later studies o f twins, r e p r e s e n t e d B u r t ' s " r e a l " e r r o r — f o r reification c o m e s f r o m t h e L a t i n f o r
res, or r e a l t h i n g .
I n e v i t a b l y , a s f o r all active subjects, m u c h has c h a n g e d , s o m e t i m e s t o m y b e n e f i t a n d s o m e t i m e s t o m y deficit, since t h e b o o k f i r s t
a p p e a r e d i n 1 9 8 1 . B u t I h a v e c h o s e n t o leave t h e m a i n t e x t essentially "as is" b e c a u s e t h e basic f o r m o f the a r g u m e n t f o r u n i t a r y ,
r a n k a b l e , h e r i t a b l e , a n d l a r g e l y u n c h a n g e a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e has n e v e r
v a r i e d m u c h , a n d t h e c r i t i q u e s a r e similarly stable a n d d e v a s t a t i n g .
As n o t e d b e f o r e , I h a v e d e l e t e d a few r e f e r e n c e s topical to 1 9 8 1 ,
c h a n g e d a f e w m i n o r e r r o r s o f t y p o g r a p h y a n d fact, a n d i n s e r t e d a
few f o o t n o t e s t o c r e a t e a bit o f d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n m e i n 1981 a n d m e
n o w . O t h e r w i s e , y o u r e a d m y o r i g i n a l b o o k i n this r e v i s e d e d i t i o n .
T h e m a j o r n o v e l t y o f this revision lies i n t h e t w o slices o f b r e a d
that s u r r o u n d the m e a t o f m y o r i g i n a l t e x t — t h i s p r e f a t o r y statem e n t i n f r o n t a n d t h e c o n c l u d i n g section o f essays a t t h e e n d . I h a v e
i n c l u d e d f i v e essays i n t w o g r o u p s f o r this c l o s i n g slice. T h e f i r s t
g r o u p o f t w o r e p r o d u c e s m y t w o v e r y d i f f e r e n t r e v i e w s o f The Bell
Curve. T h e first a p p e a r e d in The New Yorker f o r N o v e m b e r 28, 1 9 9 4 .
I was particularly pleased because Mr. M u r r a y became so apoplectic
a b o u t this article, a n d b e c a u s e s o m a n y p e o p l e felt that I h a d p r o -
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v i d e d a c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d fair (if s h a r p ) c o m m e n t a r y by c r i t i q u i n g
b o t h t h e illogic of The Bell Curve's q u a d r i p a r t i t e g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t ,
a n d t h e i n a d e q u a c i e s o f t h e b o o k ' s e m p i r i c a l claims (largely e x p o s e d
b y s h o w i n g h o w the a u t h o r s b u r i e d c o n c l u s i v e l y c o n t r a r y d a t a i n a n
a p p e n d i x w h i l e c e l e b r a t i n g their p o t e n t i a l s u p p o r t i n t h e m a i n text).
I felt g r a t e f u l that this r e v i e w w a s t h e first m a j o r c o m m e n t to a p p e a r
b a s e d o n a c o m p l e t e r e a d i n g a n d critique o f t h e b o o k ' s actual t e x t
( o t h e r s h a d w r i t t e n c o g e n t c o m m e n t a r i e s on The Bell Curve's politics,
b u t h a d d i s c l a i m e d o n t h e text, p l e a d i n g inability t o c o m p r e h e n d
the m a t h e m a t i c s ! ) . T h e s e c o n d r e p r e s e n t s m y a t t e m p t s t o p r o v i d e a
m o r e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n t e x t f o r The Bell Curve's fallacy by c o n s i d e r i n g its c o n s o n a n c e with o t h e r a r g u m e n t s f r o m t h e history o f b i o d e t e r m i n i s m . T h i s essay, p u b l i s h e d in Natural History in F e b r u a r y
1 9 9 5 , r e p e a t s s o m e m a t e r i a l f r o m The Mismeasure of Man in t h e
section o n B i n e t a n d t h e o r i g i n o f t h e I Q t e s t — b u t I left the r e d u n d a n c y a l o n e since I t h o u g h t that this d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t f o r c i t i n g
B i n e t m i g h t strike r e a d e r s a s i n t e r e s t i n g . T h e f i r s t section o n G o b i n e a u , t h e g r a n d d a d d y o f m o d e r n scientific r a c i s m , r e p r e s e n t s m a t e rial that I p r o b a b l y s h o u l d h a v e o r i g i n a l l y p l a c e d , b u t d i d n o t , in The
Mismeasure of Man.
T h e s e c o n d g r o u p i n c l u d e s t h r e e historical essays o n key f i g u r e s
f r o m the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries respectively. W e f i r s t m e e t Sir T h o m a s B r o w n e a n d his s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e f u t a t i o n o f t h e c a n a r d "that J e w s stink." B u t I v a l u e d
B r o w n e ' s a r g u m e n t p r i m a r i l y f o r f o l l o w i n g the c o g e n t f o r m that
h a s o p p o s e d b i o d e t e r m i n i s m e v e r s i n c e — s o his o l d r e f u t a t i o n has
e n d u r i n g w o r t h . T h i s essay e n d s with a s u m m a r y o f the startling
r e v i s i o n that m o d e r n g e n e t i c a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y d a t a a b o u t h u m a n
o r i g i n s m u s t i m p o s e u p o n o u r n o t i o n o f races a n d their m e a n i n g .
T h e s e c o n d essay a n a l y z e s t h e f o u n d i n g d o c u m e n t o f m o d e r n
racial classification, t h e fivefold system d e v i s e d in t h e late e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u r y b y t h e genially liberal G e r m a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t B l u m e n b a c h .
I use this essay to s h o w h o w t h e o r y a n d u n c o n s c i o u s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n
a l w a y s i n f l u e n c e o u r analysis a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p r e s u m a b l y objective d a t a . B l u m e n b a c h m e a n t well, b u t e n d e d u p a f f i r m i n g racial
h i e r a r c h y b y w a y o f g e o m e t r y a n d aesthetics, n o t b y a n y o v e r t vic i o u s n e s s . I f y o u e v e r w o n d e r e d w h y w h i t e folks a r e n a m e d C a u c a sians in h o n o r of a small r e g i o n in Russia, y o u will find the a n s w e r
i n this essay a n d i n B l u m e n b a c h ' s definitions. T h e last article s u m -
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marizes Darwin's sometimes conventional, sometimes courageous
v i e w s o n racial d i f f e r e n c e s a n d e n d s with a plea f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
historical f i g u r e s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f their o w n times, a n d n o t i n a n a c h ronistic r e f e r e n c e t o o u r s .
I d i d n o t w a n t t o e n d w i t h stale b r e a d , a n d t h e r e f o r e s o u g h t t o
b u i l d this c l o s i n g section f r o m essays not p r e v i o u s l y a n t h o l o g i z e d .
O f t h e f i v e , o n l y o n e has a p p e a r e d b e f o r e i n m y o w n c o l l e c t i o n s —
t h e last p i e c e on D a r w i n f r o m Eight Little Piggies. B u t I c o u l d n o t
b e a r t o e x p u n g e m y p e r s o n a l h e r o , w h i l e c o n c l u d i n g w i t h this essay
g r a n t s m e s y m m e t r y b y a l l o w i n g t h e b o o k t o close w i t h t h e s a m e
w o n d e r f u l line f r o m D a r w i n that b o t h b e g i n s this essay o n the o p e n i n g slice o f b r e a d a n d s e r v e s a s the e p i g r a p h i c q u o t e f o r the m e a t o f
this b o o k , t h e t e x t of The Mismeasure of Man. O n e o t h e r e s s a y — T h e
New Yorker r e v i e w of The Bell Curve—has b e e n r e p r i n t e d , in collections q u i c k l y p u b l i s h e d i n r e s p o n s e t o M u r r a y a n d H e r r n s t e i n ' s
b o o k . T h e o t h e r essays h a v e n e v e r b e e n a n t h o l o g i z e d b e f o r e , a n d I
p u r p o s e l y left t h e m o u t of my n e x t collection to a p p e a r , Dinosaur in
a Haystack.
T h i s subject o f b i o d e t e r m i n i s m has a l o n g , c o m p l e x , a n d c o n t e n tious history. W e c a n easily g e t lost i n t h e m i n u t i a e o f abstract academic arguments. B u t we must never forget the h u m a n m e a n i n g of
lives d i m i n i s h e d b y t h e s e false a r g u m e n t s — a n d w e m u s t , p r i m a r i l y
f o r this r e a s o n , n e v e r f l a g i n o u r r e s o l v e t o e x p o s e t h e fallacies o f
science m i s u s e d f o r a l i e n social p u r p o s e s . S o let m e close with t h e
o p e r a t i v e p a r a g r a p h of The Mismeasure of Man: " W e pass t h r o u g h
this w o r l d b u t o n c e . F e w t r a g e d i e s c a n b e m o r e e x t e n s i v e t h a n t h e
s t u n t i n g o f life, few injustices d e e p e r t h a n t h e d e n i a l o f a n o p p o r t u nity t o strive o r e v e n t o h o p e , b y a limit i m p o s e d f r o m w i t h o u t , b u t
falsely i d e n t i f i e d as l y i n g w i t h i n . "
ONE
Introduction
CITIZENS OF T H E REPUBLIC, S o c r a t e s a d v i s e d , s h o u l d be e d u c a t e d a n d
a s s i g n e d b y m e r i t t o t h r e e classes: r u l e r s , a u x i l i a r i e s , a n d craftsm e n . A stable society d e m a n d s that t h e s e r a n k s b e h o n o r e d a n d
that citizens a c c e p t t h e status c o n f e r r e d u p o n t h e m . B u t h o w c a n
this a c q u i e s c e n c e be s e c u r e d ? S o c r a t e s , u n a b l e to d e v i s e a logical
a r g u m e n t , fabricates a m y t h . W i t h s o m e e m b a r r a s s m e n t , h e tells
Glaucon:
I will speak, although I really know not how to look you in the face, or in
what words to utter the audacious fiction. . . . T h e y [the citizens] are to be
told that their youth was a dream, and the education and training which
they received from us, an appearance only; in reality during all that time
they were being formed and fed in the womb of the earth. . . .
Glaucon, o v e r w h e l m e d , exclaims: " Y o u had g o o d reason to be
a s h a m e d o f t h e lie w h i c h y o u w e r e g o i n g t o tell." " T r u e , " r e p l i e d
S o c r a t e s , " b u t t h e r e i s m o r e c o m i n g ; I h a v e o n l y told y o u half."
Citizens, we shall say to them in our tale, you are brothers, yet God has
framed you differently. Some of you have the power of command, and in
the composition of these he has mingled gold, wherefore also they have
the greatest honor; others he has made of silver, to be auxiliaries; others
again who are to be husbandmen and craftsmen he has composed of brass
and iron; and the species will generally be preserved in the children. . . .
An oracle says that when a man of brass or iron guards the State, it will be
destroyed. Such is the tale; is there any possibility of making our citizens
believe in it?
Glaucon replies: " N o t in the present generation; there is no way of
a c c o m p l i s h i n g this; b u t their sons m a y b e m a d e t o b e l i e v e i n t h e
t a l e , a n d t h e i r son's s o n s , a n d posterity a f t e r t h e m . "
5
2
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G l a u c o n h a d u t t e r e d a p r o p h e s y . T h e s a m e tale, i n d i f f e r e n t
v e r s i o n s , has b e e n p r o m u l g a t e d a n d b e l i e v e d e v e r since. T h e j u s tification for r a n k i n g g r o u p s b y i n b o r n w o r t h has v a r i e d with the
tides o f W e s t e r n history. Plato relied u p o n dialectic, t h e C h u r c h
u p o n d o g m a . F o r t h e past two c e n t u r i e s , scientific claims h a v e
b e c o m e the p r i m a r y a g e n t f o r v a l i d a t i n g Plato's m y t h .
T h i s b o o k i s a b o u t t h e scientific v e r s i o n o f Plato's tale. T h e g e n eral a r g u m e n t m a y be called biological determinism. It h o l d s that
s h a r e d b e h a v i o r a l n o r m s , a n d the social a n d e c o n o m i c d i f f e r e n c e s
b e t w e e n h u m a n g r o u p s — p r i m a r i l y races, classes, a n d s e x e s — a r i s e
f r o m i n h e r i t e d , i n b o r n distinctions a n d that society, in this s e n s e , is
a n a c c u r a t e reflection o f b i o l o g y . T h i s b o o k discusses, i n historical
p e r s p e c t i v e , a p r i n c i p a l t h e m e within biological d e t e r m i n i s m : t h e
claim that w o r t h can be a s s i g n e d to i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s by measuring intelligence as a single quantity. T w o m a j o r sources of data h a v e
s u p p o r t e d this t h e m e : c r a n i o m e t r y (or m e a s u r e m e n t o f the skull)
a n d certain styles o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l testing.
Metals h a v e c e d e d t o g e n e s ( t h o u g h w e retain a n e t y m o l o g i c a l
v e s t i g e of Plato's tale in s p e a k i n g of p e o p l e ' s w o r t h i n e s s as their
" m e t t l e " ) . B u t t h e basic a r g u m e n t has n o t c h a n g e d : that social a n d
e c o n o m i c roles a c c u r a t e l y reflect t h e i n n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p e o p l e .
O n e aspect o f the intellectual strategy has a l t e r e d , h o w e v e r . Socrates k n e w that he was telling a lie.
D e t e r m i n i s t s h a v e o f t e n i n v o k e d the traditional p r e s t i g e o f scie n c e as objective k n o w l e d g e , f r e e f r o m social a n d political taint.
T h e y p o r t r a y t h e m s e l v e s a s p u r v e y o r s o f h a r s h truth a n d their
o p p o n e n t s a s sentimentalists, i d e o l o g u e s , a n d wishful t h i n k e r s .
L o u i s A g a s s i z ( 1 8 5 0 , p . 1 1 1 ) , d e f e n d i n g his a s s i g n m e n t o f blacks t o
a s e p a r a t e species, w r o t e : " N a t u r a l i s t s h a v e a r i g h t to c o n s i d e r the
q u e s t i o n s g r o w i n g o u t o f m e n ' s physical relations a s m e r e l y scientific q u e s t i o n s , a n d to investigate t h e m w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e to e i t h e r
politics o r r e l i g i o n . " C a r l C . B r i g h a m ( 1 9 2 3 ) , a r g u i n g f o r the e x c l u sion o f s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s w h o h a d
s c o r e d p o o r l y o n s u p p o s e d tests o f i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e stated: " T h e
steps that s h o u l d b e t a k e n t o p r e s e r v e o r i n c r e a s e o u r p r e s e n t intellectual capacity m u s t o f c o u r s e b e dictated b y science a n d n o t b y
political e x p e d i e n c y . " A n d C y r i l B u r t , i n v o k i n g f a k e d data c o m piled b y t h e n o n e x i s t e n t Ms. C o n w a y , c o m p l a i n e d that d o u b t s
about the genetic foundation of IQ "appear to be based rather on
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t h e social ideals o r t h e subjective p r e f e r e n c e s o f t h e critics t h a n o n
any first-hand examination of the evidence supporting the o p p o site v i e w " (in C o n w a y , 1 9 5 9 , p . 1 5 ) .
S i n c e b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m possesses s u c h e v i d e n t utility f o r
g r o u p s i n p o w e r , o n e m i g h t b e e x c u s e d f o r s u s p e c t i n g that i t also
arises in a political c o n t e x t , d e s p i t e t h e d e n i a l s q u o t e d a b o v e . A f t e r
all, i f the status q u o i s a n e x t e n s i o n o f n a t u r e , t h e n a n y m a j o r
c h a n g e , i f possible a t all, m u s t inflict a n e n o r m o u s c o s t — p s y c h o l o g ical f o r i n d i v i d u a l s , o r e c o n o m i c f o r s o c i e t y — i n f o r c i n g p e o p l e into
u n n a t u r a l a r r a n g e m e n t s . In his e p o c h a l b o o k , An American Dilemma
( 1 9 4 4 ) , S w e d i s h sociologist G u n n a r M y r d a l d i s c u s s e d t h e t h r u s t o f
biological a n d m e d i c a l a r g u m e n t s a b o u t h u m a n n a t u r e : " T h e y
h a v e b e e n associated i n A m e r i c a , a s i n t h e rest o f t h e w o r l d , with
conservative and even reactionary ideologies. U n d e r their long
h e g e m o n y , t h e r e has b e e n a t e n d e n c y t o a s s u m e b i o l o g i c a l causation w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n , a n d t o a c c e p t social e x p l a n a t i o n s only u n d e r
t h e d u r e s s o f a siege o f irresistible e v i d e n c e . I n political q u e s t i o n s ,
this t e n d e n c y f a v o r e d a d o - n o t h i n g policy." O r , as C o n d o r c e t said
m o r e succinctly a l o n g time a g o : they " m a k e n a t u r e h e r s e l f a n
a c c o m p l i c e i n t h e c r i m e o f political i n e q u a l i t y . "
T h i s b o o k seeks t o d e m o n s t r a t e b o t h t h e scientific w e a k n e s s e s
a n d political c o n t e x t s o f d e t e r m i n i s t a r g u m e n t s . E v e n so, I d o n o t
i n t e n d t o c o n t r a s t evil d e t e r m i n i s t s w h o stray f r o m t h e p a t h o f scientific objectivity w i t h e n l i g h t e n e d a n t i d e t e r m i n i s t s w h o a p p r o a c h
d a t a with a n o p e n m i n d a n d t h e r e f o r e see t r u t h . R a t h e r , I criticize
t h e m y t h that science itself i s a n objective e n t e r p r i s e , d o n e p r o p e r l y
o n l y w h e n scientists c a n s h u c k t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e i r c u l t u r e a n d
v i e w t h e w o r l d as it really is.
A m o n g scientists, f e w c o n s c i o u s i d e o l o g u e s h a v e e n t e r e d these
d e b a t e s o n e i t h e r side. Scientists n e e d n ' t b e c o m e e x p l i c i t a p o l o g i s t s
f o r t h e i r class o r c u l t u r e i n o r d e r t o reflect t h e s e p e r v a s i v e aspects
o f life. M y m e s s a g e i s n o t that b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s t s w e r e b a d scientists o r e v e n that t h e y w e r e a l w a y s w r o n g . R a t h e r , I b e l i e v e that
science m u s t be u n d e r s t o o d as a social p h e n o m e n o n , a g u t s y ,
h u m a n e n t e r p r i s e , n o t t h e w o r k o f r o b o t s p r o g r a m e d t o collect
p u r e i n f o r m a t i o n . I also p r e s e n t this v i e w as an u p b e a t f o r s c i e n c e ,
n o t as a g l o o m y e p i t a p h f o r a n o b l e h o p e sacrificed on t h e altar of
h u m a n limitations.
S c i e n c e , since p e o p l e m u s t do it, is a socially e m b e d d e d activity.
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I t p r o g r e s s e s b y h u n c h , vision, a n d i n t u i t i o n . M u c h o f its c h a n g e
t h r o u g h time d o e s n o t r e c o r d a c l o s e r a p p r o a c h t o a b s o l u t e t r u t h ,
b u t t h e a l t e r a t i o n of c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s that i n f l u e n c e it so s t r o n g l y .
Facts a r e n o t p u r e a n d u n s u l l i e d bits o f i n f o r m a t i o n ; c u l t u r e also
i n f l u e n c e s w h a t w e see a n d h o w w e see it. T h e o r i e s , m o r e o v e r , a r e
n o t i n e x o r a b l e i n d u c t i o n s f r o m facts. T h e m o s t c r e a t i v e t h e o r i e s
a r e o f t e n i m a g i n a t i v e visions i m p o s e d u p o n facts; t h e s o u r c e o f
i m a g i n a t i o n is also s t r o n g l y c u l t u r a l .
T h i s a r g u m e n t , a l t h o u g h still a n a t h e m a t o m a n y p r a c t i c i n g scientists, w o u l d , I t h i n k , b e a c c e p t e d b y n e a r l y e v e r y h i s t o r i a n o f
science. In a d v a n c i n g it, h o w e v e r , I do n o t ally m y s e l f with an
o v e r e x t e n s i o n n o w p o p u l a r i n s o m e historical circles: t h e p u r e l y
relativistic claim that scientific c h a n g e o n l y reflects t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n
of social c o n t e x t s , that t r u t h is a m e a n i n g l e s s n o t i o n o u t s i d e cult u r a l a s s u m p t i o n s , a n d that science c a n t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e n o
e n d u r i n g a n s w e r s . A s a p r a c t i c i n g scientist, I s h a r e t h e c r e d o o f m y
c o l l e a g u e s : I b e l i e v e that a f a c t u a l reality exists a n d t h a t s c i e n c e ,
t h o u g h o f t e n i n a n o b t u s e a n d e r r a t i c m a n n e r , c a n l e a r n a b o u t it.
G a l i l e o was n o t s h o w n t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f t o r t u r e i n a n abstract
debate about lunar motion. He h a d threatened the Church's conv e n t i o n a l a r g u m e n t f o r social a n d d o c t r i n a l stability: t h e static
w o r l d o r d e r with planets c i r c l i n g a b o u t a c e n t r a l e a r t h , priests s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e P o p e a n d serfs t o t h e i r l o r d . B u t t h e C h u r c h s o o n
m a d e its p e a c e with Galileo's c o s m o l o g y . T h e y h a d n o c h o i c e ; t h e
e a r t h really d o e s r e v o l v e a b o u t t h e s u n .
Y e t t h e h i s t o r y o f m a n y scientific subjects i s virtually f r e e f r o m
s u c h c o n s t r a i n t s o f fact f o r t w o m a j o r r e a s o n s . First, s o m e topics
a r e i n v e s t e d w i t h e n o r m o u s social i m p o r t a n c e b u t blessed with v e r y
little reliable i n f o r m a t i o n . W h e n t h e ratio o f d a t a t o social i m p a c t
is so low, a h i s t o r y of scientific a t t i t u d e s m a y be little m o r e t h a n an
o b l i q u e r e c o r d o f social c h a n g e . T h e history o f scientific v i e w s o n
r a c e , f o r e x a m p l e , serves a s a m i r r o r o f social m o v e m e n t s ( P r o v i n e ,
1 9 7 3 ) . T h i s m i r r o r reflects i n g o o d times a n d b a d , i n p e r i o d s o f
b e l i e f i n equality a n d i n eras o f r a m p a n t r a c i s m . T h e d e a t h k n e l l
o f t h e o l d e u g e n i c s i n A m e r i c a was s o u n d e d m o r e b y H i t l e r ' s p a r ticular u s e o f o n c e - f a v o r e d a r g u m e n t s f o r sterilization a n d racial
purification than by advances in genetic knowledge.
S e c o n d , m a n y q u e s t i o n s a r e f o r m u l a t e d b y scientists i n s u c h a
restricted way that a n y l e g i t i m a t e a n s w e r c a n o n l y v a l i d a t e a social
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p r e f e r e n c e . M u c h o f t h e d e b a t e o n racial d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e n t a l
w o r t h , f o r e x a m p l e , p r o c e e d e d u p o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n that intellig e n c e is a t h i n g in the h e a d . U n t i l this n o t i o n was s w e p t a s i d e , no
a m o u n t of data could dislodge a strong Western tradition for
o r d e r i n g r e l a t e d i t e m s into a p r o g r e s s i v e c h a i n o f b e i n g .
S c i e n c e c a n n o t e s c a p e its c u r i o u s dialectic. E m b e d d e d i n surr o u n d i n g culture, it can, nonetheless, be a powerful agent for quest i o n i n g a n d e v e n o v e r t u r n i n g t h e a s s u m p t i o n s that n u r t u r e it.
S c i e n c e c a n p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n t o r e d u c e t h e ratio o f d a t a t o
social i m p o r t a n c e . Scientists c a n s t r u g g l e t o identify t h e c u l t u r a l
a s s u m p t i o n s o f t h e i r t r a d e a n d t o ask h o w a n s w e r s m i g h t b e f o r m u l a t e d u n d e r d i f f e r e n t assertions. Scientists c a n p r o p o s e c r e a t i v e
t h e o r i e s that f o r c e startled c o l l e a g u e s t o c o n f r o n t u n q u e s t i o n e d
p r o c e d u r e s . B u t science's p o t e n t i a l a s a n i n s t r u m e n t f o r i d e n t i f y i n g
t h e c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t s u p o n it c a n n o t be fully r e a l i z e d u n t i l scientists g i v e u p t h e twin m y t h s o f objectivity a n d i n e x o r a b l e m a r c h
t o w a r d t r u t h . O n e m u s t , i n d e e d , locate the b e a m i n o n e ' s o w n e y e
before interpreting correctly the pervasive motes in everybody
else's. T h e b e a m s c a n t h e n b e c o m e facilitators, r a t h e r t h a n i m p e d iments.
G u n n a r M y r d a l ( 1 9 4 4 ) c a p t u r e d b o t h sides o f this dialectic
w h e n he wrote:
A handful of social and biological scientists over the last 50 years have
gradually forced informed people to give up s o m e of the more blatant of
our biological errors. But there must be still other countless errors of the
same sort that no living man can yet detect, because of the fog within which
our type of Western culture envelops us. Cultural influences have set up
the assumptions about the mind, the body, and the universe with which we
begin; pose the questions we ask; influence the facts we seek; determine
the interpretation we give these facts; and direct our reaction to these
interpretations and conclusions.
B i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m is too l a r g e a subject f o r o n e m a n a n d
o n e b o o k — f o r i t t o u c h e s virtually e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
b e t w e e n b i o l o g y a n d society since the d a w n o f m o d e r n science. I
have therefore confined myself to o n e central and manageable
a r g u m e n t i n t h e edifice o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m — a n a r g u m e n t i n
t w o historical c h a p t e r s , b a s e d o n t w o d e e p fallacies, a n d c a r r i e d
f o r t h i n o n e c o m m o n style.
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T h e a r g u m e n t b e g i n s w i t h o n e o f t h e fallacies—reification, o r
o u r t e n d e n c y t o c o n v e r t abstract c o n c e p t s i n t o entities ( f r o m t h e
L a t i n res, o r t h i n g ) . W e r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m e n t a l i t y i n
o u r lives a n d wish t o c h a r a c t e r i z e it, i n p a r t s o that w e c a n m a k e
t h e divisions a n d distinctions a m o n g p e o p l e that o u r c u l t u r a l a n d
political systems dictate. W e t h e r e f o r e g i v e t h e w o r d " i n t e l l i g e n c e "
t o this w o n d r o u s l y c o m p l e x a n d m u l t i f a c e t e d set o f h u m a n c a p a bilities. T h i s s h o r t h a n d s y m b o l i s t h e n reified a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e
a c h i e v e s its d u b i o u s status as a u n i t a r y t h i n g .
O n c e i n t e l l i g e n c e b e c o m e s a n entity, s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s o f
s c i e n c e virtually dictate that a l o c a t i o n a n d physical s u b s t r a t e be
s o u g h t f o r it. S i n c e t h e b r a i n is t h e seat of m e n t a l i t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e
must reside there.
W e n o w e n c o u n t e r t h e s e c o n d fallacy—ranking, o r o u r p r o p e n s i t y f o r o r d e r i n g c o m p l e x v a r i a t i o n as a g r a d u a l a s c e n d i n g
scale. M e t a p h o r s o f p r o g r e s s a n d g r a d u a l i s m h a v e b e e n a m o n g t h e
m o s t p e r v a s i v e i n W e s t e r n t h o u g h t — s e e L o v e j o y ' s classic essay
( 1 9 3 6 ) o n the g r e a t c h a i n o f b e i n g o r B u r y ' s f a m o u s t r e a t m e n t
(1920) o f t h e i d e a o f p r o g r e s s . T h e i r social utility s h o u l d b e e v i d e n t
i n t h e f o l l o w i n g a d v i c e f r o m B o o k e r T . W a s h i n g t o n ( 1 9 0 4 , p . 245)
t o black A m e r i c a :
For my race, o n e of its dangers is that it may grow impatient and feel that
it can get upon its feet by artificial and superficial efforts rather than by
the slower but surer process which means o n e step at a time through all
the constructive grades of industrial, mental, moral and social development which all races have had to follow that have become i n d e p e n d e n t
and strong.
B u t r a n k i n g r e q u i r e s a c r i t e r i o n f o r a s s i g n i n g all i n d i v i d u a l s to
their p r o p e r status i n the single series. A n d w h a t b e t t e r c r i t e r i o n
t h a n a n objective n u m b e r ? T h u s , t h e c o m m o n style e m b o d y i n g
b o t h fallacies o f t h o u g h t h a s b e e n q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a s a single n u m b e r f o r e a c h p e r s o n . * T h i s
b o o k , t h e n , is a b o u t t h e a b s t r a c t i o n of i n t e l l i g e n c e as a single entity,
its l o c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e b r a i n , its q u a n t i f i c a t i o n as o n e n u m b e r f o r
*Peter Medawar (1977, p. 13) has presented other interesting examples of "the
illusion embodied in the ambition to attach a single number valuation to complex
quantities"—for example, the attempts made by demographers to seek causes for
trends in population in a single measure of "reproductive prowess," or the desire of
soil scientists to abstract the "quality" of a soil as a single number.
INTRODUCTION
57
each individual, a n d the use of these numbers to rank people in a
single series o f w o r t h i n e s s , i n v a r i a b l y t o f i n d that o p p r e s s e d a n d
d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s — r a c e s , classes, o r s e x e s — a r e i n n a t e l y i n f e r i o r a n d d e s e r v e t h e i r status. I n s h o r t , this b o o k i s a b o u t t h e Mismeasure of Man.*
D i f f e r e n t a r g u m e n t s f o r r a n k i n g h a v e c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e last
t w o c e n t u r i e s . C r a n i o m e t r y was t h e l e a d i n g n u m e r i c a l science o f
b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . I discuss
(Chapter 2) the most extensive data compiled before Darwin to
r a n k races b y t h e sizes o f their b r a i n s — t h e skull collection o f Phila d e l p h i a p h y s i c i a n S a m u e l G e o r g e M o r t o n . C h a p t e r 3 treats t h e
f l o w e r i n g of c r a n i o m e t r y as a r i g o r o u s a n d r e s p e c t a b l e science in
t h e s c h o o l o f P a u l B r o c a i n late n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e . C h a p t e r 4 t h e n u n d e r s c o r e s the i m p a c t o f q u a n t i f i e d a p p r o a c h e s t o
h u m a n a n a t o m y i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y biological d e t e r m i n i s m . I t
p r e s e n t s t w o case studies: the t h e o r y o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n a s e v o l u t i o n ' s
primary criterion for unilinear ranking of h u m a n g r o u p s , a n d the
a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r as a b i o l o g i c a l atavism
r e f l e c t e d i n t h e a p i s h m o r p h o l o g y o f m u r d e r e r s a n d o t h e r miscreants.
W h a t c r a n i o m e t r y was f o r t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i n t e l l i g e n c e
t e s t i n g h a s b e c o m e f o r t h e t w e n t i e t h , w h e n i t a s s u m e s that intellig e n c e (or at least a d o m i n a n t p a r t of it) is a single, i n n a t e , h e r i t a b l e ,
a n d m e a s u r a b l e t h i n g . I discuss t h e t w o c o m p o n e n t s o f this invalid
a p p r o a c h to m e n t a l testing in C h a p t e r 5 (the h e r e d i t a r i a n v e r s i o n
o f t h e I Q scale a s a n A m e r i c a n p r o d u c t ) a n d C h a p t e r 6 (the a r g u m e n t f o r r e i f y i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e as a single entity by t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l
t e c h n i q u e of f a c t o r analysis). F a c t o r analysis is a difficult m a t h e matical subject a l m o s t invariably o m i t t e d f r o m d o c u m e n t s w r i t t e n
f o r n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l s . Y e t I b e l i e v e that it c a n be m a d e accessible
a n d e x p l a i n e d i n a pictorial a n d n o n n u m e r i c a l w a y . T h e m a t e r i a l
of C h a p t e r 6 is still n o t "easy r e a d i n g , " b u t I c o u l d n o t leave it o u t —
f o r t h e history o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t i n g c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t
g r a s p i n g t h e f a c t o r analytic a r g u m e n t a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g its d e e p
* Following strictures of the argument outlined above, I do not treat all theories of
craniometries (I omit phrenology, for example, because it did not reify intelligence
as a single entity but sought multiple organs with the brain). Likewise, I exclude
many important and often quantified styles of determinism that did not seek to
measure intelligence as a property of the brain—for example, most of eugenics.
5*
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
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c o n c e p t u a l fallacy. T h e g r e a t I Q d e b a t e m a k e s n o s e n s e w i t h o u t
this c o n v e n t i o n a l l y m i s s i n g subject.
I h a v e tried to treat t h e s e subjects in an u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a y by
u s i n g a m e t h o d that falls o u t s i d e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p u r v i e w o f e i t h e r
a scientist or h i s t o r i a n o p e r a t i n g a l o n e . H i s t o r i a n s r a r e l y treat t h e
q u a n t i t a t i v e details in sets of p r i m a r y d a t a . T h e y w r i t e , as I c a n n o t
a d e q u a t e l y , a b o u t social c o n t e x t , b i o g r a p h y , o r g e n e r a l intellectual
h i s t o r y . Scientists a r e u s e d t o a n a l y z i n g t h e d a t a o f t h e i r p e e r s , b u t
few a r e sufficiently i n t e r e s t e d i n history t o a p p l y t h e m e t h o d t o
their p r e d e c e s s o r s . T h u s , m a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e w r i t t e n a b o u t B r o c a ' s
i m p a c t , b u t n o o n e has r e c a l c u l a t e d his s u m s .
I h a v e f o c u s e d u p o n t h e r e a n a l y s i s of classical d a t a sets in c r a niometry and intelligence testing for two reasons b e y o n d my incompetence to p r o c e e d in any other fruitful way and my desire to do
s o m e t h i n g a bit d i f f e r e n t . I b e l i e v e , first of all, that S a t a n also
d w e l l s with G o d i n t h e details. I f t h e c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s u p o n science can be detected in the h u m d r u m minutiae of a supposedly
o b j e c t i v e , a l m o s t a u t o m a t i c q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , t h e n t h e status o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m as a social p r e j u d i c e reflected by scientists in
their own particular m e d i u m seems secure.
T h e s e c o n d r e a s o n f o r a n a l y z i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a arises f r o m
t h e special status that n u m b e r s enjoy. T h e m y s t i q u e o f science p r o claims that n u m b e r s a r e t h e u l t i m a t e test o f objectivity. S u r e l y w e
c a n w e i g h a b r a i n o r s c o r e a n i n t e l l i g e n c e test w i t h o u t r e c o r d i n g
o u r social p r e f e r e n c e s . I f r a n k s a r e d i s p l a y e d i n h a r d n u m b e r s
obtained by rigorous a n d standardized procedures, then they must
reflect reality, e v e n i f t h e y c o n f i r m w h a t w e w a n t e d t o b e l i e v e f r o m
the start. A n t i d e t e r m i n i s t s h a v e u n d e r s t o o d t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r e s t i g e
o f n u m b e r s a n d t h e special difficulty that their r e f u t a t i o n entails.
L e o n c e M a n o u v r i e r ( 1 9 0 3 , p . 406), t h e n o n d e t e r m i n i s t black s h e e p
o f B r o c a ' s f o l d , a n d a f i n e statistician himself, w r o t e o f B r o c a ' s d a t a
o n t h e small b r a i n s o f w o m e n :
W o m e n displayed their talents and their diplomas. T h e y also invoked philosophical authorities. But they were o p p o s e d by numbers u n k n o w n to Condorcet or to J o h n Stuart Mill. T h e s e numbers fell u p o n poor w o m e n like
a sledge h a m m e r , and they were accompanied by commentaries and sarcasms m o r e ferocious than the most misogynist imprecations of certain
church fathers. T h e theologians had asked if w o m e n had a soul. Several
centuries later, s o m e scientists were ready to refuse them a h u m a n intelligence.
I N T R O D U C T I O N
59
I f — a s I b e l i e v e I h a v e s h o w n — q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a a r e as subject to
c u l t u r a l c o n s t r a i n t a s a n y o t h e r a s p e c t o f s c i e n c e , t h e n they h a v e
n o special c l a i m u p o n f i n a l t r u t h .
In r e a n a l y z i n g t h e s e classical d a t a sets, I h a v e c o n t i n u a l l y
l o c a t e d a p r i o r i p r e j u d i c e , l e a d i n g scientists to invalid c o n c l u s i o n s
f r o m a d e q u a t e d a t a , o r d i s t o r t i n g t h e g a t h e r i n g o f d a t a itself. I n a
few cases—Cyril Burt's d o c u m e n t e d fabrication o f data-on I Q o f
i d e n t i c a l twins, a n d m y d i s c o v e r y that G o d d a r d a l t e r e d p h o t o graphs to suggest mental retardation in the K a l l i k a k s — w e can
specify c o n s c i o u s f r a u d a s t h e c a u s e o f i n s e r t e d social p r e j u d i c e .
B u t f r a u d i s n o t historically i n t e r e s t i n g e x c e p t a s g o s s i p b e c a u s e t h e
p e r p e t r a t o r s k n o w w h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g a n d t h e unconscious biases
that r e c o r d subtle a n d i n e s c a p a b l e c o n s t r a i n t s o f c u l t u r e a r e n o t
illustrated. I n m o s t cases d i s c u s s e d i n this b o o k , w e c a n b e fairly
c e r t a i n that b i a s e s — t h o u g h o f t e n e x p r e s s e d a s e g r e g i o u s l y a s i n
cases o f c o n s c i o u s f r a u d — w e r e u n k n o w i n g l y influential a n d that
scientists b e l i e v e d t h e y w e r e p u r s u i n g u n s u l l i e d t r u t h .
S i n c e m a n y o f t h e cases p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e s o p a t e n t , e v e n risible, by today's s t a n d a r d s , I wish to e m p h a s i z e that I h a v e n o t t a k e n
c h e a p shots a t m a r g i n a l f i g u r e s (with the possible e x c e p t i o n s o f M r .
B e a n in C h a p t e r 3, w h o m I u s e as a c u r t a i n - r a i s e r to illustrate a
general point, and Mr. Cartwright in C h a p t e r 2, whose statements
a r e t o o p r e c i o u s t o e x c l u d e ) . C h e a p shots c o m e i n thick catal o g u e s — f r o m a eugenicist n a m e d W. D. M c K i m , Ph.D. (1900), w h o
t h o u g h t that all n o c t u r n a l h o u s e b r e a k e r s s h o u l d b e d i s p a t c h e d
with c a r b o n i c a c i d g a s , t o a c e r t a i n E n g l i s h p r o f e s s o r w h o t o u r e d
t h e U n i t e d States d u r i n g t h e late n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , o f f e r i n g t h e
u n s o l i c i t e d a d v i c e that w e m i g h t solve o u r racial p r o b l e m s i f e v e r y
I r i s h m a n killed a N e g r o a n d g o t h a n g e d f o r it.* C h e a p shots a r e
also g o s s i p , n o t history; t h e y a r e e p h e m e r a l a n d u n i n f l u e n t i a l ,
h o w e v e r a m u s i n g . I h a v e f o c u s e d u p o n t h e l e a d i n g a n d m o s t influential scientists o f their times a n d h a v e a n a l y z e d t h e i r m a j o r w o r k s .
I h a v e e n j o y e d p l a y i n g d e t e c t i v e in m o s t of t h e case studies that
m a k e u p this b o o k : f i n d i n g p a s s a g e s e x p u r g a t e d w i t h o u t c o m m e n t
* Also too precious to exclude is my favorite modern invocation of biological determinism as an excuse for dubious behavior. Bill Lee, baseball's self-styled philosopher, justifying the beanball (New York Times, 24 July 1976): "I read a book in college
called 'Territorial Imperative.' A fellow always has to protect his master's home
much stronger than anything down the street; My territory is down and away from
the hitters. If they're going out there and getting the ball, I'll have to come in close."
6o
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
i n p u b l i s h e d letters, r e c a l c u l a t i n g s u m s t o locate e r r o r s that s u p port expectations, discovering h o w adequate data can be filtered
t h r o u g h p r e j u d i c e s t o p r e d e t e r m i n e d results, e v e n g i v i n g t h e
A r m y M e n t a l T e s t f o r illiterates t o m y o w n s t u d e n t s with interesti n g results. B u t I trust that w h a t e v e r zeal a n y i n v e s t i g a t o r m u s t
invest i n details h a s not o b s c u r e d t h e g e n e r a l m e s s a g e : that d e t e r minist a r g u m e n t s f o r r a n k i n g p e o p l e a c c o r d i n g t o a single scale o f
intelligence, no matter now numerically sophisticated, have rec o r d e d little m o r e t h a n social p r e j u d i c e — a n d that w e l e a r n s o m e t h i n g h o p e f u l a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f science i n p u r s u i n g s u c h a n
analysis.
If this subject w e r e m e r e l y a scholar's abstract c o n c e r n , I c o u l d
a p p r o a c h i t i n m o r e m e a s u r e d t o n e . B u t f e w b i o l o g i c a l subjects
h a v e h a d a m o r e d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e u p o n millions o f lives. B i o l o g i c a l
d e t e r m i n i s m is, in its e s s e n c e , a theory of limits. It takes t h e c u r r e n t
status o f g r o u p s a s a m e a s u r e o f w h e r e they s h o u l d a n d m u s t b e
( e v e n w h i l e it allows s o m e r a r e i n d i v i d u a l s to rise as a c o n s e q u e n c e
of their fortunate biology).
I h a v e said little a b o u t t h e c u r r e n t r e s u r g e n c e of b i o l o g i c a l
d e t e r m i n i s m b e c a u s e its i n d i v i d u a l claims a r e usually s o e p h e m e r a l
that t h e i r r e f u t a t i o n b e l o n g s i n a m a g a z i n e article o r n e w s p a p e r
story. W h o e v e n r e m e m b e r s t h e h o t topics o f ten y e a r s a g o : S h o c k ley's p r o p o s a l s f o r r e i m b u r s i n g v o l u n t a r i l y sterilized i n d i v i d u a l s
a c c o r d i n g t o their n u m b e r o f I Q p o i n t s b e l o w t o o , the g r e a t X Y Y
d e b a t e , o r t h e a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n u r b a n riots b y d i s e a s e d n e u r o l o g y
o f r i o t e r s . I t h o u g h t that i t w o u l d b e m o r e v a l u a b l e a n d i n t e r e s t i n g
t o e x a m i n e t h e o r i g i n a l s o u r c e s o f the a r g u m e n t s that still surr o u n d us. T h e s e , a t least, display g r e a t a n d e n l i g h t e n i n g e r r o r s .
B u t I was i n s p i r e d to w r i t e this b o o k b e c a u s e b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n ism is rising in p o p u l a r i t y a g a i n , as it always d o e s in times of political r e t r e n c h m e n t . T h e cocktail p a r t y circuit has b e e n b u z z i n g with
its u s u a l p r o f u n d i t y a b o u t i n n a t e a g g r e s s i o n , sex r o l e s , a n d t h e
n a k e d a p e . Millions o f p e o p l e a r e n o w s u s p e c t i n g that their social
p r e j u d i c e s a r e scientific facts a f t e r all. Y e t t h e s e latent p r e j u d i c e s
t h e m s e l v e s , n o t f r e s h d a t a , are t h e p r i m a r y s o u r c e o f r e n e w e d
attention.
W e pass t h r o u g h this w o r l d b u t o n c e . F e w t r a g e d i e s c a n b e
m o r e e x t e n s i v e t h a n t h e s t u n t i n g o f life, few injustices d e e p e r t h a n
t h e d e n i a l o f a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o strive o r e v e n t o h o p e , b y a limit
I N T R O D U C T I O N
6l
i m p o s e d f r o m w i t h o u t , b u t falsely identified a s l y i n g w i t h i n . C i c e r o
tells t h e story o f Z o p y r u s , w h o c l a i m e d that S o c r a t e s h a d i n b o r n
vices e v i d e n t in his p h y s i o g n o m y . His disciples r e j e c t e d t h e c l a i m ,
b u t S o c r a t e s d e f e n d e d Z o p y r u s a n d stated that h e d i d i n d e e d possess t h e vices, b u t h a d c a n c e l l e d their effects t h r o u g h t h e e x e r c i s e
of reason. We inhabit a world of h u m a n differences and predilections, b u t the e x t r a p o l a t i o n o f t h e s e facts t o t h e o r i e s o f r i g i d limits
is i d e o l o g y .
G e o r g e Eliot well a p p r e c i a t e d t h e special t r a g e d y that b i o l o g i c a l
labeling imposed u p o n m e m b e r s of disadvantaged g r o u p s . She
e x p r e s s e d i t f o r p e o p l e like h e r s e l f — w o m e n o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y talent. I w o u l d apply it m o r e w i d e l y — n o t only to those whose dreams
a r e f l o u t e d b u t also t o t h o s e w h o n e v e r realize that they m a y
d r e a m . B u t I c a n n o t m a t c h h e r p r o s e ( f r o m t h e p r e l u d e t o Middlemarch):
S o m e have felt that these blundering lives are d u e to the inconvenient
indefiniteness with which the S u p r e m e Power has fashioned the natures
of women: if there were o n e level of feminine incompetence as strict as
the ability to count three and no more, the social lot of w o m e n might be
treated with scientific certitude. T h e limits of variation are really much
wider than anyone would imagine from the sameness of women's coiffure
and the favorite love stories in prose and verse. H e r e and there a cygnet is
reared uneasily a m o n g the ducklings in the brown p o n d , and never finds
the living stream in fellowship with its own oary-footed kind. Here and
there is born a Saint Theresa, foundress of nothing, whose loving heartbeats and sobs after an unattained goodness tremble off and are dispersed
a m o n g hindrances instead of centering in some long-recognizable d e e d .
TWO
American Polygeny and
Craniometry before Darwin
Blacks and Indians as Separate,
Inferior Species
Order is Heaven's first law; and, this confessed,
Some are, and must be, greater than the rest.
— ALEXANDER POPE, Essay on Man (1733)
APPEALS TO REASON or to t h e n a t u r e of t h e u n i v e r s e h a v e b e e n u s e d
t h r o u g h o u t history to enshrine existing hierarchies as p r o p e r and
inevitable. T h e h i e r a r c h i e s r a r e l y e n d u r e f o r m o r e t h a n a few g e n erations, but the arguments, refurbished for the next r o u n d of
social institutions, cycle endlessly.
T h e c a t a l o g u e o f justifications b a s e d o n n a t u r e t r a v e r s e s a
r a n g e o f possibilities: e l a b o r a t e a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n r u l e r s a n d a
h i e r a r c h y o f s u b o r d i n a t e classes with t h e c e n t r a l e a r t h o f P t o l e m a i c
astronomy and a ranked o r d e r of heavenly bodies circling a r o u n d
it; o r a p p e a l s t o t h e u n i v e r s a l o r d e r o f a " g r e a t c h a i n o f b e i n g , "
r a n g i n g i n a single series f r o m a m o e b a e t o G o d , a n d i n c l u d i n g n e a r
its a p e x a g r a d e d series o f h u m a n races a n d classes. T o q u o t e A l e x ander Pope again:
Without this just gradation, could they be
Subjected, these to those, or all to thee?
From Nature's chain whatever link you strike,
T e n t h , or ten thousandth, breaks the chain alike.
A M E R I C A N
P O L Y G E N Y
A N D
C R A N I O M E T R Y
6
3
T h e h u m b l e s t , a s well a s t h e g r e a t e s t , p l a y t h e i r p a r t i n p r e s e r v i n g
t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f u n i v e r s a l o r d e r ; all o c c u p y t h e i r a p p o i n t e d r o l e s .
T h i s b o o k treats a n a r g u m e n t t h a t , t o m a n y p e o p l e ' s s u r p r i s e ,
s e e m s to be a l a t e c o m e r : b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m , t h e n o t i o n that
p e o p l e a t t h e b o t t o m a r e c o n s t r u c t e d o f intrinsically i n f e r i o r m a t e rial ( p o o r b r a i n s , b a d g e n e s , o r w h a t e v e r ) . P l a t o , a s w e h a v e s e e n ,
c a u t i o u s l y floated this p r o p o s a l in t h e Republic, b u t finally b r a n d e d
it as a lie.
Racial p r e j u d i c e m a y b e a s o l d a s r e c o r d e d h u m a n h i s t o r y , b u t
its b i o l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n i m p o s e d t h e a d d i t i o n a l b u r d e n o f i n t r i n sic i n f e r i o r i t y u p o n d e s p i s e d g r o u p s , a n d p r e c l u d e d r e d e m p t i o n
b y c o n v e r s i o n o r assimilation. T h e "scientific" a r g u m e n t has
f o r m e d a p r i m a r y line o f attack f o r m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y . I n disc u s s i n g t h e first b i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y s u p p o r t e d b y e x t e n s i v e q u a n t i t a tive d a t a — e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c r a n i o m e t r y — I m u s t b e g i n b y
p o s i n g a q u e s t i o n o f causality: d i d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f i n d u c t i v e
science a d d legitimate data to c h a n g e or strengthen a nascent argum e n t f o r racial r a n k i n g ? O r d i d a p r i o r i c o m m i t m e n t t o r a n k i n g
f a s h i o n t h e "scientific" q u e s t i o n s a s k e d a n d e v e n t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d
to s u p p o r t a f o r e o r d a i n e d c o n c l u s i o n ?
A shared context of culture
I n assessing the i m p a c t o f s c i e n c e u p o n e i g h t e e n t h - a n d n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i e w s o f r a c e , w e m u s t first r e c o g n i z e the c u l t u r a l
m i l i e u o f a society w h o s e l e a d e r s a n d intellectuals d i d n o t d o u b t
t h e p r o p r i e t y o f racial r a n k i n g — w i t h I n d i a n s b e l o w w h i t e s , a n d
b l a c k s b e l o w e v e r y b o d y else (Fig. 2.1). U n d e r this u n i v e r s a l
u m b r e l l a , a r g u m e n t s d i d n o t c o n t r a s t e q u a l i t y with i n e q u a l i t y . O n e
g r o u p ) — w e m i g h t call t h e m " h a r d - l i n e r s " — h e l d that b l a c k s w e r e
i n f e r i o r a n d that t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l status j u s t i f i e d e n s l a v e m e n t a n d
colonization. A n o t h e r g r o u p — t h e "soft-liners," if y o u w i l l — a g r e e d
that blacks w e r e i n f e r i o r , b u t h e l d that a p e o p l e ' s r i g h t t o f r e e d o m
d i d n o t d e p e n d u p o n their level o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . " W h a t e v e r b e t h e i r
d e g r e e o f t a l e n t s , " w r o t e T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n , "it i s n o m e a s u r e o f
their rights."
Soft-liners h e l d v a r i o u s a t t i t u d e s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f black disa d v a n t a g e . S o m e a r g u e d that p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n a n d s t a n d a r d o f
life c o u l d " r a i s e " blacks to a w h i t e l e v e l ; o t h e r s a d v o c a t e d p e r m a -
6
4
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
n e n t black i n e p t i t u d e . T h e y also d i s a g r e e d a b o u t t h e biological o r
c u l t u r a l r o o t s o f black i n f e r i o r i t y . Y e t , t h r o u g h o u t the e g a l i t a r i a n
tradition of the E u r o p e a n Enlightenment and the A m e r i c a n revolution, I c a n n o t identify a n y p o p u l a r position r e m o t e l y like t h e " c u l tural r e l a t i v i s m " that p r e v a i l s (at least by lip-service) in liberal circles
t o d a y . T h e n e a r e s t a p p r o a c h i s a c o m m o n a r g u m e n t that black i n f e riority is p u r e l y c u l t u r a l a n d that it c a n be c o m p l e t e l y e r a d i c a t e d by
e d u c a t i o n to a C a u c a s i a n s t a n d a r d .
A l l A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e h e r o e s e m b r a c e d racial a t t i t u d e s that
would embarrass public-school mythmakers. Benjamin Franklin,
w h i l e v i e w i n g t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f blacks a s p u r e l y c u l t u r a l a n d c o m pletely r e m e d i a b l e , n o n e t h e l e s s e x p r e s s e d his h o p e that A m e r i c a
w o u l d b e c o m e a d o m a i n o f w h i t e s , u n d i l u t e d b y less p l e a s i n g c o l o r s .
I could wish their numbers were increased. A n d while we are, as I may call
it, scouring our planet, by clearing America of woods, and so making this
side of our globe reflect a brighter light to the eyes of inhabitants in Mars or
V e n u s , why should we . . . darken its people? Why increase the Sons of
Africa, by planting them in America, where we have so fair an opportunity,
by excluding all blacks and tawneys, of increasing the lovely white and red?*
(Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, 1751).
O t h e r s a m o n g o u r h e r o e s a r g u e d f o r biological inferiority.
T h o m a s J e f f e r s o n w r o t e , albeit tentatively: " I a d v a n c e it, t h e r e f o r e ,
as a s u s p i c i o n o n l y , that t h e b l a c k s , w h e t h e r o r i g i n a l l y a distinct r a c e ,
o r m a d e distinct b y t i m e a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e , a r e i n f e r i o r t o the whites
i n t h e e n d o w m e n t b o t h o f b o d y a n d m i n d " (in Gossett, 1 9 6 5 , p . 44).
L i n c o l n ' s p l e a s u r e a t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f black soldiers i n the U n i o n
a r m y g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d his r e s p e c t f o r f r e e d m e n a n d f o r m e r slaves.
B u t f r e e d o m does not imply biological equality, a n d Lincoln n e v e r
* I have been struck by the frequency of such aesthetic claims as a basis of racial
preference. Although J. F. Blumenbach, the founder of anthropology, had stated
that toads must view other toads as paragons of beauty, many astute intellectuals
never doubted the equation of whiteness with perfection. Franklin at least had the
decency to include the original inhabitants in his future America; but, a century
later, Oliver Wendell Holmes rejoiced in the elimination of Indians on aesthetic
grounds: ". . . and so the red-crayon sketch is rubbed out, and the canvas is ready
for a picture of manhood a little more like God's own image" (in Gossett, 1965,
p. 243).
Greek
Apollo Belvidere
2*1
T h e unilinear scale of h u m a n races and lower relatives according to
Nott and Gliddon, 1868. T h e chimpanzee skull is falsely inflated, and the
N e g r o jaw e x t e n d e d , to give the impression that blacks might even rank
lower than the apes.
66
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O F
M A N
a b a n d o n e d a basic a t t i t u d e , so s t r o n g l y e x p r e s s e d in t h e D o u g l a s
debates (1858):
T h e r e is a physical difference between the white and black races which
I believe will forever forbid the two races living together on terms of social
and political equality. A n d inasmuch as they cannot so live, while they do
remain together there must be the position of superior and inferior, and I
as m u c h as any other man am in favor of having the superior position
assigned to the white race.
Lest w e c h o o s e t o r e g a r d this s t a t e m e n t a s m e r e c a m p a i g n r h e t o r i c ,
I cite this p r i v a t e j o t t i n g , s c r i b b l e d on a f r a g m e n t of p a p e r in 1 8 5 9 :
N e g r o equality! Fudge! H o w long, in the G o v e r n m e n t of a God great
e n o u g h to make and rule the universe, shall there continue knaves to vend,
and fools to quip, so low a piece of d e m a g o g i s m as this (in Sinkler, 1972,
P- 47)I do n o t cite these s t a t e m e n t s in o r d e r to r e l e a s e s k e l e t o n s f r o m
a n c i e n t closets. R a t h e r , I q u o t e t h e m e n w h o h a v e j u s t l y e a r n e d
o u r h i g h e s t r e s p e c t i n o r d e r t o s h o w that w h i t e l e a d e r s o f W e s t e r n
n a t i o n s d i d n o t q u e s t i o n t h e p r o p r i e t y o f racial r a n k i n g d u r i n g the
e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . I n this c o n t e x t , t h e p e r v a s i v e
assent g i v e n b y scientists t o c o n v e n t i o n a l r a n k i n g s a r o s e f r o m
s h a r e d social belief, n o t f r o m objective d a t a g a t h e r e d t o test a n o p e n
q u e s t i o n . Y e t , i n a c u r i o u s case o f r e v e r s e d causality, these p r o n o u n c e m e n t s w e r e r e a d a s i n d e p e n d e n t s u p p o r t f o r t h e political
context.
A l l l e a d i n g scientists f o l l o w e d social c o n v e n t i o n s (Figs. 2.2 a n d
2.3). I n t h e f i r s t f o r m a l d e f i n i t i o n o f h u m a n races i n m o d e r n t a x o n o m i c t e r m s , L i n n a e u s m i x e d c h a r a c t e r w i t h a n a t o m y (Systema naturae, 1 7 5 8 ) . Homo sapiens afer (the A f r i c a n b l a c k ) , he p r o c l a i m e d , is
" r u l e d by c a p r i c e " ; Homo sapiens europaeus is " r u l e d by c u s t o m s . " Of
A f r i c a n w o m e n , he w r o t e : mammae lactantes prolixae—breasts lactate
profusely. T h e men, he a d d e d , are indolent and annoint themselves
with g r e a s e .
T h e t h r e e g r e a t e s t naturalists o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y d i d n o t
h o l d blacks i n h i g h e s t e e m . G e o r g e s C u v i e r , w i d e l y h a i l e d i n F r a n c e
a s the A r i s t o t l e o f his a g e , a n d a f o u n d e r o f g e o l o g y , p a l e o n t o l o g y ,
a n d m o d e r n c o m p a r a t i v e a n a t o m y , r e f e r r e d t o native A f r i c a n s a s
Algerian N e g r o
Saharran N e g r o
Gorilla
2»2
An unsubtle attempt to suggest strong affinity between blacks and
gorillas. From Nott and Gliddon, Types of Mankind, 1854. Nott and Glidd o n c o m m e n t on this figure: "The palpable analogies and dissimilitudes
between an inferior type of mankind and a superior type of monkey
require no comment."
A M E R I C A N
P O L Y G E N Y
A N D
C R A N I O M E T R Y
6
9
" t h e m o s t d e g r a d e d o f h u m a n races, w h o s e f o r m a p p r o a c h e s that
o f t h e beast a n d w h o s e i n t e l l i g e n c e i s n o w h e r e g r e a t e n o u g h t o
a r r i v e a t r e g u l a r g o v e r n m e n t " ( C u v i e r , 1 8 1 2 , p . 105). C h a r l e s L y e l l ,
the c o n v e n t i o n a l f o u n d e r o f m o d e r n g e o l o g y , w r o t e :
T h e brain of the B u s h m a n . . . leads towards the brain of the Simiadae
[monkeys]. This implies a c o n n e x i o n between want of intelligence and
structural assimilation. Each race of Man has its place, like the inferior
animals (in Wilson, 1970, p. 347).
C h a r l e s D a r w i n , t h e k i n d l y liberal a n d p a s s i o n a t e abolitionist,*
wrote about a future time w h e n the g a p between h u m a n and a p e
will i n c r e a s e b y the a n t i c i p a t e d e x t i n c t i o n o f s u c h i n t e r m e d i a t e s a s
chimpanzees and Hottentots.
T h e break will then be rendered wider, for it will intervene between
man in a more civilized state, as we may hope, than the Causasian, and some
ape as low as a babon, instead of as at preent between the negro or Australian and the gorilla [Descent of Man, 1871, p. 201).
E v e n m o r e i n s t r u c t i v e a r e t h e beliefs o f t h o s e few scientists o f t e n
cited i n r e t r o s p e c t a s c u l t u r a l relativisits a n d d e f e n d e r s o f equality.
J . F . B l u m e n b a c h a t t r i b u t e d racial d i f f e r e n c e s t o t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f
climate. H e p r o t e s t e d r a n k i n g s b a s e d o n p r e s u m e d m e n t a l ability
a n d a s s e m b l e d a c o l l e c t i o n of b o o k s w r i t t e n by blacks. N o n e t h e l e s s ,
h e d i d n o t d o u b t that w h i t e p e o p l e set a s t a n d a r d , f r o m w h i c h all
o t h e r races m u s t be v i e w e d as d e p a r t u r e s (see essay 4 at e n d of b o o k
for m o r e information about B l u m e n b a c h ) :
T h e Caucasian must, on every physiological principle, be considered as
the primary or intermediate of these five principal Races. T h e two extremes
into which it has deviated, are on the o n e hand the Mongolian, on the other
the Ethiopian [African blacks] (1825, P- 37)* Darwin wrote, for example, in the Voyage of the Beagle: "Near Rio de Janeiro I lived
opposite to an old lady, who kept screws to crush the fingers of her female slaves. I
have stayed in a house where a young household mulatto, daily and hourly, was
reviled, beaten, and persecuted enough to break the spirit of the lowest animal. I
have seen a little boy, six or seven years old, struck thrice with a horse-whip (before
I could interfere) opn his naked head, for having handed me a glass of water not
quite clean. . . . And these deeds are done and palliated by men, who profess to
love their neighbors as themselves, who believe in God, and pray that his Will be
done on earth! It makes one's blood boil, yet heart tremble, to think that we Englishmen and our American descendants, with their boastful cry of liberty, have
been and are so guilty."
7
o
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
A l e x a n d e r von H u m b o l d t , world traveler, statesman, and greatest p o p u l a r i z e r o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s c i e n c e , w o u l d b e t h e h e r o o f
all m o d e r n e g a l i t a r i a n s w h o seek a n t e c e d e n t s i n history. H e , m o r e
t h a n a n y o t h e r scientist o f his t i m e , a r g u e d f o r c e f u l l y a n d a t l e n g t h
a g a i n s t r a n k i n g o n m e n t a l o r aesthetic g r o u n d s . H e also d r e w political i m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m his c o n v i c t i o n s , a n d c a m p a i g n e d against all
f o r m s o f slavery a n d s u b j u g a t i o n a s i m p e d i m e n t s t o t h e n a t u r a l
s t r i v i n g o f all p e o p l e t o attain m e n t a l e x c e l l e n c e . H e w r o t e i n t h e
m o s t f a m o u s p a s s a g e of his five-volume Cosmos:
Whilst we maintain the unity of the h u m a n species, we at the same time
repel the depressing assumption of superior and inferior races of m e n .
T h e r e are nations more susceptible of cultivation than others—but n o n e in
themselves nobler than others. All are in like d e g r e e designed for freedom
(1849, p. 368).
Y e t even H u m b o l d t invoked innate mental difference to resolve
s o m e d i l e m m a s o f h u m a n history. W h y , h e asks i n t h e s e c o n d volu m e o f Cosmos, d i d the A r a b s e x p l o d e i n c u l t u r e a n d science s o o n
a f t e r t h e rise o f I s l a m , w h i l e S c y t h i a n tribes o f s o u t h e a s t e r n E u r o p e
stuck t o their a n c i e n t w a y s ; f o r b o t h p e o p l e s w e r e n o m a d i c a n d
shared a c o m m o n climate and environment? H u m b o l d t did find
some cultural d i f f e r e n c e s — g r e a t e r contact of A r a b s with surr o u n d i n g u r b a n i z e d c u l t u r e s , f o r e x a m p l e . B u t , i n t h e e n d , h e lab e l e d A r a b s a s a " m o r e h i g h l y g i f t e d r a c e " with g r e a t e r " n a t u r a l
a d a p t a b i l i t y f o r m e n t a l c u l t i v a t i o n " ( 1 8 4 9 , P- 57^)A l f r e d Russel W a l l a c e , c o d i s c o v e r e r o f n a t u r a l selection with
D a r w i n , i s j u s t l y h a i l e d a s a n antiracist. I n d e e d , h e d i d affirm n e a r
equality i n t h e i n n a t e m e n t a l c a p a c i t y o f all p e o p l e s . Y e t , c u r i o u s l y ,
this v e r y b e l i e f led h i m t o a b a n d o n n a t u r a l selection a n d r e t u r n t o
divine creation as an explanation for the h u m a n m i n d — m u c h to
D a r w i n ' s d i s g u s t . N a t u r a l selection, W a l l a c e a r g u e d , c a n o n l y b u i l d
structures immediately useful to animals possessing them. T h e
b r a i n o f s a v a g e s is, p o t e n t i a l l y , a s g o o d a s o u r s . B u t t h e y d o n o t use
i t fully, a s t h e r u d e n e s s a n d i n f e r i o r i t y o f t h e i r c u l t u r e indicates.
S i n c e m o d e r n s a v a g e s a r e m u c h like h u m a n a n c e s t o r s , o u r b r a i n
m u s t h a v e d e v e l o p e d its h i g h e r c a p a c i t i e s l o n g b e f o r e w e p u t t h e m
to a n y use.
A M E R I C A N
P O L Y G E N Y
A N D
C R A N I O M E T R Y
7'
Preevolutionary styles of scientific racism:
monogenism and polygenism
P r e e v o l u t i o n a r y j u s t i f i c a t i o n s f o r racial r a n k i n g p r o c e e d e d i n
two modes. T h e "softer" a r g u m e n t — a g a i n using inappropriate
definitions f r o m m o d e r n p e r s p e c t i v e s — u p h e l d t h e s c r i p t u r a l u n i t y
o f all p e o p l e s i n the single c r e a t i o n o f A d a m a n d E v e . T h i s v i e w was
called monogenism—or o r i g i n f r o m a single s o u r c e . H u m a n races
are a p r o d u c t o f d e g e n e r a t i o n f r o m E d e n ' s p e r f e c t i o n . R a c e s h a v e
d e c l i n e d t o d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s , whites least a n d blacks most. C l i m a t e
p r o v e d most p o p u l a r as a p r i m a r y c a u s e f o r racial distinction. D e g e n e r a t i o n i s t s d i f f e r e d o n t h e r e m e d i a b i l i t y o f m o d e r n deficits.
S o m e h e l d that t h e d i f f e r e n c e s , t h o u g h d e v e l o p e d g r a d u a l l y u n d e r
the i n f l u e n c e o f c l i m a t e , w e r e n o w f i x e d a n d c o u l d n e v e r b e rev e r s e d . O t h e r s a r g u e d that the fact o f g r a d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t i m p l i e d
reversibility i n a p p r o p r i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t s . S a m u e l S t a n h o p e S m i t h ,
p r e s i d e n t o f t h e C o l l e g e o f N e w J e r s e y (later P r i n c e t o n ) , h o p e d that
A m e r i c a n blacks, in a climate m o r e suited to Caucasian temperam e n t s , w o u l d s o o n t u r n w h i t e . B u t o t h e r d e g e n e r a t i o n i s t s felt that
i m p r o v e m e n t in benevolent climes could not proceed rapidly
e n o u g h t o h a v e a n y i m p a c t u p o n h u m a n history.
T h e " h a r d e r " a r g u m e n t a b a n d o n e d scripture as allegorical and
h e l d that h u m a n races w e r e s e p a r a t e b i o l o g i c a l species, the d e s c e n d a n t s o f d i f f e r e n t A d a m s . A s a n o t h e r f o r m o f life, blacks n e e d n o t
p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e " e q u a l i t y o f m a n . " P r o p o n e n t s o f this a r g u m e n t
w e r e called " p o l y g e n i s t s . "
Degenerationism was probably the m o r e p o p u l a r a r g u m e n t , if
o n l y b e c a u s e s c r i p t u r e w a s n o t t o b e d i s c a r d e d lightly. M o r e o v e r ,
t h e interfertility o f all h u m a n races s e e m e d t o g u a r a n t e e their u n i o n
as a single species u n d e r B u f f o n ' s c r i t e r i o n that m e m b e r s of a species b e a b l e t o b r e e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r , b u t n o t w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
a n y o t h e r g r o u p . B u f f o n himself, the g r e a t e s t naturalist o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F r a n c e , w a s a s t r o n g abolitionist a n d e x p o n e n t o f
i m p r o v e m e n t for inferior races in appropriate environments. B u t
h e n e v e r d o u b t e d t h e i n h e r e n t validity o f a w h i t e s t a n d a r d :
T h e most temperate climate lies between the 40th and 50th d e g r e e of
latitude, and it produces the most h a n d s o m e and beautiful men. It is from
this climate that the ideas of the g e n u i n e color of mankind, and of the
various degrees of beauty o u g h t to be derived.
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S o m e d e g e n e r a t i o n i s t s cited t h e i r c o m m i t m e n t s i n the n a m e o f
h u m a n brotherhood. Etienne Serres, a famous French medical
a n a t o m i s t , w r o t e i n i 8 6 0 that t h e perfectability o f l o w e r r a c e s disting u i s h e d h u m a n s a s t h e o n l y species subject t o i m p r o v e m e n t b y its
o w n e f f o r t s . H e l a m b a s t e d p o l y g e n y a s a " s a v a g e t h e o r y " that " s e e m s
t o l e n d scientific s u p p o r t t o t h e e n s l a v e m e n t o f races less a d v a n c e d
in civilization t h a n t h e C a u c a s i a n " :
T h e i r conclusion is that the N e g r o is no more a white man than a donkey
is a horse or a zebra—a theory put into practice in the United States of
America, to the shame of civilization (i860, pp. 407-408).
N o n e t h e l e s s , S e r r e s w o r k e d t o d o c u m e n t the signs o f i n f e r i o r i t y
a m o n g l o w e r r a c e s . A s a n a n a t o m i s t , h e s o u g h t e v i d e n c e within his
specialty a n d c o n f e s s e d t o s o m e difficulty i n e s t a b l i s h i n g b o t h criteria a n d d a t a . H e settled o n t h e t h e o r y o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n — t h e i d e a
that h i g h e r c r e a t u r e s r e p e a t t h e a d u l t stages o f l o w e r a n i m a l s d u r i n g
t h e i r o w n g r o w t h ( C h a p t e r 4). A d u l t blacks, h e a r g u e d , s h o u l d b e
like w h i t e c h i l d r e n , a d u l t M o n g o l i a n s like w h i t e a d o l e s c e n t s . H e
s e a r c h e d d i l i g e n t l y b u t d e v i s e d n o t h i n g m u c h b e t t e r t h a n t h e dist a n c e b e t w e e n n a v e l a n d p e n i s — " t h a t i n e f f a c e a b l e sign o f e m b r y o n i c life in m a n . " T h i s d i s t a n c e is small relative to b o d y h e i g h t in
babies o f all races. T h e n a v e l m i g r a t e s u p w a r d d u r i n g g r o w t h , b u t
attains g r e a t e r h e i g h t s i n whites t h a n i n y e l l o w s , a n d n e v e r gets v e r y
f a r a t all i n blacks. B l a c k s r e m a i n p e r p e t u a l l y like w h i t e c h i l d r e n a n d
a n n o u n c e their inferiority thereby.
P o l y g e n y , t h o u g h less p o p u l a r , h a d its illustrious s u p p o r t e r s as
well. D a v i d H u m e d i d n o t s p e n d his life a b s o r b e d i n p u r e t h o u g h t .
H e h e l d a n u m b e r o f political posts, i n c l u d i n g the s t e w a r d s h i p o f t h e
E n g l i s h c o l o n i a l office i n 1 7 6 6 . H u m e a d v o c a t e d b o t h t h e s e p a r a t e
c r e a t i o n a n d i n n a t e i n f e r i o r i t y o f n o n w h i t e races:
I am apt to suspect the negroes and in general all the other species of
m e n (for there are four or five different kinds) to be naturally inferior to
the whites. T h e r e never was a civilized nation of any other complexion than
white, nor even any individual e m i n e n t either in action or speculation.* No
ingenious manufacturers amongst them, no arts, no sciences. . . . Such a
*This "inductive" argument from human cultures is far from dead as a defense of
racism. In his Study of History (1934 edition), Arnold Toynbee wrote: "When we
classify mankind by color, the only one of the primary races, given by this classification, which has not made a creative contribution to any of our twenty-one civilizations is the Black Race" (in Newby, 1969, p. 217).
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uniform and constant difference could not h a p p e n in so many countries
and ages, if nature had not made an original distinction betwixt these breeds
of m e n . Not to mention our colonies, there are negroe slaves dispersed all
over Europe, of which n o n e ever discovered any symptoms of ingenuity,
tho' low people without education will start up amongst us, and distinguish
themselves in every profession. In Jamaica indeed they talk of one negroe
as a man of parts and learning; but 'tis likely he is admired for very slender
accomplishments like a parrot w h o speaks a few words plainly (in Popkin,
1974, p. 143; see Popkin's excellent article for a long analysis of H u m e as
a polygenist).
C h a r l e s W h i t e , a n E n g l i s h s u r g e o n , w r o t e the s t r o n g e s t d e f e n s e
of p o l y g e n y in 1799—Account of the Regular Gradation in Man. W h i t e
a b a n d o n e d B u f f o n ' s c r i t e r i o n o f interfertility i n d e f i n i n g species,
p o i n t i n g t o successful h y b r i d s b e t w e e n s u c h c o n v e n t i o n a l l y s e p a r a t e
g r o u p s a s f o x e s , w o l v e s , a n d j a c k a l s . * H e railed a g a i n s t t h e idea that
c l i m a t e m i g h t p r o d u c e racial d i f f e r e n c e s , a r g u i n g that s u c h ideas
might lead, by extension, to the " d e g r a d i n g notion" of evolution
b e t w e e n species. H e d i s c l a i m e d a n y political m o t i v a t i o n a n d a n n o u n c e d an u n t a i n t e d p u r p o s e : " t o investigate a p r o p o s i t i o n in natural history." H e explicitly r e j e c t e d a n y e x t e n s i o n o f p o l y g e n y t o
" c o u n t e n a n c e the p e r n i c i o u s p r a c t i c e o f e n s l a v i n g m a n k i n d . "
W h i t e ' s criteria o f r a n k i n g t e n d e d t o w a r d t h e aesthetic, a n d his arg u m e n t i n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g g e m , o f t e n q u o t e d . W h e r e else b u t
a m o n g Caucasians, he argued, can we find
. . . that nobly arched head, containing such a quantity of brain. . . .
Where that variety of features, and fulness of expression; those long, flow* Modern evolutionary theory does invoke a barrier to interfertility as the primary
criterion for status as a species. In the standard definition: "Species are actually or
potentially interbreeding populations sharing a common gene pool, and reproductively isolated from all other groups." Reproductive isolation, however, does not
mean that individual hybrids never arise, but only that the two species maintain
their integrity in natural contact. Hybrids may be sterile (mules). Fertile hybrids
may even arise quite frequently, but if natural selection acts preferentially against
them (as a result of inferiority in structural design, rejection as mates by full members of either species, etc.) they will not increase in frequency and the two species
will not amalgamate. Often fertile hybrids can be produced in the laboratory by
imposing situations not encountered in nature (forced breeding between species
that normally mature at different times of the year, for example). Such examples
do not refute a status as separate species because the two groups do not amalgamate
in the wild (maturation at different times of the year may be an efficient means of
reproductive isolation).
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ing, graceful ring-lets; that majestic beard, those rosy cheeks and coral lips?
Where t h a t . . . noble gait? In what other quarter of the globe shall we find
the blush that overspreads the soft features of the beautiful w o m e n of
Europe, that e m b l e m of modesty, of delicate feelings . . . where, except on
the bosom of the European w o m a n , two such p l u m p and snowy white
hemispheres, tipt with vermillion (in Stanton, i960, p. 17).
Louis Agassiz—America's theorist of polygeny
R a l p h W a l d o E m e r s o n a r g u e d that intellectual e m a n c i p a t i o n
s h o u l d f o l l o w political i n d e p e n d e n c e . A m e r i c a n scholars s h o u l d
a b a n d o n t h e i r s u b s e r v i e n c e t o E u r o p e a n styles a n d t h e o r i e s . W e
h a v e , E m e r s o n w r o t e , " l i s t e n e d t o o l o n g t o the c o u r t l y m u s e s o f
E u r o p e . " " W e will w a l k o n o u r o w n f e e t ; w e will w o r k with o u r o w n
h a n d s ; w e will s p e a k o u r o w n m i n d s " (in S t a n t o n , i g 6 o , p . 84).
In the early to mid-nineteenth century, the b u d d i n g profession
o f A m e r i c a n science o r g a n i z e d itself t o f o l l o w E m e r s o n ' s a d v i c e . A
collection o f eclectic a m a t e u r s , b o w i n g b e f o r e the p r e s t i g e o f E u r o p e a n theorists, b e c a m e a g r o u p o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s with i n d i g e n o u s
ideas a n d a n i n t e r n a l d y n a m i c that d i d n o t r e q u i r e c o n s t a n t f u e l i n g
f r o m E u r o p e . T h e doctrine of polygeny acted as an important agent
i n this t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ; f o r i t w a s o n e o f t h e f i r s t t h e o r i e s o f l a r g e l y
A m e r i c a n o r i g i n that w o n t h e a t t e n t i o n a n d r e s p e c t o f E u r o p e a n
s c i e n t i s t s — s o m u c h s o that E u r o p e a n s r e f e r r e d t o p o l y g e n y a s t h e
" A m e r i c a n school" of anthropology. Polygeny had E u r o p e a n antec e d e n t s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , b u t A m e r i c a n s d e v e l o p e d t h e d a t a cited i n
its s u p p o r t a n d b a s e d a l a r g e b o d y of r e s e a r c h on its t e n e t s . I shall
concentrate on the two most famous advocates of p o l y g e n y — A g a s siz t h e t h e o r i s t a n d M o r t o n t h e d a t a analyst; a n d I shall try to u n cover both the hidden motives and the finagling of data so central
to t h e i r s u p p o r t . * F o r starters, it is o b v i o u s l y n o t a c c i d e n t a l that a
n a t i o n still p r a c t i c i n g slavery a n d e x p e l l i n g its a b o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s
f r o m t h e i r h o m e l a n d s s h o u l d h a v e p r o v i d e d a base f o r t h e o r i e s that
blacks a n d I n d i a n s a r e s e p a r a t e species, i n f e r i o r t o whites.
L o u i s A g a s s i z ( 1 8 0 7 — 1 8 7 3 ) , t h e g r e a t Swiss naturalist, w o n his
r e p u t a t i o n i n E u r o p e , p r i m a r i l y a s C u v i e r ' s disciple a n d a s t u d e n t o f
* An excellent history of the entire "American school" can be found in W. Stanton's
The Leopard's Spots.
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fossil fishes. H i s i m m i g r a t i o n t o A m e r i c a i n t h e 1840s i m m e d i a t e l y
e l e v a t e d t h e status o f A m e r i c a n n a t u r a l history. F o r the f i r s t t i m e , a
major E u r o p e a n theorist had f o u n d e n o u g h of value in the United
States to c o m e a n d stay. A g a s s i z b e c a m e a p r o f e s s o r at H a r v a r d ,
w h e r e he f o u n d e d a n d directed the M u s e u m of C o m p a r a t i v e Zoolo g y until his d e a t h i n 1 8 7 3 ( I o c c u p y a n office i n t h e o r i g i n a l w i n g
of his b u i l d i n g ) . A g a s s i z was a c h a r m e r ; he was l i o n i z e d in social
a n d intellectual circles f r o m B o s t o n t o C h a r l e s t o w n . H e s p o k e f o r
science w i t h b o u n d l e s s e n t h u s i a s m a n d r a i s e d m o n e y with e q u a l zeal
t o s u p p o r t his b u i l d i n g s , collections, a n d p u b l i c a t i o n s . N o m a n d i d
m o r e t o establish a n d e n h a n c e t h e p r e s t i g e o f A m e r i c a n b i o l o g y
d u r i n g the nineteenth century.
A g a s s i z also b e c a m e t h e l e a d i n g s p o k e s m a n f o r p o l y g e n y i n
A m e r i c a . H e d i d n o t b r i n g this t h e o r y w i t h h i m f r o m E u r o p e . H e
c o n v e r t e d t o t h e d o c t r i n e o f h u m a n r a c e s a s s e p a r a t e species a f t e r
his f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h A m e r i c a n blacks.
A g a s s i z d i d n o t e m b r a c e p o l y g e n y a s a c o n s c i o u s political d o c t r i n e . H e n e v e r d o u b t e d the p r o p r i e t y o f racial r a n k i n g , b u t h e d i d
c o u n t h i m s e l f a m o n g t h e o p p o n e n t s o f slavery. His a d h e r e n c e t o
p o l y g e n y f l o w e d easily f r o m p r o c e d u r e s o f b i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h that
h e h a d d e v e l o p e d i n o t h e r a n d e a r l i e r c o n t e x t s . H e was, f i r s t o f all, a
d e v o u t c r e a t i o n i s t w h o lived l o n g e n o u g h t o b e c o m e the o n l y m a j o r
scientific o p p o n e n t o f e v o l u t i o n . B u t n e a r l y all scientists w e r e c r e ationists b e f o r e 1 8 5 9 , a n d m o s t d i d n o t b e c o m e p o l y g e n i s t s (racial
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h i n a single species p o s e d no t h r e a t to t h e d o c t r i n e o f special c r e a t i o n — j u s t c o n s i d e r b r e e d s o f d o g s a n d cattle).
A g a s s i z ' s p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o p o l y g e n y a r o s e p r i m a r i l y f r o m t w o asp e c t s o f his p e r s o n a l t h e o r i e s a n d m e t h o d s :
1. I n s t u d y i n g t h e g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a n i m a l s a n d p l a n t s ,
Agassiz developed a theory about "centers of creation." He believed
t h a t species w e r e c r a t e d i n t h e i r p r o p e r p l a c e s a n d d i d n o t g e n e r a l l y
migrate far f r o m these centers. O t h e r b i o g e o g r a p h e r s invoked crea t i o n in a s i n g l e s p o t w i t h e x t e n s i v e m i g r a t i o n t h e r e a f t e r . T h u s ,
w h e n A g a s s i z s t u d i e d w h a t w e w o u l d n o w r e g a r d a s a single w i d e s p r e a d s p e c i e s , d i v i d e d into fairly distinct g e o g r a p h i c a l r a c e s , h e
t e n d e d t o n a m e s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e s p e c i e s , e a c h c r e a t e d a t its c e n t e r
of o r i g i n . Homo sapiens is a p r i m a r y e x a m p l e of a c o s m o p o l i t a n ,
variable species.
6
7
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M I S M E A S U R E
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M A N
2. A g a s s i z w a s an e x t r e m e splitter in his t a x c n o . n i c practice.
T a x o n o m i s t s t e n d t o fall i n t o t w o c a m p s — " l u m p e r s , " w h o c o n c e n trate o n similarities a n d a m a l g a m a t e g r o u p s with small d i f f e r e n c e s
into single s p e c i e s , a n d " s p l i t t e r s , " w h o f o c u s o n m i n u t e distinctions
a n d establish species o n t h e smallest peculiarities o f d e s i g n . A g a s s i z
was a splitter a m o n g splitters. H e o n c e n a m e d t h r e e g e n e r a o f fossil
fishes f r o m isolated t e e t h that a later p a l e o n t o l o g i s t f o u n d in t h e
v a r i a b l e d e n t i t i o n o f a single i n d i v i d u a l . H e n a m e d invalid species
of freshwater fishes by the h u n d r e d s , basing them u p o n peculiar
i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n single, v a r i a b l e species. A n e x t r e m e splitter w h o
v i e w e d o r g a n i s m s a s c r e a t e d o v e r their e n t i r e r a n g e m i g h t well b e
t e m p t e d t o r e g a r d h u m a n races a s s e p a r a t e c r e a t i o n s . N o n e t h e l e s s ,
before c o m i n g to A m e r i c a , Agassiz advocated the doctrine of human u n i t y — e v e n t h o u g h he viewed o u r variation as exceptional. He
w r o t e in 1 8 4 5 :
H e r e is revealed anew the superiority of the h u m a n genre and its greater
i n d e p e n d e n c e in nature. Whereas the animals are distinct species in the
different zoological provinces to which they appertain, man, despite the
diversity of his races, constitutes o n e and the same species over all the
surface of the globe (in Stanton, i960, p. 101).
Agassiz may have b e e n predisposed to p o l y g e n y by biological
belief, b u t I d o u b t that this p i o u s m a n w o u l d h a v e a b a n d o n e d t h e
Biblical o r t h o d o x y o f a single A d a m i f h e h a d n o t b e e n c o n f r o n t e d
b o t h b y the sight o f A m e r i c a n blacks a n d t h e u r g i n g s o f his p o l y g e nist c o l l e a g u e s . A g a s s i z n e v e r g e n e r a t e d a n y d a t a f o r p o l y g e n y . His
c o n v e r s i o n f o l l o w e d a n i m m e d i a t e visceral j u d g m e n t a n d s o m e p e r sistent p e r s u a s i o n b y f r i e n d s . H i s later s u p p o r t r e s t e d o n n o t h i n g
d e e p e r in the realm of biological k n o w l e d g e .
A g a s s i z h a d n e v e r s e e n a black p e r s o n i n E u r o p e . W h e n h e f i r s t
m e t blacks as s e r v a n t s at his P h i l a d e l p h i a h o t e l in 1 8 4 6 , he e x p e r i e n c e d a p r o n o u n c e d visceral r e v u l s i o n . T h i s j a r r i n g e x p e r i e n c e ,
c o u p l e d with his s e x u a l fears a b o u t m i s c e g e n a t i o n , a p p a r e n t l y established his c o n v i c t i o n that blacks a r e a s e p a r a t e s p e c i e s . In a rem a r k a b l y c a n d i d p a s s a g e , h e w r o t e t o his m o t h e r f r o m A m e r i c a :
It was in Philadelphia that I first f o u n d myself in prolonged contact with
negroes; all the domestics in my hotel were m e n of color. I can scarcely
express to you the painful impression that I received, especially since the
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feeling that they inspired in me is contrary to all our ideas about the confraternity of the h u m a n type [genre] and the unique origin of our species.
But truth before all. Nevertheless, I experienced pity at the sight of this
degraded and degenerate race, and their lot inspired compassion in me in
thinking that they are really men. Nonetheless, it is impossible for me to
reprocess the feeling that they are not of the same blood as us. In seeing
their black faces with their thick lips and grimacing teeth, the wool on their
head, their bent knees, their elongated hands, their large curved nails, and
especially the livid color of the palm of their hands, I could not take my eyes
off their face in order to tell them to stay far away. A n d w h e n they advanced
that hideous hand towards my plate in order to serve me, I wished I were
able to depart in order to eat a piece of bread elsewhere, rather than dine
with such service. What unhappiness for the white race—to have tied their
existence so closely with that of negroes in certain countries! God preserve
us from such a contact! (Agassiz to his mother, December 1846.) ( T h e
standard Life and Letters, compiled by Agassiz's wife, omits these lines in
presenting an expurgated version of this famous letter. Other historians
have paraphrased them or passed t h e m by. I recovered this passage from
the original manuscript in Harvard's H o u g h t o n Library and have translated it, verbatim, for the first time so far as I know.)
Agassiz p u b l i s h e d his major s t a t e m e n t on h u m a n races in the
Christian Examiner f o r 1 8 5 0 . H e b e g i n s b y d i s m i s s i n g a s d e m a g o g u e s
b o t h t h e d i v i n e s w h o w o u l d o u t l a w h i m a s a n infidel (for p r e a c h i n g
the doctrine o f multiple A d a m s ) a n d the abolitionists w h o w o u l d
b r a n d h i m as a d e f e n d e r of slavery:
It has been charged u p o n the views here advanced that they tend to the
support of slavery. . . . Is that a fair objection to a philosophical investigation? Here we have to do only with the question of the origin of m e n ; let the
politicians, let those w h o feel themselves called u p o n to regulate h u m a n
society, see what they can do with the results. . . . We disclaim, however,
all connection with any question involving political matters. It is simply with
reference to the possibility of appreciating the differences existing between
different m e n , and of eventually determining whether they have originated
all over the world, and under what circumstances, that we have here tried
to trace s o m e facts respecting the h u m a n races (1850, p. 113).
Agassiz t h e n p r e s e n t s his a r g u m e n t : T h e t h e o r y o f p o l y g e n y
d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e a n attack u p o n t h e s c r i p t u r a l d o c t r i n e o f h u m a n
unity. M e n are b o u n d by a c o m m o n structure and sympathy, even
8
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t h o u g h r a c e s w e r e c r e a t e d a s s e p a r a t e species. T h e Bible d o e s n o t
s p e a k a b o u t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d u n k n o w n t o t h e a n c i e n t s ; t h e tale o f
A d a m refers only to the origin of Caucasians. Negroes and Caucasians a r e a s distinct i n t h e m u m m i f i e d r e m a i n s o f E g y p t a s t h e y a r e
t o d a y . I f h u m a n races w e r e t h e p r o d u c t o f climatic i n f l u e n c e , t h e n
t h e p a s s a g e o f t h r e e t h o u s a n d y e a r s w o u l d h a v e e n g e n d e r e d substantial c h a n g e s ( A g a s s i z h a d n o i n k l i n g o f h u m a n antiquity; h e
b e l i e v e d that t h r e e t h o u s a n d y e a r s i n c l u d e d a m a j o r c h u n k o f o u r
e n t i r e history). M o d e r n races o c c u p y d e f i n i t e , n o n o v e r l a p p i n g , g e o graphic areas—even though some ranges have been blurred or
o b l i t e r a t e d b y m i g r a t i o n . A s physically distinct, t e m p o r a l l y i n v a r i a n t
g r o u p s w i t h d i s c r e t e g e o g r a p h i c a l r a n g e s , h u m a n races m e t all
A g a s s i z ' s b i o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i a f o r s e p a r a t e species.
T h e s e races must have originated . . . i n the same numerical proportions, and over the same area, in which they now occur. . . . T h e y cannot
have originated in single individuals, but must have been created in that
numeric harmony which is characteristic of each species; m e n must have
originated in nations, as the bees have originated in swarms (pp. 128—129).
T h e n , a p p r o a c h i n g t h e e n d o f his article, A g a s s i z a b r u p t l y shifts his
g r o u n d and announces a moral imperative—even though he had
explicitly j u s t i f i e d his i n q u i r y by c a s t i n g it as an objective investigation o f n a t u r a l history.
T h e r e are u p o n earth different races of m e n , inhabiting different parts
of its surface, which have different physical characters; and this fact . . .
presses u p o n us the obligation to settle the relative rank a m o n g these races,
the relative value of the characters peculiar to each, in a scientific point of
view. . . . As philosophers it is our duty to look it in the face (p. 142).
As direct evidence for differential, innate value Agassiz ventures no
f u r t h e r t h a n t h e s t a n d a r d set o f C a u c a s i a n c u l t u r a l s t e r e o t y p e s :
T h e indominable, courageous, proud Indian—in how very different a
light he stands by the side of the submissive, obsequious, imitative negro, or
by the side of the tricky, cunning, and cowardly Mongolian! Are not these
facts indications that the different races do not rank u p o n o n e level in
nature (p. 144).
B l a c k s , A g a s s i z d e c l a r e s , m u s t o c c u p y t h e b o t t o m r u n g o f a n y objective l a d d e r :
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It seems to us to be mock-philanthropy and mock-philosophy to
assume that all races have the same abilities, enjoy the same powers, and
show the same natural dispositions, and that in consequence of this equality they are entitled to the same position in h u m a n society. History speaks
here for itself. . . . This compact continent of Africa exhibits a population
which has been in constant intercourse with the white race, which has
enjoyed the benefit of the example of the Egyptian civilization, of the
Phoenician civilization, of the Roman civilization, of the Arab civilization
. . . and nevertheless there has never been a regulated society of black m e n
developed on that continent. Does not this indicate in this race a peculiar
apathy, a peculiar indifference to the advantages afforded by civilized
society? (pp. 143-144).
I f A g a s s i z h a d n o t m a d e his political m e s s a g e c l e a r , h e e n d s b y
a d v o c a t i n g specific social policy. E d u c a t i o n , h e a r g u e s , m u s t b e tail o r e d t o i n n a t e ability; train b l a c k s i n h a n d w o r k , whites i n m i n d
work:
What would be the best education to be imparted to the different races
in consequence of their primitive difference, . . . We entertain not the
slightest doubt that h u m a n affairs with reference to the colored races
would be far m o r e judiciously conducted if, in our intercourse with them,
we were guided by a full consciousness of the real difference existing
between us and them, and a desire to foster those dispositions that are
eminently marked in them, rather than by treating them on terms of
equality (p. 145).
Since those "eminently m a r k e d " dispositions are submissiven e s s , o b s e q u i o u s n e s s , a n d i m i t a t i o n , w e c a n well i m a g i n e w h a t
A g a s s i z h a d in m i n d . I h a v e t r e a t e d this p a p e r in detail b e c a u s e it
is so typical of its g e n r e — a d v o c a c y of social policy c o u c h e d as a
d i s p a s s i o n a t e i n q u i r y i n t o scientific fact. T h e s t r a t e g y i s b y n o
means m o r i b u n d today.
I n a later c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , p u r s u e d i n t h e m i d s t o f t h e Civil
W a r , A g a s s i z e x p r e s s e d his political v i e w s m o r e f o r c e f u l l y a n d a t
g r e a t e r l e n g t h . ( T h e s e letters a r e also e x p u r g a t e d w i t h o u t indication in t h e s t a n d a r d v e r s i o n p u b l i s h e d by A g a s s i z ' s wife. A g a i n , I
h a v e r e s t o r e d p a s s a g e s f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l letters i n H a r v a r d ' s
H o u g h t o n Library.) S. G. H o w e , a m e m b e r of Lincoln's Inquiry
C o m m i s s i o n , a s k e d A g a s s i z ' s o p i n i o n a b o u t the r o l e o f blacks i n a
r e u n i t e d n a t i o n . ( H o w e , k n o w n best f o r his w o r k i n p r i s o n r e f o r m
a n d education of the blind, was the h u s b a n d of Julia W a r d H o w e ,
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author of the "Battle H y m n of the Republic".) In four long and
i m p a s s i o n e d l e t t e r s , A g a s s i z p l e a d e d his case. T h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f a
l a r g e a n d p e r m a n e n t black p o p u l a t i o n i n A m e r i c a m u s t b e
a c k n o w l e d g e d a s a g r i m reality. I n d i a n s , d r i v e n b y t h e i r c o m m e n d a b l e p r i d e , m a y p e r i s h i n battle, b u t " t h e n e g r o e x h i b i t s b y n a t u r e
a pliability, a r e a d i n e s s to a c c o m m o d a t e h i m s e l f to c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,
a p r o n e n e s s t o imitate t h o s e a m o n g w h o m h e lives" ( 9 A u g u s t
1863).
A l t h o u g h legal e q u a l i t y m u s t b e g r a n t e d t o all, blacks s h o u l d b e
d e n i e d social e q u a l i t y , lest t h e w h i t e r a c e b e c o m p r o m i s e d a n d
d i l u t e d : "Social equality I d e e m at all t i m e i m p r a c t i c a b l e . It is a
n a t u r a l impossibility f l o w i n g f r o m t h e v e r y c h a r a c t e r o f t h e n e g r o
r a c e " ( 1 0 A u g u s t 1863); f o r blacks a r e " i n d o l e n t , p l a y f u l , s e n s u o u s ,
imitative, s u b s e r v i e n t , g o o d n a t u r e d , versatile, u n s t e a d y i n t h e i r
p u r p o s e , d e v o t e d , affectionate, in everything unlike other races,
they may but be c o m p a r e d to children, g r o w n in the stature of
a d u l t s w h i l e r e t a i n i n g a c h i l d l i k e m i n d . . . . T h e r e f o r e I h o l d that
t h e y a r e i n c a p a b l e o f l i v i n g o n a f o o t i n g o f social equality w i t h t h e
whites, in o n e and the same community, without being an element
o f social d i s o r d e r " ( 1 0 A u g u s t 1863). Blacks m u s t b e r e g u l a t e d a n d
l i m i t e d , lest a n i n j u d i c i o u s a w a r d o f social p r i v i l e g e sow later discord:
No man has a right to what he is unfit to use. . . . Let us beware of
granting too much to the negro race in the beginning, lest it b e c o m e necessary to recall violently s o m e of the privileges which they may use to our
detriment and their own injury (10 August 1863).
For Agassiz, nothing inspired m o r e fear than the prospect of
amalgamation by intermarriage. White strength d e p e n d s u p o n
s e p a r a t i o n : " T h e p r o d u c t i o n of h a l f b r e e d s is as m u c h a sin against
n a t u r e , as incest in a civilized c o m m u n i t y is a sin against p u r i t y of
c h a r a c t e r . . . . F a r f r o m p r e s e n t i n g to me a n a t u r a l s o l u t i o n of o u r
difficulties, t h e i d e a o f a m a l g a m a t i o n i s m o s t r e p u g n a n t t o m y feeli n g s , I h o l d it to be a p e r v e r s i o n of e v e r y n a t u r a l s e n t i m e n t . . . . No
e f f o r t s s h o u l d b e s p a r e d t o c h e c k that w h i c h i s a b h o r r e n t t o o u r
b e t t e r n a t u r e , a n d to t h e p r o g r e s s of a h i g h e r civilization a n d a
p u r e r m o r a l i t y " ( 9 A u g u s t 1863).
A g a s s i z n o w realizes that h e has a r g u e d h i m s e l f into a c o r n e r .
I f i n t e r b r e e d i n g a m o n g races ( s e p a r a t e species t o A g a s s i z ) i s u n n a t ural and repugnant, why are "halfbreeds" so c o m m o n in America?
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A g a s s i z attributes this l a m e n t a b l e fact to t h e s e x u a l r e c e p t i v e n e s s
o f housemaids and the naivete o f y o u n g Southern gentlemen. T h e
s e r v a n t s , i t s e e m s , a r e h a l f b r e e d s a l r e a d y (we a r e n o t told h o w their
parents overcame a natural r e p u g n a n c e for one another); y o u n g
m e n r e s p o n d aesthetically t o the w h i t e half, w h i l e a d e g r e e o f black
h e r i t a g e l o o s e n s t h e n a t u r a l inhibitions o f a h i g h e r r a c e . O n c e
acclimated, the p o o r y o u n g m e n are h o o k e d , and they acquire a
taste f o r p u r e blacks:
As soon as the sexual desires are awakening in the y o u n g men of the
South, they find it easy to gratify themselves by the readiness with which
they are met by colored [halfbreed] house servants. . . . This blunts his
better instincts in that direction and leads him gradually to seek m o r e spicy
partners, as I have heard the full blacks called by fast y o u n g men (9 August
1863).
Finally, A g a s s i z c o m b i n e s vivid i m a g e a n d m e t a p h o r t o w a r n
against the ultimate d a n g e r of a mixed and enfeebled people:
Conceive for a m o m e n t the difference it would make in future ages,
for the prospect of republican institutions and our civilization generally, if
instead of the manly population d e s c e n d e d from cognate nations the
United States should hereafter be inhabited by the effeminate progeny of
m i x e d races, half indian, half negro, sprinkled with white blood. . . . I
shudder from the consequences. We have already to struggle, in our progress, against the influence of universal equality, in consequence of the difficulty of preserving the acquisitions of individual eminence, the wealth of
refinement and culture growing out of select associations. What would be
our condition if to these difficulties were added the far more tenacious
influences of physical disability. . . . H o w shall we eradicate the stigma of
a lower race when its blood has once been allowed to flow freely into that
of our children (10 August 1863).*
A g a s s i z c o n c l u d e s that l e g a l f r e e d o m a w a r d e d t o slaves i n m a n u m i s s i o n m u s t s p u r t h e e n f o r c e m e n t o f rigid social s e p a r a t i o n
a m o n g r a c e s . F o r t u n a t e l y , n a t u r e shall b e t h e a c c o m p l i c e o f m o r a l
*E. D. Cope, America's leading paleontologist and evolutionary biologist,
reiterated the same theme even more forcefully in 1890 (p. 2054): "The highest
race of man cannot afford to lose or even to compromise the advantages it has
acquired by hundreds of centuries of toil and hardship, by mingling its blood with
the lowest. . . . We cannot cloud or extinguish the fine nervous susceptibility, and
the mental force, which cultivation develops in the constitution of the IndoEuropean, by the fleshly instincts, and dark mind of the African. Not only is the
mind stagnated, and the life of mere living introduced in its stead, but the possibility of resurrection is rendered doubtful or impossible."
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virtue; for people, free to choose, gravitate naturally toward the
climates o f their o r i g i n a l h o m e l a n d . T h e black species, c r e a t e d f o r
h o t a n d h u m i d c o n d i t i o n s , will p r e v a i l i n t h e S o u t h e r n l o w l a n d s ,
t h o u g h whites will m a i n t a i n d o m i n i o n o v e r t h e s e a s h o r e a n d elev a t e d g r o u n d . T h e n e w S o u t h will c o n t a i n s o m e N e g r o states. W e
s h o u l d b o w b e f o r e this necessity a n d a d m i t t h e m i n t o t h e U n i o n ;
w e h a v e , after all, a l r e a d y r e c o g n i z e d b o t h " H a i t y a n d L i b e r i a . " *
But the bracing North is not a congenial h o m e for carefree and
lackadaisical p e o p l e , c r e a t e d f o r w a r m e r r e g i o n s . P u r e blacks will
migrate South, leaving a stubborn residue to dwindle and die out
in the N o r t h : "I h o p e it may gradually die out in the north w h e r e
i t has only a n artificial f o o t h o l d " ( 1 1 A u g u s t 1863). A s f o r t h e
m u l a t t o e s , " t h e i r sickly p h y s i q u e a n d t h e i r i m p a i r e d f e c u n d i t y "
s h o u l d a s s u r e their d e m i s e o n c e t h e shackles o f slavery n o l o n g e r
provide an opportunity for unnatural interbreeding.
A g a s s i z ' s w o r l d c o l l a p s e d d u r i n g t h e last d e c a d e o f his life. H i s
s t u d e n t s r e b e l l e d ; his s u p p o r t e r s d e f e c t e d . H e r e m a i n e d a h e r o t o
the p u b l i c , b u t scientists b e g a n to r e g a r d h i m as a r i g i d a n d a g i n g
d o g m a t i s t , s t a n d i n g f i r m i n his a n t i q u a t e d beliefs b e f o r e t h e D a r w i n i a n tide. B u t his social p r e f e r e n c e s f o r racial s e g r e g a t i o n p r e v a i l e d — a l l t h e m o r e b e c a u s e his f a n c i f u l h o p e f o r v o l u n t a r y
g e o g r a p h i c separation did not.
Samuel George Morton—empiricist of polygeny
A g a s s i z d i d n o t s p e n d all his t i m e in P h i l a d e l p h i a r e v i l i n g black
w a i t e r s . I n t h e s a m e letter t o his m o t h e r , h e w r o t e i n g l o w i n g t e r m s
of his visit to t h e a n a t o m i c a l collection of P h i l a d e l p h i a ' s disting u i s h e d scientist a n d p h y s i c i a n S a m u e l G e o r g e M o r t o n : " I m a g i n e
a series of 600 skulls, m o s t of I n d i a n s f r o m all tribes w h o i n h a b i t
o r o n c e i n h a b i t e d all o f A m e r i c a . N o t h i n g like i t exists a n y w h e r e
else. T h i s c o l l e c t i o n , by itself, is w o r t h a t r i p to A m e r i c a " ( A g a s s i z
t o his m o t h e r , D e c e m b e r 1 8 4 6 , t r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l letter
in H o u g h t o n Library, H a r v a r d University).
*Not all detractors of blacks were so generous. E. D. Cope, who feared that miscegenation would block the path to heaven (see preceding footnote), advocated the
return of all blacks to Africa (1890, p. 2053): "Have we not burdens enough to carryin the European peasantry which we are called on every year to receive and assimilate? Is our own race on a plane sufficiently high, to render it safe for us to carry
eight millions of dead material in the very center of our vital organism?"
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Agassiz speculated freely and at length, but he amassed no data
to s u p p o r t his p o l y g e n i c t h e o r y . M o r t o n , a P h i l a d e l p h i a patrician
with t w o m e d i c a l d e g r e e s — o n e f r o m f a s h i o n a b l e E d i n b u r g h — p r o v i d e d t h e " f a c t s " that w o n w o r l d w i d e r e s p e c t f o r t h e " A m e r i c a n
s c h o o l " o f p o l y g e n y . M o r t o n b e g a n his collection o f h u m a n skulls
i n t h e 1820s; h e h a d m o r e t h a n o n e t h o u s a n d w h e n h e d i e d i n
1 8 5 1 . F r i e n d s (and e n e m i e s ) r e f e r r e d t o his g r e a t c h a r n e l h o u s e a s
"the American Golgotha."
M o r t o n w o n his r e p u t a t i o n a s the g r e a t d a t a - g a t h e r e r a n d
objectivist o f A m e r i c a n s c i e n c e , t h e m a n w h o w o u l d raise a n i m m a ture enterprise f r o m the mires of fanciful speculation. Oliver W e n dell H o l m e s praised M o r t o n for "the severe and cautious
c h a r a c t e r " o f his w o r k s , w h i c h " f r o m their v e r y n a t u r e a r e p e r m a n e n t data f o r all f u t u r e s t u d e n t s o f e t h n o l o g y " (in S t a n t o n , 1 9 6 0 ,
p . 96). T h e s a m e H u m b o l d t w h o h a d a s s e r t e d the i n h e r e n t equality
o f all races w r o t e :
T h e craniological treasures which you have been so fortunate as to
unite in your collection, have in you found a worthy interpreter. Your
work is equally remarkable for the profundity of its anatomical views, the
numerical detail of the relations of organic conformation, and the absence
of those poetical reveries which are the myths of modern physiology (in
Meigs, 1851, p. 48).
W h e n M o r t o n d i e d in 1 8 5 1 , t h e New York Tribune w r o t e that " p r o b ably no scientific m a n in A m e r i c a e n j o y e d a h i g h e r r e p u t a t i o n
a m o n g s c h o l a r s t h r o u g h o u t the w o r l d , t h a n D r . M o r t o n " (in Stant o n , i 9 6 0 , p . 144).
Y e t M o r t o n g a t h e r e d skulls n e i t h e r f o r t h e dilettante's m o t i v e
o f abstract interest n o r t h e t a x o n o m i s t ' s zeal f o r c o m p l e t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . He h a d a h y p o t h e s i s to test: that a r a n k i n g of races c o u l d
b e established objectively b y physical characteristics o f t h e b r a i n ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y by its size. M o r t o n t o o k a special interest in n a t i v e
A m e r i c a n s . A s G e o r g e C o m b e , his f e r v e n t f r i e n d a n d s u p p o r t e r ,
wrote:
O n e of the most singular features in the history of this continent, is,
that the aboriginal races, with few exceptions, have perished or constantly
receded, before the Anglo-Saxon race, and have in no instance either mingled with them as equals, or adopted their manners and civilization. T h e s e
p h e n o m e n a must have a cause; and can any inquiry be at once m o r e inter-
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esting and philosophical than that which endeavors to ascertain whether
that cause be connected with a difference in the brain between the native
American race, and their conquering invaders (Combe and Coates, in
review of Morton's Crania Americana, 1840, p. 352).
M o r e o v e r , C o m b e a r g u e d that M o r t o n ' s collection w o u l d a c q u i r e
t r u e scientific v a l u e only if m e n t a l a n d m o r a l w o r t h c o u l d be r e a d
f r o m b r a i n s : " I f this d o c t r i n e b e u n f o u n d e d , t h e s e skulls a r e m e r e
facts i n N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , p r e s e n t i n g n o p a r t i c u l a r i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o
the m e n t a l qualities o f t h e p e o p l e " ( f r o m C o m b e ' s a p p e n d i x t o
M o r t o n ' s Crania Americana, 1 8 3 9 , p. 2 7 5 ) .
A l t h o u g h h e vacillated e a r l y i n his c a r e e r , M o r t o n s o o n b e c a m e
a l e a d e r a m o n g the A m e r i c a n p o l y g e n i s t s . H e w r o t e s e v e r a l articles
t o d e f e n d the status o f h u m a n races a s s e p a r a t e , c r e a t e d s p e c i e s .
H e t o o k o n t h e s t r o n g e s t claim o f o p p o n e n t s — t h e interfertility o f
all h u m a n r a c e s — b y a r g u i n g f r o m b o t h sides. H e relied o n trave l e r s ' r e p o r t s t o c l a i m that s o m e h u m a n r a c e s — A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g ines a n d C a u c a s i a n s i n p a r t i c u l a r — v e r y r a r e l y p r o d u c e fertile
o f f s p r i n g ( M o r t o n , 1 8 5 1 ) . H e a t t r i b u t e d this f a i l u r e t o " a d i s p a r i t y
of primordial organization." But, he continued, Buffon's criterion
o f interfertility m u s t b e a b a n d o n e d i n a n y case, f o r h y b r i d i z a t i o n i s
c o m m o n i n n a t u r e , e v e n b e t w e e n species b e l o n g i n g t o d i f f e r e n t
g e n e r a ( M o r t o n , 1 8 4 7 , 8 5 ° ) - S p e c i e s m u s t b e r e d e f i n e d a s " a prim o r d i a l o r g a n i c f o r m " ( 1 8 5 0 , p . 82). " B r a v o , m y d e a r S i r , " w r o t e
A g a s s i z in a letter, " y o u h a v e at last f u r n i s h e d s c i e n c e with a t r u e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e f i n i t i o n o f s p e c i e s " (in S t a n t o n , i 9 6 0 , p . 1 4 1 ) . B u t
h o w to recognize a primordial form? M o r t o n replied: "If certain
e x i s t i n g o r g a n i c t y p e s c a n b e t r a c e d b a c k into t h e ' n i g h t o f t i m e , ' a s
dissimilar as we see t h e m n o w , is it n o t m o r e r e a s o n a b l e to r e g a r d
them as aboriginal, than to suppose them the m e r e and accidental
d e r i v a t i o n s o f a n isolated p a t r i a r c h a l s t e m o f w h i c h w e k n o w n o t h i n g ? " ( 1 8 5 0 , p . 82). T h u s , M o r t o n r e g a r d e d s e v e r a l b r e e d s o f d o g s
a s s e p a r a t e species b e c a u s e their s k e l e t o n s r e s i d e d i n t h e E g y p t i a n
c a t a c o m b s , a s r e c o g n i z a b l e a n d distinct f r o m o t h e r b r e e d s a s t h e y
a r e n o w . T h e t o m b s also c o n t a i n e d blacks a n d C a u c a s i a n s . M o r t o n
d a t e d the b e a c h i n g o f N o a h ' s A r k o n A r a r a t a t 4 , 1 7 9 y e a r s b e f o r e
his t i m e , a n d t h e E g y p t i a n t o m b s a t j u s t 1,000 y e a r s a f t e r t h a t —
clearly n o t e n o u g h t i m e f o r t h e sons o f N o a h t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e into
r a c e s . ( H o w , h e asks, c a n w e b e l i e v e that races c h a n g e d s o r a p i d l y
f o r 1,000 y e a r s , a n d n o t a t all f o r 3,000 y e a r s since then?) H u m a n
1
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P O L Y G E N Y
A N D
C R A N I O M E T R Y
85
races m u s t h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e start ( M o r t o n , 1 8 3 9 , p . 88).
B u t s e p a r a t e , a s the S u p r e m e C o u r t o n c e said, n e e d n o t m e a n
u n e q u a l . M o r t o n t h e r e f o r e set o u t t o establish relative r a n k o n
"objective" g r o u n d s . He surveyed the drawings of ancient Egypt
a n d f o u n d that blacks a r e i n v a r i a b l y d e p i c t e d a s m e n i a l s — a s u r e
sign that t h e y h a v e a l w a y s p l a y e d t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e b i o l o g i c a l r o l e :
" N e g r o e s w e r e n u m e r o u s i n E g y p t , b u t their social position i n
a n c i e n t times was t h e s a m e that it is n o w , that of s e r v a n t s a n d
s l a v e s " ( M o r t o n , 1 8 4 4 , p . 158). ( A c u r i o u s a r g u m e n t , t o b e s u r e ,
f o r t h e s e blacks h a d b e e n c a p t u r e d i n w a r f a r e ; s u b - S a h a r a n societies d e p i c t e d blacks as rulers.)
B u t M o r t o n ' s f a m e a s a scientist r e s t e d u p o n his collection o f
skulls a n d t h e i r r o l e in racial r a n k i n g . S i n c e the c r a n i a l cavity of a
h u m a n skull p r o v i d e s a f a i t h f u l m e a s u r e o f t h e b r a i n i t o n c e c o n t a i n e d , M o r t o n set o u t t o r a n k races b y t h e a v e r a g e sizes o f t h e i r
b r a i n s . H e filled t h e cranial cavity with sifted w h i t e m u s t a r d s e e d ,
p o u r e d t h e s e e d b a c k i n t o a g r a d u a t e d c y l i n d e r a n d r e a d t h e skull's
v o l u m e i n c u b i c i n c h e s . L a t e r o n , h e b e c a m e dissatisfied with m u s tard s e e d b e c a u s e h e c o u l d n o t o b t a i n consistent results. T h e s e e d s
d i d n o t p a c k w e l l , f o r t h e y w e r e t o o light a n d still v a r i e d t o o m u c h
i n size, d e s p i t e sieving. R e m e a s u r e m e n t s o f single skulls m i g h t diff e r by m o r e t h a n 5 p e r c e n t , or 4 c u b i c i n c h e s in skulls with an
a v e r a g e capacity near 80 cubic inches. Consequently, he switched
t o o n e - e i g h t h - i n c h - d i a m e t e r lead shot " o f t h e size called B B " a n d
a c h i e v e d c o n s i s t e n t results that n e v e r v a r i e d by m o r e t h a n a single
c u b i c i n c h f o r t h e s a m e skull.
M o r t o n p u b l i s h e d t h r e e m a j o r w o r k s o n t h e sizes o f h u m a n
s k u l l s — h i s lavish, b e a u t i f u l l y illustrated v o l u m e o n A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s , t h e Crania Americana of 1 8 3 9 ; his studies on skulls f r o m t h e
E g y p t i a n t o m b s , t h e Crania Aegyptiaca o f 1844; a n d t h e e p i t o m e o f
his e n t i r e c o l l e c t i o n in 1849. E a c h c o n t a i n e d a table, s u m m a r i z i n g
his results o n a v e r a g e skull v o l u m e s a r r a n g e d b y r a c e . I h a v e
r e p r o d u c e d all t h r e e tables h e r e ( T a b l e s 2.1 t o 2.3). T h e y r e p r e s e n t
the major contribution of A m e r i c a n polygeny to debates about
racial r a n k i n g . T h e y o u t l i v e d t h e t h e o r y o f s e p a r a t e c r e a t i o n s a n d
w e r e r e p r i n t e d r e p e a t e d l y d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s irref u t a b l e , " h a r d " d a t a o n the m e n t a l w o r t h o f h u m a n races (see
p . i 1 6 ) . N e e d l e s s t o say, they m a t c h e d e v e r y g o o d Y a n k e e ' s p r e j u d i c e — w h i t e s o n t o p , I n d i a n s i n t h e m i d d l e , a n d blacks o n t h e bot-
86
T H E
Table 2*1
M I S M E A S U R E
OF
MAN
Morton's summary table of cranial capacity by race
INTERNAL CAPACITY (IN )
3
RACE
N
MEAN
LARGEST
SMALLEST
Caucasian
Mongolian
Malay
American
Ethiopian
52
10
18
144
29
87
83
81
82
78
109
93
89
100
94
75
69
64
60
65
Table 2*2
Cranial capacities for skulls from Egyptian tombs
PEOPLE
Caucasian
Pelasgic
Semitic
Egyptian
Negroid
Negro
MEAN CAPACITY (IN )
N
88
82
80
79
73
21
5
39
6
1
3
torn; a n d , a m o n g w h i t e s , T e u t o n s a n d A n g l o - S a x o n s o n t o p , J e w s
i n t h e m i d d l e , a n d H i n d u s o n the b o t t o m . M o r e o v e r , t h e p a t t e r n
h a d b e e n stable t h r o u g h o u t r e c o r d e d history, f o r whites h a d t h e
s a m e a d v a n t a g e o v e r blacks i n a n c i e n t E g y p t . Status a n d access t o
p o w e r i n M o r t o n ' s A m e r i c a faithfully reflected biological m e r i t .
H o w c o u l d sentimentalists a n d e g a l i t a r i a n s stand against t h e dictates o f n a t u r e ? M o r t o n h a d p r o v i d e d c l e a n , objective d a t a b a s e d
o n t h e largest collection o f skulls i n t h e w o r l d .
D u r i n g t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 7 I s p e n t several w e e k s r e a n a l y z i n g
M o r t o n ' s d a t a . ( M o r t o n , t h e self-styled objectivist, p u b l i s h e d all his
r a w i n f o r m a t i o n . W e c a n i n f e r with little d o u b t h o w h e m o v e d
f r o m r a w m e a s u r e m e n t s t o s u m m a r y tables.) I n s h o r t , a n d t o p u t
it b l u n t l y , M o r t o n ' s s u m m a r i e s a r e a p a t c h w o r k of f u d g i n g a n d
finagling in t h e c l e a r interest of c o n t r o l l i n g a p r i o r i c o n v i c t i o n s .
Y e t — a n d this i s t h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g aspect o f t h e c a s e — I f i n d n o
evidence of conscious fraud; indeed, had Morton been a conscious
f u d g e r , h e w o u l d n o t h a v e p u b l i s h e d his d a t a s o o p e n l y .
C o n s c i o u s f r a u d is p r o b a b l y r a r e in science. It is also n o t v e r y
i n t e r e s t i n g , f o r it tells us little a b o u t the n a t u r e of scientific activity.
A M E R I C A N
Table 2*3
P O L Y G E N Y
A N D
87
C R A N I O M E T R Y
Morton s final summary of cranial capacity by race
CRANIAL CAPACITY (IN )
3
LARGEST
SMALLEST
18
5
7
10
6
32
3
17
114
105
97
94
97
91
98
96
70
91
82
75
78
67
84
66
90 ~
96
90 .
84
87
80
89
80
18
55
97
96
74
68
88
80
6
91
70
82
20
3
97
84
68
82
86'
83.
Toltecan Family
Peruvians
155
75]
22
161
101
92
104
58
Mexicans
Barbarous Tribes
67
70
79 J
84
62
12
3
8
99
89
83
83
65
73
68
63
83
82
75
75
RACES AND FAMILIES
N
MEAN
MEAN
MODERN CAUCASIAN GROUP
T e u t o n i c Family
Germans
English
Anglo-Americans
Pelasgic Family
Celtic Family
Indostanic Family
Semitic Family
Nilotic Family
92
ANCIENT CAUCASIAN GROUP
Pelasgic Family
Nilotic Family
MONGOLIAN GROUP
Chinese Family
MALAY GROUP
Malayan Family
Polynesian Family
O
KJ
AMERICAN GROUP
/y
NEGRO GROUP
Native African Family
American-born Negroes
Hottentot Family
Australians
83
L i a r s , i f d i s c o v e r e d , a r e e x c o m m u n i c a t e d ; scientists d e c l a r e that
their p r o f e s s i o n has p r o p e r l y p o l i c e d itself, a n d they r e t u r n t o
w o r k , m y t h o l o g y u n i m p a i r e d , a n d objectively v i n d i c a t e d . T h e
p r e v a l e n c e of unconscious finagling, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , s u g g e s t s a
88
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t t h e social c o n t e x t o f science. F o r i f scientists c a n b e h o n e s t l y s e l f - d e l u d e d t o M o r t o n ' s e x t e n t , t h e n p r i o r
p r e j u d i c e m a y b e f o u n d a n y w h e r e , e v e n i n t h e basics o f m e a s u r i n g
bones and toting sums.
The case of Indian inferiority:
Crania
Americana*
M o r t o n b e g a n his first a n d largest w o r k , t h e Crania Americana
o f 1 8 3 9 , with a d i s c o u r s e o n the essential c h a r a c t e r o f h u m a n r a c e s .
His s t a t e m e n t s i m m e d i a t e l y e x p o s e his p r e j u d i c e s . O f t h e " G r e e n l a n d e s q u i m a u x , " h e w r o t e : " T h e y are crafty, s e n s u a l , u n g r a t e f u l ,
o b s t i n a t e a n d u n f e e l i n g , a n d m u c h o f t h e i r a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e i r child r e n m a y b e t r a c e d t o p u r e l y selfish m o t i v e s . T h e y d e v o u r t h e m o s t
disgusting aliments u n c o o k e d a n d uncleaned, and seem to have no
i d e a s b e y o n d p r o v i d i n g f o r the p r e s e n t m o m e n t . . . . T h e i r m e n t a l
faculties, f r o m i n f a n c y t o old a g e , p r e s e n t a c o n t i n u e d c h i l d h o o d .
. . . I n g l u t t o n y , selfishness a n d i n g r a t i t u d e , t h e y a r e p e r h a p s
u n e q u a l l e d b y any o t h e r n a t i o n o f p e o p l e " ( 1 8 3 9 , p . 54). M o r t o n
t h o u g h t little b e t t e r o f o t h e r M o n g o l i a n s , f o r h e w r o t e o f t h e
C h i n e s e (p. 50): " S o versatile a r e their f e e l i n g s a n d a c t i o n s , that
t h e y h a v e b e e n c o m p a r e d t o the m o n k e y r a c e , w h o s e a t t e n t i o n i s
p e r p e t u a l l y c h a n g i n g f r o m o n e object t o a n o t h e r . " T h e H o t t e n t o t s ,
h e c l a i m e d (p. 90), are " t h e n e a r e s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e l o w e r
a n i m a l s . . . . T h e i r c o m p l e x i o n is a yellowish b r o w n , c o m p a r e d by
travellers t o t h e p e c u l i a r h u e o f E u r o p e a n s i n t h e last stages o f
j a u n d i c e . . . . T h e w o m e n a r e r e p r e s e n t e d as e v e n m o r e r e p u l s i v e
in a p p e a r a n c e than the m e n . " Y e t , w h e n M o r t o n h a d to describe
o n e C a u c a s i a n tribe a s a " m e r e h o r d e o f r a p a c i o u s b a n d i t t i " (p. 9),
h e q u i c k l y a d d e d that " t h e i r m o r a l p e r c e p t i o n s , u n d e r t h e influence of an equitable government, would no doubt assume a m u c h
m o r e favorable aspect."
M o r t o n ' s s u m m a r y c h a r t ( T a b l e 2.1) p r e s e n t s t h e " h a r d " a r g u m e n t o f t h e Crania Americana. H e h a d m e a s u r e d t h e capacity o f
144 I n d i a n skulls a n d c a l c u l a t e d a m e a n of 82 c u b i c i n c h e s , a full
5 c u b i c i n c h e s b e l o w t h e C a u c a s i a n n o r m (Figs. 2.4 a n d 2.5). In
a d d i t i o n , M o r t o n a p p e n d e d a table o f p h r e n o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t s
indicating a deficiency of " h i g h e r " mental powers a m o n g Indians.
" T h e b e n e v o l e n t m i n d , " M o r t o n c o n c l u d e d (p. 82), " m a y r e g r e t
*This account omits many statistical details of my analysis. T h e complete tale
appears in Gould, 1978. Some passages in pp. 88-101 are taken from this article.
A M E R I C A N
P O L Y G E N Y
A N D
C R A N I O M E T R Y
8
9
t h e i n a p t i t u d e o f t h e I n d i a n f o r civilization," b u t s e n t i m e n t a l i t y
m u s t yield t o fact. " T h e s t r u c t u r e o f his m i n d a p p e a r s t o b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m that o f t h e w h i t e m a n , n o r c a n the t w o h a r m o n i z e i n t h e
social r e l a t i o n s e x c e p t o n the m o s t limited scale." I n d i a n s " a r e n o t
o n l y a v e r s e t o t h e restraints o f e d u c a t i o n , b u t f o r t h e m o s t p a r t a r e
i n c a p a b l e o f a c o n t i n u e d p r o c e s s o f r e a s o n i n g o n abstract s u b j e c t s "
(p. 8 1 ) .
S i n c e Crania Americana is p r i m a r i l y a treatise on t h e i n f e r i o r
q u a l i t y o f I n d i a n intellect, I n o t e f i r s t o f all that M o r t o n ' s cited
a v e r a g e o f 8 2 c u b i c i n c h e s f o r I n d i a n skulls i s i n c o r r e c t . H e s e p a rated Indians into two groups, "Toltecans" from Mexico and South
America, and "Barbarous Tribes" from North America. Eighty-two
i s t h e a v e r a g e f o r B a r b a r o u s skulls; t h e total s a m p l e o f 144 yields
a m e a n of 80.2 c u b i c i n c h e s , or a g a p of a l m o s t 7 c u b i c i n c h e s
between Indian and Caucasian averages. (I do not know how Mort o n m a d e this e l e m e n t a r y e r r o r . I t d i d p e r m i t h i m , i n a n y case, t o
r e t a i n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c h a i n o f b e i n g with whites o n t o p , I n d i a n s
i n t h e m i d d l e , a n d blacks o n t h e b o t t o m . )
B u t t h e " c o r r e c t " v a l u e of 80.2 is f a r t o o low, f o r it is the result
o f a n i m p r o p e r p r o c e d u r e . M o r t o n ' s 144 skulls b e l o n g t o m a n y
d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f I n d i a n s ; t h e s e g r o u p s d i f f e r significantly
a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s i n c r a n i a l capacity. E a c h g r o u p s h o u l d b e
w e i g h t e d e q u a l l y , lest t h e f i n a l a v e r a g e b e b i a s e d b y u n e q u a l size o f
s u b s a m p l e s . S u p p o s e , f o r e x a m p l e , that w e tried t o e s t i m a t e a v e r a g e h u m a n h e i g h t f r o m a s a m p l e o f t w o j o c k e y s , t h e a u t h o r o f this
b o o k (strictly m i d d l i n g s t a t u r e ) , a n d all t h e p l a y e r s i n t h e N a t i o n a l
Basketball Association. T h e h u n d r e d s o f Jabbars would s w a m p the
r e m a i n i n g t h r e e a n d g i v e a n a v e r a g e i n e x c e s s o f six a n d a h a l f
f e e t . If, h o w e v e r , w e a v e r a g e d t h e a v e r a g e s o f t h e t h r e e g r o u p s
( j o c k e y s , m e , a n d t h e basketball p l a y e r s ) , t h e n o u r f i g u r e w o u l d lie
c l o s e r to t h e t r u e v a l u e . M o r t o n ' s s a m p l e is s t r o n g l y b i a s e d by a
major overrepresentation of an extreme g r o u p — t h e small-brained
I n c a P e r u v i a n s . ( T h e y h a v e a m e a n cranial capacity o f 74.36 c u b i c
inches and provide 25 percent of the entire sample). Large-brained
I r o q u o i s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c o n t r i b u t e o n l y 3 skulls t o t h e total
s a m p l e ( 2 p e r c e n t ) . If, b y t h e a c c i d e n t s o f c o l l e c t i n g , M o r t o n ' s samp l e h a d i n c l u d e d 2 5 p e r c e n t I r o q u o i s a n d j u s t a f e w I n c a s , his
a v e r a g e w o u l d h a v e risen substantially. C o n s e q u e n t l y , I c o r r e c t e d
this bias as best I c o u l d by a v e r a g i n g t h e m e a n v a l u e s f o r all tribes
2.4
T h e skull of an Araucanian Indian. T h e lithographs of this and the
next figure were done by John Collins, a great scientific artist unfortunately unrecognized today. They appeared in Morton's Crama Amencana
of ^ a .
2 * 5 T h e skull of a Huron Indian. Lithograph by John
Morton's Crania Americana, 1839.
9
2
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
r e p r e s e n t e d b y 4 o r m o r e skulls. T h e I n d i a n a v e r a g e n o w rises t o
83.79 cubic inches.
T h i s r e v i s e d v a l u e is still m o r e t h a n 3 c u b i c i n c h e s f r o m t h e
Caucasian average. Yet, w h e n we e x a m i n e Morton's p r o c e d u r e for
c o m p u t i n g the Caucasian m e a n , we uncover an astounding inconsistency. S i n c e statistical r e a s o n i n g is largely a p r o d u c t of t h e last
o n e h u n d r e d years, I might have excused Morton's error for the
I n d i a n m e a n b y a r g u i n g that h e d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e biases p r o d u c e d b y u n e q u a l sizes a m o n g s u b s a m p l e s . B u t n o w w e d i s c o v e r
that h e u n d e r s t o o d this bias p e r f e c t l y w e l l — f o r M o r t o n c a l c u l a t e d
his h i g h C a u c a s i a n m e a n b y c o n s c i o u s l y e l i m i n a t i n g s m a l l - b r a i n e d
H i n d u s f r o m his s a m p l e . H e writes (p. 2 6 1 ) : " I t i s p r o p e r , h o w e v e r ,
t o m e n t i o n that b u t 3 H i n d o o s a r e a d m i t t e d i n t h e w h o l e n u m b e r ,
b e c a u s e the skulls o f t h e s e p e o p l e a r e p r o b a b l y s m a l l e r t h a n t h o s e
o f a n y o t h e r e x i s t i n g n a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , 17 H i n d o o h e a d s g i v e a
m e a n o f b u t 7 5 c u b i c i n c h e s ; a n d the t h r e e r e c e i v e d i n t o t h e table
a r e t a k e n a t that a v e r a g e . " T h u s , M o r t o n i n c l u d e d a l a r g e s u b s a m ple of small-brained p e o p l e (Inca Peruvians) to pull d o w n the
I n d i a n a v e r a g e , b u t e x c l u d e d j u s t a s m a n y small C a u c a s i a n skulls
t o raise t h e m e a n o f his o w n g r o u p . S i n c e h e tells u s w h a t h e d i d s o
b a l d l y , w e m u s t a s s u m e that M o r t o n d i d n o t d e e m his p r o c e d u r e
i m p r o p e r . B u t b y w h a t r a t i o n a l e did h e k e e p I n c a s a n d e x c l u d e
H i n d u s , unless it w e r e t h e a p r i o r i a s s u m p t i o n of a truly h i g h e r
C a u c a s i a n m e a n ? F o r o n e m i g h t t h e n t h r o w o u t the H i n d u s a m p l e
a s t r u l y a n o m a l o u s , b u t r e t a i n t h e I n c a s a m p l e (with t h e s a m e m e a n
a s t h e H i n d u s , b y t h e way) a s t h e l o w e r e n d o f n o r m a l i t y f o r its
disadvantaged larger group.
I r e s t o r e d t h e H i n d u skulls t o M o r t o n ' s s a m p l e , u s i n g t h e s a m e
p r o c e d u r e o f e q u a l w e i g h t i n g f o r all g r o u p s . M o r t o n ' s C a u c a s i a n
s a m p l e , b y his r e c k o n i n g , c o n t a i n s skulls f r o m f o u r s u b g r o u p s , s o
H i n d u s s h o u l d c o n t r i b u t e o n e - f o u r t h o f all skulls t o t h e s a m p l e . I f
w e r e s t o r e all s e v e n t e e n o f M o r t o n ' s H i n d u skulls, they f o r m 2 6
p e r c e n t o f t h e total s a m p l e o f sixty-six. T h e C a u c a s i a n m e a n n o w
d r o p s t o 84.45 c u b i c i n c h e s , f o r n o d i f f e r e n c e w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g
b e t w e e n I n d i a n s a n d C a u c a s i a n s . ( E s k i m o s , d e s p i t e M o r t o n ' s low
o p i n i o n o f t h e m , y i e l d a m e a n o f 86.8, h i d d e n b y a m a l g a m a t i o n
with o t h e r s u b g r o u p s i n the M o n g o l g r a n d m e a n o f 83). S o m u c h
f o r I n d i a n inferiority.
A M E R I C A N
P O L Y G E N Y
The case of the Egyptian
A N D
catacombs:
C R A N I O M E T R Y
93
Crania Aegyptiaca
M o r t o n ' s f r i e n d a n d fellow p o l y g e n i s t G e o r g e G l i d d o n was
U n i t e d States c o n s u l f o r the city o f C a i r o . H e d i s p a t c h e d t o Philad e l p h i a m o r e t h a n o n e h u n d r e d skulls f r o m t o m b s o f a n c i e n t
E g y p t , a n d M o r t o n r e s p o n d e d with his s e c o n d m a j o r treatise, t h e
Crania Aegyptiaca of 1844. M o r t o n h a d s h o w n , or so he t h o u g h t ,
that whites s u r p a s s e d I n d i a n s i n m e n t a l e n d o w m e n t . N o w h e
w o u l d c r o w n his story b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g that t h e d i s c r e p a n c y
b e t w e e n whites a n d blacks was e v e n g r e a t e r , a n d that this d i f f e r e n c e h a d b e e n stable f o r m o r e t h a n t h r e e t h o u s a n d y e a r s .
M o r t o n felt that h e c o u l d identify b o t h races a n d s u b g r o u p s
a m o n g races f r o m f e a t u r e s o f t h e skull (most a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t o d a y
w o u l d d e n y that s u c h a s s i g n m e n t s c a n b e m a d e u n a m b i g u o u s l y ) .
H e d i v i d e d his C a u c a s i a n skulls into Pelasgics ( H e l l e n e s , o r a n c i e n t
G r e e k f o r e b e a r s ) , J e w s , a n d E g y p t i a n s — i n that o r d e r , a g a i n c o n f i r m i n g A n g l o - S a x o n p r e f e r e n c e s ( T a b l e 2.2). N o n - C a u c a s i a n
skulls h e identified e i t h e r a s " n e g r o i d " ( h y b r i d s o f N e g r o a n d C a u casian with m o r e black t h a n white) o r a s p u r e N e g r o .
M o r t o n ' s subjective division of C a u c a s i a n skulls is clearly
u n w a r r a n t e d , f o r h e simply a s s i g n e d the m o s t b u l b o u s c r a n i a t o his
f a v o r e d Pelasgic g r o u p a n d t h e m o s t flattened t o E g y p t i a n s ; h e
m e n t i o n s n o o t h e r criteria o f s u b d i v i s i o n . I f w e i g n o r e his t h r e e f o l d
s e p a r a t i o n a n d a m a l g a m a t e all sixty-five C a u c a s i a n skulls into a single s a m p l e , w e o b t a i n a n a v e r a g e capacity o f 8 2 . 1 5 c u b i c i n c h e s . (If
w e g i v e M o r t o n t h e benefit o f all d o u b t a n d r a n k his d u b i o u s subsamples e q u a l l y — a s we did in c o m p u t i n g Indian and Caucasian
m e a n s f o r t h e Crania Americana—we o b t a i n an a v e r a g e of 83.3
cubic inches.)
E i t h e r o f t h e s e v a l u e s still e x c e e d s t h e n e g r o i d a n d N e g r o a v e r a g e s substantially. M o r t o n a s s u m e d that h e h a d m e a s u r e d a n
innate difference in intelligence. He never considered any other
p r o p o s a l f o r t h e disparity i n a v e r a g e cranial c a p a c i t y — t h o u g h
a n o t h e r s i m p l e a n d o b v i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n lay b e f o r e h i m .
Sizes o f b r a i n s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e sizes o f b o d i e s that c a r r y t h e m :
b i g p e o p l e t e n d t o h a v e l a r g e r b r a i n s t h a n small p e o p l e . T h i s fact
d o e s n o t i m p l y that b i g p e o p l e a r e s m a r t e r — a n y m o r e t h a n elephants should be j u d g e d m o r e intelligent than h u m a n s because
their brains a r e l a r g e r . A p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n s m u s t b e m a d e f o r
2•6
Skulls from the Egyptian catacombs. From Morton's Crania Aegyptiaca of 1844.
94
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
d i f f e r e n c e s i n b o d y size. M e n t e n d t o b e l a r g e r t h a n w o m e n ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , their b r a i n s a r e b i g g e r . W h e n c o r r e c t i o n s f o r b o d y size
are applied, m e n and w o m e n have brains o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y equal
size. M o r t o n n o t o n l y failed t o c o r r e c t f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n sex o r
b o d y size; h e d i d n o t e v e n r e c o g n i z e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h o u g h his
d a t a p r o c l a i m e d i t l o u d a n d c l e a r . ( I c a n o n l y c o n j e c t u r e that M o r t o n n e v e r s e p a r a t e d his skulls b y sex o r s t a t u r e — t h o u g h his tables
record these d a t a — b e c a u s e he wanted so m u c h to read differences
in b r a i n size d i r e c t l y as d i f f e r e n c e s in i n t e l l i g e n c e . )
M a n y o f t h e E g y p t i a n skulls c a m e with m u m m i f i e d r e m a i n s o f
t h e i r possessors (Fig. 2.6), a n d M o r t o n c o u l d r e c o r d t h e i r sex u n a m biguously. If we use Morton's o w n designations and c o m p u t e separ a t e a v e r a g e s f o r m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s (as M o r t o n n e v e r d i d ) , w e o b t a i n
the following remarkable result. M e a n capacity for twenty-four
m a l e C a u c a s i a n skulls is 86.5 c u b i c i n c h e s ; t w e n t y - t w o f e m a l e skulls
a v e r a g e 7 7 . 2 (the r e m a i n i n g n i n e t e e n skulls c o u l d n o t b e i d e n t i f i e d
b y s e x ) . O f t h e six n e g r o i d skulls, M o r t o n i d e n t i f i e d t w o a s f e m a l e
(at 7 1 a n d 7 7 c u b i c inches) a n d c o u l d n o t a l l o c a t e t h e o t h e r f o u r (at
77> 77> 87. a n d 88).* I f w e m a k e t h e r e a s o n a b l e c o n j e c t u r e that t h e
t w o s m a l l e r skulls (77 a n d 7 7 ) a r e f e m a l e , a n d t h e t w o l a r g e r m a l e
(87 a n d 88), w e o b t a i n a m a l e n e g r o i d a v e r a g e o f 8 7 . 5 , slightly
above the Caucasian male m e a n of 86.5, and a female negroid
a v e r a g e o f 7 5 . 5 , slightly b e l o w t h e C a u c a s i a n v a l u e o f 7 7 . 2 . T h e
a p p a r e n t difference of 4 cubic inches between Morton's Caucasian
a n d n e g r o i d s a m p l e s m a y o n l y r e c o r d t h e fact that a b o u t h a l f his
C a u c a s i a n s a m p l e i s m a l e , w h i l e o n l y o n e - t h i r d the n e g r o i d s a m p l e
may be male. ( T h e apparent difference is magnified by Morton's
incorrect r o u n d i n g of the negroid average d o w n to 79 rather than
u p t o 80. A s w e shall see a g a i n , all o f M o r t o n ' s m i n o r n u m e r i c a l
e r r o r s f a v o r his p r e j u d i c e s . ) D i f f e r e n c e s i n a v e r a g e b r a i n size
between Caucasians and negroids in the Egyptian tombs only
r e c o r d d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t a t u r e d u e t o s e x , n o t v a r i a t i o n i n "intellig e n c e . " Y o u will n o t b e s u r p r i s e d t o l e a r n that t h e single p u r e
N e g r o skull (73 c u b i c inches) is a f e m a l e .
*In his final catalogue of 1849, Morton guessed at sex (and age within five
years!) for all crania. In this later work, he specifies 77, 87, and 88 as male, and the
remaining 77 as female. This allocation was pure guesswork; my alternate version
is equally plausible. In the Crania Aegyptiaca itself, Morton was more cautious and
only identified sex for specimens with mummified remains.
6
T H E
9
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
Table 2*4
Cranial capacity of Indian groups ordered by
Morton's assessment of body stature
STATURE AND GROUP
CRANIAL CAPACITY (IN )
N
88.3
88.8
84.4
8
4
7
80.2
80.5
81.7
13
8
9
78.8
74.4
10
33
3
LARGE
Seminole-Muskogee
Chippeway and related groups
Dacota and Osage
MIDDLE
Mexicans
Menominee
Mounds
SMALL
Columbia River Flatheads
Peruvians
T h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f b r a i n a n d b o d y also resolves a q u e s t i o n left
h a n g i n g in o u r p r e v i o u s discussion of t h e Crania Americana: W h a t
i s t h e basis f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n a v e r a g e b r a i n size a m o n g I n d i a n p e o ples? ( T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s b o t h e r e d M o r t o n c o n s i d e r a b l y , f o r h e
c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d h o w s m a l l - b r a i n e d I n c a s h a d built s u c h a n
e l a b o r a t e civilization, t h o u g h h e c o n s o l e d h i m s e l f with the fact o f
t h e i r r a p i d c o n q u e s t b y t h e c o n q u i s t a d o r e s ) . A g a i n , t h e a n s w e r lay
b e f o r e h i m , b u t M o r t o n n e v e r saw it. M o r t o n p r e s e n t s subjective
d a t a o n b o d i l y statures i n his d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e v a r i o u s tribes, a n d
I p r e s e n t these assessments a l o n g with a v e r a g e b r a i n sizes in T a b l e
2.4. T h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f b r a i n a n d b o d y size i s a f f i r m e d w i t h o u t
e x c e p t i o n . T h e low H i n d u m e a n a m o n g C a u c a s i a n s also r e c o r d s a
d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a t u r e , n o t a n o t h e r case o f d u m b I n d i a n s .
The case of the shifting black
mean
In t h e Crania Americana, M o r t o n cited 78 c u b i c i n c h e s as the
a v e r a g e cranial capacity f o r blacks. Five y e a r s later, in t h e Crania
Aegyptiaca, h e a p p e n d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g f o o t n o t e t o his table o f m e a s u r e m e n t s : " I h a v e i n m y possession 7 9 c r a n i a o f N e g r o e s b o r n i n
A f r i c a . . . . Of t h e w h o l e n u m b e r , 58 a r e a d u l t . . . a n d g i v e 85 c u b i c
i n c h e s f o r t h e a v e r a g e size o f t h e b r a i n " ( 1 8 4 4 , p . 1 1 3 ) .
S i n c e M o r t o n h a d c h a n g e d his m e t h o d o f m e a s u r e m e n t f r o m
A M E R I C A N
P O L Y G E N Y
A N D
C R A N I O M E T R Y
97
m u s t a r d seed t o lead shot b e t w e e n 1 8 3 9 a n d 1 8 4 4 , 1 s u s p e c t e d this
a l t e r a t i o n a s a c a u s e f o r t h e rising bla ck m e a n . F o r t u n a t e l y , M o r t o n
r e m e a s u r e d m o s t o f his skulls p e r s o n a l l y , a n d his v a r i o u s catal o g u e s p r e s e n t t a b u l a t i o n s o f t h e s a m e skulls b y b o t h s e e d a n d shot
(see G o u l d , 1 9 7 8 , f o r details).
I a s s u m e d that m e a s u r e s b y s e e d w o u l d b e l o w e r . S e e d s a r e
light a n d v a r i a b l e i n size, e v e n after s i e v i n g . H e n c e , t h e y d o n o t
p a c k well. B y v i g o r o u s s h a k i n g o r p r e s s i n g o f t h e t h u m b a t the
f o r a m e n m a g n u m (the h o l e a t t h e b a s e o f a skull), s e e d s c a n b e
m a d e t o settle, p r o v i d i n g r o o m f o r m o r e . M e a s u r e s b y s e e d w e r e
very variable; M o r t o n reported differences of several cubic inches
f o r r e c a l i b r a t i o n s o f t h e s a m e skull. H e e v e n t u a l l y b e c a m e d i s c o u r a g e d , f i r e d his assistants, a n d r e d i d all his m e a s u r e m e n t s p e r s o n ally, with lead shot. R e c a l i b r a t i o n s n e v e r v a r i e d by m o r e t h a n a
c u b i c i n c h , a n d w e m a y a c c e p t M o r t o n ' s j u d g m e n t that m e a s u r e s b y
shot w e r e objective, a c c u r a t e , a n d r e p e a t a b l e — w h i l e e a r l i e r m e a s u r e s b y seed w e r e h i g h l y subjective a n d erratic.
I then calculated the discrepancies between seed and shot by
r a c e . S h o t , as I s u s p e c t e d , always y i e l d e d h i g h e r v a l u e s t h a n s e e d .
F o r 1 1 1 I n d i a n skulls, m e a s u r e d b y b o t h criteria, shot e x c e e d s s e e d
b y a n a v e r a g e o f 2.2 c u b i c i n c h e s . D a t a a r e n o t a s reliable f o r b l a c k s
a n d C a u c a s i a n s b e c a u s e M o r t o n d i d n o t specify i n d i v i d u a l skulls
f o r t h e s e r a c e s in t h e Crania Americana ( m e a s u r e d by s e e d ) . F o r
C a u c a s i a n s , 1 9 identifiable skulls yield a n a v e r a g e d i s c r e p a n c y o f
o n l y 1.8 c u b i c i n c h e s f o r shot o v e r s e e d . Y e t 1 8 A f r i c a n skulls,
r e m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e s a m p l e r e p o r t e d in Crania Americana, p r o d u c e a m e a n by s h o t of 83.44 c u b i c i n c h e s , a rise of 5.4 c u b i c i n c h e s
f r o m the 1 8 3 9 a v e r a g e b y s e e d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e m o r e " i n f e r i o r "
a r a c e by M o r t o n ' s a p r i o r i j u d g m e n t , t h e g r e a t e r t h e d i s c r e p a n c y
b e t w e e n a subjective m e a s u r e m e n t , easily a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l y
f u d g e d , a n d a n objective m e a s u r e u n a f f e c t e d b y p r i o r p r e j u d i c e .
T h e d i s c r e p a n c y f o r b l a c k s , I n d i a n s , a n d C a u c a s i a n s i s 5.4, 2.2, a n d
1.8 c u b i c i n c h e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Plausible s c e n a r i o s a r e easy t o c o n s t r u c t . M o r t o n , m e a s u r i n g b y
s e e d , picks up a t h r e a t e n i n g l y l a r g e black skull, fills it lightly a n d
gives it a f e w d e s u l t o r y s h a k e s . N e x t , he takes a distressingly small
C a u c a s i a n s k u l l , s h a k e s h a r d , a n d p u s h e s m i g h t i l y a t the f o r a m e n
m a g n u m with his t h u m b . I t i s easily d o n e , w i t h o u t c o n s c i o u s motivation; e x p e c t a t i o n is a p o w e r f u l g u i d e to a c t i o n .
T H E
98
Table 2*5
Corrected values for Morton's
PEOPLE
Mongolians
Modern Caucasians
Native A m e r i c a n s
Malays
Ancient Caucasians
Africans
The
final
tabulation
M I S M E A S U R E
final
O F
MAN
tabulation
CRANIAL CAPACITY (IN )
3
87
87
86
85
84
83
of 1849
M o r t o n ' s b u r g e o n i n g c o l l e c t i o n i n c l u d e d 623 skulls w h e n h e
p r e s e n t e d his f i n a l t a b u l a t i o n i n 1 8 4 9 — a n o v e r w h e l m i n g affirmat i o n o f t h e r a n k i n g that e v e r y A n g l o - S a x o n e x p e c t e d .
T h e Caucasian subsamples suffer f r o m errors a n d distortions.
T h e G e r m a n m e a n , r e p o r t e d a t 9 0 i n t h e s u m m a r y , i s 88.4 f r o m
i n d i v i d u a l skulls listed i n t h e c a t a l o g u e ; t h e c o r r e c t A n g l o - A m e r i c a n a v e r a g e i s 8 9 ( 8 9 . 1 4 ) , n o t 90. T h e h i g h E n g l i s h m e a n o f 96 i s
c o r r e c t , b u t t h e small s a m p l e i s entirely m a l e . * I f w e follow o u r
p r o c e d u r e o f c o m p u t i n g a v e r a g e s a m o n g s u b s a m p l e s , t h e six m o d e r n C a u c a s i a n " f a m i l i e s " yield a m e a n o f 8 7 c u b i c i n c h e s . t T h e
a n c i e n t C a u c a s i a n a v e r a g e f o r t w o s u b s a m p l e s is 84 c u b i c inches
( T a b l e 2.5).
Six C h i n e s e skulls p r o v i d e M o r t o n with a M o n g o l i a n m e a n o f
8 2 , b u t this l o w v a l u e r e c o r d s t w o cases o f selective a m n e s i a : First,
• T o demonstrate again how large differences based on stature can be, I report
these additional data, recovered from Morton's tabulations, but never calculated or
recognized by him: 1) For Inca Peruvians, fifty-three male skulls average 77.5; sixtyone female skulls, 72.1. 2) For Germans, nine male skulls average 92.2; eight
females, 84.3.
t My original report (Gould, 1978) incorrectly listed the modern Caucasian mean as
85.3. T h e reason for this error is embarrassing, but instructive, for it illustrates, at
my expense, the cardinal principle of this book: the social embeddedness of science
and the frequent grafting of expectation upon supposed objectivity. Line 7 in Table
2.3 lists the range of Semitic skulls as 84 to 98 cubic inches for Morton's sample of
3. However, my original paper cited a mean of 80—an obvious impossibility if the
smallest skull measures 84. I was working from a Xerox of Morton's original chart,
and his correct value of 89 is smudged to look like an 80 on my copy. Nonetheless,
the range of 84 to 98 is clearly indicated right alongside, and I never saw the inconsistency—presumably because a low value of 80 fit my hopes for a depressed Caucasian mean. T h e 80 therefore "felt" right and I never checked it. I am grateful to
Dr. Irving Klotz of Northwestern University for pointing out this error to me.
A M E R I C A N
P O L Y G E N Y
A N D
C R A N I O M E T R Y
99
M o r t o n e x c l u d e d t h e latest C h i n e s e s p e c i m e n (skull n u m b e r 1 3 3 6
a t 9 8 c u b i c i n c h e s ) , t h o u g h i t m u s t h a v e b e e n i n his collection w h e n
h e p u b l i s h e d his s u m m a r y b e c a u s e h e i n c l u d e s m a n y P e r u v i a n
skulls with h i g h e r n u m b e r s . S e c o n d l y , a l t h o u g h M o r t o n d e p l o r e d
the a b s e n c e o f E s k i m o s f r o m his c o l l e c t i o n ( 1 8 4 9 , p . iv), h e d i d n o t
m e n t i o n the t h r e e E s k i m o skulls that h e h a d m e a s u r e d f o r Crania
Americana. ( T h e s e b e l o n g e d t o his f r i e n d G e o r g e C o m b e a n d d o
n o t a p p e a r i n M o r t o n ' s final c a t a l o g u e . )
M o r t o n n e v e r r e m e a s u r e d t h e s e skulls w i t h s h o t , b u t i f w e a p p l y
t h e I n d i a n c o r r e c t i o n o f 2.2 c u b i c i n c h e s t o their s e e d a v e r a g e o f
86.8 w e o b t a i n a m e a n o f 89. T h e s e t w o s a m p l e s ( C h i n e s e with
n u m b e r 1 3 3 6 a d d e d , a n d E s k i m o c o n s e r v a t i v e l y c o r r e c t e d ) yield a
M o n g o l i a n a v e r a g e of 87 cubic inches.
B y 1 8 4 9 M o r t o n ' s I n d i a n m e a n h a d p l u m m e t e d t o 7 9 . B u t this
figure is invalid for the same reason as before, t h o u g h now intensified—inequality of numbers a m o n g subsamples. Small-headed
( a n d small-statured) P e r u v i a n s p r o v i d e d 2 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e 1 8 3 9
s a m p l e , b u t t h e i r f r e q u e n c y h a d r i s e n t o n e a r l y h a l f ( 1 5 5 o f 338
skulls) b y 1 8 4 9 . I f w e u s e o u r p r e v i o u s c r i t e r i o n a n d c o m p u t e t h e
a v e r a g e o f all s u b s a m p l e s w e i g h t e d e q u a l l y , t h e I n d i a n a v e r a g e i s
86 cubic inches.
For the N e g r o average, we should d r o p Morton's australoids
b e c a u s e h e w a n t e d t o assess t h e status o f A f r i c a n blacks a n d w e n o
l o n g e r a c c e p t a close r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s — d a r k
skin e v o l v e d m o r e t h a n o n c e a m o n g h u m a n g r o u p s . I also d r o p
t h e H o t t e n t o t s a m p l e o f 3 . A l l skulls a r e f e m a l e , a n d H o t t e n t o t s
a r e v e r y small i n s t a t u r e . N a t i v e a n d A m e r i c a n - b o r n b l a c k s , a m a l g a m a t e d t o a single s a m p l e , yield a n a v e r a g e v a l u e b e t w e e n 8 2 a n d
83, but closer to 83.
In short, my correction of Morton's conventional r a n k i n g
reveals n o significant d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g r a c e s f o r M o r t o n ' s o w n
d a t a ( T a b l e 2.5). A l l g r o u p s r a n k b e t w e e n 8 3 a n d 8 7 c u b i c i n c h e s ,
and Caucasians share the pinnacle. If western Europeans choose to
seek their s u p e r i o r i t y i n h i g h a v e r a g e s f o r their s u b s a m p l e s ( G e r manics and A n g l o - S a x o n s in the Caucasian tabulations), I point out
that s e v e r a l I n d i a n s u b s a m p l e s a r e e q u a l l y h i g h ( t h o u g h M o r t o n
a m a l g a m a t e d all N o r t h A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s a n d n e v e r r e p o r t e d
a v e r a g e s b y s u b g r o u p ) , a n d that all T e u t o n i c a n d A n g l o - S a x o n
a v e r a g e s a r e e i t h e r m i s c a l c u l a t e d o r b i a s e d i n M o r t o n ' s table.
IOO
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Conclusions
M o r t o n ' s f i n a g l i n g m a y b e o r d e r e d i n t o f o u r g e n e r a l categories:
1. F a v o r a b l e inconsistencies a n d s h i f t i n g criteria: M o r t o n o f t e n
chose to include or delete large subsamples in order to match
g r o u p a v e r a g e s with p r i o r e x p e c t a t i o n s . H e i n c l u d e d I n c a P e r u v i a n s t o d e c r e a s e t h e I n d i a n a v e r a g e , but d e l e t e d H i n d u s t o raise t h e
C a u c a s i a n m e a n . H e also c h o s e t o p r e s e n t o r n o t t o calculate t h e
a v e r a g e s o f s u b s a m p l e s i n s t r i k i n g a c c o r d with d e s i r e d results. H e
m a d e calculations f o r C a u c a s i a n s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f
T e u t o n s and Anglo-Saxons, but never presented data for Indian
s u b s a m p l e s with e q u a l l y h i g h a v e r a g e s .
2 . Subjectivity d i r e c t e d t o w a r d p r i o r p r e j u d i c e : M o r t o n ' s m e a s u r e s with s e e d w e r e sufficiently i m p r e c i s e t o p e r m i t a w i d e r a n g e
o f i n f l u e n c e b y subjective bias; later m e a s u r e s with s h o t , o n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , w e r e r e p e a t a b l e , a n d p r e s u m a b l y objective. I n skulls
m e a s u r e d b y b o t h m e t h o d s , v a l u e s f o r shot always e x c e e d v a l u e s
for the light, poorly packing seed. B u t degrees of discrepancy
m a t c h a p r i o r i a s s u m p t i o n s : an a v e r a g e of 5.4, 2.2, a n d 1.8 c u b i c
i n c h e s f o r b l a c k s , I n d i a n s , a n d whites, r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
blacks f a r e d p o o r e s t a n d whites best w h e n t h e results c o u l d b e
b i a s e d t o w a r d a n e x p e c t e d result.
3. P r o c e d u r a l o m i s s i o n s that s e e m o b v i o u s to u s : M o r t o n was
c o n v i n c e d that v a r i a t i o n in skull size r e c o r d e d d i f f e r e n t i a l , i n n a t e
m e n t a l ability. H e n e v e r c o n s i d e r e d a l t e r n a t e h y p o t h e s e s , t h o u g h
his o w n d a t a a l m o s t c r i e d o u t f o r a d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . M o r t o n n e v e r c o m p u t e d m e a n s b y sex o r s t a t u r e , e v e n w h e n h e
r e c o r d e d t h e s e d a t a i n his t a b u l a t i o n s — a s f o r E g y p t i a n m u m m i e s .
H a d he c o m p u t e d the effect of stature, he would presumably have
r e c o g n i z e d that it e x p l a i n e d all i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in b r a i n size
a m o n g his g r o u p s . N e g r o i d s y i e l d e d a l o w e r a v e r a g e t h a n C a u c a sians a m o n g his E g y p t i a n skulls b e c a u s e t h e n e g r o i d s a m p l e p r o b ably c o n t a i n e d a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f s m a l l e r - s t a t u r e d f e m a l e s ,
n o t b e c a u s e blacks a r e i n n a t e l y s t u p i d e r . T h e Incas that h e
i n c l u d e d i n the I n d i a n s a m p l e a n d t h e H i n d u s that h e e x c l u d e d
f r o m t h e C a u c a s i a n s a m p l e b o t h p o s s e s s e d small b r a i n s as a conseq u e n c e o f small b o d y size. M o r t o n u s e d a n a l l - f e m a l e s a m p l e o f
t h r e e H o t t e n t o t s t o s u p p o r t t h e stupidity o f b l a c k s , a n d a n all-male
s a m p l e o f E n g l i s h m e n t o assert the s u p e r i o r i t y o f w h i t e s .
A M E R I C A N
P O L Y G E N Y
A N D
C R A N I O M E T R Y
IOI
4 . Miscalculations a n d c o n v e n i e n t o m i s s i o n s : A l l miscalculations a n d o m i s s i o n s that I h a v e d e t e c t e d a r e in M o r t o n ' s f a v o r . He
rounded the negroid Egyptian average d o w n to 79, rather than up
t o 80. H e cited a v e r a g e s o f 9 0 f o r G e r m a n s a n d A n g l o - S a x o n s , but
t h e c o r r e c t v a l u e s a r e 8 8 a n d 89. H e e x c l u d e d a l a r g e C h i n e s e skull
a n d a n E s k i m o s u b s a m p l e f r o m his f i n a l t a b u l a t i o n f o r m o n g o l o i d s ,
t h u s d e p r e s s i n g their a v e r a g e b e l o w t h e C a u c a s i a n v a l u e .
Y e t t h r o u g h all this j u g g l i n g , I d e t e c t n o sign o f f r a u d o r c o n scious m a n i p u l a t i o n . M o r t o n m a d e n o a t t e m p t t o c o v e r his tracks
a n d I m u s t p r e s u m e that h e was u n a w a r e h e h a d left t h e m . H e
e x p l a i n e d all his p r o c e d u r e s a n d p u b l i s h e d all his raw d a t a . All I
c a n d i s c e r n is an a p r i o r i c o n v i c t i o n a b o u t racial r a n k i n g so p o w e r f u l that it d i r e c t e d his tabulations a l o n g p r e e s t a b l i s h e d lines. Y e t
M o r t o n was w i d e l y h a i l e d a s t h e objectivist o f his a g e , t h e m a n w h o
w o u l d r e s c u e A m e r i c a n science f r o m t h e m i r e o f u n s u p p o r t e d
speculation.
The American school and slavery
The
toward
version
gers . . .
l e a d i n g A m e r i c a n p o l y g e n i s t s d i f f e r e d i n their a t t i t u d e
slavery. M o s t w e r e N o r t h e r n e r s , a n d most f a v o r e d s o m e
o f S q u i e r ' s q u i p : "[I h a v e a ] p r e c i o u s p o o r o p i n i o n o f niga still p o o r e r o n e o f s l a v e r y " (in S t a n t o n , i 9 6 0 , p . 193).
B u t t h e identification of blacks as a s e p a r a t e a n d u n e q u a l species h a d o b v i o u s a p p e a l as an a r g u m e n t f o r slavery. Josiah N o t t , a
leading polygenist, e n c o u n t e r e d particularly receptive audiences in
the S o u t h f o r his " l e c t u r e s o n n i g g e r o l o g y " (as h e called t h e m ) .
M o r t o n ' s Crania Aegyptiaca r e c e i v e d a w a r m w e l c o m e in the S o u t h
(in S t a n t o n , i 9 6 0 , p p . 5 2 - 5 3 ) . O n e s u p p o r t e r o f slavery w r o t e that
the S o u t h n e e d n o l o n g e r b e "so m u c h f r i g h t e n e d " b y "voices o f
E u r o p e o r o f N o r t h e r n A m e r i c a " i n d e f e n d i n g its " p e c u l i a r institutions." W h e n M o r t o n d i e d , the S o u t h ' s l e a d i n g m e d i c a l j o u r n a l
p r o c l a i m e d (R. W. G i b b s , Charleston Medical Journal, 1 8 5 1 , q u o t e d
i n S t a n t o n , i 9 6 0 , p . 144): " W e o f the S o u t h s h o u l d c o n s i d e r h i m a s
o u r b e n e f a c t o r , f o r a i d i n g m o s t materially i n g i v i n g t o the n e g r o
his t r u e position as an i n f e r i o r r a c e . "
Nonetheless, the polygenist a r g u m e n t did not occupy a primary
place i n t h e i d e o l o g y o f slavery i n m i d - n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a — a n d f o r a g o o d r e a s o n . F o r m o s t S o u t h e r n e r s , this e x c e l l e n t
a r g u m e n t e n t a i l e d t o o h i g h a p r i c e . T h e p o l y g e n i s t s h a d railed
102
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a g a i n s t i d e o l o g u e s a s b a r r i e r s t o t h e i r p u r e s e a r c h f o r t r u t h , but
their targets w e r e p a r s o n s m o r e o f t e n than abolitionists. T h e i r t h e o r y , i n a s s e r t i n g a plurality o f h u m a n c r e a t i o n s , c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e
d o c t r i n e o f a single A d a m a n d c o n t r a v e n e d t h e literal t r u t h o f
s c r i p t u r e . A l t h o u g h t h e l e a d i n g p o l y g e n i s t s h e l d a diversity o f relig i o u s a t t i t u d e s , n o n e w e r e atheists. M o r t o n a n d A g a s s i z w e r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y d e v o u t , b u t t h e y d i d b e l i e v e that b o t h s c i e n c e a n d
r e l i g i o n w o u l d b e a i d e d i f u n t r a i n e d p a r s o n s k e p t t h e i r noses o u t
o f scientific issues a n d s t o p p e d p r o f e r r i n g t h e B i b l e a s a d o c u m e n t
to settle d e b a t e s in n a t u r a l history. Josiah N o t t stated his g o a l in a
forceful way (Agassiz and M o r t o n would not have put it so baldly):
". . . to cut loose t h e n a t u r a l history of m a n k i n d f r o m t h e B i b l e ,
a n d t o p l a c e e a c h u p o n its o w n f o u n d a t i o n , w h e r e i t m a y r e m a i n
w i t h o u t collision o r m o l e s t a t i o n " (in S t a n t o n , ig6o, p . 1 1 9 ) .
T h e p o l y g e n i s t s f o r c e d d e f e n d e r s o f slavery i n t o a q u a n d a r y :
S h o u l d t h e y a c c e p t a s t r o n g a r g u m e n t f r o m science a t t h e cost o f
l i m i t i n g religion's s p h e r e ? I n r e s o l v i n g this d i l e m m a , t h e B i b l e usually w o n . A f t e r all, s c r i p t u r a l a r g u m e n t s f o r s u p p o r t i n g slavery
w e r e n o t w a n t i n g . D e g e n e r a t i o n o f blacks u n d e r t h e c u r s e o f H a m
was a n o l d a n d e m i n e n t l y f u n c t i o n a l s t a n d b y . M o r e o v e r , p o l y g e n y
was n o t t h e o n l y quasi-scientific d e f e n s e available.
J o h n B a c h m a n , f o r e x a m p l e , was a S o u t h C a r o l i n a p a r s o n a n d
p r o m i n e n t naturalist. A s a c o m m i t t e d m o n o g e n i s t , h e s p e n t a g o o d
p a r t o f his scientific c a r e e r a t t e m p t i n g t o r e f u t e p o l y g e n y . H e also
u s e d m o n o g e n i s t p r i n c i p l e s t o d e f e n d slavery:
In intellectual power the African is an inferior variety of our species.
His whole history affords evidence that he is incapable of self-government.
O u r child that we lead by the hand, and who looks to us for protection and
support is still of our own blood notwithstanding his weakness and ignorance (in Stanton, i960, p. 63).
A m o n g n o n p o l y g e n i s t , "scientific" d e f e n s e s o f slavery, n o a r g u ments ever matched in absurdity the doctrines of S. A. Cartwright,
a p r o m i n e n t S o u t h e r n p h y s i c i a n . (I do n o t cite these as typical a n d
I d o u b t that m a n y i n t e l l i g e n t S o u t h e r n e r s p a i d t h e m m u c h attention; I m e r e l y wish to illustrate an e x t r e m e within t h e r a n g e of
"scientific" a r g u m e n t . ) C a r t w r i g h t t r a c e d the p r o b l e m s o f black
p e o p l e t o i n a d e q u a t e d e c a r b o n i z a t i o n o f b l o o d i n t h e l u n g s (insufficient r e m o v a l of c a r b o n d i o x i d e ) : " I t is the d e f e c t i v e . . . a t m o spherization of the blood, conjoined with a deficiency of cerebral
A M E R I C A N
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A N D
C R A N I O M E T R Y
m a t t e r in t h e c r a n i u m . . . that is t h e t r u e c a u s e of that d e b a s e m e n t
o f m i n d , w h i c h has r e n d e r e d t h e p e o p l e o f A f r i c a u n a b l e t o t a k e
c a r e o f t h e m s e l v e s " ( f r o m C h o r o v e r , 1 9 7 9 ; all q u o t e s f r o m C a r t w r i g h t a r e t a k e n f r o m p a p e r s h e p r e s e n t e d t o the 1 8 5 1 m e e t i n g o f
the L o u i s i a n a M e d i c a l Association.)
C a r t w r i g h t e v e n h a d a n a m e f o r it—dysesthesia, a disease of
i n a d e q u a t e b r e a t h i n g . H e d e s c r i b e d its s y m p t o m s i n slaves: " W h e n
d r i v e n t o l a b o r . . . h e p e r f o r m s t h e task a s s i g n e d t o h i m i n a h e a d l o n g a n d careless m a n n e r , t r e a d i n g d o w n with his feet o r c u t t i n g
with his h o e t h e plants he is p u t to c u l t i v a t e — b r e a k i n g the tools he
works with, a n d spoiling everything he touches." Ignorant N o r t h e r n e r s a t t r i b u t e d this b e h a v i o r t o " t h e d e b a s i n g i n f l u e n c e o f slave r y , " b u t C a r t w r i g h t r e c o g n i z e d it as t h e e x p r e s s i o n of a t r u e
d i s e a s e . H e i d e n t i f i e d insensibility t o p a i n a s a n o t h e r s y m p t o m :
" W h e n t h e u n f o r t u n a t e i n d i v i d u a l i s subjected t o p u n i s h m e n t , h e
n e i t h e r feels p a i n of a n y c o n s e q u e n c e . . . [nor] a n y u n u s u a l r e s e n t m e n t m o r e t h a n s t u p i d sulkiness. In s o m e cases . . . t h e r e a p p e a r s
t o b e a n a l m o s t total loss o f f e e l i n g . " C a r t w r i g h t p r o p o s e d t h e following cure:
T h e liver, skin and kidneys should be stimulated to activity . . . to assist
in decarbonizing the blood. T h e best means to stimulate the skin is, first,
to have the patient well washed with warm water and soap; then to anoint
it all over with oil, and to slap the oil in with a broad leather strap; then to
put the patient to some hard kind of work in the open air and sunshine
that will compel him to expand his lungs, as c h o p p i n g wood, splitting rails,
or sawing with the crosscut or whip saw.
C a r t w r i g h t d i d n o t e n d his c a t a l o g u e o f diseases with d y s esthesia. H e w o n d e r e d w h y slaves o f t e n tried t o flee, a n d identified
t h e c a u s e as a m e n t a l disease called drapetomania, or t h e i n s a n e
desire to run away. " L i k e children, they are constrained by unaltera b l e p h y s i o l o g i c a l laws, t o l o v e t h o s e i n a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e m .
H e n c e , f r o m a law o f his n a t u r e , t h e n e g r o c a n n o m o r e h e l p lovi n g a k i n d m a s t e r , t h a n t h e child c a n h e l p l o v i n g h e r that gives it
suck." F o r slaves afflicted with d r a p e t o m a n i a , C a r t w r i g h t p r o posed a behavioral cure: owners should avoid both extreme permissiveness a n d c r u e l t y : " T h e y h a v e o n l y t o b e k e p t i n that state,
a n d t r e a t e d like c h i l d r e n , t o p r e v e n t a n d c u r e t h e m f r o m r u n n i n g
away."
T h e d e f e n d e r s o f slavery d i d n o t n e e d p o l y g e n y . R e l i g i o n still
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MAN
s t o o d a b o v e science as a p r i m a r y s o u r c e f o r t h e rationalization of
social o r d e r . B u t t h e A m e r i c a n d e b a t e o n p o l y g e n y m a y r e p r e s e n t
t h e last t i m e that a r g u m e n t s in the scientific m o d e d i d n o t f o r m a
f i r s t line o f d e f e n s e f o r t h e status q u o a n d the u n a l t e r a b l e quality
o f h u m a n d i f f e r e n c e s . T h e Civil W a r lay j u s t a r o u n d t h e c o r n e r ,
b u t so d i d 1 8 5 9 a n d D a r w i n ' s Origin of Species. S u b s e q u e n t a r g u m e n t s f o r slavery, c o l o n i a l i s m , racial d i f f e r e n c e s , class s t r u c t u r e s ,
a n d sex roles w o u l d g o f o r t h p r i m a r i l y u n d e r t h e b a n n e r o f science.
THREE
Measuring Heads
Paul Broca and the Heyday of
Craniology
No rational man, cognisant of the facts, believes that the average negro
is the equal, still less the superior, of the average white man. And, if this
be true, it is simply incredible that, when all his disabilities are removed,
and our prognathous relative has a fair field and no favor, as well as no
oppressor, he will be able to compete successfully with his bigger-brained
and smaller-jawed rival, in a contest which is to be carried on by
thoughts and not by bites. —T. H . HUXLEY
The allure of numbers
Introduction
E v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y s w e p t a w a y t h e creationist r u g that h a d
supported the intense debate between monogenists and polygenists, b u t it satisfied b o t h sides by p r e s e n t i n g an e v e n b e t t e r r a t i o n a l e
f o r their s h a r e d r a c i s m . T h e m o n o g e n i s t s c o n t i n u e d t o c o n s t r u c t
l i n e a r h i e r a r c h i e s o f races a c c o r d i n g t o m e n t a l a n d m o r a l w o r t h ;
t h e p o l y g e n i s t s n o w a d m i t t e d a c o m m o n a n c e s t r y in t h e p r e h i s t o r i c
mists, b u t a f f i r m e d that races h a d b e e n s e p a r a t e l o n g e n o u g h t o
e v o l v e m a j o r i n h e r i t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n talent a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e . A s
historian o f a n t h r o p o l o g y G e o r g e S t o c k i n g writes ( 1 9 7 3 , p- l x x ) :
" T h e r e s u l t i n g intellectual tensions w e r e r e s o l v e d a f t e r 1 8 5 9 b y a
c o m p r e h e n s i v e e v o l u t i o n i s m w h i c h was a t o n c e m o n o g e n i s t a n d
racist, w h i c h a f f i r m e d h u m a n u n i t y e v e n a s i t r e l e g a t e d t h e d a r k s k i n n e d s a v a g e to a status v e r y n e a r t h e a p e . "
T h e s e c o n d h a l f o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y was n o t o n l y t h e e r a
o f e v o l u t i o n i n a n t h r o p o l o g y . A n o t h e r t r e n d , e q u a l l y irresistible,
io6
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
swept t h r o u g h the h u m a n sciences—the allure of n u m b e r s , the
faith that r i g o r o u s m e a s u r e m e n t c o u l d g u a r a n t e e i r r e f u t a b l e p r e c i s i o n , a n d m i g h t m a r k the transition b e t w e e n subjective speculation a n d a t r u e science as w o r t h y as N e w t o n i a n p h y s i c s . E v o l u t i o n
a n d quantification f o r m e d an u n h o l y alliance; in a s e n s e , their
u n i o n f o r g e d t h e f i r s t p o w e r f u l t h e o r y o f "scientific" r a c i s m — i f w e
define "science" as m a n y do w h o misunderstand it most profoundly: as any claim apparently backed by copious n u m b e r s .
Anthropologists had presented numbers before Darwin, but the
c r u d i t y of M o r t o n ' s analysis ( C h a p t e r 2) belies a n y claim to r i g o r .
By the end of Darwin's century, standardized procedures and a
d e v e l o p i n g b o d y o f statistical k n o w l e d g e h a d g e n e r a t e d a d e l u g e
of m o r e truthworthy numerical data.
T h i s c h a p t e r i s t h e story o f n u m b e r s o n c e r e g a r d e d a s s u r p a s s i n g all o t h e r s i n i m p o r t a n c e — t h e d a t a o f c r a n i o m e t r y , o r m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e skull a n d its c o n t e n t s . T h e l e a d e r s o f c r a n i o m e t r y w e r e
n o t c o n s c i o u s political i d e o l o g u e s . T h e y r e g a r d e d t h e m s e l v e s a s
s e r v a n t s o f their n u m b e r s , apostles o f objectivity. A n d t h e y c o n f i r m e d all t h e c o m m o n p r e j u d i c e s o f c o m f o r t a b l e w h i t e m a l e s —
that blacks, w o m e n , a n d p o o r p e o p l e o c c u p y t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e
roles b y t h e h a r s h dictates o f n a t u r e .
Science is rooted in creative interpretation. N u m b e r s suggest,
c o n s t r a i n , a n d r e f u t e ; they d o n o t , b y t h e m s e l v e s , specify t h e c o n t e n t o f scientific t h e o r i e s . T h e o r i e s a r e built u p o n the i n t e r p r e t a tion o f n u m b e r s , a n d i n t e r p r e t e r s a r e o f t e n t r a p p e d b y t h e i r o w n
r h e t o r i c . T h e y b e l i e v e i n their o w n objectivity, a n d fail t o d i s c e r n
t h e p r e j u d i c e that leads t h e m t o o n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a m o n g m a n y
c o n s i s t e n t with their n u m b e r s . Paul B r o c a i s n o w d i s t a n t e n o u g h .
W e c a n s t a n d b a c k a n d s h o w that h e u s e d n u m b e r s n o t t o g e n e r a t e
n e w t h e o r i e s b u t to illustrate a p r i o r i c o n c l u s i o n s . Shall we b e l i e v e
that science i s d i f f e r e n t t o d a y simply b e c a u s e w e s h a r e t h e c u l t u r a l
c o n t e x t o f m o s t p r a c t i c i n g scientists a n d m i s t a k e its i n f l u e n c e f o r
objective t r u t h ? B r o c a was a n e x e m p l a r y scientist; n o o n e has e v e r
surpassed him in meticulous care and accuracy of measurement.
B y w h a t r i g h t , o t h e r t h a n o u r o w n biases, c a n w e identify his p r e j u d i c e a n d h o l d that science n o w o p e r a t e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f c u l t u r e
a n d class?
M E A S U R I N G
Francis
H E A D S
Galton—apostle
of
quantification
N o m a n e x p r e s s e d his era's fascination with n u m b e r s s o well a s
D a r w i n ' s c e l e b r a t e d c o u s i n , Francis G a l t o n ( 1 8 2 2 - 1 9 1 1 ) . I n d e p e n d e n t l y w e a l t h y , G a l t o n h a d t h e r a r e f r e e d o m t o d e v o t e his c o n s i d e r a b l e e n e r g y a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e t o his f a v o r i t e subject o f m e a s u r e m e n t . G a l t o n , a p i o n e e r o f m o d e r n statistics, b e l i e v e d that, with
sufficient l a b o r a n d i n g e n u i t y , a n y t h i n g m i g h t b e m e a s u r e d , a n d
that m e a s u r e m e n t i s t h e p r i m a r y c r i t e r i o n o f a scientific s t u d y . H e
e v e n p r o p o s e d a n d b e g a n t o c a r r y out a statistical i n q u i r y i n t o t h e
efficacy o f p r a y e r ! G a l t o n c o i n e d t h e t e r m " e u g e n i c s " i n 1883 a n d
a d v o c a t e d t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f m a r r i a g e a n d f a m i l y size a c c o r d i n g
to hereditary e n d o w m e n t of parents.
G a l t o n b a c k e d his faith in m e a s u r e m e n t with all t h e i n g e n u i t y
o f his idiosyncratic m e t h o d s . H e s o u g h t , f o r e x a m p l e , t o c o n s t r u c t
a " b e a u t y m a p " o f t h e British Isles i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r ( 1 9 0 9 ,
PP-
S 5-S )1
lG
Whenever I have occasion to classify the persons I meet into three classes,
"good, m e d i u m , bad," I use a needle m o u n t e d as a pricker, wherewith to
prick holes, unseen, in a piece of paper, torn rudely into a cross with a
long leg. I use its upper e n d for "good," the cross arm for "medium," the
lower e n d for "bad." T h e prick holes keep distinct, and are easily read off
at leisure. T h e object, place, and date are written on the paper. I used this
plan for my beauty data, classifying the girls I passed in streets or elsewhere as attractive, indifferent, or repellent. Of course this was a purely
individual estimate, but it was consistent, j u d g i n g from the conformity of
different attempts in the same population. I f o u n d L o n d o n to rank highest
for beauty; Aberdeen lowest.
W i t h g o o d h u m o r , h e s u g g e s t e d the f o l l o w i n g m e t h o d f o r q u a n t i f y i n g b o r e d o m ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 278):
Many mental processes admit of being roughly measured. For instance,
the degree to which people are bored, by counting the number of their
fidgets. I not infrequently tried this method at the meetings of the Royal
Geographical Society, for even there dull memoirs are occasionally read.
• • . T h e use of a watch attracts attention, so I reckon time by the number
of my breathings, of which there are 15 in a minute. T h e y are not counted
mentally, but are punctuated by pressing with 15 fingers successively. T h e
counting is reserved for the fidgets. T h e s e observations should be confined to persons of middle age. Children are rarely still, while elderly philosophers will sometimes remain rigid for minutes altogether.
io8
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
Q u a n t i f i c a t i o n was G a l t o n ' s g o d , a n d a s t r o n g b e l i e f in t h e
inheritance of nearly everything he could measure stood at the
r i g h t h a n d . G a l t o n b e l i e v e d that e v e n t h e m o s t socially e m b e d d e d
behaviors had strong innate c o m p o n e n t s : " A s many m e m b e r s of
o u r H o u s e of Lords marry the daughters of millionaires," he
w r o t e ( 1 9 0 9 , p p . 3 1 4 - 3 1 5 ) . "it i s q u i t e c o n c e i v a b l e that o u r S e n a t e
m a y i n time b e c o m e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a m o r e t h a n c o m m o n s h a r e
o f s h r e w d business capacity, possibly also b y a l o w e r s t a n d a r d o f
commercial probity than at present." Constantly seeking new a n d
i n g e n i o u s w a y s t o m e a s u r e t h e relative w o r t h o f p e o p l e s , h e p r o p o s e d t o r a t e blacks a n d whites b y s t u d y i n g t h e history o f e n c o u n ters b e t w e e n black c h i e f s a n d w h i t e travelers ( 1 8 8 4 , p p . 3 3 8 - 3 3 9 ) :
T h e latter, no doubt, bring with them the knowledge current in civilized lands, but that is an advantage of less importance than we are apt to
suppose. A native chief has as g o o d an education in the art of ruling m e n ,
as can be desired; he is continually exercised in personal government, and
usually maintains his place by the ascendancy of his character shown every
day over his subjects and rivals. A traveller in wild countries also fills, to a
certain degree, the position of a c o m m a n d e r , and has to confront native
chiefs at every inhabited place. T h e result is familiar e n o u g h — t h e white
traveller almost invariably holds his own in their presence. It is seldom that
we hear of a white traveller meeting with a black chief w h o m he feels to be
the better man.
G a l t o n ' s m a j o r w o r k o n t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e (Hereditary Genius, 1869) i n c l u d e d a n t h r o p o m e t r y a m o n g its criteria, b u t
his interest i n m e a s u r i n g skulls a n d b o d i e s p e a k e d later w h e n h e
established a l a b o r a t o r y at t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p o s i t i o n of 1884.
T h e r e , f o r t h r e e p e n c e , p e o p l e m o v e d t h r o u g h his a s s e m b l y line o f
tests a n d m e a s u r e s , a n d r e c e i v e d his a s s e s s m e n t a t t h e e n d . A f t e r
t h e E x p o s i t i o n , he m a i n t a i n e d t h e lab f o r six y e a r s at a L o n d o n
m u s e u m . T h e l a b o r a t o r y b e c a m e f a m o u s a n d a t t r a c t e d m a n y notables, including Gladstone:
Mr. Gladstone was amusingly insistent about the size of his head, saying
that hatters often told him that he had an Aberdeenshire head—"a fact
which you may be sure I do not forget to tell my Scotch constituents." It
was a beautifully shaped head, though rather low, but after all it was not
so very large in circumference (1909, pp. 249-250).
Lest this b e m i s t a k e n f o r t h e h a r m l e s s m u s i n g s o f s o m e d o t t y
V i c t o r i a n e c c e n t r i c , I p o i n t o u t that Sir F r a n c i s was t a k e n q u i t e
M E A S U R I N G
H E A D S
seriously a s a l e a d i n g intellect o f his t i m e . T h e A m e r i c a n h e r e d i t a r ian L e w i s T e r m a n , t h e m a n m o s t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r instituting I Q
tests i n A m e r i c a , r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y c a l c u l a t e d G a l t o n ' s I Q a t a b o v e
200, b u t a c c o r d e d o n l y 1 3 5 t o D a r w i n a n d a m e r e 1 0 0 - 1 1 0 t o C o p e r n i c u s (see p p . 2 1 3 — 2 1 8 o n this l u d i c r o u s i n c i d e n t i n t h e history
o f m e n t a l testing). D a r w i n , w h o a p p r o a c h e d h e r e d i t a r i a n a r g u m e n t s with s t r o n g s u s p i c i o n , w r o t e a f t e r r e a d i n g Hereditary Genius:
" Y o u have m a d e a convert of an o p p o n e n t in o n e sense, for I h a v e
a l w a y s m a i n t a i n e d that, e x c e p t i n g f o o l s , m e n d i d n o t d i f f e r m u c h
in intellect, o n l y in zeal a n d h a r d w o r k " (in G a l t o n , 1909, p. 290).
G a l t o n r e s p o n d e d : " T h e r e j o i n d e r that m i g h t b e m a d e t o his
r e m a r k a b o u t h a r d w o r k , i s that c h a r a c t e r , i n c l u d i n g t h e a p t i t u d e
f o r w o r k , is h e r i t a b l e like e v e r y o t h e r f a c u l t y . "
A curtain-raiser with a moral: numbers
do not guarantee truth
In 1906, a V i r g i n i a p h y s i c i a n , R o b e r t B e n n e t t B e a n , p u b l i s h e d a
l o n g , technical article c o m p a r i n g t h e b r a i n s o f A m e r i c a n blacks a n d
whites. W i t h a k i n d o f n e u r o l o g i c a l g r e e n t h u m b , h e f o u n d m e a n i n g f u l d i f f e r e n c e s w h e r e v e r h e l o o k e d — m e a n i n g f u l , that is, i n his
f a v o r e d s e n s e o f e x p r e s s i n g black i n f e r i o r i t y i n h a r d n u m b e r s .
B e a n t o o k special p r i d e in his data on t h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m , a
s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e b r a i n that c o n t a i n s f i b e r s c o n n e c t i n g t h e r i g h t
a n d left h e m i s p h e r e s . F o l l o w i n g a c a r d i n a l t e n e t o f c r a n i o m e t r y ,
that h i g h e r m e n t a l f u n c t i o n s r e s i d e i n t h e f r o n t o f t h e b r a i n a n d
s e n s o r i m o t o r capacities t o w a r d t h e r e a r , B e a n r e a s o n e d that h e
m i g h t r a n k r a c e s b y t h e relative sizes o f parts within t h e c o r p u s
callosum. So he measured the length of the g e n u , the front part of
t h e c o r p u s c a l l o s u m , a n d c o m p a r e d i t with the l e n g t h o f t h e splen i u m , the b a c k p a r t . H e p l o t t e d g e n u vs. s p l e n i u m (Fig. 3.1) a n d
o b t a i n e d , f o r a r e s p e c t a b l y l a r g e s a m p l e , virtually c o m p l e t e s e p a ration b e t w e e n black a n d w h i t e b r a i n s . W h i t e s h a v e a relatively
l a r g e g e n u , h e n c e m o r e b r a i n u p f r o n t i n the seat o f i n t e l l i g e n c e .
All t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e , B e a n e x c l a i m e d ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 390) b e c a u s e
the g e n u c o n t a i n s f i b e r s b o t h f o r o l f a c t i o n a n d f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e !
B e a n c o n t i n u e d : W e all k n o w that blacks h a v e a k e e n e r s e n s e o f
smell t h a n w h i t e s ; h e n c e w e m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d l a r g e r g e n u s i n
blacks i f i n t e l l i g e n c e d i d not d i f f e r substantially b e t w e e n r a c e s . Y e t
black g e n u s a r e s m a l l e r d e s p i t e their o l f a c t o r y p r e d o m i n a n c e ;
h e n c e , blacks m u s t really s u f f e r f r o m a p a u c i t y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e .
3*1
Bean's plot of the genu on the y-axis vs. the spienium on the x-axis
White circles are, unsurprisingly, for white brains; black squares for black
brains. Whites seem to have a larger genu, hence more up front, and presumably more intelligence.
MEASURING
HEADS
III
M o r e o v e r , B e a n did not neglect to push the c o r r e s p o n d i n g conclusion f o r s e x e s . W i t h i n e a c h r a c e , w o m e n h a v e relatively s m a l l e r
g e n u s than m e n .
B e a n t h e n c o n t i n u e d his d i s c o u r s e o n t h e relatively g r e a t e r size
o f f r o n t a l vs. p a r i e t a l a n d occipital (side a n d back) p a r t s o f t h e
b r a i n i n w h i t e s . I n t h e relative size o f t h e i r f r o n t a l a r e a s , h e p r o c l a i m e d , b l a c k s a r e i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n " m a n [sic] a n d t h e
o u r a n g - o u t a n g " ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 380).
T h r o u g h o u t this l o n g m o n o g r a p h , o n e c o m m o n m e a s u r e i s
c o n s p i c u o u s b y its a b s e n c e : B e a n says n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e size o f t h e
b r a i n itself, t h e f a v o r e d c r i t e r i o n o f classical c r a n i o m e t r y . T h e r e a s o n f o r this n e g l e c t lies b u r i e d i n a n a d d e n d u m : black a n d w h i t e
b r a i n s d i d n o t d i f f e r i n o v e r a l l size. B e a n t e m p o r i z e d : " S o m a n y
f a c t o r s e n t e r i n t o b r a i n w e i g h t that it is q u e s t i o n a b l e w h e t h e r disc u s s i o n o f t h e subject i s p r o f i t a b l e h e r e . " Still, h e f o u n d a w a y o u t .
His brains c a m e f r o m u n c l a i m e d bodies given to medical schools.
W e all k n o w that blacks h a v e less r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r d e a d t h a n w h i t e s .
O n l y the l o w e s t classes o f w h i t e s — p r o s t i t u t e s a n d t h e d e p r a v e d —
would be found a m o n g abandoned bodies, "while a m o n g Negroes
i t i s k n o w n that e v e n t h e b e t t e r classes n e g l e c t t h e i r d e a d . " T h u s ,
even an absence of m e a s u r e d difference m i g h t indicate white superiority, f o r t h e d a t a " d o p e r h a p s s h o w that t h e l o w class C a u c a s i a n
has a l a r g e r b r a i n t h a n a b e t t e r class N e g r o " ( 1 9 0 6 , p. 409).
Bean's general conclusion, expressed in a summary p a r a g r a p h
before the troublesome a d d e n d u m , proclaimed a c o m m o n prejudice as the conclusion of science:
T h e N e g r o is primarily affectionate, immensely emotional, then sensual and u n d e r stimulation passionate. T h e r e is love of ostentation, and
capacity for melodious articulation; there is u n d e v e l o p e d artistic power
and taste—Negroes make g o o d artisans, handicraftsmen—and there is
instability of character incident to lack of self-control, especially in connection with the sexual relation; and there is lack of orientation, or recognition of position and condition of self and environment, evidenced by a
peculiar bumptiousness, so called, that is particularly noticeable. O n e
would naturally expect some such character for the N e g r o , because the
whole posterior part of the brain is large, and the whole anterior portion
is small.
B e a n d i d n o t c o n f i n e his o p i n i o n s t o t e c h n i c a l j o u r n a l s . H e p u b lished t w o articles i n p o p u l a r m a g a z i n e s d u r i n g 1 9 0 6 , a n d a t t r a c t e d
112
THE
MIS M E A S U R E
OF
MAN
sufficient a t t e n t i o n to b e c o m e t h e subject of an e d i t o r i a l in American
Medicine f o r A p r i l 1 9 0 7 (cited i n C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 , p . 1 7 9 ) . B e a n h a d
p r o v i d e d , t h e e d i t o r i a l p r o c l a i m e d , " t h e a n a t o m i c a l basis f o r the
c o m p l e t e f a i l u r e o f t h e n e g r o schools t o i m p a r t t h e h i g h e r studi e s — t h e brain cannot c o m p r e h e n d them any m o r e than a horse
c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e r u l e of t h r e e . . . . L e a d e r s in all political parties
n o w a c k n o w l e d g e t h e e r r o r o f h u m a n equality. . . . I t m a y b e practicable t o rectify the e r r o r a n d r e m o v e a m e n a c e t o o u r p r o s p e r i t y — a large electorate without brains."
But Franklin P. Mall, Bean's m e n t o r at Johns H o p k i n s , became
s u s p i c i o u s : B e a n ' s d a t a w e r e too g o o d . H e r e p e a t e d B e a n ' s w o r k ,
b u t with a n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n p r o c e d u r e — h e m a d e s u r e that
h e d i d n o t k n o w w h i c h b r a i n s w e r e f r o m blacks a n d w h i c h f r o m
whites until after he h a d m e a s u r e d t h e m (Mall, 1909). F o r a s a m p l e
o f 106 b r a i n s , u s i n g B e a n ' s m e t h o d o f m e a s u r e m e n t , h e f o u n d n o
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n whites a n d blacks i n the relative sizes o f g e n u
a n d s p l e n i u m (Fig. 3.2). T h i s s a m p l e i n c l u d e d 1 8 b r a i n s f r o m
B e a n ' s o r i g i n a l s a m p l e , 1 0 f r o m w h i t e s , 8 f r o m blacks. B e a n ' s m e a s u r e of t h e g e n u was l a r g e r t h a n Mall's f o r 7 w h i t e s , but f o r o n l y a
single black. B e a n ' s m e a s u r e o f t h e s p l e n i u m was l a r g e r t h a n Mall's
f o r 7 of t h e 8 blacks.
I use this small tale of z e a l o t r y as a c u r t a i n - r a i s e r b e c a u s e it
illustrates s o well the m a j o r c o n t e n t i o n s o f this c h a p t e r a n d b o o k :
1. Scientific racists a n d sexists o f t e n c o n f i n e t h e i r label of inferiority to a single d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p ; but r a c e , s e x , a n d class go
t o g e t h e r , a n d e a c h acts a s a s u r r o g a t e f o r t h e o t h e r s . I n d i v i d u a l
studies m a y b e limited i n s c o p e , but t h e g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h y o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m p e r v a d e s — h i e r a r c h i e s o f a d v a n t a g e a n d disa d v a n t a g e follow t h e dictates o f n a t u r e ; stratification reflects
b i o l o g y . B e a n s t u d i e d r a c e s , b u t h e e x t e n d e d his m o s t i m p o r t a n t
c o n c l u s i o n t o w o m e n , a n d also i n v o k e d d i f f e r e n c e s o f social class
t o a r g u e t h a t e q u a l i t y o f size b e t w e e n black a n d w h i t e b r a i n s really
reflects t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f blacks.
2 . P r i o r p r e j u d i c e , n o t c o p i o u s n u m e r i c a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n , dictates c o n c l u s i o n s . W e c a n scarcely d o u b t that B e a n ' s s t a t e m e n t
a b o u t black b u m p t i o u s n e s s reflected a p r i o r b e l i e f that he set o u t
t o objectify, n o t a n i n d u c t i o n f r o m d a t a a b o u t f r o n t s a n d b a c k s o f
b r a i n s . A n d t h e special p l e a d i n g that y i e l d e d b l a c k i n f e r i o r i t y f r o m
equality of b r a i n size is l u d i c r o u s o u t s i d e a s h a r e d c o n t e x t of a
p r i o r i b e l i e f in the i n f e r i o r i t y of blacks.
J * 2 Mall's plot of g e n u vs. splenium. Mall measured the brains without
knowing whether they came from whites or blacks. He found no difference between the races. T h e line represents Bean's separation between
h i t e s and blacks.
w
I I
T H E
4
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
3. N u m b e r s and graphs do not gain authority from increasing
p r e c i s i o n o f m e a s u r e m e n t , s a m p l e size, o r c o m p l e x i t y i n m a n i p u lation. Basic e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n s m a y b e flawed a n d n o t subject t o
correction by e x t e n d e d repetition. Prior c o m m i t m e n t to one
a m o n g m a n y p o t e n t i a l c o n c l u s i o n s o f t e n g u a r a n t e e s a s e r i o u s flaw
in design.
4. C r a n i o m e t r y w a s n o t j u s t a p l a y t h i n g of a c a d e m i c i a n s , a
subject c o n f i n e d t o t e c h n i c a l j o u r n a l s . C o n c l u s i o n s f l o o d e d t h e
p o p u l a r p r e s s . O n c e e n t r e n c h e d , t h e y o f t e n e m b a r k e d o n a life
of their o w n , endlessly copied f r o m secondary source to secondary
s o u r c e , r e f r a c t o r y t o d i s p r o o f b e c a u s e n o o n e e x a m i n e d t h e fragility o f p r i m a r y d o c u m e n t a t i o n . I n this case, Mall n i p p e d a d o g m a
in the b u d , but not before a leading j o u r n a l h a d r e c o m m e n d e d
t h a t blacks b e b a r r e d f r o m v o t i n g a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f their i n n a t e
stupidity.
,
B u t I also n o t e a n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n B e a n a n d t h e
great E u r o p e a n craniometricians. B e a n committed either conscious f r a u d o r e x t r a o r d i n a r y s e l f - d e l u s i o n . H e w a s a p o o r scientist
following an absurd experimental design. T h e great craniometric i a n s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e r e fine scientists b y t h e c r i t e r i a o f t h e i r
time. T h e i r n u m b e r s , unlike Bean's, w e r e generally sound. T h e i r
p r e j u d i c e s p l a y e d a m o r e s u b t l e role i n s p e c i f y i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
a n d in suggesting what n u m b e r s might be gathered in the first
p l a c e . T h e i r w o r k was m o r e r e f r a c t o r y t o e x p o s u r e , b u t e q u a l l y
i n v a l i d f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n : p r e j u d i c e s l e d t h r o u g h d a t a i n a circle
b a c k t o t h e s a m e p r e j u d i c e s — a n u n b e a t a b l e s y s t e m that g a i n e d
a u t h o r i t y b e c a u s e i t s e e m e d t o arise f r o m m e t i c u l o u s m e a s u r e ment.
B e a n ' s story h a s b e e n told s e v e r a l times ( M y r d a l , 1 9 4 4 ; H a l l e r ,
1 9 7 1 ; C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 ) , i f n o t with all its details. B u t B e a n w a s a m a r ginal figure on a t e m p o r a r y and provincial stage. I h a v e f o u n d no
m o d e r n analysis o f t h e m a i n d r a m a , t h e d a t a o f P a u l B r o c a a n d his
school.
Masters of craniometry: Paul Broca and his school
The great
circle
route
In 1 8 6 1 a fierce d e b a t e e x t e n d e d o v e r s e v e r a l m e e t i n g s of a
y o u n g association still e x p e r i e n c i n g its birth p a n g s . P a u l B r o c a
MEASURING
HEADS
( 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 8 0 ) , p r o f e s s o r o f clinical s u r g e r y i n t h e f a c u l t y o f m e d i c i n e , h a d f o u n d e d t h e A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l Society o f Paris i n 1 8 5 9 . A t
a m e e t i n g o f t h e society t w o y e a r s later, L o u i s P i e r r e G r a t i o l e t r e a d
a p a p e r that c h a l l e n g e d B r o c a ' s m o s t p r e c i o u s b e l i e f : G r a t i o l e t
d a r e d t o a r g u e that t h e size o f a b r a i n b o r e n o r e l a t i o n s h i p t o its
d e g r e e of intelligence.
B r o c a r o s e i n his o w n d e f e n s e , a r g u i n g that " t h e s t u d y o f t h e
b r a i n s o f h u m a n r a c e s w o u l d lose m o s t o f its interest a n d utility" i f
v a r i a t i o n i n size c o u n t e d f o r n o t h i n g ( 1 8 6 1 , p . 1 4 1 ) . W h y h a d
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s s p e n t s o m u c h t i m e m e a s u r i n g skulls, u n l e s s their
results c o u l d d e l i n e a t e h u m a n g r o u p s a n d assess t h e i r relative
worth?
A m o n g the questions heretofore discussed within the Anthropological
Society, n o n e is equal in interest and importance to the question before us
now. . . . T h e great importance of craniology has struck anthropologists
with such force that many a m o n g us have neglected the other parts of our
science in order to devote ourselves almost exclusively to the study of
skulls. . . . In such data, we h o p e d to find some information relevant to the
intellectual value of the various h u m a n races (1861, p. 139).
B r o c a t h e n u n l e a s h e d his d a t a a n d p o o r G r a t i o l e t was r o u t e d . H i s
final contribution to the debate must rank a m o n g the most oblique,
yet abject c o n c e s s i o n s p e e c h e s e v e r o f f e r e d b y a scientist. H e d i d
n o t a b j u r e his e r r o r s ; h e a r g u e d i n s t e a d that n o o n e h a d a p p r e c i a t e d t h e subtlety of his p o s i t i o n . ( G r a t i o l e t , by the w a y , was a royalist, n o t a n e g a l i t a r i a n . H e m e r e l y s o u g h t o t h e r m e a s u r e s t o a f f i r m
t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f blacks a n d w o m e n — e a r l i e r c l o s u r e o f t h e skull
sutures, for example.)
Broca concluded triumphantly:
In general, the brain is larger in mature adults than in the elderly, in
men than in w o m e n , in eminent m e n than in m e n of mediocre talent, in
superior races than in inferior races'(1861, p. 304). . . . Other things equal,
there is a remarkable relationship between the d e v e l o p m e n t of intelligence
and the volume of the brain (p. 188).
Five y e a r s later, i n a n e n c y c l o p e d i a article o n a n t h r o p o l o g y , B r o c a
expressed himself m o r e forcefully:
A prognathous [forward-jutting] face, more or less black color of the
skin, woolly hair and intellectual and social inferiority are often associated,
n6
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
while more or less white skin, straight hair and an orthognathous
[straight] face are the ordinary equipment of the highest groups in the human series (1866, p. 280). . . . A group with black skin, woolly hair and a
prognathous face has never been able to raise itself spontaneously to
civilization (pp. 295-296).
T h e s e a r e h a r s h w o r d s , a n d B r o c a h i m s e l f r e g r e t t e d that
n a t u r e h a d f a s h i o n e d s u c h a system ( 1 8 6 6 , p . 296). B u t w h a t c o u l d
h e d o ? Facts a r e facts. " T h e r e i s n o f a i t h , h o w e v e r r e s p e c t a b l e , n o
interest, h o w e v e r l e g i t i m a t e , w h i c h m u s t n o t a c c o m m o d a t e itself t o
t h e p r o g r e s s o f h u m a n k n o w l e d g e a n d b e n d b e f o r e t r u t h " (in
C o u n t , 1 9 5 0 , p . 7 2 ) . Paul T o p i n a r d , B r o c a ' s l e a d i n g disciple a n d
s u c c e s s o r , t o o k as his m o t t o ( 1 8 8 2 , p. 7 4 8 ) : "J'ai horreur des systemes
et surtout des systemes a priori" (I a b h o r s y s t e m s , especially a p r i o r i
systems).
,
B r o c a s i n g l e d o u t t h e f e w e g a l i t a r i a n scientists o f his c e n t u r y
f o r p a r t i c u l a r l y h a r s h t r e a t m e n t b e c a u s e they h a d d e b a s e d t h e i r
c a l l i n g b y a l l o w i n g a n ethical h o p e o r political d r e a m t o c l o u d their
j u d g m e n t a n d distort objective t r u t h . " T h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f political
a n d social c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h a s n o t b e e n less i n j u r i o u s t o a n t h r o p o l o g y t h a n t h e r e l i g i o u s e l e m e n t " ( 1 8 5 5 , i n C o u n t , 1 9 5 0 , p . 73). T h e
great G e r m a n anatomist Friedrich T i e d e m a n n , for example, had
a r g u e d that blacks a n d whites d i d n o t d i f f e r i n c r a n i a l capacity.
Broca nailed T i e d e m a n n for the same error I u n c o v e r e d in Morton's w o r k (see p p . 8 2 — 1 0 1 ) . W h e n M o r t o n u s e d a subjective a n d
i m p r e c i s e m e t h o d o f r e c k o n i n g , h e c a l c u l a t e d systematically l o w e r
capacities f o r blacks t h a n w h e n h e m e a s u r e d t h e s a m e skulls with
a precise technique. T i e d e m a n n , using an even m o r e imprecise
m e t h o d , c a l c u l a t e d a black a v e r a g e 4 5 c c a b o v e the m e a n v a l u e
r e c o r d e d b y o t h e r scientists. Y e t his m e a s u r e s f o r w h i t e skulls w e r e
n o l a r g e r t h a n t h o s e r e p o r t e d b y c o l l e a g u e s . ( F o r all his d e l i g h t i n
exposing T i e d e m a n n , Broca apparently never checked Morton's
f i g u r e s , t h o u g h M o r t o n was his h e r o a n d m o d e l . B r o c a o n c e p u b lished a o n e - h u n d r e d - p a g e p a p e r a n a l y z i n g M o r t o n ' s t e c h n i q u e s i n
the most minute d e t a i l — B r o c a , 1873b.)
W h y h a d T i e d e m a n n g o n e astray? " U n h a p p i l y , " B r o c a w r o t e
( 1 8 7 3 b , p . 12), " h e was d o m i n a t e d b y a p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a . H e set
o u t t o p r o v e t h a t t h e cranial capacity o f all h u m a n races i s the
s a m e . " B u t "it is an a x i o m of all o b s e r v a t i o n a l sciences that facts
m u s t p r e c e d e t h e o r i e s " ( 1 8 6 8 , p . 4). B r o c a b e l i e v e d , sincerely I
M E A S U R I N G
H E A D S
a s s u m e , that facts w e r e his o n l y c o n s t r a i n t a n d that his success in
a f f i r m i n g t r a d i t i o n a l r a n k i n g s a r o s e f r o m t h e p r e c i s i o n o f his m e a sures a n d his c a r e i n e s t a b l i s h i n g r e p e a t a b l e p r o c e d u r e s .
Indeed, one cannot read Broca without gaining enormous
r e s p e c t f o r his c a r e in g e n e r a t i n g d a t a . I b e l i e v e his n u m b e r s a n d
d o u b t that a n y b e t t e r h a v e e v e r b e e n o b t a i n e d . B r o c a m a d e a n
e x h a u s t i v e s t u d y o f all p r e v i o u s m e t h o d s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e cranial
capacity. H e d e c i d e d that l e a d s h o t , a s a d v o c a t e d b y "le c e l e b r e
M o r t o n " ( 1 8 6 1 , p . 183), g a v e t h e best results, b u t h e s p e n t m o n t h s
r e f i n i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e , t a k i n g into a c c o u n t s u c h factors a s t h e f o r m
a n d h e i g h t o f t h e c y l i n d e r u s e d t o r e c e i v e t h e shot a f t e r i t i s p o u r e d
f r o m t h e skull, t h e s p e e d o f p o u r i n g shot into t h e skull, a n d t h e
m o d e o f s h a k i n g a n d t a p p i n g t h e skull t o p a c k t h e shot a n d t o
d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r o r n o t m o r e will f i t i n ( B r o c a , 1 8 7 3 b ) . B r o c a
f i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d a n objective m e t h o d f o r m e a s u r i n g cranial c a p a c ity. I n m o s t o f his w o r k , h o w e v e r , h e p r e f e r r e d t o w e i g h the b r a i n
directly a f t e r a u t o p s i e s p e r f o r m e d b y his o w n h a n d s .
I s p e n t a m o n t h r e a d i n g all of B r o c a ' s m a j o r w o r k , c o n c e n t r a t i n g on his statistical p r o c e d u r e s . I f o u n d a d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n in his
m e t h o d s . H e t r a v e r s e d the g a p b e t w e e n fact a n d c o n c l u s i o n b y
what m a y b e t h e usual r o u t e — p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n r e v e r s e . C o n c l u sions c a m e f i r s t a n d B r o c a ' s c o n c l u s i o n s w e r e the s h a r e d a s s u m p tions o f m o s t successful w h i t e m a l e s d u r i n g his t i m e — t h e m s e l v e s
o n t o p b y the g o o d f o r t u n e o f n a t u r e , a n d w o m e n , b l a c k s , a n d p o o r
p e o p l e b e l o w . His facts w e r e reliable ( u n l i k e M o r t o n ' s ) , b u t they
were g a t h e r e d selectively a n d t h e n m a n i p u l a t e d u n c o n s c i o u s l y i n
the service o f p r i o r c o n c l u s i o n s . B y this r o u t e , t h e c o n c l u s i o n s
achieved n o t o n l y t h e blessing o f science, b u t t h e p r e s t i g e o f n u m bers. B r o c a a n d his s c h o o l u s e d facts as illustrations, n o t as c o n straining d o c u m e n t s . T h e y b e g a n with c o n c l u s i o n s , p e e r e d
t h r o u g h their facts, a n d c a m e b a c k in a circle to t h e s a m e c o n c l u sions. T h e i r e x a m p l e r e p a y s a closer s t u d y , f o r u n l i k e M o r t o n ( w h o
m a n i p u l a t e d d a t a , h o w e v e r u n c o n s c i o u s l y ) , t h e y reflected their
prejudices b y a n o t h e r , a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e c o m m o n , r o u t e : a d v o cacy m a s q u e r a d i n g as objectivity.
Selecting
characters
W h e n t h e " H o t t e n t o t V e n u s " d i e d i n Paris, G e o r g e s C u v i e r , t h e
greatest scientist a n d , as B r o c a w o u l d later d i s c o v e r to his d e l i g h t ,
118
THE
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MAN
t h e largest b r a i n o f F r a n c e , r e m e m b e r e d this A f r i c a n w o m a n a s h e
h a d seen h e r in the flesh.
She had a way of pouting her lips exactly like what we have observed
in the orang-utan. Her movements had something abrupt and fantastical
about them, reminding one of those of the ape. Her lips were monstrously
large [those of apes are thin and small as Cuvier apparently forgot]. Her
ear was like that of many apes, being small, the tragus weak, and the external border almost obliterated behind. T h e s e are animal characters. I have
never seen a h u m a n head m o r e like an ape than that of this woman (in
T o p i n a r d , 1878, p p . 493-494).
T h e h u m a n body can be measured in a thousand ways. A n y
investigator, convinced b e f o r e h a n d of a group's inferiority, can
select a small set of m e a s u r e s to illustrate its g r e a t e r affinity with
a p e s . ( T h i s p r o c e d u r e , o f c o u r s e , w o u l d w o r k e q u a l l y well f o r w h i t e
males, though no one m a d e the attempt. White people, for examp l e , h a v e thin l i p s — a p r o p e r t y s h a r e d with c h i m p a n z e e s — w h i l e
most black Africans have thicker, consequently m o r e " h u m a n , "
lips.)
B r o c a ' s c a r d i n a l bias lay in his a s s u m p t i o n that h u m a n r a c e s
c o u l d b e r a n k e d i n a l i n e a r scale o f m e n t a l w o r t h . I n e n u m e r a t i n g
t h e aims o f e t h n o l o g y , B r o c a i n c l u d e d : " t o d e t e r m i n e t h e relative
position o f races i n the h u m a n series" (in T o p i n a r d , 1 8 7 8 , p . 660).
It d i d n o t o c c u r t o h i m that h u m a n v a r i a t i o n m i g h t b e r a m i f i e d a n d
r a n d o m , r a t h e r t h a n l i n e a r a n d h i e r a r c h i c a l . A n d since h e k n e w
the o r d e r b e f o r e h a n d , a n t h r o p o m e t r y became a search for characters that w o u l d display t h e c o r r e c t r a n k i n g , not a n u m e r i c a l
exercise in raw empiricism.
T h u s B r o c a b e g a n his s e a r c h f o r " m e a n i n g f u l " c h a r a c t e r s —
those that w o u l d d i s p l a y the established r a n k s . I n 1 8 6 2 , f o r e x a m p l e , h e tried t h e ratio o f r a d i u s ( l o w e r a r m b o n e ) t o h u m e r u s
( u p p e r a r m b o n e ) , r e a s o n i n g that a h i g h e r ratio m a r k s a l o n g e r
f o r e a r m — a c h a r a c t e r o f a p e s . All b e g a n well: blacks y i e l d e d a ratio
o f . 7 9 4 , whites . 7 3 9 . B u t t h e n B r o c a r a n i n t o t r o u b l e . A n E s k i m o
skeleton yielded .703, an Australian aborigine .709, while the Hottentot V e n u s , C u v i e r ' s n e a r a p e ( h e r s k e l e t o n h a d b e e n p r e s e r v e d
i n Paris), m e a s u r e d a m e r e .703. B r o c a n o w h a d two c h o i c e s . H e
c o u l d e i t h e r a d m i t that, o n this c r i t e r i o n , whites r a n k e d l o w e r t h a n
several d a r k - s k i n n e d g r o u p s , o r h e c o u l d a b a n d o n t h e c r i t e r i o n .
Since h e k n e w ( 1 8 6 2 a , p . 10) that H o t t e n t o t s , E s k i m o s , a n d A u s t r a -
M E A S U R I N G
H E A D S
I/O
lian a b o r i g i n e s r a n k e d b e l o w m o s t A f r i c a n b l a c k s , h e c h o s e t h e seco n d c o u r s e : " A f t e r this, i t s e e m s difficult t o m e t o c o n t i n u e t o say
that e l o n g a t i o n o f t h e f o r e a r m i s a c h a r a c t e r o f d e g r a d a t i o n o r
i n f e r i o r i t y , b e c a u s e , o n this a c c o u n t , t h e E u r o p e a n o c c u p i e s a p l a c e
between N e g r o e s on the o n e h a n d , and Hottentots, Australians,
and eskimos on the other" (1862, p. 11).
L a t e r , h e a l m o s t a b a n d o n e d his c a r d i n a l c r i t e r i o n o f b r a i n size
b e c a u s e i n f e r i o r y e l l o w p e o p l e s c o r e d s o well:
A table on which races were arranged by order of their cranial capacities would not represent the degrees of their superiority or inferiority,
because size represents only o n e element of the problem [of ranking
races]. On such a table, Eskimos, Lapps, Malays, Tartars and several other
peoples of the Mongolian type would surpass the most civilized people of
Europe. A lowly race may therefore have a big brain (1873a, p. 38).
B u t B r o c a felt that h e c o u l d s a l v a g e m u c h o f v a l u e f r o m his c r u d e
m e a s u r e o f o v e r a l l b r a i n size. I t m a y fail a t t h e u p p e r e n d b e c a u s e
some inferior g r o u p s have big brains, but it works at the lower end
b e c a u s e small b r a i n s b e l o n g e x c l u s i v e l y t o p e o p l e o f low intelligence. Broca continued:
But this does not destroy the value of small brain size as a mark of inferiority. T h e table shows that West African blacks have a cranial capacity
about 100 cc less than that of European races. To this figure, we may add
the following: Caffirs, Nubians, Tasmanians, Hottentots, Australians.
T h e s e examples are sufficient to prove that if the volume of the brain does
not play a decisive role in the intellectual ranking of races, it nevertheless
has a very real importance (1873a, p. 38).
An unbeatable argument. Deny it at one end where conclusions are
u n c o n g e n i a l ; a f f i r m i t b y the s a m e c r i t e r i o n a t t h e o t h e r . B r o c a d i d
not f u d g e n u m b e r s ; h e m e r e l y selected a m o n g t h e m o r i n t e r p r e t e d
his way a r o u n d t h e m t o f a v o r e d c o n c l u s i o n s .
I n c h o o s i n g a m o n g m e a s u r e s , B r o c a d i d n o t j u s t d r i f t passively
m the sway of a p r e c o n c e i v e d i d e a . He a d v o c a t e d selection a m o n g
characters as a stated g o a l w i t h explicit criteria. T o p i n a r d , his c h i e f
disciple, d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n " e m p i r i c a l " c h a r a c t e r s " h a v i n g n o
apparent design," and "rational" characters "related to some physiological o p i n i o n " ( 1 8 7 8 , p . 2 2 1 ) . H o w t h e n t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h
characters a r e " r a t i o n a l " ? T o p i n a r d a n s w e r e d : " O t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s tics are l o o k e d u p o n , w h e t h e r r i g h t l y o r w r o n g l y , a s d o m i n a n t .
THE
120
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
T h e y h a v e a n affinity i n n e g r o e s t o t h o s e w h i c h t h e y e x h i b i t i n
a p e s , a n d establish t h e transition b e t w e e n these a n d E u r o p e a n s "
( 1 8 7 8 , p . 2 2 1 ) . B r o c a h a d also c o n s i d e r e d this issue i n t h e m i d s t o f
his d e b a t e with G r a t i o l e t , a n d h a d r e a c h e d t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n
(1861, p. 176):
We surmount the problem easily by choosing.for our comparison of
brains, races whose intellectual inequalities are completely clear. T h u s , the
superiority of Europeans compared with African Negroes, American
Indians, Hottentots, Australians and the Negroes of Oceania, is sufficiently certain to serve as a point of departure for the comparison of
brains.
Particularly o u t r a g e o u s e x a m p l e s a b o u n d i n t h e selection o f
i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e p r e s e n t g r o u p s i n illustrations. T h i r t y y e a r s a g o ,
w h e n I w a s a c h i l d , t h e H a l l o f M a n i n the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f
N a t u r a l H i s t o r y still d i s p l a y e d t h e c h a r a c t e r s o f h u m a n races b y
linear a r r a y s r u n n i n g f r o m a p e s t o whites. S t a n d a r d a n a t o m i c a l
illustrations, until this g e n e r a t i o n , d e p i c t e d a c h i m p , a N e g r o , a n d
a w h i t e , p a r t b y p a r t i n that o r d e r — e v e n t h o u g h v a r i a t i o n a m o n g
whites a n d blacks is always l a r g e e n o u g h to g e n e r a t e a d i f f e r e n t
o r d e r w i t h o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s : c h i m p , w h i t e , black. I n 1 9 0 3 , f o r
e x a m p l e , the A m e r i c a n anatomist E. A. Spitzka published a long
treatise o n b r a i n size a n d f o r m i n " m e n o f e m i n e n c e . " H e p r i n t e d
the f o l l o w i n g figure (Fig. 3.3) with a c o m m e n t : " T h e j u m p f r o m a
C u v i e r or a T h a c k e r a y to a Z u l u or a B u s h m a n is n o t g r e a t e r t h a n
f r o m t h e latter t o t h e gorilla o r t h e o r a n g " ( 1 9 0 3 , p . 604). B u t h e
also p u b l i s h e d a similar figure (Fig. 3.4) illustrating v a r i a t i o n in
b r a i n size a m o n g e m i n e n t whites a p p a r e n t l y n e v e r r e a l i z i n g that h e
h a d d e s t r o y e d his o w n a r g u m e n t . A s F . P . M a l l , t h e m a n w h o
e x p o s e d B e a n , w r o t e o f t h e s e f i g u r e s ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 24): " C o m p a r i n g
[ t h e m ] , it a p p e a r s that G a m b e t t a ' s b r a i n r e s e m b l e s t h e gorilla's
m o r e t h a n i t d o e s that o f G a u s s . "
Averting
anomalies
I n e v i t a b l y , since B r o c a a m a s s e d s o m u c h d i s p a r a t e a n d h o n e s t
data, he generated n u m e r o u s anomalies and apparent exceptions
t o his g u i d i n g g e n e r a l i t y — t h a t size o f b r a i n r e c o r d s intelligence
a n d that c o m f o r t a b l e w h i t e m a l e s h a v e l a r g e r b r a i n s t h a n w o m e n ,
p o o r p e o p l e , a n d l o w e r races. I n n o t i n g h o w h e w o r k e d a r o u n d
e a c h a p p a r e n t e x c e p t i o n , w e o b t a i n o u r clearest i n s i g h t i n t o B r o c a s
MEASURING
HEADS
121
m e t h o d s o f a r g u m e n t a n d i n f e r e n c e . W e also u n d e r s t a n d w h y d a t a
c o u l d n e v e r o v e r t h r o w his a s s u m p t i o n s .
BIG-BRAINED GERMANS
G r a t i o l e t , in his last d e s p e r a t e a t t e m p t , p u l l e d o u t all t h e stops.
H e d a r e d t o claim t h a t , o n a v e r a g e , G e r m a n brains a r e 100 g r a m s
h e a v i e r t h a n F r e n c h b r a i n s . C l e a r l y , G r a t i o l e t a r g u e d , b r a i n size
has n o t h i n g t o d o with i n t e l l i g e n c e ! B r o c a r e s p o n d e d d i s d a i n f u l l y :
" M o n s i e u r G r a t i o l e t has a l m o s t a p p e a l e d t o o u r patriotic sentim e n t s . B u t i t will b e easy f o r m e t o s h o w h i m t h a t h e c a n g r a n t
s o m e v a l u e t o t h e size o f t h e b r a i n w i t h o u t c e a s i n g , f o r that, t o b e
a good Frenchman" (1861, pp. 441-442).
B r o c a t h e n w o r k e d his w a y systematically t h r o u g h the d a t a .
First o f all, G r a t i o l e t ' s f i g u r e o f 100 g r a m s c a m e f r o m u n s u p p o r t e d
claims o f t h e G e r m a n scientist E . H u s c h k e . W h e n B r o c a c o l l a t e d
all t h e a c t u a l d a t a h e c o u l d f i n d , the d i f f e r e n c e i n size b e t w e e n
G e r m a n a n d F r e n c h b r a i n s fell f r o m 100 t o 4 8 g r a m s . B r o c a t h e n
a p p l i e d a series of c o r r e c t i o n s f o r n o n i n t e l l e c t u a l factors t h a t also
affect b r a i n
size.
He
argued,
quite
correctly,
that
brain
size
increases with b o d y size, d e c r e a s e s with a g e , a n d d e c r e a s e s d u r i n g
l o n g p e r i o d s o f p o o r h e a l t h (thus e x p l a i n i n g w h y e x e c u t e d c r i m i nals o f t e n h a v e l a r g e r b r a i n s t h a n h o n e s t folk w h o d i e o f d e g e n e r ative diseases i n hospitals). B r o c a n o t e d a m e a n F r e n c h a g e o f f i f t y six a n d a h a l f y e a r s in his s a m p l e , w h i l e t h e G e r m a n s a v e r a g e d o n l y
f i f t y - o n e . H e e s t i m a t e d that this d i f f e r e n c e w o u l d a c c o u n t f o r 1 6
grams of the disparity between French and G e r m a n s , cutting the
German advantage to 32 grams. He then removed from the Germ a n s a m p l e all i n d i v i d u a l s w h o h a d d i e d b y v i o l e n c e o r e x e c u t i o n .
T h e mean brain weight of twenty G e r m a n s , d e a d from natural
causes, n o w s t o o d at 1,320 g r a m s , a l r e a d y below t h e F r e n c h a v e r a g e
° f >333 g r a m s . A n d B r o c a h a d not e v e n yet c o r r e c t e d f o r the
1
larger a v e r a g e b o d y size of G e r m a n s . Vive la France.
Broca's c o l l e a g u e d e J o u v e n c e l , s p e a k i n g o n his b e h a l f a g a i n s t
the u n f o r t u n a t e G r a t i o l e t , a r g u e d
that g r e a t e r G e r m a n b r a w n
accounted f o r all t h e a p p a r e n t d i f f e r e n c e i n b r a i n a n d t h e n s o m e .
° f the a v e r a g e G e r m a n , h e w r o t e ( 1 8 6 1 , p . 4 6 6 ) :
He ingests a quantity of solid food and drink far greater than that
satisfies us. This, joined with his consumption of beer, which is pereven in areas where wine is made, makes the German much more
l c n
e
Spitzka's depiction of variation in brain size a m o n g white m e n of
eminence.
124
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
fleshy [charnu] than the Frenchman—s'o much so that their relation of
brain size to total mass, far from being superior to ours, appears to m e , o 1
the contrary, to be inferior.
I d o n o t c h a l l e n g e B r o c a ' s u s e o f c o r r e c t i o n s b u t I d o n o t e his
skill i n w i e l d i n g t h e m w h e n his o w n p o s i t i o n was t h r e a t e n e d . B e a r
this i n m i n d w h e n I discuss h o w d e f t l y h e a v o i d e d t h e m w h e n t h e y
m i g h t h a v e c h a l l e n g e d a c o n g e n i a l c o n c l u s i o n — t h e small b r a i n s o f
women.
SMALL-BRA I NED MEN OF EMINENCE
T h e A m e r i c a n anatomist E . A . Spitzka u r g e d m e n o f eminence
t o d o n a t e t h e i r b r a i n s t o science a f t e r t h e i r d e a t h . " T o m e t h e
t h o u g h t o f a n a u t o p s y i s c e r t a i n l y less r e p u g n a n t t h a n I i m a g i n e
the process of cadaveric decomposition in the grave to b e " (1907,
p . 235). T h e dissection o f d e a d colleagues b e c a m e s o m e t h i n g o f
a
cottage
industry
among
nineteenth-century
craniometricians.
B r a i n s e x e r t e d t h e i r c u s t o m a r y f a s c i n a t i o n , a n d lists w e r e p r o u d l y
touted, accompanied by the usual invidious comparisons. ( T h e
leading A m e r i c a n anthropologists J. W. Powell and W J M c G e e
even m a d e a wager over w h o carried the larger brain. As K o - K o
told N a n k i - P o o a b o u t t h e f i r e w o r k s that w o u l d follow his e x e c u t i o n , " Y o u w o n ' t s e e t h e m , b u t they'll b e t h e r e all t h e s a m e . " )
S o m e m e n o f g e n i u s d i d v e r y well i n d e e d . A g a i n s t a E u r o p e a n
a v e r a g e o f 1,300 t o 1,400 g r a m s , t h e g r e a t C u v i e r s t o o d o u t with
his t o p h e a v y 1,830 g r a m s . C u v i e r h e a d e d t h e c h a r t s until T u r g e n e v finally b r o k e t h e 2,000 g r a m b a r r i e r i n 1 8 8 3 . ( O t h e r p o t e n t i a l
o c c u p a n t s o f this s t r a t o s p h e r e , C r o m w e l l a n d Swift, lay i n l i m b o
f o r insufficiency o f r e c o r d . )
T h e o t h e r e n d was a bit m o r e c o n f u s i n g a n d e m b a r r a s s i n g .
W a l t W h i t m a n m a n a g e d t o h e a r A m e r i c a s i n g i n g with o n l y 1,282
grams. As a c r o w n i n g indignity, Franz Josef Gall, o n e of the two
f o u n d e r s of p h r e n o l o g y — t h e original "science" of j u d g i n g various
m e n t a l c a p a c i t i e s b y the size o f l o c a l i z e d b r a i n a r e a s — w e i g h e d i n a t
a m e a g e r 1 , 1 9 8 g r a m s . (His c o l l e a g u e J. K. S p u r z h e i m y i e l d e d a
q u i t e r e s p e c t a b l e 1 , 5 5 9 g r a m s . ) A n d , t h o u g h B r o c a d i d n ' t k n o w it,
his o w n b r a i n w e i g h e d o n l y 1,424 g r a m s , a bit a b o v e a v e r a g e t o b e
s u r e , b u t n o t h i n g t o c r o w a b o u t . A n a t o l e F r a n c e e x t e n d e d the
r a n g e o f f a m o u s a u t h o r s t o m o r e t h a n 1,000 g r a m s w h e n , i n 1 9 2 4 .
he opted for the other end of T u r g e n e v ' s f a m e and clocked in at a
mere 1,017 grams.
M E A S U R I N G
H E A D S
125
T h e small b r a i n s w e r e t r o u b l e s o m e , b u t B r o c a , u n d a u n t e d ,
m a n a g e d t o a c c o u n t f o r all o f t h e m . T h e i r possessors e i t h e r d i e d
v e r y o l d , w e r e v e r y s h o r t a n d slightly built, o r h a d s u f f e r e d p o o r
p r e s e r v a t i o n . B r o c a ' s r e a c t i o n to a s t u d y by his G e r m a n c o l l e a g u e
R u d o l f W a g n e r was typical. W a g n e r h a d o b t a i n e d a real p r i z e i n
1 8 5 5 , the b r a i n o f t h e g r e a t m a t h e m a t i c i a n K a r l F r i e d r i c h G a u s s .
It w e i g h e d a m o d e s t l y o v e r a v e r a g e 1,492 g r a m s , b u t was m o r e
richly c o n v o l u t e d t h a n a n y b r a i n p r e v i o u s l y dissected (Fig. 3.5).
E n c o u r a g e d , W a g n e r w e n t o n t o w e i g h t h e b r a i n s o f all d e a d a n d
willing p r o f e s s o r s a t G o t t i n g e n , i n a n a t t e m p t t o p l o t t h e d i s t r i b u tion o f b r a i n size a m o n g m e n o f e m i n e n c e . B y t h e time B r o c a was
battling with G r a t i o l e t i n 1 8 6 1 , W a g n e r h a d f o u r m o r e m e a s u r e m e n t s . N o n e p o s e d a n y c h a l l e n g e t o C u v i e r , a n d t w o w e r e distinctly p u z z l i n g — H e r m a n n , t h e p r o f e s s o r o f p h i l o s o p h y a t 1,368
g r a m s , a n d H a u s m a n n , t h e p r o f e s s o r o f m i n e r a l o g y , a t 1,226
g r a m s . B r o c a c o r r e c t e d H e r m a n n ' s b r a i n f o r his a g e a n d r a i s e d i t
3 • 5 T h e brain of the great mathematician K. F. Gauss (right) proved to
be something of an embarrassment since, at 1,492 grams, it was only
slightly larger than average. But other criteria came to the rescue. Here,
E. A. Spitzka demonstrates that Gauss's brain is much m o r e richly convoluted than that of a Papuan (left).
126
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
by 16 grams to 1.19 percent above a v e r a g e — " n o t m u c h for a prof e s s o r o f linguistics," B r o c a a d m i t t e d , " b u t still s o m e t h i n g " ( 1 8 6 1 ,
p . 1 6 7 ) . N o c o r r e c t i o n c o u l d raise H a u s m a n n t o t h e m e a n o f o r d i nary
folks,
but considering
his
venerable
seventy-seven
years,
B r o c a s p e c u l a t e d t h a t his b r a i n m a y h a v e u n d e r g o n e m o r e t h a n
t h e u s u a l a m o u n t o f senile d e g e n e r a t i o n : " T h e d e g r e e o f d e c a d e n c e that o l d a g e c a n i m p o s e u p o n a b r a i n i s v e r y v a r i a b l e a n d
cannot be calculated."
B u t B r o c a was still b o t h e r e d . H e c o u l d g e t a r o u n d t h e low valu e s , b u t h e c o u l d n ' t raise t h e m t o u n u s u a l w e i g h t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
t o clinch a n u n b e a t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n , h e s u g g e s t e d with a t o u c h o f
i r o n y that W a g n e r ' s p o s t - G a u s s i a n subjects m a y n o t h a v e b e e n s o
e m i n e n t a f t e r all:
It is not very probable that 5 m e n of genius should have died within
five years at the University of Gottingen. . . . A professorial robe is not
necessarily a certificate of genius; there may be, even at Gottingen, s o m e
chairs occupied by not very remarkable m e n (1861, pp. 165-166).
A t this p o i n t , B r o c a d e s i s t e d : " T h e subject i s d e l i c a t e , " h e w r o t e
( 1 8 6 1 , p . 169), " a n d I m u s t n o t insist u p o n i t a n y l o n g e r . "
LARGE-BRAINED CRIMINALS
T h e l a r g e size o f m a n y c r i m i n a l b r a i n s was a c o n s t a n t s o u r c e o f
bother to craniometricians and criminal anthropologists.
Broca
t e n d e d to dismiss it with his claim that s u d d e n d e a t h by e x e c u t i o n
p r e c l u d e d t h e d i m i n u t i o n that l o n g b o u t s o f d i s e a s e p r o d u c e d i n
many
honest
men.
In
addition,
death
by
hanging
tended
to
e n g o r g e the b r a i n a n d lead t o s p u r i o u s l y h i g h w e i g h t s .
I n t h e y e a r o f B r o c a ' s d e a t h , T . B i s c h o f f p u b l i s h e d his s t u d y o n
t h e b r a i n s o f 1 1 9 assassins, m u r d e r e r s , a n d t h i e v e s . T h e i r a v e r a g e
e x c e e d e d t h e m e a n o f h o n e s t m e n b y 11 g r a m s , w h i l e 1 4 o f t h e m
topped
1,500 g r a m s , a n d 5 e x c e e d e d
1,600 g r a m s . B y c o n t r a s t ,
o n l y t h r e e m e n o f g e n i u s c o u l d boast m o r e t h a n 1,600 g r a m s , while
t h e assassin L e P e l l e y , a t 1,809 g r a m s , m u s t h a v e g i v e n p a u s e t o the
shade o f C u v i e r . T h e largest female brain ever w e i g h e d (1,565
g r a m s ) b e l o n g e d t o a w o m a n w h o h a d killed h e r h u s b a n d .
Broca's successor Paul T o p i n a r d puzzled over the data and
f i n a l l y d e c i d e d that t o o m u c h o f a g o o d t h i n g i s b a d f o r s o m e p e o ple. T r u l y inspired criminality m a y require as m u c h upstairs as
MEASURING
HEADS
professorial virtuosity;
I2J
w h o shall d e c i d e b e t w e e n
Moriarty and
H o l m e s ? T o p i n a r d c o n c l u d e d : "It seems established that a certain
p r o p o r t i o n o f c r i m i n a l s a r e p u s h e d t o d e p a r t f r o m p r e s e n t social
r u l e s b y a n e x u b e r a n c e o f c e r e b r a l activity a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , b y
t h e fact o f a l a r g e o r h e a v y b r a i n " ( 1 8 8 8 , p . 1 5 ) .
FLAWS IN A PATTERN OF INCREASE THROUGH TIME
O f all B r o c a ' s s t u d i e s , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f his w o r k o n d i f f e r ences between m e n and w o m e n , n o n e w o n m o r e respect or attention t h a n his s u p p o s e d d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f s t e a d y i n c r e a s e i n b r a i n
size a s E u r o p e a n civilization a d v a n c e d f r o m m e d i e v a l t o m o d e r n
times ( B r o c a , 1 8 6 2 b ) .
T h i s s t u d y m e r i t s close analysis b e c a u s e i t p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t s
the best case o f h o p e d i c t a t i n g c o n c l u s i o n t h a t I h a v e e v e r e n c o u n t e r e d . B r o c a v i e w e d h i m s e l f a s a liberal i n t h e s e n s e t h a t h e d i d n o t
c o n d e m n g r o u p s to p e r m a n e n t inferiority based on their c u r r e n t
status. W o m e n ' s b r a i n s h a d d e g e n e r a t e d t h r o u g h t i m e t h a n k s t o a
socially e n f o r c e d u n d e r u s a g e ; t h e y m i g h t i n c r e a s e a g a i n u n d e r diff e r e n t social c o n d i t i o n s . P r i m i t i v e races h a d n o t b e e n sufficiently
c h a l l e n g e d , w h i l e E u r o p e a n b r a i n s g r e w steadily with t h e m a r c h o f
civilization.
B r o c a o b t a i n e d l a r g e s a m p l e s f r o m e a c h o f t h r e e Parisian c e m e teries, f r o m t h e t w e l f t h , t h e e i g h t e e n t h , a n d t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ries. T h e i r a v e r a g e c r a n i a l c a p a c i t i e s w e r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
1,426,
1,409, a n d 1,462 c c — n o t e x a c t l y t h e s t u f f f o r a f i r m c o n c l u s i o n o f
steady i n c r e a s e t h r o u g h t i m e . ( I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o f i n d B r o c a ' s
raw data f o r statistical t e s t i n g , b u t with a 3.5 p e r c e n t m e a n d i f f e r ence b e t w e e n smallest a n d l a r g e s t s a m p l e , it is likely t h a t no statistically significant d i f f e r e n c e s exist a t all a m o n g t h e t h r e e samples.)
B u t h o w d i d these l i m i t e d d a t a — o n l y t h r e e sites with n o i n f o r mation o n r a n g e s o f v a r i a t i o n a t a g i v e n t i m e a n d n o c l e a r p a t t e r n
t h r o u g h t i m e — l e a d B r o c a t o his h o p e f u l c o n c l u s i o n ? B r o c a h i m s e l f
a d m i t t e d a n initial d i s a p p o i n t m e n t : h e h a d e x p e c t e d t o f i n d i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y site ( 1 8 6 2 b , p . 106). Social
class, h e a r g u e d , m u s t h o l d t h e a n s w e r , f o r s u c c e s s f u l g r o u p s
within a c u l t u r e o w e at least p a r t of t h e i r status to s u p e r i o r wits.
T h e twelfth-century sample came from a c h u r c h y a r d and must
represent
gentry.
A
common
grave
provided
the
eighteenth-
century skulls. B u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s a m p l e was a m i x t u r e ,
128
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
n i n e t y skulls f r o m i n d i v i d u a l g r a v e s with a m e a n o f 1484 cc, a n d
thirty-five f r o m a c o m m o n g r a v e with a n a v e r a g e o f 1403 cc. B r o c a
c l a i m e d that i f d i f f e r e n c e s i n social class d o n o t e x p l a i n w h y calculated v a l u e s fail t o m e e t e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e n the d a t a a r e unintelligible. Intelligible, t o B r o c a , m e a n t steadily i n c r e a s i n g t h r o u g h
t i m e — t h e p r o p o s i t i o n that the d a t a w e r e m e a n t t o p r o v e , n o t rest
u p o n . A g a i n , B r o c a travels in a circle:
Without this [difference in social class], we would have to believe that
the cranial capacity of Parisians has really diminished during centuries
following the 12th. N o w during this period . . . intellectual and social progress has been considerable, and even if we are not yet certain that the
development of civilization makes the brain grow as a consequence, no
o n e , without doubt, would want to consider this cause as capable of making
the brain decrease in size (1862b, p. 106).
B u t B r o c a ' s division o f the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s a m p l e b y social
class also b r o u g h t t r o u b l e a s well a s r e l i e f — f o r h e n o w h a d t w o
samples from c o m m o n graves and the earlier o n e h a d a larger
m e a n capacity, 1,409 f o r t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y vs. 1,403 f o r t h e
n i n e t e e n t h . B u t B r o c a w a s n o t t o b e d e f e a t e d ; h e a r g u e d that t h e
e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o m m o n g r a v e i n c l u d e d a b e t t e r class o f p e o p l e . In t h e s e p r e r e v o l u t i o n a r y t i m e s , a m a n h a d to be really rich or
n o b l e t o rest i n a c h u r c h y a r d . T h e d r e g s o f t h e p o o r m e a s u r e d
1,403 i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ; t h e d r e g s l e a v e n e d b y g o o d stock
yielded about the same value one h u n d r e d years before.
E a c h solution b r o u g h t B r o c a n e w t r o u b l e . N o w that h e was
c o m m i t t e d to a p a r t i t i o n by social class within c e m e t e r i e s , he h a d to
a d m i t t h a t a n a d d i t i o n a l s e v e n t e e n skulls f r o m t h e m o r g u e ' s g r a v e
at t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y site y i e l d e d a h i g h e r v a l u e t h a n skulls of
m i d d l e - a n d u p p e r - c l a s s p e o p l e f r o m i n d i v i d u a l g r a v e s — 1 , 5 1 7 vs.
1,484 cc. H o w c o u l d u n c l a i m e d b o d i e s , a b a n d o n e d t o t h e state, surpass t h e c r e a m of society? B r o c a r e a s o n e d in a c h a i n of surpassingly w e a k i n f e r e n c e : m o r g u e s s t o o d o n r i v e r b o r d e r s ; they
probably housed a large n u m b e r of d r o w n e d people; many
d r o w n e d a r e suicides; m a n y suicides a r e i n s a n e ; m a n y i n s a n e p e o p l e , like c r i m i n a l s , h a v e s u r p r i s i n g l y l a r g e b r a i n s . W i t h a bit of
i m a g i n a t i o n , n o t h i n g c a n b e truly a n o m a l o u s .
MEASURING
Front
and
HEADS
I2Q
back
Tell me about this new y o u n g s u r g e o n , Mr. Lydgate. I am told he is
wonderfully clever; he certainly looks it—a fine brow i n d e e d .
— GEORGE ELIOT,
Middlemarch (1872)
Size o f the w h o l e , h o w e v e r u s e f u l a n d decisive i n g e n e r a l t e r m s ,
d i d n o t b e g i n t o e x h a u s t t h e c o n t e n t o f c r a n i o m e t r y . E v e r since t h e
h e y d a y o f p h r e n o l o g y , specific p a r t s o f t h e b r a i n a n d skull h a d
b e e n a s s i g n e d d e f i n i t e status, t h u s p r o v i d i n g a set of s u b s i d i a r y criteria f o r t h e r a n k i n g of g r o u p s . ( B r o c a , in his o t h e r c a r e e r as a
m e d i c a l m a n , m a d e his m o s t i m p o r t a n t d i s c o v e r y i n this a r e a . I n
1861 h e d e v e l o p e d t h e c o n c e p t o f cortical localization o f f u n c t i o n
w h e n he d i s c o v e r e d that an a p h a s i c p a t i e n t h a d a lesion in t h e left
i n f e r i o r f r o n t a l g y r u s , n o w called B r o c a ' s c o n v o l u t i o n . )
M o s t of t h e s e subsidiary criteria c a n be r e d u c e d to a single f o r m u l a : f r o n t i s b e t t e r . B r o c a a n d his c o l l e a g u e s b e l i e v e d that h i g h e r
m e n t a l f u n c t i o n s w e r e localized i n a n t e r i o r r e g i o n s o f the c o r t e x ,
a n d that p o s t e r i o r a r e a s b u s i e d t h e m s e l v e s with t h e m o r e m u n d a n e ,
though crucial, roles of involuntary m o v e m e n t , sensation, and
e m o t i o n . S u p e r i o r p e o p l e s h o u l d h a v e m o r e i n f r o n t , less b e h i n d .
W e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n h o w B e a n f o l l o w e d this a s s u m p t i o n i n g e n e r a t i n g his s p u r i o u s d a t a o n f r o n t a n d b a c k p a r t s o f the c o r p u s
callosum i n whites a n d blacks.
B r o c a o f t e n u s e d t h e distinction o f f r o n t a n d b a c k , p a r t i c u l a r l y
t o extract h i m s e l f f r o m u n c o m f o r t a b l e situations i m p o s e d b y his
data. H e a c c e p t e d G r a t i o l e t ' s classification o f h u m a n g r o u p s i n t o
"races frontales" (whites with a n t e r i o r a n d f r o n t a l lobes m o s t h i g h l y
d e v e l o p e d ) , "racesparietales" ( M o n g o l i a n s w i t h parietal or m i d lobes
most p r o m i n e n t ) , a n d "races occipitales" (blacks with m o s t in t h e
back). H e o f t e n u n l e a s h e d t h e d o u b l e w h a m m y a g a i n s t i n f e r i o r
g r o u p s — s m a l l size a n d p o s t e r i o r p r o m i n e n c e : " N e g r o e s , a n d e s p e cially H o t t e n t o t s , h a v e a s i m p l e r b r a i n t h a n o u r s , a n d t h e relative
poverty o f their c o n v o l u t i o n s c a n b e f o u n d p r i m a r i l y o n their f r o n t a l lobes" ( 1 8 7 3 a , p . 32). A s m o r e d i r e c t e v i d e n c e , h e a r g u e d that
ahitians artificially d e f o r m e d t h e f r o n t a l a r e a s o f c e r t a i n m a l e
children i n o r d e r t o m a k e t h e b a c k p o r t i o n s b u l g e . T h e s e m e n
^ecame c o u r a g e o u s w a r r i o r s , b u t c o u l d n e v e r m a t c h w h i t e h e r o e s
•
l e : " F r o n t a l d e f o r m a t i o n p r o d u c e d b l i n d passions, f e r o c i o u s
nets, a n d a n i m a l c o u r a g e , all of w h i c h I w o u l d willingly call
r s t v
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
o c c i p i t a l c o u r a g e . W e m u s t n o t c o n f o u n d i t with t r u e c o u r a g e ,
f r o n t a l c o u r a g e , w h i c h w e m a y call C a u c a s i a n c o u r a g e " ( 1 8 6 1 , p p .
202-203).
B r o c a also w e n t b e y o n d size t o assess t h e q u a l i t y o f f r o n t a l vs.
occipital r e g i o n s i n v a r i o u s r a c e s . H e r e , a n d n o t o n l y t o p l a c a t e his
adversary,
he
accepted
Gratiolet's
favorite
argument
that
the
s u t u r e s b e t w e e n skull b o n e s c l o s e e a r l i e r i n i n f e r i o r r a c e s , t h u s
trapping the brain within a rigid vault and limiting the effectiveness o f f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n . N o t o n l y d o w h i t e s u t u r e s close later;
t h e y close i n a d i f f e r e n t o r d e r — g u e s s h o w ? I n b l a c k s a n d o t h e r
i n f e r i o r p e o p l e , t h e f r o n t s u t u r e s close f i r s t , t h e b a c k s u t u r e s later;
i n w h i t e s , t h e f r o n t s u t u r e s c l o s e last. E x t e n s i v e m o d e r n s t u d i e s o f
cranial closure show no difference of timing or pattern a m o n g
races ( T o d d and L y o n , 1924 and 1925).
B r o c a u s e d this a r g u m e n t t o e x t r i c a t e h i m s e l f f r o m a s e r i o u s
p r o b l e m . H e h a d d e s c r i b e d a s a m p l e o f skulls f r o m t h e earliest
p o p u l a t i o n s o f Homo sapiens
( C r o - M a g n o n t y p e ) a n d f o u n d that
they e x c e e d e d m o d e r n F r e n c h m e n in cranial capacity. Fortunately,
h o w e v e r , their anterior sutures closed first a n d these progenitors
m u s t h a v e b e e n i n f e r i o r a f t e r all: " T h e s e a r e signs o f i n f e r i o r i t y .
W e f i n d t h e m i n all r a c e s i n w h i c h t h e m a t e r i a l life d r a w s all c e r e b r a l activity t o it. A s i n t e l l e c t u a l life d e v e l o p s a m o n g a p e o p l e , t h e
a n t e r i o r s u t u r e s b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d stay o p e n f o r a
longer time" ( 1 8 7 3 a , p. 19).
T h e a r g u m e n t of front and back,* so flexible and far-ranging,
s e r v e d a s a p o w e r f u l tool f o r r a t i o n a l i z i n g p r e j u d i c e i n t h e f a c e o f
a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y fact. C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g t w o e x a m ples.
THE CRANIAL INDEX
B e y o n d b r a i n size itself, t h e t w o m o s t h o a r y a n d m i s u s e d m e a s u r e s o f c r a n i o m e t r y w e r e s u r e l y t h e facial a n g l e ( j u t t i n g f o r w a r d
o f f a c e a n d j a w s — t h e less t h e b e t t e r ) , a n d t h e c r a n i a l i n d e x . T h e
c r a n i a l i n d e x n e v e r h a d m u c h g o i n g f o r i t b e y o n d ease o f m e a s u r e m e n t . It was c a l c u l a t e d a s t h e r a t i o o f m a x i m u m w i d t h t o m a x i m u m
•Broca did not confine his arguments on the relative worth of brain parts to the
distinction between front and back. Virtually any measured difference between
peoples could be given a value in terms of prior conviction about relative worth.
Broca once claimed, for example (1861, p. 187), that blacks probably had larger
cranial nerves than whites, hence a larger nonintellectual portion of the brain.
MEASURING
HEADS
l e n g t h o f t h e skull. Relatively l o n g skulls (ratio o f .75 o r less) w e r e
called d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c ; relatively s h o r t skulls ( o v e r .8), b r a c h y c e p h a l i c . A n d e r s R e t z i u s , t h e S w e d i s h scientist w h o p o p u l a r i z e d t h e
c r a n i a l i n d e x , c o n s t r u c t e d a t h e o r y o f civilization u p o n it. H e
b e l i e v e d that S t o n e A g e p e o p l e s o f E u r o p e w e r e b r a c h y c e p h a l i c ,
a n d that p r o g r e s s i v e B r o n z e A g e e l e m e n t s ( I n d o - E u r o p e a n , o r
A r y a n d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c s ) later i n v a d e d a n d r e p l a c e d t h e o r i g i n a l
and m o r e primitive inhabitants. S o m e original brachycephalic
stocks s u r v i v e a m o n g s u c h b e n i g h t e d p e o p l e a s B a s q u e s , F i n n s , a n d
Lapps.
B r o c a d i s p r o v e d this p o p u l a r tale c o n c l u s i v e l y b y d i s c o v e r i n g
d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c s b o t h a m o n g S t o n e A g e skulls a n d within m o d e r n
r e m n a n t s o f " p r i m i t i v e " stocks. I n d e e d , B r o c a h a d g o o d r e a s o n t o
b e s u s p i c i o u s o f a t t e m p t s b y N o r d i c a n d T e u t o n i c scientists t o
e n s h r i n e d o l i c h o c e p h a l y a s a m a r k o f h i g h e r capability. M o s t
F r e n c h m e n , including Broca himself (Manouvrier, 1899), were
b r a c h y c e p h a l i c . I n a p a s s a g e that recalls his dismissal o f T i e d e m a n n ' s c l a i m s f o r equality b e t w e e n black a n d w h i t e b r a i n s , B r o c a
l a b e l e d Retzius's d o c t r i n e a s s e l f - s e r v i n g gratification r a t h e r t h a n
e m p i r i c a l t r u t h . D i d h e e v e r c o n s i d e r t h e possibility that h e m i g h t
fall p r e y to similar m o t i v a t i o n s ?
Since the work of Mr. Retzius, scientists have generally held, without
sufficient study, that dolichocephaly is a mark of superiority. Perhaps so;
but we must also not forget that the characters of dolichocephaly and brachycephaly were studied first in Sweden, then in England, the United
States and Germany—and that in all these countries, particularly in Sweden, the dolichocephalic type clearly predominates. It is a natural tendency of m e n , even a m o n g those most free of prejudice, to attach an idea
of superiority to the dominant characteristics of their race (1861, p. 513).
O b v i o u s l y , B r o c a d e c l i n e d t o e q u a t e b r a c h y c e p h a l y with i n h e r ent stupidity. Still, t h e p r e s t i g e o f d o l i c h o c e p h a l y was s o g r e a t that
B r o c a felt m o r e t h a n a little u n c o m f o r t a b l e w h e n clearly i n f e r i o r
people turned up l o n g h e a d e d — u n c o m f o r t a b l e e n o u g h to invent
o n e o f his m o s t s t r i k i n g , u n b e a t a b l e a r g u m e n t s . T h e cranial i n d e x
h a d r u n i n t o a s t u n n i n g difficulty: n o t o n l y w e r e A f r i c a n b l a c k s
and A u s t r a l i a n a b o r i g i n e s d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c , b u t t h e y t u r n e d o u t t o
be the w o r l d ' s m o s t l o n g h e a d e d p e o p l e s . A d d i n g insult t o this
injury, t h e fossil C r o - M a g n o n skulls w e r e n o t o n l y l a r g e r t h a n
those o f m o d e r n F r e n c h m e n ; t h e y w e r e m o r e d o l i c h o c e p h a l i c a s
well.
I
3
THE
2
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
Dolichocephaly, B r o c a reasoned, could be attained in several
w a y s . T h e l o n g h e a d e d n e s s that s e r v e d a s a m a r k o f T e u t o n i c
genius
obviously
arose by
frontal
elongation.
Dolichocephalics
a m o n g people known to be inferior must have evolved by lengthe n i n g the b a c k — o c c i p i t a l d o l i c h o c e p h a l y i n B r o c a ' s t e r m s . W i t h
o n e sweep, Broca e n c o m p a s s e d both the superior cranial capacity
a n d t h e d o l i c h o c e p h a l y o f his C r o - M a g n o n fossils: " I t i s b y t h e
greater d e v e l o p m e n t of their posterior c r a n i u m that their general
cranial capacity is r e n d e r e d greater than o u r s " ( 1 8 7 3 a , p. 4 1 ) . As
for blacks, they had acquired both a posterior elongation and a
diminution in frontal width, thus giving them both a smaller brain
i n g e n e r a l a n d a l o n g h e a d e d n e s s (not t o b e c o n f u s e d with t h e T e u t o n i c style) e x c e e d e d b y n o h u m a n g r o u p . A s t o t h e b r a c h y c e p h a l y
o f F r e n c h m e n , i t i s n o f a i l u r e o f f r o n t a l e l o n g a t i o n (as t h e T e u t o n i c
s u p r e m a c i s t s c l a i m e d ) , b u t a n a d d i t i o n o f w i d t h t o a skull a l r e a d y
admirable.
THE CASE OF THE FORAMEN MAGNUM
T h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m i s t h e h o l e i n the base o f o u r skull. T h e
s p i n a l c o r d passes t h r o u g h i t a n d t h e v e r t e b r a l c o l u m n articulates
t o t h e b o n e a r o u n d its e d g e (the occipital c o n d y l e ) . I n t h e e m b r y o l o g y o f all m a m m a l s , t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m b e g i n s u n d e r t h e s k u l l ,
b u t m i g r a t e s b a c k t o a p o s i t i o n b e h i n d t h e skull a t b i r t h .
In
h u m a n s , t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m m i g r a t e s o n l y slightly a n d r e m a i n s
u n d e r t h e skull i n a d u l t s . T h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m o f a d u l t g r e a t
apes occupies an intermediate position, not so far f o r w a r d as in
h u m a n s , n o t s o f a r b a c k a s i n o t h e r m a m m a l s . T h e f u n c t i o n a l sign i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e o r i e n t a t i o n s i s clear. A n u p r i g h t a n i m a l like Homo
sapiens m u s t h a v e its skull m o u n t e d on top of its v e r t e b r a l c o l u m n in
o r d e r t o l o o k f o r w a r d w h e n s t a n d i n g erect; f o u r f o o t e d a n i m a l s
m o u n t t h e i r v e r t e b r a l c o l u m n behind t h e i r skull a n d l o o k f o r w a r d
i n their u s u a l p o s t u r e .
T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s p r o v i d e d a n irresistible s o u r c e f o r i n v i d i o u s
c o m p a r i s o n . I n f e r i o r p e o p l e s s h o u l d h a v e a m o r e p o s t e r i o r foram e n m a g n u m , as in apes and lower mammals. In
1862 B r o c a
e n t e r e d a n e x i s t i n g s q u a b b l e o n this issue. R e l a t i v e e g a l i t a r i a n s like
J a m e s C o w l e s P r i t c h a r d h a d b e e n a r g u i n g that t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m lies e x a c t l y i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s k u l l i n b o t h whites a n d blacks.
Racists like J . V i r e y h a d d i s c o v e r e d g r a d e d v a r i a t i o n , t h e h i g h e r
MEASURING
HEADS
133
the race, the m o r e forward the f o r a m e n m a g n u m . N e i t h e r side,
B r o c a noted, h a d m u c h in the way of data. With characteristic
objectivity, h e set o u t t o r e s o l v e this v e x a t i o u s , i f m i n o r , issue.
B r o c a a m a s s e d a s a m p l e o f sixty w h i t e s a n d thirty-five b l a c k s
a n d m e a s u r e d the l e n g t h o f t h e i r skulls b o t h b e f o r e a n d b e h i n d
t h e a n t e r i o r b o r d e r o f t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m . B o t h races h a d t h e
s a m e a m o u n t o f skull b e h i n d — 1 0 0 . 3 8 5 m m f o r whites,
100.857
m m f o r blacks ( n o t e p r e c i s i o n t o t h i r d d e c i m a l p l a c e ) . B u t w h i t e s
h a d m u c h less i n f r o n t ( 9 0 . 7 3 6 vs. 100.304 m m ) a n d t h e i r f o r a m e n
m a g n u m t h e r e f o r e lay i n a m o r e a n t e r i o r p o s i t i o n (see T a b l e 3 . 1 ) .
B r o c a c o n c l u d e d : " I n o r a n g - u t a n s , t h e p o s t e r i o r p r o j e c t i o n [the
p a r t o f t h e skull b e h i n d the f o r a m e n m a g n u m ] i s s h o r t e r . I t i s
t h e r e f o r e i n c o n t e s t a b l e . . . t h a t t h e c o n f o r m a t i o n of t h e N e g r o , in
this r e s p e c t a s i n m a n y o t h e r s , t e n d s t o a p p r o a c h that o f the m o n k e y " ( 1 8 6 2 c , p . 16).
But Broca then began to worry. T h e standard arg u m e nt about
the f o r a m e n m a g n u m r e f e r r e d o n l y t o its r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o n the
c r a n i u m itself, n o t t o t h e f a c e p r o j e c t i n g i n f r o n t o f t h e c r a n i u m .
Y e t B r o c a h a d i n c l u d e d t h e f a c e i n his a n t e r i o r m e a s u r e . N o w
everyone
k n o w s , h e w r o t e , that b l a c k s h a v e l o n g e r faces t h a n
whites. T h i s is an a p e l i k e sign of i n f e r i o r i t y in its o w n r i g h t , b u t it
s h o u l d not b e c o n f u s e d with the r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f t h e f o r a m e n
m a g n u m w i t h i n t h e c r a n i u m . T h u s B r o c a set o u t t o s u b t r a c t the
facial i n f l u e n c e f r o m his m e a s u r e s .
He found
that blacks d i d ,
i n d e e d , h a v e l o n g e r f a c e s — w h i t e faces a c c o u n t e d f o r o n l y 1 2 . 3 8 5
m m o f t h e i r a n t e r i o r m e a s u r e , black faces f o r 2 7 . 6 7 6 m m (see
T a b l e 3 . 1 ) . S u b t r a c t i n g facial l e n g t h , B r o c a o b t a i n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g
figures for anterior cranium: 78.351 for whites, 72.628 for blacks.
In other words, based on the cranium alone, the f o r a m e n m a g n u m
Table 3*1
Broca's measurements on the relative position of the
foramen magnum
DIFFERENCE IN
ANTERIOR
Facial
Cranial
'STERIOR
WHITES
BLACKS
FAVOR OF BLACKS
90.736
12.385
78.351
100.304
27.676
72.628
+ 9.568
+ 15.291
- 5.723
100.385
100.857
+
0.472
i34
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
of blacks lay farther forward (the ratio of f r o n t to b a c k , c a l c u l a t e d
f r o m B r o c a ' s d a t a , i s .781 f o r whites, a n d . 7 2 0 f o r blacks). C l e a r l y ,
b y criteria explicitly a c c e p t e d b e f o r e t h e s t u d y , blacks a r e s u p e r i o r
t o whites. O r s o i t m u s t b e , unless t h e criteria s u d d e n l y shift, a s
they did forthwith.
T h e v e n e r a b l e a r g u m e n t o f f r o n t a n d b a c k a p p e a r e d t o resc u e Broca and the threatened people he represented. T h e m o r e
f o r w a r d position o f t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m i n blacks d o e s n o t r e c o r d
t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y a f t e r all; it o n l y reflects their lack of a n t e r i o r b r a i n
p o w e r . R e l a t i v e to w h i t e s , blacks h a v e lost a g r e a t d e a l of b r a i n in
front. But they have a d d e d some brain behind, thus r e d u c i n g the
front/back ratio o f t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m a n d p r o v i d i n g a s p u r i o u s
a p p e a r a n c e o f black a d v a n t a g e . B u t they h a v e n o t a d d e d t o these
i n f e r i o r b a c k r e g i o n s as m u c h as t h e y lost in t h e a n t e r i o r r e a l m .
T h u s blacks h a v e s m a l l e r a n d m o r e p o o r l y p r o p o r t i o n e d b r a i n s
t h a n whites:
T h e anterior cranial projection of whites . . . surpasses that of N e g r o e s
by 4.9 percent. . . . T h u s , while the foramen m a g n u m of Negroes is further back with respect to their incisors [Broca's most forward point in his
anterior measure that included the face], it is, on the contrary, further
forward with respect to the anterior e d g e of their brain. To change the
cranium of a white into that of a N e g r o , we would have not only to move
the jaws forward, but also to reduce the front of the cranium—that is, to
make the anterior brain atrophy and to give, as insufficient compensation,
part of the material we extracted to the posterior cranium. In other words,
in N e g r o e s , the facial and occipital regions are developed to the detriment
of the frontal region (1862c, p. 18).
T h i s was a small i n c i d e n t in B r o c a ' s c a r e e r , b u t I c a n i m a g i n e no
b e t t e r illustration o f his m e t h o d — s h i f t i n g criteria t o w o r k t h r o u g h
g o o d d a t a t o w a r d d e s i r e d c o n c l u s i o n s . H e a d s I'm s u p e r i o r ; tails,
you're inferior.
A n d old a r g u m e n t s n e v e r s e e m t o die. W a l t e r F r e e m a n , d e a n
o f A m e r i c a n l o b o t o m i s t s (he p e r f o r m e d o r s u p e r v i s e d thirty-five
h u n d r e d lesions o f f r o n t a l p o r t i o n s o f t h e b r a i n b e f o r e his retirem e n t in 1 9 7 0 ) , a d m i t t e d late in his c a r e e r (cited in C h o r o v e r ,
1979):
What the investigator misses most in the m o r e highly intelligent individuals is their ability to introspect, to speculate, to philosophize, especially
in regard to onesself. . . . On the whole, psychosurgery reduces creativity,
sometimes to the vanishing point.
MEASURING
HEADS
135
F r e e m a n t h e n a d d e d that " w o m e n r e s p o n d b e t t e r t h a n m e n ,
Negroes better than whites." In other words, people w h o didn't
h a v e as m u c h up f r o n t in t h e first p l a c e d o n ' t miss it as b a d l y .
Women's
brains
O f all his c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n g r o u p s , B r o c a collected m o s t
i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e b r a i n s o f w o m e n vs. m e n — p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e
i t w a s m o r e accessible, n o t b e c a u s e h e h e l d a n y special a n i m u s
toward w o m e n . "Inferior" groups are interchangeable in the general t h e o r y o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m . T h e y a r e c o n t i n u a l l y j u x t a posed, and o n e is m a d e to serve as a surrogate for a l l — f o r the
g e n e r a l p r o p o s i t i o n h o l d s that society follows n a t u r e , a n d that
social r a n k reflects i n n a t e w o r t h . T h u s , E . H u s c h k e , a G e r m a n
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t , w r o t e i n 1 8 5 4 : " T h e N e g r o b r a i n possesses a s p i n a l
c o r d o f t h e t y p e f o u n d i n c h i l d r e n a n d w o m e n a n d , b e y o n d this,
a p p r o a c h e s t h e t y p e o f b r a i n f o u n d i n h i g h e r a p e s " (in M a l l , 1 9 0 9 ,
pp. 1-2). T h e celebrated G e r m a n anatomist Carl V o g t wrote in
1864:
By its r o u n d e d apex and less developed posterior lobe the N e g r o brain
resembles that of our children, and by the protuberance of the parietal
lobe, that of our females. . . . T h e grown-up N e g r o partakes, as regards
his intellectual faculties, of the nature of the child, the female, and the
senile white. . . . Some tribes have f o u n d e d states, possessing a peculiar
organization; but, as to the rest, we may boldly assert that the whole race
has, neither in the past nor in the present, performed anything tending to
the progress of humanity or worthy of preservation (1864, p p . 183-192).
G. H e r v e , a colleague of Broca, wrote in 1881: " M e n of the
black races h a v e a b r a i n scarcely h e a v i e r t h a n that o f w h i t e w o m e n "
( 1 8 8 1 , p. 6 9 2 ) . I do n o t r e g a r d as e m p t y r h e t o r i c a c l a i m that the
battles o f o n e g r o u p a r e f o r all o f u s .
B r o c a c e n t e r e d his a r g u m e n t a b o u t t h e b i o l o g i c a l status o f
m o d e r n w o m e n u p o n t w o sets o f d a t a : t h e l a r g e r b r a i n s o f m e n i n
m o d e r n societies a n d a s u p p o s e d w i d e n i n g t h r o u g h t i m e o f t h e
disparity i n size b e t w e e n m a l e a n d f e m a l e b r a i n s . H e b a s e d his m o s t
extensive s t u d y u p o n a u t o p s i e s h e p e r f o r m e d i n f o u r Parisian h o s pitals. F o r 292 m a l e b r a i n s , h e c a l c u l a t e d a m e a n w e i g h t o f 1,325
g r a m s ; 140 f e m a l e b r a i n s a v e r a g e d 1 , 1 4 4 g r a m s f o r a d i f f e r e n c e o f
181 g r a m s , o r 1 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e m a l e w e i g h t . B r o c a u n d e r s t o o d , o f
course, that p a r t o f this d i f f e r e n c e m u s t b e a t t r i b u t e d t o the l a r g e r
i6
THE
3
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
size o f m a l e s . H e h a d u s e d s u c h a c o r r e c t i o n t o r e s c u e F r e n c h m e n
f r o m a claim o f G e r m a n s u p e r i o r i t y (p. 1 2 1 ) . I n that case, h e k n e w
h o w t o m a k e t h e c o r r e c t i o n i n e x q u i s i t e detail. B u t n o w h e m a d e
n o a t t e m p t t o m e a s u r e t h e effect o f size a l o n e , a n d actually stated
that h e d i d n ' t n e e d t o d o so. Size, a f t e r all, c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e
e n t i r e d i f f e r e n c e b e c a u s e w e k n o w that w o m e n a r e n o t a s intelligent as men.
We might ask if the small size of the female brain d e p e n d s exclusively
u p o n the small size of her body. T i e d e m a n n has proposed this explanation. But we must not forget that w o m e n are, on the average, a little less
intelligent than m e n , a difference which we should not exaggerate but
which is, nonetheless, real. We are therefore permitted to s u p p o s e that the
relatively small size of the female brain d e p e n d s in part u p o n her physical
inferiority and in part u p o n her intellectual inferiority (1861, p. 153).
To record the supposed widening of the g a p t h r o u g h time,
B r o c a m e a s u r e d t h e cranial capacities o f p r e h i s t o r i c skulls f r o m
L ' H o m m e M o r t c a v e . H e r e h e f o u n d a d i f f e r e n c e o f o n l y 99.5 c c
between males and females, while m o d e r n populations r a n g e from
129.5
220.7 cc. T o p i n a r d , B r o c a ' s c h i e f d i s c i p l e , e x p l a i n e d t h e
i n c r e a s i n g d i s c r e p a n c y t h r o u g h t i m e a s a result o f d i f f e r i n g e v o l u t i o n a r y p r e s s u r e s u p o n d o m i n a n t m e n a n d passive w o m e n :
t
o
T h e man w h o fights for two or m o r e in the struggle for existence, who has
all the responsibility and the cares of tomorrow, who is constantly active in
combatting the environment and h u m a n rivals, needs m o r e brain than the
woman w h o m he must protect and nourish, than the sedentary woman,
lacking any interior occupations, whose role is to raise children, love, and
be passive (1888, p. 22).
In 1879 Gustave Le B o n , chief misogynist of Broca's school,
u s e d t h e s e d a t a t o p u b l i s h w h a t m u s t b e t h e m o s t v i c i o u s attack
u p o n w o m e n i n m o d e r n scientific l i t e r a t u r e (it will t a k e s o m e d o i n g
t o b e a t A r i s t o t l e ) . L e B o n w a s n o m a r g i n a l h a t e - m o n g e r . H e was a
f o u n d e r o f social p s y c h o l o g y a n d w r o t e a s t u d y o f c r o w d b e h a v i o r
still cited a n d r e s p e c t e d t o d a y {La psychologie des Joules, 1895). His
w r i t i n g s also h a d a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e u p o n M u s s o l i n i . L e B o n c o n cluded:
In the most intelligent races, as a m o n g the Parisians, there are a large
n u m b e r of w o m e n whose brains are closer in size to those of gorillas than
to the most developed male brains. This inferiority is so obvious that no
o n e can contest it for a moment; only its d e g r e e is worth discussion. All
MEASURING
HEADS
137
psychologists w h o have studied the intelligence of w o m e n , as well as poets
and novelists, recognize today that they represent the most inferior forms
of h u m a n evolution and that they are closer to children and savages than
to an adult, civilized man. T h e y excel in fickleness, inconstancy, absence of
thought and logic, and incapacity to reason. Without doubt there exist
s o m e distinguished w o m e n , very superior to the average man, but they are
as exceptional as the birth of any monstrosity, as, for example, of a gorilla
with two heads; consequently, we may neglect them entirely (1879, p p . 6 0 61).
N o r d i d L e B o n s h r i n k f r o m t h e social i m p l i c a t i o n s o f his v i e w s .
H e was h o r r i f i e d b y the p r o p o s a l o f s o m e A m e r i c a n r e f o r m e r s t o
g r a n t w o m e n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n o n t h e s a m e basis a s m e n :
A desire to give them the same education, and, as a consequence, to propose the same goals for them, is a dangerous chimera. . . . T h e day w h e n ,
misunderstanding the inferior occupations which nature has given her,
w o m e n leave the h o m e and take part in our battles; on this day a social
revolution will begin, and everything that maintains the sacred ties of the
family will disappear (1879, p. 62).
Sound familiar?*
I h a v e r e e x a m i n e d B r o c a ' s d a t a , t h e basis f o r all this d e r i v a t i v e
p r o n o u n c e m e n t , a n d I find the n u m b e r s s o u n d b u t B r o c a ' s interp r e t a t i o n , t o say t h e least, ill f o u n d e d . T h e claim f o r i n c r e a s i n g
d i f f e r e n c e t h r o u g h t i m e is easily d i s m i s s e d . B r o c a b a s e d this c o n tention o n t h e s a m p l e f r o m L ' H o m m e M o r t a l o n e . I t consists o f
seven m a l e , a n d six f e m a l e , skulls. N e v e r has s o m u c h b e e n c o a x e d
f r o m so little!
I n 1888 T o p i n a r d p u b l i s h e d B r o c a ' s m o r e e x t e n s i v e d a t a o n
Parisian hospitals. S i n c e B r o c a r e c o r d e d h e i g h t a n d a g e a s well a s
brain size, w e m a y u s e m o d e r n statistical p r o c e d u r e s t o r e m o v e
their effect. B r a i n w e i g h t d e c r e a s e s with a g e , a n d B r o c a ' s w o m e n
w e r e , o n a v e r a g e , c o n s i d e r a b l y o l d e r t h a n his m e n a t d e a t h . B r a i n
weight i n c r e a s e s with h e i g h t , a n d his a v e r a g e m a n was a l m o s t h a l f
a foot taller t h a n his a v e r a g e w o m a n . I u s e d m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n , a
technique that p e r m i t s s i m u l t a n e o u s a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
"Ten years later, America's leading evolutionary biologist, E. D. Cope, dreaded the
result if "a spirit of revolt become general among women." "Should the nation have
attack of this kind," he wrote (1890, p. 2071), "like a disease, it would leave its
traces in many after-generations." He detected the beginnings of such anarchy in
Pressures exerted by women "to prevent men from drinking wine and smoking
ooacco in moderation," and in the carriage of misguided men who supported
"lale suffrage: "Some of these men are effeminate and long-haired."
a n
i8
THE
3
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
h e i g h t a n d a g e u p o n b r a i n size. I n a n analysis o f t h e d a t a f o r
w o m e n , I f o u n d that, at a v e r a g e male height and a g e , a w o m a n ' s
brain w o u l d weigh 1,212 grams.* Correction for height and age
reduces the
181
g r a m difference by m o r e than a third to
113
grams.
It is difficult to assess this r e m a i n i n g d i f f e r e n c e b e c a u s e B r o c a ' s
d a t a c o n t a i n n o i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t o t h e r f a c t o r s k n o w n t o influe n c e b r a i n size i n a m a j o r way. C a u s e o f d e a t h h a s a n i m p o r t a n t
e f f e c t , as d e g e n e r a t i v e d i s e a s e o f t e n entails a substantial d i m i n u tion o f b r a i n size. E u g e n e S c h r e i d e r ( 1 9 6 6 ) , also w o r k i n g with
B r o c a ' s d a t a , f o u n d t h a t m e n killed i n a c c i d e n t s h a d b r a i n s w e i g h i n g , o n a v e r a g e , 6 0 g r a m s m o r e t h a n m e n d y i n g o f i n f e c t i o u s diseases. T h e best m o d e r n d a t a that I
hospitals) r e c o r d s a full
c a n find
(from American
100 g r a m d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n d e a t h b y
d e g e n e r a t i v e heart disease a n d by accident or violence. Since so
m a n y o f B r o c a ' s subjects w e r e e l d e r l y w o m e n , w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t
l e n g t h y d e g e n e r a t i v e d i s e a s e was m o r e c o m m o n a m o n g t h e m t h a n
a m o n g the men.
M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , m o d e r n s t u d e n t s o f b r a i n size h a v e still n o t
agreed on a p r o p e r measure to eliminate the powerful effect of
b o d y size ( J e r i s o n , 1 9 7 3 ; G o u l d , 1 9 7 5 ) . H e i g h t i s p a r t l y a d e q u a t e ,
but m e n and w o m e n of the same height do not share the same
b o d y b u i l d . W e i g h t i s e v e n w o r s e t h a n h e i g h t , b e c a u s e m o s t o f its
v a r i a t i o n reflects n u t r i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n intrinsic s i z e — a n d fat vs.
s k i n n y e x e r t s little i n f l u e n c e u p o n t h e b r a i n . L e o n c e M a n o u v r i e r
t o o k u p this subject i n t h e 1880s a n d a r g u e d that m u s c u l a r mass
a n d f o r c e s h o u l d b e u s e d . H e t r i e d t o m e a s u r e this e l u s i v e p r o p e r t y
in various ways a n d f o u n d a m a r k e d difference in favor of m e n ,
even in men and w o m e n of the same height. W h e n he corrected
f o r w h a t h e c a l l e d " s e x u a l m a s s , " w o m e n c a m e o u t slightly a h e a d
in b r a i n size.
T h u s , t h e c o r r e c t e d 1 1 3 g r a m d i f f e r e n c e i s s u r e l y t o o l a r g e ; the
t r u e f i g u r e i s p r o b a b l y c l o s e t o z e r o a n d m a y a s well f a v o r w o m e n
a s m e n . O n e h u n d r e d t h i r t e e n g r a m s , b y t h e w a y , i s e x a c t l y the
a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a f i v e - f o o t f o u r - i n c h a n d a six-footf o u r - i n c h m a l e i n B r o c a ' s d a t a t — a n d w e w o u l d n o t w a n t t o ascribe
*I calculate, where y is brain size in grams, x, age in years, and x body height in
cm: y = 764.5-2.55X, +3.47x2
t For his largest sample of males, and using the favored power function for bivanate
2
MEASURING
HEADS
139
g r e a t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e t o tall m e n . I n s h o r t , B r o c a ' s d a t a d o n o t p e r m i t a n y c o n f i d e n t c l a i m that m e n h a v e b i g g e r b r a i n s t h a n w o m e n .
M a r i a M o n t e s s o r i d i d n o t c o n f i n e h e r activities t o e d u c a t i o n a l
r e f o r m f o r y o u n g c h i l d r e n . S h e l e c t u r e d o n a n t h r o p o l o g y f o r several y e a r s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f R o m e a n d w r o t e a n influential b o o k
e n t i t l e d Pedagogical Anthropology ( E n g l i s h e d i t i o n ,
1913). She was,
t o say the least, n o e g a l i t a r i a n . S h e s u p p o r t e d m o s t o f B r o c a ' s w o r k
and the theory of innate criminality p r o p o s e d by h e r compatriot
Cesare L o m b r o s o (next chapter). She measured the circumference
o f c h i l d r e n ' s h e a d s i n h e r s c h o o l s a n d i n f e r r e d t h a t the best p r o s pects had b i g g e r brains. B u t she had no use for Broca's conclusions
about w o m e n . She discussed Manouvrier's work at length a n d
m a d e m u c h o f his tentative claim that w o m e n h a v e slightly l a r g e r
brains when p r o p e r corrections are m a d e . W o m e n , she concluded,
a r e intellectually s u p e r i o r t o m e n , b u t m e n h a v e p r e v a i l e d h e r e t o f o r e b y d i n t o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e . S i n c e t e c h n o l o g y has a b o l i s h e d f o r c e
as an instrument of power, the era of w o m e n may soon be u p o n
us: " I n s u c h a n e p o c h t h e r e will really b e s u p e r i o r h u m a n b e i n g s ,
t h e r e will really b e m e n s t r o n g i n m o r a l i t y a n d i n s e n t i m e n t . P e r h a p s i n this w a y t h e r e i g n o f w o m a n i s a p p r o a c h i n g , w h e n t h e
enigma of her anthropological
s u p e r i o r i t y will b e d e c i p h e r e d .
W o m a n was a l w a y s t h e c u s t o d i a n o f h u m a n s e n t i m e n t , m o r a l i t y
and h o n o r " ( 1 9 1 3 , p . 259).
M o n t e s s o r i ' s a r g u m e n t r e p r e s e n t s o n e possible a n t i d o t e t o "scientific" claims f o r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i n f e r i o r i t y o f c e r t a i n g r o u p s .
O n e m a y a f f i r m t h e validity o f b i o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s , b u t a r g u e
that the d a t a h a v e b e e n m i s i n t e r p r e t e d b y p r e j u d i c e d m e n w i t h a
stake i n t h e o u t c o m e , a n d t h a t d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s a r e truly
s u p e r i o r . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , E l a i n e M o r g a n h a s f o l l o w e d this s t r a t e g y
in h e r Descent of Woman,
a s p e c u l a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of h u m a n
prehistory f r o m t h e w o m a n ' s p o i n t o f v i e w — a n d a s farcical a s m o r e
f a m o u s tall tales b y a n d f o r m e n .
I d e d i c a t e this b o o k to a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n . M o n t e s s o r i a n d
Morgan follow Broca's m e t h o d to reach a m o r e congenial conclusion. I w o u l d r a t h e r label t h e w h o l e e n t e r p r i s e of setting a b i o l o g i cal value u p o n g r o u p s f o r w h a t it is:
i r r e l e v a n t , intellectually
unsound, and highly injurious.
> . calculate, where y is brain weight in grams and x is
^ height in cm: y = 1 1,6x° •«
bodv ii -°!"
S
b r a i n
a l l o m e t r
1
2
140
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
Postscript
C r a n i o m e t r i c a r g u m e n t s lost m u c h o f their luster i n o u r c e n t u r y ,
a s d e t e r m i n i s t s s w i t c h e d their a l l e g i a n c e t o i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t i n g — a
m o r e " d i r e c t " p a t h t o t h e s a m e invalid g o a l o f r a n k i n g g r o u p s b y
m e n t a l w o r t h — a n d a s scientists e x p o s e d t h e p r e j u d i c e d n o n s e n s e
that d o m i n a t e d m o s t l i t e r a t u r e o n f o r m a n d size o f the h e a d . T h e
A m e r i c a n anthropologist Franz Boas, for e x a m p l e , m a d e short
w o r k o f t h e f a b l e d c r a n i a l i n d e x b y s h o w i n g that i t v a r i e d widely
b o t h a m o n g a d u l t s o f a single g r o u p a n d within t h e life o f a n individu a l ( B o a s , 1899). M o r e o v e r , h e f o u n d significant d i f f e r e n c e s i n cranial i n d e x b e t w e e n i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s a n d t h e i r A m e r i c a n - b o r n
children. T h e immutable obtuseness of the brachycephalic southern
E u r o p e a n might veer toward the dolichocephalic Nordic n o r m in a
single g e n e r a t i o n o f a l t e r e d e n v i r o n m e n t ( B o a s , 1 9 1 1 ) .
I n 1 9 7 0 the S o u t h A f r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t P . V . T o b i a s w r o t e a
c o u r a g e o u s article e x p o s i n g t h e m y t h that g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n
b r a i n size b e a r a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i n t e l l i g e n c e — i n d e e d , h e a r g u e d ,
g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n b r a i n size, i n d e p e n d e n t o f b o d y size a n d o t h e r
b i a s i n g f a c t o r s , h a v e n e v e r b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d a t all.
T h i s c o n c l u s i o n m a y strike r e a d e r s a s s t r a n g e , especially since i t
c o m e s f r o m a f a m o u s scientist well a c q u a i n t e d with t h e r e a m s o f
p u b l i s h e d d a t a o n b r a i n size. A f t e r all, w h a t c a n b e s i m p l e r than
w e i g h i n g a b r a i n ? — T a k e i t o u t , a n d p u t i t o n t h e scale. O n e set o f
difficulties r e f e r s to p r o b l e m s of m e a s u r e m e n t itself: at w h a t level is
the b r a i n s e v e r e d f r o m t h e spinal c o r d ; a r e t h e m e n i n g e s r e m o v e d
o r n o t ( m e n i n g e s a r e t h e b r a i n ' s c o v e r i n g m e m b r a n e s , a n d the d u r a
m a t e r , o r thick o u t e r c o v e r i n g , w e i g h s 5 0 t o 6 0 g r a m s ) ; h o w m u c h
t i m e e l a p s e d a f t e r d e a t h ; was t h e b r a i n p r e s e r v e d i n a n y fluid b e f o r e
w e i g h i n g a n d , i f so, f o r h o w l o n g ; a t w h a t t e m p e r a t u r e w a s the b r a i n
p r e s e r v e d a f t e r d e a t h . M o s t l i t e r a t u r e d o e s n o t specify t h e s e factors
a d e q u a t e l y , a n d studies m a d e b y d i f f e r e n t scientists usually c a n n o t
b e c o m p a r e d . E v e n w h e n w e c a n b e s u r e that t h e s a m e object has
been measured in the same way u n d e r the same conditions, a second
set o f biases i n t e r v e n e s — i n f l u e n c e s u p o n b r a i n size w i t h n o direct
tie t o t h e d e s i r e d p r o p e r t i e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e o r racial affiliation: sex,
b o d y size, a g e , n u t r i t i o n , n o n n u t r i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , o c c u p a t i o n ,
and cause of death. T h u s , despite thousands of published pages,
a n d t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f subjects, T o b i a s c o n c l u d e s that w e d o not
MEASURING
HEADS
I
4
I
k n o w — a s i f i t m a t t e r e d a t a l l — w h e t h e r blacks, o n t h e a v e r a g e , h a v e
l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r brains t h a n whites. Y e t t h e l a r g e r size o f white
brains was a n u n q u e s t i o n e d " f a c t " a m o n g w h i t e scientists until
quite recently.
Many investigators have devoted an extraordinary a m o u n t of
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e subject o f g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n h u m a n b r a i n size.
T h e y have gotten nowhere, not because there are no answers, but
b e c a u s e t h e a n s w e r s a r e so difficult to g e t a n d b e c a u s e t h e a p r i o r i
convictions are so clear and controlling. In the heat of Broca's debate with G r a t i o l e t , o n e of B r o c a ' s d e f e n d e r s , a d m i t t e d l y as a nasty
d e b a t i n g p o i n t , m a d e a r e m a r k that a d m i r a b l y e p i t o m i z e s t h e motivations implicit in t h e e n t i r e c r a n i o m e t r i c t r a d i t i o n : "I h a v e n o t i c e d
f o r a l o n g t i m e , " stated de J o u v e n c e l (1861, p. 465), "that, in g e n e r a l ,
those w h o d e n y t h e intellectual i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e brain's v o l u m e
h a v e small h e a d s . " Self-interest, f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n , has b e e n the
w e l l s p r i n g o f o p i n i o n o n this h e a d y issue f r o m t h e start.
FOUR
Measuring Bodies
Two Case Studies on the Apishness of
Undesirables
T H E CONCEPT OF EVOLUTION t r a n s f o r m e d h u m a n t h o u g h t d u r i n g the
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . N e a r l y e v e r y q u e s t i o n i n t h e life sciences was
r e f o r m u l a t e d i n its light. N o i d e a was e v e r m o r e w i d e l y u s e d , o r
m i s u s e d ("social D a r w i n i s m " a s a n e v o l u t i o n a r y r a t i o n a l e f o r the
inevitability o f p o v e r t y , f o r e x a m p l e ) . B o t h c r e a t i o n i s t s ( A g a s s i z
a n d Morton) a n d evolutionists (Broca and Galton) could exploit
t h e d a t a o f b r a i n size t o m a k e their invalid a n d i n v i d i o u s distinctions a m o n g g r o u p s . B u t o t h e r q u a n t i t a t i v e a r g u m e n t s a r o s e a s
m o r e d i r e c t s p i n o f f s f r o m e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y . I n this c h a p t e r I
discuss t w o a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f a p r e v a l e n t t y p e ; t h e y p r e s e n t
b o t h a s t r o n g c o n t r a s t a n d a n i n t e r e s t i n g similarity. T h e f i r s t i s t h e
m o s t g e n e r a l e v o l u t i o n a r y d e f e n s e o f all f o r r a n k i n g g r o u p s — t h e
a r g u m e n t f r o m r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , o f t e n e p i t o m i z e d b y the o b f u s c a t i n g
tongue-twister "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny." T h e second is
a
specific
human
evolutionary
criminal
hypothesis
for
behavior—Lombroso's
the
biological
criminal
nature
of
anthropology.
Both theories relied u p o n the same quantitative and supposedly
e v o l u t i o n a r y m e t h o d — t h e s e a r c h f o r signs o f a p i s h m o r p h o l o g y i n
groups d e e m e d undesirable.
The ape in all of us: recapitulation
O n c e the fact o f e v o l u t i o n h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y naturalists d e v o t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t r a c i n g t h e a c t u a l p a t h ways that evolution h a d followed. T h e y sought, in o t h e r w o r d s , to
MEASURING
BODIES
H3
r e c o n s t r u c t t h e t r e e o f life. Fossils m i g h t h a v e p r o v i d e d t h e evid e n c e , f o r o n l y t h e y c o u l d r e c o r d t h e actual a n c e s t o r s o f m o d e r n
f o r m s . B u t t h e fossil r e c o r d i s e x t r e m e l y i m p e r f e c t , a n d t h e m a j o r
t r u n k s a n d b r a n c h e s o f life's t r e e all g r e w b e f o r e t h e e v o l u t i o n o f
h a r d p a r t s p e r m i t t e d t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f a fossil r e c o r d a t all. S o m e
indirect criterion had to be f o u n d . Ernst Haeckel, the great Germ a n zoologist, refurbished an old theory of creationist biology a n d
s u g g e s t e d that t h e t r e e o f life m i g h t b e r e a d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e
e m b r y o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f h i g h e r f o r m s . H e p r o c l a i m e d that
" o n t o g e n y r e c a p i t u l a t e s p h y l o g e n y " o r , t o e x p l i c a t e this m e l l i f l u o u s
t o n g u e - t w i s t e r , that a n i n d i v i d u a l , i n its o w n g r o w t h , passes
t h r o u g h a series of stages r e p r e s e n t i n g adult a n c e s t r a l f o r m s in
their c o r r e c t o r d e r — a n i n d i v i d u a l , i n s h o r t , climbs its o w n f a m i l y
tree.
R e c a p i t u l a t i o n r a n k s a m o n g t h e m o s t influential i d e a s o f late
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y science. I t d o m i n a t e d the w o r k o f s e v e r a l
professions, including embryology, comparative m o r p h o l o g y , a n d
p a l e o n t o l o g y . A l l t h e s e disciplines w e r e o b s e s s e d w i t h t h e i d e a o f
r e c o n s t r u c t i n g e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e s , a n d all r e g a r d e d r e c a p i t u l a tion a s the k e y t o this q u e s t . T h e gill slits o f a n e a r l y h u m a n e m b r y o
r e p r e s e n t e d an a n c e s t r a l a d u l t fish; at a later s t a g e , t h e t e m p o r a r y
tail r e v e a l e d a r e p t i l i a n or m a m m a l i a n a n c e s t o r .
R e c a p i t u l a t i o n spilled f o r t h f r o m b i o l o g y t o i n f l u e n c e s e v e r a l
o t h e r disciplines i n crucial w a y s . B o t h S i g m u n d F r e u d a n d C. G .
J u n g were c o n v i n c e d recapitulationists, a n d Haeckel's idea played
n o small r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y . (In
Totem and Taboo, f o r e x a m p l e , F r e u d tries to r e c o n s t r u c t h u m a n
history f r o m a c e n t r a l c l u e p r o v i d e d b y t h e O e d i p u s c o m p l e x o f
y o u n g b o y s . F r e u d r e a s o n e d that this u r g e t o p a r r i c i d e m u s t reflect
a n actual e v e n t a m o n g ancestral a d u l t s . H e n c e , t h e sons o f a n
ancestral c l a n m u s t o n c e h a v e killed t h e i r f a t h e r i n o r d e r t o g a i n
access t o w o m e n . ) M a n y p r i m a r y - s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m s o f t h e late
nineteenth c e n t u r y w e r e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h e l i g h t o f r e c a p i t u l a tion. Several s c h o o l b o a r d s p r e s c r i b e d t h e Song of Hiawatha in early
grades, r e a s o n i n g that c h i l d r e n , p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e s a v a g e s t a g e
° f their ancestral p a s t , w o u l d identify with it.*
hf i f
d > the justification provided for recapitulation by Haeckel and
h^hi
S ' ^ ^ reasons for its later downfall, may consult my dull, but
'ghly detailed treatise, Ontogeny and Phylogeny, Harvard University Press, 1977.
e a t
r S
i n t e r e s t e
u e s
a n c
n
m
e
i44
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
R e c a p i t u l a t i o n also p r o v i d e d a n irresistible c r i t e r i o n f o r a n y scientist w h o w a n t e d t o r a n k h u m a n g r o u p s a s h i g h e r a n d l o w e r . T h e
adults of inferior g r o u p s m u s t be like children of superior g r o u p s , f o r
t h e c h i l d r e p r e s e n t s a p r i m i t i v e a d u l t a n c e s t o r . I f a d u l t blacks a n d
w o m e n a r e like w h i t e m a l e c h i l d r e n , t h e n they a r e living r e p r e s e n tatives o f a n a n c e s t r a l s t a g e i n the e v o l u t i o n o f w h i t e m a l e s . A n
anatomical theory for ranking races—based on entire bodies, not
only o n h e a d s — h a d been f o u n d .
R e c a p i t u l a t i o n s e r v e d as a g e n e r a l t h e o r y of b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r minism. All "inferior" g r o u p s — r a c e s , sexes, and classes—were
c o m p a r e d with t h e c h i l d r e n o f w h i t e m a l e s . E . D . C o p e , t h e celebrated A m e r i c a n paleontologist who elucidated the mechanism of
r e c a p i t u l a t i o n (see G o u l d , 1 9 7 7 , p p . 8 5 - 9 1 ) , i d e n t i f i e d f o u r g r o u p s
o f l o w e r h u m a n f o r m s o n this c r i t e r i o n : n o n w h i t e r a c e s , all w o m e n ,
southern as o p p o s e d to northern E u r o p e a n whites, a n d lower
classes w i t h i n s u p e r i o r r a c e s ( 1 8 8 7 , PP- 9
9 3 — C o p e particularly d e s p i s e d " t h e l o w e r classes o f t h e I r i s h " ) . C o p e p r e a c h e d t h e
d o c t r i n e o f N o r d i c s u p r e m a c y a n d a g i t a t e d t o curtail t h e i m m i g r a tion o f J e w s a n d s o u t h e r n E u r o p e a n s t o A m e r i c a . T o e x p l a i n t h e
inferiority of southern E u r o p e a n s in recapitulatory terms, he
a r g u e d that w a r m e r climates i m p o s e a n e a r l i e r m a t u r a t i o n . S i n c e
m a t u r a t i o n signals t h e s l o w d o w n a n d cessation o f b o d i l y d e v e l o p ment, southern E u r o p e a n s are caught in a m o r e childlike, hence
p r i m i t i v e , state a s a d u l t s . S u p e r i o r n o r t h e r n e r s m o v e o n t o h i g h e r
stages b e f o r e a later m a t u r a t i o n cuts o f f t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t :
2
1 - 2
T h e r e can be little doubt that in the Indo-European race maturity in
s o m e respects appears earlier in tropical than in northern regions; and
though subject to many exceptions, this is sufficiently general to be looked
u p o n as a rule. Accordingly, we find in that race—at least in the warmer
regions of Europe and America—a larger proportion of certain qualities
which are m o r e universal in w o m e n , as greater activity of the emotional
nature when compared with the j u d g m e n t . . . . Perhaps the m o r e northern
type left all that behind in its youth (1887, p p . 162-163).
Recapitulation provided a primary focus for anthropometric,
p a r t i c u l a r l y c r a n i o m e t r i c , a r g u m e n t s a b o u t t h e r a n k i n g o f races.
T h e brain, once again, played a d o m i n a n t role. Louis Agassiz, in a
c r e a t i o n i s t c o n t e x t , h a d a l r e a d y c o m p a r e d t h e b r a i n o f a d u l t blacks
with that o f a w h i t e f e t u s s e v e n m o n t h s o l d . W e h a v e a l r e a d y cited
MEASURING
BODIES
(p. 103) V o g t ' s r e m a r k a b l e s t a t e m e n t e q u a t i n g t h e b r a i n s o f a d u l t
blacks a n d w h i t e w o m e n w i t h t h o s e o f w h i t e m a l e c h i l d r e n a n d
e x p l a i n i n g , o n this basis, t h e f a i l u r e o f black p e o p l e t o b u i l d a n y
civilization w o r t h y o f his n o t i c e .
C o p e also f o c u s e d u p o n t h e skull, p a r t i c u l a r l y u p o n " t h o s e
important elements of beauty, a well-developed nose and b e a r d "
( 1 8 8 7 , p p . 2 8 8 - 2 9 0 ) , b u t h e also d e r i d e d t h e d e f i c i e n t calf m u s c u l a t u r e o f blacks:
T w o of the most prominent characters of the negro are those of immature stages of the Indo-European race in its characteristic types. T h e deficient calf is the character of infants at a very early stage; but, what is m o r e
important, the flattened bridge of the nose and shortened nasal cartilages
are universally immature conditions of the same parts in the IndoEuropean. . . . In s o m e races—e.g., the Slavic—this u n d e v e l o p e d character
persists later than in s o m e others. T h e Greek nose, with its elevated bridge,
coincides not only with aesthetic beauty, but with developmental perfection.
I n 1890 A m e r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t D . G . B r i n t o n s u m m a r i z e d t h e
a r g u m e n t with a p a e a n o f p r a i s e f o r m e a s u r e m e n t :
T h e adult who retains the m o r e n u m e r o u s fetal, infantile or simian
traits, is unquestionably inferior to him whose development has progressed beyond them. . . . Measured by these criteria, the European or
white race stands at the head of the list, the African or negro at its foot.
. . . All parts of the body have been minutely scanned, measured and
weighed, in order to erect a science of the comparative anatomy of the
races (1890, p. 48).
I f a n a t o m y built t h e h a r d a r g u m e n t o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , p s y c h i c
d e v e l o p m e n t o f f e r e d a rich f i e l d f o r c o r r o b o r a t i o n . D i d n ' t e v e r y o n e k n o w that s a v a g e s a n d w o m e n a r e e m o t i o n a l l y like c h i l d r e n ?
Despised g r o u p s h a d b e e n c o m p a r e d w i t h c h i l d r e n b e f o r e , b u t t h e
theory o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n g a v e this old c h e s t n u t t h e respectability o f
main-line scientific t h e o r y . " T h e y ' r e like c h i l d r e n " was n o l o n g e r
just a m e t a p h o r of b i g o t r y ; it n o w e m b o d i e d a t h e o r e t i c a l c l a i m that
inferior p e o p l e w e r e literally m i r e d i n a n ancestral s t a g e o f s u p e rior groups.
G . Stanley H a l l , t h e n A m e r i c a ' s l e a d i n g p s y c h o l o g i s t , stated t h e
general a r g u m e n t i n 1904: " M o s t s a v a g e s i n m o s t respects a r e chiln , or, because of sexual maturity, m o r e properly, adolescents of
r e
146
THE
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OF
MAN
a d u l t size" ( 1 9 0 4 , vol. 2, p. 6 4 9 ) . A. F. C h a m b e r l a i n , his c h i e f disc i p l e , o p t e d f o r t h e paternalistic m o d e : " W i t h o u t p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e s ,
t h e w o r l d at l a r g e w o u l d be m u c h w h a t in small it is w i t h o u t t h e
blessing of children."
T h e recapitulationists e x t e n d e d t h e i r a r g u m e n t t o a n astonishi n g a r r a y o f h u m a n capacities. C o p e c o m p a r e d p r e h i s t o r i c a r t with
the sketches of children and living "primitives" (1887, p. 153): " W e
find that t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e earliest r a c e s o f w h i c h w e h a v e a n y
k n o w l e d g e w e r e q u i t e similar t o t h o s e w h i c h t h e u n t a u g h t h a n d o f
i n f a n c y traces o n its slate o r t h e s a v a g e d e p i c t s o n t h e r o c k y faces
o f cliffs." J a m e s Sully, a l e a d i n g E n g l i s h p s y c h o l o g i s t , c o m p a r e d
t h e aesthetic senses o f c h i l d r e n a n d s a v a g e s , b u t g a v e t h e e d g e t o
children (1895, p. 386):
In much of this first crude utterance of the aesthetic sense of the child
we have points of contact with the first manifestations of taste in the race.
Delight in bright, glistening things, in gay things, in strong contrasts of
color, as well as in certain forms of m o v e m e n t , as that of feathers—the
favorite personal adornment—this is known to be characteristic of the savage and gives to his taste in the eyes of civilized man the look of childishness. On the other hand, it is doubtful whether the savage attains to the
sentiment of the child for the beauty of flowers.
H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , t h e a p o s t l e o f social D a r w i n i s m , o f f e r e d a pithy
s u m m a r y ( 1 8 9 5 , p p . 8 9 - 9 0 ) : " T h e intellectual traits o f t h e uncivili z e d . . . a r e traits r e c u r r i n g in t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e c i v i l i z e d . "
Since recapitulation b e c a m e a focus for the general theory of
b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m , m a n y m a l e scientists e x t e n d e d t h e a r g u m e n t t o w o m e n . E . D . C o p e c l a i m e d that t h e " m e t a p h y s i c a l c h a r acteristics" o f w o m e n w e r e
. . . very similar in essential nature to those which m e n exhibit at an early
stage of development. . . . T h e gentler sex is characterized by a greater
impressibility; . . . warmth of emotion, submission to its influence rather
than that of logic; timidity and irregularity of action in the outer world.
All these qualities belong to the male sex, as a general rule, at s o m e period
of life, though different individuals lose t h e m at very various periods. . . •
Probably most m e n can recollect some early period of their lives when the
emotional nature predominated—a time when emotion at the sight of suffering was more easily stirred than in maturer years. . . . Perhaps all men
can recall a period of youth when they were hero-worshippers—when they
felt the need of a stronger arm, and loved to look up to the powerful
MEASURING
BODIES
147
friend who could sympathize with and aid them. This is the "woman stage"
of character (1887, p. 159).
In what must be the most absurd statement in the annals of biological d e t e r m i n i s m , G. S t a n l e y H a l l — a g a i n , I r e m i n d y o u , n o t a
c r a c k p o t , b u t A m e r i c a ' s p r e m i e r p s y c h o l o g i s t — i n v o k e d the h i g h e r
s u i c i d e rates o f w o m e n a s a sign o f their p r i m i t i v e e v o l u t i o n a r y
status ( 1 9 0 4 , v o l . 2, p. 194):
T h i s is o n e expression of a p r o f o u n d psychic difference between the
sexes. Woman's body and soul is phyletically older and m o r e primitive,
while man is m o r e m o d e r n , variable, and less conservative. W o m e n are
always inclined to preserve old customs and ways of thinking. W o m e n prefer passive methods; to give themselves up to the power of elemental
forces, as gravity, when they throw themselves from heights or take poison, in which m e t h o d s of suicide they surpass man. Havelock Ellis thinks
drowning is b e c o m i n g m o r e frequent, and that therein w o m e n are becoming more womanly.
As a justification for imperialism, recapitulation o f f e r e d too
much promise to remain sequestered in academic pronouncem e n t s . I h a v e a l r e a d y cited C a r l V o g t ' s low o p i n i o n o f A f r i c a n
blacks, b a s e d o n his c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e i r b r a i n s with t h o s e o f w h i t e
c h i l d r e n . B . K i d d e x t e n d e d t h e a r g u m e n t t o j u s t i f y colonial e x p a n sion into t r o p i c a l A f r i c a ( 1 8 9 8 , p . 5 1 ) . W e a r e , h e w r o t e , " d e a l i n g
with p e o p l e s w h o r e p r e s e n t the s a m e s t a g e i n t h e history o f t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r a c e that t h e child d o e s i n t h e history o f t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . T h e tropics will n o t , t h e r e f o r e , b e
d e v e l o p e d b y t h e natives t h e m s e l v e s . "
I n the c o u r s e o f a d e b a t e a b o u t o u r r i g h t t o a n n e x t h e P h i l i p pines, R e v . J o s i a h S t r o n g , a l e a d i n g A m e r i c a n imperialist, p i o u s l y
d e c l a r e d that " o u r policy s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d n o t b y n a t i o n a l
ambition, n o r b y c o m m e r c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , b u t b y o u r d u t y t o t h e
world i n g e n e r a l a n d t o t h e Filipinos i n p a r t i c u l a r " ( 1 9 0 0 , p . 287).
His o p p o n e n t s , c i t i n g H e n r y C l a y ' s c o n t e n t i o n that t h e L o r d w o u l d
not c r e a t e a p e o p l e i n c a p a b l e o f s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , a r g u e d a g a i n s t
t i i e n e e d f o r o u r b e n e v o l e n t t u t e l a g e . B u t C l a y h a d s p o k e n i n the
bad old d a y s b e f o r e e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y a n d r e c a p i t u l a t i o n :
Clay's conception was formed . . . before modern science had shown
that races develop in the course of centuries as individuals do in years, and
an u n d e v e l o p e d race, which is incapable of self-government, is no
a t
i8
4
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
m o r e of a reflection on the Almighty than is an u n d e v e l o p e d child w h o is
incapable of self-government. T h e opinions of m e n w h o in this enlighte n e d day believe that the Filipinos are capable of self-government because
everybody is, are not worth considering.
E v e n R u d y a r d K i p l i n g , the p o e t l a u r e a t e o f i m p e r i a l i s m , u s e d
t h e r e c a p i t u l a t i o n i s t a r g u m e n t i n t h e f i r s t stanza o f his m o s t f a m o u s
apology for white supremacy:
T a k e up the White Man's Burden
Send forth the best ye breed
Go, bind your sons to exile
to serve the captive's need:
To wait, in heavy harness,
On fluttered folk and wild—
Your new-caught sullen peoples,
Half devil and half child.
T e d d y R o o s e v e l t , w h o s e j u d g m e n t was n o t a l w a y s s o k e e n ,
w r o t e t o H e n r y C a b o t L o d g e that t h e v e r s e " w a s v e r y p o o r p o e t r y
b u t m a d e g o o d s e n s e f r o m t h e e x p a n s i o n p o i n t o f v i e w " (in W e s ton, 1972, p. 35).
A n d s o t h e story m i g h t stand, a t e s t i m o n y t o n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y folly a n d p r e j u d i c e , i f a n i n t e r e s t i n g twist h a d n o t b e e n
a d d e d d u r i n g o u r o w n c e n t u r y . B y 1920 t h e t h e o r y o f r e c a p i t u l a tion h a d c o l l a p s e d ( G o u l d , 1 9 7 7 , p p . 1 6 7 - 2 0 6 ) . N o t l o n g a f t e r , t h e
Dutch anatomist Louis Bolk p r o p o s e d a theory of exactly opposite
m e a n i n g . R e c a p i t u l a t i o n r e q u i r e d that a d u l t traits o f a n c e s t o r s
develop m o r e rapidly in descendants to b e c o m e juvenile f e a t u r e s —
h e n c e , traits o f m o d e r n c h i l d r e n a r e p r i m i t i v e c h a r a c t e r s o f ancestral a d u l t s . B u t s u p p o s e that the r e v e r s e p r o c e s s o c c u r s a s i t o f t e n
d o e s i n e v o l u t i o n . S u p p o s e that j u v e n i l e traits o f a n c e s t o r s d e v e l o p
s o slowly i n d e s c e n d a n t s that they b e c o m e a d u l t f e a t u r e s . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n of r e t a r d e d d e v e l o p m e n t is c o m m o n in n a t u r e ; it is
called n e o t e n y (literally, " h o l d i n g o n t o y o u t h " ) . B o l k a r g u e d that
h u m a n s a r e essentially n e o t e n o u s . H e listed a n i m p r e s s i v e set o f
f e a t u r e s s h a r e d b y a d u l t h u m a n s a n d fetal o r j u v e n i l e a p e s , b u t lost
in adult apes: vaulted cranium a n d large brain in relation to body
size; small face; h a i r c o n f i n e d l a r g e l y t o h e a d , a r m p i t s , a n d p u b i c
r e g i o n s ; u n r o t a t e d b i g t o e . I h a v e a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d o n e o f t h e most
i m p o r t a n t signs o f h u m a n n e o t e n y i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t ( p p . 1 3 "
2 -
MEASURING
BODIES
I
4
9
1 3 5 ) : r e t e n t i o n o f t h e f o r a m e n m a g n u m i n its fetal p o s i t i o n , u n d e r
t h e skull.
N o w consider the implications of neoteny for the r a n k i n g of
h u m a n g r o u p s . U n d e r r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , a d u l t s o f i n f e r i o r races a r e
like c h i l d r e n o f s u p e r i o r races. B u t n e o t e n y r e v e r s e s t h e a r g u m e n t .
I n t h e c o n t e x t o f n e o t e n y , i t i s " g o o d " — t h a t is, a d v a n c e d o r s u p e r i o r — t o r e t a i n t h e traits o f c h i l d h o o d , t o d e v e l o p m o r e slowly.
T h u s , s u p e r i o r g r o u p s r e t a i n their c h i l d l i k e c h a r a c t e r s a s a d u l t s ,
w h i l e i n f e r i o r g r o u p s pass t h r o u g h t h e h i g h e r p h a s e o f c h i l d h o o d
and then d e g e n e r a t e toward apishness. N o w consider the conventional p r e j u d i c e o f w h i t e scientists: whites a r e s u p e r i o r , blacks i n f e rior. U n d e r r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , black adults s h o u l d b e like w h i t e
c h i l d r e n . B u t u n d e r n e o t e n y , w h i t e a d u l t s s h o u l d b e like black children.
F o r s e v e n t y y e a r s , u n d e r t h e sway o f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n , scientists
h a d c o l l e c t e d r e a m s o f objective d a t a all l o u d l y p r o c l a i m i n g t h e
s a m e m e s s a g e : a d u l t b l a c k s , w o m e n , a n d lower-class whites a r e like
white u p p e r - c l a s s m a l e c h i l d r e n . W i t h n e o t e n y n o w i n v o g u e , t h e s e
h a r d data c o u l d m e a n o n l y o n e t h i n g : u p p e r - c l a s s a d u l t m a l e s a r e
i n f e r i o r b e c a u s e t h e y lose, w h i l e o t h e r g r o u p s r e t a i n , t h e s u p e r i o r
traits o f c h i l d h o o d . T h e r e i s n o e s c a p e f r o m this c o n c l u s i o n .
A t least o n e scientist, H a v e l o c k Ellis, d i d b o w t o t h e c l e a r i m p l i cation a n d a d m i t t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f w o m e n , t h o u g h h e w r i g g l e d
out o f a similar c o n f e s s i o n f o r blacks. H e e v e n c o m p a r e d r u r a l w i t h
u r b a n m e n , f o u n d that m e n o f t h e city w e r e d e v e l o p i n g w o m a n l y
a n a t o m y , a n d p r o c l a i m e d t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f u r b a n life ( 1 8 9 4 ,
P- 5 t 9 ) : " T h e l a r g e - h e a d e d , d e l i c a t e - f a c e d , s m a l l - b o n e d m a n o f
u r b a n civilization i s m u c h n e a r e r t o t h e typical w o m a n t h a n i s t h e
savage. N o t o n l y b y his l a r g e b r a i n , b u t b y his l a r g e pelvis, t h e m o d ern m a n is f o l l o w i n g a p a t h first m a r k e d o u t by w o m a n . " B u t Ellis
was iconoclastic a n d c o n t r o v e r s i a l (he w r o t e o n e o f t h e f i r s t s y s t e m atic studies o f s e x u a l i t y ) , a n d his a p p l i c a t i o n o f n e o t e n y t o s e x u a l
d i f f e r e n c e s n e v e r m a d e m u c h i m p a c t . M e a n w h i l e , with r e s p e c t t o
racial d i f f e r e n c e s , s u p p o r t e r s o f h u m a n n e o t e n y a d o p t e d a n o t h e r ,
m o r e c o m m o n , tactic: t h e y simply a b a n d o n e d t h e i r s e v e n t y y e a r s o f
hard data a n d s o u g h t n e w a n d o p p o s i t e i n f o r m a t i o n t o c o n f i r m t h e
inferiority o f blacks.
L o u i s B o l k , c h i e f d e f e n d e r o f h u m a n n e o t e n y , d e c l a r e d that
fhe most s t r o n g l y n e o t e n i z e d r a c e s a r e s u p e r i o r . I n r e t a i n i n g m o r e
Juvenile f e a t u r e s , t h e y h a v e k e p t f u r t h e r a w a y f r o m " t h e p i t h e c o i d
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
a n c e s t o r o f m a n " ( 1 9 2 9 , p . 26). " F r o m this p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e division o f m a n k i n d i n t o h i g h e r a n d l o w e r r a c e s i s fully j u s t i f i e d [ 1 9 2 9 ,
p. 26]. It is o b v i o u s that I a m , on t h e basis of my t h e o r y , a c o n v i n c e d b e l i e v e r i n t h e i n e q u a l i t y o f r a c e s " ( 1 9 2 6 , p . 38). B o l k
r e a c h e d i n t o his a n a t o m i c a l g r a b - b a g a n d e x t r a c t e d s o m e traits
i n d i c a t i n g a g r e a t e r d e p a r t u r e f o r black a d u l t s f r o m t h e a d v a n t a g e o u s p r o p o r t i o n s o f c h i l d h o o d . L e d b y these n e w facts t o a n o l d
a n d c o m f o r t a b l e c o n c l u s i o n , B o l k p r o c l a i m e d ( 1 9 2 9 , p . 25): " T h e
white race appears to be the most progressive, as being the most
retarded." Bolk, w h o viewed himself as a "liberal" m a n , declined to
r e l e g a t e blacks t o p e r m a n e n t i n e p t i t u d e . H e h o p e d that e v o l u t i o n
would be benevolent to them in the future:
It is possible for all other races to reach the zenith of d e v e l o p m e n t now
occupied by the white race. T h e only thing required is continued progressive action in these races of the biological principle of anthropogenesis
[i.e., neoteny]. In his fetal development the negro passes through a stage
that has already b e c o m e the final stage for the white man. Well then, when
retardation continues in the negro too, what is still a transitional stage may
for this race also b e c o m e a final o n e (1926, p p . 473-474).
B o l k ' s a r g u m e n t v e r g e d o n t h e d i s h o n e s t f o r t w o r e a s o n s . First,
h e c o n v e n i e n t l y f o r g o t all t h e f e a t u r e s — l i k e t h e G r e c i a n n o s e a n d
full b e a r d s o a d m i r e d b y C o p e — t h a t r e c a p i t u l a t i o n i s t s h a d stoutly
e m p h a s i z e d b e c a u s e they p l a c e d w h i t e s far f r o m the c o n d i t i o n s o f
childhood. Secondly, he sidestepped a pressing and embarrassing
issue: O r i e n t a l s , n o t w h i t e s , are clearly t h e m o s t n e o t e n o u s o f
h u m a n r a c e s ( B o l k listed t h e n e o t e n o u s f e a t u r e s o f b o t h races
selectively a n d t h e n p r o c l a i m e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t o o close t o call; see
Ashley M o n t a g u , 1962, for a fairer assessment). W o m e n , moreo v e r , a r e m o r e n e o t e n o u s t h a n m e n . I trust that I will n o t be seen
as v u l g a r w h i t e a p o l o g i s t if I d e c l i n e to p r e s s the s u p e r i o r i t y of
O r i e n t a l w o m e n a n d d e c l a r e instead that t h e w h o l e e n t e r p r i s e o f
r a n k i n g g r o u p s b y d e g r e e o f n e o t e n y i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y unjustified.
J u s t as A n a t o l e F r a n c e a n d W a l t W h i t m a n c o u l d w r i t e as well as
T u r g e n e v with b r a i n s a b o u t h a l f t h e w e i g h t o f his, I w o u l d b e m o r e
t h a n m i l d l y s u r p r i s e d i f t h e small d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e g r e e o f n e o t e n y
a m o n g races b e a r a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p t o m e n t a l ability o r m o r a l w o r t h .
N o n e t h e l e s s , o l d a r g u m e n t s n e v e r d i e . I n 1 9 7 1 t h e British psychologist and genetic determinist H. J. Eysenck again brought
f o r t h a n e o t e n i c a r g u m e n t f o r black i n f e r i o r i t y . E y s e n c k t o o k three
facts a n d u s e d n e o t e n y to f o r g e a story f r o m t h e m : 1) black babies
MEASURING
BODIES
and y o u n g children exhibit m o r e rapid sensorimotor d e v e l o p m e n t
t h a n w h i t e s — t h a t is, t h e y a r e less n e o t e n i c b e c a u s e they d e p a r t
m o r e q u i c k l y f r o m t h e fetal state; 2 ) a v e r a g e w h i t e I Q s u r p a s s e s
a v e r a g e black IQ by a g e t h r e e ; 3) t h e r e is a slight n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a tion b e t w e e n s e n s o r i m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e f i r s t y e a r o f life a n d
later I Q — t h a t is, c h i l d r e n w h o d e v e l o p m o r e r a p i d l y t e n d t o e n d
u p with l o w e r I Q ' s . E y s e n c k c o n c l u d e s ( 1 9 7 1 , p . 7 9 ) : " T h e s e f i n d i n g s a r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e o f a v e r y g e n e r a l v i e w i n b i o l o g y [the
theory of neoteny] according to which the m o r e p r o l o n g e d the
i n f a n c y t h e g r e a t e r i n g e n e r a l a r e t h e c o g n i t i v e o r intellectual abilities o f t h e s p e c i e s . T h i s law a p p e a r s t o w o r k e v e n within a g i v e n
species."
E y s e n c k fails t o r e a l i z e that h e h a s b a s e d his a r g u m e n t o n w h a t
is a l m o s t s u r e l y a n o n c a u s a l c o r r e l a t i o n . ( N o n c a u s a l c o r r e l a t i o n s
a r e t h e b a n e o f statistical i n f e r e n c e — s e e C h a p t e r 6 . T h e y a r e p e r fectly " t r u e " i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l s e n s e , b u t t h e y d e m o n s t r a t e n o
causal c o n n e c t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , w e m a y c a l c u l a t e a s p e c t a c u l a r
correlation—very near the m a x i m u m value of 1.0—between the
rise i n w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e past f i v e y e a r s a n d t h e i n c r e a s i n g s e p a r a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n d N o r t h A m e r i c a b y c o n t i n e n t a l drift.)
S u p p o s e that l o w e r black I Q i s p u r e l y a result o f g e n e r a l l y p o o r e r
environment. Rapid sensorimotor d e v e l o p m e n t is one way of identifying a p e r s o n as b l a c k — b u t a less a c c u r a t e w a y t h a n skin c o l o r .
T h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f p o o r e n v i r o n m e n t with l o w e r I Q m a y b e c a u s a l ,
but the c o r r e l a t i o n o f r a p i d s e n s o r i m o t o r d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h l o w e r
IQ is probably noncausal because rapid sensorimotor developm e n t , in this c o n t e x t , m e r e l y identifies a p e r s o n as black. E y s e n c k ' s
a r g u m e n t i g n o r e s t h e fact that black c h i l d r e n , in a racist society,
generally live i n p o o r e r e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h i c h m a y l e a d t o l o w e r I Q
scores. Y e t E y s e n c k i n v o k e d n e o t e n y t o g i v e t h e o r e t i c a l m e a n i n g ,
and t h e r e b y causal status, to a n o n c a u s a l c o r r e l a t i o n r e f l e c t i n g his
h e r e d i t a r i a n bias.
The ape in some of us: criminal anthropology
Atavism
and
criminality
In Resurrection, T o l s t o y ' s last g r e a t n o v e l ( 1 8 9 9 ) , t h e assistant
Prosecutor, an u n f e e l i n g m o d e r n i s t , rises to c o n d e m n a p r o s t i t u t e
talsely a c c u s e d o f m u r d e r :
I
5
2
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
T h e assistant prosecutor spoke at great length. . . . All the latest catchphrases then in v o g u e in his set, everything that then was and still is
accepted as the last word in scientific wisdom was included in his s p e e c h —
heredity and congenital criminality, Lombroso and T a r d e , evolution and
the struggle for existence. . . . "Running away with himself, isn't he?" said
the presiding j u d g e with a smile, bending towards the austere m e m b e r of
the court. "A fearful dunderhead!" said the austere member.
I n B r a m S t o k e r ' s Dracula ( 1 8 9 7 ) , P r o f e s s o r V a n H e l s i n g u r g e s
M i n a H a r k e r to d e s c r i b e t h e evil C o u n t : " T e l l us . . . d r y m e n of
s c i e n c e w h a t y o u see with t h o s e s o b r i g h t e y e s . " S h e r e s p o n d s : " T h e
C o u n t is a criminal and of criminal type. N o r d a u and L o m b r o s o
w o u l d s o classify h i m , a n d q u a c r i m i n a l h e i s o f i m p e r f e c t l y f o r m e d
mind."*
Maria Montessori expressed an embattled optimism when she
w r o t e i n 1 9 1 3 (p. 8): " T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f c r i m i n a l i t y s p r e a d s
without check or succor, and up to yesterday it aroused in us nothi n g b u t r e p u l s i o n a n d l o a t h i n g . B u t n o w that s c i e n c e h a s laid its
f i n g e r u p o n this m o r a l f e s t e r , i t d e m a n d s t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f all
m a n k i n d t o c o m b a t it."
T h e c o m m o n subject o f t h e s e d i s p a r a t e a s s e s s m e n t s i s C e s a r e
L o m b r o s o ' s t h e o r y of I'uomo delinquente—the c r i m i n a l m a n — p r o b ably t h e m o s t influential d o c t r i n e e v e r t o e m e r g e f r o m t h e a n t h r o p o m e t r i c t r a d i t i o n . L o m b r o s o , a n Italian p h y s i c i a n , d e s c r i b e d t h e
i n s i g h t that led t o his t h e o r y o f i n n a t e c r i m i n a l i t y a n d t o t h e p r o f e s sion h e e s t a b l i s h e d — c r i m i n a l a n t h r o p o l o g y . H e h a d , i n 1 8 7 0 , b e e n
trying to discover anatomical differences between criminals and
insane m e n "without succeeding very well." T h e n , "the m o r n i n g of
a g l o o m y d a y i n D e c e m b e r , " h e e x a m i n e d t h e skull o f t h e f a m o u s
* In his Annotated Dracula, Leonard Wolf (1975, p. 300) notes that Jonathan Harker's
initial description of Count Dracula is based directly upon Cesare Lombroso's
account of the born criminal. Wolf presents the following contrasts:
HARKER WRITES: "His [the Count's] face was . . . aquiline, with high bridge
of the thin nose and peculiarly arched nostrils. . . ."
LOMBROSO: "[The criminal's] nose on the contrary . . . is often aquiline like
the beak of a bird of prey."
HARKER: "His eyebrows were very massive, almost meeting over the
nose. . . ."
LOMBROSO: "The eyebrows are bushy and tend to meet across the nose."
HARKER: ". . . his ears were pale and at the tops extremely pointed. . . ."
LOMBROSO: "with a protuberance on the upper part of the posterior margin
. . . a relic of the pointed ear. . . ."
MEASURING
BODIES
153
b r i g a n d V i h e l l a , a n d h a d that f l a s h o f j o y o u s insight that m a r k s
b o t h brilliant d i s c o v e r y a n d c r a c k p o t i n v e n t i o n . F o r h e saw i n that
skull a series of atavistic f e a t u r e s r e c a l l i n g an apish past r a t h e r t h a n
a h u m a n present:
This was not merely an idea, but a flash of inspiration. At the sight of
that skull, I s e e m e d to see all of a sudden, lighted up as a vast plain under
a flaming sky, the problem of the nature of the criminal—an atavistic being
who reproduces in his person the ferocious instincts of primitive humanity
and the inferior animals. T h u s were explained anatomically the e n o r m o u s
jaws, high cheek bones, prominent superciliary arches, solitary lines in the
palms, e x t r e m e size of the orbits, handle-shaped ears found in criminals,
savages and apes, insensibility to pain, extremely acute sight, tattooing,
excessive idleness, love of orgies, and the irresponsible craving of evil for
its own sake, the desire not only to extinguish life in the victim, but to
mutilate the corpse, tear its flesh and drink its blood (in Taylor et al., 1973,
p. 41).
L o m b r o s o ' s t h e o r y w a s n o t j u s t a v a g u e p r o c l a m a t i o n that c r i m e
i s h e r e d i t a r y — s u c h claims w e r e c o m m o n e n o u g h i n his t i m e — b u t
a specific evolutionary t h e o r y b a s e d u p o n a n t h r o p o m e t r i c data.
Criminals a r e e v o l u t i o n a r y t h r o w b a c k s i n o u r midst. G e r m s o f a n
ancestral past lie d o r m a n t i n o u r h e r e d i t y . I n s o m e u n f o r t u n a t e
individuals, t h e past c o m e s t o life a g a i n . T h e s e p e o p l e a r e i n n a t e l y
d r i v e n to act as a n o r m a l a p e or s a v a g e w o u l d , b u t s u c h b e h a v i o r is
d e e m e d c r i m i n a l i n o u r civilized society. F o r t u n a t e l y , w e m a y i d e n tify b o r n c r i m i n a l s b e c a u s e they b e a r a n a t o m i c a l signs o f their
apishness. T h e i r atavism i s b o t h physical a n d m e n t a l , b u t t h e p h y s ical signs, o r s t i g m a t a a s L o m b r o s o called t h e m , a r e decisive. C r i m inal behavior c a n also arise in n o r m a l m e n , but we k n o w the " b o r n
criminal" b y his a n a t o m y . A n a t o m y , i n d e e d , i s d e s t i n y , a n d b o r n
criminals c a n n o t e s c a p e their i n h e r i t e d taint: " W e a r e g o v e r n e d b y
silent laws w h i c h n e v e r cease to o p e r a t e a n d w h i c h r u l e society with
m o r e a u t h o r i t y t h a n the laws i n s c r i b e d o n o u r statute b o o k s . C r i m e
• • • a p p e a r s to be a n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n " ( L o m b r o s o , 1 8 8 7 ,
P- 667).
Animals and savages as
born
criminals
T h e identification o f apish atavism i n c r i m i n a l s d i d not clinch
Lombroso's a r g u m e n t , f o r physical a p i s h n e s s c a n e x p l a i n a m a n ' s
arbaric b e h a v i o r o n l y i f t h e n a t u r a l inclinations o f s a v a g e s a n d
54
J
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
l o w e r a n i m a l s a r e c r i m i n a l . I f s o m e m e n look like a p e s , b u t a p e s b e
k i n d , t h e n t h e a r g u m e n t fails. T h u s , L o m b r o s o d e v o t e d t h e first
p a r t of his m a j o r w o r k (Criminal Man, first p u b l i s h e d in 1876) to
what must be the most ludicrous excursion into a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m e v e r p u b l i s h e d — a n analysis o f t h e c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r o f anim a l s . H e cites, f o r e x a m p l e , a n a n t d r i v e n b y r a g e t o kill a n d
d i s m e m b e r a n a p h i d ; a n a d u l t e r o u s stork w h o , with h e r l o v e r ,
m u r d e r e d h e r h u s b a n d ; a c r i m i n a l association of b e a v e r s w h o
g a n g e d up to m u r d e r a solitary c o m p a t r i o t ; a m a l e a n t , w i t h o u t
access to f e m a l e r e p r o d u c t i v e s , w h o v i o l a t e d a ( f e m a l e ) w o r k e r with
atrophied sexual organs, causing her great pain and death; he even
r e f e r s t o t h e insect e a t i n g o f certain plants a s a n " e q u i v a l e n t o f
crime" ( L o m b r o s o , 1887, p p . 1-18).
L o m b r o s o t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o t h e n e x t logical s t e p : c o m p a r i s o n
o f c r i m i n a l s with " i n f e r i o r " g r o u p s . " I w o u l d c o m p a r e , " w r o t e a
French s u p p o r t e r , "the criminal to a savage a p p e a r i n g , by atavism,
i n m o d e r n society; w e m a y t h i n k that h e was b o r n a c r i m i n a l
b e c a u s e h e was b o r n a s a v a g e " ( B o r d i e r , 1 8 7 9 , p . 284). L o m b r o s o
v e n t u r e d into e t h n o l o g y t o identify c r i m i n a l i t y a s n o r m a l b e h a v i o r
a m o n g i n f e r i o r p e o p l e . H e w r o t e a small treatise ( L o m b r o s o , 1896)
o n t h e D i n k a o f t h e U p p e r N i l e . I n it, h e s p o k e o f t h e i r h e a v y
t a t t o o i n g a n d h i g h t h r e s h o l d f o r p a i n — a t p u b e r t y t h e y b r e a k their
incisors with a h a m m e r . T h e y d i s p l a y apish s t i g m a t a as n o r m a l
p a r t s o f their a n a t o m y : " t h e i r n o s e . . . i s n o t o n l y f l a t t e n e d , but
t r i l o b e d , r e s e m b l i n g that o f m o n k e y s . " H i s c o l l e a g u e G . T a r d e
w r o t e that s o m e c r i m i n a l s " w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e o r n a m e n t a n d the
m o r a l aristocracy o f a t r i b e o f R e d I n d i a n s " (in Ellis, 1 9 1 0 , p . 254).
H a v e l o c k Ellis m a d e m u c h o f a c l a i m that c r i m i n a l s a n d i n f e r i o r
p e o p l e o f t e n d o n o t b l u s h . "Inability t o b l u s h has a l w a y s b e e n considered the a c c o m p a n i m e n t of crime and shamelessness. Blushing
i s also v e r y r a r e a m o n g idiots a n d s a v a g e s . T h e S p a n i a r d s u s e d t o
say o f the S o u t h A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s : ' H o w c a n o n e trust m e n w h o
d o n o t k n o w h o w t o b l u s h ' " ( 1 9 1 0 , p . 138). A n d h o w f a r d i d the
Incas g e t b y t r u s t i n g P i z a r r o ?
L o m b r o s o c o n s t r u c t e d virtually all his a r g u m e n t s in a m a n n e r
that p r e c l u d e d t h e i r d e f e a t , t h u s m a k i n g t h e m scientifically vacu o u s . H e cited c o p i o u s n u m e r i c a l d a t a t o l e n d a n air o f objectivity
to his w o r k , b u t it r e m a i n e d so v u l n e r a b l e that e v e n m o s t of B r o c a s
school t u r n e d a g a i n s t t h e t h e o r y o f a t a v i s m . W h e n e v e r L o m b r o s o
e n c o u n t e r e d a c o n t r a r y fact, h e p e r f o r m e d s o m e m e n t a l gymnas-
MEASURING
BODIES
'55
tics to i n c o r p o r a t e it within his system. T h i s p o s t u r e is clearly
e x p r e s s e d i n his s t a t e m e n t s o n t h e d e p r a v i t y o f i n f e r i o r p e o p l e s ,
f o r a g a i n a n d a g a i n h e e n c o u n t e r e d stories o f c o u r a g e a n d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t a m o n g t h o s e h e w i s h e d t o d e n i g r a t e . Y e t h e twisted all
these stories into his system. If, f o r e x a m p l e , he h a d to a d m i t a
f a v o r a b l e trait, h e j o i n e d i t with o t h e r s h e c o u l d d e s p i s e . C i t i n g t h e
s o m e w h a t d a t e d a u t h o r i t y o f T a c i t u s f o r his c o n c l u s i o n , h e w r o t e :
" E v e n w h e n h o n o r , chastity, a n d pity a r e f o u n d a m o n g s a v a g e s ,
i m p u l s i v e n e s s a n d laziness a r e n e v e r w a n t i n g . S a v a g e s h a v e a h o r r o r o f c o n t i n u o u s w o r k , s o that f o r t h e m t h e p a s s a g e t o active a n d
m e t h o d i c a l l a b o r lies b y the r o a d o f selection o r o f slavery o n l y "
( 1 9 1 1 , p . 367). O r c o n s i d e r his o n e b e g r u d g i n g w o r d o f p r a i s e f o r
the i n f e r i o r a n d c r i m i n a l r a c e o f g y p s i e s :
T h e y are vain, like all delinquents, but they have no fear or shame.
Everything they earn they spend for drink and ornaments. T h e y may be
seen barefooted, but with bright-colored or lace-bedecked clothing; without stockings, but with yellow shoes. T h e y have the improvidence of the
savage and that of the criminal as well. . . . T h e y devour half-putrified
carrion. T h e y are given to orgies, love a noise, and make a great outcry in
the markets. T h e y murder in cold blood in order to rob, and were formerly suspected of cannibalism. . . . It is to be noted that this race, so low
morally and so incapable of cultural and intellectual development, a race
that can never carry on any industry, and which in poetry has not got
beyond the poorest lyrics, has created in Hungary a marvelous musical
art—a new proof of the genius that, mixed with atavism, is to be found in
the criminal ( 1 9 1 1 , p. 40).
I f h e h a d n o d a m n i n g traits t o m i x with his p r a i s e , h e
discounted t h e m o t i v a t i o n f o r a p p a r e n t l y w o r t h y b e h a v i o r
primitives." A w h i t e saint d y i n g b r a v e l y u n d e r t o r t u r e is
a m o n g h e r o e s ; a " s a v a g e " e x p i r i n g with e q u a l d i g n i t y
doesn't feel t h e p a i n :
simply
among
a hero
simply
Their [criminals'] physical insensibility well recalls that of savage peoples who can bear in rites of puberty, tortures that a white man could
v e r endure. All travellers know the indifference of N e g r o e s and Amer•can savages to pain: the former cut their hands and laugh in order to
^
° r k ; the latter, tied to the torture post, gaily sing the praises of
'heir tribe while they are slowly burnt (1887, p. 319).
n e
a
0 l d
w
We r e c o g n i z e in this c o m p a r i s o n of atavistic c r i m i n a l s with ani"
a g e s , a n d p e o p l e o f l o w e r races t h e basic a r g u m e n t o f
s a v
i6
THE
5
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
r e c a p i t u l a t i o n d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s section. T o c o m p l e t e the
chain, L o m b r o s o n e e d e d only to proclaim the child as inherently
c r i m i n a l — f o r t h e c h i l d is an ancestral a d u l t , a l i v i n g p r i m i t i v e .
L o m b r o s o d i d n o t s h r i n k f r o m this n e c e s s a r y i m p l i c a t i o n , a n d h e
b r a n d e d as criminal the traditional innocent of literature: " O n e of
the m o s t i m p o r t a n t d i s c o v e r i e s o f m y s c h o o l i s that i n t h e child u p
to a certain age are manifested the saddest tendencies of the criminal m a n . T h e g e r m s o f d e l i n q u e n c y a n d o f c r i m i n a l i t y a r e f o u n d
n o r m a l l y e v e n i n t h e first p e r i o d s o f h u m a n l i f e " ( 1 8 9 5 , p . 53). O u r
i m p r e s s i o n of t h e child's i n n o c e n c e is a class bias; we c o m f o r t a b l e
folks s u p p r e s s the n a t u r a l inclinations o f o u r c h i l d r e n : " O n e w h o
lives a m o n g t h e u p p e r classes has n o i d e a o f t h e passion babies
h a v e f o r a l c o h o l i c l i q u o r , b u t a m o n g t h e l o w e r classes i t i s o n l y t o o
c o m m o n a t h i n g t o see e v e n s u c k l i n g b a b e s d r i n k w i n e a n d l i q u o r s
with w o n d e r f u l delight (1895, p. 56).*
The stigmata:
anatomical,
physiological,
and social
L o m b r o s o ' s a n a t o m i c a l s t i g m a t a (Fig. 4 . 1 ) w e r e , f o r t h e m o s t
part, neither pathologies n o r discontinuous variations, but e x t r e m e
v a l u e s o n a n o r m a l c u r v e that a p p r o a c h a v e r a g e m e a s u r e s f o r t h e
s a m e trait in g r e a t a p e s . (In m o d e r n t e r m s , this is a f u n d a m e n t a l
s o u r c e o f L o m b r o s o ' s e r r o r . A r m l e n g t h varies a m o n g h u m a n s ,
* In Dracula, Professor Van Helsing, in his inimitable broken English, extolled the
argument from recapitulation by branding the Count as a persistent child (and
therefore both a primitive and a criminal as well):
Ah! there I have hope that our man-brains that have been of man so long
and that have not lost the grace of God, will come higher than his child-brain
that lie in his tomb for centuries, that grow not yet to our stature, and that do
only work selfish and therefore small. . . . He is clever and cunning and
resourceful; but he be not of man-stature as to brain. He be of child-brain
in much. Now this criminal of ours is predestinate to crime also; he too have
child-brain, and it is of the child to do what he have done. T h e little bird, the
little fish, the little animal learn not by principle but empirically; and when he
learn to do, then there is to him the ground to start from to do more.
4 • 1
A panoply of criminal faces. T h e frontispiece to the atlas of Lombroso's Criminal Man. G r o u p E are German murderers; G r o u p I are burglars (Lombroso tells us that the man without a nose managed to escape
justice for many years by wearing the false nose depicted in the figure on
the left, wearing a derby); "H" are purse snatchers; "A" are shoplifters;
"B," "C," "D," and 'F" are swindlers; while the distinguished gentlemen of
the bottom row declared themselves bankrupt fraudulently.
MEASURING
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and some people must have longer arms than others. T h e average
c h i m p has a l o n g e r a r m t h a n the a v e r a g e h u m a n , b u t this d o e s n ' t
m e a n that a relatively l o n g - a r m e d h u m a n is genetically similar to
a p e s . N o r m a l v a r i a t i o n within a p o p u l a t i o n is a d i f f e r e n t biological
p h e n o m e n o n f r o m d i f f e r e n c e s i n a v e r a g e v a l u e s between p o p u l a tions. T h i s e r r o r o c c u r s a g a i n a n d a g a i n . I t i s t h e basis o f A r t h u r
J e n s e n ' s fallacy i n a s s e r t i n g that a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n I Q
b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n whites a n d blacks a r e l a r g e l y i n h e r i t e d — s e e
p p . 1 8 6 — 1 8 7 . A true atavism is a discontinuous, genetically based, ancestral t r a i t — t h e o c c a s i o n a l h o r s e b o r n w i t h f u n c t i o n a l side toes,
f o r e x a m p l e . ) A m o n g his apish s t i g m a t a , L o m b r o s o listed ( 1 8 8 7 ,
p p . 6 6 0 — 6 6 1 ) : g r e a t e r skull t h i c k n e s s , simplicity o f cranial s u t u r e s ,
l a r g e j a w s , p r e e m i n e n c e o f t h e f a c e o v e r t h e c r a n i u m , relatively
long arms, precocious wrinkles, low and narrow forehead, large
ears, a b s e n c e o f b a l d n e s s , d a r k e r skin, g r e a t e r visual acuity, d i m i n ished sensitivity t o p a i n , a n d a b s e n c e o f v a s c u l a r r e a c t i o n (blushing). A t t h e 1886 I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n g r e s s o n C r i m i n a l A n t h r o p o l o g y , h e e v e n a r g u e d (see F i g . 4.2) that the feet o f prostitutes a r e
often p r e h e n s i l e a s i n a p e s (big toe w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m o t h e r s ) .
F o r o t h e r s t i g m a t a , L o m b r o s o d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e a p e s t o seek
4 • 2 T h e feet of prostitutes. This figure was presented by L. Jullien to
the 4th International Congress on Criminal Anthropology in 1896. Commenting u p o n it, Lombroso said: "These observations show admirably that
the morphology of the prostitute is more abnormal even than that of the
criminal, especially for atavistic anomalies, because the prehensile foot is
atavistic."
4*3
T h e cranial capacities of normal men (in black) compared with criminals (hatched).
T h e y-axis is in percentages rather than actual numbers.
i6o
THE
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similarity with m o r e distant, a n d e v e n m o r e " p r i m i t i v e , " c r e a t u r e s :
h e c o m p a r e d p r o m i n e n t c a n i n e teeth a n d a f l a t t e n e d p a l a t e with
t h e a n a t o m y o f l e m u r s a n d r o d e n t s , a n o d d l y s h a p e d occipital c o n d y l e (area f o r a r t i c u l a t i o n o f skull a n d v e r t e b r a l c o l u m n ) with t h e
n o r m a l c o n d y l e s o f cattle a n d p i g s ( 1 8 9 6 , p . 188), a n d a n a b n o r m a l
h e a r t with t h e u s u a l c o n f o r m a t i o n i n s i r e n i a n s ( a g r o u p o f r a r e
m a r i n e m a m m a l s ) . H e e v e n p o s t u l a t e d a m e a n i n g f u l similarity
b e t w e e n t h e facial a s y m m e t r y o f s o m e c r i m i n a l s a n d f l a t f i s h e s w i t h
b o t h eyes o n t h e u p p e r s u r f a c e o f t h e i r b o d i e s ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 3 7 3 ) !
L o m b r o s o b o l s t e r e d his s t u d y of specific d e f e c t s with a g e n e r a l
anthropometric survey of the criminal head a n d b o d y — a sample
o f 383 c r a n i a f r o m d e a d c r i m i n a l s , p l u s g e n e r a l p r o p o r t i o n s m e a s u r e d f o r 3,839 a m o n g t h e living. A s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f L o m b r o s o ' s
style, c o n s i d e r t h e n u m e r i c a l basis o f his m o s t i m p o r t a n t c l a i m —
that c r i m i n a l s g e n e r a l l y h a v e s m a l l e r b r a i n s t h a n n o r m a l p e o p l e ,
e v e n t h o u g h a f e w c r i m i n a l s h a v e v e r y l a r g e b r a i n s (see p . 1 2 6 ) . *
L o m b r o s o ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 365) a n d his disciples ( F e r r i , 1 8 9 7 , p . 8 , f o r
e x a m p l e ) r e p e a t e d this c l a i m c o n t i n u a l l y . Y e t L o m b r o s o ' s d a t a
s h o w n o s u c h t h i n g . F i g . 4.3 p r e s e n t s t h e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s
f o r c r a n i a l capacity m e a s u r e d b y L o m b r o s o i n 1 2 1 m a l e c r i m i n a l s
a n d 328 u p r i g h t m e n . Y o u d o n ' t n e e d f a n c y statistics t o see that t h e
two distributions differ very little—despite Lombroso's conclusion
that, i n c r i m i n a l s , " t h e small capacities d o m i n a t e a n d t h e v e r y g r e a t
a r e r a r e " ( 1 8 8 7 , p . 144). I h a v e r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a
f r o m L o m b r o s o ' s tables o f p e r c e n t a g e s w i t h i n classes a n d c a l c u l a t e
a v e r a g e v a l u e s o f 1,450 c c f o r c r i m i n a l h e a d s a n d 1,484 c c f o r lawabiding heads. T h e standard deviations of the two distributions (a
g e n e r a l m e a s u r e o f s p r e a d a b o u t t h e a v e r a g e ) d o n o t d i f f e r significantly. T h i s m e a n s that t h e l a r g e r r a n g e o f v a r i a t i o n i n t h e lawa b i d i n g s a m p l e — a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t f o r L o m b r o s o since i t
e x t e n d e d t h e m a x i m u m capacity f o r d e c e n t f o l k t o 100 c c a b o v e
•Other standard craniometrical arguments were often pressed into service by criminal anthropology. For example, as early as 1843, Voisin invoked the classical argument of front and back (see pp.129-135) to place criminals among the animals.
He studied five hundred young offenders and reported deficiencies in the forward
and upper parts of their brain—the supposed seat of morality and rationality. He
wrote (1843, pp. 100-101):
Their brains are at a minimum of development in their anterior and superior parts, in the two parts that make us what we are and that place us above
the animals and make us men. They [criminal brains] are placed by their
nature . . . entirely outside the human species.
I
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t h e m a x i m u m f o r c r i m i n a l s — m a y s i m p l y b e a n artifact o f l a r g e r
s a m p l e size f o r l a w - a b i d i n g m e n (the l a r g e r t h e s a m p l e , t h e g r e a t e r
the chance of including e x t r e m e values).
L o m b r o s o ' s s t i g m a t a also i n c l u d e d a set of social traits. He
emphasized particularly: 1) T h e argot of criminals, a l a n g u a g e of
t h e i r o w n with h i g h levels o f o n o m a t o p o e i a , m u c h like t h e s p e e c h
o f c h i l d r e n a n d s a v a g e s : " A t a v i s m c o n t r i b u t e s t o i t m o r e t h a n anyt h i n g else. T h e y s p e a k d i f f e r e n t l y b e c a u s e t h e y feel d i f f e r e n t l y ;
t h e y s p e a k a s s a v a g e s b e c a u s e they a r e t r u e s a v a g e s i n t h e m i d s t o f
o u r brilliant E u r o p e a n civilization" ( 1 8 8 7 , p . 4 7 6 ) ; 2 ) T a t t o o i n g ,
r e f l e c t i n g b o t h t h e insensitivity o f c r i m i n a l s t o p a i n a n d t h e i r atavistic l o v e o f a d o r n m e n t (Fig. 4.4). L o m b r o s o m a d e a q u a n t i t a t i v e
s t u d y o f c o n t e n t i n c r i m i n a l tattoos a n d f o u n d t h e m , i n g e n e r a l ,
lawless ( " v e n g e a n c e " ) o r e x c u s i n g ( " b o r n u n d e r a n u n l u c k y star,"
" o u t o f l u c k " ) , t h o u g h h e e n c o u n t e r e d o n e that r e a d : " L o n g live
France and french fried potatoes."
L o m b r o s o n e v e r a t t r i b u t e d all c r i m i n a l acts t o p e o p l e with atavistic s t i g m a t a . H e c o n c l u d e d that a b o u t 4 0 p e r c e n t o f criminals
followed hereditary compulsion; others acted f r o m passion, rage,
o r d e s p e r a t i o n . A t first g l a n c e , this distinction o f o c c a s i o n a l f r o m
b o r n c r i m i n a l s has t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a c o m p r o m i s e o r r e t r e a t , b u t
L o m b r o s o u s e d it in an o p p o s i t e w a y — a s a claim that r e n d e r e d his
system i m m u n e t o d i s p r o o f . N o l o n g e r c o u l d m e n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
b y their acts. M u r d e r m i g h t b e a d e e d o f t h e l o w e s t a p e i n a h u m a n
body or of the most upright cuckold o v e r c o m e by justified rage. All
c r i m i n a l acts a r e c o v e r e d : a m a n with s t i g m a t a p e r f o r m s t h e m by
i n n a t e n a t u r e , a m a n w i t h o u t stigmata b y f o r c e o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
B y classifying e x c e p t i o n s within his s y s t e m , L o m b r o s o e x c l u d e d all
p o t e n t i a l falsification.
Lombroso's
retreat
L o m b r o s o ' s t h e o r y o f atavism c a u s e d a g r e a t stir a n d a r o u s e d
o n e o f t h e m o s t h e a t e d scientific d e b a t e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
L o m b r o s o , t h o u g h h e p e p p e r e d his w o r k with v o l u m e s o f n u m b e r s , h a d n o t m a d e t h e u s u a l o b e i s a n c e s t o c o l d objectivity. E v e n
t h o s e g r e a t a priorists, t h e disciples o f Paul B r o c a , c h i d e d L o m b r o s o f o r his l a w y e r l y , r a t h e r t h a n scientific, a p p r o a c h . P a u l T o p i n a r d said of h i m ( 1 8 8 7 , p. 6 7 6 ) : " H e d i d n o t say: h e r e is a fact
w h i c h s u g g e s t s an i n d u c t i o n to m e , let's see if I am m i s t a k e n , l e t s
Lombroso regarded tattooing as a sign of innate criminality. T h e
arm of this reprobate, depicted in Lombroso's Criminal Man, is inscribed:
"A man of misfortune." On his penis we read, entra lutto—it all goes in. In
' s caption, Lombroso tells us that tattoos of shaking hands are found very
frequently in pederasts.
h
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p r o c e e d r i g o r o u s l y , let us collect a n d a d d o t h e r facts. . . . T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s f a s h i o n e d i n a d v a n c e ; h e seeks p r o o f , h e d e f e n d s his thesis like an a d v o c a t e w h o e n d s up by p e r s u a d i n g himself. . . .
[ L o m b r o s o ] is t o o c o n v i n c e d . "
L o m b r o s o slowly r e t r e a t e d u n d e r t h e b a r r a g e . B u t h e r e t r e a t e d
like a military m a s t e r . N o t f o r a m o m e n t d i d he c o m p r o m i s e or
a b a n d o n his l e a d i n g i d e a that c r i m e i s b i o l o g i c a l . H e m e r e l y
e n l a r g e d t h e r a n g e o f i n n a t e c a u s e s . His o r i g i n a l t h e o r y h a d t h e
v i r t u e o f simplicity a n d s t r i k i n g o r i g i n a l i t y — c r i m i n a l s a r e a p e s i n
o u r midst, m a r k e d by the anatomical stigmata of atavism. Later
v e r s i o n s b e c a m e m o r e d i f f u s e , b u t also m o r e inclusive. A t a v i s m
r e m a i n e d as a p r i m a r y biological c a u s e of c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r , but
L o m b r o s o a d d e d s e v e r a l c a t e g o r i e s o f c o n g e n i t a l illness a n d
d e g e n e r a t i o n : " W e see i n t h e c r i m i n a l , " h e w r o t e ( 1 8 8 7 , p . 6 5 1 ) , " a
s a v a g e m a n a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , a sick m a n . " I n later y e a r s , L o m b r o s o a w a r d e d special p r o m i n e n c e t o e p i l e p s y a s a m a r k o f criminality; h e f i n a l l y stated that a l m o s t e v e r y " b o r n c r i m i n a l " s u f f e r s
from epilepsy to some degree. T h e a d d e d b u r d e n imposed by
L o m b r o s o ' s t h e o r y u p o n t h o u s a n d s o f e p i l e p t i c s c a n n o t b e calculated; they b e c a m e a m a j o r t a r g e t o f e u g e n i c a l s c h e m e s i n p a r t
b e c a u s e L o m b r o s o h a d e x p l i c a t e d t h e i r illness a s a m a r k o f m o r a l
degeneracy.
A s a n i n t r i g u i n g s i d e l i g h t , u n k n o w n t o m o s t p e o p l e t o d a y , the
s u p p o s e d link b e t w e e n d e g e n e r a c y a n d racial r a n k i n g left u s a t least
o n e l e g a c y — t h e designation of " M o n g o l i a n idiocy" or, more
blandly, " m o n g o l i s m " for the chromosomal disorder now generally
called " D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e . " D r . J o h n L a n g d o n H a y d o n D o w n , a n
English p a t r i c i a n , identified the s y n d r o m e in a p a p e r entitled " O b s e r v a t i o n s o n a n e t h n i c classification o f idiots" ( D o w n , 1866).
D o w n a r g u e d that m a n y c o n g e n i t a l " i d i o t s " ( a quasi-technical
t e r m i n his d a y , n o t j u s t a n epithet) e x h i b i t e d a n a t o m i c a l features,
a b s e n t i n their p a r e n t s b u t p r e s e n t a s d e f i n i n g f e a t u r e s o f lower
races. H e f o u n d idiots o f t h e " E t h i o p i a n v a r i e t y " — " w h i t e n e g r o e s ,
a l t h o u g h o f E u r o p e a n d e s c e n t " ( 1 8 6 6 , p . 2 6 0 ) — o t h e r s o f t h e Malay
t y p e , a n d " a n a l o g u e s o f t h e p e o p l e w h o with s h o r t e n e d f o r e h e a d s ,
p r o m i n e n t c h e e k s , d e e p - s e t e y e s , a n d slightly a p i s h n o s e , originally
i n h a b i t e d the A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t " (p. 260). O t h e r s a p p r o a c h e d
" t h e g r e a t M o n g o l i a n f a m i l y . " " A v e r y l a r g e n u m b e r o f congenital
idiots a r e typical M o n g o l s " (p. 260). H e t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o describe.
MEASURING
l6
BODIES
5
a c c u r a t e l y , t h e f e a t u r e s o f D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e i n a b o y u n d e r his
c h a r g e — a f e w a c c i d e n t a l similarities w i t h O r i e n t a l s ("obliquely
p l a c e d " eyes a n d slightly yellowish skin), a n d a m u c h l a r g e r n u m b e r o f dissimilar f e a t u r e s ( b r o w n a n d s p a r s e h a i r , thick lips, w r i n kled f o r e h e a d , etc.). N o n e t h e l e s s , h e c o n c l u d e d ( 1 8 6 6 , p . 2 6 1 ) :
" T h e boy's a s p e c t is s u c h that it is difficult to r e a l i z e that he is t h e
child o f E u r o p e a n s , b u t s o f r e q u e n t l y a r e t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s p r e s e n t e d , that t h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t that t h e s e e t h n i c f e a t u r e s a r e
the result o f d e g e n e r a t i o n . " D o w n e v e n u s e d his e t h n i c i n s i g h t t o
e x p l a i n t h e b e h a v i o r o f afflicted c h i l d r e n : " t h e y e x c e l l a t imitat i o n " — t h e trait m o s t f r e q u e n t l y cited as typically M o n g o l i a n in c o n v e n t i o n a l racist classifications o f D o w n ' s t i m e .
D o w n d e p i c t e d h i m s e l f a s a racial liberal. H a d h e n o t p r o v e n
h u m a n u n i t y b y s h o w i n g that t h e c h a r a c t e r s o f l o w e r races c o u l d
a p p e a r i n d e g e n e r a t e s o f t h e h i g h e r ( 1 8 6 6 , p . 262)? I n fact, h e h a d
m e r e l y d o n e f o r p a t h o l o g y w h a t L o m b r o s o was s o o n t o a c c o m p l i s h
for c r i m i n a l i t y — t o a f f i r m t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l racist r a n k s b y m a r k i n g
undesirable whites as biological representatives of lower g r o u p s .
L o m b r o s o s p o k e o f atavisms that " l i k e n t h e E u r o p e a n c r i m i n a l t o
the A u s t r a l i a n a n d M o n g o l i a n t y p e " ( 1 8 8 7 , p . 2 5 4 ) . Y e t D o w n ' s
designation p e r s i s t e d t o o u r d a y a n d i s o n l y n o w f a d i n g f r o m u s e .
Sir Peter M e d a w a r told m e that i n t h e late 1970s, h e a n d s o m e A s i a n
colleagues p e r s u a d e d t h e L o n d o n Times t o d r o p " m o n g o l i s m " i n
favor o f " D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e . " T h e g o o d d o c t o r will still b e h o n o r e d .
The
influence
of criminal
anthropology
Dallemagne, a prominent French opponent of Lombroso, paid
h o m a g e to his i n f l u e n c e in 1896:
His thoughts revolutionized our opinions, provoked a salutary feeling
everywhere, and a happy emulation in research of all kinds. For 20 years,
his thoughts fed discussions; the Italian master was the order of the day in
all debates; his thoughts appeared as events. T h e r e was an extraordinary
animation everywhere.
^
^ ' l e m a g n e was r e c o r d i n g facts, n o t j u s t p l a y i n g d i p l o m a t .
irninal a n t h r o p o l o g y was n o t j u s t a n a c a d e m i c i a n ' s d e b a t e , h o w ^
l y . I t was the subject o f d i s c u s s i o n i n l e g a l a n d p e n a l circles
years. I t p r o v o k e d n u m e r o u s " r e f o r m s " a n d w a s , until W o r l d
e
r
a v e
THE
MIS MEASURE
OF
MAN
W a r I, t h e subject o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e h e l d e v e r y f o u r
y e a r s f o r j u d g e s , j u r i s t s , a n d g o v e r n m e n t officials a s well a s f o r
scientists.
B e y o n d its specific i m p a c t , L o m b r o s i a n c r i m i n a l a n t h r o p o l o g y
h a d its p r i m a r y i n f l u e n c e i n b o l s t e r i n g t h e basic a r g u m e n t o f biological d e t e r m i n i s m a b o u t t h e roles o f actors a n d their s u r r o u n d i n g s : actors f o l l o w t h e i r i n b o r n n a t u r e . T o u n d e r s t a n d c r i m e , s t u d y
t h e c r i m i n a l , n o t his r e a r i n g , not his e d u c a t i o n , n o t t h e c u r r e n t
p r e d i c a m e n t that m i g h t h a v e i n s p i r e d his t h e f t o r p i l l a g e . " C r i m i nal a n t h r o p o l o g y s t u d i e s t h e d e l i n q u e n t i n his n a t u r a l p l a c e — t h a t
i s t o say, i n the f i e l d o f b i o l o g y a n d p a t h o l o g y " ( L o m b r o s o ' s disciple
S e r g i , q u o t e d i n Z i m m e r n , 1898, p . 7 4 4 ) . A s a c o n s e r v a t i v e political
a r g u m e n t , i t can't b e beat: evil, o r s t u p i d , o r p o o r , o r d i s e n f r a n c h i s e d , o r d e g e n e r a t e , p e o p l e a r e w h a t t h e y a r e a s a result o f t h e i r
b i r t h . Social institutions reflect n a t u r e . B l a m e (and study) t h e victim, n o t his e n v i r o n m e n t .
T h e Italian a r m y , f o r e x a m p l e , h a d b e e n b o t h e r e d b y s e v e r a l
cases o f misdeismo, o r , a s w e w o u l d say, f r a g g i n g . T h e s o l d i e r Misd e a ( F i g . 4 . 5 ) , w h o g a v e t h e p h e n o m e n o n its Italian n a m e , h a d
m u r d e r e d his c o m m a n d i n g officer. L o m b r o s o e x a m i n e d h i m a n d
p r o c l a i m e d h i m "a n e r v o u s e p i l e p t i c . . . , v e r y a f f e c t e d by a vicious
h e r e d i t y " (in F e r r i , 1 9 1 1 ) . L o m b r o s o r e c o m m e n d e d that epileptics
b e s c r e e n e d f r o m t h e a r m y a n d this, a c c o r d i n g t o F e r r i , e l i m i n a t e d
misdeismo. ( I w o n d e r i f t h e Italian a r m y g o t t h r o u g h W W I I w i t h o u t
a single i n c i d e n t o f f r a g g i n g b y n o n e p i l e p t i c s . ) I n a n y case, n o o n e
seemed disposed to consider the rights and conditions of recruits.
T h e most dubious potential consequence of Lombroso's theory
was n e i t h e r r e a l i z e d i n law n o r p r o p o s e d b y L o m b r o s o ' s s u p p o r t e r s : p r e s c r e e n i n g a n d isolation o f p e o p l e b e a r i n g s t i g m a t a before
t h e y h a d c o m m i t t e d a n y o f f e n s e — t h o u g h F e r r i ( 1 8 9 7 , p . 2 5 1 ) did
label as "substantially j u s t " Plato's d e f e n s e of a family's b a n i s h m e n t
a f t e r m e m b e r s o f t h r e e successive g e n e r a t i o n s h a d b e e n e x e c u t e d
for criminal offenses. L o m b r o s o did, h o w e v e r , advocate prescreeni n g o f c h i l d r e n s o that t e a c h e r s m i g h t p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s and
know what to e x p e c t f r o m pupils with stigmata.
Anthropological examination, by pointing out the criminal type, the
precocious development of the body, the lack of symmetry, the smallness
of the head, and the exaggerated size of the face explains the scholastic
and disciplinary shortcomings of children thus marked and permits them
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
to be separated in time from their better-endowed companions and
directed towards careers more suited to their t e m p e r a m e n t ( 1 9 1 1 , pp.
438-439)W e d o k n o w that L o m b r o s o ' s s t i g m a t a b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t criteria f o r j u d g m e n t i n m a n y c r i m i n a l trials. A g a i n w e c a n n o t k n o w
h o w m a n y m e n w e r e c o n d e m n e d unjustly b e c a u s e they w e r e e x t e n sively t a t t o o e d , f a i l e d t o b l u s h , o r h a d u n u s u a l l y l a r g e j a w s a n d
arms. E. Ferri, Lombroso's chief lieutenant, wrote (1897, p p . 1 6 6 167):
A study of the anthropological factors of crime provides the guardians
and administrators of the law with new and more certain m e t h o d s in the
detection of the guilty. Tattooing, anthropometry, physiognomy, physical
and mental conditions, records of sensibility, reflex activity, vaso-motor
reactions, the range of sight, the data of criminal statistics . . . will frequently suffice to give police agents and e x a m i n i n g magistrates a scientific
guidance in their inquiries, which now d e p e n d entirely on their individual
acuteness and mental sagacity. A n d when we r e m e m b e r the e n o r m o u s
n u m b e r of crimes and offenses which are not punished, for lack or inadequacy of evidence, and the frequency of trials which are based solely on
circumstantial hints, it is easy to see the practical utility of the primary
connection between criminal sociology and penal procedure.
L o m b r o s o d e t a i l e d s o m e o f his e x p e r i e n c e s a s a n e x p e r t witness. C a l l e d u p o n t o h e l p d e c i d e w h i c h o f t w o s t e p s o n s h a d killed
a w o m a n , L o m b r o s o d e c l a r e d ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 436) that o n e " w a s , i n fact,
the most perfect type of the born criminal: e n o r m o u s j a w s , frontal
sinuses, a n d z y g o m a t a , thin u p p e r l i p , h u g e incisors, u n u s u a l l y
l a r g e h e a d ( 1 6 2 0 cc) [ a m a r k o f g e n i u s i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s , but not
h e r e ] , tactile o b t u s e n e s s with sensorial m a n i c i n i s m . H e was c o n victed."
I n a n o t h e r c a s e , b a s e d o n e v i d e n c e that e v e n h e c o u l d not
depict as better than highly v a g u e and circumstantial, Lombroso
a r g u e d for the conviction of a certain Fazio, accused of robbing
a n d m u r d e r i n g a r i c h f a r m e r . O n e girl testified that s h e h a d seen
F a z i o s l e e p i n g n e a r the m u r d e r e d m a n ; t h e n e x t m o r n i n g h e hid
a s the g e n d a r m e s a p p r o a c h e d . N o o t h e r e v i d e n c e o f his guilt was
offered:
U p o n examination I found that this man had outstanding ears, great maxillaries and cheek bones, lemurine a p p e n d i x , division of the frontal bone,
premature wrinkles, sinister look, nose twisted to the right—in short, a
physiognomy approaching the criminal type; pupils very slightly mobile
MEASURING
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169
. . . a large picture of a woman tattooed u p o n his breast, with the words,
"Remembrance of Celina Laura" (his wife), and on his arm the picture of
a girl. He had an epileptic aunt and an insane cousin, and investigation
showed that he was a gambler and an idler. In every way, then, biology
furnished in this case indications which, j o i n e d with the other evidence,
would have been e n o u g h to convict him in a country less tender toward
criminals. Notwithstanding this he was acquitted ( 1 9 1 1 , p. 437).
Y o u win s o m e , y o u lose s o m e . (Ironically, i t was t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e
r a t h e r t h a n t h e liberal n a t u r e o f j u r i s p r u d e n c e that limited L o m broso's i n f l u e n c e . M o s t j u d g e s a n d l a w y e r s simply c o u l d n ' t b e a r t h e
i d e a o f q u a n t i t a t i v e science i n t r u d i n g i n t o their a n c i e n t d o m a i n .
T h e y d i d n ' t k n o w that L o m b r o s i a n c r i m i n a l a n t h r o p o l o g y was a
pseudo-science, but rejected it as an u n w a r r a n t e d transgression of
a s t u d y fully legitimate in its o w n d o m a i n . L o m b r o s o ' s F r e n c h critics,
with their e m p h a s i s o n t h e social c a u s e s o f c r i m e , also h e l p e d t o
halt t h e L o m b r o s i a n t i d e — f o r t h e y , M a n o u v r i e r a n d T o p i n a r d i n
p a r t i c u l a r , c o u l d p a r r y n u m b e r s with h i m . )
I n d i s c u s s i n g capital p u n i s h m e n t , L o m b r o s o a n d his disciples
e m p h a s i z e d t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n that b o r n c r i m i n a l s t r a n s g r e s s b y
n a t u r e . " A t a v i s m s h o w s u s t h e inefficacy o f p u n i s h m e n t f o r b o r n
criminals a n d w h y it is that they inevitably h a v e p e r i o d i c r e l a p s e s
into c r i m e " ( L o m b r o s o , 1 9 1 1 , p . 369). " T h e o r e t i c a l ethics passes
o v e r these d i s e a s e d b r a i n s , a s oil d o e s o v e r m a r b l e , w i t h o u t p e n e trating it" ( L o m b r o s o , 1 8 9 5 , p . 58).
Ferri stated in 1897 that, in o p p o s i t i o n to m a n y o t h e r s c h o o l s
of thought, criminal anthropologists of Lombrosian persuasion
were u n a n i m o u s i n d e c l a r i n g the d e a t h p e n a l t y l e g i t i m a t e ( 1 8 9 7 ,
p p . 2 3 8 - 2 4 0 ) . L o m b r o s o w r o t e ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 4 4 7 ) : " T h e r e exists, i t i s
true, a g r o u p o f c r i m i n a l s , b o r n f o r evil, a g a i n s t w h o m all social
cures b r e a k as a g a i n s t a r o c k — a fact w h i c h c o m p e l s us to e l i m i n a t e
them c o m p l e t e l y , e v e n b y d e a t h . " H i s f r i e n d t h e p h i l o s o p h e r H i p polyte T a i n e w r o t e e v e n m o r e d r a m a t i c a l l y :
You have shown us fierce and lubricious orang-utans with h u m a n
faces. It is evident that as such they cannot act otherwise. If they ravish,
steal, and kill, it is by virtue of their own nature and their past, but there
>s all the more reason for destroying them w h e n it has been proved that
they will always remain orang-utans (quoted favorably in Lombroso, 1 9 1 1 ,
P- 428).
Ferri h i m s e l f i n v o k e d D a r w i n i a n t h e o r y as a c o s m i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n
capital p u n i s h m e n t ( 1 8 9 7 , p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 ) :
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It seems to me that the death penalty is prescribed by nature, and
operates at every m o m e n t in the life of the universe. T h e universal law of
evolution shows us also that vital progress of every kind is d u e to continual
selection, by the death of the least fit in the struggle for life. N o w this
selection, in humanity as with the lower animals, may be natural or artificial. It would therefore be in agreement with natural laws that h u m a n
society should make an artificial selection, by the elimination of anti-social
and incongruous individuals.
N o n e t h e l e s s , L o m b r o s o a n d his c o l l e a g u e s g e n e r a l l y f a v o r e d
m e a n s o t h e r t h a n d e a t h f o r r i d d i n g society o f its b o r n c r i m i n a l s .
Early isolation i n b u c o l i c s u r r o u n d i n g s m i g h t m i t i g a t e t h e i n n a t e
t e n d e n c y a n d l e a d t o a u s e f u l life u n d e r close a n d c o n t i n u a l s u p e r vision. I n o t h e r cases o f i n c o r r i g i b l e c r i m i n a l i t y , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d
exile to penal colonies provided a m o r e humanitarian solution than
capital p u n i s h m e n t — b u t b a n i s h m e n t m u s t b e p e r m a n e n t a n d
i r r e v o c a b l e . F e r r i , n o t i n g t h e small size o f Italy's colonial e m p i r e ,
a d v o c a t e d " i n t e r n a l d e p o r t a t i o n , " p e r h a p s t o l a n d s n o t tilled
b e c a u s e o f e n d e m i c m a l a r i a : " I f t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f this m a l a r i a
d e m a n d s a h u m a n h e c a t o m b , i t w o u l d e v i d e n t l y b e b e t t e r t o sacrifice c r i m i n a l s t h a n h o n e s t h u s b a n d m e n " ( 1 8 9 7 , p . 249). I n t h e e n d ,
he r e c o m m e n d e d deportation to the African colony of Eritrea.
T h e L o m b r o s i a n c r i m i n a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w e r e n o t petty sadists, proto-fascists, o r e v e n c o n s e r v a t i v e political i d e o l o g u e s . T h e y
t e n d e d t o w a r d l i b e r a l , e v e n socialist, politics a n d saw t h e m s e l v e s as
scientifically e n l i g h t e n e d m o d e r n i s t s . T h e y h o p e d t o u s e m o d e r n
science a s a c l e a n s i n g b r o o m t o s w e e p a w a y f r o m j u r i s p r u d e n c e the
o u t d a t e d p h i l o s o p h i c a l b a g g a g e o f f r e e will a n d u n m i t i g a t e d m o r a l
responsibility. T h e y called t h e m s e l v e s t h e " p o s i t i v e " s c h o o l o f crim i n o l o g y , n o t b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e s o c e r t a i n ( t h o u g h t h e y w e r e ) , but
i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l m e a n i n g o f e m p i r i c a l a n d objective rather than speculative.
T h e "classical" s c h o o l , L o m b r o s o ' s c h i e f o p p o n e n t s , h a d comb a t t e d t h e c a p r i c i o u s n e s s o f p r e v i o u s p e n a l p r a c t i c e b y a r g u i n g that
p u n i s h m e n t m u s t b e a p p o r t i o n e d strictly t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e crime
a n d that all i n d i v i d u a l s m u s t b e fully r e s p o n s i b l e f o r their actions
(no m i t i g a t i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s ) . L o m b r o s o i n v o k e d b i o l o g y t o a r g u e
that p u n i s h m e n t s m u s t f i t the c r i m i n a l , n o t , a s Gilbert's M i k a d o
w o u l d h a v e it, t h e c r i m e . A n o r m a l m a n m i g h t m u r d e r in a
m o m e n t o f j e a l o u s r a g e . W h a t p u r p o s e w o u l d e x e c u t i o n o r a life in
p r i s o n serve? H e n e e d s n o r e f o r m , f o r his n a t u r e i s g o o d ; society
MEASURING
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n e e d s n o p r o t e c t i o n f r o m h i m , f o r h e will n o t t r a n s g r e s s a g a i n . A
born criminal might be in the dock for some petty crime. W h a t
g o o d will a s h o r t s e n t e n c e s e r v e : since he c a n n o t be r e h a b i l i t a t e d ,
a s h o r t s e n t e n c e o n l y r e d u c e s the t i m e t o his n e x t , p e r h a p s m o r e
serious, offense.
T h e positive s c h o o l c a m p a i g n e d h a r d e s t a n d m o s t successfully
f o r a set o f r e f o r m s , until r e c e n t l y r e g a r d e d a s e n l i g h t e n e d o r "libe r a l , " a n d all i n v o l v i n g the p r i n c i p l e o f i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c i n g .
F o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e y w o n , a n d few p e o p l e r e a l i z e that o u r m o d ern apparatus of parole, early release, and indeterminate sentenci n g stems i n p a r t f r o m L o m b r o s o ' s c a m p a i g n f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l
treatment of b o r n and occasional criminals. T h e main goal of criminal a n t h r o p o l o g y , w r o t e F e r r i i n 1 9 1 1 , i s t o " m a k e t h e p e r s o n a l i t y
o f the c r i m i n a l t h e p r i m a r y object a n d p r i n c i p l e o f the r u l e s o f
penal j u s t i c e , i n p l a c e o f t h e objective g r a v i t y o f t h e c r i m e " ( p . 52).
Penal sanctions must be adapted . . . to the personality of the criminal.
. . . T h e logical consequence of this conclusion is the indeterminate sentence which has b e e n , and is, combatted as a juridical heresy by classical
and metaphysical criminologists. . . . Prefixed penalties are absurd as a
means of social defense. It is as if a doctor at the hospital wanted to attach
to each disease the length of a stay in his establishment (Ferri, 1 9 1 1 ,
p. 251).
T h e original Lombrosians advocated harsh treatment for "born
criminals." T h i s m i s a p p l i c a t i o n o f a n t h r o p o m e t r y a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y
theory is all t h e m o r e tragic b e c a u s e L o m b r o s o ' s biological m o d e l
was so utterly invalid a n d b e c a u s e it shifted so m u c h a t t e n t i o n f r o m
the social basis o f c r i m e t o fallacious ideas a b o u t t h e i n n a t e p r o pensity o f c r i m i n a l s . B u t t h e positivists, i n v o k i n g L o m b r o s o ' s
enlarged model a n d finally even e x t e n d i n g the genesis of crime to
u p b r i n g i n g a s well a s b i o l o g y , h a d e n o r m o u s i m p a c t i n t h e i r c a m paign f o r i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c i n g a n d t h e c o n c e p t o f m i t i g a t i n g
circumstances. S i n c e their beliefs a r e , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , o u r p r a c t i c e s , w e h a v e t e n d e d t o view t h e m a s h u m a n e a n d p r o g r e s s i v e .
Lombroso's d a u g h t e r , c a r r y i n g o n t h e g o o d w o r k , s i n g l e d o u t t h e
United States f o r p r a i s e . W e h a d e s c a p e d t h e h e g e m o n y o f classical
criminology a n d s h o w n o u r u s u a l r e c e p t i v e n e s s f o r i n n o v a t i o n .
Many states h a d a d o p t e d the positivist p r o g r a m i n e s t a b l i s h i n g
good r e f o r m a t o r i e s , p r o b a t i o n s y s t e m s , i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c i n g ,
and liberal p a r d o n laws ( L o m b r o s o - F e r r e r o , 1 9 1 1 ) .
Y e
t e v e n a s t h e positivists p r a i s e d A m e r i c a a n d t h e m s e l v e s ,
T HE
MI S M E A S U R E
OF
MAN
their w o r k c o n t a i n s t h e s e e d s o f d o u b t that h a v e led m a n y m o d e r n
r e f o r m e r s t o q u e s t i o n the h u m a n e n a t u r e o f L o m b r o s o ' s i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c e s a n d to a d v o c a t e a r e t u r n to t h e fixed p e n a l t i e s of
classical c r i m i n o l o g y . M a u r i c e P a r m e l e e , A m e r i c a ' s l e a d i n g positivist, d e c r i e d as t o o h a r s h a N e w Y o r k State law of 1 9 1 5 that p r e scribed a n i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c e o f u p t o t h r e e y e a r s f o r s u c h
infractions as disorderly conduct, disorderly h o u s e k e e p i n g , intoxication, a n d v a g r a n c y ( P a r m e l e e , 1 9 1 8 ) . L o m b r o s o ' s d a u g h t e r
praised the complete dossier of m o o d s and deeds kept by volunteer
w o m e n w h o g u i d e d t h e f o r t u n e s o f j u v e n i l e o f f e n d e r s i n several
states. T h e y will " p e r m i t j u d g e s , i f t h e c h i l d c o m m i t s a n o f f e n s e , t o
distinguish between a born criminal and a habitual criminal. Howe v e r , t h e child will n o t k n o w o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f this dossier,
a n d this will p e r m i t h i m t h e most c o m p l e t e f r e e d o m t o d e v e l o p "
L o m b r o s o - F e r r e r o , 1 9 1 1 , p . 124). S h e also a d m i t t e d t h e b u r d e n s o m e e l e m e n t o f h a r a s s m e n t a n d h u m i l i a t i o n i n c l u d e d i n seve r a l systems o f p r o b a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n M a s s a c h u s e t t s , w h e r e
i n d e f i n i t e p a r o l e m i g h t c o n t i n u e f o r life: " I n t h e C e n t r a l P r o b a t i o n
B u r e a u o f B o s t o n , I h a v e r e a d m a n y letters f r o m p r o t e g e s w h o
a s k e d t o b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r p r i s o n s , r a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u e the
h u m i l i a t i o n o f t h e i r p r o t e c t o r always o n t h e i r backs (or "in their
b u n d l e s , " as she said literally in F r e n c h — L o m b r o s o - F e r r e r o , 1 9 1 1 ,
P- 135)F o r t h e L o m b r o s i a n s , i n d e t e r m i n a t e s e n t e n c i n g e m b o d i e d both
g o o d b i o l o g y a n d m a x i m a l p r o t e c t i o n f o r the state: " P u n i s h m e n t
o u g h t n o t to be t h e visitation of a c r i m e by a r e t r i b u t i o n , b u t rather
a d e f e n s e of society a d a p t e d to t h e d a n g e r p e r s o n i f i e d by the crimi n a l " ( F e r r i , 1 8 9 7 , P- 208). D a n g e r o u s p e o p l e r e c e i v e l o n g e r sent e n c e s , a n d t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t lives a r e m o n i t o r e d m o r e strictly. A n d
s o the system o f i n d e t e r m i n a t e p e n a l t i e s — L o m b r o s o ' s l e g a c y —
e x e r t s a g e n e r a l a n d p o w e r f u l e l e m e n t o f c o n t r o l o v e r e v e r y aspect
of a p r i s o n e r ' s life: his d o s s i e r e x p a n d s a n d c o n t r o l s his fate; he is
w a t c h e d i n p r i s o n a n d his acts a r e j u d g e d with the c a r r o t o f early
r e l e a s e b e f o r e h i m . It is also u s e d in L o m b r o s o ' s o r i g i n a l sense to
s e q u e s t e r the d a n g e r o u s . F o r L o m b r o s o , this m e a n t the b o r n criminal with his a p i s h stigmata. T o d a y , it o f t e n m e a n s t h e defiant, the
p o o r , a n d the black. G e o r g e J a c k s o n , a u t h o r of Soledad Brother,
d i e d u n d e r L o m b r o s o ' s l e g a c y , t r y i n g t o e s c a p e after e l e v e n years
(eight a n d a h a l f in solitary) of an i n d e t e r m i n a t e o n e - y e a r - t o - l i f
s e n t e n c e f o r stealing s e v e n t y dollars f r o m a gas station.
e
MEASURING
BODIES
H3
Coda
T o l s t o y ' s f r u s t r a t i o n with t h e L o m b r o s i a n s lay in their i n v o c a tion o f science t o a v o i d t h e d e e p e r q u e s t i o n that called f o r social
transformation as o n e potential resolution. Science, he realized,
o f t e n acted a s t h e f i r m ally o f e x i s t i n g institutions. His p r o t a g o n i s t
Prince N e k h l y u d o v , t r y i n g to f a t h o m a s y s t e m that falsely c o n d e m n e d a w o m a n h e o n c e w r o n g e d , studies t h e l e a r n e d w o r k s o f
criminal a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d f i n d s n o a n s w e r :
He also came across a tramp and a w o m a n , both of w h o m repelled him
by their half-witted insensibility and s e e m i n g cruelty, but even in them he
failed to see the criminal type as described in the Italian school of criminology: he saw in them only people w h o were repulsive to him personally,
like others were w h o m he met outside prison walls—in swallowtail coats,
wearing epaulets or bedecked with lace. . . .
At first he had h o p e d to find the answer in books, and bought everything he could find on the subject. He bought the works of Lombroso and
Garofalo [an Italian baron and disciple of Lombroso], Ferri, Liszt, Maudsley and T a r d e , and read them carefully. But as he read, he became m o r e
and more disappointed. . . . Science answered thousands of very subtle
and ingenious questions touching criminal law, but certainly not the o n e
he was trying to solve. He was asking a very simple thing: Why and by
what right does o n e class of people lock u p , torture, exile, flog, and kill
other people, when they themselves are no better than those w h o m they
torture, flog and kill? A n d for answers he got arguments as to whether
human beings were possessed of free will or not. Could criminal propensities be detected by measuring the sk'ull, and so on? What part does heredity play in crime? Is there such a thing as congenital depravity?
(Resurrection, 1899, 1966 edition translated by R. E d m o n d s , pp. 402-403.)
Epilogue
We live in a m o r e subtle c e n t u r y , b u t t h e basic a r g u m e n t s n e v e r
seem t o c h a n g e . T h e c r u d i t i e s o f t h e c r a n i a l i n d e x h a v e g i v e n w a y
t o the c o m p l e x i t y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e testing. T h e signs o f i n n a t e c r i m inality are n o l o n g e r s o u g h t i n s t i g m a t a o f g r o s s a n a t o m y , b u t i n
twentieth-century criteria: g e n e s a n d f i n e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e b r a i n .
l
the m i d - 1 9 6 0 s , p a p e r s b e g a n t o a p p e a r l i n k i n g a c h r o m o a n o m a l y in m a l e s k n o w n as X Y Y with v i o l e n t a n d c r i m i n a l
avior. ( N o r m a l m a l e s r e c e i v e a s i n g l e X c h r o m o s o m e f r o m t h e i r
ers a n d a Y f r o m their f a t h e r s ; n o r m a l f e m a l e s r e c e i v e a sinn
somal
'74
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
g l e X f r o m e a c h of their p a r e n t s . O c c a s i o n a l l y , a c h i l d will r e c e i v e
t w o Y ' s f r o m his f a t h e r . X Y Y m a l e s l o o k like n o r m a l m a l e s , b u t
t e n d t o b e a little a b o v e a v e r a g e i n h e i g h t , h a v e p o o r skin a n d m a y
t e n d , o n a v e r a g e — t h o u g h this i s d i s p u t e d — t o b e s o m e w h a t defic i e n t i n p e r f o r m a n c e o n i n t e l l i g e n c e tests.) B a s e d o n l i m i t e d o b s e r vation and anecdotal accounts of a few X Y Y individuals, and on a
h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f X Y Y ' s i n m e n t a l - p e n a l institutions f o r t h e c r i m inally i n s a n e , a tale a b o u t c r i m i n a l c h r o m o s o m e s o r i g i n a t e d . T h e
story e x p l o d e d i n t o p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h e n a t t o r n e y s f o r Richard Speck, m u r d e r e r of eight student nurses in C h i c a g o , sought to
m i t i g a t e his p u n i s h m e n t w i t h a c l a i m that h e was X Y Y . ( I n fact, h e
is a n o r m a l XY male.) Newsweek p u b l i s h e d an article e n t i t l e d " C o n genital c r i m i n a l s , " a n d t h e p r e s s c h u r n e d o u t i n n u m e r a b l e r e p o r t s
a b o u t this latest r e i n c a r n a t i o n o f L o m b r o s o a n d his stigmata.
Meanwhile, scholarly study picked u p , and h u n d r e d s of papers
have now been written on the behavioral consequences of being
X Y Y . A well-intentioned but, in my opinion, naive g r o u p of Boston
doctors began an extensive screening p r o g r a m u p o n newborn
b o y s . T h e y h o p e d that b y m o n i t o r i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a l a r g e
s a m p l e o f X Y Y b o y s , t h e y m i g h t establish w h e t h e r a n y link e x i s t e d
w i t h a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r . B u t w h a t o f t h e self-fulfilling p r o p h e s y ?
for parents were told, a n d no a m o u n t of scholarly tentativeness can
o v e r c o m e both press reports and inferences m a d e by worried parents f r o m t h e a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r m a n i f e s t e d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e b y
all c h i l d r e n . A n d w h a t o f t h e a n g u i s h s u f f e r e d b y p a r e n t s , e s p e cially if t h e c o n n e c t i o n be a false o n e — a s it a l m o s t s u r e l y is.
I n t h e o r y , t h e link b e t w e e n X Y Y a n d a g g r e s s i v e criminality
n e v e r h a d m u c h g o i n g f o r i t b e y o n d t h e s i n g u l a r l y simplistic notion
that since m a l e s a r e m o r e a g g r e s s i v e t h a n f e m a l e s a n d possess a Y
that f e m a l e s lack, Y m u s t be the seat of a g g r e s s i o n a n d a d o u b l e
d o s e spells d o u b l e - t r o u b l e . O n e g r o u p o f r e s e a r c h e r s p r o c l a i m e d
in 1 9 7 3 (Jarvik et al., p p . 6 7 9 - 6 8 0 ) : " T h e Y c h r o m o s o m e is the
male-determining chromosome; therefore, it should c o m e as no
s u r p r i s e that a n e x t r a Y c h r o m o s o m e c a n p r o d u c e a n i n d i v i d u a l
with h e i g h t e n e d m a s c u l i n i t y , e v i n c e d by characteristics s u c h as
u n u s u a l tallness, i n c r e a s e d fertility . . . a n d p o w e r f u l a g g r e s s i v e
tendencies."
T h e tale o f X Y Y a s a c r i m i n a l s t i g m a h a s n o w b e e n widely
e x p o s e d as a m y t h ( B o r g a o n k a r a n d S h a h , 1 9 7 4 ; Pyeritz et al-,
M E A S U R I N G
'75
B O D I E S
1 9 7 7 ) . B o t h t h e s e studies e x p o s e the e l e m e n t a r y f l a w s o f m e t h o d
i n m o s t l i t e r a t u r e c l a i m i n g a link b e t w e e n X Y Y a n d criminality.
XYY
males
do
seem
to
be
represented
disproportionately
in
m e n t a l - p e n a l institutions, b u t t h e r e i s n o g o o d e v i d e n c e for h i g h
f r e q u e n c i e s i n o r d i n a r y jails. A m a x i m u m o f 1
percent of X Y Y
males i n A m e r i c a m a y s p e n d p a r t o f their lives i n m e n t a l - p e n a l
institutions (Pyeritz e t al., 1 9 7 7 , p . 92). A d d i n g t o this t h e n u m b e r
that m a y be i n c a r c e r a t e d in o r d i n a r y jails at t h e s a m e f r e q u e n c y as
n o r m a l X Y m a l e s , C h o r o v e r ( 1 9 7 9 ) estimates t h a t 9 6 p e r c e n t o f
X Y Y males will l e a d o r d i n a r y lives a n d n e v e r c o m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n
of penal authorities. Q u i t e a criminal c h r o m o s o m e ! M o r e o v e r , we
h a v e n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e relatively h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f X Y Y ' s i n
m e n t a l - p e n a l institutions has a n y t h i n g t o d o with h i g h levels o f
innate a g g r e s s i v i t y .
O t h e r scientists h a v e l o o k e d t o m a l f u n c t i o n i n specific areas o f
the brain as a c a u s e of c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r . A f t e r e x t e n s i v e g h e t t o
riots d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 6 7 , t h r e e d o c t o r s w r o t e a letter t o
the p r e s t i g i o u s Journal of the American Medical Association
(cited
in
Chorover, 1979):
It is important to realize that only a small n u m b e r of the millions of
slum dwellers have taken part in the riots, a n d that only a subfraction of
these rioters h a v e i n d u l g e d in arson, sniping a n d assault. Yet, if slum conditions alone d e t e r m i n e d and initiated riots, why are the vast majority of
slum dwellers able to resist the temptations of unrestrained violence? Is
there s o m e t h i n g peculiar about the violent slum dweller that differentiates
him from his peaceful neighbors?
W e all t e n d
t o g e n e r a l i z e f r o m o u r o w n areas o f e x p e r t i s e .
T h e s e doctors are psychosurgeons.
But why should
the violent
behavior of some desperate a n d discouraged p e o p l e point to a specific d i s o r d e r o f their brain w h i l e t h e c o r r u p t i o n a n d v i o l e n c e o f
some c o n g r e s s m e n
and
presidents
provokes
n o similar
theory?
H u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s a r e h i g h l y variable for all b e h a v i o r s ; t h e simple fact that s o m e d o a n d s o m e d o n ' t p r o v i d e s n o e v i d e n c e for a
specific p a t h o l o g y m a p p e d u p o n t h e b r a i n o f d o e r s . Shall w e c o n centrate
upon
an
unfounded
speculation
for
the
violence
of
s o m e — o n e t h a t follows t h e d e t e r m i n i s t p h i l o s o p h y o f b l a m i n g t h e
v i c t i m — o r shall w e try t o e l i m i n a t e t h e o p p r e s s i o n that b u i l d s g h e t tos a n d saps t h e spirit of their u n e m p l o y e d in t h e first p l a c e ?
FIVE
T h e Hereditarian
Theory of IQ
An American Invention
Alfred Binet and the original purposes of the Binet scale
Binet
flirts
When
with
Alfred
craniometry
Binet
(1857-1911),
director
of the
psychology
l a b o r a t o r y a t t h e S o r b o n n e , first d e c i d e d t o s t u d y t h e m e a s u r e m e n t
of intelligence, he turned naturally to the favored m e t h o d of a
waning century and
t o t h e w o r k o f his g r e a t c o u n t r y m a n Paul
B r o c a . H e set o u t , i n short, t o m e a s u r e skulls, n e v e r d o u b t i n g a t
f i r s t t h e basic c o n c l u s i o n o f B r o c a ' s s c h o o l :
T h e relationship between the intelligence of subjects a n d t h e volume
of their h e a d . . . is very real and has b e e n c o n f i r m e d by all methodical
investigators, without exception. . . . A s these works include observations
on several h u n d r e d subjects, we c o n c l u d e that the p r e c e d i n g proposition
[of correlation b e t w e e n h e a d size and intelligence] must be considered as
incontestable (Binet, 1898, p p . 294-295).
D u r i n g the n e x t three years, Binet published nine papers on
c r a n i o m e t r y in L'Annee psychologique, t h e j o u r n a l he h a d f o u n d e d in
1895.
B y t h e e n d o f this effort, h e was n o l o n g e r s o sure.
Five
studies o n t h e h e a d s o f s c h o o l c h i l d r e n h a d d e s t r o y e d his original
faith.
B i n e t w e n t t o v a r i o u s schools, m a k i n g B r o c a ' s r e c o m m e n d e d
m e a s u r e m e n t s o n t h e h e a d s o f p u p i l s d e s i g n a t e d b y teachers as
their smartest a n d s t u p i d e s t . In several s t u d i e s , he increased his
s a m p l e f r o m 6 2 t o 2 3 0 subjects. " I b e g a n , " h e w r o t e , "with t h e idea
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
OF
IQ
i m p r e s s e d u p o n m e b y the studies o f s o m a n y o t h e r scientists, that
intellectual s u p e r i o r i t y is tied to s u p e r i o r i t y of c e r e b r a l v o l u m e "
(1900, p. 427).
B i n e t f o u n d his d i f f e r e n c e s , b u t t h e y w e r e m u c h t o o small t o
matter and m i g h t only record the greater a v e r a g e height of better
p u p i l s ( 1 . 4 0 1 vs. 1.378 m e t e r s ) . M o s t m e a s u r e s d i d f a v o r t h e b e t t e r
students,
but
the
average
difference
between
good
and
poor
a m o u n t e d to a m e r e millimeter—"extremement petite" as B i n e t w r o t e .
Binet did not observe larger differences in the anterior region of
the skull, w h e r e t h e seat o f h i g h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e s u p p o s e d l y lay, a n d
w h e r e B r o c a h a d always f o u n d g r e a t e s t d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n s u p e r i o r
a n d less f o r t u n a t e p e o p l e . T o m a k e m a t t e r s w o r s e , s o m e m e a s u r e s
usually j u d g e d crucial i n t h e assessment o f m e n t a l w o r t h f a v o r e d
the
poorer
pupils—for
poorer students
anteroposterior
exceeded
diameter
their s m a r t e r
of
the
colleagues by
skull,
3.0 m m .
E v e n i f m o s t results t e n d e d t o r u n i n t h e " r i g h t " d i r e c t i o n , t h e
m e t h o d was surely useless f o r assessing i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e differences w e r e t o o small, a n d B i n e t also f o u n d that p o o r s t u d e n t s v a r ied
more
than
their s m a r t e r c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h u s , a l t h o u g h
the
smallest v a l u e usually b e l o n g e d to a p o o r p u p i l , t h e h i g h e s t o f t e n
did as well.
B i n e t also f u e l e d his o w n d o u b t s with a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y s t u d y
o f his o w n suggestibility, a n e x p e r i m e n t i n t h e p r i m a r y t h e m e o f
this b o o k — t h e
tenacity
of unconscious
bias
and
the
surprising
malleability of "objective," q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a in t h e interest of a p r e conceived idea.
"I
feared," Binet wrote (1900, p.
323), " t h a t i n
m a k i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s on h e a d s with t h e i n t e n t i o n of f i n d i n g a difference in v o l u m e b e t w e e n an i n t e l l i g e n t a n d a less i n t e l l i g e n t
head, I w o u l d be led to increase, u n c o n s c i o u s l y a n d in g o o d faith,
the cephalic v o l u m e o f i n t e l l i g e n t h e a d s a n d t o d e c r e a s e that o f
unintelligent h e a d s . "
He recognized
the greater d a n g e r lurking
when biases are s u b m e r g e d a n d a scientist believes in his o w n
objectivity ( 1 9 0 0 , p. 3 2 4 ) : " S u g g e s t i b i l i t y . . . w o r k s less on an act of
which we h a v e full c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h a n on a h a l f - c o n s c i o u s a c t —
and this is precisely its d a n g e r . "
H o w m u c h b e t t e r off w e w o u l d b e i f all scientists s u b m i t t e d
themselves to self-scrutiny in so f o r t h r i g h t a fashion: "I w a n t to
state very explicitly,"
Binet wrote (1900,
p.
324), "what
I
have
observed a b o u t myself. T h e details that follow a r e those t h a t t h e
IJ8
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
majority o f a u t h o r s d o n o t p u b l i s h ; o n e d o e s not w a n t t o let t h e m
b e k n o w n . " B o t h B i n e t a n d his s t u d e n t S i m o n h a d m e a s u r e d t h e
s a m e h e a d s of "idiots a n d i m b e c i l e s " at a hospital w h e r e S i m o n was
i n intern. B i n e t n o t e d that, for o n e crucial m e a s u r e m e n t , S i m o n ' s
values w e r e consistently less t h a n his. B i n e t t h e r e f o r e r e t u r n e d t o
m e a s u r e t h e subjects a s e c o n d time. T h e f i r s t t i m e , B i n e t a d m i t s ,
" I took m y m e a s u r e s m e c h a n i c a l l y , w i t h o u t a n y o t h e r p r e c o n c e p tion t h a n t o r e m a i n faithful t o m y m e t h o d s . " B u t the s e c o n d t i m e
" I h a d a d i f f e r e n t p r e c o n c e p t i o n . . . . I was b o t h e r e d b y t h e differe n c e " b e t w e e n S i m o n a n d myself. "I w a n t e d to r e d u c e it to its t r u e
v a l u e . . . . T h i s is s e l f - s u g g e s t i o n . N o w , capital fact, t h e m e a s u r e s
taken d u r i n g the second experiment, u n d e r the expectation of a
d i m i n u t i o n , a r e i n d e e d smaller t h a n t h e m e a s u r e s t a k e n [on t h e
s a m e h e a d s ] d u r i n g t h e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t . " I n fact, all b u t o n e h e a d
had "shrunk" between the two experiments and the average dimin u t i o n was 3 m m — a g o o d d e a l m o r e t h a n t h e a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n skulls o f b r i g h t a n d p o o r s t u d e n t s i n his p r e v i o u s w o r k .
B i n e t s p o k e g r a p h i c a l l y o f his d i s c o u r a g e m e n t :
I was p e r s u a d e d that I h a d attacked an intractable problem. T h e measures had required travelling, a n d tiring p r o c e d u r e s of all sorts; and they
e n d e d with the discouraging conclusion that there was often not a millimeter of difference b e t w e e n the cephalic measures of intelligent and less
intelligent students. T h e idea of measuring intelligence by measuring
heads s e e m e d ridiculous. . . . I was on the point of a b a n d o n i n g this work,
a n d I didn't want to publish a single line of it (1900, p. 403).
At the end, Binet snatched a weak and dubious victory from
t h e j a w s o f d e f e a t . H e l o o k e d a t his e n t i r e s a m p l e a g a i n , s e p a r a t e d
o u t t h e f i v e t o p a n d b o t t o m p u p i l s f r o m e a c b g r o u p , a n d elimin a t e d all t h o s e i n t h e m i d d l e . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n e x t r e m e s
were greater and m o r e consistent—3 to 4 mm on average. But even
this d i f f e r e n c e d i d not e x c e e d t h e a v e r a g e p o t e n t i a l bias d u e t o
suggestibility. C r a n i o m e t r y , t h e j e w e l o f n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y objectivity, was not d e s t i n e d for c o n t i n u e d c e l e b r a t i o n .
Binet's
scale
When
and the
birth
of IQ
B i n e t r e t u r n e d t o the m e a s u r e m e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i n
1 9 0 4 , h e r e m e m b e r e d his p r e v i o u s frustration a n d
other techniques.
He abandoned
switched t o
w h a t h e called t h e " m e d i c a l "
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
a p p r o a c h e s o f c r a n i o m e t r y a n d the search for L o m b r o s o ' s a n a t o m ical s t i g m a t a , a n d d e c i d e d instead o n " p s y c h o l o g i c a l " m e t h o d s . T h e
literature o n m e n t a l testing, a t the t i m e , was relatively small a n d
d e c i d e d l y i n c o n c l u s i v e . G a l t o n , w i t h o u t n o t a b l e success, h a d e x p e r i m e n t e d with a series of m e a s u r e m e n t s , m o s t l y r e c o r d s of p h y s i o l o g y a n d r e a c t i o n t i m e , r a t h e r t h a n tests o f r e a s o n i n g . B i n e t d e c i d e d
to c o n s t r u c t a set of tasks that m i g h t assess v a r i o u s aspects of reasoning m o r e directly.
In
1904
Binet
was
commissioned
by
the
minister
of public
e d u c a t i o n to p e r f o r m a s t u d y for a specific, practical p u r p o s e : to
d e v e l o p t e c h n i q u e s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h o s e c h i l d r e n w h o s e lack o f
success i n n o r m a l classrooms s u g g e s t e d t h e n e e d f o r s o m e f o r m o f
special
education.
Binet
chose
a
purely
pragmatic
course.
He
d e c i d e d to b r i n g t o g e t h e r a l a r g e series of short tasks, r e l a t e d to
e v e r y d a y p r o b l e m s o f life ( c o u n t i n g coins, o r assessing w h i c h face
is " p r e t t i e r , " for e x a m p l e ) , b u t s u p p o s e d l y i n v o l v i n g such basic
processes o f r e a s o n i n g a s " d i r e c t i o n ( o r d e r i n g ) , c o m p r e h e n s i o n ,
invention a n d censure (correction)" (Binet,
1909). L e a r n e d skills
like r e a d i n g w o u l d n o t b e t r e a t e d explicitly. T h e tests w e r e a d m i n istered i n d i v i d u a l l y b y t r a i n e d e x a m i n e r s w h o l e d subjects t h r o u g h
the series o f tasks, g r a d e d i n their o r d e r o f difficulty. U n l i k e p r e vious tests d e s i g n e d t o m e a s u r e specific a n d i n d e p e n d e n t " f a c u l ties" of m i n d , Binet's scale was a h o d g e p o d g e of d i v e r s e activities.
H e h o p e d t h a t b y m i x i n g t o g e t h e r e n o u g h tests o f d i f f e r e n t abilities he w o u l d be able to abstract a child's g e n e r a l p o t e n t i a l with a
single score.
B i n e t e m p h a s i z e d t h e e m p i r i c a l n a t u r e o f his w o r k
with a f a m o u s d i c t u m ( 1 9 1 1 , p . 329): " O n e m i g h t a l m o s t say, 'It
matters
very
little
what
the
tests
are
so
long
as
they
are
numerous.' "
B i n e t p u b l i s h e d t h r e e v e r s i o n s o f t h e scale b e f o r e his d e a t h i n
1 9 1 1 . T h e original
1905 e d i t i o n s i m p l y a r r a n g e d t h e tasks i n a n
a s c e n d i n g o r d e r o f difficulty. T h e 1908 v e r s i o n e s t a b l i s h e d the criterion u s e d i n m e a s u r i n g t h e so-called I Q e v e r since. B i n e t d e c i d e d
to assign an a g e level to e a c h task, d e f i n e d as t h e y o u n g e s t a g e at
which a child o f n o r m a l i n t e l l i g e n c e s h o u l d b e able t o c o m p l e t e t h e
task successfully. A child b e g a n the B i n e t test with tasks f o r t h e
y o u n g e s t a g e a n d p r o c e e d e d i n s e q u e n c e until h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r
c o m p l e t e t h e tasks. T h e a g e associated with the last tasks h e c o u l d
p e r f o r m b e c a m e his " m e n t a l a g e , " a n d his g e n e r a l intellectual level
i8o
T H E
MIS M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
was c a l c u l a t e d b y s u b t r a c t i n g this m e n t a l a g e f r o m his t r u e c h r o n ological a g e . C h i l d r e n w h o s e m e n t a l a g e s w e r e sufficiently b e h i n d
their c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e s c o u l d t h e n b e identified for special e d u cational p r o g r a m s , t h u s fulfilling Binet's c h a r g e f r o m t h e ministry.
I n 1 9 1 2 t h e G e r m a n p s y c h o l o g i s t W . S t e r n a r g u e d that m e n t a l a g e
s h o u l d b e d i v i d e d b y c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e , n o t s u b t r a c t e d f r o m it,*
a n d t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e quotient, o r I Q , was b o r n .
I Q t e s t i n g has h a d m o m e n t o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s i n o u r c e n t u r y . I n
this light, we s h o u l d i n v e s t i g a t e Binet's m o t i v e s , if only to a p p r e c i a t e h o w t h e t r a g e d i e s o f m i s u s e m i g h t h a v e b e e n a v o i d e d i f its
f o u n d e r h a d lived a n d his c o n c e r n s b e e n h e e d e d .
I n c o n t r a s t with Binet's g e n e r a l intellectual a p p r o a c h , t h e m o s t
c u r i o u s a s p e c t of his scale is its practical, e m p i r i c a l focus. M a n y
scientists w o r k this w a y b y d e e p c o n v i c t i o n o r explicit inclination.
T h e y b e l i e v e that theoretical s p e c u l a t i o n is v a i n a n d that t r u e science progresses by induction from simple experiments pursued to
g a t h e r basic facts, n o t to test e l a b o r a t e t h e o r i e s . B u t B i n e t was primarily a t h e o r e t i c i a n . H e a s k e d b i g q u e s t i o n s a n d p a r t i c i p a t e d with
e n t h u s i a s m in t h e m a j o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e b a t e s of his p r o f e s s i o n .
H e h a d a l o n g - s t a n d i n g interest i n t h e o r i e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . H e p u b lished his f i r s t b o o k o n t h e " P s y c h o l o g y o f R e a s o n i n g " i n 1 8 8 6 , a n d
f o l l o w e d in
1903 with his f a m o u s " E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d y of Intelli-
gence," in which he abjured previous commitments and developed
a n e w s t r u c t u r e f o r a n a l y z i n g h u m a n t h i n k i n g . Y e t B i n e t explicitly
declined
to a w a r d a n y theoretical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to his
scale of
i n t e l l i g e n c e , the m o s t e x t e n s i v e a n d i m p o r t a n t w o r k h e h a d d o n e
in his f a v o r i t e subject. W h y s h o u l d a g r e a t t h e o r e t i c i a n h a v e acted
in such a c u r i o u s a n d a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y w a y ?
B i n e t d i d seek " t o s e p a r a t e n a t u r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d i n s t r u c t i o n "
( 1 9 0 5 , p. 42) in his scale: " I t is t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e a l o n e that we seek
to m e a s u r e , by d i s r e g a r d i n g in so far as possible, t h e d e g r e e of
i n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h the c h i l d possesses. . . . We g i v e h i m n o t h i n g to
r e a d , n o t h i n g t o write, a n d s u b m i t h i m t o n o test i n w h i c h h e m i g h t
* Division is more appropriate because it is the relative, not the absolute, magnitude
of disparity between mental and chronological age that matters. A two-year disparity between mental age two and chronological age four may denote a far severer
degree of deficiency than a two-year disparity between mental age fourteen and
chronological age sixteen. Binet's method of subtraction would give the same result
in both cases, while Stern's IQ measures 50 for the first case and 88 for the second.
(Stern multiplied the actual quotient by 100 to eliminate the decimal point.)
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
OF
181
IQ
s u c c e e d b y m e a n s o f r o t e l e a r n i n g " ( 1 9 0 5 , p . 42). " I t i s a specially
i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e s e tests that t h e y p e r m i t u s , w h e n n e c e s sary, to free a b e a u t i f u l native i n t e l l i g e n c e f r o m t h e t r a m m e l s of
the school" (1908, p. 259).
Y e t , b e y o n d this o b v i o u s d e s i r e t o r e m o v e t h e superficial effects
o f clearly a c q u i r e d k n o w l e d g e , B i n e t d e c l i n e d t o d e f i n e a n d s p e c ulate u p o n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e score h e a s s i g n e d t o e a c h child.
I n t e l l i g e n c e , B i n e t p r o c l a i m e d , is t o o c o m p l e x to c a p t u r e with a
single n u m b e r . T h i s
n u m b e r , later called
I Q , is only a r o u g h ,
empirical g u i d e c o n s t r u c t e d for a limited, practical p u r p o s e :
T h e scale, properly speaking, does not permit the measure of the intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore
cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured (1905, p. 40).
Moreover,
the
n u m b e r is
only an
average of many
perfor-
m a n c e s , n o t a n entity u n t o itself. I n t e l l i g e n c e , B i n e t r e m i n d s u s , i s
not a single, scalable t h i n g like h e i g h t . " W e feel it necessary to insist
o n this fact," B i n e t ( 1 9 1 1 ) c a u t i o n s , " b e c a u s e later, for t h e sake o f
simplicity of s t a t e m e n t , we will s p e a k of a child of 8 years h a v i n g
the i n t e l l i g e n c e of a c h i l d of 7 or 9 years;
t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s , if
a c c e p t e d arbitrarily, m a y g i v e p l a c e t o illusions."
B i n e t was too
g o o d a t h e o r e t i c i a n to fall i n t o t h e logical e r r o r that J o h n S t u a r t
Mill h a d
i d e n t i f i e d — " t o believe
that w h a t e v e r r e c e i v e d
a name
must b e a n entity o r b e i n g , h a v i n g a n i n d e p e n d e n t e x i s t e n c e o f its
own."
Binet also h a d a social m o t i v e f o r his
reticence.
He g r e a t l y
feared that his practical d e v i c e , if reified as an entity, c o u l d be
perverted a n d u s e d as an indelible label, r a t h e r t h a n as a g u i d e for
identifying c h i l d r e n w h o n e e d e d h e l p . H e w o r r i e d that s c h o o l m a s ters with " e x a g g e r a t e d zeal" m i g h t u s e I Q a s a c o n v e n i e n t e x c u s e :
" T h e y s e e m to r e a s o n in t h e f o l l o w i n g way: ' H e r e is an e x c e l l e n t
o p p o r t u n i t y for g e t t i n g rid o f all t h e c h i l d r e n w h o t r o u b l e us,' a n d
without the t r u e critical spirit, t h e y d e s i g n a t e all w h o a r e u n r u l y , o r
disinterested
in
the school"
(1905,
p.
169).
B u t he feared even
more what has since b e e n called t h e "self-fulfilling p r o p h e s y . " A
rigid label m a y set a
teacher's a t t i t u d e a n d e v e n t u a l l y d i v e r t a
child's b e h a v i o r i n t o a p r e d i c t e d p a t h :
h is really too easy to discover signs of backwardness in an individual
er
> one is forewarned. This would be to operate as the graphologists did
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
w h o , w h e n Dreyfus was believed to be guilty, discovered in his handwriting
signs of a traitor or a spy" (1905, p. 170).
N o t o n l y d i d B i n e t d e c l i n e t o label I Q a s i n b o r n i n t e l l i g e n c e ; h e
also r e f u s e d to r e g a r d it as a g e n e r a l d e v i c e for r a n k i n g all p u p i l s
a c c o r d i n g t o m e n t a l w o r t h . H e d e v i s e d his scale o n l y for t h e l i m i t e d
p u r p o s e of his c o m m i s s i o n by the ministry of e d u c a t i o n : as a p r a c tical g u i d e for i d e n t i f y i n g c h i l d r e n w h o s e p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e indicated a n e e d for special e d u c a t i o n — t h o s e w h o w e w o u l d t o d a y call
learning disabled or mildly retarded. Binet wrote (1908, p.
263):
" W e a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n that t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e u s e o f o u r scale will
n o t b e its a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e n o r m a l p u p i l s , b u t r a t h e r t o t h o s e o f
inferior g r a d e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . " A s t o t h e c a u s e s o f p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e , B i n e t r e f u s e d t o s p e c u l a t e . H i s tests, i n a n y case, c o u l d n o t
decide (1905, p. 37):
O u r p u r p o s e is to be able to measure the intellectual capacity of a child
w h o is brought to us in o r d e r to know w h e t h e r he is normal or retarded.
We should therefore study his condition at the time and that only. We
have n o t h i n g to do either with his past history or with his future; consequently, we shall neglect his etiology, a n d we shall m a k e no attempt to
distinguish b e t w e e n acquired a n d congenital idiocy. . . . A s t o that which
concerns his future, we shall exercise the same abstinence; we do not
attempt to establish or p r e p a r e a prognosis, and we leave u n a n s w e r e d the
question of w h e t h e r this retardation is curable, or e v e n improvable. We
shall limit ourselves to ascertaining the truth in regard to his present mental state.
B u t o f o n e t h i n g B i n e t was s u r e : w h a t e v e r t h e c a u s e o f p o o r
p e r f o r m a n c e in s c h o o l , t h e a i m of his scale was to identify in o r d e r
t o h e l p a n d i m p r o v e , n o t t o label i n o r d e r t o limit. S o m e children
m i g h t b e i n n a t e l y i n c a p a b l e o f n o r m a l a c h i e v e m e n t , b u t all could
i m p r o v e with special h e l p .
T h e difference between
strict h e r e d i t a r i a n s a n d
their o p p o -
nents is n o t , as s o m e caricatures s u g g e s t , t h e b e l i e f that a child's
p e r f o r m a n c e is all i n b o r n or all a f u n c t i o n of e n v i r o n m e n t and
l e a r n i n g . I d o u b t that t h e m o s t c o m m i t t e d a n t i h e r e d i t a r i a n s have
ever d e n i e d the existence of innate variation a m o n g children. T h e
d i f f e r e n c e s a r e m o r e a m a t t e r of social policy a n d e d u c a t i o n a l practice. H e r e d i t a r i a n s v i e w their m e a s u r e s of i n t e l l i g e n c e as markers
o f p e r m a n e n t , i n b o r n limits. C h i l d r e n , s o l a b e l e d , s h o u l d b e sorted,
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
183
I Q
trained a c c o r d i n g t o their i n h e r i t a n c e a n d c h a n n e l e d i n t o p r o f e s sions a p p r o p r i a t e f o r their b i o l o g y . M e n t a l t e s t i n g b e c o m e s a t h e ory of limits. A n t i h e r e d i t a r i a n s , like B i n e t , test in o r d e r to identify
a n d h e l p . W i t h o u t d e n y i n g t h e e v i d e n t fact that n o t all c h i l d r e n ,
w h a t e v e r their t r a i n i n g , will e n t e r t h e c o m p a n y o f N e w t o n a n d
Einstein,
they
emphasize
the
power
of
creative
education
to
increase t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f all c h i l d r e n , o f t e n i n e x t e n s i v e a n d
u n a n t i c i p a t e d ways. M e n t a l testing b e c o m e s a t h e o r y for e n h a n c i n g
potential t h r o u g h p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n .
Binet spoke eloquently of well-meaning teachers, c a u g h t in the
u n w a r r a n t e d p e s s i m i s m o f their invalid h e r e d i t a r i a n a s s u m p t i o n s
(1909, p p . 1 6 - 1 7 ) :
As I know from e x p e r i e n c e , . . . they seem to admit implicitly that in a
class where we find the best, we must also find the worst, a n d that this is a
natural and
inevitable p h e n o m e n o n ,
with
which a teacher must not
become p r e o c c u p i e d , a n d that it is like the existence of rich a n d p o o r
within a society. What a p r o f o u n d error.
H o w can we h e l p a c h i l d if we label h i m as u n a b l e to a c h i e v e by
biological p r o c l a m a t i o n ?
If we do n o t h i n g , if we don't intervene actively and usefully, he will
continue to lose time . . . a n d will finally b e c o m e discouraged. T h e situation is very serious for h i m , and since his is not an exceptional case (since
children with defective c o m p r e h e n s i o n are legion), we might say that it is
a serious question for all of us and for all of society. T h e child w h o loses
the taste for work in class strongly risks b e i n g unable to acquire it after he
leaves school (1909, p. 100).
B i n e t railed a g a i n s t the m o t t o " s t u p i d i t y is f o r a l o n g t i m e "
("quand on est bete, c'estpour longtemps"), a n d u p b r a i d e d t e a c h e r s w h o
"are not i n t e r e s t e d i n s t u d e n t s w h o lack i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e y h a v e
neither s y m p a t h y n o r r e s p e c t for t h e m , a n d their i n t e m p e r a t e lang u a g e leads t h e m to say such t h i n g s in their p r e s e n c e as ' T h i s is a
child w h o will n e v e r a m o u n t t o a n y t h i n g . . . h e i s poorly e n d o w e d
• • • he is n o t i n t e l l i g e n t at all.' H o w o f t e n h a v e I h e a r d these i m p r u dent w o r d s " ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 100). B i n e t t h e n cites a n e p i s o d e i n his o w n
baccalaureate w h e n o n e e x a m i n e r told h i m t h a t h e w o u l d n e v e r
nave a " t r u e " p h i l o s o p h i c a l spirit:
"Never!
What a momentous
w
° r d . S o m e r e c e n t t h i n k e r s s e e m t o h a v e g i v e n their m o r a l s u p p o r t
t
o
these d e p l o r a b l e v e r d i c t s b y a f f i r m i n g that a n individual's intel-
184
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
l i g e n c e is a fixed q u a n d t y , a q u a n t i t y t h a t c a n n o t be i n c r e a s e d . We
m u s t p r o t e s t a n d r e a c t a g a i n s t this b r u t a l p e s s i m i s m ; w e m u s t try
to demonstrate t h a t it is founded u p o n nothing" (1909, p. 101).
T h e c h i l d r e n i d e n t i f i e d b y Binet's test w e r e t o b e h e l p e d , n o t
indelibly l a b e l e d . B i n e t h a d definite p e d a g o g i c a l s u g g e s t i o n s , a n d
many
were
education
implemented.
must be
H e b e l i e v e d , f i r s t o f all,
that
special
tailored to the individual needs of disadvan-
t a g e d c h i l d r e n : i t m u s t b e b a s e d o n " t h e i r c h a r a c t e r a n d their aptit u d e s , a n d o n t h e n e c e s s i t y for a d a p t i n g o u r s e l v e s t o t h e i r n e e d s
a n d their c a p a c i t i e s " ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 1 5 ) . B i n e t r e c o m m e n d e d small classr o o m s o f f i f t e e n t o t w e n t y s t u d e n t s , c o m p a r e d with sixty t o e i g h t y
t h e n c o m m o n i n p u b l i c schools c a t e r i n g t o p o o r c h i l d r e n . I n p a r ticular, h e a d v o c a t e d
special m e t h o d s o f e d u c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g a
p r o g r a m that h e c a l l e d " m e n t a l o r t h o p e d i c s " :
What they should learn first is not the subjects ordinarily taught, however important they may be; they should be given lessons of will, of attention, of discipline; b e f o r e exercises in grammar, they need to be exercised
in mental orthopedics; in a word they must learn how to learn (1908, p.
257)Binet's i n t e r e s t i n g p r o g r a m of mental orthopedics included a
set o f p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e s d e s i g n e d t o i m p r o v e , b y t r a n s f e r t o m e n t a l
functioning, the will, attention, and discipline that Binet viewed as
prerequisites
for
studying
academic
subjects.
In
one,
called
"Vexercise des statues," a n d d e s i g n e d to i n c r e a s e a t t e n t i o n s p a n , child r e n m o v e d v i g o r o u s l y until told t o a d o p t a n d retain a n i m m o b i l e
position. (I p l a y e d this g a m e as a kid in t h e streets of N e w Y o r k ;
w e also called i t " s t a t u e s . " ) E a c h d a y t h e p e r i o d o f i m m o b i l i t y w o u l d
be increased.
In
another,
designed
to
improve
speed,
children
f i l l e d a p i e c e o f p a p e r with a s m a n y d o t s a s t h e y c o u l d p r o d u c e i n
the allotted t i m e .
B i n e t s p o k e w i t h p l e a s u r e a b o u t t h e success o f his special classrooms (1909, p.
1 0 4 ) a n d a r g u e d that p u p i l s s o b e n e f i t e d h a d not
o n l y i n c r e a s e d t h e i r k n o w l e d g e , b u t their i n t e l l i g e n c e a s well. Intell i g e n c e , i n a n y m e a n i n g f u l sense o f t h e w o r d , c a n b e a u g m e n t e d b y
g o o d e d u c a t i o n ; it is not a fixed a n d inborn quantity:
It is in this practical sense, the only one accessible to us, that we say that
the intelligence of these children has been increased. We have increased
what constitutes t h e intelligence of a pupil: the capacity to learn and to
assimilate instruction.
T H E
The
H E R E D I T A R I A N
dismantling
of Binet's
T H E O R Y
OF
intentions
in
i8
I Q
3
America
I n s u m m a r y , B i n e t insisted u p o n t h r e e c a r d i n a l p r i n c i p l e s for
u s i n g his tests. A l l his caveats w e r e later d i s r e g a r d e d , a n d his i n t e n tions o v e r t u r n e d , b y t h e A m e r i c a n h e r e d i t a r i a n s w h o t r a n s l a t e d his
scale into w r i t t e n f o r m as a r o u t i n e d e v i c e for t e s t i n g all c h i l d r e n .
1. T h e scores are a practical d e v i c e ; t h e y d o n o t buttress a n y
theory o f intellect. T h e y d o n o t d e f i n e a n y t h i n g i n n a t e o r p e r m a nent. W e m a y n o t d e s i g n a t e w h a t t h e y m e a s u r e a s " i n t e l l i g e n c e " o r
any o t h e r reified entity.
2. T h e scale is a r o u g h , e m p i r i c a l g u i d e for i d e n t i f y i n g m i l d l y
r e t a r d e d a n d l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n w h o n e e d special h e l p . I t
is not a d e v i c e for r a n k i n g n o r m a l c h i l d r e n .
3. W h a t e v e r t h e c a u s e of difficulty in c h i l d r e n identified
for
h e l p , e m p h a s i s shall b e p l a c e d u p o n i m p r o v e m e n t t h r o u g h special
training. L o w scores shall n o t b e u s e d t o m a r k c h i l d r e n a s i n n a t e l y
incapable.
I f Binet's p r i n c i p l e s h a d b e e n f o l l o w e d , a n d his tests consistently u s e d a s h e i n t e n d e d , w e w o u l d h a v e b e e n s p a r e d a m a j o r
misuse o f science i n o u r c e n t u r y . I r o n i c a l l y , m a n y A m e r i c a n school
boards h a v e c o m e full cycle, a n d n o w u s e I Q tests o n l y a s B i n e t
originally
recommended:
as
instruments
for
assessing
children
with specific l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s . S p e a k i n g p e r s o n a l l y , I feel that
tests o f t h e I Q t y p e w e r e h e l p f u l i n t h e p r o p e r d i a g n o s i s o f m y o w n
learning-disabled son. H i s a v e r a g e score, t h e I Q itself, m e a n t n o t h ing, for i t was o n l y a n a m a l g a m o f s o m e v e r y h i g h a n d v e r y low
scores; b u t t h e p a t t e r n o f low v a l u e s i n d i c a t e d his areas o f deficit.
T h e m i s u s e o f m e n t a l tests i s n o t i n h e r e n t i n t h e i d e a o f t e s t i n g
itself. It arises p r i m a r i l y f r o m t w o fallacies, e a g e r l y (so it seems)
embraced b y t h o s e w h o wish t o u s e tests f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f
social ranks a n d distinctions: reification a n d h e r e d i t a r i a n i s m . T h e
next c h a p t e r shall treat r e i f i c a t i o n — t h e a s s u m p t i o n that test scores
represent a s i n g l e , scalable t h i n g in t h e h e a d called g e n e r a l intelligence.
T h e h e r e d i t a r i a n fallacy i s n o t t h e s i m p l e claim t h a t I Q i s t o
some d e g r e e " h e r i t a b l e . " I h a v e no d o u b t t h a t it is, t h o u g h t h e
e
g r e e has clearly b e e n e x a g g e r a t e d b y t h e m o s t a v i d h e r e d i t a r i -
a n s
- It is hard to find any broad aspect of h u m a n performance or
anatomy that has n o h e r i t a b l e c o m p o n e n t a t all. T h e h e r e d i t a r i a n
a c
y resides i n t w o false implications d r a w n f r o m this basic fact:
i86
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
1. T h e e q u a t i o n o f " h e r i t a b l e " with " i n e v i t a b l e . " T o a biologist,
heritability refers t o t h e p a s s a g e o f traits o r t e n d e n c i e s a l o n g family
lines as a result of g e n e t i c transmission. It says little a b o u t t h e r a n g e
of e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o d i f i c a t i o n to w h i c h t h e s e traits are subject. In
our vernacular, "inherited" often m e a n s "inevitable." But not to a
biologist. G e n e s d o n o t m a k e specific bits a n d pieces o f a b o d y ; t h e y
c o d e for a r a n g e o f f o r m s u n d e r a n a r r a y o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . M o r e o v e r , e v e n w h e n a trait has b e e n built a n d set, e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n t e r v e n t i o n m a y still m o d i f y i n h e r i t e d d e f e c t s . Millions o f
A m e r i c a n s see n o r m a l l y t h r o u g h lenses that c o r r e c t i n n a t e deficiencies o f vision. T h e claim t h a t I Q i s s o - m a n y p e r c e n t " h e r i t a b l e "
does
not
conflict
with
the
belief
that
enriched
education
can
increase w h a t we call, also in the v e r n a c u l a r , " i n t e l l i g e n c e . " A part i a l l y i n h e r i t e d l o w I Q m i g h t b e subject t o e x t e n s i v e i m p r o v e m e n t
t h r o u g h p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n . A n d i t m i g h t not. T h e m e r e fact o f its
heritability p e r m i t s n o c o n c l u s i o n .
2. T h e confusion of within- and b e t w e e n - g r o u p heredity. T h e
major political i m p a c t o f h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o r i e s d o e s n o t arise f r o m
t h e i n f e r r e d heritability of tests, b u t f r o m a logically invalid e x t e n sion. S t u d i e s o f t h e heritability o f I Q , p e r f o r m e d b y such traditional
m e t h o d s a s c o m p a r i n g scores o f relatives, o r c o n t r a s t i n g
scores o f a d o p t e d c h i l d r e n with b o t h their b i o l o g i c a l a n d legal parents, a r e all o f t h e " w i t h i n - g r o u p " t y p e — t h a t is, t h e y p e r m i t a n
e s t i m a t e of heritability within a single, c o h e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n (white
A m e r i c a n s , f o r e x a m p l e ) . T h e c o m m o n fallacy consists i n a s s u m i n g
that i f h e r e d i t y e x p l a i n s a c e r t a i n p e r c e n t a g e o f variation a m o n g
i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n a g r o u p , it m u s t also e x p l a i n a similar p e r c e n t a g e
of the
difference
blacks,
for e x a m p l e .
in
average
IQ
B u t variation
between
groups—whites
a m o n g individuals
and
within
a
g r o u p a n d d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n v a l u e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s a r e entirely
s e p a r a t e p h e n o m e n a . O n e i t e m p r o v i d e s n o license f o r s p e c u l a t i o n
about the other.
A
hypothetical
and
noncontroversial
example
will
suffice.
H u m a n h e i g h t has a h i g h e r heritability t h a n a n y v a l u e e v e r p r o p o s e d for I Q . T a k e t w o s e p a r a t e g r o u p s o f m a l e s . T h e f i r s t , with
an a v e r a g e h e i g h t of 5 f e e t 10 i n c h e s , live in a p r o s p e r o u s A m e r i can t o w n . T h e s e c o n d , with an a v e r a g e h e i g h t of 5 feet 6 inches,
are s t a r v i n g in a t h i r d - w o r l d village. Heritability is 95 p e r c e n t or so
in e a c h p l a c e — m e a n i n g o n l y that relatively tall fathers t e n d to h a v e
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
tall sons a n d relatively short fathers s h o r t sons. T h i s h i g h w i t h i n g r o u p heritability a r g u e s n e i t h e r f o r n o r against t h e possibility that
better n u t r i t i o n i n t h e n e x t g e n e r a t i o n m i g h t raise t h e a v e r a g e
h e i g h t o f t h i r d - w o r l d villagers a b o v e t h a t o f p r o s p e r o u s A m e r i cans. L i k e w i s e , I Q c o u l d b e h i g h l y h e r i t a b l e w i t h i n g r o u p s , a n d t h e
a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n whites a n d blacks i n A m e r i c a m i g h t
still o n l y r e c o r d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s of blacks.
I h a v e o f t e n b e e n f r u s t r a t e d with the f o l l o w i n g r e s p o n s e to this
a d m o n i t i o n : " O h well, I see w h a t y o u m e a n , a n d y o u ' r e r i g h t i n
theory. T h e r e m a y b e n o necessary c o n n e c t i o n i n logic, b u t isn't i t
m o r e likely all t h e s a m e that m e a n d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s
would
have
the
same
causes
as
variation
within
groups."
Tbe
answer is still " n o . " W i t h i n - a n d b e t w e e n - g r o u p h e r e d i t y are n o t
tied by rising d e g r e e s of probability as heritability increases w i t h i n
groups and differences enlarge between them. T h e two p h e n o m ena are s i m p l y s e p a r a t e . F e w a r g u m e n t s are m o r e d a n g e r o u s t h a n
the o n e s that " f e e l " r i g h t b u t can't be justified.
A l f r e d B i n e t a v o i d e d t h e s e fallacies a n d stuck b y his t h r e e p r i n ciples.
American
psychologists
perverted
Binet's
intention
and
i n v e n t e d t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o r y o f I Q . T h e y reified Binet's s c o r e s ,
and t o o k t h e m a s m e a s u r e s o f a n entity called i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e y
assumed that i n t e l l i g e n c e was largely i n h e r i t e d , a n d d e v e l o p e d a
series of s p e c i o u s a r g u m e n t s c o n f u s i n g cultural d i f f e r e n c e s with
innate p r o p e r t i e s . T h e y b e l i e v e d that i n h e r i t e d I Q scores m a r k e d
people and
groups
for
an
inevitable
station
in
life.
And
they
assumed that a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s w e r e largely t h e
products o f h e r e d i t y , d e s p i t e m a n i f e s t a n d p r o f o u n d v a r i a t i o n i n
quality of life.
T h i s c h a p t e r a n a l y z e s the m a j o r w o r k s o f t h e t h r e e p i o n e e r s o f
hereditarianism i n A m e r i c a : H . H . G o d d a r d , w h o b r o u g h t Binet's
le to A m e r i c a a n d reified its scores as i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e ; L. M.
e r m a n , w h o d e v e l o p e d t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t scale, a n d d r e a m e d o f
a rational society t h a t w o u l d allocate p r o f e s s i o n s b y I Q scores; a n d
R- M. Y e r k e s , w h o p e r s u a d e d the a r m y to test 1.75 million m e n in
World W a r I , t h u s establishing t h e s u p p o s e d l y objective d a t a that
vindicated h e r e d i t a r i a n claims a n d led t o t h e I m m i g r a t i o n Restriction A c t of 1 9 2 4 , with its low c e i l i n g for l a n d s s u f f e r i n g t h e b l i g h t
°f poor genes.
T h e hereditarian
theory
of IQ
is
a
home-grown
American
i88
T H E
M ISM E A SURE
OF
M A N
p r o d u c t . If this claim s e e m s p a r a d o x i c a l for a land with egalitarian
traditions, r e m e m b e r also the jingoistic n a t i o n a l i s m o f W o r l d W a r
I, t h e fear of e s t a b l i s h e d o l d A m e r i c a n s f a c i n g a tide of c h e a p (and
s o m e t i m e s politically radical) labor i m m i g r a t i n g f r o m s o u t h e r n a n d
e a s t e r n E u r o p e , a n d a b o v e all o u r persistent, i n d i g e n o u s racism.
H. H. Goddard and the menace of the feeble-minded
Intelligence
as
a
Mendelian
gene
G O D D A R D IDENTIFIES T H E M O R O N
It remains now for someone to determine the nature of feeble-mindedness and complete the theory of the intelligence quotient.
— H. H. GODDARD, 1 9 1 7 , in a review of Terman, 1 9 1 6
T a x o n o m y is always a c o n t e n t i o u s issue b e c a u s e t h e w o r l d d o e s
n o t c o m e t o u s i n n e a t little p a c k a g e s . T h e classification o f m e n t a l
deficiency a r o u s e d a h e a l t h y d e b a t e early i n o u r c e n t u r y . T w o cate g o r i e s o f a tripartite a r r a n g e m e n t w o n g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e : idiots
c o u l d n o t d e v e l o p full s p e e c h a n d h a d m e n t a l a g e s b e l o w t h r e e ;
imbeciles
could
not
master
written
language
and
ranged
from
t h r e e to seven in m e n t a l a g e . ( B o t h t e r m s a r e n o w so e n t r e n c h e d
i n t h e v e r n a c u l a r o f i n v e c t i v e s that few p e o p l e r e c o g n i z e their technical status in an o l d e r p s y c h o l o g y . ) Idiots a n d imbeciles c o u l d be
c a t e g o r i z e d a n d s e p a r a t e d t o the satisfaction o f most professionals,
for their affliction was sufficiently s e v e r e to w a r r a n t a d i a g n o s i s of
t r u e p a t h o l o g y . T h e y a r e n o t like us.
But
consider
the
nebulous
and
more
threatening
realm
of
" h i g h - g r a d e d e f e c t i v e s " — t h e p e o p l e w h o c o u l d b e t r a i n e d t o function in society, t h e ones w h o e s t a b l i s h e d a b r i d g e b e t w e e n p a t h o l o g y a n d n o r m a l i t y a n d t h e r e b y t h r e a t e n e d the t a x o n o m i c edifice.
T h e s e p e o p l e , with m e n t a l a g e s o f e i g h t t o t w e l v e , w e r e called debile
(or w e a k ) b y t h e F r e n c h . A m e r i c a n s a n d E n g l i s h m e n usually called
them "feeble-minded," a term mired in hopeless ambiguity because
o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i s t s u s e d f e e b l e - m i n d e d as a g e n e r i c t e r m for all
mental defectives, not just those of h i g h grade.
T a x o n o m i s t s o f t e n c o n f u s e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f a n a m e with the
solution o f a p r o b l e m . H . H . G o d d a r d , t h e e n e r g e t i c a n d c r u s a d i n g
d i r e c t o r o f r e s e a r c h a t t h e V i n e l a n d T r a i n i n g S c h o o l for FeebleM i n d e d Girls a n d B o y s i n N e w J e r s e y , m a d e this crucial error. H e
d e v i s e d a n a m e for " h i g h - g r a d e " d e f e c t i v e s , a w o r d t h a t b e c a m e
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
e n t r e n c h e d i n o u r l a n g u a g e t h r o u g h a series o f j o k e s that rivaled
the k n o c k - k n o c k o r e l e p h a n t j o k e s o f o t h e r g e n e r a t i o n s . T h e m e t a p h o r i c a l w h i s k e r s o n these j o k e s a r e n o w s o l o n g that m o s t p e o p l e
would probably grant an ancient p e d i g r e e to the n a m e . B u t G o d d a r d i n v e n t e d t h e w o r d i n o u r c e n t u r y . H e c h r i s t e n e d these p e o p l e
" m o r o n s , " f r o m a G r e e k w o r d m e a n i n g foolish.
G o d d a r d was t h e f i r s t p o p u l a r i z e r o f t h e B i n e t scale i n A m e r i c a .
H e translated B i n e t ' s articles into E n g l i s h , a p p l i e d his tests, a n d
a g i t a t e d for their g e n e r a l use. H e a g r e e d with B i n e t that t h e tests
w o r k e d best i n i d e n t i f y i n g p e o p l e j u s t b e l o w t h e n o r m a l r a n g e —
Goddard's newly christened morons. But the resemblance between
B i n e t a n d G o d d a r d e n d s t h e r e . B i n e t r e f u s e d t o d e f i n e his scores
a s " i n t e l l i g e n c e , " a n d w i s h e d t o identify i n o r d e r t o h e l p . G o d d a r d
r e g a r d e d t h e scores as m e a s u r e s of a s i n g l e , i n n a t e entity.
He
wished t o identify i n o r d e r t o r e c o g n i z e limits, s e g r e g a t e , a n d c u r tail b r e e d i n g t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f a n e n d a n g e r e d
A m e r i c a n stock, t h r e a t e n e d b y i m m i g r a t i o n f r o m w i t h o u t a n d b y
prolific r e p r o d u c t i o n o f its f e e b l e - m i n d e d w i t h i n .
A UNILINEAR SCALE OF INTELLIGENCE
T h e a t t e m p t t o establish a u n i l i n e a r classification o f m e n t a l
deficiency, a rising scale f r o m idiots to imbeciles to m o r o n s , e m b o d ies two c o m m o n fallacies p e r v a d i n g m o s t t h e o r i e s o f biological
d e t e r m i n i s m d i s c u s s e d in this b o o k : t h e reification of i n t e l l i g e n c e
as a single, m e a s u r a b l e entity; a n d t h e a s s u m p t i o n , e x t e n d i n g b a c k
to M o r t o n ' s skulls ( p p . 8 2 — 1 0 1 ) a n d f o r w a r d to J e n s e n ' s u n i v e r s a l
scaling of g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ( p p . 3 4 7 - 3 5 0 ) , that e v o l u t i o n is a tale
of u n i l i n e a r
progress,
and
that
a
single
scale
ascending from
primitive t o a d v a n c e d r e p r e s e n t s t h e b e s t w a y o f o r d e r i n g variation. T h e c o n c e p t o f p r o g r e s s i s a d e e p p r e j u d i c e with a n a n c i e n t
pedigree (Bury,
1920) a n d a subtle p o w e r , e v e n o v e r t h o s e w h o
would d e n y it explicitly ( N i s b e t , 1980).
C a n the p l e t h o r a o f causes a n d p h e n o m e n a g r o u p e d u n d e r t h e
rubric of m e n t a l deficiency possibly be o r d e r e d usefully on a single
scale, with its i m p l i c a t i o n that e a c h p e r s o n o w e s his r a n k to t h e
relative a m o u n t of a single s u b s t a n c e — a n d that m e n t a l deficiency
means h a v i n g less t h a n m o s t ? C o n s i d e r s o m e p h e n o m e n a m i x e d
U
P in the c o m m o n n u m b e r s o n c e a s s i g n e d t o d e f e c t i v e s o f h i g h
grade: g e n e r a l low-level m e n t a l r e t a r d a t i o n , specific l e a r n i n g disa-
T H E
igo
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
bilities c a u s e d b y local n e u r o l o g i c a l d a m a g e , e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s , cultural d i f f e r e n c e s , hostility t o testers. C o n s i d e r s o m e o f
t h e p o t e n t i a l causes: i n h e r i t e d p a t t e r n s o f f u n c t i o n , g e n e t i c p a t h o l o g i e s arising a c c i d e n t a l l y a n d n o t p a s s e d i n family lines, c o n g e n ital brain d a m a g e c a u s e d b y m a t e r n a l illness d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y ,
b i r t h t r a u m a s , p o o r n u t r i t i o n o f fetuses a n d b a b i e s , a v a r i e t y o f
e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s i n early a n d later life. Y e t , t o G o d d a r d , all p e o p l e with m e n t a l a g e s b e t w e e n e i g h t a n d t w e l v e w e r e
m o r o n s , all t o b e t r e a t e d i n r o u g h l y t h e s a m e w a y : institutionalized
o r carefully r e g u l a t e d , m a d e h a p p y b y c a t e r i n g t o their limits, a n d ,
a b o v e all, p r e v e n t e d f r o m b r e e d i n g .
G o d d a r d m a y h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t u n s u b t l e h e r e d i t a r i a n o f all.
H e u s e d his u n i l i n e a r scale o f m e n t a l deficiency t o identify intellig e n c e a s a single entity, a n d h e a s s u m e d that e v e r y t h i n g i m p o r t a n t
a b o u t i t was i n b o r n a n d i n h e r i t e d i n family lines. H e w r o t e i n 1920
(quoted in T u d d e n h a m , 1962, p. 4 9 1 ) :
Stated in its boldest form, o u r thesis is that the chief d e t e r m i n e r of
h u m a n c o n d u c t is a unitary mental process which we call intelligence: that
this process is c o n d i t i o n e d by a nervous m e c h a n i s m which is inborn: that
the d e g r e e of efficiency to be attained by that nervous m e c h a n i s m and the
c o n s e q u e n t grade of intellectual or mental level for each individual is
d e t e r m i n e d by the kind of c h r o m o s o m e s that c o m e together with the
union of the g e r m cells: that it is but little affected by any later influences
except such serious accidents as may destroy part of the m e c h a n i s m .
G o d d a r d e x t e n d e d t h e r a n g e o f social p h e n o m e n a c a u s e d b y
differences
in
e v e r y t h i n g that
innate
intelligence
concerns us
until
it
encompassed
about h u m a n behavior.
almost
Beginning
with m o r o n s , a n d w o r k i n g u p t h e scale, h e a t t r i b u t e d m o s t u n d e sirable b e h a v i o r t o i n h e r i t e d m e n t a l deficiency o f t h e o f f e n d e r s .
T h e i r p r o b l e m s a r e c a u s e d n o t o n l y b y s t u p i d i t y p e r se, b u t b y the
link b e t w e e n d e f i c i e n t i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d i m m o r a l i t y . * H i g h intellig e n c e n o t o n l y p e r m i t s u s t o d o o u r s u m s ; i t also e n g e n d e r s the
g o o d j u d g m e n t t h a t u n d e r l i e s all m o r a l b e h a v i o r .
T h e intelligence controls the emotions and t h e e m o t i o n s are controlled
in proportion to the d e g r e e of intelligence. . . . It follows that if there is
*The link of morality to intelligence was a favorite eugenical theme. Thorndike
(1940, pp. 264-265), refuting a popular impression that all monarchs are reprobates, cited a correlation coefficient of 0.56 for the estimated intelligence vs. the
estimated morality of 269 male members of European royal families!
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
OF
IQ
little intelligence the emotions will be uncontrolled and whether they be
strong or weak will result in actions that are unregulated, uncontrolled
and, as experience proves, usually undesirable. T h e r e f o r e , w h e n we measure the intelligence of an individual and learn that he has so much less
than normal as to c o m e within the g r o u p that we call feeble-minded, we
have ascertained by far the most important fact about him (1919, p. 272).
M a n y c r i m i n a l s , m o s t alcoholics a n d p r o s t i t u t e s , a n d e v e n t h e
" n e ' e r d o wells" w h o s i m p l y d o n ' t fit i n , a r e m o r o n s : " W e k n o w
what f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s is, a n d w e h a v e c o m e t o s u s p e c t all p e r s o n s
w h o a r e i n c a p a b l e o f a d a p t i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o their e n v i r o n m e n t
a n d l i v i n g u p t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f society o r a c t i n g sensibly, o f
being feeble-minded" ( 1 9 1 4 , p. 571).
A t the n e x t level o f t h e m e r e l y d u l l , w e f i n d t h e t o i l i n g m a s s e s ,
d o i n g what c o m e s naturally. " T h e p e o p l e w h o are d o i n g the
d r u d g e r y , " G o d d a r d writes ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 4 6 ) , " a r e , a s a r u l e , i n t h e i r
proper places."
We must next learn that there are great g r o u p s of m e n , laborers, w h o
are but little above the child, who must be told what to do and shown how
to do it; and w h o , if we would avoid disaster, must not be put into positions
where they will have to act u p o n their own initiative or their own j u d g ment. . . . T h e r e are only a few leaders, most must be followers (1919, pp.
243-244).
A t the u p p e r e n d , i n t e l l i g e n t m e n r u l e i n c o m f o r t a n d b y r i g h t .
Speaking before a g r o u p of Princeton undergraduates in 1 9 1 9 ,
Goddard proclaimed:
N o w the fact is, that workmen may have a 10 year intelligence while
you have a 20. To d e m a n d for him such a h o m e as you enjoy is as absurd
as it would be to insist that every laborer should receive a graduate fellowship. How can there be such a thing as social equality with this wide range
of mental capacity?
" D e m o c r a c y , " G o d d a r d a r g u e d ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 3 7 ) , " m e a n s t h a t the
p e o p l e r u l e b y s e l e c t i n g the wisest, m o s t i n t e l l i g e n t a n d m o s t
h u m a n t o tell t h e m w h a t t o d o t o b e h a p p y . T h u s D e m o c r a c y i s a
m e t h o d for a r r i v i n g at a truly b e n e v o l e n t aristocracy."
BREAKING THE SCALE INTO MENDEL1AN COMPARTMENTS
B u t i f i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r m s a single a n d u n b r o k e n scale, h o w c a n
W
e
solve t h e social p r o b l e m s that b e s e t us? F o r a t o n e l e v e l , low
'ntelligence g e n e r a t e s s o c i o p a t h s , w h i l e a t t h e n e x t g r a d e , i n d u s -
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
trial society n e e d s d o c i l e a n d d u l l w o r k e r s t o r u n its m a c h i n e r y a n d
a c c e p t low r e c o m p e n c e . H o w c a n w e c o n v e r t t h e u n b r o k e n scale
i n t o t w o c a t e g o r i e s at this crucial p o i n t , a n d still m a i n t a i n t h e i d e a
t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e is a single, i n h e r i t e d entity? We c a n n o w u n d e r s t a n d w h y G o d d a r d lavished s o m u c h a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e m o r o n .
T h e m o r o n t h r e a t e n s racial h e a l t h b e c a u s e h e r a n k s h i g h e s t a m o n g
the undesirable and might, if not identified, be allowed to flourish
a n d p r o p a g a t e . W e all r e c o g n i z e t h e idiot a n d i m b e c i l e a n d k n o w
w h a t m u s t b e d o n e ; the scale m u s t b e b r o k e n j u s t a b o v e t h e level
o f the m o r o n .
T h e idiot is not our greatest problem. He is indeed loathsome. . . .
Nevertheless, he lives his life and is d o n e . He does not continue the race
with a line of children like himself. . . . It is the moron type that makes for
us our great problem (1912, p p . 101-102).
G o d d a r d w o r k e d in the first flourish of e x c i t e m e n t that greeted
the rediscovery of Mendel's work and
t h e basic d e c i p h e r i n g o f
h e r e d i t y . W e n o w k n o w that virtually e v e r y m a j o r f e a t u r e o f o u r
b o d y i s built b y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f m a n y g e n e s with e a c h o t h e r a n d
with a n e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t . B u t i n t h e s e early d a y s , m a n y biologists naively a s s u m e d that all h u m a n traits w o u l d b e h a v e like t h e
c o l o r , size, o r w r i n k l i n g o f M e n d e l ' s p e a s : t h e y b e l i e v e d , i n short,
that e v e n the m o s t c o m p l e x parts o f a b o d y m i g h t b e built b y single
g e n e s , a n d that v a r i a t i o n i n a n a t o m y o r b e h a v i o r w o u l d r e c o r d the
d i f f e r e n t d o m i n a n t a n d recessive f o r m s o f t h e s e g e n e s . E u g e n i c i s t s
seized u p o n this foolish n o t i o n with avidity, f o r it a l l o w e d t h e m to
assert t h a t all u n d e s i r a b l e traits m i g h t be t r a c e d to single g e n e s a n d
e l i m i n a t e d with p r o p e r strictures u p o n b r e e d i n g . T h e early literat u r e o f e u g e n i c s i s f i l l e d with s p e c u l a t i o n s , a n d p e d i g r e e s laboriously c o m p i l e d a n d f u d g e d , a b o u t t h e g e n e for Wanderlust traced
t h r o u g h t h e family lines o f n a v a l c a p t a i n s , o r the g e n e for t e m p e r a m e n t that m a k e s s o m e o f u s placid a n d o t h e r s d o m i n e e r i n g . W e
m u s t n o t b e m i s l e d b y h o w silly such ideas s e e m t o d a y ; t h e y r e p r e s e n t e d o r t h o d o x g e n e t i c s f o r a b r i e f t i m e , a n d h a d a m a j o r social
impact in America.
G o d d a r d j o i n e d t h e transient b a n d w a g o n with a h y p o t h e s i s that
m u s t r e p r e s e n t a n u l t i m a t e i n t h e a t t e m p t e d reification o f intellig e n c e . H e tried t o trace t h e p e d i g r e e s o f m e n t a l d e f e c t i v e s i n his
V i n e l a n d School and c o n c l u d e d that "feeble-mindedness" obeyed
M e n d e l i a n rules o f i n h e r i t a n c e . M e n t a l d e f i c i e n c y m u s t therefore
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
'93
be a definite t h i n g , a n d it m u s t be g o v e r n e d by a single g e n e ,
u n d o u b t e d l y recessive t o n o r m a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ( 1 9 1 4 , p . 539). " N o r m a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , " G o d d a r d c o n c l u d e d , " s e e m s t o b e a unit c h a r a c ter a n d t r a n s m i t t e d i n t r u e M e n d e l i a n f a s h i o n " ( 1 9 1 4 , p . ix).
G o d d a r d c l a i m e d that h e h a d b e e n c o m p e l l e d t o m a k e this
u n l i k e l y c o n c l u s i o n b y t h e press o f e v i d e n c e , not b y a n y p r i o r h o p e
or prejudice.
A n y theories or h y p o t h e s e s that have b e e n p r e s e n t e d have b e e n merely
those that were suggested by the data themselves, and have b e e n worked
out in an effort to u n d e r s t a n d what the data s e e m to comprise. S o m e of
the conclusions are as surprising to the writer a n d as difficult for h i m to
accept as they are likely to be to many readers ( 1 9 1 4 , p. viii).
C a n w e seriously v i e w G o d d a r d a s a f o r c e d a n d r e l u c t a n t c o n vert to a h y p o t h e s i s that fit his g e n e r a l s c h e m e so well a n d s o l v e d
his m o s t p r e s s i n g p r o b l e m so neatly? A single g e n e for n o r m a l
intelligence r e m o v e d the p o t e n t i a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n a u n i linear scale that m a r k e d i n t e l l i g e n c e as a single, m e a s u r a b l e entity,
a n d a desire to s e p a r a t e a n d identify t h e m e n t a l l y deficient as a
c a t e g o r y a p a r t . G o d d a r d h a d b r o k e n his scale i n t o two sections a t
j u s t the r i g h t p l a c e : m o r o n s c a r r i e d a d o u b l e d o s e o f the b a d recessive; dull laborers h a d a t least o n e c o p y o f t h e n o r m a l g e n e a n d
c o u l d b e set b e f o r e their m a c h i n e s . M o r e o v e r , t h e s c o u r g e o f feeble-mindedness might now be eliminated by schemes of breeding
easily p l a n n e d . O n e g e n e can b e t r a c e d , l o c a t e d , a n d b r e d o u t . I f
one h u n d r e d genes regulate intelligence, eugenic b r e e d i n g must
fail or p r o c e e d with h o p e l e s s sloth.
THE PROPER CARE AND FEEDING (BUT NOT BREEDING) OF MORONS
If m e n t a l d e f i c i e n c y is the effect of a single g e n e , t h e p a t h to its
eventual e l i m i n a t i o n lies e v i d e n t l y b e f o r e us: d o not allow s u c h
people to bear children:
If both parents are f e e b l e - m i n d e d all the children will be feebleminded. It is obvious that such matings s h o u l d not be allowed. It is perfectly clear that no f e e b l e - m i n d e d person s h o u l d ever be allowed to marry
or to b e c o m e a parent. It is obvious that if this rule is to be carried o u t the
•ntelligent part of society must e n f o r c e it ( 1 9 1 4 , p. 561).
I f m o r o n s c o u l d c o n t r o l their o w n s e x u a l u r g e s a n d desist for
t u
e g o o d o f m a n k i n d , w e m i g h t p e r m i t t h e m t o live freely a m o n g
U s
- But they cannot, because immorality a n d stupidity are inexor-
T H E
194
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
a b l y l i n k e d . T h e wise m a n c a n c o n t r o l his sexuality in a rational
m a n n e r : " C o n s i d e r for a m o m e n t t h e sex e m o t i o n , s u p p o s e d t o b e
t h e m o s t u n c o n t r o l l a b l e of all h u m a n instincts; yet it is n o t o r i o u s
t h a t t h e i n t e l l i g e n t m a n c o n t r o l s e v e n this" ( 1 9 1 9 , p .
273). T h e
m o r o n cannot b e h a v e in so e x e m p l a r y a n d abstemious a fashion:
T h e y are not only lacking in control but they are lacking often in the
perception of moral qualities; if they are not allowed to marry they are
nevertheless not h i n d e r e d from becoming parents. So that if we are absolutely to prevent a feeble-minded person from becoming a parent, something must be d o n e other than merely prohibiting the marrying. To this
e n d there are two proposals: the first is colonization, the second is sterilization (1914, p. 566).
G o d d a r d did
impractical
n o t o p p o s e sterilization, b u t h e r e g a r d e d i t a s
because
traditional
sensibilities
of a
society
not
yet
w h o l l y rational w o u l d p r e v e n t such w i d e s p r e a d m a y h e m . C o l o n i zation i n e x e m p l a r y institutions like his o w n a t V i n e l a n d , N e w J e r sey,
must
be
our
preferred
solution.
Only
here
could
the
r e p r o d u c t i o n o f m o r o n s b e c u r t a i l e d . I f the p u b l i c b a l k e d a t the
great e x p e n s e of building so m a n y new centers for confinement,
t h e cost c o u l d easily be r e c o u p e d by its o w n s a v i n g s :
If such colonies were provided in sufficient number to take care of all
the distinctly feeble-minded cases in the community, they would very
largely take the place of our present almshouses and prisons, and they
would greatly decrease the numbers in our insane hospitals. Such colonies
would save an annual loss in property and life, d u e to the action of these
irresponsible people, sufficient to nearly, or quite, offset the e x p e n s e of
the new plant (1912, p p . 105-106).
I n s i d e t h e s e institutions, m o r o n s c o u l d o p e r a t e i n c o n t e n t m e n t
a t their biologically a p p o i n t e d level, d e n i e d o n l y the basic b i o l o g y
o f their o w n sexuality. G o d d a r d e n d e d his b o o k o n t h e causes o f
m e n t a l deficiency with
this plea for t h e c a r e of institutionalized
m o r o n s : " T r e a t t h e m a s c h i l d r e n a c c o r d i n g t o their m e n t a l a g e ,
constantly e n c o u r a g e a n d praise, n e v e r d i s c o u r a g e o r scold; a n d
keep them happy" ( 1 9 1 9 , p. 3 2 7 ) .
Preventing
the
immigration
and propagation
of morons
O n c e G o d d a r d h a d identified t h e c a u s e o f f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s
i n a single g e n e , t h e c u r e s e e m e d s i m p l e e n o u g h : d o n ' t allow native
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
195
m o r o n s to breed and k e e p foreign ones out. As a contribution to
t h e s e c o n d s t e p , G o d d a r d a n d his associates visited Ellis I s l a n d in
1 9 1 2 "to o b s e r v e c o n d i t i o n s a n d offer a n y s u g g e s t i o n s a s t o w h a t
might be d o n e to secure a m o r e t h o r o u g h examination of immig r a n t s for t h e p u r p o s e o f d e t e c t i n g m e n t a l d e f e c t i v e s " ( G o d d a r d ,
1 9 1 7 , p. 253).
As G o d d a r d described the scene, a fog h u n g over N e w Y o r k
harbor that day a n d no immigrants could land. B u t o n e h u n d r e d
were about ready to leave, w h e n G o d d a r d intervened: " W e picked
out
one
young
man
whom
we
suspected
was
defective,
and,
t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r p r e t e r , p r o c e e d e d t o g i v e h i m t h e test. T h e b o y
tested 8 b y t h e B i n e t scale. T h e i n t e r p r e t e r said, 'I c o u l d n o t h a v e
d o n e that w h e n I c a m e t o this c o u n t r y , ' a n d s e e m e d t o t h i n k t h e
test u n f a i r . W e c o n v i n c e d h i m that t h e b o y was d e f e c t i v e " ( G o d dard,
1913, p.
105).
E n c o u r a g e d b y this, o n e o f t h e f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e B i n e t
scale i n A m e r i c a , G o d d a r d raised s o m e f u n d s for a m o r e t h o r o u g h
s t u d y a n d , i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1 9 1 3 , s e n t t w o w o m e n t o Ellis I s l a n d f o r
two a n d a half months. T h e y were instructed to pick out the feebleminded
by
sight,
a
task
that
Goddard
preferred
to
assign
to
w o m e n , t o w h o m h e g r a n t e d i n n a t e l y s u p e r i o r intuition:
After a p e r s o n has h a d considerable e x p e r i e n c e in this work, he almost
gets a sense of what a f e e b l e - m i n d e d p e r s o n is so that he can tell o n e afar
off. T h e p e o p l e w h o are best at this work, a n d w h o I believe should do this
work, are w o m e n . W o m e n s e e m to have closer observation than m e n . It
was quite impossible for others to see h o w these two y o u n g w o m e n could
pick out the f e e b l e - m i n d e d without the aid of the Binet test at all ( 1 9 1 3 , p.
106).
G o d d a r d ' s w o m e n tested thirty-five J e w s , t w e n t y - t w o H u n g a r ians, f i f t y Italians, a n d forty-five Russians. T h e s e g r o u p s c o u l d n o t
b e r e g a r d e d a s r a n d o m s a m p l e s b e c a u s e g o v e r n m e n t officials h a d
already " c u l l e d o u t t h o s e t h e y r e c o g n i z e d a s d e f e c t i v e . " T o b a l a n c e
this bias, G o d d a r d a n d his associates " p a s s e d b y t h e o b v i o u s l y n o r mal. T h a t left u s t h e g r e a t mass o f ' a v e r a g e i m m i g r a n t s . ' " ( 1 9 1 7 ,
p . 244). ( I a m c o n t i n u a l l y a m a z e d b y t h e u n c o n s c i o u s s t a t e m e n t s o f
prejudice t h a t slip i n t o s u p p o s e d l y objective a c c o u n t s . N o t e h e r e
that a v e r a g e i m m i g r a n t s are b e l o w n o r m a l , o r a t least n o t o b v i o u s l y
n o r m a l — t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t G o d d a r d was s u p p o s e d l y testing, n o t
asserting a priori.)
T H E
MIS M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
B i n e t tests on t h e f o u r g r o u p s led to an a s t o u n d i n g result: 83
percent of the Jews, 80 percent of the H u n g a r i a n s , 79 percent of
t h e Italians, a n d 8 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e Russians w e r e f e e b l e - m i n d e d —
t h a t is, b e l o w a g e t w e l v e o n t h e B i n e t scale. G o d d a r d h i m s e l f was
f l a b b e r g a s t e d : c o u l d a n y o n e b e m a d e t o b e l i e v e that four-fifths o f
a n y n a t i o n w e r e m o r o n s ? " T h e results o b t a i n e d b y t h e f o r e g o i n g
e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e d a t a are s o s u r p r i s i n g a n d difficult o f a c c e p t a n c e
t h a t t h e y c a n h a r d l y stand b y t h e m s e l v e s a s v a l i d " ( 1 9 1 7 , p . 2 4 7 ) .
P e r h a p s t h e tests h a d n o t b e e n a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n e d b y i n t e r p r e t ers? B u t t h e J e w s h a d b e e n tested b y a Y i d d i s h - s p e a k i n g p s y c h o l o gist, a n d t h e y r a n k e d n o h i g h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r g r o u p s . E v e n t u a l l y ,
G o d d a r d m o n k i e d a b o u t with t h e tests, tossed several o u t , a n d g o t
his figures d o w n to 40 to 50 p e r c e n t , b u t still he was d i s t u r b e d .
G o d d a r d ' s figures were even more absurd than he imagined
f o r t w o r e a s o n s , o n e o b v i o u s , t h e o t h e r less so. A s a n o n e v i d e n t
r e a s o n , G o d d a r d ' s o r i g i n a l translation o f t h e B i n e t scale s c o r e d
p e o p l e h a r s h l y a n d m a d e m o r o n s o u t o f subjects usually r e g a r d e d
a s n o r m a l . W h e n T e r m a n d e v i s e d t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t scale i n 1 9 1 6 ,
h e f o u n d t h a t G o d d a r d ' s v e r s i o n r a n k e d p e o p l e well b e l o w his o w n .
T e r m a n r e p o r t s ( 1 9 1 6 , p . 62) that o f 104 a d u l t s tested b y h i m a s
b e t w e e n t w e l v e a n d f o u r t e e n years m e n t a l a g e (low, b u t n o r m a l
i n t e l l i g e n c e ) , 5 0 p e r c e n t w e r e m o r o n s o n t h e G o d d a r d scale.
For the evident reason, consider a g r o u p of frightened men
and w o m e n w h o speak no English and w h o have just e n d u r e d an
o c e a n i c v o y a g e i n s t e e r a g e . M o s t are p o o r a n d h a v e n e v e r g o n e t o
s c h o o l ; m a n y h a v e n e v e r h e l d a pencil o r p e n i n their h a n d . T h e y
m a r c h o f f t h e boat; o n e o f G o d d a r d ' s intuitive w o m e n takes t h e m
a s i d e shortly t h e r e a f t e r , sits t h e m d o w n , h a n d s t h e m a p e n c i l , a n d
asks t h e m to r e p r o d u c e on p a p e r a figure s h o w n to t h e m a m o m e n t
a g o , b u t n o w w i t h d r a w n f r o m their sight. C o u l d their failure b e a
result o f testing c o n d i t i o n s , o f w e a k n e s s , fear, o r c o n f u s i o n , r a t h e r
t h a n o f i n n a t e s t u p i d i t y ? G o d d a r d c o n s i d e r e d t h e possibility, b u t
rejected it:
T h e next question is 'drawing a design from m e m o r y , ' which is passed
by only 50 percent. To the uninitiated this will not s e e m surprising since it
looks hard, and e v e n those w h o are familiar with the fact that normal
children of 10 pass it without difficulty may admit that persons w h o have
never had a p e n or pencil in their h a n d s , as was true of many of the
immigrants, may find it impossible to draw the design ( 1 9 1 7 , p. 250).
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
797
I Q
P e r m i t t i n g a c h a r i t a b l e v i e w o f this failure, w h a t b u t s t u p i d i t y c o u l d
e x p l a i n a n inability t o state m o r e t h a n sixty w o r d s , a n y w o r d s , i n
one's o w n l a n g u a g e d u r i n g three minutes?
What shall we say of the fact that only 45 percent can give 60 words in
three minutes, w h e n normal children of 11 years sometimes give 200
words in that time! It is hard to find an explanation except lack of intellig e n c e or lack of vocabulary, a n d such a lack of vocabulary in an adult
would probably m e a n lack of intelligence. H o w could a person live even
15 years in any e n v i r o n m e n t without learning h u n d r e d s of names of which
he c o u l d certainly think of 60 in three minutes? ( 1 9 1 7 , p. 251)
Or ignorance of the date, or even the m o n t h or year?
Must we again c o n c l u d e that the E u r o p e a n peasant of the type that
immigrates to America pays no attention to the passage of time? T h a t the
d r u d g e r y of life is so severe that he cares not w h e t h e r it is January or July,
w h e t h e r it is 1912 or 1906? Is it possible that t h e person may be of considerable intelligence a n d yet, because of the peculiarity of his e n v i r o n m e n t ,
not have acquired this ordinary bit of k n o w l e d g e , e v e n t h o u g h the calendar is not in general use on the continent, or is s o m e w h a t complicated as
in Russia? If so what an e n v i r o n m e n t it must have b e e n ! ( 1 9 1 7 , p. 250)
Since e n v i r o n m e n t , either E u r o p e a n or immediate, could not
e x p l a i n s u c h abject failure, G o d d a r d stated: " W e c a n n o t e s c a p e t h e
g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s e i m m i g r a n t s w e r e o f s u r p r i s i n g l y low
intelligence" ( 1 9 1 7 , p.
bothered
251). T h e high
p r o p o r t i o n o f m o r o n s still
G o d d a r d , b u t h e finally a t t r i b u t e d i t t o t h e c h a n g i n g
c h a r a c t e r o f i m m i g r a t i o n : "It s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t t h e i m m i g r a t i o n
of r e c e n t y e a r s is of a d e c i d e d l y d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r f r o m t h e e a r l y
i m m i g r a t i o n . . . . We a r e n o w g e t t i n g t h e p o o r e s t of e a c h r a c e "
( 9 7>
1
1
P- 2 6 6 ) . " T h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e a v e r a g e 'third class' i m m i -
g r a n t i s low, p e r h a p s o f m o r o n g r a d e " ( 1 9 1 7 , p .
243).
Perhaps,
G o d d a r d h o p e d out loud, things were better on the u p p e r decks,
b u t h e d i d n o t test t h e s e w e a l t h i e r c u s t o m e r s .
W h a t t h e n s h o u l d b e d o n e ? S h o u l d all t h e s e m o r o n s b e s h i p p e d
back, o r p r e v e n t e d f r o m s t a r t i n g o u t i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e ? F o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e restrictions that w o u l d b e legislated w i t h i n a d e c a d e ,
G o d d a r d a r g u e d that his c o n c l u s i o n s " f u r n i s h i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d erations for f u t u r e actions b o t h scientific a n d social as well as l e g islative" ( 1 9 1 7 , p . 2 6 1 ) . B u t b y this t i m e G o d d a r d h a d s o f t e n e d his
earlier h a r s h p o s i t i o n o n t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f m o r o n s . P e r h a p s t h e r e
T H E
JQC?
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
w e r e n o t e n o u g h m e r e l y d u l l w o r k e r s t o f i l l t h e vast n u m b e r o f
frankly u n d e s i r a b l e j o b s . T h e m o r o n m i g h t h a v e t o b e r e c r u i t e d :
" T h e y do a g r e a t d e a l of w o r k that no o n e else will d o . . . . T h e r e is
an immense amount of drudgery to be done, an immense amount
o f w o r k f o r w h i c h w e d o n o t wish t o p a y e n o u g h t o s e c u r e m o r e
i n t e l l i g e n t w o r k e r s . . . . M a y it be that possibly t h e m o r o n has his
place" ( 1 9 1 7 , p. 269).
Nonetheless,
Goddard
rejoiced
in
the
general
tightening of
s t a n d a r d s for a d m i s s i o n . H e r e p o r t s that d e p o r t a t i o n s for m e n t a l
deficiency i n c r e a s e d 3 5 0 p e r c e n t i n
1913 and 570 percent in
1914
o v e r t h e a v e r a g e o f the f i v e p r e c e d i n g years:
This was d u e to the untiring efforts of the physicians w h o were
inspired by the belief that mental tests could be used for the detection of
feeble-minded aliens. . . . If the American public wishes feeble-minded
aliens excluded, it must d e m a n d that congress provide the necessary facilities at the ports of entry (1917, p. 271).
M e a n w h i l e , at h o m e , the feeble-minded must be identified and
k e p t f r o m b r e e d i n g . I n several s t u d i e s , G o d d a r d e x p o s e d t h e m e n ace o f m o r o n i t y b y p u b l i s h i n g p e d i g r e e s o f h u n d r e d s o f w o r t h l e s s
souls, c h a r g e s u p o n t h e state a n d c o m m u n i t y , w h o w o u l d n e v e r
h a v e b e e n b o r n h a d their f e e b l e - m i n d e d f o r e b e a r s b e e n d e b a r r e d
from reproduction.
G o d d a r d d i s c o v e r e d a stock o f p a u p e r s a n d
n e ' e r - d o - w e l l s i n t h e p i n e b a r r e n s o f N e w J e r s e y a n d t r a c e d their
a n c e s t r y b a c k t o t h e illicit u n i o n o f a n u p s t a n d i n g m a n with a s u p p o s e d l y f e e b l e - m i n d e d t a v e r n w e n c h . T h e s a m e m a n later m a r r i e d
a w o r t h y Q u a k e r e s s a n d started a n o t h e r line c o m p o s e d w h o l l y o f
u p s t a n d i n g citizens. S i n c e t h e p r o g e n i t o r h a d f a t h e r e d b o t h a g o o d
a n d a b a d line, G o d d a r d c o m b i n e d t h e G r e e k w o r d s for b e a u t y
(kallos) a n d b a d (kakos), a n d a w a r d e d h i m t h e p s e u d o n y m M a r t i n
K a l l i k a k . G o d d a r d ' s Kallikak family f u n c t i o n e d as a p r i m a l m y t h
o f t h e e u g e n i c s m o v e m e n t for several d e c a d e s .
G o d d a r d ' s s t u d y is little m o r e t h a n g u e s s w o r k r o o t e d in c o n c l u sions set f r o m t h e start. H i s m e t h o d , a s a l w a y s , r e s t e d u p o n the
t r a i n i n g o f intuitive w o m e n
sight.
shacks.
Goddard
did
Goddard's
unbounded.
In
not
faith
to recognize the feeble-minded by
administer
in
visual
Binet
1919 he analyzed Edwin
M a n With T h e H o e " :
tests
identification
in
pine-barren
was
virtually
Markham's poem " T h e
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
799
I Q
Bowed by the weight of centuries he leans
U p o n his h o e and gazes at the g r o u n d ,
T h e emptiness of ages in his face
A n d on his back the burden of the world. . . .
M a r k h a m ' s p o e m h a d b e e n i n s p i r e d b y Millet's f a m o u s p a i n t i n g o f
the s a m e n a m e . T h e p o e m , G o d d a r d c o m p l a i n e d ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 3 9 ) ,
" s e e m s t o i m p l y t h a t t h e m a n Millet p a i n t e d c a m e t o his c o n d i t i o n
a s t h e result o f social c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h h e l d h i m d o w n a n d m a d e
h i m like t h e c l o d s t h a t h e t u r n e d o v e r . " N o n s e n s e , e x c l a i m e d G o d d a r d ; m o s t p o o r p e a s a n t s suffer o n l y f r o m t h e i r o w n f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s , a n d Millet's p a i n t i n g p r o v e s it. C o u l d n ' t M a r k h a m see that
the p e a s a n t i s m e n t a l l y deficient? "Millet's M a n W i t h T h e H o e i s a
m a n of a r r e s t e d m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t — t h e p a i n t i n g is a p e r f e c t picture o f a n i m b e c i l e " ( 1 9 1 9 , p p . 2 3 9 - 2 4 0 ) . T o M a r k h a m ' s s e a r i n g
question: " W h o s e b r e a t h blew o u t t h e l i g h t within this b r a i n ? " G o d d a r d r e p l i e d t h a t m e n t a l fire h a d n e v e r b e e n k i n d l e d .
Since G o d d a r d c o u l d d e t e r m i n e d e g r e e s o f m e n t a l deficiency
b y e x a m i n i n g a p a i n t i n g , h e certainly a n t i c i p a t e d n o t r o u b l e with
flesh and blood. He dispatched the redoubtable Ms. Kite, soon to
see f u r t h e r service o n Ellis I s l a n d , t o t h e p i n e b a r r e n s a n d q u i c k l y
p r o d u c e d t h e sad p e d i g r e e o f t h e k a k o s line. G o d d a r d d e s c r i b e s
o n e o f M s . Kite's identifications ( 1 9 1 2 , p p .
77-78):
Used as she was to the sights of misery and degradation, she was hardly
prepared for the spectacle within. T h e father, a strong, healthy, broadshouldered m a n , was sitting helplessly in a corner. . . . T h r e e children,
scantily clad and with shoes that would barely hold together, stood about
with drooping jaws and the unmistakable look of the feeble-minded. . . .
T h e whole family was a living demonstration of the futility of trying to
make desirable citizens from defective stock through making and enforcing compulsory education laws. . . . T h e father himself, though strong and
vigorous, showed by his face that he had only a child's mentality. T h e
mother in her filth and rags was also a child. In this house of abject
poverty, only o n e sure prospect was ahead, that it would produce
more feeble-minded children with which to clog the wheels of h u m a n
progress.
If these s p o t identifications s e e m a bit hasty or d u b i o u s , c o n f e r
e
Goddard's
method
for
inferring
the
mental
P a r t e d , or otherwise unavailable ( 1 9 1 2 , p. 15):
state
of the
5.7
An honest picture of Deborah, the Kallikak descendant living in
Goddard's institution.
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
20I
After s o m e experience, the field worker becomes expert in inferring
the condition of those persons who are not seen, from the similarity of the
language used in describing them to that used in describing persons she
has seen.
It m a y be a small i t e m in the m i d s t of such a b s u r d i t y , b u t I
d i s c o v e r e d a bit o f m o r e c o n s c i o u s s k u l d u g g e r y . M y c o l l e a g u e Stev e n S e l d e n a n d I w e r e e x a m i n i n g his c o p y o f G o d d a r d ' s v o l u m e o f
the Kallikaks. T h e f r o n t i s p i e c e s h o w s a m e m b e r o f t h e kakos line,
saved f r o m d e p r a v i t y b y c o n f i n e m e n t i n G o d d a r d ' s institution a t
V i n e l a n d . D e b o r a h , as G o d d a r d calls h e r , is a b e a u t i f u l w o m a n (Fig.
5 . 1 ) . S h e sits c a l m l y in a w h i t e dress, r e a d i n g a b o o k , a cat l y i n g
c o m f o r t a b l y o n h e r l a p . T h r e e o t h e r plates s h o w m e m b e r s o f the
k a k o s line, l i v i n g in p o v e r t y in their rural shacks. A l l h a v e a d e p r a v e d look a b o u t t h e m (Fig. 5.2). T h e i r m o u t h s a r e sinister i n
a p p e a r a n c e ; their e y e s a r e d a r k e n e d slits. B u t G o d d a r d ' s b o o k s are
nearly s e v e n t y years o l d , a n d t h e ink has f a d e d . It is n o w clear that
all t h e p h o t o s o f n o n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d k a k o s w e r e a l t e r e d b y i n s e r t i n g
heavy d a r k lines t o g i v e e y e s a n d m o u t h s their diabolical a p p e a r ance. T h e t h r e e plates o f D e b o r a h are u n r e t o u c h e d .
S e l d e n t o o k his b o o k t o M r . J a m e s H . Wallace, Jr., d i r e c t o r o f
P h o t o g r a p h i c S e r v i c e s a t the S m i t h s o n i a n Institution. M r . W a l l a c e
reports (letter to S e l d e n , 1 7 M a r c h 1980):
T h e r e can be no doubt that the photographs of the Kallikak family m e m bers have been retouched. Further, it appears that this retouching was
limited to the facial features of the individuals involved—specifically eyes,
eyebrows, mouths, nose and hair.
By contemporary standards, this retouching is extremely crude and
obvious. It should be r e m e m b e r e d , however, that at the time of the original publication of the book, our society was far less visually sophisticated.
T h e widespread use of photographs was limited, and casual viewers of the
time would not have nearly the comparative ability possessed by even preteenage children today. . . .
T h e harshness clearly gives the appearance of dark, staring features,
sometimes evilness, and sometimes mental retardation. It would be difficult to understand why any of this retouching was d o n e were it not to give
the viewer a false impression of the characteristics of those depicted. I
believe the fact that no other areas of the photographs, or the individuals
have been retouched is significant in this regard also. . . .
I find these photographs to be an extremely interesting variety of photographic manipulation.
T H E
202
Goddard
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
recants
B y 1928 G o d d a r d h a d c h a n g e d his m i n d a n d b e c o m e a latterd a y s u p p o r t e r o f t h e m a n w h o s e w o r k h e h a d originally p e r v e r t e d ,
A l f r e d B i n e t . G o d d a r d a d m i t t e d , first o f all, that h e h a d set the
u p p e r limit o f m o r o n i t y far t o o h i g h :
It was for a time rather carelessly assumed that everybody w h o tested
12 years or less was feeble-minded. . . . We now know, of course, that only
a small percentage of the people w h o test 12 are actually feeble-minded—
that is, are incapable of managing their affairs with ordinary p r u d e n c e or
of c o m p e t i n g in the struggle for existence (1928, p. 220).
B u t g e n u i n e m o r o n s still a b o u n d a t their r e d e f i n e d level. W h a t
shall b e d o n e with t h e m ? G o d d a r d d i d n o t a b a n d o n his b e l i e f i n
their i n h e r i t e d m e n t a l i t y , b u t h e n o w t o o k Binet's line a n d a r g u e d
t h a t m o s t , if n o t all, c o u l d be t r a i n e d to l e a d u s e f u l lives in society:
T h e problem of the m o r o n is a problem of education and training.
. . . This may surprise you, but frankly when I see what has been m a d e out
of the m o r o n by a system of education, which as a rule is only half right, I
have no difficulty in concluding that when we get an education that is
entirely right there will be no morons w h o cannot m a n a g e themselves and
their affairs and c o m p e t e in the struggle for existence. If we could h o p e
to add to this a social order that would literally give every man a chance, I
should be perfectly sure of the result (1928, p p . 223-224).
B u t i f w e let m o r o n s live i n society, will t h e y n o t m a r r y a n d b e a r
children;
is
this
not the
g r e a t e s t d a n g e r o f all,
the
source of
G o d d a r d ' s previous and passionate warnings?
S o m e will object that this plan neglects the eugenic aspect of the problem. In the community, these morons will marry and have children. A n d
why not? . . . It may still be objected that moron parents are likely to have
imbecile or idiot children. T h e r e is not much evidence that this is the case.
T h e danger is probably negligible. At least it is not likely to occur any
5*2
Altered photographs of members of the Kallikak family living in
poverty in the N e w Jersey pine barrens. N o t e how mouths and eyebrows
are accentuated to produce an appearance of evil or stupidity. T h e effect
is much clearer on the original photographs produced in Goddard's book.
T H E
204
M I S M E A S U R E
OF
M A N
oftener than it does in the general population.* I assume that most of you,
like myself, will find it difficult to admit that the foregoing may be the true
view. We have worked too long u n d e r the old concept (1928, p p . 2 2 3 224).
G o d d a r d c o n c l u d e d ( 1 9 2 8 , p . 225) i n r e v e r s i n g t h e t w o b u l w a r k s o f his f o r m e r system:
1. Feeble-mindedness (the moron) \snot incurable [Goddard's italics].
2. T h e feeble-minded do not generally need to be segregated in institutions.
" A s for myself," G o d d a r d c o n f e s s e d (p. 224), " I t h i n k I h a v e g o n e
over to the enemy."
Lewis M. Terman and the mass marketing of innate IQ
Without offering any data on all that occurs between conception and the
age of kindergarten, they announce on the basis of what they have got
out of a few thousand questionnaires that they are measuring the hereditary mental endowment of human beings. Obviously, this is not a
conclusion obtained by research. It is a conclusion planted by the will to
believe. It is, I think, for the most part unconsciously planted. . . . If the
impression takes root that these tests really measure intelligence, that
they constitute a sort of last judgment on the child's capacity, that they
reveal "scientifically" his predestined ability, then it would be a thousand
times better if all the intelligence testers and all their questionnaires were
sunk without warning in the Sargasso Sea.
— WALTER LIPPMANN, in the course of a debate with Lewis Terman
Mass
testing
and
the
Stanford-Binet
L e w i s M . T e r m a n , t h e twelfth child i n a n I n d i a n a f a r m family
o f f o u r t e e n , t r a c e d his interest i n t h e s t u d y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t o a n
itinerant book
peddler and
phrenologist
who
visited
his
home
w h e n h e was n i n e o r ten a n d p r e d i c t e d g o o d t h i n g s after f e e l i n g
t h e b u m p s o n his skull. T e r m a n p u r s u e d this early interest, n e v e r
d o u b t i n g that a m e a s u r a b l e m e n t a l w o r t h lay i n s i d e p e o p l e ' s h e a d s .
In
his
doctoral
dissertation
of
1906,
Terman
examined
seven
" b r i g h t " a n d s e v e n " s t u p i d " b o y s a n d d e f e n d e d e a c h o f his tests a s
a m e a s u r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e b y a p p e a l i n g t o the s t a n d a r d c a t a l o g u e o f
*Do not read into this statement more than Goddard intended. He had not abandoned his belief in the heritability of moronity itself. Moron parents will have
moron children, but they can be made useful through education. Moron parents,
however, do not preferentially beget defectives oflower grade—idiots and imbeciles.
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
racial a n d n a d o n a l s t e r e o t y p e s . O f tests for i n v e n t i o n , h e w r o t e :
" W e h a v e o n l y t o c o m p a r e t h e n e g r o with t h e E s k i m o o r I n d i a n ,
a n d t h e A u s t r a l i a n n a t i v e with t h e A n g l o - S a x o n , t o b e struck b y a n
a p p a r e n t k i n s h i p b e t w e e n g e n e r a l intellectual a n d i n v e n t i v e ability" ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 14). O f m a t h e m a t i c a l ability, h e p r o c l a i m e d ( 1 9 0 6 , p .
29): " E t h n o l o g y s h o w s that racial p r o g r e s s has b e e n closely p a r a l leled b y d e v e l o p m e n t o f the ability t o d e a l with m a t h e m a t i c a l c o n cepts a n d r e l a t i o n s . "
T e r m a n c o n c l u d e d his study b y c o m m i t t i n g b o t h o f t h e fallacies
identified o n p . 1 8 5
a s f o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n view. H e
reified a v e r a g e test scores as a " t h i n g " called g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e
b y a d v o c a t i n g t h e f i r s t o f t w o possible positions ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 9): "Is
intellectual ability a b a n k a c c o u n t , on w h i c h we can d r a w f o r a n y
d e s i r e d p u r p o s e , or is it r a t h e r a b u n d l e of s e p a r a t e d r a f t s , e a c h
d r a w n for a specific p u r p o s e a n d i n c o n v e r t i b l e ? " A n d , while a d m i t t i n g that h e c o u l d p r o v i d e n o real s u p p o r t f o r it, h e d e f e n d e d t h e
innatist v i e w ( 1 9 0 6 , p . 68): " W h i l e o f f e r i n g little positive d a t a o n
the subject, t h e s t u d y has s t r e n g t h e n e d m y i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e relatively g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e of e n d o w m e n t o v e r t r a i n i n g as a d e t e r m i n a n t o f a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s intellectual r a n k a m o n g his fellows."
G o d d a r d i n t r o d u c e d Binet's scale t o A m e r i c a , b u t T e r m a n was
the p r i m a r y a r c h i t e c t o f its p o p u l a r i t y . Binet's last v e r s i o n o f 1 9 1 1
i n c l u d e d f i f t y - f o u r tasks, g r a d e d f r o m p r e n u r s e r y t o m i d - t e e n - a g e
years. T e r m a n ' s f i r s t revision o f 1 9 1 6 e x t e n d e d t h e scale t o " s u p e rior a d u l t s " a n d i n c r e a s e d t h e - n u m b e r o f tasks t o ninety. T e r m a n ,
by t h e n a p r o f e s s o r at S t a n f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , g a v e his revision a n a m e
that has b e c o m e p a r t o f o u r c e n t u r y ' s v o c a b u l a r y — t h e S t a n f o r d B i n e t , t h e s t a n d a r d f o r virtually all " I Q " tests t h a t f o l l o w e d . *
I offer n o d e t a i l e d analysis o f c o n t e n t (see B l o c k a n d D w o r k i n ,
1976 or C h a s e , 1977), but present two e x a m p l e s to show h o w T e r man's tests stressed c o n f o r m i t y with e x p e c t a t i o n a n d d o w n g r a d e d
original r e s p o n s e . W h e n e x p e c t a t i o n s are society's n o r m s , t h e n d o
"Terman (1919) provided a lengthy list of the attributes of general intelligence
captured by the Stanford-Binet tests: memory, language comprehension, size of
vocabulary, orientation in space and time, eye-hand coordination, knowledge of
familiar things, judgment, likeness and differences, arithmetical reasoning,
resourcefulness and ingenuity in difficult practical situations, ability to detect
absurdities, speed and richness of association of ideas, power to combine the dissected parts of a form board or a group of ideas into a unitary whole, capacity to
generalize from particulars, and ability to deduce a rule from connected facts.
206
T H E
MIS M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
t h e tests m e a s u r e s o m e abstract p r o p e r t y o f r e a s o n i n g , o r familiarity with c o n v e n t i o n a l b e h a v i o r ? T e r m a n a d d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m
to B i n e t ' s list:
An Indian who had c o m e to town for the first time in his life saw a
white man riding along the street. As the white man rode by, the Indian
said—'The white man is lazy; he walks sitting down.' What was the white
man riding on that caused the Indian to say, 'He walks sitting down.'
T e r m a n a c c e p t e d " b i c y c l e " a s t h e o n l y c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e — n o t cars
o r o t h e r vehicles b e c a u s e legs d o n ' t g o u p a n d d o w n i n t h e m ; n o t
h o r s e s (the m o s t c o m m o n " i n c o r r e c t " answer) b e c a u s e a n y selfr e s p e c t i n g I n d i a n w o u l d h a v e k n o w n w h a t h e was l o o k i n g at. ( I
m y s e l f a n s w e r e d " h o r s e , " b e c a u s e I saw t h e I n d i a n as a c l e v e r i r o n ist, criticizing an e f f e t e city relative.) S u c h o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e s as "a
cripple in a wheel chair," and "a person riding on someone's back"
w e r e also m a r k e d w r o n g .
Terman
also
included
this
item
from
Binet's
original:
"My
n e i g h b o r has b e e n h a v i n g q u e e r visitors. First a d o c t o r c a m e t o his
h o u s e , t h e n a l a w y e r , t h e n a minister. W h a t d o y o u t h i n k h a p p e n e d
t h e r e ? " T e r m a n p e r m i t t e d little latitude b e y o n d " a d e a t h , " t h o u g h
h e d i d allow " a m a r r i a g e " f r o m a b o y h e d e s c r i b e d a s " a n e n l i g h t e n e d y o u n g e u g e n i s t " w h o r e p l i e d that the d o c t o r c a m e t o see i f
t h e p a r t n e r s w e r e fit, t h e l a w y e r t o a r r a n g e , a n d t h e m i n i s t e r t o tie
the knot. He did not accept the combination "divorce a n d remarr i a g e , " t h o u g h h e r e p o r t s that a c o l l e a g u e i n R e n o , N e v a d a , h a d
f o u n d t h e r e s p o n s e " v e r y , v e r y c o m m o n . " H e also d i d n o t p e r m i t
p l a u s i b l e b u t u n c o m p l i c a t e d solutions ( a d i n n e r , o r a n e n t e r t a i n m e n t ) , or such o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e s as: " s o m e o n e is d y i n g a n d is g e t t i n g m a r r i e d a n d m a k i n g his will b e f o r e h e d i e s . "
B u t T e r m a n ' s m a j o r i n f l u e n c e d i d n o t r e s i d e i n his s h a r p e n i n g
o r e x t e n s i o n o f t h e B i n e t scale. B i n e t ' s tasks h a d t o b e a d m i n i s t e r e d
b y a t r a i n e d tester w o r k i n g with o n e c h i l d a t a t i m e . T h e y c o u l d
not
be
used
as
instruments
for
general
ranking.
But
Terman
w i s h e d t o test e v e r y b o d y , for h e h o p e d t o establish a g r a d a t i o n o f
i n n a t e ability t h a t c o u l d sort all c h i l d r e n into t h e i r p r o p e r stations
in life:
What pupils shall be tested? T h e answer is, all. If only selected children
are tested, many of the cases most in n e e d of adjustment will be over-
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
207
I Q
l o o k e d . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e tests i s t o tell u s w h a t w e d o n o t a l r e a d y k n o w ,
a n d it w o u l d be a m i s t a k e to test only t h o s e p u p i l s w h o a r e r e c o g n i z e d as
obviously below o r a b o v e a v e r a g e .
S o m e o f t h e biggest s u r p r i s e s a r e
e n c o u n t e r e d i n t e s t i n g t h o s e w h o h a v e b e e n l o o k e d u p o n a s close t o avera g e in ability. U n i v e r s a l t e s t i n g is fully w a r r a n t e d (1923, p. 22).
T h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t , like its p a r e n t , r e m a i n e d a test for i n d i v i d uals, b u t it b e c a m e t h e p a r a d i g m for virtually all t h e w r i t t e n v e r sions that f o l l o w e d . B y careful j u g g l i n g a n d e l i m i n a t i o n , * T e r m a n
s t a n d a r d i z e d t h e scale s o that " a v e r a g e " c h i l d r e n w o u l d score 100
a t e a c h a g e ( m e n t a l a g e e q u a l t o c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e ) . T e r m a n also
e v e n e d o u t t h e v a r i a t i o n a m o n g c h i l d r e n b y establishing a s t a n d a r d
deviation of 15 or
mean
of
100 a n d
1 6 p o i n t s a t e a c h c h r o n o l o g i c a l a g e . W i t h its
standard
deviation
of
15,
the
Stanford-Binet
b e c a m e ( a n d i n m a n y respects r e m a i n s t o this d a y ) t h e p r i m a r y
criterion f o r j u d g i n g a p l e t h o r a of m a s s - m a r k e t e d written tests that
f o l l o w e d . T h e invalid a r g u m e n t r u n s : w e k n o w t h a t t h e S t a n f o r d B i n e t m e a s u r e s i n t e l l i g e n c e ; t h e r e f o r e , a n y w r i t t e n test t h a t c o r r e lates s t r o n g l y with S t a n f o r d - B i n e t also m e a s u r e s i n t e l l i g e n c e . M u c h
o f t h e e l a b o r a t e statistical w o r k p e r f o r m e d b y testers d u r i n g t h e
past
fifty
years
provides
no
i n d e p e n d e n t confirmation
for
the
p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t tests m e a s u r e i n t e l l i g e n c e , b u t m e r e l y establishes
correlation with a preconceived and unquestioned standard.
T e s d n g soon became a multimillion-dollar industry; marketing
c o m p a n i e s d a r e d n o t take a c h a n c e with tests n o t p r o v e n by their
correlation
with
Terman's
standard.
The Army
Alpha
(see
pp.
2 2 2 - 2 5 2 ) initiated mass testing, b u t a flood of c o m p e t i t o r s g r e e t e d
school a d m i n i s t r a t o r s within a f e w years after t h e war's e n d . A
quick g l a n c e a t t h e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a p p e n d e d t o T e r m a n ' s later
b o o k ( 1 9 2 3 ) illustrates, d r a m a t i c a l l y a n d u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , h o w all
Terman's
(1919, p.
cautious
w o r d s a b o u t careful
and
lengthy
assessment
2 9 9 , for e x a m p l e ) c o u l d e v a p o r a t e b e f o r e strictures o f
cost a n d t i m e w h e n his d e s i r e to test all c h i l d r e n b e c a m e a reality
(Fig. 5.3). T h i r t y m i n u t e s a n d five tests m i g h t m a r k a c h i l d f o r life,
i f schools a d o p t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m i n a t i o n , a d v e r t i s e d i n T e r man
1 9 2 3 , a n d c o n s t r u c t e d b y a c o m m i t t e e that i n c l u d e d T h o r n -
d i k e , Y e r k e s , a n d T e r m a n himself.
*This, in itself, is not finagling, but a valid statistical procedure for establishing
uniformity of average score and variance across age levels.
5*3
An advertisement for mass mental testing using an examination
written by, a m o n g others, T e r m a n and Yerkes.
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
IQ
209
National Intelligence Tests for Grades 3-8
T h e direct result of the application of the army testing m e t h o d s to school
needs. . . . T h e tests have been selected from a large g r o u p of tests after a
try-out and a careful analysis by a statistical staff. T h e two scales prepared
consist of five tests each (with practical exercises) and either may be administered in thirty minutes. T h e y are simple in application, reliable, and
immediately useful in classifying children in Grades 3 to 8 with respect to
intellectual ability. Scoring is unusually simple.
B i n e t , h a d h e l i v e d , m i g h t h a v e b e e n distressed e n o u g h b y s u c h
a superficial a s s e s s m e n t , b u t h e w o u l d h a v e r e a c t e d e v e n m o r e
s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t T e r m a n ' s intent. T e r m a n a g r e e d with B i n e t t h a t
the tests w o r k e d best for i d e n t i f y i n g " h i g h - g r a d e d e f e c t i v e s , " b u t
his
reasons
for so d o i n g stand in c h i l l i n g contrast with
Binet's
d e s i r e t o s e g r e g a t e a n d h e l p ( 1 9 1 6 , p p . 6-7):
It is safe to predict that in the near future intelligence tests will bring
tens of thousands of these high-grade defectives u n d e r the surveillance
and protection of society. This will ultimately result in curtailing the reproduction of feeble-mindedness and in the elimination of an e n o r m o u s
a m o u n t of crime, pauperism, and industrial inefficiency. It is hardly necessary to emphasize that the high-grade cases, of the type now so frequently overlooked, are precisely the ones whose guardianship it is most
important for the State to assume.
T e r m a n relentlessly e m p h a s i z e d limits a n d their inevitability.
H e n e e d e d less t h a n a n h o u r t o c r u s h t h e h o p e s a n d belittle t h e
efforts of s t r u g g l i n g , " w e l l - e d u c a t e d " p a r e n t s afflicted with a c h i l d
o f l Q 75-
Strange to say, the mother is encouraged and hopeful because she sees
that her boy is learning to read. She does not seem to realize that at his age
he ought to be within three years of entering high school. T h e forty-minute test has told m o r e about the mental ability of this boy than the intelligent mother had been able to learn in eleven years of daily and hourly
observation. For X is feeble-minded; he will never complete the grammar
school; he will never be an efficient worker or a responsible citizen (1916).
W a l t e r L i p p m a n n , t h e n a y o u n g j o u r n a l i s t , saw t h r o u g h T e r m a n ' s n u m b e r s t o t h e h e a r t o f his p r e c o n c e i v e d a t t e m p t , a n d w r o t e
in measured anger:
T h e danger of the intelligence tests is that in a wholesale system of
education, the less sophisticated or the m o r e prejudiced will stop when
2
T H E
IO
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
t h e y h a v e classified a n d forget t h a t their d u t y is to e d u c a t e . T h e y will g r a d e
t h e r e t a r d e d child i n s t e a d of fighting t h e causes of his b a c k w a r d n e s s . F o r
t h e whole drift of t h e p r o p a g a n d a b a s e d on intelligence testing is to t r e a t
p e o p l e with low intelligence q u o t i e n t s as congenitally a n d hopelessly
inferior.
Terman's
technocracy
of innateness
If it were true, the emotional and worldly satisfactions in store for the
intelligence tester would be very great. If he were really measuring intelligence, and if intelligence were a fixed hereditary quantity, it would be
for him to say not only where to place each child in school, but also
which children should go to high school, which to college, which into the
professions, which into the manual trades and common labor. If the
tester would make good his claim, he would soon occupy a position of
power which no intellectual has held since the collapse of theocracy. T h e
vista is enchanting, and even a little of the vista is intoxicating enough. If
only it could be proved, or at least believed, that intelligence is fixed by
heredity, and that the tester can measure it, what a future to dream
about! T h e unconscious temptation is too strong for the ordinary critical
defenses of the scientific methods. With the help of a subtle statistical
illusion, intricate logical fallacies and a few smuggled obiter dicta, selfdeception as the preliminary to public deception is almost
automatic. — WALTER LIPPMANN, in a debate with Terman
P l a t o h a d d r e a m e d o f a rational w o r l d r u l e d b y p h i l o s o p h e r k i n g s . T e r m a n r e v i v e d this d a n g e r o u s vision b u t l e d his c o r p s o f
m e n t a l testers i n a n act o f u s u r p a t i o n . I f all p e o p l e c o u l d b e t e s t e d ,
a n d t h e n s o r t e d i n t o roles a p p r o p r i a t e f o r their i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h e n
a j u s t , a n d , a b o v e all, efficient society m i g h t be c o n s t r u c t e d for the
first t i m e in history.
Dealing
off the
bottom,
Terman
argued
that
we
must first
restrain or e l i m i n a t e t h o s e w h o s e i n t e l l i g e n c e is t o o low f o r an
effective o r m o r a l life. T h e p r i m a r y c a u s e o f social p a t h o l o g y i s
innate
feeble-mindedness.
Terman
(1916,
p.
7)
criticized
Lom-
b r o s o for t h i n k i n g that t h e externalities o f a n a t o m y m i g h t r e c o r d
c r i m i n a l b e h a v i o r . I n n a t e n e s s , to be sure, is t h e s o u r c e , b u t its
d i r e c t sign i s low I Q , n o t l o n g a r m s o r a j u t t i n g j a w :
T h e t h e o r i e s of L o m b r o s o h a v e b e e n wholly d i s c r e d i t e d by t h e results of
intelligence tests. S u c h tests h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d , b e y o n d a n y possibility of
d o u b t , t h a t t h e most i m p o r t a n t trait of at least 25 p e r c e n t of o u r criminals
is m e n t a l weakness. T h e physical a b n o r m a l i t i e s which h a v e b e e n f o u n d so
c o m m o n a m o n g p r i s o n e r s a r e n o t t h e s t i g m a t a o f criminality, b u t t h e
physical a c c o m p a n i m e n t s o f f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s . T h e y h a v e n o diagnostic
significance e x c e p t in so far as t h e y a r e indications of m e n t a l deficiency
(1916, p. 7).
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
211
F e e b l e - m i n d e d p e o p l e are d o u b l y b u r d e n e d b y their u n f o r t u n a t e i n h e r i t a n c e , f o r lack o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e b i l i t a t i n g e n o u g h i n
itself, leads to i m m o r a l i t y . If we w o u l d e l i m i n a t e social p a t h o l o g y ,
w e m u s t i d e n t i f y its c a u s e i n t h e b i o l o g y o f s o c i o p a t h s t h e m s e l v e s —
a n d t h e n e l i m i n a t e t h e m b y c o n f i n e m e n t i n institutions a n d , a b o v e
all, b y p r e v e n d n g their m a r r i a g e a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f o f f s p r i n g .
N o t all criminals are feeble-minded, but all feeble-minded persons are
at least potential criminals. That every feeble-minded woman is a potential
prostitute would hardly be disputed by anyone. Moral j u d g m e n t , like business j u d g m e n t , social j u d g m e n t , or any other kind of higher thought process, is a function of intelligence. Morality cannot flower and fruit if
intelligence remains infantile (1916, p. 11).
T h e feeble-minded, in the sense of social incompetents, are by definition a burden rather than an asset, not only economically but still more
because of their tendencies to become delinquent or criminal. . . . T h e only
effective way to deal with the hopelessly feeble-minded is by permanent
custodial care. T h e obligations of the public school rest rather with the
large and m o r e hopeful group of children w h o are merely inferior (1919,
pp. 132-133).
I n a p l e a for u n i v e r s a l testing, T e r m a n w r o t e ( 1 9 1 6 , p . 12): " C o n s i d e r i n g t h e t r e m e n d o u s cost o f vice a n d c r i m e , w h i c h i n all p r o b ability
amounts
to
not
less
than
$500,000,000
per
year
in
the
U n i t e d States a l o n e , it is e v i d e n t that p s y c h o l o g i c a l testing has
f o u n d h e r e o n e o f its richest a p p l i c a t i o n s . "
A f t e r m a r k i n g t h e s o c i o p a t h for r e m o v a l f r o m society, intellig e n c e tests m i g h t t h e n c h a n n e l biologically a c c e p t a b l e p e o p l e into
p r o f e s s i o n s suited for their m e n t a l level. T e r m a n h o p e d that his
testers w o u l d " d e t e r m i n e t h e m i n i m u m ' i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t i e n t ' necessary for success i n each l e a d i n g o c c u p a t i o n " ( 1 9 1 6 , p .
17). A n y
c o n s c i e n t i o u s p r o f e s s o r tries to find j o b s f o r his s t u d e n t s , b u t few
are a u d a c i o u s e n o u g h to tout their disciples as apostles of a n e w
social o r d e r :
Industrial concerns doubtless suffer e n o r m o u s losses from the employment of persons whose mental ability is not equal to the tasks they are
expected to perform. . . . Any business employing as many as 500 or 1000
workers, as, for e x a m p l e , a large department store, could save in this way
several times the salary of a well-trained psychologist.
T e r m a n virtually closed professions o f p r e s t i g e a n d m o n e t a r y
r e w a r d t o p e o p l e with I Q b e l o w
100 ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 8 2 ) , a n d a r g u e d
2/2
T H E
MIS M E A S U R E
OF
t h a t "substantial s u c c e s s " p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e d a n I Q a b o v e
M A N
1 1 5 or
1 2 0 . B u t h e was m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n establishing ranks a t t h e low
e n d o f t h e scale, a m o n g t h o s e h e h a d d e e m e d " m e r e l y i n f e r i o r . "
M o d e r n industrial society n e e d s its t e c h n o l o g i c a l e q u i v a l e n t o f the
Biblical m e t a p h o r for m o r e b u c o l i c t i m e s — t h e h e w e r s o f w o o d a n d
d r a w e r s o f water. A n d t h e r e a r e s o m a n y o f t h e m :
T h e evolution o f m o d e r n industrial o r g a n i z a t i o n t o g e t h e r with t h e
m e c h a n i z a t i o n of processes by m a c h i n e r y is m a k i n g possible t h e l a r g e r a n d
l a r g e r utilization of i n f e r i o r mentality. O n e m a n with ability to t h i n k a n d
p l a n guides t h e labor o f ten o r twenty l a b o r e r s , w h o d o what they a r e told
to do a n d h a v e little n e e d for r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s or initiative (1919, p. 276).
I Q o f 7 5 o r b e l o w s h o u l d b e the r e a l m o f u n s k i l l e d labor, 7 5 t o
8 5 " p r e e m i n e n t l y t h e r a n g e for semi-skilled l a b o r . " M o r e specific
j u d g m e n t s c o u l d also b e m a d e . " A n y t h i n g a b o v e 8 5 I Q i n t h e case
of a barber probably represents so m u c h d e a d waste" ( 1 9 1 9 , p.
288). IQ 75 is an " u n s a f e risk in a m o t o r m a n or c o n d u c t o r , a n d it
conduces to discontent" ( T e r m a n ,
1 9 1 9 ) . P r o p e r v o c a t i o n a l train-
i n g a n d p l a c e m e n t is essential for t h o s e " o f t h e 70 to 85 class."
W i t h o u t it, t h e y t e n d to l e a v e school " a n d drift easily into t h e r a n k s
o f t h e anti-social o r j o i n t h e a r m y o f B o l s h e v i k d i s c o n t e n t s " ( 1 9 1 9 ,
p . 285).
Terman
investigated
IQ
among
professions
and
concluded
with satisfaction that an i m p e r f e c t allocation by i n t e l l i g e n c e h a d
already
occurred
explained away.
naturally.
The
embarrassing
exceptions
he
H e s t u d i e d 4 7 e x p r e s s c o m p a n y e m p l o y e e s , for
e x a m p l e , m e n e n g a g e d in rote, repetitive work "offering e x c e e d i n g l y limited o p p o r t u n i t y for t h e e x e r c i s e o f i n g e n u i t y o r e v e n p e r sonal j u d g m e n t " ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 7 5 ) . Y e t their m e d i a n I Q s t o o d a t 9 5 ,
a n d fully 2 5 p e r c e n t m e a s u r e d a b o v e
104, t h u s w i n n i n g a p l a c e
a m o n g the r a n k s o f t h e intelligent. T e r m a n was p u z z l e d , b u t attribu t e d such low a c h i e v e m e n t p r i m a r i l y t o a lack o f "certain e m o tional, m o r a l , o r o t h e r desirable qualities," t h o u g h h e a d m i t t e d that
"economic
pressures"
might
have
forced
some
"out
o f school
b e f o r e t h e y w e r e able t o p r e p a r e for m o r e e x a c t i n g service" ( 1 9 1 9 ,
p.
275).
In
another
study,
Terman
amassed
a
sample
of
256
" h o b o e s a n d u n e m p l o y e d , " largely f r o m a " h o b o h o t e l " i n Palo
A l t o . H e e x p e c t e d t o f i n d their a v e r a g e I Q a t t h e b o t t o m o f his list;
y e t , while t h e h o b o m e a n o f 8 9 d i d n o t s u g g e s t e n o r m o u s e n d o w m e n t , t h e y still r a n k e d a b o v e m o t o r m e n , salesgirls, f i r e m e n , a n d
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
p o l i c e m e n . T e r m a n s u p p r e s s e d this e m b a r r a s s m e n t b y o r d e r i n g
his table i n a c u r i o u s way. T h e h o b o m e a n was distressingly h i g h ,
b u t h o b o s also v a r i e d m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r g r o u p , a n d i n c l u d e d a
substantial n u m b e r o f r a t h e r low scores. S o T e r m a n a r r a n g e d his
list b y t h e scores o f t h e lowest 2 5 p e r c e n t i n e a c h g r o u p , a n d s u n k
his h o b o s i n t o t h e cellar.
H a d T e r m a n merely advocated a meritocracy based b n achievem e n t , o n e m i g h t still d e c r y his elitism, b u t a p p l a u d a s c h e m e that
awarded opportunity to hard work and strong motivation.
But
T e r m a n b e l i e v e d that class b o u n d a r i e s h a d b e e n set b y i n n a t e intell i g e n c e . H i s c o o r d i n a t e d r a n k o f p r o f e s s i o n s , p r e s t i g e , a n d salaries
reflected t h e b i o l o g i c a l w o r t h o f e x i s t i n g social classes. I f b a r b e r s
d i d n o t r e m a i n Italian, t h e y w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o arise f r o m t h e p o o r
a n d t o stay a p p r o p r i a t e l y a m o n g t h e m :
T h e c o m m o n o p i n i o n that the child from a cultured h o m e d o e s better
in tests solely by reason of his superior h o m e advantages is an entirely
gratuitous assumption. Practically all of the investigations which have b e e n
m a d e of the influence of nature and n u r t u r e on mental p e r f o r m a n c e
a g r e e in attributing far m o r e to original e n d o w m e n t than to e n v i r o n m e n t .
C o m m o n observation would itself suggest that the social class to which the
family belongs d e p e n d s less on chance than on the parents' native qualities
of intellect and character. . . . T h e children of successful and cultured parents test h i g h e r than children from wretched and ignorant h o m e s for the
simple reason that their heredity is better ( 1 9 1 6 , p. 115).
Fossil
IQ's
of past
geniuses
Society m a y n e e d masses o f t h e " m e r e l y i n f e r i o r " t o r u n its
m a c h i n e s , T e r m a n b e l i e v e d , b u t its u l t i m a t e h e a l t h d e p e n d s u p o n
the l e a d e r s h i p o f r a r e g e n i u s e s with e l e v a t e d I Q ' s . T e r m a n a n d his
associates p u b l i s h e d a f i v e - v o l u m e series on Genetic Studies of Genius
i n a n a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e a n d follow p e o p l e a t t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e
S t a n f o r d - B i n e t scale.
I n o n e v o l u m e , T e r m a n d e c i d e d t o measure, retrospectively,
the I Q o f history's p r i m e m o v e r s — i t s s t a t e s m e n , soldiers, a n d intellectuals. I f t h e y r a n k e d a t t h e t o p , t h e n I Q i s surely t h e single m e a sure
of ultimate worth.
But
h o w can
a
fossil
IQ be recovered
without conjuring up y o u n g Copernicus and asking him what the
white m a n was r i d i n g ?
U n d a u n t e d , T e r m a n a n d his c o l l e a g u e s
tried t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e I Q o f past n o t a b l e s , a n d p u b l i s h e d a thick
book (Cox,
1926) that m u s t r a n k as a p r i m a r y curiosity w i t h i n a
21
4
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
literature a l r e a d y s t u d d e d with a b s u r d i t y — t h o u g h J e n s e n ( 1 9 7 9 ,
p p . 1 1 3 a n d 3 5 5 ) a n d o t h e r s still take i t seriously.*
T e r m a n ( 1 9 1 7 ) had already published a preliminary study of
Francis G a l t o n a n d a w a r d e d a s t a g g e r i n g I Q o f 200 t o this p i o n e e r
o f m e n t a l testing. H e t h e r e f o r e e n c o u r a g e d his associates t o p r o c e e d with a l a r g e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . J. M . C a t t e l l h a d p u b l i s h e d a r a n k i n g o f the i ,000 p r i m e m o v e r s o f history b y m e a s u r i n g t h e l e n g t h s
o f their entries i n b i o g r a p h i c a l dictionaries.
Terman's
associate,
whittled
t h e list to
Catherine
M.
Cox,
282, a s s e m b l e d d e t a i l e d
b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t their early life, a n d p r o c e e d e d t o
e s t i m a t e t w o I Q v a l u e s for e a c h — o n e , called A i
I Q , for b i r t h t o
s e v e n t e e n years; t h e o t h e r , A 2 I Q , f o r a g e s s e v e n t e e n t o t w e n t y six.
C o x ran into p r o b l e m s r i g h t a t t h e start. S h e a s k e d f i v e p e o p l e ,
i n c l u d i n g T e r m a n , t o r e a d h e r dossiers a n d t o e s t i m a t e t h e t w o I Q
scores for e a c h p e r s o n . T h r e e o f t h e f i v e a g r e e d substantially i n
their m e a n v a l u e s , w i t h A i
I Q clustering around
135 and A 2 I Q
n e a r 1 4 5 . B u t t w o o f t h e raters d i f f e r e d m a r k e d l y , o n e a w a r d i n g
a n a v e r a g e I Q well a b o v e , t h e o t h e r well b e l o w , t h e c o m m o n f i g u r e .
C o x s i m p l y e l i m i n a t e d their scores, t h e r e b y t h r o w i n g o u t 4 0 p e r c e n t o f h e r d a t a . T h e i r low a n d h i g h scores w o u l d h a v e b a l a n c e d
e a c h o t h e r a t t h e m e a n i n a n y case, s h e a r g u e d ( 1 9 2 6 , p . 7 2 ) . Y e t i f
five people working in the same research g r o u p could not agree,
w h a t h o p e f o r u n i f o r m i t y o r c o n s i s t e n c y — n o t t o m e n t i o n objectivity—could be offered?
Apart
from
these
debilitating
practical
difficulties,
the
basic
l o g i c o f t h e s t u d y was h o p e l e s s l y f l a w e d f r o m t h e f i r s t . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n I Q that C o x r e c o r d e d a m o n g h e r subjects d o n o t m e a s u r e
t h e i r v a r y i n g a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s , not t o m e n t i o n their n a t i v e intellig e n c e . I n s t e a d , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s are a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l artifact o f the
v a r y i n g quality o f i n f o r m a t i o n that C o x was able t o c o m p i l e a b o u t
t h e c h i l d h o o d a n d early y o u t h o f h e r subjects. C o x b e g a n b y assigni n g a base I Q o f 100 t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l ; the raters t h e n a d d e d t o
(or, rarely, s u b t r a c t e d from) this v a l u e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d a t a p r o vided.
•Jensen writes: "The average estimated IQ of three hundred historical persons . . .
on whom sufficient childhood evidence was available for a reliable estimate was IQ
155. . . . Thus the majority of these eminent men would most likely have been recognized as intellectually gifted in childhood had they been given IQ tests" (Jensen,
!979. P- H 3 ) -
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
Cox's
dossiers
accomplishments,
T H E O R Y
are
motley
with
an
OF
lists
emphasis
I Q
of
2
childhood
on
and
examples
1
5
youthful
of precocity.
S i n c e h e r m e t h o d i n v o l v e d a d d i n g t o t h e base f i g u r e o f 100 f o r
e a c h n o t a b l e item i n t h e dossier, e s t i m a t e d I Q r e c o r d s little m o r e
t h a n t h e v o l u m e o f available i n f o r m a t i o n .
In general,
low I Q ' s
reflect a n a b s e n c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d h i g h I Q ' s a n e x t e n s i v e list.
( C o x even admits that she is not measuring true I Q , but only what
can
be
deduced
from
limited d a t a ,
though
this
d i s c l a i m e r was
i n v a r i a b l y lost i n translation t o p o p u l a r accounts.) T o b e l i e v e , e v e n
f o r a m o m e n t , t h a t such a p r o c e d u r e c a n r e c o v e r t h e p r o p e r o r d e r ing o f I Q a m o n g " m e n o f genius," o n e must assume that the childh o o d o f all subjects was w a t c h e d a n d r e c o r d e d with r o u g h l y e q u a l
a t t e n t i o n . O n e m u s t claim (as C o x d o e s ) that a n a b s e n c e o f d o c u m e n t e d c h i l d h o o d p r e c o c i t y indicates a h u m d r u m life n o t w o r t h
writing about, not an extraordinary giftedness that no o n e bothered to record.
T w o basic results o f C o x ' s s t u d y i m m e d i a t e l y a r o u s e o u r s t r o n g
s u s p i c i o n t h a t h e r I Q scores reflect the historical a c c i d e n t s o f surviving
records,
rather
than
the
true
accomplishments
of
her
g e n i u s e s . First, IQ is n o t s u p p o s e d to alter in a definite d i r e c t i o n
d u r i n g a p e r s o n ' s life. Y e t a v e r a g e A i I Q i s 1 3 5 i n h e r s t u d y , a n d
a v e r a g e A 2 I Q i s a substantially h i g h e r
h e r dossiers ( p r i n t e d in full in C o x ,
1 4 5 . W h e n w e scrutinize
1 9 2 6 ) , t h e r e a s o n is readily
a p p a r e n t , a n d a clear artifact o f h e r m e t h o d . S h e has m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n h e r subjects a s y o u n g a d u l t s t h a n a s c h i l d r e n ( A 2
IQ
records achievements d u r i n g ages seventeen t h r o u g h twenty-six;
A i I Q m a r k s t h e earlier years). S e c o n d , C o x p u b l i s h e d d i s t u r b i n g l y
low A 1 I Q f i g u r e s for s o m e f o r m i d a b l e c h a r a c t e r s , i n c l u d i n g C e r vantes a n d C o p e r n i c u s , b o t h a t 1 0 5 . H e r dossiers s h o w t h e r e a s o n :
little o r n o t h i n g i s k n o w n a b o u t their c h i l d h o o d , p r o v i d i n g n o d a t a
f o r a d d i t i o n t o t h e base f i g u r e o f 100. C o x e s t a b l i s h e d s e v e n levels
o f reliability
for h e r
figures.
T h e seventh, believe it or not, is
"guess, based on no data."
A s a f u r t h e r a n d o b v i o u s test, c o n s i d e r g e n i u s e s b o r n i n t o h u m ble c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w h e r e tutors a n d
encourage
and
then
to
record
scribes d i d n o t a b o u n d
daring
feats
to
of precocity. J o h n
S t u a r t Mill m a y h a v e l e a r n e d G r e e k i n his c r a d l e , b u t d i d F a r a d a y
o r B u n y a n e v e r g e t t h e c h a n c e ? P o o r c h i l d r e n a r e a t a d o u b l e disa d v a n t a g e ; n o t o n l y d i d n o o n e b o t h e r t o r e c o r d their early y e a r s ,
2/6
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
b u t t h e y a r e also d e m o t e d as a d i r e c t result of their p o v e r t y . F o r
C o x , using the favorite ploy of eugenicists, inferred innate parental
i n t e l l i g e n c e f r o m their o c c u p a t i o n s a n d social s t a n d i n g ! S h e r a n k e d
p a r e n t s on a scale of p r o f e s s i o n s f r o m 1 to 5, a w a r d i n g t h e i r child r e n a n I Q o f 100 f o r p a r e n t a l r a n k 3 , a n d a b o n u s (or deficit) o f
10 I Q p o i n t s for e a c h step a b o v e o r b e l o w . A child w h o d i d n o t h i n g
w o r t h n o t i n g f o r t h e f i r s t s e v e n t e e n years o f his life c o u l d still score
a n I Q o f 1 2 0 b y v i r t u e o f his p a r e n t ' s w e a l t h o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a n d ing.
C o n s i d e r t h e case o f p o o r M a s s e n a , N a p o l e o n ' s g r e a t g e n e r a l ,
w h o b o t t o m e d o u t a t 100 A i
IQ and about w h o m , as a child, we
k n o w n o t h i n g e x c e p t that h e s e r v e d a s a cabin b o y for t w o l o n g
v o y a g e s on his u n c l e ' s ship. C o x writes (p. 88):
N e p h e w s of battleship c o m m a n d e r s probably rate s o m e w h a t above 100
IQ; but cabin boys w h o remain cabin boys for two l o n g voyages a n d of
w h o m there is n o t h i n g m o r e to report until the age of 17 than their service
as cabin boys, may a v e r a g e below 100 IQ.
O t h e r a d m i r a b l e subjects with i m p o v e r i s h e d p a r e n t s a n d m e a g e r r e c o r d s s h o u l d h a v e s u f f e r e d t h e i g n o m i n y o f scores b e l o w
100. B u t C o x m a n a g e d t o f u d g e a n d t e m p o r i z e , p u s h i n g t h e m all
a b o v e t h e t r i p l e - d i g i t d i v i d e , i f o n l y slightly. C o n s i d e r t h e u n f o r tunate Saint-Cyr, saved only b y remote kin, a n d granted a n A i I Q
of
105:
" T h e f a t h e r was a t a n n e r after h a v i n g b e e n a b u t c h e r ,
w h i c h w o u l d g i v e his son a n o c c u p a t i o n a l I Q status o f 9 0 t o
100;
b u t t w o d i s t a n t relatives a c h i e v e d signal martial h o n o r s , t h u s indic a t i n g a h i g h e r strain i n t h e f a m i l y " ( p p . 9 0 - 9 1 ) . J o h n B u n y a n
f a c e d m o r e familial obstacles t h a n his f a m o u s P i l g r i m , b u t C o x
m a n a g e d to e x t r a c t a score of 105 for h i m :
Bunyan's father was a brazier or tinker, but a tinker of recognized
position in the village; a n d the m o t h e r was not of the squalid p o o r , but of
p e o p l e w h o were "decent and worthy in their ways." T h i s would be sufficient e v i d e n c e for a rating b e t w e e n 90 a n d 100. But the record g o e s further,
and
we
read
that
notwithstanding
their
"meanness
and
inconsiderableness," Bunyan's parents put their boy to school to learn
"both to read and write," which probably indicates that he s h o w e d something m o r e than the promise of a future tinker (p. 90).
Michael Faraday squeaked by at
1 0 5 , o v e r c o m i n g the d e m e r i t o f
p a r e n t a l s t a n d i n g with s n i p p e t s a b o u t his reliability as an e r r a n d
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
217
I Q
b o y a n d his q u e s t i o n i n g n a t u r e . H i s e l e v a t e d A 2 I Q o f 1 5 0 o n l y
r e c o r d s i n c r e a s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t his m o r e n o t a b l e y o u n g m a n hood.
In
o n e case,
however,
C o x couldn't bear to record
the
u n p l e a s a n t result that h e r m e t h o d s d i c t a t e d . S h a k e s p e a r e , o f h u m ble o r i g i n a n d u n k n o w n c h i l d h o o d , w o u l d h a v e s c o r e d b e l o w 100.
S o C o x s i m p l y left h i m o u t , e v e n t h o u g h s h e i n c l u d e d several o t h ers with e q u a l l y i n a d e q u a t e c h i l d h o o d r e c o r d s .
A m o n g o t h e r curiosities o f s c o r i n g that reflect C o x a n d T e r m a n ' s social p r e j u d i c e s , several p r e c o c i o u s y o u n g s t e r s ( C l i v e , L i e big,
and
Swift,
rebelliousness
in
in
particular)
school,
were
particularly
downgraded
for
their
for their u n w i l l i n g n e s s
to
s t u d y classics. An a n i m u s a g a i n s t t h e p e r f o r m i n g arts is e v i d e n t in
t h e r a t i n g o f c o m p o s e r s , w h o (as a g r o u p ) r a n k j u s t a b o v e soldiers
a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e f i n a l list. C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g u n d e r s t a t e m e n t a b o u t M o z a r t (p. 1 2 9 ) : " A c h i l d w h o learns t o p l a y t h e p i a n o
a t 3 , w h o receives a n d benefits b y m u s i c a l instruction a t that a g e ,
a n d w h o studies a n d e x e c u t e s t h e m o s t difficult c o u n t e r p o i n t a t a g e
14, i s p r o b a b l y a b o v e t h e a v e r a g e level o f his social g r o u p . "
I n t h e e n d , I s u s p e c t that C o x r e c o g n i z e d t h e s h a k y basis o f h e r
w o r k , b u t persisted b r a v e l y n o n e t h e l e s s . C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n r a n k
i n e m i n e n c e ( l e n g t h o f Cattell's entry) a n d a w a r d e d I Q w e r e disa p p o i n t i n g t o say t h e l e a s t — a m e r e 0.25 for e m i n e n c e vs. A 2 I Q ,
with n o f i g u r e r e c o r d e d a t all for e m i n e n c e vs. A i I Q (it i s a l o w e r
0.20 b y m y calculation). I n s t e a d , C o x m a k e s m u c h o f t h e fact that
h e r ten m o s t e m i n e n t subjects a v e r a g e 4 — y e s o n l y 4 — A 1 I Q p o i n t s
a b o v e h e r ten least e m i n e n t .
C o x calculated her strongest correlation
(0.77)
between A 2 I Q
a n d " i n d e x o f reliability," a m e a s u r e o f available i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
h e r subjects. I c a n i m a g i n e n o b e t t e r d e m o n s t r a t i o n that C o x ' s I Q ' s
are artifacts o f differential a m o u n t s o f d a t a , not m e a s u r e s o f i n n a t e
ability o r e v e n , f o r that m a t t e r , o f s i m p l e talent. C o x r e c o g n i z e d
this a n d , in a final effort, tried to " c o r r e c t " h e r scores for m i s s i n g
information
by
adjusting
poorly
documented
t o w a r d t h e g r o u p m e a n s o f 1 3 5 for A i
IQ and
subjects
upward
1 4 5 for A 2 I Q .
T h e s e a d j u s t m e n t s b o o s t e d a v e r a g e I Q ' s substantially, b u t led t o
o t h e r e m b a r r a s s m e n t s . F o r u n c o r r e c t e d scores, t h e m o s t e m i n e n t
fifty averaged
142 f o r A i I Q , while t h e least e m i n e n t f i f t y s c o r e d
comfortably lower at 133. With corrections, the first fifty scored
160, t h e last f i f t y , 1 6 5 . U l t i m a t e l y , o n l y G o e t h e a n d V o l t a i r e s c o r e d
2l8
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
near the top both in IQ and eminence. O n e m i g h t paraphrase V o l taire's f a m o u s q u i p a b o u t G o d
and conclude
that e v e n
though
a d e q u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e I Q o f history's e m i n e n t m e n d o e s not
exist, it was p r o b a b l y inevitable that t h e A m e r i c a n h e r e d i t a r i a n s
w o u l d try to i n v e n t it.
Terman
on
group
differences
T e r m a n ' s e m p i r i c a l w o r k m e a s u r e d w h a t statisticians call the
" w i t h i n - g r o u p v a r i a n c e " o f I Q — t h a t is, t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n scores
within single p o p u l a t i o n s (all c h i l d r e n in a s c h o o l , for e x a m p l e ) . At
best, he was able to s h o w that c h i l d r e n testing well or p o o r l y at a
y o u n g a g e g e n e r a l l y m a i n t a i n their o r d e r i n g with r e s p e c t t o o t h e r
c h i l d r e n a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n g r o w s u p . T e r m a n ascribed
most of
these d i f f e r e n c e s
without
to variation
in b i o l o g i c a l e n d o w m e n t ,
m u c h e v i d e n c e b e y o n d a n assertion that all r i g h t - m i n d e d p e o p l e
recognize
the domination of nurture by nature.
hereditarianism
might
offend
our
present
This brand
sensibilities
with
of
its
elitism a n d its a c c o m p a n y i n g p r o p o s a l s for institutional c a r e a n d
f o r c e d a b s t i n e n c e f r o m b r e e d i n g , b u t it d o e s n o t , by itself, entail
t h e m o r e c o n t e n t i o u s claim for i n n a t e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s .
T e r m a n m a d e this invalid e x t r a p o l a t i o n , a s virtually all h e r e d i tarians d i d a n d still d o . H e t h e n c o m p o u n d e d his e r r o r b y c o n f u s i n g the g e n e s i s o f t r u e p a t h o l o g i e s with causes
for v a r i a t i o n i n
n o r m a l b e h a v i o r . W e k n o w , f o r e x a m p l e , that t h e m e n t a l r e t a r d a tion associated with D o w n ' s s y n d r o m e has its o r i g i n in a specific
g e n e t i c d e f e c t (an e x t r a c h r o m o s o m e ) .
a t t r i b u t e t h e low
But we cannot therefore
I Q of many apparently normal children to an
i n n a t e b i o l o g y . We m i g h t as well claim that all o v e r w e i g h t p e o p l e
can't h e l p i t b e c a u s e s o m e v e r y o b e s e i n d i v i d u a l s can trace their
c o n d i t i o n t o h o r m o n a l i m b a l a n c e s . T e r m a n ' s d a t a o n t h e stability
o f o r d e r i n g i n I Q within g r o u p s o f g r o w i n g c h i l d r e n relied largely
u p o n t h e persistently low I Q o f biologically afflicted i n d i v i d u a l s ,
d e s p i t e T e r m a n ' s a t t e m p t t o b r i n g all scores u n d e r the u m b r e l l a o f
a n o r m a l c u r v e ( 1 9 1 6 , p p . 6 5 - 6 7 ) , a n d t h u s t o s u g g e s t that all variation has a c o m m o n r o o t in the possession of m o r e or less of a
single s u b s t a n c e . In short, it is invalid to e x t r a p o l a t e f r o m variation
within a g r o u p to d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s . It is d o u b l y invalid
to use t h e i n n a t e b i o l o g y of p a t h o l o g i c a l i n d i v i d u a l s as a basis for
a s c r i b i n g n o r m a l v a r i a t i o n within a g r o u p to i n b o r n causes.
A t least the I Q h e r e d i t a r i a n s d i d n o t follow their c r a n i o l o g i c a l
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
OF
2/9
I Q
f o r e b e a r s i n h a r s h j u d g m e n t s a b o u t w o m e n . Girls d i d n o t score
b e l o w boys i n I Q , a n d T e r m a n p r o c l a i m e d their l i m i t e d access t o
p r o f e s s i o n s b o t h unjust a n d wasteful o f intellectual talent ( 1 9 1 6 , p .
72;
1 9 1 9 , p . 288). H e n o t e d , a s s u m i n g that I Q s h o u l d e a r n its m o n -
etary r e w a r d , t h a t w o m e n s c o r i n g b e t w e e n
100 a n d
120 generally
e a r n e d , a s t e a c h e r s o r " h i g h - g r a d e s t e n o g r a p h e r s , " w h a t m e n with
an IQ of 85 received as motormen, firemen, or policemen ( 1 9 1 9 ,
p. 278).
B u t T e r m a n t o o k t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n line o n r a c e a n d class a n d
p r o c l a i m e d its v a l i d a t i o n as a p r i m a r y a i m of his w o r k . In e n d i n g
his c h a p t e r o n t h e uses o f I Q ( 1 9 1 6 , p p .
19-20), T e r m a n posed
three questions:
Is the place of the so-called lower classes in the social a n d industrial
scale the result of their inferior native e n d o w m e n t , or is their apparent
inferiority merely a result of their inferior h o m e and school training? Is
genius m o r e c o m m o n a m o n g children o f the educated classes than a m o n g
the children of the ignorant and poor? A r e t h e inferior races really inferior, or are they merely u n f o r t u n a t e in their lack of opportunity to learn?
D e s p i t e a p o o r c o r r e l a t i o n o f 0.4 b e t w e e n social status a n d I Q ,
Terman
(1917)
advanced
five
major
reasons
for
claiming
that
" e n v i r o n m e n t is m u c h less i m p o r t a n t t h a n is o r i g i n a l e n d o w m e n t
i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e traits i n q u e s t i o n " (p. 9 1 ) . T h e
f i r s t t h r e e , b a s e d o n a d d i t i o n a l c o r r e l a t i o n s , a d d n o e v i d e n c e for
i n n a t e causes. T e r m a n c a l c u l a t e d :
social
status
between
and
social
teachers'
status
and
1) a c o r r e l a t i o n of 0.55 b e t w e e n
assessments
school
work;
of i n t e l l i g e n c e ;
and
3)
a
2)
lower,
0.47
but
u n s t a t e d , * c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n " a g e - g r a d e p r o g r e s s " a n d social status. Since all five p r o p e r t i e s — I Q , social status, teacher's assessm e n t , school w o r k , a n d a g e - g r a d e p r o g r e s s — m a y b e r e d u n d a n t
measures of the same c o m p l e x and u n k n o w n causes, the correlation b e t w e e n a n y a d d i t i o n a l p a i r a d d s little to t h e basic result of 0.4
b e t w e e n I Q a n d social status. I f t h e 0.4 c o r r e l a t i o n offers n o evid e n c e for i n n a t e causes, t h e n the a d d i t i o n a l correlations d o n o t
either.
T h e fourth argument, recognized as weak by T e r m a n himself
*It is annoyingly characteristic of Terman's work that he cites correlations when
fhey are high and favorable, but does not give the actual figures when they are low
but still favorable to his hypothesis. This ploy abounds in Cox's study of posthumous
genius and in Terman's analysis of IQ among professions, both discussed previ-
220
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
( 1 9 1 6 , p . 98), c o n f u s e s p r o b a b l e p a t h o l o g y with n o r m a l variation
a n d is t h e r e f o r e i r r e l e v a n t , as d i s c u s s e d a b o v e : f e e b l e - m i n d e d child r e n are occasionally b o r n to rich or to intellectually successful parents.
T h e f i f t h a r g u m e n t reveals t h e s t r e n g t h o f T e r m a n ' s h e r e d i t a r ian c o n v i c t i o n s a n d his r e m a r k a b l e insensitivity to the influence of
environment. T e r m a n measured the I Q of twenty children in a
C a l i f o r n i a o r p h a n a g e . O n l y t h r e e w e r e "fully n o r m a l , " while seve n t e e n r a n g e d f r o m 7 5 t o 9 5 . T h e low scores c a n n o t b e attributed
t o life w i t h o u t p a r e n t s , T e r m a n a r g u e s , b e c a u s e (p. 99):
T h e o r p h a n a g e in question is a reasonably good o n e and affords an
environment which is about as stimulating to normal mental development
as average h o m e life a m o n g the middle classes. T h e children live in the
orphanage and attend an excellent public school in a California village.
L o w scores m u s t reflect the b i o l o g y o f c h i l d r e n c o m m i t t e d t o such
institutions:
S o m e of the tests which have been made in such institutions indicate
that mental subnormality of both high and moderate grades is extremely
frequent a m o n g children who are placed in these h o m e s . Most, though
admittedly not all of these, are children of inferior social classes (p. 99).
T e r m a n offers n o direct e v i d e n c e a b o u t t h e lives o f his t w e n t y child r e n b e y o n d the fact o f their institutional p l a c e m e n t . H e i s n o t
e v e n certain that t h e y all c a m e f r o m " i n f e r i o r social classes." S u r e l y ,
the m o s t p a r s i m o n i o u s a s s u m p t i o n w o u l d relate low I Q scores t o
the o n e i n c o n t e s t a b l e a n d c o m m o n fact a b o u t t h e c h i l d r e n — t h e i r
life in t h e o r p h a n a g e itself.
Terman
moved
easily f r o m
individuals,
t o social classes,
to
races. D i s t r e s s e d b y t h e f r e q u e n c y o f I Q scores b e t w e e n 7 0 a n d 80,
he lamented (1916, pp. 91-92):
A m o n g laboring men and servant girls there are thousands like them.
. . . T h e tests have told the truth. T h e s e boys are ineducable beyond the
merest rudiments of training. No amount of school instruction will ever
make them intelligent voters or capable citizens. . . . T h e y represent the
level of intelligence which is very, very c o m m o n a m o n g Spanish-Indian
and Mexican families of the Southwest and also a m o n g negroes. Their
dullness seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stocks from
which they came. T h e fact that o n e meets this type with such extraordinary
frequency a m o n g Indians, Mexicans, and negroes suggests quite forcibly
E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
OF
IQ
221
that the whole question of racial differences in mental traits will have to be
taken up anew and by experimental m e t h o d s . T h e writer predicts that
when this is d o n e there will be discovered enormously significant racial
differences in general intelligence, differences which cannot be wiped out
by any scheme of mental culture. Children of this g r o u p should be segregated in special classes and be given instruction which is concrete and practical. T h e y cannot master abstractions, but they can often be macfe efficient
workers, able to look out for themselves. T h e r e is no possibility at present
of convincing society that they should not be allowed to reproduce,
although from a eugenic point of view they constitute a grave problem
because of their unusually prolific breeding.
T e r m a n s e n s e d t h a t his a r g u m e n t s for i n n a t e n e s s w e r e w e a k .
Yet w h a t d i d i t m a t t e r ? D o w e n e e d t o p r o v e w h a t c o m m o n sense
proclaims so clearly?
After all, does not c o m m o n observation teach us that, in the main, native
qualities of intellect and character, rather than chance, d e t e r m i n e the
social class to which a family belongs? From what is already known about
heredity, should we not naturally expect to find the children of well-to-do,
cultured, and successful parents better e n d o w e d than the children w h o
have been reared in slums and poverty? An affirmative answer to the
above question is suggested by nearly all the available scientific evidence
(1917, p. 99).
W h o s e c o m m o n sense?
Terman
recants
T e r m a n ' s b o o k o n the S t a n f o r d - B i n e t revision o f 1 9 3 7 was s o
different from the original v o l u m e of 1 9 1 6 that c o m m o n authorship s e e m s a t f i r s t i m p r o b a b l e . B u t t h e n times h a d c h a n g e d a n d
intellectual f a s h i o n s o f j i n g o i s m a n d e u g e n i c s h a d b e e n s w a m p e d
in the morass of a Great Depression. In
1 9 1 6 T e r m a n had fixed
adult mental a g e at sixteen because he couldn't get a r a n d o m sample o f o l d e r s c h o o l b o y s for testing. I n
1 9 3 7 h e c o u l d e x t e n d his
scale to a g e e i g h t e e n ; for " t h e task was facilitated by t h e e x t r e m e l y
u n f a v o r a b l e e m p l o y m e n t situation a t t h e t i m e t h e tests w e r e m a d e ,
which o p e r a t e d to reduce considerably the school elimination norm a l l y o c c u r r i n g after f o u r t e e n " ( 1 9 3 7 , p . 30).
T e r m a n d i d n o t e x p l i c i t y abjure his p r e v i o u s c o n c l u s i o n s , b u t a
veil o f silence d e s c e n d e d u p o n t h e m . N o t a w o r d b e y o n d a few
statements of caution do we hear a b o u t heredity. All potential rea-
222
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
sons for d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n g r o u p s a r e f r a m e d i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l
t e r m s . T e r m a n p r e s e n t s his o l d c u r v e s f o r a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n
I Q b e t w e e n social classes, b u t h e w a r n s u s t h a t m e a n d i f f e r e n c e s
a r e too small t o p r o v i d e a n y p r e d i c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n for i n d i v i d u a l s .
W e also d o n o t
know how
to
partition
the average differences
b e t w e e n g e n e t i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l influences:
It is hardly necessary to stress the fact that these figures refer to mean
values only, and that in view of the variability of the IQ within each group
the respective distributions greatly overlap o n e another. N o r should it be
necessary to point out that such data do not, in themselves, offer any conclusive evidence of the relative contributions of genetic and environmental
factors in determining the mean differences observed.
A f e w p a g e s later, T e r m a n discusses the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
rural a n d u r b a n c h i l d r e n , n o t i n g t h e l o w e r c o u n t r y scores a n d t h e
curious finding
t h a t rural
I Q d r o p s w i t h a g e after e n t r a n c e t o
school, w h i l e I Q f o r u r b a n c h i l d r e n o f semiskilled a n d u n s k i l l e d
w o r k e r s rises. H e e x p r e s s e s n o f i r m o p i n i o n , b u t n o t e t h a t t h e o n l y
h y p o t h e s e s h e wishes t o test a r e n o w e n v i r o n m e n t a l :
It would require extensive research, carefully planned for the purpose,
to determine whether the lowered IQ of rural children can be ascribed to
the relatively poorer educational facilities in rural communities, and
whether the gain for children from the lower economic strata can be
attributed to an assumed enrichment of intellectual environment that
school attendance bestows.
Autres temps, autres moeurs.
R. M. Yerkes and the Army Mental Tests:
IQ comes of age
Psychology's
great
leap forward
R o b e r t M . Y e r k e s , a b o u t t o t u r n forty, was a f r u s t r a t e d m a n i n
1915.
H e h a d b e e n o n t h e faculty o f H a r v a r d
U n i v e r s i t y since
1 9 0 2 . H e was a s u p e r b o r g a n i z e r , a n d a n e l o q u e n t p r o m o t o r o f
his p r o f e s s i o n . Y e t p s y c h o l o g y still w a l l o w e d in its r e p u t a t i o n as
a "soft" science, if a science at all. S o m e c o l l e g e s d i d n o t acknowle d g e its e x i s t e n c e ; o t h e r s r a n k e d i t a m o n g t h e h u m a n i t i e s and
p l a c e d p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n d e p a r t m e n t s o f p h i l o s o p h y . Y e r k e s wished,
a b o v e all, to establish his p r o f e s s i o n by p r o v i n g that it c o u l d be as
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r i g o r o u s a science as physics. Y e r k e s a n d m o s t of his c o n t e m p o r aries e q u a t e d r i g o r a n d science with n u m b e r s a n d quantification.
The
most
promising source
of copious
and
objective
numbers,
Y e r k e s b e l i e v e d , lay i n t h e e m b r y o n i c f i e l d o f m e n t a l testing. Psyc h o l o g y w o u l d c o m e o f a g e , a n d g a i n a c c e p t a n c e a s a t r u e science
w o r t h y o f f i n a n c i a l a n d institutional s u p p o r t , i f i t c o u l d b r i n g t h e
q u e s t i o n o f h u m a n p o t e n t i a l u n d e r t h e u m b r e l l a o f science:
Most of us are wholly convinced that the future of m a n k i n d d e p e n d s
in no small measure u p o n the d e v e l o p m e n t of the various biological and
social sciences. . . . We must . . . strive increasingly for the i m p r o v e m e n t
of our m e t h o d s of mental m e a s u r e m e n t , for there is no l o n g e r g r o u n d for
doubt c o n c e r n i n g the practical as well as the theoretical importance of
studies of h u m a n behavior. We must learn to m e a s u r e skillfully every form
and aspect of behavior which has psychological and sociological significance (Yerkes, 1917a, p. 1 1 1 ) .
B u t m e n t a l t e s t i n g s u f f e r e d f r o m i n a d e q u a t e s u p p o r t a n d its
o w n i n t e r n a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . I t was, f i r s t o f all, p r a c t i c e d e x t e n s i v e l y
b y p o o r l y t r a i n e d a m a t e u r s w h o s e m a n i f e s t l y a b s u r d results w e r e
g i v i n g the e n t e r p r i s e a b a d n a m e . I n 1 9 1 5 , a t the a n n u a l m e e t i n g
of t h e A m e r i c a n
Psychological
Association
in
Chicago,
a
critic
r e p o r t e d that t h e m a y o r o f C h i c a g o h i m s e l f h a d tested a s a m o r o n
o n o n e v e r s i o n o f t h e B i n e t scales. Y e r k e s j o i n e d with critics i n
discussions a t t h e m e e t i n g a n d p r o c l a i m e d : " W e a r e b u i l d i n g u p a
science, b u t w e h a v e n o t yet d e v i s e d a m e c h a n i s m w h i c h a n y o n e
can o p e r a t e " ( q u o t e d i n C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 , p . 242).
S e c o n d , a v a i l a b l e scales g a v e m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t results e v e n
w h e n p r o p e r l y a p p l i e d . A s discussed o n p . 1 6 6 , h a l f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s
w h o tested i n t h e low, b u t n o r m a l r a n g e o n t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t ,
were m o r o n s o n G o d d a r d ' s v e r s i o n o f t h e B i n e t scale. Finally, s u p port h a d b e e n t o o i n a d e q u a t e , a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n t o o s p o r a d i c , t o
build u p a p o o l o f d a t a sufficiently c o p i o u s a n d u n i f o r m t o c o m p e l
belief ( Y e r k e s , 1 9 1 7 b ) .
Wars
always
generate
their
retinue
of c a m p
followers
with
ulterior m o t i v e s . M a n y a r e s i m p l y s c o u n d r e l s a n d profiteers, b u t a
few are s p u r r e d b y h i g h e r ideals. A s m o b i l i z a t i o n f o r W o r l d W a r I
a p p r o a c h e d , Y e r k e s g o t o n e o f t h o s e " b i g i d e a s " that p r o p e l t h e
history o f science: c o u l d p s y c h o l o g i s t s possibly p e r s u a d e t h e a r m y
to test all its recruits? If so, t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s stone of p s y c h o l o g y
m i
g h t b e constructed: the copious, useful, a n d u n i f o r m body o f
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n u m b e r s that w o u l d fuel a transition f r o m d u b i o u s art to r e s p e c t e d
science. Y e r k e s p r o s e l y t i z e d within his p r o f e s s i o n a n d w i t h i n g o v e r n m e n t circles, a n d h e w o n his p o i n t . A s C o l o n e l Y e r k e s , h e p r e sided
over
the
administration
of
mental
tests
to
1.75
million
recruits d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I . A f t e r w a r d , h e p r o c l a i m e d t h a t m e n tal testing " h e l p e d t o w i n the w a r . " " A t t h e s a m e t i m e , " h e a d d e d ,
"it has i n c i d e n t a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d itself a m o n g the o t h e r sciences a n d
d e m o n s t r a t e d its r i g h t t o serious c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n h u m a n e n g i n e e r ing" (quoted in Kevles, 1968, p. 581).
Y e r k e s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r all the m a j o r h e r e d i t a r i a n s o f A m e r i c a n p s y c h o m e t r i c s t o write t h e a r m y m e n t a l tests. F r o m M a y t o J u l y
1 9 1 7 h e w o r k e d with T e r m a n , G o d d a r d , a n d o t h e r c o l l e a g u e s a t
G o d d a r d ' s T r a i n i n g School in Vineland, N e w Jersey.
T h e i r s c h e m e i n c l u d e d t h r e e t y p e s o f tests.
L i t e r a t e recruits
w o u l d b e g i v e n a w r i t t e n e x a m i n a t i o n , called t h e A r m y A l p h a . Illiterates a n d m e n w h o h a d failed A l p h a w o u l d b e g i v e n a pictorial
test, called the A r m y B e t a . Failures i n B e t a w o u l d b e r e c a l l e d f o r
a n i n d i v i d u a l e x a m i n a t i o n , usually s o m e v e r s i o n o f t h e B i n e t scales.
A r m y p s y c h o l o g i s t s w o u l d t h e n g r a d e e a c h m a n f r o m A t o E (with
plusses
a n d minuses)
placement.
Yerkes
and offer suggestions
suggested
that
recruits
for p r o p e r military
with
a
score
of C—
s h o u l d b e m a r k e d a s "low a v e r a g e i n t e l l i g e n c e — o r d i n a r y p r i v a t e . "
M e n o f g r a d e D a r e " r a r e l y suited for tasks r e q u i r i n g special skill,
f o r e t h o u g h t , r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s or s u s t a i n e d a l e r t n e s s . " D a n d E m e n
c o u l d n o t b e e x p e c t e d "to r e a d a n d u n d e r s t a n d written d i r e c t i o n s . "
I d o n o t t h i n k that t h e a r m y e v e r m a d e m u c h u s e o f t h e tests.
O n e can well i m a g i n e h o w p r o f e s s i o n a l officers felt a b o u t s m a r t assed y o u n g p s y c h o l o g i s t s w h o a r r i v e d w i t h o u t i n v i t a t i o n , o f t e n
a s s u m e d a n officer's r a n k w i t h o u t u n d e r g o i n g basic t r a i n i n g , c o m m a n d e e r e d a b u i l d i n g to g i v e t h e tests (if t h e y c o u l d ) , saw e a c h
r e c r u i t for a n h o u r i n a l a r g e g r o u p , a n d t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o u s u r p
a n officer's t r a d i t i o n a l role i n j u d g i n g t h e w o r t h i n e s s o f m e n for
v a r i o u s military tasks. Y e r k e s ' s c o r p s e n c o u n t e r e d hosdlity i n s o m e
c a m p s ; i n o t h e r s , t h e y s u f f e r e d a p e n a l t y i n m a n y ways m o r e p a i n ful:
they
were
treated
politely, g i v e n
a p p r o p r i a t e facilities, a n d
t h e n i g n o r e d . * S o m e a r m y officials b e c a m e suspicious o f Y e r k e s ' s
•Yerkes continued to complain throughout his career that military psychology had
not achieved its due respect, despite its accomplishments in World War I. During
World War II the aging Yerkes was still grousing and arguing that the Nazis were
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intent and l a u n c h e d three i n d e p e n d e n t investigations of the testing
p r o g r a m . O n e c o n c l u d e d that i t s h o u l d b e c o n t r o l l e d s o t h a t " n o
theorist m a y .
.
. r i d e it as a h o b b y for t h e p u r p o s e of o b t a i n i n g
d a t a for r e s e a r c h w o r k a n d t h e f u t u r e benefit o f t h e h u m a n r a c e "
(quoted in Kevles, 1968, p. 577).
Still, t h e tests d i d h a v e a s t r o n g i m p a c t in s o m e areas, p a r t i c u larly i n s c r e e n i n g m e n for officer t r a i n i n g . A t t h e start o f t h e w a r ,
t h e a r m y a n d n a t i o n a l g u a r d m a i n t a i n e d n i n e t h o u s a n d officers.
B y t h e e n d , t w o h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d officers p r e s i d e d , a n d t w o thirds o f t h e m h a d started their c a r e e r s i n t r a i n i n g c a m p s w h e r e
t h e tests w e r e a p p l i e d . I n s o m e c a m p s , n o m a n s c o r i n g b e l o w C
c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d for officer t r a i n i n g .
B u t t h e m a j o r i m p a c t o f Y e r k e s ' s tests d i d n o t fall u p o n t h e
a r m y . Y e r k e s m a y n o t h a v e b r o u g h t t h e a r m y its victory, b u t h e
certainly w o n his battle. H e n o w h a d u n i f o r m d a t a o n 1.75 million
m e n , and he h a d devised, in the A l p h a and Beta exams, the first
m a s s - p r o d u c e d w r i t t e n tests o f i n t e l l i g e n c e .
Inquiries flooded in
f r o m schools a n d businesses. I n his massive m o n o g r a p h ( Y e r k e s ,
1921)
on Psychological Examining in the
United States Army,
Yerkes
b u r i e d a s t a t e m e n t o f g r e a t social significance i n a n aside o n p a g e
96. H e s p o k e o f " t h e s t e a d y s t r e a m o f requests f r o m c o m m e r c i a l
c o n c e r n s , e d u c a t i o n a l institutions, a n d i n d i v i d u a l s f o r t h e u s e o f
a r m y m e t h o d s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x a m i n i n g o r for t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f
such m e t h o d s t o special n e e d s . " Binet's p u r p o s e c o u l d n o w b e circ u m v e n t e d b e c a u s e a t e c h n o l o g y h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d for testing
all p u p i l s . T e s t s c o u l d n o w r a n k a n d s t r e a m e v e r y b o d y ; t h e e r a o f
mass testing h a d b e g u n .
Results
of the army
tests
T h e p r i m a r y i m p a c t o f t h e tests a r o s e n o t f r o m t h e a r m y ' s lackadaisical u s e o f scores f o r i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t f r o m g e n e r a l p r o p a g a n d a that a c c o m p a n i e d Y e r k e s ' s r e p o r t o f t h e s u m m a r y statistics
( Y e r k e s , 1 9 2 1 , p p . 5 5 3 - 8 7 5 ) . E . G . B o r i n g , later a f a m o u s p s y c h o l upstaging America in their proper use and encouragement of mental testing for
military personnel. "Germany has a long lead in the development of military psychology. . . . The Nazis have achieved something that is entirely without parallel in
military history. . . . What has happened in Germany is the logical sequel to the
psychological and personnel services in our own Army during 1917-1918" (Yerkes,
• 9 4 . p- 209).
1
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o g i s t h i m s e l f b u t t h e n Y e r k e s ' s l i e u t e n a n t (and t h e a r m y ' s c a p t a i n ) ,
s e l e c t e d o n e h u n d r e d sixty t h o u s a n d cases f r o m t h e f i l e s a n d p r o d u c e d d a t a that r e v e r b e r a t e d t h r o u g h t h e 1920s with a h a r d h e r e d i t a r i a n r i n g . T h e task was a f o r m i d a b l e o n e . T h e s a m p l e , w h i c h
B o r i n g c u l l e d h i m s e l f with t h e aid o f o n l y o n e assistant, was v e r y
large;
m o r e o v e r , t h e scales o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t tests ( A l p h a , B e t a ,
a n d i n d i v i d u a l ) h a d t o b e c o n v e r t e d t o a c o m m o n s t a n d a r d s o that
racial a n d n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e s c o u l d b e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m s a m p l e s o f
m e n w h o h a d t a k e n t h e tests i n d i f f e r e n t p r o p o r t i o n s (few blacks
t o o k A l p h a , for e x a m p l e ) .
F r o m B o r i n g ' s o c e a n o f n u m b e r s , t h r e e "facts" rose t o t h e t o p
a n d c o n t i n u e d t o i n f l u e n c e social policy i n A m e r i c a l o n g after their
s o u r c e i n t h e tests h a d b e e n f o r g o t t e n .
1. T h e a v e r a g e m e n t a l a g e o f w h i t e A m e r i c a n adults stood j u s t
above the e d g e of moronity at a shocking and m e a g e r thirteen.
T e r m a n h a d p r e v i o u s l y set t h e s t a n d a r d a t sixteen. T h e n e w f i g u r e
b e c a m e a r a l l y i n g p o i n t f o r eugenicists w h o p r e d i c t e d d o o m a n d
lamented our declining intelligence, caused by the unconstrained
breeding
o f the
poor and
feeble-minded,
the spread
of Negro
b l o o d t h r o u g h m i s c e g e n a t i o n , a n d t h e s w a m p i n g o f a n intelligent
native
stock b y t h e i m m i g r a t i n g d r e g s
o f s o u t h e r n a n d eastern
E u r o p e . Y e r k e s * wrote:
It is customary to say that the mental age of the average adult is about
16 years. T h i s figure is based, h o w e v e r , u p o n examinations of only 62
persons; 32 of t h e m high-school pupils f r o m 16-20 years of age, a n d 30
of them "business m e n of m o d e r a t e success a n d of very limited educational
advantages." T h e g r o u p is too small to give very reliable results and is
f u r t h e r m o r e probably not typical. . . . It appears that the intelligence of
the principal sample of the white draft, w h e n transmuted from Alpha and
Beta e x a m s into terms of mental age, is about 13 years (13.08) (1921, p.
785)Y e t , e v e n a s h e w r o t e , Y e r k e s b e g a n t o sense t h e logical a b s u r d i t y
of such a s t a t e m e n t . An a v e r a g e is w h a t it is; it c a n n o t lie t h r e e
years b e l o w w h a t i t s h o u l d b e . S o Y e r k e s t h o u g h t a g a i n a n d a d d e d :
We can hardly say, h o w e v e r , with assurance that these recruits are
three years mental a g e below the average. I n d e e d , it might be a r g u e d on
*I doubt that Yerkes wrote all parts of the massive 1921 monograph himself. But
he is listed as the only author of this official report, and I shall continue to attribute
its statements to him, both as shorthand and for want of other information.
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extrinsic g r o u n d s that the draft itself is m o r e representative of the average
intelligence of the country than is a g r o u p of high-school students a n d
business m e n ( 1 9 2 1 , p. 785).
I f 13.08 i s t h e w h i t e a v e r a g e , a n d e v e r y o n e f r o m m e n t a l a g e 8
t h r o u g h 12 is a m o r o n , t h e n we a r e a n a t i o n of n e a r l y h a l f - m o r o n s .
Y e r k e s c o n c l u d e d ( 1 9 2 1 , p . 7 9 1 ) : "It w o u l d b e totally i m p o s s i b l e t o
e x c l u d e all m o r o n s as that t e r m is at p r e s e n t d e f i n e d , for t h e r e a r e
u n d e r 13 years 37 percent of whites and 89 percent of negroes."
2. E u r o p e a n i m m i g r a n t s c a n b e g r a d e d b y their c o u n t r y o f origin. T h e a v e r a g e m a n of m a n y nations is a m o r o n . T h e darker
p e o p l e s o f s o u t h e r n E u r o p e a n d t h e Slavs o f e a s t e r n E u r o p e are
less
intelligent
than
the
fair
peoples
of western
and
northern
E u r o p e . N o r d i c supremacy is not a jingoistic prejudice. T h e avera g e Russian has a mental a g e of 1 1 . 3 4 ; the Italian, 1 1 . 0 1 ; the Pole,
1 0 . 7 4 . T h e Polish j o k e a t t a i n e d t h e s a m e l e g i t i m a c y a s the m o r o n
j o k e — i n d e e d , they described the same animal.
3 . T h e N e g r o lies a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e scale with a n a v e r a g e
m e n t a l a g e o f 1 0 . 4 1 . S o m e c a m p s tried t o carry t h e analysis a bit
f u r t h e r , a n d i n o b v i o u s racist d i r e c t i o n s . A t C a m p L e e , blacks w e r e
d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s b a s e d u p o n intensity o f color; t h e l i g h t e r
g r o u p s s c o r e d h i g h e r (p. 5 3 1 ) . Y e r k e s r e p o r t e d that t h e o p i n i o n s
o f officers m a t c h e d his n u m b e r s (p. 7 4 2 ) ;
All officers without e x c e p t i o n a g r e e that the n e g r o lacks initiative, displays little or no leadership, and c a n n o t accept responsibility. S o m e point
out that these defects are greater in the s o u t h e r n n e g r o . All officers s e e m
further to a g r e e that the n e g r o is a cheerful, willing soldier, naturally subservient. T h e s e qualities make for i m m e d i a t e o b e d i e n c e , although n o t necessarily for g o o d discipline, since petty thieving and venereal disease are
c o m m o n e r than with white troops.
A l o n g t h e way, Y e r k e s a n d c o m p a n y tested several o t h e r social
prejudices. S o m e f a r e d p o o r l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p o p u l a r e u g e n i c a l
notion t h a t m o s t o f f e n d e r s are f e e b l e - m i n d e d . A m o n g c o n s c i e n tious objectors for p o l i d c a l r e a s o n s , 59 p e r c e n t r e c e i v e d a g r a d e of
A . E v e n o u t r i g h t disloyals s c o r e d a b o v e t h e a v e r a g e (p. 803). B u t
o t h e r results b u o y e d
their p r e j u d i c e s .
As camp
followers t h e m -
selves, Y e r k e s ' s c o r p s d e c i d e d to test a m o r e traditional c a t e g o r y of
colleagues:
t h e local prostitutes. T h e y f o u n d t h a t 5 3 p e r c e n t (44
p e r c e n t o f whites a n d 6 8 p e r c e n t o f blacks) r a n k e d a t a g e t e n o r
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b e l o w o n t h e G o d d a r d version o f t h e B i n e t scales. ( T h e y a c k n o w l e d g e that t h e G o d d a r d scales r a n k e d p e o p l e well b e l o w their scores
o n o t h e r v e r s i o n s o f t h e B i n e t tests.) Y e r k e s c o n c l u d e d (p. 8 0 8 ) :
T h e results of A r m y e x a m i n i n g of prostitutes corroborate the conclusion, attained by civilian examinations of prostitutes in various parts of the
country, that from 30 to 60 percent of prostitutes are deficient and are for
the most part h i g h - g r a d e m o r o n s ; and that 15 to 25 percent of all prostitutes are so low-grade mentally that it is wise (as well as possible u n d e r the
existing laws in most states) permanently to segregate t h e m in institutions
for the f e e b l e - m i n d e d .
O n e m u s t b e t h a n k f u l for small bits o f h u m o r t o l i g h t e n t h e r e a d i n g o f a n e i g h t - h u n d r e d - p a g e statistical m o n o g r a p h . T h e t h o u g h t
o f a r m y p e r s o n n e l r o u n d i n g u p t h e local prostitutes a n d sitting
t h e m d o w n t o take the B i n e t tests a m u s e d m e n o e n d , a n d m u s t
h a v e b e m u s e d t h e ladies e v e n m o r e .
A s p u r e n u m b e r s , t h e s e d a t a carried n o i n h e r e n t social m e s s a g e . T h e y m i g h t h a v e b e e n u s e d t o p r o m o t e equality o f o p p o r t u nity a n d t o u n d e r s c o r e t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s i m p o s e d u p o n s o m a n y
A m e r i c a n s . Y e r k e s m i g h t h a v e a r g u e d that a n a v e r a g e m e n t a l a g e
of thirteen reflected t h e fact that relatively few recruits h a d the
opportunity to finish or e v e n to attend high school. He m i g h t have
a t t r i b u t e d t h e low a v e r a g e o f s o m e n a t i o n a l g r o u p s t o t h e fact that
m o s t recruits f r o m t h e s e c o u n t r i e s w e r e r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s w h o d i d
n o t s p e a k E n g l i s h a n d w e r e u n f a m i l i a r with A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e . H e
m i g h t h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e link b e t w e e n low N e g r o scores a n d the
history o f slavery a n d racism.
B u t scarcely a w o r d d o w e r e a d t h r o u g h e i g h t h u n d r e d p a g e s
o f a n y role for e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e . T h e tests h a d b e e n written
b y a c o m m i t t e e t h a t i n c l u d e d all t h e l e a d i n g A m e r i c a n h e r e d i t a r ians discussed i n this c h a p t e r . T h e y h a d b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d t o m e a sure
innate
intelligence,
and
they
did
so
by
definition.
The
circularity o f a r g u m e n t c o u l d n o t b e b r o k e n . A l l t h e m a j o r f i n d i n g s
received
hereditarian interpretations, often
by
n e a r miracles o f
special p l e a d i n g to a r g u e past a p a t e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e . A
circular issued
Greenleaf
f r o m t h e S c h o o l o f Military P s y c h o l o g y a t C a m p
proclaimed
(do
pardon
its
questionable
grammar):
" T h e s e tests d o n o t m e a s u r e o c c u p a t i o n a l f i t n e s s n o r e d u c a t i o n a l
a t t a i n m e n t ; t h e y m e a s u r e intellectual ability. T h i s latter has b e e n
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
T H E O R Y
O F
229
I Q
s h o w n t o b e i m p o r t a n t i n e s t i m a t i n g military v a l u e " (p. 4 2 4 ) . A n d
t h e boss h i m s e l f a r g u e d ( Y e r k e s , q u o t e d i n C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 , p . 249):
Examinations A l p h a a n d Beta are so constructed and administered as
to minimize the h a n d i c a p of m e n w h o because of foreign birth or lack of
education are little skilled in the use of English. T h e s e g r o u p examinations
were originally i n t e n d e d , and are n o w definitely k n o w n , to m e a s u r e native
intellectual ability. T h e y are to s o m e extent influenced by-educational
acquirement, but in the main the soldier's inborn intelligence and not t h e
accidents of e n v i r o n m e n t d e t e r m i n e s his mental rating or grade in the
army.
A
critique
of the Army
Mental
Tests
THE CONTENT OF THE TESTS
T h e A l p h a test i n c l u d e d e i g h t p a r t s , t h e B e t a s e v e n ; e a c h t o o k
less t h a n a n h o u r a n d c o u l d b e g i v e n t o l a r g e g r o u p s . M o s t o f t h e
A l p h a parts p r e s e n t e d items that h a v e b e c o m e familiar t o g e n e r a tions o f test-takers e v e r since: a n a l o g i e s , f i l l i n g i n t h e n e x t n u m b e r
in a s e q u e n c e , u n s c r a m b l i n g s e n t e n c e s , a n d so f o r t h . T h i s similarity
i s n o a c c i d e n t ; t h e A r m y A l p h a was t h e g r a n d d a d d y , literally a s
well a s f i g u r a t i v e l y , o f all w r i t t e n m e n t a l tests. O n e o f Y e r k e s ' s d i s ciples,
C.
C.
Brigham,
later
became
secretary
of
the
College
E n t r a n c e E x a m i n a t i o n B o a r d a n d d e v e l o p e d t h e Scholastic A p t i t u d e T e s t o n a r m y m o d e l s . I f p e o p l e g e t a p e c u l i a r f e e l i n g o f dejavu in p e r u s i n g Yerkes's m o n o g r a p h , I suggest that they think back
to their o w n C o l l e g e B o a r d s , with all its a t t e n d a n t a n x i e t y .
T h e s e familiar parts a r e n o t especially subject t o c h a r g e s o f cultural bias, a t least n o m o r e s o t h a n their m o d e r n d e s c e n d a n t s . I n a
g e n e r a l w a y , o f c o u r s e , t h e y test literacy, a n d literacy r e c o r d s e d u cation m o r e t h a n i n h e r i t e d i n t e l l i g e n c e . M o r e o v e r , a s c h o o l m a s ter's
claim
that
he
tests
children
of the
same
age
and
school
experience, a n d therefore m a y be r e c o r d i n g s o m e internal biology,
didn't a p p l y t o t h e a r m y r e c r u i t s — f o r t h e y v a r i e d g r e a t l y i n access
t o e d u c a t i o n a n d r e c o r d e d d i f f e r e n t a m o u n t s o f s c h o o l i n g i n their
scores. A few of t h e items a r e a m u s i n g in t h e light of Y e r k e s ' s assertion that t h e tests " m e a s u r e n a t i v e intellectual ability." C o n s i d e r t h e
A l p h a a n a l o g y : " W a s h i n g t o n is to A d a m s as first is to. . . ."
B u t o n e p a r t of e a c h test is s i m p l y l u d i c r o u s in t h e l i g h t of
Yerkes's analysis. H o w c o u l d Y e r k e s a n d c o m p a n y a t t r i b u t e t h e low
2
3
T H E
0
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
scores o f r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s t o i n n a t e s t u p i d i t y w h e n their m u l u p l e - c h o i c e test c o n s i s t e d entirely o f q u e s t i o n s like:
Crisco is a: patent m e d i c i n e , disinfectant, toothpaste, food product
T h e n u m b e r of a Kaffir's legs is: 2, 4, 6, 8
Christy Mathewson is famous as a: writer, artist, baseball player, c o m e dian
I g o t t h e last o n e , b u t m y i n t e l l i g e n t b r o t h e r , w h o , t o m y distress,
g r e w u p i n N e w Y o r k utterly oblivious t o t h e h e r o i c s o f t h r e e g r e a t
baseball t e a m s t h e n r e s i d e n t , d i d not.
Y e r k e s m i g h t h a v e r e s p o n d e d that r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s g e n e r a l l y
t o o k B e t a r a t h e r t h a n A l p h a , b u t B e t a c o n t a i n s a pictorial v e r s i o n
of the same theme.
I n this c o m p l e t e - a - p i c t u r e test, early items
m i g h t be d e f e n d e d as sufficiently u n i v e r s a l : a d d i n g a m o u t h to a
f a c e or an e a r to a rabbit. B u t later items r e q u i r e d a rivet in a
p o c k e t k n i f e , a f i l a m e n t in a l i g h t b u l b , a h o r n on a p h o n o g r a p h , a
n e t on a tennis c o u r t , a n d a ball in a bowler's h a n d ( m a r k e d w r o n g ,
Y e r k e s e x p l a i n e d , i f a n e x a m i n e e d r e w t h e ball i n t h e alley, for y o u
c a n tell f r o m t h e bowler's p o s t u r e t h a t h e has n o t y e t r e l e a s e d t h e
ball). F r a n z B o a s , an early critic, told t h e tale of a Sicilian recruit
w h o a d d e d a crucifix w h e r e it always a p p e a r e d in his n a t i v e l a n d to
a h o u s e w i t h o u t a c h i m n e y . H e was m a r k e d w r o n g .
T h e tests w e r e strictly t i m e d , for t h e n e x t fifty w e r e w a i t i n g b y
t h e d o o r . R e c r u i t s w e r e n o t e x p e c t e d t o finish e a c h part; this was
e x p l a i n e d t o the A l p h a m e n , b u t n o t t o B e t a p e o p l e . Y e r k e s w o n d e r e d w h y s o m a n y recruits s c o r e d flat z e r o o n s o m a n y o f t h e parts
(the m o s t telling p r o o f o f t h e tests' w o r t h l e s s n e s s — s e e p p . 2 4 4 247).
H o w m a n y of us, if nervous, uncomfortable, a n d c r o w d e d
( a n d e v e n i f n o t ) , w o u l d h a v e u n d e r s t o o d e n o u g h t o write a n y t h i n g
a t all i n t h e ten s e c o n d s allotted for c o m p l e t i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g c o m m a n d s , e a c h g i v e n b u t o n c e i n A l p h a , Part 1?
Attention! Look at 4. W h e n I say "go" m a k e a figure 1 in the space
which is in the circle but not in the triangle or square, and also make a
figure 2 in the space which is in the triangle a n d circle, but not in the
square. G o .
Attention! Look at 6. W h e n I say "go" put in the s e c o n d circle t h e right
answer to t h e question: "How many m o n t h s has a year?" In the third circle
do n o t h i n g , but in the fourth circle put any n u m b e r that is a w r o n g answer
to the question that y o u have just answered correctly. Go.
T H E
H E R E D I T A R I A N
INADEQUATE
T H E O R Y
O F
I Q
CONDITIONS
Y e r k e s ' s p r o t o c o l was r i g o r o u s a n d t r y i n g e n o u g h . H i s e x a m iners h a d t o p r o c e s s m e n r a p i d l y a n d g r a d e t h e e x a m s i m m e d i ately, so that failures c o u l d be recalled f o r a d i f f e r e n t test. W h e n
f a c e d with t h e a d d e d b u r d e n o f thinly v e i l e d hostility f r o m t h e
brass at several c a m p s , Y e r k e s ' s testers w e r e rarely able to carry o u t
m o r e t h a n a c a r i c a t u r e o f their o w n stated p r o c e d u r e . T h e y c o n t i n ually c o m p r o m i s e d , b a c k t r a c k e d , a n d a l t e r e d i n t h e face o f n e c e s sity. P r o c e d u r e s v a r i e d s o m u c h f r o m c a m p t o c a m p that results
could
scarcely
be
collated
and
compared.
The
whole
effort,
t h r o u g h n o fault o f Y e r k e s ' s b e y o n d impracticality a n d o v e r a m b i tion, b e c a m e s o m e t h i n g o f a s h a m b l e s , i f n o t a d i s g r a c e . T h e details
are all i n Y e r k e s ' s m o n o g r a p h , b u t h a r d l y a n y o n e e v e r r e a d it. T h e
s u m m a r y statisdcs b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t social w e a p o n for racists
a n d e u g e n i c i s t s ; their r o t t e n c o r e lay e x p o s e d i n t h e m o n o g r a p h ,
b u t w h o looks w i t h i n w h e n t h e s u r f a c e shines with s u c h a c o n g e n i a l
message.
T h e a r m y m a n d a t e d that special b u i l d i n g s b e s u p p l i e d o r e v e n
c o n s t r u c t e d for Y e r k e s ' s e x a m i n a t i o n s , b u t a d i f f e r e n t reality p r e vailed ( 1 9 2 1 , p . 6 1 ) . T h e e x a m i n e r s h a d t o t a k e w h a t t h e y c o u l d
get, o f t e n r o o m s i n c r a m p e d b a r r a c k s with n o f u r n i s h i n g s a t all,
a n d i n a d e q u a t e acoustics, i l l u m i n a t i o n , a n d
lines o f sight.
The
chief tester a t o n e c a m p c o m p l a i n e d (p. 106): " P a r t o f this i n a c c u racy I believe to be d u e to t h e fact that t h e r o o m in w h i c h t h e
e x a m i n a t i o n is h e l d is filled t o o full of m e n . As a result, t h e m e n
w h o are sitting i n t h e rear o f t h e r o o m a r e u n a b l e t o h e a r clearly
and t h o r o u g h l y e n o u g h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e instructions."
T e n s i o n s rose b e t w e e n Y e r k e s ' s testers a n d
T h e c h i e f tester o f C a m p C u s t e r c o m p l a i n e d (p.
r e g u l a r officers.
111): " T h e igno-
rance o f t h e subject o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a v e r a g e officer i s e q u a l l e d
only b y his i n d i f f e r e n c e t o it." Y e r k e s u r g e d restraint a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n (p. 1 5 5 ) :
T h e e x a m i n e r s h o u l d strive especially to take t h e military point of view.
Unwarranted claims c o n c e r n i n g the accuracy of the results should be
avoided. In general, straightforward c o m m o n s e n s e statements will be
found more c o n v i n c i n g than technical descriptions, statistical exhibits, or
academic a r g u m e n t s .
2J2
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
MAN
A s friction a n d d o u b t m o u n t e d , t h e secretary o f w a r p o l l e d c o m m a n d i n g officers o f all c a m p s t o ask their o p i n i o n o f Y e r k e s ' s tests.
H e r e c e i v e d o n e h u n d r e d replies, n e a r l y all n e g a t i v e . T h e y w e r e ,
Y e r k e s a d m i t t e d (p. 43), "with a few e x c e p t i o n s , u n f a v o r a b l e to
psychological work, a n d h a v e led to the conclusion on the part of
v a r i o u s officers of t h e G e n e r a l Staff t h a t this w o r k has little, if a n y ,
v a l u e t o t h e a r m y a n d s h o u l d b e d i s c o n t i n u e d . " Y e r k e s f o u g h t back
a n d w o n a s t a n d o f f (but n o t all t h e p r o m o t i o n s , c o m m i s s i o n s , a n d
h i r i n g s h e h a d b e e n p r o m i s e d ) ; his w o r k p r o c e e d e d u n d e r a c l o u d
of suspicion.
Minor
frustrations
never abated.
C a m p Jackson
ran
out of
f o r m s a n d h a d t o i m p r o v i s e o n b l a n k p a p e r (p. 78). B u t a m a j o r
a n d p e r s i s t e n t difficulty d o g g e d t h e e n t i r e e n t e r p r i s e a n d f i n a l l y ,
as
I
shall d e m o n s t r a t e , d e p r i v e d t h e s u m m a r y statistics of a n y
meaning.
R e c r u i t s h a d t o b e a l l o c a t e d t o t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e test.
M e n illiterate i n E n g l i s h , e i t h e r b y lack o f s c h o o l i n g o r f o r e i g n
b i r t h , s h o u l d h a v e t a k e n e x a m i n a t i o n B e t a , e i t h e r b y d i r e c t assignm e n t , o r i n d i r e c t l y u p o n f a i l i n g A l p h a . Y e r k e s ' s c o r p s tried h e r o i cally t o fulfill this p r o c e d u r e . I n a t least t h r e e c a m p s , t h e y m a r k e d
identification tags o r e v e n p a i n t e d letters directly o n t h e b o d i e s o f
m e n w h o f a i l e d — a r e a d y identification
g u i d e f o r f u r t h e r assess-
m e n t (p. 73, p. 76): "A list of D m e n was sent w i t h i n six h o u r s after
t h e g r o u p e x a m i n a t i o n t o t h e clerk a t t h e m u s t e r i n g office. A s t h e
m e n a p p e a r e d , this clerk m a r k e d o n t h e b o d y o f e a c h D m a n a
letter P " ( i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e psychiatrist s h o u l d e x a m i n e t h e m further).
B u t s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e division b e t w e e n A l p h a a n d B e t a v a r i e d
substantially f r o m c a m p t o c a m p . A s u r v e y across c a m p s r e v e a l e d
t h a t t h e m i n i m u m score o n a n early v e r s i o n o f A l p h a v a r i e d f r o m
20 to 100 f o r a s s i g n m e n t to f u r t h e r testing (p. 476). Y e r k e s a d m i t t e d (p.
354):
This lack of a uniform process of segregation is certainly unfortunate.
On account of the variable facilities for e x a m i n i n g and the variable quality
of the groups e x a m i n e d however, it appeared entirely impossible to establish a standard uniform for all camps.
C.
C.
(1921):
B r i g h a m , Yerkes's most zealous votary, even complained
THE H E R E D I T A R I A N THEORY OF IQ
233
T h e m e t h o d of selecting men for Beta varied from c a m p to camp, and
sometimes from week to week in the same camp. T h e r e was no established
criterion of literacy, and no uniform m e t h o d of selecting illiterates.
T h e p r o b l e m c u t far d e e p e r t h a n s i m p l e inconsistency a m o n g
c a m p s . T h e persistent logistical difficulties i m p o s e d a systematic
bias that substantially l o w e r e d t h e m e a n scores o f blacks a n d i m m i grants.
For two major reasons, m a n y m e n took only A l p h a a n d
scored
either
zero
or
next
to
nothing,
not because
they
were
i n n a t e l y d u m b , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e illiterate a n d s h o u l d h a v e
t a k e n B e t a b y Y e r k e s ' s o w n p r o t o c o l . First, recruits a n d d r a f t e e s
h a d , o n a v e r a g e , s p e n t f e w e r years i n s c h o o l t h a n Y e r k e s h a d anticipated. Lines for Beta b e g a n to l e n g t h e n and the entire operation
t h r e a t e n e d t o c l o g a t this b o t t l e n e c k . A t m a n y c a m p s , u n q u a l i f i e d
m e n w e r e sent i n d r o v e s t o A l p h a b y artificial l o w e r i n g o f stand a r d s . S c h o o l i n g t o the third g r a d e sufficed f o r A l p h a i n o n e c a m p ;
i n a n o t h e r , a n y o n e w h o said h e c o u l d r e a d , a t w h a t e v e r level, t o o k
A l p h a . T h e c h i e f tester a t C a m p D i x r e p o r t e d (p. 72): " T o a v o i d
excessively l a r g e B e t a g r o u p s , s t a n d a r d s for a d m i s s i o n t o e x a m i n a t i o n A l p h a w e r e set low."
S e c o n d , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e press o f t i m e a n d the hostility
o f r e g u l a r officers o f t e n p r e c l u d e d a B e t a retest f o r m e n w h o h a d
incorrectly t a k e n A l p h a . Y e r k e s a d m i t t e d (p. 4 7 2 ) : "It was n e v e r
successfully s h o w n , h o w e v e r , that t h e c o n t i n u e d recalls . . . w e r e so
essential
that
repeated
interference
with
company
maneuvers
s h o u l d b e p e r m i t t e d . " A s the p a c e b e c a m e m o r e frantic, t h e p r o b l e m w o r s e n e d . T h e c h i e f tester a t C a m p D i x c o m p l a i n e d ( p p . 7 2 7 3 ) : " I n J u n e it was f o u n d i m p o s s i b l e to recall a t h o u s a n d m e n
listed for i n d i v i d u a l e x a m i n a t i o n .
I n J u l y A l p h a failures a m o n g
n e g r o e s w e r e n o t r e c a l l e d . " T h e stated p r o t o c o l scarcely a p p l i e d t o
blacks w h o , a s u s u a l , w e r e t r e a t e d with less c o n c e r n a n d m o r e c o n t e m p t b y e v e r y o n e . F a i l u r e o n B e t a , for e x a m p l e , s h o u l d h a v e led
t o a n i n d i v i d u a l e x a m i n a t i o n . H a l f t h e black recruits s c o r e d D - o n
Beta,
but
only
one-fifth
of these
were
recalled
and
four-fifths
received n o f u r t h e r e x a m i n a t i o n (p. 7 0 8 ) . Y e t w e k n o w that scores
for blacks i m p r o v e d substantially w h e n t h e p r o t o c o l was f o l l o w e d .
A t o n e c a m p (p. 7 3 6 ) , o n l y
14.1 p e r c e n t o f m e n w h o h a d s c o r e d
D - o n A l p h a failed t o g a i n a h i g h e r g r a d e o n B e t a .
T h e effects o f this systematic bias a r e e v i d e n t i n o n e o f B o r i n g ' s
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
e x p e r i m e n t s with t h e s u m m a r y statistics. H e c u l l e d 4,893 cases o f
m e n w h o h a d t a k e n b o t h A l p h a a n d B e t a . C o n v e r d n g their scores
t o the c o m m o n scale, h e c a l c u l a t e d a n a v e r a g e m e n t a l a g e o f 1 0 . 7 7 5
for A l p h a , a n d a B e t a m e a n o f 1 2 . 1 5 8 (p. 6 5 5 ) . H e u s e d o n l y t h e
B e t a scores i n his s u m m a r i e s ; Y e r k e s p r o c e d u r e w o r k e d . B u t w h a t
o f the m y r i a d s w h o s h o u l d
have taken Beta, but only received
A l p h a a n d scored abysmally as a result—primarily poorly educated
blacks a n d i m m i g r a n t s with a n i m p e r f e c t c o m m a n d o f E n g l i s h —
t h e v e r y g r o u p s w h o s e l o w scores c a u s e d s u c h a h e r e d i t a r i a n stir
later o n ?
DUBIOUS AND PERVERSE PROCEEDINGS: A PERSONAL TESTIMONY
A c a d e m i c i a n s o f t e n f o r g e t h o w p o o r l y o r i n c o m p l e t e l y t h e written r e c o r d , their p r i m a r y s o u r c e , m a y r e p r e s e n t e x p e r i e n c e . S o m e
t h i n g s h a v e to be s e e n , t o u c h e d , a n d tasted. W h a t was it like to be
a n illiterate black o r f o r e i g n recruit, a n x i o u s a n d b e f u d d l e d a t t h e
n o v e l e x p e r i e n c e o f t a k i n g a n e x a m i n a t i o n , n e v e r told w h y , o r w h a t
w o u l d b e m a d e o f t h e results: e x p u l s i o n , the f r o n t lines? I n 1 9 6 8
(quoted in
Kevles), an
e x a m i n e r recalled
his a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f
B e t a : "It was t o u c h i n g to see t h e i n t e n s e e f f o r t . . . p u t i n t o a n s w e r ing the questions, often by m e n w h o never before had held a pencil
i n their h a n d s . " Y e r k e s h a d o v e r l o o k e d , o r consciously b y p a s s e d ,
something of importance. T h e Beta examination contained only
p i c t u r e s , n u m b e r s , a n d s y m b o l s . B u t i t still r e q u i r e d p e n c i l w o r k
a n d , o n t h r e e o f its s e v e n p a r t s , a k n o w l e d g e o f n u m b e r s a n d h o w
t o write t h e m .
Y e r k e s ' s m o n o g r a p h is so t h o r o u g h that his p r o c e d u r e for givi n g the t w o e x a m i n a t i o n s c a n b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d d o w n t o t h e c h o r e o g r a p h y o f m o t i o n for all e x a m i n e r s a n d orderlies. H e p r o v i d e s
facsimiles in full size f o r t h e e x a m i n a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s , a n d for all
explanatory material used by examiners. T h e standardized words
a n d g e s t u r e s of e x a m i n e r s a r e r e p r o d u c e d in full. S i n c e I w a n t e d
to k n o w in as c o m p l e t e a w a y as possible w h a t it felt like to g i v e a n d
t a k e t h e test, I a d m i n i s t e r e d e x a m i n a t i o n B e t a (for illiterates) to a
g r o u p o f fifty-three
Harvard
undergraduates
in
my
course on
b i o l o g y as a social w e a p o n . I tried to follow Y e r k e s ' s p r o t o c o l scrup u l o u s l y in all its details. I feel that I r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e original
situation a c c u r a t e l y , with o n e i m p o r t a n t e x c e p t i o n : m y s t u d e n t s
k n e w w h a t t h e y w e r e d o i n g , d i d n ' t h a v e t o p r o v i d e their n a m e s o n
235
fHEORY OF IQ
THE
HEREDITARIA'
jjig at stake. ( O n e f r i e n d later s u g g e s t e d
t h e f o r m , a n d h a d no^ed n a m e s — a n d p o s t e d r e s u l t s — a s j u s t a
t h a t I s h o u l d h a v e re<f g a t i n g the a n x i e t y of t h e o r i g i n a l . )
small c o n t r i b u t i o n to si^ that internal c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d a p r i o r i
I k n e w b e f o r e I staf ^lidated the h e r e d i t a r i a n c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t
1
p r e j u d i c e t h o r o u g h l y $ the results. B o r i n g h i m s e l f c a l l e d t h e s e
Y e r k e s h a d d r a w n FRVY' late in his c a r e e r (in a 1962 i n t e r v i e w ,
c o n c l u s i o n s "prepostef" But I h a d n o t u n d e r s t o o d h o w t h e D r a q u o t e d i n K e v l e s , lgfj^fig m a d e such a t h o r o u g h m o c k e r y o f t h e
conian conditions of tf'Jhave been in a frame of m i n d to record
c l a i m t h a t r e c r u i t s connate abilities. I n s h o r t , m o s t o f t h e m e n
a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e i r \a utterly c o n f u s e d o r s c a r e d shitless.
m u s t h a v e e n d e d u p ei'^ered into a r o o m a n d s e a t e d b e f o r e a n
T h e r e c r u i t s w e r e "jfX standing a t o p a p l a t f o r m , a n d s e v e r a l
e x a m i n e r and demons'^xaminers were instructed to administer
o r d e r l i e s at floor leve' ,nner" since " t h e subjects w h o t a k e this
t h e test " i n a g e n i a l ^ulk and r e f u s e to w o r k " (p. 163). R e c r u i t s
e x a m i n a t i o n sometime*',t the e x a m i n a t i o n o r its p u r p o s e s . T h e
w e r e told
n o t h i n g a t / j e r e are s o m e p a p e r s . Y o u m u s t n o t o p e n
e x a m i n e r s i m p l y s a i d : ' \intil y o u are t o l d t o . " T h e m e n t h e n f i l l e d
t h e m o r t u r n t h e m ovdeducation (with h e l p f o r t h o s e t o o illiterate
i n t h e i r n a m e s , a g e , an^perfunctory p r e l i m i n a r i e s , t h e e x a m i n e r
t o d o so). A f t e r thes*
p l u n g e d r i g h t in:
,
m (pointing to demonstrator). He (pointing to
Attention. Watch this ^ to do here (tapping blackboard with pointer)
demonstrator again) is g ^ e n t members of the group) are to do on your
what you (pointing to dif^its to several papers mat lie before m e n in the
papers (here examiner o°\ it next to the blackboard, returns the paper,
g r o u p , picks up o n e , h o n the blackboard in succession, then to the m e n
points to demonstrator a^uestions. Wait till I say "Go ahead!" (p. 163).
a n d their papers). Ask T\0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.ha
By
comparison,
men
were virtually
inundated
with
A'v the A l p h a e x a m i n e r said:
i n f o r m a t i o n (p. 1 5 7 ) , {0
S
I of this examination is to see how well you can
Attention! T h e purp0*v out what you are told to d o . We are not lookr e m e m b e r , think, a n d ca^jm is to help find out what you are best fitted to
ing for crazy people. T h e \c y
^ '
i examination will b e put o n
d o i n the Army. T h e gr3 d will '
8°
company commander,
your qualification card / t o l d to do will be very easy. S o m e you may find
S o m e of the things you a<^
o u
m
e
a
s o
n
m
s
t o
v
o
u
r
THE
2j6
M I S M E A S U R E OF MAN
hard. You are not expected to make a perfect g r a d e , but do the very best
you can. . . . Listen closely. Ask no questions.
T h e e x t r e m e limits i m p o s e d u p o n t h e B e t a e x a m i n e r ' s v o c a b u lary d i d n o t o n l y reflect Y e r k e s ' s p o o r o p i n i o n o f w h a t B e t a recruits
m i g h t u n d e r s t a n d b y v i r t u e o f their s t u p i d i t y .
nees
were
recent
immigrants
who
did
not
M a n y Beta exami-
speak
English,
and
i n s t r u c t i o n h a d t o b e a s pictorial a n d g e s t u r a l a s p o s s i b l e . Y e r k e s
a d v i s e d (p. 1 6 3 ) : " O n e c a m p has h a d g r e a t success with a ' w i n d o w
seller' a s d e m o n s t r a t o r . A c t o r s s h o u l d a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r the
work."
One
particularly
important
bit
of
information
was
not
t r a n s m i t t e d : e x a m i n e e s w e r e n o t told t h a t i t was v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s ible t o finish a t least t h r e e o f t h e tests, a n d t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t
e x p e c t e d t o d o so.
A t o p t h e p l a t f o r m , t h e d e m o n s t r a t o r s t o o d i n f r o n t o f a blackb o a r d roll c o v e r e d by a c u r t a i n ; the e x a m i n e r s t o o d at his side.
B e f o r e e a c h o f t h e s e v e n tests, t h e c u r t a i n was r a i s e d t o e x p o s e a
s a m p l e p r o b l e m (all r e p r o d u c e d i n F i g u r e 5 . 4 ) , a n d e x a m i n e r a n d
d e m o n s t r a t o r e n g a g e d i n a bit o f p a n t o m i m e t o illustrate p r o p e r
p r o c e d u r e . T h e e x a m i n e r t h e n issued a n o r d e r t o w o r k , a n d t h e
d e m o n s t r a t o r closed t h e c u r t a i n a n d a d v a n c e d t h e roll t o t h e n e x t
s a m p l e . T h e first test, m a z e r u n n i n g , r e c e i v e d t h e f o l l o w i n g d e m onstration:
Demonstrator traces path through first m a z e with crayon, slowly and
hesitatingly. Examiner then traces second m a z e and motions to d e m o n strator to go ahead. Demonstrator makes o n e m i s t a k e by g o i n g into the
blind alley at u p p e r left-hand corner of maze. E x a m i n e r apparently does
not notice what demonstrator is d o i n g until he crosses line at e n d of alley;
then examiner shakes his head vigorously, says " N o - n o , " takes demonstrator's hand and traces back to the place where he may start right again.
Demonstrator traces rest of maze so as to i n d i c a t e an attempt at haste,
hesitating only at ambiguous points. Examiner s a y s "Good." T h e n holding
up blank, "Look here," and draws an imaginary line across the p a g e from
left to right for every maze on the page. T h e n , "All right. Go ahead. Do it
(pointing to m e n and then to books). Hurry u p . "
T h i s p a r a g r a p h m a y b e naively a m u s i n g (some o f m y students
t h o u g h t so). T h e n e x t s t a t e m e n t , b y c o m p a r i s o n , i s a bit diabolical.
T h e idea of working fast must be i m p r e s s e d on the m e n d u r i n g the
maze test. Examiner and orderlies walk a r o u n d the r o o m , motioning to
THE
HEREDITARIAN
THEORY
OF
IQ
m e n w h o are not working, and saying, "Do it, do it, hurry u p , quick." At
t h e e n d of 2 minutes e x a m i n e r says, "Stop! T u r n over the p a g e to test 2."
T h e e x a m i n e r d e m o n s t r a t e d test 2, c u b e c o u n t i n g , with t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l s (my son h a d s o m e left o v e r f r o m his b a b y
days).
Note
t h a t recruits
w h o could
n o t write
numbers
would
r e c e i v e scores o f z e r o e v e n i f t h e y c o u n t e d all t h e c u b e s correctly.
T e s t 3, t h e X - O series, will b e r e c o g n i z e d b y n e a r l y e v e r y o n e t o d a y
as
the
pictorial
version
of "what
is
the
next
number
in
the
s e q u e n c e . " T e s t 4 , d i g i t s y m b o l s , r e q u i r e d t h e translation o f n i n e
digits into c o r r e s p o n d i n g s y m b o l s . I t looks easy e n o u g h , b u t t h e
test itself i n c l u d e d n i n e t y items a n d c o u l d h a r d l y b e f i n i s h e d b y
a n y b o d y i n t h e t w o m i n u t e s allotted. A m a n w h o c o u l d n ' t write
n u m b e r s was f a c e d with t w o sets o f u n f a m i l i a r s y m b o l s a n d suff e r e d a s e v e r e a d d i t i o n a l d i s a d v a n t a g e . T e s t 5, n u m b e r c h e c k i n g ,
a s k e d m e n t o c o m p a r e n u m e r i c a l s e q u e n c e s , u p t o e l e v e n digits i n
l e n g t h , i n t w o parallel c o l u m n s . I f i t e m s o n t h e s a m e line w e r e
identical i n t h e t w o c o l u m n s , recruits w e r e i n s t r u c t e d (by gestures)
to write an X n e x t to t h e i t e m . Fifty s e q u e n c e s o c c u p i e d t h r e e m i n utes, a n d f e w recruits c o u l d f i n i s h . A g a i n , a n inability t o write o r
r e c o g n i z e n u m b e r s w o u l d m a k e t h e task virtually i m p o s s i b l e .
T e s t 6, pictorial c o m p l e t i o n , is B e t a ' s visual a n a l o g u e of A l p h a ' s
m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e e x a m i n a t i o n for testing i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e b y asking recruits a b o u t c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t s , f a m o u s s p o r t i n g o r f i l m
stars, or t h e p r i m a r y i n d u s t r i e s of v a r i o u s cities a n d states.
Its
instructions a r e w o r t h r e p e a t i n g :
"This is test 6 h e r e . Look. A lot of pictures." After e v e r y o n e has f o u n d
the place, "Now watch." E x a m i n e r points to h a n d a n d says to d e m o n s t r a tor, "Fix it." D e m o n s t r a t o r d o e s n o t h i n g , but looks puzzled. E x a m i n e r
points to the picture of the h a n d , a n d t h e n to the place w h e r e the finger is
missing and says to demonstrator, "Fix it; fix it." D e m o n s t r a t o r t h e n draws
in finger. Examiner says, "That's right." E x a m i n e r t h e n points to fish a n d
place for eye a n d says, "Fix it." After d e m o n s t r a t o r has drawn missing eye,
examiner points to each of the four r e m a i n i n g drawings a n d says, "Fix
them all." D e m o n s t r a t o r works samples out slowly a n d with apparent
effort. When the samples are finished e x a m i n e r says, "All right. Go a h e a d .
Hurry up!" D u r i n g the course of this test t h e orderlies walk a r o u n d the
room and locate individuals w h o are d o i n g n o t h i n g , point to their pages
and say, "Fix it. Fix them," trying to set e v e r y o n e working. At the e n d of
3 minutes e x a m i n e r says, "Stop! But don't turn over t h e page."
240
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
T h e e x a m i n a t i o n itself i s also w o r t h r e p r i n t i n g (Fig. 5 . 5 ) . B e s t o f
l u c k with p i g tails, c r a b l e g s , b o w l i n g balls, tennis n e t s , a n d t h e
Jack's missing d i a m o n d , not to mention the p h o n o g r a p h h o r n (a
real s t u m p e r for my students). Y e r k e s p r o v i d e d the following
instructions for grading:
Rules for
Individual
Items
Item 4.—Any spoon at any angle in right hand receives credit. Left hand,
or unattached s p o o n , no credit.
Item 5.—Chimney must be in right place. No credit for smoke.
Item 6.— A n o t h e r ear on same side as first receives no credit.
Item 8.—Plain square, cross, etc., in proper location for stamp, receives
credit.
Item 10.—Missing part is the rivet. Line of "ear" may be omitted.
Item 13.—Missing part is leg.
Item 15.—Ball should be drawn in hand of man. If represented in hand
of w o m a n , or in motion, no credit.
Item 16.—Single line indicating net receives credit.
Item 18.—Any representation intended for horn, pointing in any direction, receives credit.
Item 19.—Hand and powder puff must be put on proper side.
Item 20.—Diamond is the missing part. Failure to complete hilt on sword
is not an error.
T h e s e v e n t h a n d last test, g e o m e t r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , r e q u i r e d
that a s q u a r e b e b r o k e n i n t o c o m p o n e n t p i e c e s . Its ten p a r t s w e r e
allotted t w o a n d a h a l f m i n u t e s .
I b e l i e v e that t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t e s t i n g , a n d t h e basic c h a r a c t e r
o f the e x a m i n a t i o n , m a k e i t l u d i c r o u s t o b e l i e v e that B e t a m e a s u r e d a n y i n t e r n a l state d e s e r v i n g t h e label i n t e l l i g e n c e . D e s p i t e
t h e p l e a f o r g e n i a l i t y , t h e e x a m i n a t i o n was c o n d u c t e d i n a n a l m o s t
f r a n t i c r u s h . M o s t p a r t s c o u l d n o t b e finished i n t h e time a l l o t t e d ,
b u t r e c r u i t s w e r e n o t f o r e w a r n e d . M y s t u d e n t s c o m p i l e d t h e foll o w i n g r e c o r d o f c o m p l e t i o n s o n t h e s e v e n p a r t s (see p . 242).
F o r t w o o f t h e tests, d i g i t s y m b o l s a n d n u m b e r c h e c k i n g ( 4 a n d 5),
m o s t s t u d e n t s s i m p l y c o u l d n ' t write fast e n o u g h t o c o m p l e t e t h e
n i n e t y a n d fifty i t e m s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e p r o t o c o l w a s c l e a r t o all.
T h e t h i r d test w i t h a majority o f i n c o m p l e t e s , c u b e c o u n t i n g ( n u m b e r 2), was t o o difficult f o r t h e n u m b e r o f i t e m s i n c l u d e d a n d the
time allotted.
I n s u m m a r y , m a n y recruits c o u l d n o t see o r h e a r t h e e x a m i n e r ;
2^2
T H E
TEST
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
M I S M E A S U R E
FINISHED
N O T FINISHED
44
21
45
12
18
49
40
9
32
8
41
35
4
13
O F
M A N
s o m e h a d n e v e r t a k e n a test b e f o r e o r e v e n h e l d a p e n c i l . M a n y d i d
not understand the instructions and were completely b e f u d d l e d .
T h o s e w h o d i d c o m p r e h e n d c o u l d c o m p l e t e o n l y a small p a r t o f
m o s t tests i n t h e a l l o t t e d t i m e . M e a n w h i l e , i f a n x i e t y a n d c o n f u s i o n
h a d n o t a l r e a d y r e a c h e d levels sufficiently h i g h t o i n v a l i d a t e t h e
r e s u l t s , t h e o r d e r l i e s c o n t i n u a l l y m a r c h e d a b o u t , p o i n t i n g t o individual recruits a n d o r d e r i n g them to h u r r y in voices loud e n o u g h ,
a s specifically m a n d a t e d , t o c o n v e y t h e m e s s a g e g e n e r a l l y . A d d t o
this t h e b l a t a n t c u l t u r a l biases of test 6, a n d t h e m o r e s u b t l e biases
directed against those w h o could not write n u m b e r s or w h o h a d
little e x p e r i e n c e i n w r i t i n g a n y t h i n g a t all, a n d w h a t d o y o u h a v e
but a shambles.
T h e p r o o f o f i n a d e q u a c y lies i n t h e s u m m a r y statistics, t h o u g h
Y e r k e s a n d B o r i n g chose to interpret them differently. T h e
m o n o g r a p h p r e s e n t s f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r scores o n e a c h
p a r t s e p a r a t e l y . S i n c e Y e r k e s b e l i e v e d that i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e was
n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d (the " s t a n d a r d " p a t t e r n w i t h a s i n g l e m o d e a t
some m i d d l e score a n d symmetrically decreasing frequencies away
f r o m t h e m o d e i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s ) , h e e x p e c t e d that s c o r e s f o r e a c h
test w o u l d b e n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d a s well. B u t o n l y two o f t h e tests,
m a z e r u n n i n g a n d p i c t u r e c o m p l e t i o n ( l a n d 6), y i e l d e d a distrib u t i o n e v e n close t o n o r m a l . ( T h e s e a r e also t h e tests that m y o w n
s t u d e n t s f o u n d easiest a n d c o m p l e t e d i n h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n . ) A l l
t h e o t h e r tests y i e l d e d a b i m o d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , w i t h o n e p e a k at a
middle value and another squarely at the m i n i m u m value of zero
(Fig.
5.6).
T h e c o m m o n - s e n s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f this b i m o d a l i t y h o l d s that
r e c r u i t s h a d two d i f f e r e n t r e s p o n s e s t o t h e tests. S o m e u n d e r s t o o d
what they were supposed to d o , a n d p e r f o r m e d in varied ways.
THE H E R E D I T A R I A N THEORY OF IQ
43
2
O t h e r s , for whatever reasons, could not fathom the instructions
a n d s c o r e d z e r o . W i t h h i g h levels o f i m p o s e d a n x i e t y , p o o r c o n d i tions f o r s e e i n g a n d h e a r i n g , a n d g e n e r a l i n e x p e r i e n c e with t e s t i n g
f o r m o s t r e c r u i t s , i t w o u l d b e f a t u o u s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e z e r o scores
as evidence of innate stupidity below the intelligence of m e n w h o
m a d e s o m e p o i n t s — t h o u g h Y e r k e s w o r m e d o u t o f t h e difficulty
this w a y (see p p . 244—247). (My o w n s t u d e n t s c o m p i l e d lowest rates
o f c o m p l e t i o n f o r t h e tests that yield t h e l a r g e s t s e c o n d a r y m o d e s
a t z e r o i n Y e r k e s ' s s a m p l e — t e s t s 4 a n d 5 . A s the o n l y e x c e p t i o n t o
this p a t t e r n , m o s t o f m y s t u d e n t s c o m p l e t e d test 3 , w h i c h p r o d u c e d
a s t r o n g z e r o m o d e in t h e a r m y s a m p l e . B u t 3 is t h e visual a n a l o g
of " w h a t is t h e n e x t n u m b e r in this series," a test that all my
5*6
Frequency distributions for four of the Beta tests. N o t e the prominent m o d e at zero for tests 4, 5, and 7.
TEST A,
6 ETA
TEST 6,
BETA
TEST X BETA
TEST S BETA
T
244
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students have taken m o r e times than they care to remember.)
Statisticians a r e t r a i n e d t o b e s u s p i c i o u s o f d i s t r i b u t i o n s with
multiple m o d e s . Such distributions usually indicate i n h o m o g e n e i t y
i n t h e s y s t e m , o r , i n p l a i n e r l a n g u a g e , d i f f e r e n t c a u s e s f o r t h e diff e r e n t m o d e s . A l l f a m i l i a r p r o v e r b s a b o u t t h e inadvisibility o f m i x ing apples and oranges apply. T h e multiple modes should have
g u i d e d Y e r k e s to a s u s p i c i o n that his tests w e r e n o t m e a s u r i n g a
s i n g l e entity called i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n s t e a d , his statisticians f o u n d a
w a y to r e d i s t r i b u t e z e r o scores in a m a n n e r f a v o r a b l e to h e r e d i t a r i a n a s s u m p t i o n s (see n e x t section).
O h y e s , was a n y o n e w o n d e r i n g h o w m y s t u d e n t s f a r e d ? T h e y
d i d v e r y well o f c o u r s e . A n y t h i n g else w o u l d h a v e b e e n s h o c k i n g ,
since all t h e tests a r e g r e a t l y simplified p r e c u r s o r s o f e x a m i n a t i o n s
t h e y h a v e b e e n t a k i n g all their lives. O f fifty-three s t u d e n t s , thirtyo n e s c o r e d A a n d s i x t e e n B . Still, m o r e t h a n 1 0 p e r c e n t (six o f fiftyt h r e e ) s c o r e d a t t h e intellectual b o r d e r l i n e o f C ; b y t h e s t a n d a r d s
o f s o m e c a m p s , t h e y w o u l d h a v e b e e n fit o n l y f o r the d u t i e s o f a
buck private.
F I N A G L I N G T H E SUMMARY
STATISTICS:
T H E PROBLEM O F ZERO VALUES
I f t h e B e t a test f a l t e r e d o n t h e artifact o f a s e c o n d a r y m o d e f o r
z e r o s c o r e s , the A l p h a test b e c a m e a n u n m i t i g a t e d disaster f o r the
s a m e r e a s o n , vastly intensified. T h e z e r o m o d e s w e r e p r o n o u n c e d
i n B e t a , b u t they n e v e r r e a c h e d t h e h e i g h t o f t h e p r i m a r y m o d e a t
a m i d d l e v a l u e . B u t six o f e i g h t A l p h a tests y i e l d e d t h e i r h i g h e s t
m o d e a t z e r o . ( O n l y o n e h a d a n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n with a m i d d l e
m o d e , while the other yielded a zero m o d e lower than the middle
m o d e . ) T h e z e r o m o d e o f t e n s o a r e d a b o v e all o t h e r v a l u e s . I n o n e
test, n e a r l y 4 0 p e r c e n t o f all scores w e r e z e r o (Fig. 5 . 7 a ) . I n
a n o t h e r , z e r o was t h e o n l y c o m m o n v a l u e , w i t h a flat d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f o t h e r scores (at a b o u t one-fifth t h e level o f z e r o values) until a n
e v e n d e c l i n e b e g a n a t h i g h s c o r e s (Fig. 5 . 7 b ) .
A g a i n , the common-sense interpretation of n u m e r o u s zeros
s u g g e s t s that m a n y m e n d i d n ' t u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d
that t h e tests w e r e invalid o n that a c c o u n t . B u r i e d t h r o u g h o u t
Y e r k e s ' s m o n o g r a p h a r e n u m e r o u s s t a t e m e n t s p r o v i n g that testers
worried greatly about the high frequency of zeros a n d , in the midst
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o f g i v i n g t h e tests, t e n d e d t o i n t e r p r e t z e r o s i n this c o m m o n - s e n s e
f a s h i o n . T h e y e l i m i n a t e d s o m e tests f r o m t h e B e t a r e p e r t o i r e (p.
3 7 2 ) b e c a u s e t h e y p r o d u c e d u p t o 30.7 p e r c e n t z e r o scores
( a l t h o u g h s o m e A l p h a tests with a h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y o f z e r o s w e r e
r e t a i n e d ) . T h e y r e d u c e d t h e difficulty o f initial items i n s e v e r a l
tests "in o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r o f z e r o s c o r e s " (p. 3 4 1 ) . T h e y
i n c l u d e d a m o n g t h e criteria f o r a c c e p t a n c e o f a test within t h e B e t a
r e p e r t o i r e (p. 3 7 3 ) : " e a s e o f d e m o n s t r a t i o n , a s s h o w n b y low p e r c e n t a g e o f z e r o s c o r e s . " T h e y a c k n o w l e d g e d s e v e r a l t i m e s that a
h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f z e r o s reflected p o o r e x p l a n a t i o n , n o t stupidity
o f the r e c r u i t s : " T h e l a r g e n u m b e r o f z e r o s c o r e s , e v e n w i t h offic e r s , indicates that t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y " ( p . 340).
" T h e m a i n b u r d e n o f t h e e a r l y r e p o r t s was t o t h e e f f e c t that the
m o s t difficult task w a s ' g e t t i n g the i d e a across.' A h i g h p e r c e n t a g e
o f z e r o scores i n a n y g i v e n test was c o n s i d e r e d a n i n d i c a t i o n o f
f a i l u r e to 'get that test across' " (p. 3 7 9 ) .
W i t h all t h e s e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t s , o n e m i g h t h a v e a n t i c i p a t e d
B o r i n g ' s d e c i s i o n e i t h e r t o e x c l u d e z e r o s f r o m t h e s u m m a r y statistics o r t o c o r r e c t f o r t h e m b y a s s u m i n g that m o s t r e c r u i t s w o u l d
have scored some points if they had u n d e r s t o o d what they were
s u p p o s e d t o d o . I n s t e a d , B o r i n g " c o r r e c t e d " z e r o scores i n t h e
o p p o s i t e w a y , a n d actually d e m o t e d m a n y o f t h e m into a n e g a t i v e
range.
B o r i n g b e g a n with t h e s a m e h e r e d i t a r i a n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t invali d a t e d all t h e results: that t h e tests, by d e f i n i t i o n , m e a s u r e i n n a t e
intelligence. T h e c l u m p o f zeros must therefore b e m a d e u p o f
m e n w h o w e r e t o o s t u p i d t o d o a n y i t e m s . I s i t fair t o g i v e t h e m all
z e r o ? A f t e r all, s o m e m u s t h a v e b e e n j u s t b a r e l y too s t u p i d , a n d
t h e i r z e r o i s a fair s c o r e . B u t o t h e r d u l l a r d s m u s t h a v e b e e n r e s c u e d
f r o m a n e v e n w o r s e fate b y t h e m i n i m u m o f z e r o . T h e y w o u l d h a v e
d o n e e v e n m o r e p o o r l y i f t h e test h a d i n c l u d e d e n o u g h easy items
t o m a k e distinctions a m o n g t h e z e r o s c o r e s . B o r i n g d i s t i n g u i s h e d
b e t w e e n a t r u e " m a t h e m a t i c a l z e r o , " a n intrinsic m i n i m u m that
c a n n o t logically g o l o w e r , a n d a " p s y c h o l o g i c a l z e r o , " a n a r b i t r a r y
b e g i n n i n g d e f i n e d by a p a r t i c u l a r test. (As a g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t ,
B o r i n g m a k e s a s o u n d p o i n t . I n the p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t o f t h e a r m y
tests, it is a b s u r d ) :
A score of zero, therefore, does not mean no ability at all; it does not mean
the point of discontinuance of the thing measured; it means the point of
discontinuance of the instrument of measurement, the test. . . . T h e indi-
THE H E R E D I T A R I A N THEORY OF IQ
247
vidual who fails to earn a positive score and is marked zero is actually
thereby given a bonus varying in value directly with his stupidity (p. 622).
B o r i n g therefore "corrected" each zero score by calibrating it
against o t h e r tests i n t h e series o n w h i c h t h e s a m e m a n h a d s c o r e d
s o m e points. I f h e h a d s c o r e d well o n o t h e r tests, h e was n o t d o u b l y
p e n a l i z e d f o r his z e r o s ; i f h e h a d d o n e p o o r l y , t h e n his z e r o s w e r e
c o n v e r t e d t o n e g a t i v e scores.
By this m e t h o d , a d e b i l i t a t i n g flaw in Y e r k e s ' s basic p r o c e d u r e
was a c c e n t u a t e d b y t a c k i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l bias o n t o it. T h e z e r o s
o n l y i n d i c a t e d that, f o r a suite o f r e a s o n s u n r e l a t e d t o i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
vast n u m b e r s o f m e n d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e y w e r e s u p p o s e d
t o d o . A n d Y e r k e s s h o u l d h a v e r e c o g n i z e d this, f o r his o w n r e p o r t s
p r o v e d that, w i t h r e d u c e d c o n f u s i o n a n d h a r a s s m e n t , m e n w h o
h a d s c o r e d z e r o o n t h e g r o u p tests a l m o s t all m a n a g e d t o m a k e
p o i n t s o n t h e s a m e o r similar tests g i v e n i n a n i n d i v i d u a l e x a m i n a t i o n . H e writes (p. 406): " A t G r e e n l e a f i t was f o u n d that t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f z e r o s c o r e s i n t h e m a z e test w a s r e d u c e d f r o m 2 8
p e r c e n t in B e t a to 2 p e r c e n t in the p e r f o r m a n c e scale, a n d that
similarly z e r o scores i n t h e d i g i t - s y m b o l test w e r e r e d u c e d f r o m 4 9
to 6 p e r c e n t . "
Y e t , w h e n g i v e n a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o r r e c t this bias b y i g n o r i n g
o r p r o p e r l y r e d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e z e r o s c o r e s , Y e r k e s ' s statisticians d i d
j u s t the o p p o s i t e . T h e y e x a c t e d a d o u b l e p e n a l t y b y d e m o t i n g m o s t
z e r o scores to a n e g a t i v e r a n g e .
FINAGLING T H E SUMMARY
STATISTICS:
GETTING AROUND OBVIOUS CORRELATIONS WITH
ENVIRONMENT
Y e r k e s ' s m o n o g r a p h is a t r e a s u r e - t r o v e of i n f o r m a t i o n f o r anyo n e s e e k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o r r e l a t e s o f p e r f o r m a n c e o n "tests o f
i n t e l l i g e n c e . " S i n c e Y e r k e s explicitly d e n i e d any substantial causal
r o l e t o e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d c o n t i n u e d t o insist that t h e tests m e a s u r e d i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e , this claim m a y s e e m p a r a d o x i c a l . O n e
m i g h t s u s p e c t t h a t Y e r k e s , i n his b l i n d n e s s , d i d n ' t r e a d his o w n
i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e situation, i n fact, i s e v e n m o r e c u r i o u s . Y e r k e s
r e a d v e r y c a r e f u l l y ; h e p u z z l e d o v e r e v e r y o n e o f his e n v i r o n m e n tal c o r r e l a t i o n s , a n d m a n a g e d t o e x p l a i n e a c h o f t h e m a w a y with
a r g u m e n t s that s o m e t i m e s b o r d e r o n t h e r i d i c u l o u s .
M i n o r items a r e r e p o r t e d a n d d i s p e r s e d i n a p a g e o r t w o .
Y e r k e s f o u n d s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n a v e r a g e s c o r e a n d infestation with h o o k w o r m in all 4 c a t e g o r i e s :
248
THE
White
White
Negro
Negro
Alpha
Beta
Alpha
Beta
MISMEASURE
OF
INFECTED
N O T INFECTED
94.38
45.38
34.86
22.14
118.50
53.26
40.82
26.09
MAN
T h e s e results m i g h t h a v e l e d t o t h e o b v i o u s a d m i s s i o n that state o f
h e a l t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n diseases r e l a t e d t o p o v e r t y , has s o m e e f f e c t
u p o n the s c o r e s . A l t h o u g h Y e r k e s d i d n o t d e n y this possibility, h e
stressed a n o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n (p. 8 1 1 ) : " L o w n a t i v e ability m a y
i n d u c e s u c h c o n d i t i o n s o f l i v i n g a s t o result i n h o o k w o r m infection."
I n s t u d y i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f scores b y o c c u p a t i o n , Y e r k e s
c o n j e c t u r e d that since i n t e l l i g e n c e b r i n g s its o w n r e w a r d , test scores
s h o u l d rise with e x p e r t i s e . H e d i v i d e d e a c h j o b i n t o a p p r e n t i c e s ,
j o u r n e y m e n , a n d e x p e r t s a n d s e a r c h e d f o r i n c r e a s i n g scores
between the groups. But he found no pattern. Instead of abandoni n g his h y p o t h e s i s , h e d e c i d e d that his p r o c e d u r e f o r a l l o c a t i n g
m e n to the three categories must have been flawed (pp. 8 3 1 - 8 3 2 ) :
It seems reasonable to s u p p o s e that a selection process goes on in
industry which results in a selection of the mentally m o r e alert for promotion from the apprentice stage to the j o u r n e y m a n stage and likewise
from the j o u r n e y m a n stage to the expert. T h o s e inferior mentally would
stick at the lower levels of skill or be w e e d e d out of the particular trade.
On this hypothesis o n e begins to question the accuracy of the personnel
interviewing procedure.
A m o n g major patterns, Y e r k e s continually f o u n d relationships
b e t w e e n i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d a m o u n t o f s c h o o l i n g . H e c a l c u l a t e d a correlation c o e f f i c i e n t o f 0.75 b e t w e e n test s c o r e a n d y e a r s o f e d u c a tion. O f 3 4 8 m e n w h o s c o r e d b e l o w t h e m e a n i n A l p h a , o n l y 1 h a d
e v e r a t t e n d e d c o l l e g e (as a d e n t a l s t u d e n t ) , 4 h a d g r a d u a t e d f r o m
h i g h s c h o o l , a n d o n l y 1 0 h a d e v e r a t t e n d e d h i g h s c h o o l a t all. Y e t
Y e r k e s d i d n o t c o n c l u d e that m o r e s c h o o l i n g l e a d s t o i n c r e a s i n g
scores p e r se; i n s t e a d , h e a r g u e d that m e n w i t h m o r e i n n a t e intell i g e n c e s p e n d m o r e t i m e i n s c h o o l . " T h e t h e o r y that n a t i v e intelligence is one of the most important conditioning factors in
c o n t i n u a n c e in s c h o o l is c e r t a i n l y b o r n e o u t by this a c c u m u l a t i o n
o f d a t a " (p. 780).
THE H E R E D I T A R I A N THEORY OF IQ
Y e r k e s n o t e d t h e s t r o n g e s t c o r r e l a t i o n o f scores with s c h o o l i n g
i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n b l a c k s a n d whites. H e m a d e
a significant social o b s e r v a t i o n , b u t g a v e it his u s u a l innatist twist
( p . 760):
T h e white draft of foreign birth is less schooled; m o r e than half of this
g r o u p have not g o n e beyond the fifth grade, while one-eighth, or 12.5
percent, report no schooling. N e g r o recruits though brought up in this
country where elementary education is supposedly not only free but compulsory on all, report no schooling in astonishingly large proportion.
F a i l u r e o f blacks t o a t t e n d s c h o o l , h e a r g u e d , m u s t reflect a disinclination b a s e d o n low i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e . N o t a w o r d a b o u t segr e g a t i o n ( t h e n officially s a n c t i o n e d , i f n o t m a n d a t e d ) , p o o r
c o n d i t i o n s i n black s c h o o l s , o r e c o n o m i c necessities f o r w o r k i n g
a m o n g t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d . Y e r k e s a c k n o w l e d g e d that s c h o o l s m i g h t
v a r y i n q u a l i t y , b u t h e a s s u m e d that s u c h a n e f f e c t m u s t b e small
a n d cited, a s p r i m a r y e v i d e n c e f o r i n n a t e b l a c k s t u p i d i t y , t h e l o w e r
scores o f blacks w h e n p a i r e d with whites w h o h a d s p e n t a n e q u a l
n u m b e r o f y e a r s i n s c h o o l (p. 7 7 3 ) :
T h e grade standards, of course, are not identical all over the country,
especially as between schools for white and for negro children, so that
"fourth-grade schooling" doubtless varies in m e a n i n g from g r o u p to
g r o u p , but this variability certainly cannot account for the clear intellig e n c e differences between groups.
T h e d a t a that m i g h t h a v e led Y e r k e s t o c h a n g e his m i n d ( h a d
h e a p p r o a c h e d t h e s t u d y with a n y f l e x i b i l i t y ) lay t a b u l a t e d , b u t
u n u s e d , within his m o n o g r a p h . Y e r k e s h a d n o t e d r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n black e d u c a t i o n . H a l f t h e b l a c k recruits f r o m S o u t h e r n
states h a d n o t a t t e n d e d s c h o o l b e y o n d t h e t h i r d g r a d e , b u t h a l f h a d
r e a c h e d t h e f i f t h g r a d e i n N o r t h e r n states (p. 760). I n t h e N o r t h ,
25 p e r c e n t c o m p l e t e d p r i m a r y s c h o o l ; in the S o u t h , a m e r e 7 p e r c e n t . Y e r k e s also n o t e d (p. 734) that " t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f A l p h a s i s
very m u c h smaller and the percentage of Betas very m u c h larger
i n the s o u t h e r n t h a n i n t h e n o r t h e r n g r o u p . " M a n y y e a r s later,
A s h l e y M o n t a g u ( 1 9 4 5 ) s t u d i e d t h e tabulations b y state that Y e r k e s
had provided. He confirmed Yerkes's pattern: the average score
o n A l p h a w a s 2 1 . 3 1 f o r blacks i n t h i r t e e n S o u t h e r n states, a n d
39-90 i n n i n e N o r t h e r n states. M o n t a g u t h e n n o t e d that a v e r a g e
black scores f o r t h e f o u r h i g h e s t N o r t h e r n states ( 4 5 . 3 1 ) e x c e e d e d
250
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
t h e white m e a n f o r n i n e S o u t h e r n states (43.94). H e f o u n d t h e s a m e
p a t t e r n f o r B e t a , w h e r e b l a c k s o f six N o r t h e r n states a v e r a g e d
3 4 . 6 3 , a n d whites o f f o u r t e e n S o u t h e r n states, 3 1 . 1 1 . H e r e d i t a r i a n s
h a d their p a t a n s w e r , a s u s u a l : o n l y t h e best N e g r o e s h a d b e e n
s m a r t e n o u g h t o m o v e N o r t h . T o p e o p l e o f g o o d will a n d c o m m o n
s e n s e a n e x p l a n a t i o n i n t e r m s o f e d u c a t i o n a l quality h a s always
s e e m e d m o r e r e a s o n a b l e , especially since M o n t a g u also f o u n d s u c h
h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n a state's e x p e n d i t u r e f o r e d u c a t i o n a n d
t h e a v e r a g e s c o r e o f its r e c r u i t s .
O n e other persistent correlation threatened Yerkes's hereditarian c o n v i c t i o n s , a n d his r e s c u i n g a r g u m e n t b e c a m e a m a j o r social
w e a p o n i n later political c a m p a i g n s f o r r e s t r i c t i n g i m m i g r a t i o n .
T e s t scores h a d b e e n t a b u l a t e d b y c o u n t r y o f o r i g i n , a n d Y e r k e s
noted the pattern so dear to the hearts of N o r d i c supremacists. He
divided recruits by country of origin into English, Scandinavian,
a n d T e u t o n i c o n o n e side, a n d L a t i n a n d Slavic o n the o t h e r , a n d
stated (p. 6 9 9 ) : " t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e (an e x t r e m e
r a n g e o f practically t w o y e a r s m e n t a l a g e ) " — f a v o r i n g t h e N o r d i c s ,
of course.
B u t Y e r k e s a c k n o w l e d g e d a potential p r o b l e m . Most Latins and
Slavs h a d a r r i v e d r e c e n t l y a n d s p o k e E n g l i s h e i t h e r p o o r l y o r n o t
a t all; the m a i n w a v e o f T e u t o n i c i m m i g r a t i o n h a d p a s s e d l o n g
before. A c c o r d i n g to Yerkes's protocol, it shouldn't have mattered.
M e n w h o could not speak English suffered no penalty. T h e y took
B e t a , a pictorial test that s u p p o s e d l y m e a s u r e d i n n a t e ability i n d e p e n d e n t o f literacy a n d l a n g u a g e . Y e t t h e d a t a still s h o w e d a n
a p p a r e n t p e n a l t y f o r u n f a m i l i a r i t y with E n g l i s h . O f w h i t e recruits
w h o s c o r e d E i n A l p h a a n d t h e r e f o r e t o o k B e t a a s well ( p p . 3 8 2 383), s p e a k e r s o f E n g l i s h a v e r a g e d 1 0 1 . 6 i n B e t a , w h i l e n o n s p e a k ers a v e r a g e d o n l y 7 7 . 8 . O n t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r f o r m a n c e scale, w h i c h
e l i m i n a t e d t h e h a r a s s m e n t a n d c o n f u s i o n o f B e t a , native a n d f o r e i g n - b o r n r e c r u i t s d i d n o t d i f f e r (p. 403). ( B u t v e r y few m e n w e r e
e v e r g i v e n t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l tests, a n d t h e y d i d n o t affect n a t i o n a l
a v e r a g e s . ) Y e r k e s h a d t o a d m i t (p. 3 9 5 ) : " T h e r e a r e indications t o
t h e effect that i n d i v i d u a l s h a n d i c a p p e d b y l a n g u a g e difficulty a n d
illiteracy a r e p e n a l i z e d t o a n a p p r e c i a b l e d e g r e e i n B e t a a s c o m p a r e d with m e n n o t s o h a n d i c a p p e d . "
A n o t h e r c o r r e l a t i o n was e v e n m o r e p o t e n t i a l l y d i s t u r b i n g .
Y e r k e s f o u n d that a v e r a g e test scores f o r f o r e i g n - b o r n r e c r u i t s r o s e
consistently with y e a r s o f r e s i d e n c e i n A m e r i c a .
25 J
THE H E R E D I T A R I A N THEORY OF IQ
YEARS OF RESIDENCE
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
20-
AVERAGE M E N T A L AGE
11.29
11.70
12.53
13.50
13.74
D i d n ' t this i n d i c a t e that familiarity with A m e r i c a n w a y s , a n d n o t
i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e , r e g u l a t e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n scores? Y e r k e s
a d m i t t e d t h e possibility, b u t h e l d o u t s t r o n g h o p e f o r a h e r e d i t a r ian salvation ( p . 704):
Apparently then the g r o u p that has been longer resident in this country does somewhat better* in intelligence examination. It is not possible to
state whether the difference is caused by the better adaptation of the m o r e
thoroughly Americanized group to the situation of the examination or
whether s o m e other factor is operative. It might be, for instance, that the
m o r e intelligent immigrants succeed and therefore remain in this country,
but this suggestion is weakened by the fact that so many successful immigrants do return to Europe. At best we can but leave for future decision
the question as to whether the differences represent a real difference of
intelligence or an artifact of the m e t h o d of examination.
T h e T e u t o n i c s u p r e m a c i s t s w o u l d s o o n s u p p l y that d e c i s i o n : r e c e n t
i m m i g r a t i o n h a d d r a w n the d r e g s o f E u r o p e , lower-class L a t i n s
a n d Slavs. I m m i g r a n t s o f l o n g e r r e s i d e n c e b e l o n g e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y t o s u p e r i o r n o r t h e r n stocks. T h e c o r r e l a t i o n with y e a r s i n
A m e r i c a was a n artifact o f g e n e t i c status.
T h e a r m y m e n t a l tests c o u l d h a v e p r o v i d e d a n i m p e t u s f o r
social r e f o r m , since t h e y d o c u m e n t e d that e n v i r o n m e n t a l d i s a d v a n t a g e s w e r e r o b b i n g f r o m millions o f p e o p l e a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o
d e v e l o p t h e i r intellectual skills. A g a i n a n d a g a i n , t h e d a t a p o i n t e d
t o s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n test scores a n d e n v i r o n m e n t . A g a i n
a n d a g a i n , t h o s e w h o w r o t e a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e tests i n v e n t e d
t o r t u o u s , a d h o c e x p l a n a t i o n s t o p r e s e r v e their h e r e d i t a r i a n p r e j udices.
H o w p o w e r f u l t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n biases o f T e r m a n , G o d d a r d ,
and Y e r k e s must have been to m a k e t h e m so blind to immediate
*Note how choice of language can serve as an indication of bias. This 2.5 year
difference in mental ages (13.74-u.29) only represents "somewhat better" performance. The smaller (but presumably hereditary) difference of 2 years between
Nordic-Teutonic and Latin-Slav groups had been described as "considerable."
THE
252
M I S M E A S U R E OF MAN
c i r c u m s t a n c e s ! T e r m a n seriously a r g u e d that g o o d o r p h a n a g e s
p r e c l u d e d a n y e n v i r o n m e n t a l c a u s e o f low I Q f o r c h i l d r e n i n t h e m .
G o d d a r d tested c o n f u s e d a n d f r i g h t e n e d i m m i g r a n t s w h o h a d j u s t
completed a grueling j o u r n e y in steerage and thought he had capt u r e d i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e . Y e r k e s b a d g e r e d his r e c r u i t s , o b t a i n e d
p r o o f o f c o n f u s i o n a n d h a r a s s m e n t i n their l a r g e m o d e o f z e r o
s c o r e s , a n d p r o d u c e d d a t a o n the i n h e r e n t abilities o f racial a n d
n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . O n e c a n n o t a t t r i b u t e all t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s t o s o m e
m y s t e r i o u s " t e m p e r o f t h e t i m e s , " f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y critics saw
t h r o u g h t h e n o n s e n s e a s well. E v e n b y s t a n d a r d s o f t h e i r o w n e r a ,
the A m e r i c a n hereditarians were dogmatists. B u t their d o g m a
w a f t e d u p o n f a v o r a b l e c u r r e n t s into r e a l m s o f g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e ,
with tragic c o n s e q u e n c e s .
Political impact
CAN
DEMOCRACY
of the army
SURVIVE
AN
data
AVERAGE
MENTAL
AGE
OF
THIRTEEN?
Y e r k e s was t r o u b l e d b y his o w n f i g u r e o f 13.08 a s a n a v e r a g e
m e n t a l a g e f o r t h e w h i t e d r a f t . I t f i t t e d his p r e j u d i c e s a n d t h e
e u g e n i c a l fears o f p r o s p e r o u s old A m e r i c a n s , b u t i t was t o o g o o d
t o b e t r u e , o r t o o low t o b e b e l i e v e d . Y e r k e s r e c o g n i z e d that
s m a r t e r folks h a d b e e n e x c l u d e d f r o m the s a m p l e — o f f i c e r s w h o
enlisted a n d " p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d business e x p e r t s that w e r e e x e m p t e d f r o m d r a f t b e c a u s e essential t o i n d u s t r i a l activity i n the
w a r " (p. 7 8 5 ) . B u t the o b v i o u s l y r e t a r d e d a n d f e e b l e - m i n d e d h a d
also b e e n c u l l e d b e f o r e r e a c h i n g Y e r k e s ' s e x a m i n e r s , t h e r e b y bala n c i n g e x c l u s i o n s a t the o t h e r e n d . T h e r e s u l t i n g a v e r a g e o f 1 3
m i g h t be a bit l o w , but it c o u l d not be far w r o n g (p. 7 8 5 ) .
Y e r k e s f a c e d t w o possibilities. H e c o u l d r e c o g n i z e t h e f i g u r e a s
a b s u r d , a n d s e a r c h his m e t h o d s f o r t h e f l a w s that e n g e n d e r e d such
n o n s e n s e . H e w o u l d n o t h a v e h a d far t o l o o k , h a d h e b e e n s o
i n c l i n e d , since t h r e e m a j o r biases all c o n s p i r e d t o b r i n g t h e a v e r a g e
d o w n t o his i m p l a u s i b l e f i g u r e . First, t h e tests m e a s u r e d e d u c a t i o n
a n d familiarity w i t h A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e , n o t i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e —
a n d m a n y r e c r u i t s , w h a t e v e r their i n t e l l i g e n c e , w e r e b o t h w o e f u l l y
d e f i c i e n t i n e d u c a t i o n a n d e i t h e r t o o n e w t o A m e r i c a o r too i m p o v e r i s h e d t o h a v e m u c h a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r the e x e m p l a r y a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f M r . M a t h e w s o n ( i n c l u d i n g a n e.r.a. o f 1.14 i n 1909)S e c o n d , Y e r k e s ' s o w n stated p r o t o c o l h a d n o t b e e n f o l l o w e d . A b o u t
t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e w h i t e s a m p l e t o o k A l p h a , a n d their h i g h fre-
THE H E R E D I T A R I A N THEORY OF IQ
2
55
q u e n c y o f z e r o scores i n d i c a t e d that m a n y s h o u l d h a v e b e e n
r e t e s t e d i n B e t a . B u t t i m e a n d t h e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e r e g u l a r brass
c o n s p i r e d a g a i n s t it, a n d m a n y recruits w e r e n o t r e e x a m i n e d .
Finally, B o r i n g ' s t r e a t m e n t o f z e r o v a l u e s i m p o s e d a n a d d i t i o n a l
p e n a l t y on scores a l r e a d y (and artificially) too low.
O r Y e r k e s c o u l d a c c e p t t h e f i g u r e a n d r e m a i n a bit p u z z l e d . H e
o p t e d , of course, for the second strategy:
We know now approximately from clinical experience the capacity and
mental ability of a man of 13 years mental age. We have never heretofore
supposed that the mental ability of this man was the average of the country
or anywhere near it. A moron has been defined as anyone with a mental
age from 7 to 12 years. If this definition is interpreted as meaning anyone
with a mental age less than 13 years, as has recently been d o n e , then almost
half of the white draft (47.3 percent) would have been morons. T h u s it
appears that feeble-mindedness, as at present defined, is of much greater
frequency of occurrence than had been originally supposed.
Y e r k e s ' s c o l l e a g u e s w e r e d i s t u r b e d a s well. G o d d a r d , w h o h a d
i n v e n t e d t h e m o r o n , b e g a n t o d o u b t his o w n c r e a t i o n : " W e s e e m t o
b e i m p a l e d o n the h o r n s o f a d i l e m m a : e i t h e r h a l f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
is feeble-minded; or 12 year mentality does not properly c o m e
within t h e limits o f f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s " ( 1 9 1 9 , p . 3 5 2 ) . H e also
o p t e d f o r Y e r k e s ' s solution a n d s o u n d e d t h e w a r n i n g c r y f o r
American democracy:
If it is ultimately found that the intelligence of the average man is 1 3 —
instead of 16—it will only confirm what s o m e are beginning to suspect;
viz., that the average man can m a n a g e his affairs with only a moderate
degree of p r u d e n c e , can earn only a very modest living, and is vastly better
off when following directions than when trying to plan for himself. In
other words, it will show that there is a fundamental reason for many of
the conditions that we find in h u m a n society and further that much of o u r
effort to c h a n g e conditions is unintelligent because we have not understood the nature of the average man (1919, p. 236).
Unfortunate 13 became a formula figure a m o n g those w h o
s o u g h t t o c o n t a i n m o v e m e n t s f o r social w e l f a r e . A f t e r all, i f t h e
a v e r a g e m a n is scarcely b e t t e r t h a n a m o r o n , t h e n p o v e r t y is f u n damentally biological in origin, and neither education nor better
o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e m p l o y m e n t c a n alleviate it. In a f a m o u s a d d r e s s ,
entitled " I s A m e r i c a safe f o r d e m o c r a c y ? " , t h e c h a i r m a n o f H a r vard's p s y c h o l o g y d e p a r t m e n t stated (W. M c D o u g a l l , q u o t e d i n
C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 , p . 226):
THE
254
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
T h e results of the Army tests indicate that about 75 percent of the
population has not sufficient innate capacity for intellectual d e v e l o p m e n t
to enable it to complete the usual high school course. T h e very extensive
testing of school-children carried on by Professor T e r m a n and his colleagues leads to closely concordant results.
In an inaugural address as president of Colgate University, G. G.
C u t t e n p r o c l a i m e d i n 1922 ( q u o t e d i n C r a v e n s , 1 9 7 8 , p . 224): " W e
c a n n o t c o n c e i v e o f a n y w o r s e f o r m o f c h a o s t h a n a real d e m o c r a c y
in a p o p u l a t i o n of a v e r a g e i n t e l l i g e n c e of a little o v e r 13 y e a r s . "
A g a i n , a c a t c h y , n u m e r i c a l " f a c t " h a d risen t o p r o m i n e n c e a s
t h e d i s c o v e r y o f objective s c i e n c e — w h i l e t h e fallacies a n d f i n a g l i n g
that t h o r o u g h l y i n v a l i d a t e d i t r e m a i n e d h i d d e n i n t h e details o f a n
e i g h t - h u n d r e d - p a g e m o n o g r a p h that t h e p r o p a g a n d i s t s n e v e r
read.
T H E ARMY TESTS AND AGITATION TO RESTRICT IMMIGRATION:
BRIGHAM'S M O N O G R A P H O N
AMERICAN
INTELLIGENCE
T h e g r a n d a v e r a g e o f t h i r t e e n h a d political i m p a c t , b u t its
p o t e n t i a l f o r social h a v o c was small c o m p a r e d w i t h Y e r k e s ' s f i g u r e s
f o r racial a n d n a t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s ; f o r h e r e d i t a r i a n s c o u l d n o w
claim that t h e fact a n d e x t e n t o f g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n n a t e intell i g e n c e h a d f i n a l l y , o n c e a n d f o r all, b e e n established. Y e r k e s ' s disc i p l e C . C. B r i g h a m , t h e n a n assistant p r o f e s s o r o f p s y c h o l o g y a t
Princeton University, proclaimed (1923, p. xx):
We have here an investigation which, of course, surpasses in reliability
all preceding investigations, assembled and correlated, a h u n d r e d fold.
T h e s e army data constitute the first really significant contribution to the
study of race differences in mental traits. T h e y give us a scientific basis for
our conclusions.
I n 1 9 2 3 B r i g h a m p u b l i s h e d a b o o k , s h o r t e n o u g h a n d stated
w i t h sufficient b a l d n e s s ( s o m e w o u l d say clarity) t o b e r e a d a n d
u s e d by all p r o p a g a n d i s t s . A Study of American Intelligence ( B r i g h a m ,
1923) b e c a m e a p r i m a r y v e h i c l e f o r t r a n s l a t i n g t h e a r m y results o n
g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s i n t o social action (see K a m i n , 1 9 7 4 a n d C h a s e ,
1 9 7 7 ) . Y e r k e s h i m s e l f w r o t e t h e f o r e w o r d a n d p r a i s e d B r i g h a m for
his objectivity:
T h e author presents not theories or opinion but facts. It behooves us
to consider their reliability and their meaning, for no o n e of us as a citizen
can afford to ignore the m e n a c e of race deterioration or the evident rela-
THE H E R E D I T A R I A N THEORY OF IQ
255
tions of immigration to national progress and welfare (in Brigham, 1923,
p. vii).
S i n c e B r i g h a m d e r i v e d his " f a c t s " o n g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s e n t i r e l y
f r o m t h e a r m y r e s u l t s , h e h a d first t o dismiss t h e c l a i m that Y e r k e s ' s
tests m i g h t n o t b e p u r e m e a s u r e s o f i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e . H e a d m i t ted that A l p h a m i g h t m i n g l e t h e i m p a c t o f e d u c a t i o n with n a t i v e
ability, f o r i t d i d r e q u i r e literacy. B u t B e t a c o u l d o n l y r e c o r d
unadulterated innate intelligence: "Examination Beta involves no
E n g l i s h , a n d t h e tests c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s e d u c a t i o n a l m e a sures i n a n y s e n s e " ( p . 100). I n a n y c a s e , h e a d d e d f o r g o o d m e a s u r e , i t scarcely m a t t e r s w h e t h e r t h e tests also r e c o r d w h a t Y e r k e s
h a d called " t h e b e t t e r a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e m o r e t h o r o u g h l y A m e r i c a n i z e d g r o u p t o t h e situation o f t h e e x a m i n a t i o n " (p. 9 3 ) , since (p.
96):
If the tests used included s o m e mysterious type of situation that was "typically American," we are i n d e e d fortunate, for this is America, and the
purpose of our inquiry is that of obtaining a measure of the character of
our immigration.* Inability to respond to a "typically American" situation
is obviously an undesirable trait.
O n c e h e h a d p r o v e d that t h e tests m e a s u r e i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
B r i g h a m d e v o t e d m o s t o f his b o o k t o d i s p e l l i n g c o m m o n i m p r e s sions that m i g h t t h r e a t e n this basic a s s u m p t i o n . T h e a r m y tests
h a d , f o r e x a m p l e , assessed J e w s ( p r i m a r i l y r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s ) a s
quite low in i n t e l l i g e n c e . D o e s this d i s c o v e r y n o t conflict w i t h t h e
notable a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f s o m a n y J e w i s h s c h o l a r s , s t a t e s m e n ,
a n d p e r f o r m i n g artists? B r i g h a m c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t J e w s m i g h t b e
more variable than o t h e r g r o u p s ; a low m e a n w o u l d not p r e c l u d e
a f e w g e n i u s e s i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e . I n a n y case, B r i g h a m a d d e d , w e
probably focus unduly on the Jewish heritage of some great m e n
b e c a u s e i t s u r p r i s e s us: " T h e a b l e J e w i s p o p u l a r l y r e c o g n i z e d n o t
only b e c a u s e of his ability, b u t b e c a u s e he is a b l e a n d a J e w " (p.
190). " O u r f i g u r e s , t h e n , w o u l d r a t h e r t e n d t o d i s p r o v e t h e p o p u lar b e l i e f that t h e J e w is h i g h l y i n t e l l i g e n t " (p. 190).
B u t w h a t a b o u t t h e h i g h e r scores o f N o r t h e r n vs. S o u t h e r n
blacks? S i n c e Y e r k e s h a d also s h o w n that N o r t h e r n blacks, o n a v e r age, attended school for several m o r e years than their Southern
c o u n t e r p a r t s , d i d n ' t t h e scores reflect d i f f e r e n c e s i n e d u c a t i o n
| I n all other parts of the book, he claims that his aim is to measure and interpret
mnate differences in intelligence.
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m o r e t h a n i n b o r n ability? B r i g h a m d i d n o t d e n y a small e f f e c t f o r
e d u c a t i o n (p. 1 9 1 ) , b u t h e p r e s e n t e d t w o r e a s o n s f o r a t t r i b u t i n g
t h e h i g h e r scores o f N o r t h e r n blacks p r i m a r i l y t o b e t t e r b i o l o g y :
first, " t h e g r e a t e r a d m i x t u r e o f w h i t e b l o o d " a m o n g N o r t h e r n
b l a c k s ; s e c o n d , " t h e o p e r a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c a n d social f o r c e s , s u c h
as h i g h e r wages, better living conditions, identical school privileges,
a n d a less c o m p l e t e social o s t r a c i s m , t e n d i n g t o d r a w t h e m o r e
i n t e l l i g e n t n e g r o t o t h e n o r t h " (p. 192).
B r i g h a m faced the greatest challenge to hereditarianism on the
issue o f i m m i g r a t i o n . E v e n Y e r k e s h a d e x p r e s s e d a g n o s t i c i s m — t h e
o n l y t i m e h e c o n s i d e r e d a significant a l t e r n a t i v e t o i n b o r n
b i o l o g y — o n t h e c a u s e s o f steadily i n c r e a s i n g scores f o r i m m i g r a n t s
w h o h a d lived l o n g e r i n A m e r i c a (see p . 2 5 1 ) . T h e effects w e r e
c e r t a i n l y l a r g e , t h e r e g u l a r i t y s t r i k i n g . W i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n (see c h a r t
o n p . 2 5 1 ) , e a c h f i v e y e a r s o f r e s i d e n c y b r o u g h t a n i n c r e a s e i n test
s c o r e s , a n d t h e total d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n r e c e n t a r r i v a l s a n d the
l o n g e s t r e s i d e n t s was a full t w o a n d a h a l f y e a r s in m e n t a l a g e .
B r i g h a m d i r e c t e d h i m s e l f a r o u n d t h e a p p a l l i n g possibility o f
e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m b y a r g u i n g i n a circle. H e b e g a n b y a s s u m i n g
w h a t h e i n t e n d e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e . H e d e n i e d t h e possibility o f
environmental influence a priori, by accepting as p r o v e n the highly
c o n t r o v e r s i a l c l a i m that B e t a m u s t m e a s u r e u n a d u l t e r a t e d i n n a t e
i n t e l l i g e n c e , w h a t e v e r A l p h a m a y b e d o i n g with its r e q u i r e m e n t o f
literacy. T h e b i o l o g i c a l basis o f d e c l i n i n g s c o r e s f o r r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s c a n t h e n b e p r o v e n b y d e m o n s t r a t i n g that d e c r e a s e o n t h e
c o m b i n e d scale i s n o t a n a r t i f a c t o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n A l p h a o n l y :
T h e hypothesis of growth of intelligence with increasing length of residence may be identified with the hypothesis of an error in the m e t h o d of
measuring intelligence, for we must assume that we are measuring native
or inborn intelligence, and any increase in our test score d u e to any other
factor may be regarded as an error. . . . If all m e m b e r s of our five years of
residence groups had been given Alpha, Beta, and individual examinations in equal proportions, then all would have been treated alike, and the
relationship shown would stand without any possibility of error (p. 100).
If the differences between residence groups are not innate,
B r i g h a m a r g u e d , t h e n t h e y reflect a t e c h n i c a l f l a w i n c o n s t r u c t i n g
t h e c o m b i n e d scale f r o m v a r y i n g p r o p o r t i o n s o f A l p h a s a n d B e t a s ;
t h e y c a n n o t arise f r o m a d e f e c t i n t h e tests t h e m s e l v e s , a n d t h e r e f o r e cannot, by definition, be e n v i r o n m e n t a l indicators of increasi n g familiarity w i t h A m e r i c a n c u s t o m s a n d l a n g u a g e .
T H E H E R E D I T A R I A N T H E O R Y OF IQ
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B r i g h a m studied the performances of A l p h a s and Betas, f o u n d
that d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n r e s i d e n c e g r o u p s p e r s i s t e d a m o n g the
B e t a s , a n d p r o c l a i m e d his c o u n t e r - i n t u i t i v e h y p o t h e s i s o f d e c r e a s ing innate intelligence a m o n g m o r e recent immigrants. " W e
actually f i n d , " h e p r o c l a i m e d (p. 102), " t h a t t h e g a i n f r o m e a c h
t y p e o f e x a m i n a t i o n [both A l p h a a n d B e t a ] i s a b o u t t h e s a m e . T h i s
i n d i c a t e s , t h e n , that t h e f i v e y e a r s o f r e s i d e n c e g r o u p s a r e g r o u p s
with real d i f f e r e n c e s i n n a t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d n o t g r o u p s l a b o r i n g
u n d e r m o r e o r less o f a linguistic a n d e d u c a t i o n a l h a n d i c a p . "
Instead of considering that our curve indicates a growth of intelligence
with increasing length of residence, we are forced to take the reverse of
the picture and accept the hypothesis that the curve indicates a gradual
deterioration in the class of immigrants examined in the army, w h o came
to this country in each succeeding 5 year period since 1902 (pp. 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 ) .
. . . T h e average intelligence of succeeding waves of immigration has
b e c o m e progressively lower (p. 155).
B u t why should recent immigrants be m o r e stupid? To resolve
this c o n u n d r u m , B r i g h a m i n v o k e d t h e l e a d i n g t h e o r i s t o f r a c i s m
in his d a y , t h e A m e r i c a n M a d i s o n G r a n t ( a u t h o r of The Passing of
the Great Race), a n d that a g i n g relic f r o m t h e h e y d a y of F r e n c h
craniometry, Count Georges Vacher de Lapouge. Brigham argued
that t h e E u r o p e a n p e o p l e s a r e m i x t u r e s , t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , o f
t h r e e o r i g i n a l races: 1 ) N o r d i c s , " a r a c e o f s o l d i e r s , sailors, a d v e n t u r e r s , a n d e x p l o r e r s , b u t a b o v e all, o f r u l e r s , o r g a n i z e r s , a n d aristocrats . . . f e u d a l i s m , class d i s t i n c t i o n s , a n d r a c e p r i d e a m o n g
E u r o p e a n s a r e t r a c e a b l e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t t o the N o r t h . " T h e y a r e
" d o m i n e e r i n g , individualistic, self-reliant . . . a n d as a result t h e y
a r e usually P r o t e s t a n t s " ( G r a n t , q u o t e d i n B r i g h a m , p . 182); 2 )
A l p i n e s , w h o a r e " s u b m i s s i v e t o a u t h o r i t y b o t h political a n d relig i o u s , b e i n g u s u a l l y R o m a n C a t h o l i c s " ( G r a n t , i n B r i g h a m , p . 183),
a n d w h o m V a c h e r d e L a p o u g e d e s c r i b e d a s " t h e p e r f e c t slave, t h e
ideal serf, t h e m o d e l subject" (p. 183); 3 ) M e d i t e r r a n e a n s , o f w h o m
G r a n t a p p r o v e d , g i v e n their a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s i n a n c i e n t G r e e c e
a n d R o m e , b u t w h o m B r i g h a m d e s p i s e d b e c a u s e their a v e r a g e
scores w e r e e v e n slightly l o w e r t h a n t h e A l p i n e s .
B r i g h a m t h e n tried t o assess t h e a m o u n t o f N o r d i c , A l p i n e , a n d
M e d i t e r r a n e a n blood in various E u r o p e a n peoples, a n d to calculate
t h e a r m y scores o n this scientific a n d racial basis, r a t h e r t h a n f r o m
the political e x p e d i e n t o f n a t i o n a l o r i g i n . H e d e v i s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g
2$8
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f i g u r e s f o r a v e r a g e i n t e l l i g e n c e : N o r d i c , 1 3 . 2 8 ; A l p i n e , 11.67;
Mediterranean, 11.43.
T h e p r o g r e s s i v e d e c l i n e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r e a c h f i v e - y e a r resid e n c y g r o u p t h e n a c h i e v e d its easy, innatist e x p l a n a t i o n . T h e c h a r acter of immigration had c h a n g e d m a r k e d l y d u r i n g the past twenty
y e a r s . B e f o r e t h e n , arrivals h a d b e e n p r e d o m i n a n t l y N o r d i c ; since
then, we have been inundated by a progressively increasing n u m ber of Alpines and Mediterraneans, as the focus of immigration
s h i f t e d f r o m G e r m a n y , S c a n d i n a v i a , a n d t h e British Isles t o t h e
great u n w a s h e d of southern and eastern E u r o p e — I t a l i a n s , Greeks,
T u r k s , H u n g a r i a n s , P o l e s , R u s s i a n s , a n d o t h e r Slavs ( i n c l u d i n g
J e w s , w h o m B r i g h a m d e f i n e d racially a s " A l p i n e Slavs"). O f t h e
i n f e r i o r i t y o f t h e s e r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s , t h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t (p.
202):
T h e Fourth of July orator can convincingly raise the popular belief in
the intellectual level of Poland by shouting the n a m e of Kosciusko from a
high platform, but he cannot alter the distribution of the intelligence of
the Polish immigrant.
B u t B r i g h a m r e a l i z e d that t w o difficulties still s t o o d b e f o r e his
innatist c l a i m . H e h a d p r o v e d that t h e a r m y tests m e a s u r e d i n b o r n
i n t e l l i g e n c e , b u t h e still f e a r e d that i g n o r a n t o p p o n e n t s m i g h t try
to attribute high N o r d i c scores to the presence of so m a n y native
speakers of English in the g r o u p .
He t h e r e f o r e divided the N o r d i c g r o u p into native speakers
f r o m C a n a d a a n d t h e British isles, w h o a v e r a g e d 1 3 . 8 4 , a n d " n o n English speakers," primarily from G e r m a n y , Holland, and Scand i n a v i a , w h o a v e r a g e d 12.97. A g a i n , B r i g h a m h a d v i r t u a l l y p r o v e d
t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t c l a i m that a r m y tests m e a s u r e d f a m i l i a r i t y
with A m e r i c a n language and customs; but again, he devised an
innatist f u d g e . T h e d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n E n g l i s h a n d n o n - E n g l i s h
Nordics was half as large as the difference between Nordics a n d
Mediterraneans. Since differences a m o n g Nordics could only repr e s e n t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l effects o f l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e (as
B r i g h a m admitted), why not attribute variation between E u r o p e a n
races t o t h e s a m e c a u s e ? A f t e r all, t h e so-called n o n - E n g l i s h N o r dics w e r e , o® a v e r a g e , m o r e f a m i l i a r w i t h A m e r i c a n w a y s a n d
should have scored higher than Alpines and Mediterraneans on
this basis a l o n e . B r i g h a m called t h e s e m e n " n o n - E n g l i s h " a n d u s e d
THE H E R E D I T A R I A N THEORY OF IQ
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t h e m a s a test o f his l a n g u a g e h y p o t h e s i s . B u t , i n fact, h e o n l y k n e w
t h e i r c o u n t r y o f o r i g i n , n o t t h e i r d e g r e e o f familiarity with E n g l i s h .
O n a v e r a g e , t h e s e so-called n o n - E n g l i s h N o r d i c s h a d b e e n i n
A m e r i c a far longer than the Alpines or Mediterraneans. Many
s p o k e E n g l i s h well a n d h a d s p e n t e n o u g h y e a r s i n A m e r i c a t o master t h e a r c a n a o f b o w l i n g , c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t s , a n d film stars. I f
t h e y , with t h e i r i n t e r m e d i a r y k n o w l e d g e o f A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e ,
scored almost a year below the English Nordics, why not attribute
the nearly two-year disadvantage of Alpines and Mediterraneans
to their greater a v e r a g e unfamiliarity with A m e r i c a n ways? It is
surely m o r e parsimonious to use the same explanation for a continu u m of effects. Instead, B r i g h a m admitted environmental causes
for the disparity within Nordics, but then a d v a n c e d innatism to
e x p l a i n t h e l o w e r scores o f his d e s p i s e d s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n
Europeans (pp. 1 7 1 - 1 7 2 ) :
T h e r e are, of course, cogent historical and sociological reasons
accounting for the inferiority of the non-English speaking Nordic g r o u p .
On the other hand, if o n e wishes to deny, in the teeth of the facts, the
superiority of the Nordic race on the ground that the language factor mysteriously aids this g r o u p when tested, he may cut out of the Nordic distribution the English speaking Nordics, and still find a marked superiority of
the non-English speaking Nordics over the Alpine and Mediterranean
groups, a fact which clearly indicates that the underlying cause of the
nativity differences we have shown is race, and not language.
H a v i n g m e t this c h a l l e n g e , B r i g h a m e n c o u n t e r e d a n o t h e r that
h e c o u l d n ' t q u i t e e n c o m p a s s . H e h a d a t t r i b u t e d the d e c l i n i n g
scores o f successive f i v e - y e a r g r o u p s t o t h e d e c r e a s i n g p e r c e n t a g e
of Nordics in their midst. Y e t he had to admit a troubling anac h r o n i s m . T h e N o r d i c w a v e h a d d i m i n i s h e d l o n g b e f o r e , a n d immigration for the two or three most recent five-year g r o u p s had
included a roughly constant proportion of Alpines and Mediterr a n e a n s . Y e t scores c o n t i n u e d t o d r o p while racial c o m p o s i t i o n
r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t . D i d n ' t this, a t least, i m p l i c a t e l a n g u a g e a n d cult u r e ? A f t e r all, B r i g h a m h a d a v o i d e d b i o l o g y i n e x p l a i n i n g t h e s u b stantial d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n N o r d i c g r o u p s ; w h y n o t treat similar
differences a m o n g Alpines and Mediterraneans in the same way?
A g a i n , prejudice annihilated c o m m o n sense and B r i g h a m invented
an implausible explanation for which, he admitted, he had no
d i r e c t e v i d e n c e . S i n c e scores o f A l p i n e s a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n s h a d
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b e e n declining, the nations h a r b o r i n g these miscreants must be
s e n d i n g a p r o g r e s s i v e l y p o o r e r b i o l o g i c a l stock as t h e y e a r s w e a r
o n (p. 178):
T h e decline in intelligence is d u e to two factors, the change in the races
migrating to this country, and to the additional factor of the sending of
lower and lower representatives of each race.
T h e prospects for A m e r i c a , B r i g h a m g r o u s e d , w e r e dismal.
T h e E u r o p e a n m e n a c e was b a d e n o u g h , b u t A m e r i c a f a c e d a special a n d m o r e s e r i o u s p r o b l e m (p. x x i ) :
Running parallel with the movements of these European peoples, we
have the most sinister development in the history of this continent, the
importation of the negro.
B r i g h a m c o n c l u d e d his tract w i t h a political p l e a , a d v o c a t i n g
t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n line o n t w o h o t political subjects o f his t i m e : the
restriction o f i m m i g r a t i o n a n d e u g e n i c a l r e g u l a t i o n o f r e p r o d u c tion ( p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 ) :
T h e decline of American intelligence will be m o r e rapid than the
decline of the intelligence of European national groups, owing to the presence here of the n e g r o . T h e s e are the plain, if somewhat ugly, facts that
our study shows. T h e deterioration of American intelligence is not inevitable, however, if public action can be aroused to prevent it. T h e r e is no
reason why legal steps should not be taken which would insure a continuously progressive upward evolution.
T h e steps that should be taken to preserve or increase o u r present
intellectual capacity must of course be dictated by science and not by political expediency. Immigration should not only be restrictive but highly
selective. A n d the revision of the immigration and naturalization laws will
only afford a slight relief from our present difficulty. T h e really important
steps are those looking toward the prevention of the continued propagation of defective strains in the present population.
A s Y e r k e s h a d said o f B r i g h a m : " T h e a u t h o r p r e s e n t s n o t t h e o r i e s
or opinions but facts."
T H E T R I U M P H OF R E S T R I C T I O N O N
IMMIGRATION
T h e a r m y tests e n g e n d e r e d a variety o f social uses. T h e i r m o s t
e n d u r i n g e f f e c t s u r e l y lay i n t h e field o f m e n t a l t e s t i n g itself. T h e y
w e r e t h e first w r i t t e n I Q tests t o g a i n r e s p e c t , a n d t h e y p r o v i d e d
essential t e c h n o l o g y f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n i d e o l o g y
THE HEREDITARIAN THEORY OF IQ
26/
that a d v o c a t e d , c o n t r a r y t o B i n e t ' s w i s h e s , t h e t e s t i n g a n d r a n k i n g
o f all c h i l d r e n .
O t h e r p r o p a g a n d i s t s u s e d t h e a r m y results t o d e f e n d racial
s e g r e g a t i o n a n d l i m i t e d access o f blacks t o h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . C o r nelia J a m e s C a n n o n , w r i t i n g in t h e Atlantic Monthly in 1 9 2 2 , n o t e d
that 8 9 p e r c e n t o f blacks h a d tested a s m o r o n s a n d a r g u e d ( q u o t e d
i n C h a s e , 1 9 7 7 , p . 263):
Emphasis must necessarily be laid on the d e v e l o p m e n t of the primary
schools, on the training in activities, habits, occupations which do not
d e m a n d the m o r e evolved faculties. In the South particularly . . . the
education of the whites and colored in separate schools may have justification other than that created by race prejudice. . . . A public school system, preparing for life y o u n g people of a race, 50 percent of w h o m never
reach a mental age of 10, is a system yet to be perfected.
But the army data h a d their most immediate and p r o f o u n d impact u p o n t h e g r e a t i m m i g r a t i o n d e b a t e , t h e n a m a j o r political issue
i n A m e r i c a . R e s t r i c t i o n w a s i n t h e air, a n d w o u l d h a v e o c c u r r e d
w i t h o u t scientific b a c k i n g . ( C o n s i d e r t h e w i d e s p e c t r u m o f s u p p o r t
that limitationists c o u l d m u s t e r — f r o m traditional c r a f t u n i o n s fearing multitudes of low-paid laborers, to jingoists and A m e r i c a firsters
w h o r e g a r d e d most immigrants as b o m b - t h r o w i n g anarchists and
w h o h e l p e d m a k e m a r t y r s o f S a c c o a n d V a n z e t t i . ) B u t the t i m i n g ,
a n d especially the p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r , o f t h e 1 9 2 4 Restriction A c t
clearly r e f l e c t e d t h e l o b b y i n g o f scientists a n d e u g e n i c i s t s , a n d t h e
a r m y d a t a f o r m e d t h e i r m o s t p o w e r f u l b a t t e r i n g r a m (see C h a s e ,
1977; Kamin, 1974; and L u d m e r e r , 1972).
H e n r y Fairfield O s b o r n , t r u s t e e o f C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y a n d
president of the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m of Natural History, wrote in
1 9 2 3 , in a s t a t e m e n t that I c a n n o t r e a d w i t h o u t a s h u d d e r w h e n I
recall t h e g r u e s o m e statistics o f m o r t a l i t y f o r W o r l d W a r I:
I believe those tests were worth what the war cost, even in h u m a n life,
if they served to show clearly to our people the lack of intelligence in our
country, and the degrees of intelligence in different races w h o are coming
to us, in a way which no o n e can say is the result of prejudice. . . . We have
learned o n c e and for all that the negro is not like us. So in regard to many
races and subraces in Europe we learned that s o m e which we had believed
possessed of an order of intelligence perhaps superior to ours [read Jews]
were far inferior.
262
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
Congressional debates leading to passage of the Immigration
Restriction A c t o f 1 9 2 4 f r e q u e n t l y i n v o k e d t h e a r m y d a t a . E u g e n i cists l o b b i e d n o t o n l y f o r limits t o i m m i g r a t i o n , b u t f o r c h a n g i n g its
character by imposing harsh quotas against nations of inferior
s t o c k — a f e a t u r e o f t h e 1 9 2 4 act that m i g h t n e v e r h a v e b e e n i m p l e mented, or even considered, without the army data and eugenicist
p r o p a g a n d a . In short, southern and eastern E u r o p e a n s , the A l p i n e
a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n n a t i o n s w i t h m i n i m a l scores o n the a r m y tests,
should be kept out. T h e eugenicists battled and w o n o n e of the
g r e a t e s t victories o f scientific r a c i s m i n A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y . T h e f i r s t
restriction act o f 1 9 2 1 h a d set y e a r l y q u o t a s a t 3 p e r c e n t o f i m m i g r a n t s f r o m a n y n a t i o n t h e n r e s i d e n t i n A m e r i c a . T h e 1 9 2 4 act,
f o l l o w i n g a b a r r a g e of e u g e n i c i s t p r o p a g a n d a , reset the q u o t a s at 2
p e r c e n t o f p e o p l e f r o m e a c h n a t i o n r e c o r d e d i n t h e 1890 c e n s u s .
T h e 1890 f i g u r e s w e r e u s e d until 1 9 3 0 . W h y 1890 a n d n o t 1920
since t h e act was p a s s e d in 1924? 1890 m a r k e d a w a t e r s h e d in t h e
history o f i m m i g r a t i o n . S o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n s a r r i v e d
i n relatively small n u m b e r s b e f o r e t h e n , b u t b e g a n t o p r e d o m i n a t e
thereafter. Cynical, but effective. " A m e r i c a must be kept A m e r i c a n , " p r o c l a i m e d C a l v i n C o o l i d g e a s h e s i g n e d t h e bill.
BRIGHAM
RECANTS
Six y e a r s a f t e r his d a t a h a d s o m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t e d t h e establishm e n t of national quotas, B r i g h a m h a d a p r o f o u n d c h a n g e of heart.
H e r e c o g n i z e d that a test s c o r e c o u l d n o t b e reified a s a n entity
inside a person's h e a d :
Most psychologists working in the test field have been guilty of a naming fallacy which easily enables them to slide mysteriously from the score
in the test to the hypothetical faculty suggested by the n a m e given to the
test. T h u s , they speak of sensory discrimination, perception, memory,
intelligence, and the like while the reference is to a certain objective test
situation (Brigham, 1930, p. 159).
I n a d d i t i o n , B r i g h a m n o w r e a l i z e d that t h e a r m y d a t a w e r e
worthless as measures of innate intelligence for two reasons. For
e a c h e r r o r , h e a p o l o g i z e d w i t h a n abjectness r a r e l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n
scientific l i t e r a t u r e . First, h e a d m i t t e d that A l p h a a n d B e t a c o u l d
n o t b e c o m b i n e d i n t o a s i n g l e scale a s h e a n d Y e r k e s h a d d o n e i n
p r o d u c i n g a v e r a g e s f o r r a c e s a n d n a t i o n s . T h e tests m e a s u r e d dif-
THE HEREDITARIAN THEORY OF IQ
263
f e r e n t t h i n g s , a n d e a c h was i n t e r n a l l y i n c o n s i s t e n t i n a n y case. E a c h
n a t i o n was r e p r e s e n t e d b y a s a m p l e o f recruits w h o h a d t a k e n
A l p h a and Beta in differing proportions. Nations could not be
c o m p a r e d at all ( B r i g h a m , 1 9 3 0 , p . 164):
As this m e t h o d of amalgamating Alphas and Betas to produce a combined scale was used by the writer in his earlier analysis of the Army tests
as applied to samples of foreign born in the draft, that study with its entire
hypothetical superstructure of racial differences collapses completely.
S e c o n d l y , B r i g h a m a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e tests h a d m e a s u r e d
familiarity w i t h A m e r i c a n l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e , n o t i n n a t e intelligence:
For purposes of comparing individuals or groups, it is apparent that
tests in the vernacular must be used only with individuals having equal
opportunity to acquire the vernacular of the test. This requirement precludes the use of such tests in making comparative studies of individuals
brought up in h o m e s in which the vernacular of the test is not used, or in
which two vernaculars are used. T h e last condition is frequently violated
here in studies of children born in this country whose parents speak
another tongue. It is important, as the effects of bilingualism are not
entirely known. . . . Comparative studies of various national and racial
groups may not be m a d e with existing tests. . . . O n e of the most pretentious of these comparative racial studies—the writer's own—was without
foundation (Brigham, 1930, p. 165).
B r i g h a m p a i d his p e r s o n a l d e b t , b u t h e c o u l d n o t u n d o w h a t
the tests h a d a c c o m p l i s h e d . T h e q u o t a s s t o o d , a n d s l o w e d i m m i g r a t i o n f r o m s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e t o a trickle. T h r o u g h out t h e 1 9 3 0 s , J e w i s h r e f u g e e s , a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e h o l o c a u s t , s o u g h t
to emigrate, but w e r e not admitted. T h e legal quotas, and continuing eugenical p r o p a g a n d a , barred t h e m even in years w h e n
inflated q u o t a s f o r w e s t e r n a n d n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s w e r e
not f i l l e d . C h a s e ( 1 9 7 7 ) h a s e s t i m a t e d that t h e q u o t a s b a r r e d u p t o
6 million s o u t h e r n , c e n t r a l , a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n s b e t w e e n 1 9 2 4
a n d t h e o u t b r e a k o f W o r l d W a r I I ( a s s u m i n g that i m m i g r a t i o n h a d
c o n t i n u e d a t its p r e - 1 9 2 4 rate). W e k n o w w h a t h a p p e n e d t o m a n y
who wished to leave but h a d n o w h e r e to go. T h e paths to destruction are often indirect, but ideas can be agents as sure as g u n s a n d
bombs.
SIX
T h e Real Error of Cyril Burt
Factor Analysis and the Reification of
Intelligence
It has been the signal merit of the English school of psychology, from Sir
Francis Galton onwards, that it has, by this very device of mathematical
analysis, transformed the mental test from a discredited dodge of the
charlatan into a recognized instrument of scientific precision.
— CYRIL
BURT,
1921,
p.
130
The case of Sir Cyril Burt
If I h a d a n y d e s i r e to l e a d a life of i n d o l e n t e a s e , I w o u l d wish
to be an identical twin, separated at birth f r o m my brother and
raised in a d i f f e r e n t social class. We c o u l d h i r e o u r s e l v e s o u t to a
host o f social scientists a n d practically n a m e o u r f e e . F o r w e w o u l d
b e e x c e e d i n g l y r a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e o n l y really a d e q u a t e natu r a l e x p e r i m e n t f o r s e p a r a t i n g g e n e t i c f r o m e n v i r o n m e n t a l effects
in h u m a n s — g e n e t i c a l l y identical individuals raised in disparate
environments.
S t u d i e s o f i d e n t i c a l twins raised a p a r t s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e h o l d
pride of place in literature on the inheritance of I Q . A n d so it
w o u l d b e b u t f o r o n e p r o b l e m — t h e e x t r e m e rarity o f t h e a n i m a l
itself. F e w i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e b e e n a b l e t o r u s t l e u p m o r e t h a n
t w e n t y p a i r s o f twins. Y e t , a m i d s t this p a l t r i n e s s , o n e s t u d y s e e m e d
t o s t a n d o u t : that o f Sir C y r i l B u r t ( 1 8 8 3 - 1 9 7 1 ) . Sir C y r i l , d o y e n o f
m e n t a l testers, h a d p u r s u e d t w o s e q u e n t i a l c a r e e r s that g a i n e d h i m
a p r e e m i n e n t r o l e in d i r e c t i n g b o t h t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e in his field
o f e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g y . F o r t w e n t y y e a r s h e was t h e official psychologist of the L o n d o n C o u n t y Council, responsible for the
T H E R E A L E R R O R OF C Y R I L B U R T
265
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m e n t a l tests i n L o n d o n ' s
schools. He then succeeded Charles S p e a r m a n as professor in the
most influential chair of psychology in Britain: University C o l l e g e ,
L o n d o n ( 1 9 3 2 - 1 9 5 0 ) . D u r i n g his l o n g r e d r e m e n t , Sir C y r i l p u b lished several p a p e r s that b u t t r e s s e d the h e r e d i t a r i a n claim by citi n g v e r y h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n I Q scores o f i d e n t i c a l twins
r a i s e d a p a r t . B u r t ' s s t u d y stood o u t a m o n g all o t h e r s b e c a u s e h e
h a d f o u n d fifty-three p a i r s , m o r e than twice t h e total o f a n y p r e v i o u s a t t e m p t . I t i s scarcely s u r p r i s i n g that A r t h u r J e n s e n u s e d Sir
C y r i l ' s f i g u r e s a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d a t u m i n his n o t o r i o u s article
(1969) on supposedly inherited and ineradicable differences in
i n t e l l i g e n c e b e t w e e n whites a n d blacks i n A m e r i c a .
T h e story o f B u r t ' s u n d o i n g i s n o w m o r e t h a n a twice-told tale.
P r i n c e t o n p s y c h o l o g i s t L e o n K a m i n first n o t e d that, w h i l e B u r t h a d
i n c r e a s e d his s a m p l e o f twins f r o m f e w e r t h a n t w e n t y t o m o r e t h a n
fifty in a series of p u b l i c a t i o n s , t h e a v e r a g e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
pairs f o r I Q r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d t o t h e t h i r d d e c i m a l p l a c e — a
statistical situation so u n l i k e l y that it m a t c h e s o u r v e r n a c u l a r definition o f i m p o s s i b l e . T h e n , i n 1 9 7 6 , O l i v e r Gillie, m e d i c a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f t h e L o n d o n Sunday Times, e l e v a t e d t h e c h a r g e f r o m
i n e x c u s a b l e c a r e l e s s n e s s t o c o n s c i o u s f a k e r y . Gillie d i s c o v e r e d ,
a m o n g m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s , that B u r t ' s t w o " c o l l a b o r a t o r s , " a M a r g a r e t H o w a r d a n d a J . C o n w a y , t h e w o m e n w h o s u p p o s e d l y collected a n d p r o c e s s e d his d a t a , e i t h e r n e v e r e x i s t e d a t all, o r a t least
c o u l d not h a v e b e e n i n c o n t a c t with B u r t w h i l e h e w r o t e t h e p a p e r s
b e a r i n g t h e i r n a m e s . T h e s e c h a r g e s led t o f u r t h e r r e a s s e s s m e n t s o f
B u r t ' s " e v i d e n c e " f o r his r i g i d h e r e d i t a r i a n p o s i t i o n . I n d e e d , o t h e r
c r u c i a l s t u d i e s w e r e equally f r a u d u l e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y his I Q c o r r e lations b e t w e e n close relatives (suspiciously t o o g o o d t o b e t r u e a n d
a p p a r e n t l y c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m ideal statistical d i s t r i b u t i o n s , r a t h e r
t h a n m e a s u r e d i n n a t u r e — D o r f m a n , 1 9 7 8 ) , a n d his d a t a f o r
d e c l i n i n g levels o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i n B r i t a i n .
B u r t ' s s u p p o r t e r s t e n d e d at first to v i e w t h e c h a r g e s as a thinly
v e i l e d leftist plot t o u n d o t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n p o s i t i o n b y r h e t o r i c .
H . J . E y s e n c k w r o t e t o B u r t ' s sister: " I t h i n k t h e w h o l e a f f a i r i s j u s t
a d e t e r m i n e d effort on the part of some very left-wing environmentalists d e t e r m i n e d to play a political g a m e with scientific facts.
I a m s u r e t h e f u t u r e will u p h o l d t h e h o n o r a n d i n t e g r i t y o f Sir
C y r i l w i t h o u t a n y q u e s t i o n . " A r t h u r J e n s e n , w h o h a d called B u r t a
266
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
" b o r n n o b l e m a n " a n d " o n e o f the w o r l d ' s g r e a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s , " h a d
t o c o n c l u d e that t h e d a t a o n identical twins c o u l d n o t b e t r u s t e d ,
t h o u g h h e a t t r i b u t e d their i n a c c u r a c y t o carelessness a l o n e .
I t h i n k that t h e s p l e n d i d "official" b i o g r a p h y o f B u r t r e c e n t l y
p u b l i s h e d b y L . S . H e a r n s h a w ( 1 9 7 9 ) h a s r e s o l v e d the issue s o f a r
a s t h e d a t a p e r m i t ( H e a r n s h a w was c o m m i s s i o n e d t o w r i t e his b o o k
b y B u r t ' s sister b e f o r e a n y c h a r g e s h a d b e e n l e v e l e d ) . H e a r n s h a w ,
w h o began as an unqualified admirer of B u r t and w h o tends to
s h a r e his i n t e l l e c t u a l a t d t u d e s , e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d that all allegations are true, and worse. A n d yet, H e a r n s h a w has convinced me
that the v e r y e n o r m i t y a n d b i z a r r e n e s s o f B u r t ' s f a k e r y f o r c e s u s t o
view it not as the "rational" p r o g r a m of a devious person trying to
s a l v a g e his h e r e d i t a r i a n d o g m a w h e n h e k n e w t h e g a m e was u p
(my o r i g i n a l s u s p i c i o n , I c o n f e s s ) , b u t as t h e actions of a sick a n d
t o r t u r e d m a n . (All this, o f c o u r s e , d o e s n o t t o u c h the d e e p e r issue
of why such patently m a n u f a c t u r e d data went unchallenged for so
l o n g , a n d w h a t this will t o b e l i e v e i m p l i e s a b o u t the basis o f o u r
hereditarian presuppositions.)
H e a r n s h a w b e l i e v e s that B u r t b e g a n his fabrications i n t h e e a r l y
1940s, a n d t h a t his e a r l i e r w o r k w a s h o n e s t , t h o u g h m a r r e d b y
rigid a priori c o n v i c d o n and often inexcusably sloppy a n d superficial, e v e n b y t h e s t a n d a r d s o f his o w n t i m e . B u r t ' s w o r l d b e g a n t o
c o l l a p s e d u r i n g t h e w a r , p a r t l y b y his o w n d o i n g t o b e s u r e . His
r e s e a r c h d a t a p e r i s h e d i n t h e blitz o f L o n d o n ; his m a r r i a g e f a i l e d ;
h e was e x c l u d e d f r o m his o w n d e p a r t m e n t w h e n h e r e f u s e d t o
retire gracefully at the mandatory a g e and attempted to retain control; he was r e m o v e d as editor of the j o u r n a l he h a d f o u n d e d ,
again after declining to cede control at the specified time he himself h a d set; his h e r e d i t a r i a n d o g m a n o l o n g e r m a t c h e d t h e spirit
o f a n a g e that h a d j u s t w i t n e s s e d t h e h o l o c a u s t . I n a d d i t i o n , B u r t
a p p a r e n t l y s u f f e r e d f r o m M e n i e r e s disease, a d i s o r d e r o f t h e
organs of balance, with f r e q u e n t a n d negative consequences for
p e r s o n a l i t y as well.
H e a r n s h a w cites f o u r instances o f f r a u d i n B u r t ' s later c a r e e r .
T h r e e I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d (fabrication o f d a t a o n identical
t w i n s , k i n s h i p c o r r e l a t i o n s i n I Q , a n d d e c l i n i n g levels o f intellig e n c e i n B r i t a i n ) . T h e f o u r t h is, i n m a n y w a y s , t h e m o s t b i z a r r e
tale o f all b e c a u s e B u r t ' s c l a i m was s o a b s u r d a n d his a c t i o n s s o
p a t e n t a n d easy t o u n c o v e r . I t c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n t h e act o f a
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
r a t i o n a l m a n . B u r t a t t e m p t e d t o c o m m i t a n act o f intellectual parricide b y d e c l a r i n g himself, r a t h e r than his p r e d e c e s s o r a n d m e n tor C h a r l e s S p e a r m a n , a s t h e f a t h e r o f a t e c h n i q u e called " f a c t o r
analysis" i n p s y c h o l o g y . S p e a r m a n h a d essentially i n v e n t e d t h e
t e c h n i q u e i n a c e l e b r a t e d p a p e r o f 1904. B u r t n e v e r c h a l l e n g e d
this p r i o r i t y — i n fact h e constantly a f f i r m e d i t — w h i l e S p e a r m a n
h e l d t h e c h a i r that B u r t w o u l d later o c c u p y a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e I n d e e d , i n his f a m o u s b o o k o n f a c t o r analysis ( 1 9 4 0 ) , B u r t states
that " S p e a r m a n ' s p r e e m i n e n c e i s a c k n o w l e d g e d b y e v e r y factorist
(1940, p. x).
B u r t ' s f i r s t a t t e m p t t o r e w r i t e history o c c u r r e d w h i l e S p e a r m a n
w a s still alive, a n d it elicited a s h a r p r e j o i n d e r f r o m the o c c u p a n t
emeritus of Burt's chair. Burt withdrew immediately and wrote a
letter t o S p e a r m a n that m a y b e u n m a t c h e d f o r d e f e r e n c e a n d obsequiousness: "Surely y o u have a prior claim here. . . . I have been
w o n d e r i n g w h e r e p r e c i s e l y I h a v e g o n e astray. W o u l d i t b e simplest
f o r m e t o n u m b e r m y s t a t e m e n t s , t h e n like m y s c h o o l m a s t e r o f old
y o u c a n p u t a cross a g a i n s t t h e p o i n t s w h e r e y o u r p u p i l has b l u n d e r e d , a n d a tick w h e r e y o u r view is c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t e d . "
B u t w h e n S p e a r m a n d i e d , B u r t l a u n c h e d a c a m p a i g n that
" b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y u n r e s t r a i n e d , obsessive a n d e x t r a v a g a n t
( H e a r n s h a w , 1979) t h r o u g h o u t t h e rest o f his life. H e a r n s h a w
notes ( 1 9 7 9 , p p . 286-287): " T h e whisperings against S p e a r m a n
that w e r e j u s t a u d i b l e in t h e late 1930's swelled i n t o a s t r i d e n t c a m p a i g n o f b e l i t t l e m e n t , w h i c h g r e w until B u r t a r r o g a t e d t o h i m s e l f
the whole of Spearman's fame. Indeed, Burt seemed to be becomi n g i n c r e a s i n g l y o b s e s s e d w i t h q u e s t i o n s o f p r i o r i t y , a n d increasi n g l y t o u c h y a n d egotistical." B u r t ' s false story was s i m p l e e n o u g h
K a r l P e a r s o n h a d i n v e n t e d t h e t e c h n i q u e o f f a c t o r analysis (of
s o m e t h i n g close e n o u g h t o it) i n 1 9 0 1 , t h r e e y e a r s b e f o r e S p e a r man's paper. But Pearson had not applied it to psychological probl e m s . B u r t r e c o g n i z e d its i m p l i c a t i o n s a n d b r o u g h t the t e c h n i q u e
i n t o studies o f m e n t a l testing, m a k i n g several c r u c i a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s
a n d i m p r o v e m e n t s a l o n g t h e w a y . T h e line, t h e r e f o r e , r u n s f r o m
P e a r s o n t o B u r t . S p e a r m a n ' s 1904 p a p e r was m e r e l y a d i v e r s i o n .
;
B u r t told his story a g a i n a n d a g a i n . H e e v e n told i t t h r o u g h o n e
o f his m a n y aliases i n a letter h e w r o t e t o his o w n j o u r n a l a n d
s i g n e d J a c q u e s Lafitte, a n u n k n o w n F r e n c h p s y c h o l o g i s t . W i t h t h
e x c e p t i o n o f V o l t a i r e a n d B i n e t , M . Lafitte cited only E n g l i s h
e
266
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
" b o r n n o b l e m a n " a n d " o n e o f the w o r l d ' s g r e a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s , " h a d
t o c o n c l u d e that t h e d a t a o n identical twins c o u l d n o t b e t r u s t e d ,
t h o u g h h e a t t r i b u t e d t h e i r i n a c c u r a c y t o carelessness a l o n e .
I t h i n k that t h e s p l e n d i d "official" b i o g r a p h y o f B u r t r e c e n t l y
p u b l i s h e d by L. S. H e a r n s h a w ( 1 9 7 9 ) has r e s o l v e d the issue so f a r
a s t h e d a t a p e r m i t ( H e a r n s h a w was c o m m i s s i o n e d t o w r i t e his b o o k
b y B u r t ' s sister b e f o r e a n y c h a r g e s h a d b e e n l e v e l e d ) . H e a r n s h a w ,
w h o began as an unqualified admirer of B u r t and w h o tends to
s h a r e his i n t e l l e c t u a l a t d t u d e s , e v e n t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d that all allegations are true, and worse. A n d yet, H e a r n s h a w has convinced me
that t h e v e r y e n o r m i t y a n d b i z a r r e n e s s o f B u r t ' s f a k e r y f o r c e s u s t o
v i e w it n o t as t h e " r a t i o n a l " p r o g r a m of a d e v i o u s p e r s o n t r y i n g to
s a l v a g e his h e r e d i t a r i a n d o g m a w h e n h e k n e w t h e g a m e was u p
( m y o r i g i n a l s u s p i c i o n , I c o n f e s s ) , b u t as t h e actions of a sick a n d
t o r t u r e d m a n . (All this, o f c o u r s e , d o e s n o t t o u c h t h e d e e p e r issue
of why such patently manufactured data went unchallenged for so
l o n g , a n d w h a t this will t o b e l i e v e i m p l i e s a b o u t t h e basis o f o u r
hereditarian presuppositions.)
H e a r n s h a w b e l i e v e s that B u r t b e g a n his f a b r i c a t i o n s i n t h e e a r l y
1940s, a n d that his e a r l i e r w o r k was h o n e s t , t h o u g h m a r r e d b y
rigid a priori conviction a n d often inexcusably sloppy a n d superficial, e v e n b y t h e s t a n d a r d s o f his o w n t i m e . B u r t ' s w o r l d b e g a n t o
c o l l a p s e d u r i n g t h e w a r , p a r t l y b y his o w n d o i n g t o b e s u r e . His
r e s e a r c h d a t a p e r i s h e d i n t h e blitz o f L o n d o n ; his m a r r i a g e f a i l e d ;
h e was e x c l u d e d f r o m his o w n d e p a r t m e n t w h e n h e r e f u s e d t o
retire gracefully at the mandatory a g e and attempted to retain cont r o l ; h e was r e m o v e d a s e d i t o r o f t h e j o u r n a l h e h a d f o u n d e d ,
a g a i n a f t e r d e c l i n i n g t o c e d e c o n t r o l a t t h e specified t i m e h e h i m s e l f h a d set; his h e r e d i t a r i a n d o g m a n o l o n g e r m a t c h e d t h e spirit
o f a n a g e that h a d j u s t w i t n e s s e d t h e h o l o c a u s t . I n a d d i t i o n , B u r t
a p p a r e n t l y s u f f e r e d f r o m M e n i e r e s disease, a d i s o r d e r o f t h e
organs of balance, with frequent and negative consequences for
p e r s o n a l i t y as well.
H e a r n s h a w cites f o u r instances o f f r a u d i n B u r t ' s later c a r e e r .
T h r e e I h a v e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d (fabrication o f d a t a o n i d e n t i c a l
twins, k i n s h i p c o r r e l a t i o n s i n I Q , a n d d e c l i n i n g levels o f intellig e n c e i n B r i t a i n ) . T h e f o u r t h is, i n m a n y w a y s , t h e m o s t b i z a r r e
tale of all b e c a u s e B u r t ' s c l a i m was so a b s u r d a n d his a c t i o n s so
p a t e n t a n d easy t o u n c o v e r . I t c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n t h e act o f a
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
267
rational m a n . B u r t a t t e m p t e d t o c o m m i t a n act o f intellectual p a r ricide b y d e c l a r i n g himself, r a t h e r t h a n his p r e d e c e s s o r a n d m e n tor C h a r l e s S p e a r m a n , a s t h e f a t h e r o f a t e c h n i q u e called " f a c t o r
analysis" i n p s y c h o l o g y . S p e a r m a n h a d essentially i n v e n t e d t h e
t e c h n i q u e i n a c e l e b r a t e d p a p e r o f 1904. B u r t n e v e r c h a l l e n g e d
this p r i o r i t y — i n fact h e constantly a f f i r m e d i t — w h i l e S p e a r m a n
h e l d t h e c h a i r that B u r t w o u l d later o c c u p y a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e .
I n d e e d , i n his f a m o u s b o o k o n f a c t o r analysis ( 1 9 4 0 ) , B u r t states
that " S p e a r m a n ' s p r e e m i n e n c e i s a c k n o w l e d g e d b y e v e r y f a c t o r i s t "
(1940, p. x).
B u r t ' s first a t t e m p t t o r e w r i t e history o c c u r r e d w h i l e S p e a r m a n
was still alive, a n d it elicited a s h a r p r e j o i n d e r f r o m the o c c u p a n t
emeritus of Burt's chair. Burt withdrew immediately and wrote a
letter t o S p e a r m a n that m a y b e u n m a t c h e d f o r d e f e r e n c e a n d obseq u i o u s n e s s : " S u r e l y y o u h a v e a p r i o r claim h e r e . . . . I h a v e b e e n
w o n d e r i n g w h e r e p r e c i s e l y I h a v e g o n e astray. W o u l d i t b e s i m p l e s t
f o r m e t o n u m b e r m y s t a t e m e n t s , t h e n like m y s c h o o l m a s t e r o f o l d
y o u c a n p u t a cross against t h e p o i n t s w h e r e y o u r p u p i l has b l u n d e r e d , a n d a tick w h e r e y o u r view is c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t e d . "
B u t w h e n S p e a r m a n d i e d , B u r t l a u n c h e d a c a m p a i g n that
" b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y u n r e s t r a i n e d , obsessive a n d e x t r a v a g a n t "
( H e a r n s h a w , 1979) t h r o u g h o u t t h e rest o f his life. H e a r n s h a w
notes (1979, p p . 286-287): " T h e whisperings against S p e a r m a n
that w e r e j u s t a u d i b l e in the late 1930's s w e l l e d into a s t r i d e n t c a m p a i g n o f b e l i t t l e m e n t , w h i c h g r e w until B u r t a r r o g a t e d t o h i m s e l f
the whole of Spearman's fame. I n d e e d , Burt seemed to be becomi n g i n c r e a s i n g l y o b s e s s e d with q u e s t i o n s o f p r i o r i t y , a n d i n c r e a s ingly t o u c h y a n d egotistical." B u r t ' s false story was simple e n o u g h :
K a r l P e a r s o n h a d i n v e n t e d the t e c h n i q u e o f f a c t o r analysis (or
s o m e t h i n g close e n o u g h t o it) i n 1 9 0 1 , t h r e e y e a r s b e f o r e S p e a r man's paper. But Pearson had not applied it to psychological probl e m s . B u r t r e c o g n i z e d its i m p l i c a t i o n s a n d b r o u g h t t h e t e c h n i q u e
into studies o f m e n t a l testing, m a k i n g s e v e r a l c r u c i a l modifications
a n d i m p r o v e m e n t s a l o n g the w a y . T h e line, t h e r e f o r e , r u n s f r o m
P e a r s o n t o B u r t . S p e a r m a n ' s 1904 p a p e r was m e r e l y a d i v e r s i o n .
B u r t told his story a g a i n a n d a g a i n . H e e v e n told i t t h r o u g h o n e
o f his m a n y aliases i n a letter h e w r o t e t o his o w n j o u r n a l a n d
s i g n e d J a c q u e s Lafitte, a n u n k n o w n F r e n c h p s y c h o l o g i s t . W i t h the
e x c e p t i o n o f V o l t a i r e a n d B i n e t , M . Lafitte cited only E n g l i s h
268
THE
MISMEASURE
OF M A N
s o u r c e s a n d stated: " S u r e l y the f i r s t f o r m a l a n d a d e q u a t e s t a t e m e n t
was K a r l Pearson's d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f the m e t h o d o f p r i n c i p a l a x e s
i n 1 9 0 1 . " Y e t a n y o n e c o u l d h a v e e x p o s e d B u r t ' s story a s f i c t i o n
a f t e r a n h o u r ' s e f f o r t — f o r B u r t n e v e r cited Pearson's p a p e r i n any
o f his w o r k b e f o r e 1 9 4 7 , while all his earlier studies o f f a c t o r analysis g r a n t credit t o S p e a r m a n a n d clearly display t h e d e r i v a t i v e
character of Burt's methods.
F a c t o r analysis m u s t h a v e b e e n v e r y i m p o r t a n t i f B u r t c h o s e t o
c e n t e r his quest f o r f a m e u p o n a r e w r i t e o f history that w o u l d m a k e
h i m its i n v e n t o r . Y e t , d e s p i t e all the p o p u l a r l i t e r a t u r e o n I Q i n t h e
history o f m e n t a l testing, virtually n o t h i n g has b e e n w r i t t e n (outside p r o f e s s i o n a l circles) o n t h e r o l e , i m p a c t , a n d m e a n i n g o f f a c t o r
analysis. I s u s p e c t that t h e m a i n r e a s o n f o r this n e g l e c t lies in t h e
abstrusely m a t h e m a t i c a l n a t u r e o f t h e t e c h n i q u e . I Q , a l i n e a r scale
first established as a r o u g h , e m p i r i c a l m e a s u r e , is easy to u n d e r s t a n d . F a c t o r analysis, r o o t e d in abstract statistical t h e o r y a n d b a s e d
o n the a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r " u n d e r l y i n g " s t r u c t u r e i n l a r g e matrices
of d a t a , is, to p u t it b l u n t l y , a bitch. Y e t this i n a t t e n t i o n to f a c t o r
analysis is a serious o m i s s i o n f o r a n y o n e w h o wishes to u n d e r s t a n d
t h e history o f m e n t a l testing i n o u r c e n t u r y , a n d its c o n t i n u i n g
r a t i o n a l e today. F o r a s B u r t c o r r e c t l y n o t e d ( 1 9 1 4 , p . 3 6 ) , t h e history o f m e n t a l t e s t i n g c o n t a i n s two m a j o r a n d r e l a t e d s t r a n d s : a g e scale m e t h o d s ( B i n e t I Q testing), a n d c o r r e l a t i o n a l m e t h o d s (factor
analysis). M o r e o v e r , a s S p e a r m a n c o n t i n u a l l y stressed t h r o u g h o u t
his c a r e e r , the t h e o r e t i c a l justification f o r u s i n g a u n i l i n e a r scale of
I Q resides i n f a c t o r analysis itself. B u r t m a y h a v e b e e n p e r v e r s e i n
his c a m p a i g n , b u t h e was r i g h t i n his c h o s e n t a c t i c — a p e r m a n e n t
a n d e x a l t e d n i c h e i n the p a n t h e o n o f p s y c h o l o g y lies r e s e r v e d f o r
t h e m a n w h o d e v e l o p e d f a c t o r analysis.
I b e g a n my c a r e e r in b i o l o g y by u s i n g f a c t o r analysis to s t u d y
t h e e v o l u t i o n of a g r o u p of fossil reptiles. I was t a u g h t t h e technique as though it had developed f r o m first principles using p u r e
logic. In fact, virtually all its p r o c e d u r e s a r o s e as justifications f o r
p a r t i c u l a r t h e o r i e s of i n t e l l i g e n c e . F a c t o r analysis, d e s p i t e its status
as p u r e d e d u c t i v e m a t h e m a t i c s , was i n v e n t e d in a social c o n t e x t ,
a n d f o r d e f i n i t e r e a s o n s . A n d , t h o u g h its m a t h e m a t i c a l basis is
u n a s s a i l a b l e , its p e r s i s t e n t u s e as a d e v i c e f o r l e a r n i n g a b o u t t h e
physical s t r u c t u r e o f intellect has b e e n m i r e d i n d e e p c o n c e p t u a l
e r r o r s f r o m the start. T h e p r i n c i p a l e r r o r , i n fact, has i n v o l v e d a
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
269
m a j o r t h e m e o f this b o o k : r e i f i c a t i o n — i n this c a s e , t h e n o t i o n that
s u c h a n e b u l o u s , socially d e f i n e d c o n c e p t as i n t e l l i g e n c e m i g h t be
identified as a " t h i n g " with a locus in t h e b r a i n a n d a d e f i n i t e
d e g r e e of h e r i t a b i l i t y — a n d that it m i g h t be m e a s u r e d as a single
n u m b e r , thus permitting a unilinear r a n k i n g of people according
to t h e a m o u n t of it they possess. By i d e n t i f y i n g a m a t h e m a t i c a l
f a c t o r axis with a c o n c e p t o f " g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , " S p e a r m a n a n d
B u r t p r o v i d e d a t h e o r e t i c a l justification f o r t h e u n i l i n e a r scale that
Binet had p r o p o s e d as a r o u g h empirical guide.
T h e intense debate about Cyril Burt's work has focused exclusively o n t h e f a k e r y o f his late c a r e e r . T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e has c l o u d e d
Sir Cyril's g r e a t e r i n f l u e n c e a s t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l m e n t a l tester
c o m m i t t e d to a factor-analytic m o d e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e as a r e a l a n d
u n i t a r y " t h i n g . " B u r t ' s c o m m i t m e n t was r o o t e d i n t h e e r r o r o f
reification. L a t e r f a k e r y was the a f t e r t h o u g h t o f a d e f e a t e d m a n ;
his e a r l i e r , " h o n e s t " e r r o r has r e v e r b e r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t o u r c e n t u r y a n d h a s a f f e c t e d millions o f lives.
Correlation, cause, and factor analysis
Correlation
and
cause
T h e spirit o f Plato dies h a r d . W e h a v e b e e n u n a b l e t o e s c a p e
t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l tradition that w h a t w e c a n see a n d m e a s u r e i n t h e
w o r l d i s m e r e l y t h e superficial a n d i m p e r f e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a n
u n d e r l y i n g reality. M u c h o f t h e f a s c i n a t i o n o f statistics lies e m b e d d e d i n o u r g u t f e e l i n g — a n d n e v e r trust a g u t f e e l i n g — t h a t abstract
m e a s u r e s s u m m a r i z i n g l a r g e tables o f d a t a m u s t e x p r e s s s o m e t h i n g
m o r e real a n d f u n d a m e n t a l t h a n t h e d a t a t h e m s e l v e s . ( M u c h
p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g in statistics i n v o l v e s a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t to
c o u n t e r a c t this g u t feeling.) T h e t e c h n i q u e o f correlation h a s b e e n
p a r t i c u l a r l y subject to s u c h m i s u s e b e c a u s e it s e e m s to p r o v i d e a
p a t h f o r i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t causality ( a n d i n d e e d i t d o e s , s o m e t i m e s — b u t only sometimes).
C o r r e l a t i o n assesses t h e t e n d e n c y o f o n e m e a s u r e t o v a r y i n
c o n c e r t w i t h a n o t h e r . A s a child g r o w s , f o r e x a m p l e , b o t h its a r m s
a n d legs g e t l o n g e r ; this j o i n t t e n d e n c y t o c h a n g e i n t h e s a m e d i r e c tion is called a positive correlation. N o t all parts of t h e b o d y display
s u c h positive c o r r e l a t i o n s d u r i n g g r o w t h . T e e t h , f o r e x a m p l e , d o
n o t g r o w a f t e r t h e y e r u p t . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n f i r s t incisor
270
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
l e n g t h a n d l e g l e n g t h f r o m , say, a g e t e n t o a d u l t h o o d w o u l d r e p r e s e n t zero correlation—legs w o u l d g e t l o n g e r w h i l e t e e t h c h a n g e d
n o t a t all. O t h e r c o r r e l a t i o n s c a n b e n e g a t i v e — o n e m e a s u r e
increases while the other decreases. We begin to lose n e u r o n s at a
distressingly e a r l y a g e , a n d t h e y a r e n o t r e p l a c e d . T h u s , t h e relationship between leg length and n u m b e r of neurons after midc h i l d h o o d r e p r e s e n t s negative correlation—leg l e n g t h i n c r e a s e s w h i l e
n u m b e r o f n e u r o n s d e c r e a s e s . N o t i c e that I h a v e said n o t h i n g
a b o u t causality. W e d o n o t k n o w w h y t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s exist o r d o
n o t exist, o n l y that t h e y a r e p r e s e n t o r n o t p r e s e n t .
T h e s t a n d a r d m e a s u r e o f c o r r e l a t i o n i s called P e a r s o n ' s p r o d u c t m o m e n t c o r r e l a t i o n coefficient o r , f o r s h o r t , s i m p l y t h e c o r r e lation coefficient, s y m b o l i z e d a s r . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
r a n g e s f r o m + 1 f o r p e r f e c t positive c o r r e l a t i o n , t o o f o r n o c o r r e lation, t o - 1 for perfect negative correlation.*
I n r o u g h t e r m s , r m e a s u r e s t h e s h a p e o f a n ellipse o f p l o t t e d
p o i n t s (see F i g . 6.1). V e r y s k i n n y ellipses r e p r e s e n t h i g h c o r r e l a tions—the skinniest of all, a s t r a i g h t l i n e , reflects an r of 1.0. Fat
ellipses r e p r e s e n t l o w e r c o r r e l a t i o n s , a n d t h e fattest of all, a circle,
reflects z e r o c o r r e l a t i o n (increase i n o n e m e a s u r e p e r m i t s n o p r e d i c t i o n a b o u t w h e t h e r t h e o t h e r will i n c r e a s e , d e c r e a s e , o r r e m a i n
the same).
T h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , t h o u g h easily c a l c u l a t e d , h a s b e e n
p l a g u e d b y e r r o r s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e s e c a n b e illustrated b y
e x a m p l e . S u p p o s e that I p l o t a r m l e n g t h vs. l e g l e n g t h d u r i n g t h e
g r o w t h of a c h i l d . I will o b t a i n a h i g h c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t w o interesti n g i m p l i c a t i o n s . First, I h a v e a c h i e v e d simplification. I b e g a n with
t w o d i m e n s i o n s (leg a n d a r m l e n g t h ) , w h i c h I h a v e n o w , effectively,
r e d u c e d t o o n e . S i n c e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n i s s o s t r o n g , w e m a y say that
t h e l i n e itself (a single d i m e n s i o n ) r e p r e s e n t s n e a r l y all t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o r i g i n a l l y s u p p l i e d as t w o d i m e n s i o n s . S e c o n d l y , I c a n , in
this c a s e , m a k e a r e a s o n a b l e i n f e r e n c e a b o u t t h e cause of this r e d u c * Pearson's r is not an appropriate measure for all kinds of correlation, for it assesses
only what statisticians call the intensity of linear relationship between two meajures—the tendency for all points to fall on a single straight line. Other relationships
of strict dependence will not achieve a value of 1.0 for r. If, for example, each
increase of 2 units in one variable were matched by an increase in a* units in the
other variable, r would be less than 1.0, even though the two variables might be
perfectly "correlated" in the vernacular sense. Their plot would be a parabola, not
a straight line, and Pearson's r measures the intensity of linear relationship.
6• 1
Strength of correlation as a function of the shape of an ellipse of points. T h e m o r e
elongate the ellipse, the higher the correlation.
272
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
tion t o o n e d i m e n s i o n . A r m a n d l e g l e n g t h a r e tightly c o r r e l a t e d
b e c a u s e t h e y a r e b o t h partial m e a s u r e s o f a n u n d e r l y i n g biological
p h e n o m e n o n , n a m e l y g r o w t h itself.
Y e t , lest a n y o n e b e c o m e t o o h o p e f u l that c o r r e l a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s
a m a g i c m e t h o d f o r t h e u n a m b i g u o u s identification o f c a u s e , cons i d e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m y a g e a n d the p r i c e o f g a s o l i n e
d u r i n g t h e past t e n y e a r s . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n i s n e a r l y p e r f e c t , b u t n o
o n e w o u l d s u g g e s t a n y a s s i g n m e n t o f c a u s e . T h e fact o f c o r r e l a t i o n
implies n o t h i n g about cause. It is not even true that intense correlations a r e m o r e likely t o r e p r e s e n t c a u s e t h a n w e a k o n e s , f o r the
c o r r e l a t i o n of my a g e with t h e p r i c e of g a s o l i n e is n e a r l y 1.0. I
spoke of cause for a r m and leg lengths not because their correlation was h i g h , b u t b e c a u s e I k n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e b i o l o g y o f
t h e situation. T h e i n f e r e n c e o f c a u s e m u s t c o m e f r o m s o m e w h e r e
e l s e , n o t f r o m t h e s i m p l e fact o f c o r r e l a t i o n — t h o u g h a n u n e x pected correlation may lead us to search for causes so long as we
r e m e m b e r that w e m a y n o t f i n d t h e m . T h e vast majority o f c o r r e lations i n o u r w o r l d a r e , w i t h o u t d o u b t , n o n c a u s a l . A n y t h i n g that
has b e e n i n c r e a s i n g steadily d u r i n g t h e past f e w y e a r s will b e
s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the e a r t h a n d H a l ley's c o m e t ( w h i c h h a s also b e e n i n c r e a s i n g o f l a t e ) — b u t e v e n the
m o s t d e d i c a t e d a s t r o l o g e r w o u l d n o t d i s c e r n causality i n m o s t o f
t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e invalid a s s u m p t i o n that c o r r e l a t i o n implies
cause is probably a m o n g the two or three most serious and common errors of human reasoning.
Few people w o u l d be fooled by such a reductio ad a b s u r d u m as
t h e a g e - g a s c o r r e l a t i o n . B u t c o n s i d e r a n i n t e r m e d i a t e case. I a m
g i v e n a table o f d a t a s h o w i n g h o w f a r t w e n t y c h i l d r e n c a n hit a n d
t h r o w a baseball. I g r a p h t h e s e d a t a a n d c a l c u l a t e a h i g h r. M o s t
p e o p l e , I t h i n k , w o u l d s h a r e my intuition that this is n o t a m e a n ingless c o r r e l a t i o n ; y e t i n the a b s e n c e o f f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e
c o r r e l a t i o n itself t e a c h e s m e n o t h i n g a b o u t u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e s . F o r
I c a n s u g g e s t at least t h r e e d i f f e r e n t a n d r e a s o n a b l e causal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s f o r t h e c o r r e l a t i o n (and t h e t r u e r e a s o n i s p r o b a b l y s o m e
combination of them):
1. T h e c h i l d r e n a r e simply o f d i f f e r e n t a g e s , a n d o l d e r c h i l d r e n
c a n hit a n d t h r o w f a r t h e r .
2. T h e differences represent variation in practice and training.
S o m e c h i l d r e n a r e Little L e a g u e stars a n d c a n tell y o u t h e y e a r that
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
R o g e r s H o r n s b y hit .424 ( 1 9 2 4 — I was a bratty little kid like that);
others k n o w Billy M a r t i n o n l y as a figure in Lite b e e r c o m m e r c i a l s .
3. T h e d i f f e r e n c e s r e p r e s e n t disparities in n a t i v e ability that
c a n n o t b e e r a s e d e v e n b y intense t r a i n i n g . ( T h e situation w o u l d b e
e v e n m o r e c o m p l e x i f t h e s a m p l e i n c l u d e d b o t h b o y s a n d girls o f
conventional upbringing. T h e correlation might then be attributed
primarily to a fourth c a u s e — s e x u a l differences; and we would
have to worry, in addition, about the cause of the sexual difference:
training, inborn constitution, or some combination of nature and
nurture).
In summary, most correlations are noncausal; w h e n correlations a r e c a u s a l , t h e fact a n d s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n r a r e l y specifies t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c a u s e .
Correlation
in
more
than
two dimensions
T h e s e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l e x a m p l e s a r e easy t o g r a s p ( h o w e v e r
difficult t h e y a r e t o i n t e r p r e t ) . B u t w h a t o f c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g
m o r e t h a n two m e a s u r e s ? A b o d y i s c o m p o s e d o f m a n y p a r t s , n o t
just arms and legs, a n d we may want to k n o w h o w several measures
interact d u r i n g g r o w t h . S u p p o s e , f o r simplicity, that w e a d d j u s t
o n e m o r e m e a s u r e , h e a d l e n g t h , t o m a k e a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l system. We may now depict the correlation structure a m o n g the three
m e a s u r e s i n t w o ways:
1. W e m a y g a t h e r all c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients b e t w e e n pairs o f
m e a s u r e s i n t o a single table, or matrix of c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients
(Fig. 6.2). T h e line f r o m u p p e r left t o l o w e r r i g h t r e c o r d s t h e necessarily p e r f e c t c o r r e l a t i o n of e a c h v a r i a b l e with itself. It is called
the p r i n c i p a l d i a g o n a l , a n d all c o r r e l a t i o n s a l o n g i t a r e 1.0. T h e
m a t r i x i s s y m m e t r i c a l a r o u n d t h e p r i n c i p a l d i a g o n a l , since t h e corr e l a t i o n of m e a s u r e 1 w i t h m e a s u r e 2 is t h e s a m e as t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
o f 2 w i t h 1. T h u s , the t h r e e v a l u e s e i t h e r a b o v e o r b e l o w t h e p r i n cipal d i a g o n a l a r e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s w e seek: a r m with l e g , a r m with
h e a d , a n d l e g with h e a d .
2. We m a y plot t h e points f o r all i n d i v i d u a l s o n t o a t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l g r a p h (Fig. 6.3). S i n c e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e all positive,
t h e p o i n t s a r e o r i e n t e d a s a n ellipsoid (or football). (In t w o d i m e n sions, t h e y f o r m e d an ellipse.) A line r u n n i n g a l o n g t h e m a j o r axis
o f the football e x p r e s s e s t h e s t r o n g positive c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n
all m e a s u r e s .
arm
leg
head
arm
l.O
0.91
0.72
leg
0.91
1.0
0.63
head
0.72
0.63
1.0
6*2
A correlation matrix for three
measurements.
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
W e c a n g r a s p t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l case, b o t h m e n t a l l y a n d
pictorially. B u t w h a t a b o u t 2 0 d i m e n s i o n s , o r 100? I f w e m e a s u r e d
100 p a r t s o f a g r o w i n g b o d y , o u r c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x w o u l d c o n t a i n
10,000 items. T o p l o t this i n f o r m a t i o n , w e w o u l d h a v e t o w o r k i n
a 1 0 0 - d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e , with 100 m u t u a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r a x e s
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e o r i g i n a l m e a s u r e s . A l t h o u g h these 100 a x e s p r e s e n t n o m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o b l e m (they f o r m , i n t e c h n i c a l t e r m s , a
h y p e r s p a c e ) , w e c a n n o t plot t h e m i n o u r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l E u c l i d ian w o r l d .
T h e s e 100 m e a s u r e s o f a g r o w i n g b o d y p r o b a b l y d o n o t r e p r e sent 100 d i f f e r e n t b i o l o g i c a l p h e n o m e n a . Just a s m o s t o f t h e i n f o r mation in o u r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l ' e x a m p l e could be resolved into a
single d i m e n s i o n (the l o n g axis o f t h e football), s o m i g h t o u r 100
m e a s u r e s b e simplified i n t o f e w e r d i m e n s i o n s . W e will lose s o m e
information in the process to be s u r e — a s we did w h e n we collapsed
t h e l o n g a n d s k i n n y f o o t b a l l , still a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e ,
i n t o t h e single line r e p r e s e n t i n g its l o n g axis. B u t w e m a y b e w i l l i n g
t o a c c e p t this loss i n e x c h a n g e f o r simplification a n d f o r the possibility o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e d i m e n s i o n s that w e d o r e t a i n i n b i o l o g i c a l
terms.
Factor analysis
and its goals
W i t h this e x a m p l e , w e c o m e t o the h e a r t o f w h a t / a c t o r analysis
a t t e m p t s to d o . F a c t o r analysis is a m a t h e m a t i c a l t e c h n i q u e f o r
r e d u c i n g a c o m p l e x system o f c o r r e l a t i o n s into f e w e r d i m e n s i o n s .
It w o r k s , literally, by f a c t o r i n g a m a t r i x , usually a m a t r i x of c o r r e lation coefficients. ( R e m e m b e r t h e h i g h - s c h o o l a l g e b r a e x e r c i s e
c a l l e d " f a c t o r i n g , " w h e r e y o u simplified h o r r e n d o u s e x p r e s s i o n s b y
r e m o v i n g c o m m o n m u l t i p l i e r s o f all terms?) G e o m e t r i c a l l y , t h e
p r o c e s s o f f a c t o r i n g a m o u n t s t o p l a c i n g axes t h r o u g h a football o f
p o i n t s . I n t h e 1 0 0 - d i m e n s i o n a l case, w e are n o t likely t o r e c o v e r
e n o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n o n a single line d o w n the h y p e r f o o t b a l l ' s l o n g
a x i s — a line c a l l e d t h e first principal component. We will n e e d a d d i tional a x e s . B y c o n v e n t i o n , w e r e p r e s e n t the s e c o n d d i m e n s i o n b y
a l i n e perpendicular to t h e first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t . T h i s s e c o n d
a x i s , o r second principal component, is d e f i n e d as t h e line that r e s o l v e s
m o r e o f t h e r e m a i n i n g v a r i a t i o n t h a n a n y o t h e r l i n e that c o u l d b e
d r a w n p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t . If, f o r
e x a m p l e , t h e h y p e r f o o t b a l l w e r e s q u a s h e d f l a t like a f l o u n d e r , t h e
2j6
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t w o u l d r u n t h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e , f r o m
h e a d t o tail, a n d t h e s e c o n d also t h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e , b u t f r o m side
t o side. S u b s e q u e n t lines w o u l d b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o all p r e v i o u s
a x e s , a n d w o u l d r e s o l v e a steadily d e c r e a s i n g a m o u n t o f r e m a i n i n g
v a r i a t i o n . W e m i g h t f i n d that f i v e p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s r e s o l v e
a l m o s t all t h e v a r i a t i o n i n o u r h y p e r f o o t b a l l — t h a t is, t h e h y p e r football d r a w n in 5 d i m e n s i o n s l o o k s sufficiently like t h e o r i g i n a l
to satisfy u s , j u s t as a pizza or a f l o u n d e r d r a w n in t w o d i m e n s i o n s
m a y e x p r e s s all t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w e n e e d , e v e n t h o u g h b o t h original objects c o n t a i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s . If we elect to s t o p at 5
d i m e n s i o n s , we m a y a c h i e v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e simplification at t h e
a c c e p t a b l e p r i c e o f m i n i m a l loss o f i n f o r m a t i o n . W e c a n g r a s p t h e
5 dimensions conceptually; we may even be able to interpret them
biologically.
S i n c e f a c t o r i n g is p e r f o r m e d on a c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x , I shall u s e
a g e o m e t r i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients t h e m selves i n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n b e t t e r h o w t h e t e c h n i q u e o p e r a t e s . T h e
original measures may be represented as vectors of unit length,*
*( Footnote for aficionados—others may safely skip.) Here, I am technically discussing a procedure called "principal components analysis," not quite the same thing as
factor analysis. In principal components analysis, we preserve all information in the
original measures and fit new axes to them by the same criterion used in factor
analysis in principal components orientation—that is, the first axis explains more
data than any other axis could and subsequent axes lie at right angles to all other
axes and encompass steadily decreasing amounts of information. In true factor
analysis, we decide beforehand (by various procedures) not to include all information on our factor axes. But the two techniques—true factor analysis in principal
components orientation and principal components analysis—play the same conceptual role and differ only in mode of calculation. In both, the first axis (Spearman's
g for intelligence tests) is a "best fit" dimension that resolves more information in a
set of vectors than any other axis could.
During the past decade or so, semantic confusion has spread in statistical circles
through a tendency to restrict the term "factor analysis" only to the rotations of axes
usually performed after the calculation of principal components, and to extend the
term "principal components analysis" both to true principal components analysis
(all information retained) and to factor analysis done in principal components orientation (reduced dimensionality and loss of information). This shift in definition is
completely out of keeping with the history of the subject and terms. Spearman,
Burt, and hosts of other psychometricians worked for decades in this area before
Thurstone and others invented axial rotations. They performed all their calculations in the principal components orientation, and they called themselves "factor
analysts." I continue, therefore, to use the term "factor analysis" in its original sense
to include any orientation of axes—principal components or rotated, orthogonal or
oblique.
I will also use a common, if somewhat sloppy, shorthand in discussing what
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
radiating f r o m a c o m m o n point. If two measures are highly correl a t e d , their v e c t o r s lie close t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e c o s i n e o f the a n g l e
between any two vectors records the correlation coefficient
between them. If two vectors overlap, their correlation is perfect,
or 1.0; the c o s i n e of o° is 1.0. If t w o v e c t o r s lie at r i g h t a n g l e s , t h e y
are completely i n d e p e n d e n t , with a correlation of zero; the cosine
of 9 0 is zero. If two vectors point in opposite directions, their corr e l a t i o n is p e r f e c t l y n e g a t i v e , or — 1.0; t h e c o s i n e of 180° is — 1 . 0 . A
m a t r i x o f h i g h positive c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients will b e r e p r e s e n t e d
by a cluster of vectors, each separated f r o m each other vector by a
small a c u t e a n g l e (Fig. 6.4). W h e n we f a c t o r s u c h a c l u s t e r into
fewer dimensions by computing principal components, we choose
a s o u r f i r s t c o m p o n e n t t h e axis o f m a x i m a l r e s o l v i n g p o w e r , a k i n d
o f g r a n d a v e r a g e a m o n g all v e c t o r s . W e assess r e s o l v i n g p o w e r b y
p r o j e c t i n g e a c h v e c t o r o n t o t h e axis. T h i s i s d o n e b y d r a w i n g a line
f r o m t h e tip o f t h e v e c t o r t o t h e a x i s , p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e axis.
T h e ratio o f p r o j e c t e d l e n g t h o n t h e axis t o t h e actual l e n g t h o f t h e
v e c t o r itself m e a s u r e s t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f a vector's i n f o r m a t i o n
r e s o l v e d by t h e axis. ( T h i s is difficult to e x p r e s s v e r b a l l y , b u t I t h i n k
that F i g u r e 6.5 will d i s p e l c o n f u s i o n . ) If a v e c t o r lies n e a r t h e a x i s ,
it is h i g h l y r e s o l v e d a n d the axis e n c o m p a s s e s m o s t of its i n f o r m a tion. As a v e c t o r m o v e s a w a y f r o m the axis t o w a r d a m a x i m a l s e p a r a t i o n o f g o ° , t h e axis r e s o l v e s less a n d less o f it.
0
W e p o s i t i o n t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t (or axis) s o that i t
resolves m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a m o n g all t h e v e c t o r s t h a n a n y o t h e r
axis c o u l d . F o r o u r m a t r i x o f h i g h positive c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients,
r e p r e s e n t e d by a set of tightly c l u s t e r e d v e c t o r s , t h e first p r i n c i p a l
c o m p o n e n t r u n s t h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e o f t h e set (Fig. 6.4). T h e
s e c o n d p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t lies a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e f i r s t a n d
resolves a m a x i m a l a m o u n t of r e m a i n i n g information. B u t if the
f i r s t c o m p o n e n t has a l r e a d y r e s o l v e d m o s t o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n all
the vectors, then the second a n d subsequent principal axes can only
d e a l with t h e small a m o u n t o f i n f o r m a t i o n that r e m a i n s (Fig. 6.4).
factor axes do. Technically, factor axes resolve variance in original measures. I will,
as is often done, speak of them as "explaining" or "resolving" information—as they
do in the vernacular (though not in the technical) sense of information. That is,
when the vector of an original variable projects strongly on a set of factor axes, little
of its variance lies unresolved in higher dimensions outside the system of factor
axes.
278
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
OF
MAN
S u c h systems o f h i g h positive correlation are f o u n d f r e q u e n t l y
in n a t u r e . In my o w n first study in factor analysis, f o r e x a m p l e , I
c o n s i d e r e d f o u r t e e n m e a s u r e m e n t s o n the bones o f t w e n t y - t w o
species of p e l y c o s a u r i a n reptiles (the fossil beasts with the sails on
their backs, o f t e n c o n f u s e d with d i n o s a u r s , but actually the ancestors o f m a m m a l s ) . M y f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t r e s o l v e d 9 7 . 1 per6•4
Geometric representation of correlations among eight tests when all
correlation coefficients are high and positive. T h e first principal component, labeled 1, lies close to all the vectors, while the second principal component, labeled 2, lies at right angles to the first and does not explain much
information in the vectors.
T H E
REAL
E R R O R
O F
C Y R I L
B U R T
c e n t of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n in all f o u r t e e n v e c t o r s , l e a v i n g o n l y 2.9
percent for subsequent axes. My fourteen vectors f o r m e d an
e x t r e m e l y t i g h t s w a r m (all practically o v e r l a p p i n g ) ; t h e first axis
went through the middle of the swarm. My pelycosaurs r a n g e d in
b o d y l e n g t h f r o m less t h a n t w o t o m o r e t h a n e l e v e n feet. T h e y all
l o o k pretty m u c h a l i k e , a n d b i g a n i m a l s h a v e l a r g e r m e a s u r e s f o r
all f o u r t e e n b o n e s . A l l c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients o f b o n e s w i t h o t h e r
b o n e s are v e r y h i g h ; in fact, t h e l o w e s t is still a w h o p p i n g 0 . 9 1 2 .
6*5
Computing the a m o u n t of information in a vector explained by an
axis. Draw a line from the tip of the vector to the axis, perpendicular to
the axis. T h e amount of information resolved by the axis is the ratio of the
projected length on the axis to the true length of the vector. If a vector lies
close to the axis, then this ratio is high and most of the information in the
vector is resolved by the axis. Vector AB lies close to the axis and the ratio
of the projection A B ' to the vector itself, A B , is high. Vector AC lies far
from the axis and the ratio of its projected length AC to the vector itself,
A C , is low.
2 SO
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
S c a r c e l y s u r p r i s i n g . A f t e r all, l a r g e a n i m a l s h a v e l a r g e b o n e s , a n d
small a n i m a l s small b o n e s . I c a n i n t e r p r e t m y f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t a s a n a b s t r a c t e d size f a c t o r , t h u s r e d u c i n g (with m i n i m a l
loss of i n f o r m a t i o n ) my f o u r t e e n o r i g i n a l m e a s u r e m e n t s i n t o a sing l e d i m e n s i o n i n t e r p r e t e d a s i n c r e a s i n g b o d y size. I n this c a s e , fact o r analysis h a s a c h i e v e d b o t h simplification b y r e d u c t i o n o f
d i m e n s i o n s ( f r o m f o u r t e e n t o effectively o n e ) , a n d explanation b y
r e a s o n a b l e b i o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e first axis as a size f a c t o r .
B u t — a n d here comes an e n o r m o u s b u t — b e f o r e we rejoice a n d
e x t o l f a c t o r analysis as a p a n a c e a f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g c o m p l e x syst e m s o f c o r r e l a t i o n , w e s h o u l d r e c o g n i z e that i t i s subject t o t h e
same cautions and objections previously e x a m i n e d for the correlation coefficients t h e m s e l v e s . I c o n s i d e r t w o m a j o r p r o b l e m s in t h e
f o l l o w i n g sections.
The
error
of reification
T h e first principal c o m p o n e n t is a mathematical abstraction
t h a t c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r a n y m a t r i x o f c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients; i t
is n o t a " t h i n g " w i t h p h y s i c a l reality. Factorists h a v e o f t e n fallen
p r e y to a t e m p t a t i o n f o r reification—for a w a r d i n g physical meaning
to all s t r o n g p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s . S o m e t i m e s this is j u s t i f i e d ; I
b e l i e v e that I c a n m a k e a g o o d case f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g my first pelyc o s a u r i a n axis as a size f a c t o r . B u t s u c h a c l a i m c a n n e v e r arise
f r o m the mathematics alone, only f r o m additional k n o w l e d g e of
the physical n a t u r e of the measures themselves. For nonsensical
systems o f c o r r e l a t i o n h a v e p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s a s w e l l , a n d they
m a y r e s o l v e m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n than m e a n i n g f u l c o m p o n e n t s d o i n
o t h e r systems. A f a c t o r analysis f o r a five-by-five c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x
o f m y a g e , t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f M e x i c o , t h e p r i c e o f swiss c h e e s e , m y
p e t turtle's w e i g h t , a n d t h e a v e r a g e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n g a l a x i e s d u r i n g t h e past ten y e a r s will y i e l d a s t r o n g first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t .
T h i s c o m p o n e n t — s i n c e all t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e s o s t r o n g l y posit i v e — w i l l p r o b a b l y r e s o l v e as h i g h a p e r c e n t a g e of i n f o r m a t i o n as
t h e f i r s t axis i n m y s t u d y o f p e l y c o s a u r s . I t will also h a v e n o e n l i g h t e n i n g physical m e a n i n g w h a t e v e r .
I n s t u d i e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , f a c t o r analysis has b e e n a p p l i e d t o
m a t r i c e s o f c o r r e l a t i o n a m o n g m e n t a l tests. T e n tests m a y , f o r
example, be given to each of one h u n d r e d people. Each meaningful e n t r y in the t e n - b y - t e n c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x is a c o r r e l a t i o n coef-
T H E
R E A L
E R R O R
O F
C Y R I L
B U R T
28l
ficient b e t w e e n s c o r e s o n t w o tests t a k e n b y e a c h o f t h e o n e
h u n d r e d p e r s o n s . W e h a v e k n o w n since the e a r l y d a y s o f m e n t a l
t e s t i n g — a n d it should surprise no o n e — t h a t most of these correlation coefficients a r e positive: that is, p e o p l e w h o s c o r e h i g h l y o n
o n e k i n d o f test t e n d , o n a v e r a g e , t o s c o r e h i g h l y o n o t h e r s a s well.
M o s t c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i c e s f o r m e n t a l tests c o n t a i n a p r e p o n d e r a n c e
o f positive e n t r i e s . T h i s basic o b s e r v a t i o n s e r v e d a s the s t a r t i n g
p o i n t f o r f a c t o r analysis. C h a r l e s S p e a r m a n virtually i n v e n t e d t h e
t e c h n i q u e in 1904 as a d e v i c e f o r i n f e r r i n g c a u s e s f r o m c o r r e l a t i o n
m a t r i c e s o f m e n t a l tests.
S i n c e m o s t c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients i n t h e m a t r i x a r e positive,
f a c t o r analysis m u s t yield a r e a s o n a b l y s t r o n g first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t . S p e a r m a n c a l c u l a t e d s u c h a c o m p o n e n t i n d i r e c t l y i n 1904
a n d t h e n m a d e t h e c a r d i n a l invalid i n f e r e n c e that h a s p l a g u e d factor analysis e v e r since. H e reified i t a s a n " e n t i t y " a n d tried t o g i v e
i t a n u n a m b i g u o u s causal i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . H e called itg, o r g e n e r a l
i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d i m a g i n e d that h e h a d i d e n t i f i e d a u n i t a r y quality
u n d e r l y i n g all c o g n i t i v e m e n t a l a c t i v i t y — a quality that c o u l d b e
e x p r e s s e d as a single n u m b e r a n d u s e d to r a n k p e o p l e on a u n i linear scale o f intellectual w o r t h .
S p e a r m a n ' s g—the f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n
m a t r i x o f m e n t a l t e s t s — n e v e r attains t h e p r e d o m i n a n t r o l e that a
f i r s t c o m p o n e n t p l a y s i n m a n y g r o w t h studies (as i n m y p e l y c o aurs). At best, g r e s o l v e s 50 to 60 p e r c e n t of all i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e
m a t r i x o f tests. C o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n tests a r e usually f a r w e a k e r
than correlations b e t w e e n two parts of a g r o w i n g body. In most
cases, t h e h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n in a m a t r i x of tests d o e s n o t c o m e
lose t o r e a c h i n g t h e lowest v a l u e i n m y p e l y c o s a u r m a t r i x — 0 . 9 1 2 .
A l t h o u g h g n e v e r matches the strength of a first principal comp o n e n t o f s o m e g r o w t h s t u d i e s , I d o n o t r e g a r d its fair r e s o l v i n g
p o w e r a s a c c i d e n t a l . C a u s a l r e a s o n s lie b e h i n d t h e positive c o r r e lations o f m o s t m e n t a l tests. B u t w h a t r e a s o n s ? W e c a n n o t i n f e r t h e
reasons f r o m a s t r o n g f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t a n y m o r e t h a n w e
can i n d u c e t h e c a u s e o f a single c o r r e l a t i o n coefficient f r o m its
a g n i t u d e . We c a n n o t reify g as a " t h i n g " u n l e s s we h a v e c o n v i n c g , i n d e p e n d e n t i n f o r m a t i o n b e y o n d t h e fact o f c o r r e l a t i o n itself.
T h e situation f o r m e n t a l tests r e s e m b l e s t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l case I
resented earlier of correlation between t h r o w i n g and hitting a
baseball. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s s t r o n g a n d w e h a v e a r i g h t t o r e g a r d
2c?2
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
it as nonaccidental. B u t we cannot infer the cause f r o m the correl a t i o n , a n d t h e c a u s e i s certainly c o m p l e x .
S p e a r m a n ' s g is p a r t i c u l a r l y subject to a m b i g u i t y in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i f o n l y b e c a u s e t h e t w o m o s t c o n t r a d i c t o r y causal h y p o t h e s e s
a r e b o t h fully c o n s i s t e n t w i t h it: 1) t h a t it reflects an i n h e r i t e d level
o f m e n t a l acuity ( s o m e p e o p l e d o well o n m o s t tests b e c a u s e t h e y
a r e b o r n s m a r t e r ) ; o r 2 ) that i t r e c o r d s e n v i r o n m e n t a l a d v a n t a g e s
a n d deficits ( s o m e p e o p l e d o well o n m o s t tests b e c a u s e t h e y a r e
well s c h o o l e d , g r e w u p w i t h e n o u g h t o e a t , b o o k s i n t h e h o m e , a n d
loving parents). If the simple existence of g can be theoretically
interpreted in either a purely hereditarian or purely environmentalist w a y , t h e n its m e r e p r e s e n c e — e v e n its r e a s o n a b l e s t r e n g t h —
c a n n o t j u s t l y l e a d t o a n y reification a t all. T h e t e m p t a t i o n t o reify
i s p o w e r f u l . T h e i d e a that w e h a v e d e t e c t e d s o m e t h i n g " u n d e r l y i n g " t h e e x t e r n a l i t i e s o f a l a r g e set o f c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients, s o m e t h i n g p e r h a p s m o r e r e a l t h a n t h e superficial m e a s u r e m e n t s
t h e m s e l v e s , c a n be i n t o x i c a t i n g . It is Plato's e s s e n c e , t h e abstract,
e t e r n a l reality u n d e r l y i n g superficial a p p e a r a n c e s . B u t it is a t e m p tation that w e m u s t resist, f o r i t reflects a n a n c i e n t p r e j u d i c e o f
thought, not a truth of nature.
Rotation
and
the
nonnecessity
of principal
components
A n o t h e r , m o r e t e c h n i c a l , a r g u m e n t clearly d e m o n s t r a t e s w h y
p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s c a n n o t b e a u t o m a t i c a l l y reified a s causal
entities. I f p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e o n l y w a y t o simplify a c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x , t h e n s o m e special status f o r t h e m m i g h t
b e l e g i t i m a t e l y s o u g h t . B u t t h e y r e p r e s e n t only o n e m e t h o d a m o n g
m a n y for inserting axes into a multidimensional space. Principal
c o m p o n e n t s h a v e a definite geometric a r r a n g e m e n t , specified by
the criterion used to construct t h e m — t h a t the first principal comp o n e n t shall r e s o l v e a m a x i m a l a m o u n t of i n f o r m a t i o n in a set of
v e c t o r s a n d that s u b s e q u e n t c o m p o n e n t s shall all b e m u t u a l l y perp e n d i c u l a r . B u t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g s a c r o s a n c t a b o u t this c r i t e r i o n ;
v e c t o r s m a y b e r e s o l v e d i n t o a n y set o f a x e s p l a c e d w i t h i n their
s p a c e . P r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s p r o v i d e i n s i g h t i n s o m e cases, b u t
o t h e r criteria a r e o f t e n m o r e u s e f u l .
C o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g situation, i n w h i c h a n o t h e r s c h e m e f o r
p l a c i n g a x e s m i g h t be p r e f e r r e d . In F i g u r e 6.6 I s h o w c o r r e l a t i o n s
b e t w e e n f o u r m e n t a l tests, t w o o f v e r b a l a n d t w o o f a r i t h m e t i c a l
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
283
a p t i t u d e . T w o " c l u s t e r s " a r e e v i d e n t , e v e n t h o u g h all tests a r e p o s itively c o r r e l a t e d . S u p p o s e that w e wish t o identify t h e s e clusters b y
f a c t o r analysis. I f w e u s e p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s , w e m a y n o t reco g n i z e t h e m a t all. T h e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t ( S p e a r m a n ' s g )
g o e s r i g h t u p t h e m i d d l e , b e t w e e n t h e t w o clusters. I t lies close t o
no vector a n d resolves an approximately equal a m o u n t of each,
t h e r e b y m a s k i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f v e r b a l a n d a r i t h m e t i c clusters. I s
this c o m p o n e n t an entity? D o e s a " g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e " exist? Or is
g, in this case, m e r e l y a m e a n i n g l e s s a v e r a g e b a s e d on t h e invalid
amalgamation of two types of information?
W e m a y p i c k u p v e r b a l a n d a r i t h m e t i c clusters o n the s e c o n d
p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t (called a " b i p o l a r f a c t o r " b e c a u s e s o m e p r o j e c t i o n s u p o n i t will b e positive a n d o t h e r s n e g a t i v e w h e n v e c t o r s
lie o n b o t h sides o f t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t ) . I n this case,
v e r b a l tests p r o j e c t o n t h e n e g a t i v e side o f t h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t ,
a n d a r i t h m e t i c tests o n t h e positive side. B u t w e m a y fail t o d e t e c t
these clusters a l t o g e t h e r i f t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t d o m i n a t e s
all v e c t o r s . F o r p r o j e c t i o n s o n t h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t will t h e n b e
small, a n d t h e p a t t e r n c a n easily be lost (see F i g . 6.6).
D u r i n g t h e 1930s factorists d e v e l o p e d m e t h o d s t o treat this
d i l e m m a a n d t o r e c o g n i z e clusters o f v e c t o r s that p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t e n o b s c u r e d . T h e y d i d this b y r o t a t i n g f a c t o r a x e s f r o m
the p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s o r i e n t a t i o n t o n e w positions. T h e rotations, e s t a b l i s h e d b y s e v e r a l criteria, h a d a s their c o m m o n a i m t h e
p o s i t i o n i n g o f a x e s n e a r clusters. I n F i g u r e 6.7, f o r e x a m p l e , w e
use t h e c r i t e r i o n : p l a c e a x e s n e a r v e c t o r s o c c u p y i n g e x t r e m e o r
o u t l y i n g p o s i t i o n s in t h e total set. If we n o w r e s o l v e all v e c t o r s i n t o
these r o t a t e d a x e s , w e d e t e c t t h e clusters easily; f o r a r i t h m e t i c tests
project h i g h o n r o t a t e d axis 1 a n d l o w o n r o t a t e d axis 2, w h i l e verbal tests p r o j e c t h i g h on 2 a n d low on 1. M o r e o v e r , g has disappeared.
W e n o l o n g e r f i n d a " g e n e r a l f a c t o r " o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , n o t h i n g that
can be reified as a single n u m b e r e x p r e s s s i n g o v e r a l l ability. Y e t we
h a v e lost n o i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e t w o r o t a t e d a x e s r e s o l v e a s m u c h
information in the four vectors as did the two principal c o m p o nents. T h e y s i m p l y d i s t r i b u t e t h e s a m e i n f o r m a t i o n d i f f e r e n t l y
u p o n the r e s o l v i n g a x e s . H o w c a n w e a r g u e t h a t g has a n y claim t o
reified status a s a n entity i f i t r e p r e s e n t s b u t o n e o f n u m e r o u s possible w a y s to p o s i t i o n a x e s w i t h i n a set of v e c t o r s ?
I n s h o r t , f a c t o r analysis simplifies l a r g e sets o f d a t a b y r e d u c i n g
284
THE
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MAN
d i m e n s i o n a l i t y a n d t r a d i n g s o m e loss o f i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e reco g n i t i o n o f o r d e r e d s t r u c t u r e i n f e w e r d i m e n s i o n s . A s a tool f o r
simplification, it has p r o v e d its g r e a t v a l u e in m a n y disciplines. B u t
m a n y factorists h a v e g o n e b e y o n d simplification, a n d tried t o
d e f i n e f a c t o r s a s causal entities. T h i s e r r o r o f reification has
p l a g u e d t h e t e c h n i q u e since its i n c e p t i o n . It was " p r e s e n t at t h e
c r e a t i o n " since S p e a r m a n i n v e n t e d f a c t o r analysis t o s t u d y the correlation m a t r i x o f m e n t a l tests a n d t h e n reified his p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t asg o r i n n a t e , g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e . F a c t o r analysis m a y h e l p
us to u n d e r s t a n d causes by directing us to information b e y o n d the
6 • 6 A principal c o m p o n e n t s analysis of four mental tests. All correlations are high and the first principal c o m p o n e n t , Spearman's g, expresses
the overall correlation. But the g r o u p factors for verbal and mathematical
aptitude are not well resolved in this style of analysis.
T H E REAL ERROR OF C Y R I L B U R T
mathematics of correlation. B u t factors, by themselves, are neither
things nor causes; they are mathematical abstractions. Since the
s a m e set of v e c t o r s (see F i g s . 6.6, 6.7) c a n be p a r t i t i o n e d i n t o g a n d
a small r e s i d u a l a x i s , o r i n t o t w o a x e s o f e q u a l s t r e n g t h that i d e n t i f y
v e r b a l a n d a r i t h m e t i c a l clusters a n d d i s p e n s e w i t h g e n t i r e l y , w e
c a n n o t claim that S p e a r m a n ' s " g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e " i s a n ineluctable entity necessarily u n d e r l y i n g a n d c a u s i n g t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s
a m o n g m e n t a l tests. E v e n if we c h o o s e to d e f e n d g as a n o n a c c i d e n tal result, n e i t h e r its s t r e n g t h n o r its g e o m e t r i c position c a n specify
w h a t i t m e a n s i n causal t e r m s — i f o n l y b e c a u s e its f e a t u r e s a r e
equally consistent with e x t r e m e hereditarian and e x t r e m e environmentalist v i e w s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e .
6*7
Rotated factor axes for the same four mental tests depicted in Fig.
6.6. Axes are now placed near vectors lying at the periphery of the cluster.
T h e g r o u p factors for verbal and mathematical aptitude are now well
identified (see high projections on the axes indicated by dots), but g has
disappeared.
verbal
math
86
THE
2
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
Charles Spearman and general intelligence
The
two-factor
theory
C o r r e l a t i o n coefficients are now about as ubiquitous a n d unsurp r i s i n g a s c o c k r o a c h e s i n N e w Y o r k City. E v e n t h e c h e a p e s t p o c k e t
c a l c u l a t o r s p r o d u c e c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients w i t h t h e p r e s s o f a b u t ton. H o w e v e r i n d i s p e n s a b l e , they a r e t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d a s a u t o m a t i c
a c c o u t e r m e n t s o f a n y statistical analysis that d e a l s with m o r e t h a n
o n e m e a s u r e . I n s u c h a c o n t e x t , w e easily f o r g e t that t h e y w e r e o n c e
hailed as a b r e a k t h r o u g h in r e s e a r c h , as a n e w a n d e x c i t i n g tool f o r
d i s c o v e r i n g u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e i n tables o f r a w m e a s u r e s . W e c a n
sense this e x c i t e m e n t i n r e a d i n g early p a p e r s o f the g r e a t A m e r i c a n
biologist a n d statistician R a y m o n d Pearl (see P e a r l , 1905 a n d 1906,
a n d P e a r l a n d F u l l e r , 1905). Pearl c o m p l e t e d his d o c t o r a t e a t the
t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y a n d t h e n p r o c e e d e d , like a h a p p y b o y with a
g l e a m i n g n e w toy, t o c o r r e l a t e e v e r y t h i n g i n sight, f r o m the l e n g t h s
o f e a r t h w o r m s vs. t h e n u m b e r o f their b o d y s e g m e n t s ( w h e r e h e
f o u n d n o c o r r e l a t i o n a n d a s s u m e d that i n c r e a s i n g l e n g t h reflects
l a r g e r , r a t h e r t h a n m o r e , s e g m e n t s ) , t o size o f t h e h u m a n h e a d vs.
i n t e l l i g e n c e ( w h e r e h e f o u n d a v e r y small c o r r e l a t i o n , b u t a t t r i b u t e d
it to t h e i n d i r e c t e f f e c t of b e t t e r n u t r i t i o n ) .
C h a r l e s S p e a r m a n , a n e m i n e n t p s y c h o l o g i s t a n d f i n e statistician
a s w e l l * b e g a n t o s t u d y c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n m e n t a l tests d u r i n g
these h e a d y t i m e s . I f t w o m e n t a l tests a r e g i v e n t o a l a r g e n u m b e r
of p e o p l e , S p e a r m a n noted, the correlation coefficient between
t h e m i s n e a r l y a l w a y s positive. S p e a r m a n p o n d e r e d this r e s u l t a n d
w o n d e r e d w h a t h i g h e r g e n e r a l i t y i t i m p l i e d . T h e positive c o r r e l a tions c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d that e a c h test d i d n o t m e a s u r e a n i n d e p e n d e n t a t t r i b u t e o f m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g . S o m e s i m p l e r s t r u c t u r e lay
b e h i n d t h e p e r v a s i v e positive c o r r e l a t i o n s ; b u t w h a t s t r u c t u r e ?
S p e a r m a n i m a g i n e d t w o a l t e r n a d v e s . First, t h e p o s i d v e c o r r e l a t i o n s
m i g h t r e d u c e t o a small set o f i n d e p e n d e n t a t t r i b u t e s — t h e " f a c u l ties" o f t h e p h r e n o l o g i s t s a n d o t h e r schools o f e a r l y p s y c h o l o g y .
Perhaps the m i n d had separate " c o m p a r t m e n t s " for arithmetic,
v e r b a l , a n d spatial a p t i t u d e s , f o r e x a m p l e . S p e a r m a n called s u c h
* Spearman took a special interest in problems of correlation and invented a measure that probably ranks second in use to Pearson's r as a measure of association
between two variables—the so-called Spearman's rank-correlation coefficient.
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
t h e o r i e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e " o l i g a r c h i c . " S e c o n d , t h e positive c o r r e l a tions m i g h t r e d u c e t o a s i n g l e , u n d e r l y i n g g e n e r a l f a c t o r — a n o t i o n
that S p e a r m a n called " m o n a r c h i c . " I n e i t h e r case, S p e a r m a n reco g n i z e d that t h e u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r s — b e t h e y f e w (oligarchic) o r
s i n g l e ( m o n a r c h i c ) — w o u l d n o t e n c o m p a s s all i n f o r m a t i o n in a
m a t r i x o f positive c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients f o r a l a r g e n u m b e r o f
m e n t a l tests. A " r e s i d u a l v a r i a n c e " w o u l d r e m a i n — i n f o r m a t i o n
p e c u l i a r t o e a c h test a n d n o t r e l a t e d t o a n y o t h e r . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
e a c h test w o u l d h a v e its " a n a r c h i c " c o m p o n e n t . S p e a r m a n called
t h e r e s i d u a l v a r i a n c e of e a c h test its s, or specific i n f o r m a t i o n .
T h u s , S p e a r m a n reasoned, a study of underlying structure might
lead to a " t w o - f a c t o r t h e o r y " in w h i c h e a c h test c o n t a i n e d s o m e
specific i n f o r m a t i o n (its s) a n d also reflected t h e o p e r a t i o n of a sing l e , u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r , w h i c h S p e a r m a n c a l l e d g , o r g e n e r a l intell i g e n c e . O r e a c h test m i g h t i n c l u d e its specific i n f o r m a t i o n a n d also
r e c o r d o n e o r s e v e r a l a m o n g a set o f i n d e p e n d e n t , u n d e r l y i n g
faculties—a many-factor theory. If the simplest two-factor theory
h e l d , t h e n all c o m m o n attributes o f i n t e l l i g e n c e w o u l d r e d u c e t o a
single u n d e r l y i n g e n t i t y — a t r u e " g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e " that m i g h t
be measured for each person and might afford an unambiguous
criterion for r a n k i n g in terms of mental worth.
Charles S p e a r m a n d e v e l o p e d factor analysis—still the most
i m p o r t a n t t e c h n i q u e i n m o d e r n m u l t i v a r i a t e statistics—as a p r o c e d u r e f o r d e c i d i n g b e t w e e n t h e t w o - vs. t h e m a n y - f a c t o r t h e o r y b y
determining whether the c o m m o n variance in a matrix of correlation coefficients c o u l d b e r e d u c e d t o a single " g e n e r a l " f a c t o r , o r
o n l y t o s e v e r a l i n d e p e n d e n t " g r o u p " f a c t o r s . H e f o u n d b u t a single
"intelligence," opted for the two-factor theory, and, in 1904, p u b lished a p a p e r t h a t later w o n this a s s e s s m e n t f r o m a m a n w h o
o p p o s e d its m a j o r r e s u l t : " N o single e v e n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f m e n t a l
testing has p r o v e d to be of such m o m e n t o u s importance as Spearm a n ' s p r o p o s a l o f his f a m o u s t w o - f a c t o r t h e o r y " ( G u i l f o r d , 1 9 3 6 ,
p . 1 5 5 ) . E l a t e d , a n d with characteristic i m m o d e s t y , S p e a r m a n g a v e
his 1904 p a p e r a h e r o i c title: " G e n e r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e O b j e c t i v e l y
M e a s u r e d a n d D e t e r m i n e d . " T e n y e a r s later ( 1 9 1 4 , p . 2 3 7 ) , h e
e x u l t e d : " T h e f u t u r e o f r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f ability
m u s t c e n t e r o n t h e t h e o r y o f 'two factors.' T h i s a l o n e s e e m s c a p a b l e
o f r e d u c i n g t h e b e w i l d e r i n g c h a o s o f facts t o a p e r s p i c u o u s o r d e r liness. B y its m e a n s , t h e p r o b l e m s a r e r e n d e r e d clear; i n m a n y
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
respects, their answers are already f o r e s h a d o w e d ; and everyw h e r e , t h e y a r e r e n d e r e d susceptible o f e v e n t u a l decisive s o l u t i o n . "
The
method
of tetrad
differences
I n his o r i g i n a l w o r k , S p e a r m a n d i d n o t u s e the m e t h o d o f p r i n cipal c o m p o n e n t s d e s c r i b e d o n p p . 2 7 5 — 2 7 8 . I n s t e a d , h e d e v e l o p e d
a simpler, t h o u g h tedious, p r o c e d u r e better suited for a precomp u t e r a g e w h e n all calculations h a d t o b e p e r f o r m e d b y h a n d . * H e
c o m p u t e d t h e e n t i r e m a t r i x o f c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients b e t w e e n all
pairs o f tests, t o o k all possible g r o u p i n g s o f f o u r m e a s u r e s a n d
c o m p u t e d f o r e a c h a n u m b e r that h e called t h e " t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e . "
Consider the following e x a m p l e as an attempt to define the tetrad
d i f f e r e n c e a n d t o e x p l a i n h o w S p e a r m a n u s e d i t t o test w h e t h e r
t h e c o m m o n v a r i a n c e o f his m a t r i x c o u l d b e r e d u c e d t o a single
general factor, or only to several g r o u p factors.
S u p p o s e that w e wish t o c o m p u t e t h e t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e f o r f o u r
m e a s u r e s t a k e n o n a series o f m i c e r a n g i n g i n a g e f r o m babies t o
a d u l t s — l e g l e n g t h , l e g w i d t h , tail l e n g t h , a n d tail w i d t h . W e c o m p u t e all c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients b e t w e e n pairs o f variables a n d f i n d ,
u n s u r p r i s i n g l y , that all a r e p o s i t i v e — a s m i c e g r o w , their p a r t s g e t
l a r g e r . B u t w e w o u l d like t o k n o w w h e t h e r the c o m m o n v a r i a n c e
in t h e positive c o r r e l a t i o n s all reflects a single g e n e r a l f a c t o r —
growth itself—or whether two separate components of growth
m u s t be i d e n t i f i e d — i n this c a s e , a l e g f a c t o r a n d a tail f a c t o r , or a
l e n g t h f a c t o r a n d a w i d t h f a c t o r . S p e a r m a n gives t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r mula for the tetrad difference
7" 13
2A~ 23 * ^14
r
r
w h e r e r is t h e c o r r e l a t i o n coefficient a n d t h e t w o subscripts r e p r e s e n t t h e t w o m e a s u r e s b e i n g c o r r e l a t e d (in this case, 1 is l e g
l e n g t h , 2 is leg w i d t h , 3 is tail l e n g t h a n d 4 is tail w i d t h — s o that r
i s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n coefficient b e t w e e n t h e f i r s t a n d t h e t h i r d m e a s u r e , o r b e t w e e n l e g l e n g t h a n d tail l e n g t h ) . I n o u r e x a m p l e , t h e
t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e is
i3
(leg l e n g t h a n d tail l e n g t h ) x (leg w i d t h a n d tail w i d t h ) (leg w i d t h a n d tail l e n g t h ) x (leg l e n g t h a n d tail w i d t h )
* T h e g calculated by the tetrad formula is conceptually equivalent and mathematically almost equivalent to the first principal component described on pp. 2 7 5 - 2 7 8
and used in modern factor analysis.
T H E REAL ERROR OF C Y R I L B U R T
289
S p e a r m a n a r g u e d that t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e s o f z e r o i m p l y t h e existe n c e o f a single g e n e r a l f a c t o r w h i l e e i t h e r positive o r n e g a t i v e values i n d i c a t e that g r o u p factors m u s t b e r e c o g n i z e d . S u p p o s e , f o r
e x a m p l e , that g r o u p factors f o r g e n e r a l b o d y l e n g t h a n d g e n e r a l
b o d y w i d t h g o v e r n the g r o w t h o f m i c e . I n this case, w e w o u l d get
a h i g h positive v a l u e f o r the t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e b e c a u s e t h e c o r r e l a tion coefficients of a l e n g t h with a n o t h e r l e n g t h or a w i d t h with
a n o t h e r w i d t h w o u l d t e n d t o b e h i g h e r t h a n c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients
of a w i d t h with a l e n g t h . ( N o t e that t h e l e f t - h a n d side of t h e t e t r a d
e q u a t i o n i n c l u d e s o n l y l e n g t h s w i t h l e n g t h s o r w i d t h s with w i d t h s ,
while the r i g h t - h a n d side i n c l u d e s o n l y l e n g t h s with widths.) B u t i f
only a single, g e n e r a l g r o w t h f a c t o r r e g u l a t e s t h e size o f m i c e , t h e n
l e n g t h s with w i d t h s s h o u l d s h o w as h i g h a c o r r e l a t i o n as l e n g t h s
with l e n g t h s o r w i d t h s with w i d t h s — a n d t h e t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e
s h o u l d be z e r o . Fig. 6.8 s h o w s a h y p o t h e t i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x f o r
the f o u r m e a s u r e s that yields a tetrad d i f f e r e n c e o f z e r o (values
taken f r o m S p e a r m a n ' s e x a m p l e i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t , 1 9 2 7 , p . 74).
Fig. 6.8 also s h o w s a d i f f e r e n t h y p o t h e t i c a l m a t r i x y i e l d i n g a positive t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e a n d a c o n c l u s i o n (if o t h e r t e t r a d s s h o w the
s a m e p a t t e r n ) that g r o u p factors f o r l e n g t h a n d w i d t h m u s t b e recognized.
T h e t o p m a t r i x o f Fig. 6.8 illustrates a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t
that r e v e r b e r a t e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e history o f f a c t o r analysis i n psyc h o l o g y . N o t e that, a l t h o u g h the t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e i s z e r o , t h e correlation coefficients n e e d not b e (and a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y a r e not)
e q u a l . In this case, l e g w i d t h with l e g l e n g t h gives a c o r r e l a t i o n of
0.80, w h i l e tail w i d t h with tail l e n g t h yields o n l y 0 . 1 8 . T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s reflect v a r y i n g " s a t u r a t i o n s " with g, t h e single g e n e r a l f a c t o r
when the tetrad differences are zero. L e g measures have h i g h e r
saturations t h a n tail m e a s u r e s — t h a t is, t h e y a r e c l o s e r to g, or
reflect it b e t t e r (in m o d e r n t e r m s , t h e y lie closer to t h e first p r i n c i pal c o m p o n e n t in g e o m e t r i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s like F i g . 6.6). T a i l
m e a s u r e s d o n o t l o a d s t r o n g l y ong* T h e y c o n t a i n little c o m m o n
v a r i a n c e a n d m u s t b e e x p l a i n e d p r i m a r i l y b y their s—the i n f o r m a tion u n i q u e to e a c h m e a s u r e . M o v i n g n o w to m e n t a l tests: if g r e p resents g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h e n m e n t a l tests m o s t s a t u r a t e d with
"The terms "saturation" and "loading" refer to the correlation between a test and
a factor axis. If a test "loads" strongly on a factor then most of its information is
explained by the factor.
LL
LW
TL
TW
LL
1.0
LW
0.80
1.0
TL
0.60
0.48
1.0
TW
0.30
0.24
0.18
1.0
LL
LW
TL
TW
LL
Tetrad difference:
0.60 x 0.24 - 0 . 4 8 x 0 . 3 0
0.144-0.144 = 0
no group factors
1.0
Tetrad difference:
LW
0.80
1.0
0.40 x 0.40 - 0.20x0.20
0 . 1 6 - 0 . 0 4 = 0.12
TL
0.40
0.20
1.0
group factors for lengths
and widths
TW
0.20
0.40
0.50
1.0
6•8
Tetrad differences of zero (above) and a positive value (below) from
hypothetical correlation matrices for four measurements: LL = leg length,
LW = leg width, TL = tail length, and TW = tail width. T h e positive
tetrad difference indicates the existence of g r o u p factors for lengths and
widths.
T H E
REAL
E R R O R
O F
C Y R I L
B U R T
297
g a r e t h e best s u r r o g a t e s f o r g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , w h i l e tests w i t h
low ^ - l o a d i n g s ( a n d h i g h s values) c a n n o t s e r v e as g o o d m e a s u r e s
o f g e n e r a l m e n t a l w o r t h . S t r e n g t h o f g - l o a d i n g b e c o m e s t h e criter i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t a p a r t i c u l a r m e n t a l test ( I Q ,
for example) is a g o o d measure of general intelligence.
S p e a r m a n ' s t e t r a d p r o c e d u r e i s v e r y l a b o r i o u s w h e n the c o r r e lation m a t r i x i n c l u d e s a l a r g e n u m b e r o f tests. E a c h t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e m u s t b e c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y . I f t h e c o m m o n v a r i a n c e reflects
b u t a single g e n e r a l f a c t o r , t h e n t h e t e t r a d s s h o u l d e q u a l z e r o . B u t ,
a s i n a n y statistical p r o c e d u r e , n o t all cases m e e t t h e e x p e c t e d v a l u e
(half h e a d s a n d h a l f tails is t h e e x p e c t a t i o n in coin flipping, b u t y o u
will flip six h e a d s in a r o w a b o u t o n c e in s i x t y - f o u r series of six
f l i p s ) . S o m e c a l c u l a t e d t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e s will b e positive o r n e g a tive e v e n w h e n a single g exists a n d t h e e x p e c t e d v a l u e is z e r o .
T h u s , S p e a r m a n c o m p u t e d all t e t r a d d i f f e r e n c e s a n d l o o k e d f o r
normal frequency distributions with a m e a n tetrad difference of
z e r o as his test f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e of g.
Spearman's g and the great instauration of psychology
C h a r l e s S p e a r m a n c o m p u t e d all his t e t r a d s , f o u n d a d i s t r i b u t i o n close e n o u g h t o n o r m a l with a m e a n close e n o u g h t o z e r o , a n d
p r o c l a i m e d that t h e c o m m o n v a r i a n c e i n m e n t a l tests r e c o r d e d b u t
a single u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r — S p e a r m a n ' s g, or g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e .
S p e a r m a n d i d n o t h i d e his p l e a s u r e , f o r h e felt that h e h a d discove r e d the e l u s i v e entity that w o u l d m a k e p s y c h o l o g y a t r u e science.
H e h a d f o u n d t h e i n n a t e e s s e n c e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h e reality u n d e r l y i n g all t h e superficial a n d i n a d e q u a t e m e a s u r e s d e v i s e d t o s e a r c h
f o r it. S p e a r m a n ' s g w o u l d b e t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ' s s t o n e o f p s y c h o l o g y , its h a r d , q u a n t i f i a b l e " t h i n g " — a f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t i c l e that
w o u l d p a v e t h e w a y f o r a n e x a c t science a s f i r m a n d a s basic a s
physics.
I n his 1904 p a p e r , S p e a r m a n p r o c l a i m e d t h e u b i q u i t y o f g i n
all p r o c e s s e s d e e m e d intellectual: " A l l b r a n c h e s o f intellectual
activity h a v e in c o m m o n o n e f u n d a m e n t a l f u n c t i o n . . . w h e r e a s t h e
r e m a i n i n g o r specific e l e m e n t s s e e m i n e v e r y case t o b e w h o l l y diff e r e n t f r o m that in all t h e o t h e r s . . . . T h i s g, f a r f r o m b e i n g conf i n e d t o s o m e small set o f abilities w h o s e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s h a v e
actually b e e n m e a s u r e d a n d d r a w n u p i n s o m e p a r t i c u l a r table,
m a y e n t e r i n t o all abilities w h a t s o e v e r . "
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T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l school subjects, i n s o f a r a s they reflect aptit u d e r a t h e r t h a n t h e s i m p l e acquisition o f i n f o r m a t i o n , m e r e l y p e e r
t h r o u g h a d a r k glass at t h e single e s s e n c e inside: " A l l e x a m i n a t i o n
i n t h e d i f f e r e n t s e n s o r y , s c h o o l , a n d o t h e r specific faculties m a y b e
considered as so m a n y i n d e p e n d e n t l y obtained estimates of the o n e
great c o m m o n Intellective Function" (1904, p. 273). T h u s Spearm a n tried to resolve a traditional d i l e m m a of conventional education f o r t h e British elite: w h y s h o u l d t r a i n i n g in t h e classics m a k e a
better soldier or a statesman? "Instead of continuing ineffectively
t o p r o t e s t that h i g h m a r k s i n G r e e k s y n t a x a r e n o test a s t o t h e
capacity o f m e n t o c o m m a n d t r o o p s o r t o a d m i n i s t e r p r o v i n c e s , w e
shall a t last actually d e t e r m i n e t h e p r e c i s e a c c u r a c y o f t h e v a r i o u s
means of measuring General Intelligence" (1904, p. 277). In place
o f fruitless a r g u m e n t , o n e has simply t o d e t e r m i n e t h e g - l o a d i n g o f
L a t i n g r a m m a r a n d military acuity. If b o t h lie close to g, t h e n skill
i n c o n j u g a t i o n m a y b e a g o o d e s t i m a t e o f f u t u r e ability t o c o m mand.
T h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n t styles o f d o i n g s c i e n c e , all l e g i t i m a t e a n d
partially valid. T h e b e e t l e t a x o n o m i s t w h o d e l i g h t s i n n o t i n g t h e
peculiarities o f e a c h n e w species m a y h a v e little interest i n r e d u c t i o n , synthesis, o r i n p r o b i n g f o r t h e e s s e n c e o f " b e e t l e n e s s " — i f
s u c h exists! A t a n o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e , o c c u p i e d b y S p e a r m a n , t h e
e x t e r n a l i t i e s o f this w o r l d a r e only superficial g u i d e s t o a s i m p l e r ,
u n d e r l y i n g reality. I n a p o p u l a r i m a g e ( t h o u g h s o m e p r o f e s s i o n a l s
w o u l d a b j u r e it), p h y s i c s i s t h e u l t i m a t e science o f r e d u c t i o n t o basic
a n d q u a n t i f i a b l e c a u s e s that g e n e r a t e t h e a p p a r e n t c o m p l e x i t y o f
o u r m a t e r i a l w o r l d . R e d u c t i o n i s t s like S p e a r m a n , w h o w o r k i n t h e
so-called soft sciences o f o r g a n i s m i c b i o l o g y , p s y c h o l o g y , o r sociolo g y , h a v e o f t e n s u f f e r e d f r o m " p h y s i c s e n v y . " T h e y h a v e strived t o
p r a c t i c e t h e i r s c i e n c e a c c o r d i n g t o their c l o u d e d vision o f p h y s i c s —
t o s e a r c h f o r s i m p l i f y i n g laws a n d basic particles. S p e a r m a n
d e s c r i b e d his d e e p e s t h o p e s f o r a science o f c o g n i t i o n ( 1 9 2 3 , p . 30):
D e e p e r than the uniformities of occurrence which are noticeable even
without its aid, it [science] discovers others m o r e abstruse, but correspondingly m o r e comprehensive, u p o n which the name of laws is bestowed. . • •
When we look around for any approach to this ideal, something of the
sort can actually be found in the science of physics as based on the three
primary laws of motion. Coordinate with this physica corporis [physics of
bodies], then, we are today in search of a physica animae [physics of the
soul].
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
W i f h g as a quantified, fundamental particle, psychology could
t a k e its r i g h t f u l p l a c e a m o n g t h e r e a l sciences. " I n t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s , " h e w r o t e i n 1 9 2 3 (p. 3 5 5 ) , " w e m u s t v e n t u r e t o h o p e that t h e
s o l o n g m i s s i n g g e n u i n e l y scientific f o u n d a t i o n f o r p s y c h o l o g y h a s
at last b e e n s u p p l i e d , so that it c a n h e n c e f o r w a r d t a k e its d u e p l a c e
a l o n g with t h e o t h e r solidly f o u n d e d s c i e n c e s , e v e n physics itself."
S p e a r m a n called his w o r k " a C o p e r n i c a n r e v o l u t i o n i n p o i n t o f
v i e w " ( 1 9 2 7 , p . 4 1 1 ) a n d r e j o i c e d that "this C i n d e r e l l a a m o n g t h e
sciences h a s m a d e a b o l d b i d f o r t h e l e v e l o f t r i u m p h a n t p h y s i c s
itself" ( 1 9 3 7 , p . 2 1 ) .
Spearman's
g
and
the
theoretical justification
of IQ
S p e a r m a n , the theorist, t h e s e a r c h e r f o r u n i t y b y r e d u c t i o n t o
underlying causes, often spoke in most unflattering terms about
t h e stated i n t e n t i o n s o f I Q testers. H e r e f e r r e d t o I Q ( 1 9 3 1 ) a s " t h e
m e r e a v e r a g e o f sub-tests p i c k e d u p a n d p u t t o g e t h e r w i t h o u t
r h y m e o r r e a s o n . " H e d e c r i e d t h e d i g n i f i c a t i o n o f this " g a l l i m a u f r y o f tests" w i t h t h e n a m e i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n fact, t h o u g h h e h a d
d e s c r i b e d h i s g a s g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e i n 1 9 0 4 , h e later a b a n d o n e d
the word intelligence because endless a r g u m e n t s and inconsistent
p r o c e d u r e s o f m e n t a l testers h a d p l u n g e d i t i n t o i r r e m e d i a b l e
ambiguity (1927, p. 4 1 2 ; 1950, p. 67).
Y e t it w o u l d be i n c o r r e c t — i n d e e d it w o u l d be precisely contrary
t o S p e a r m a n ' s v i e w — t o r e g a r d h i m a s a n o p p o n e n t o f I Q testing.
H e h a d c o n t e m p t f o r t h e a t h e o r e t i c a l e m p i r i c i s m o f t h e testers,
their t e n d e n c y t o c o n s t r u c t tests b y t h r o w i n g a p p a r e n t l y u n r e l a t e d
items t o g e t h e r a n d t h e n o f f e r i n g n o j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r s u c h a c u r i o u s
p r o c e d u r e b e y o n d t h e c l a i m that i t y i e l d e d g o o d results. Y e t h e d i d
n o t d e n y that t h e B i n e t tests w o r k e d , a n d h e r e j o i c e d i n t h e resuscitation o f t h e subject t h u s p r o d u c e d : " B y this o n e g r e a t i n v e s t i g a tion [the B i n e t scale] t h e w h o l e s c e n e was t r a n s f o r m e d . T h e
r e c e n t l y d e s p i s e d tests w e r e n o w i n t r o d u c e d i n t o e v e r y c o u n t r y
with e n t h u s i a s m . A n d e v e r y w h e r e t h e i r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n was
brilliantly s u c c e s s f u l " ( 1 9 1 4 , p . 3 1 2 ) .
W h a t g a l l e d S p e a r m a n was his c o n v i c t i o n that I Q testers w e r e
d o i n g t h e r i g h t t h i n g i n a m a l g a m a t i n g a n a r r a y o f d i s p a r a t e items
into a single scale, b u t that t h e y r e f u s e d to r e c o g n i z e t h e t h e o r y
behind such a p r o c e d u r e and continued to r e g a r d their w o r k as
rough-and-ready empiricism.
S p e a r m a n a r g u e d p a s s i o n a t e l y that t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r B i n e t
THE
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testing lay with his o w n t h e o r y of a single g u n d e r l y i n g all c o g n i t i v e
activity. I Q tests w o r k e d b e c a u s e , u n b e k n o w n s t t o t h e i r m a k e r s ,
t h e y m e a s u r e d g w i t h fair a c c u r a c y . E a c h i n d i v i d u a l test h a s a gl o a d i n g a n d its o w n specific i n f o r m a t i o n (or 5 ) , b u t g - l o a d i n g varies
f r o m n e a r l y z e r o t o n e a r l y 100 p e r c e n t . I r o n i c a l l y , t h e m o s t accur a t e m e a s u r e of g will be t h e a v e r a g e s c o r e f o r a l a r g e collection of
i n d i v i d u a l tests o f t h e m o s t d i v e r s e k i n d . E a c h m e a s u r e s g t o s o m e
e x t e n t . T h e v a r i e t y g u a r a n t e e s f h a t s - f a c t o r s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l tests
will v a r y i n all possible d i r e c t i o n s a n d c a n c e l e a c h o t h e r o u t . O n l y
g will be left as t h e f a c t o r c o m m o n to all tests. IQ w o r k s b e c a u s e it
m e a s u r e s g.
An explanation is at once supplied for the success of their extraordinary procedure of . . . pooling together tests of the most miscellaneous
description. For if every performance d e p e n d s on two factors, the o n e
always varying randomly, while the other is constantly the same, it is clear
that in the average the random variations will tend to neutralize o n e
another, leaving the other, or constant factor, alone dominant (1914, p.
313; see also, 1923, p. 6, and 1927, p. 77).
B i n e t ' s " h o t c h p o t o f m u l t i t u d i n o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s " was a c o r r e c t
t h e o r e t i c a l d e c i s i o n , n o t o n l y t h e intuitive g u e s s of a skilled practit i o n e r : " I n s u c h wise this p r i n c i p l e o f m a k i n g a h o t c h p o t , w h i c h
might seem to be the most arbitrary and meaningless p r o c e d u r e
i m a g i n a b l e , h a d really a p r o f o u n d t h e o r e t i c a l basis a n d a
s u p r e m e l y p r a c t i c a l utility" ( S p e a r m a n q u o t e d i n T u d d e n h a m ,
1 9 6 2 , p . 503).
S p e a r m a n ' s g, a n d its a t t e n d a n t c l a i m that i n t e l l i g e n c e is a sing l e , m e a s u r a b l e entity, p r o v i d e d t h e o n l y p r o m i s i n g t h e o r e t i c a l j u s tification that h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o r i e s o f I Q h a v e e v e r h a d . A s m e n t a l
testing r o s e t o p r o m i n e n c e d u r i n g t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , i t
d e v e l o p e d t w o t r a d i t i o n s o f r e s e a r c h that C y r i l B u r t c o r r e c t l y i d e n tified in 1 9 1 4 (p. 36) as c o r r e l a t i o n a l m e t h o d s (factor analysis) a n d
age-scale m e t h o d s ( I Q testing). H e a r n s h a w h a s r e c e n t l y m a d e t h e
s a m e p o i n t i n his b i o g r a p h y o f B u r t ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 4 7 ) : " T h e n o v e l t y o f
t h e 1900's was n o t in t h e c o n c e p t of i n t e l l i g e n c e itself, b u t in its
operational definition in terms of correlational techniques, and in
the devising of practicable methods of measurement."
No o n e recognized better than S p e a r m a n the intimate connect i o n b e t w e e n his m o d e l o f f a c t o r analysis a n d h e r e d i t a r i a n interp r e t a t i o n s o f I Q t e s t i n g . I n his 1 9 1 4 Eugenics Review article, h e
T H E
R E A L
E R R O R
O F
C Y R I L
B U R T
2
95
p r o p h e s i e d t h e u n i o n o f t h e s e t w o g r e a t t r a d i t i o n s i n m e n t a l testi n g : " E a c h o f t h e s e t w o lines o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n f u r n i s h e s a p e c u l i a r l y
h a p p y a n d i n d i s p e n s a b l e s u p p o r t to t h e o t h e r . . . . G r e a t as has
b e e n t h e v a l u e o f t h e S i m o n - B i n e t tests, e v e n w h e n w o r k e d i n t h e oretical d a r k n e s s , t h e i r efficiency will be m u l t i p l i e d a t h o u s a n d - f o l d
w h e n e m p l o y e d w i t h a full light u p o n t h e i r essential n a t u r e a n d
m e c h a n i s m . " W h e n S p e a r m a n ' s style o f f a c t o r analysis c a m e u n d e r
attack late i n his c a r e e r (see p p . 3 2 6 - 3 3 2 ) , h e d e f e n d e d g b y c i t i n g
it as t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r I Q : "Statistically, this d e t e r m i n a t i o n is
g r o u n d e d o n its e x t r e m e s i m p l e n e s s . P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , i t i s c r e d i t e d
with a f f o r d i n g t h e sole base f o r s u c h u s e f u l c o n c e p t s a s t h o s e o f
' g e n e r a l ability,' o r ' I Q ' " ( 1 9 3 9 , p . 7 9 ) .
T o b e s u r e , t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l testers d i d n o t a l w a y s h e e d S p e a r man's plea for an adoption of g as the rationale for their work.
M a n y testers a b j u r e d t h e o r y a n d c o n t i n u e d t o insist o n p r a c t i c a l
utility a s t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r their e f f o r t s . B u t silence a b o u t t h e o r y
d o e s n o t c o n n o t e a n a b s e n c e o f t h e o r y . T h e reification o f I Q a s a
biological entity h a s d e p e n d e d u p o n t h e c o n v i c t i o n that S p e a r m a n ' s g m e a s u r e s a single, scalable, f u n d a m e n t a l " t h i n g " r e s i d i n g
in the h u m a n brain. M a n y of the m o r e theoretically inclined mental testers h a v e t a k e n this v i e w (see T e r m a n e t al., 1 9 1 7 , p . 1 5 2 ) . C .
C. B r i g h a m d i d n o t b a s e his f a m o u s r e c a n t a t i o n solely u p o n a
b e l a t e d r e c o g n i d o n that t h e a r m y m e n t a l tests h a d c o n s i d e r e d pate n t m e a s u r e s o f c u l t u r e a s i n b o r n p r o p e r t i e s ( p p . 262—263). H e
also p o i n t e d o u t that n o s t r o n g , s i n g l e g c o u l d b e e x t r a c t e d f r o m
t h e c o m b i n e d tests, w h i c h , t h e r e f o r e , c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n m e a sures of i n t e l l i g e n c e a f t e r all ( B r i g h a m , 1930). A n d I will at least
say this f o r A r t h u r J e n s e n : h e r e c o g n i z e s t h a t his h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e ory o f I Q d e p e n d s u p o n the validity o f g , a n d h e d e v o t e s m u c h o f
his m a j o r b o o k ( 1 9 7 9 ) to a d e f e n s e of S p e a r m a n ' s a r g u m e n t in its
original f o r m , as do Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murrav in
The Bell Curve ( 1 9 9 4 ) — s e e essays at e n d of this b o o k . A p r o p e r
understanding of the conceptual errors in Spearman's formulation
is a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r criticizing h e r e d i t a r i a n c l a i m s a b o u t IQ at their
f u n d a m e n t a l level, n o t m e r e l y i n t h e t a n g l e d m i n u t i a e o f statistical
procedures.
Spearman's reification of g
S p e a r m a n c o u l d n o t rest c o n t e n t w i t h t h e i d e a that h e h a d
p r o b e d d e e p l y u n d e r t h e e m p i r i c a l results o f m e n t a l tests a n d
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f o u n d a single a b s t r a c t f a c t o r u n d e r l y i n g all p e r f o r m a n c e . N o r
c o u l d h e a c h i e v e a d e q u a t e satisfaction b y i d e n d f y i n g that f a c t o r
with w h a t w e call i n t e l l i g e n c e itself.* S p e a r m a n felt c o m p e l l e d t o
ask m o r e o f his g : i t m u s t m e a s u r e s o m e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t y o f t h e
b r a i n ; it m u s t be a " t h i n g " in the m o s t d i r e c t , m a t e r i a l s e n s e . E v e n
i f n e u r o l o g y h a d f o u n d n o s u b s t a n c e t o identify with g , t h e brain's
p e r f o r m a n c e o n m e n t a l tests p r o v e d that s u c h a p h y s i c a l s u b s t r a t e
m u s t exist. T h u s , c a u g h t u p i n p h y s i c s e n v y a g a i n , S p e a r m a n
d e s c r i b e d his o w n " a d v e n t u r o u s s t e p o f d e s e r t i n g all actually
observable p h e n o m e n a of the m i n d a n d p r o c e e d i n g instead to
invent an u n d e r l y i n g s o m e t h i n g w h i c h — b y analogy with p h y s i c s —
has b e e n called m e n t a l e n e r g y " ( 1 9 2 7 , p . 89).
S p e a r m a n l o o k e d t o t h e basic p r o p e r t y o f g—its i n f l u e n c e i n
varying d e g r e e , u p o n mental o p e r a t i o n s — a n d tried to imagine
w h a t p h y s i c a l entity b e s t f i t t e d s u c h b e h a v i o r . W h a t else, h e a r g u e d ,
but a f o r m of e n e r g y p e r v a d i n g the entire brain and activating a
set o f specific " e n g i n e s , " e a c h w i t h a d e f i n i t e locus. T h e m o r e
e n e r g y , t h e m o r e g e n e r a l activation, t h e m o r e i n t e l l i g e n c e . S p e a r m a n w r o t e ( 1 9 2 3 , p . 5):
This continued tendency to success of the same person throughout all
variations of both form and subject matter—that is to say, throughout all
conscious aspects of cognition whatever—appears only explicable by some
factor lying d e e p e r than the p h e n o m e n a of consciousness. A n d thus there
e m e r g e s the concept of a hypothetical general and purely quantitative factor underlying all cognitive performances of any kind. . . . T h e factor was
taken, p e n d i n g further information, to consist in something of the nature
of an "energy" or "power" which serves in c o m m o n the whole cortex (or
possibly, even, the whole nervous system)."
If g p e r v a d e s t h e e n t i r e c o r t e x as a g e n e r a l e n e r g y , t h e n t h e 5f a c t o r s f o r e a c h test m u s t h a v e m o r e d e f i n i t e l o c a t i o n s . T h e y m u s t
r e p r e s e n t specific g r o u p s o f n e u r o n s , activated i n d i f f e r e n t ways b y
t h e e n e r g y i d e n t i f i e d with g . T h e s-factors, S p e a r m a n w r o t e (and
not merely in m e t a p h o r ) , are engines fueled by a circulatingg.
Each different operation must necessarily be further served by some
specific factor peculiar to it. For this factor also, a physiological substrate
has been suggested, namely the particular g r o u p of neurons specially serv*At least in his early work. Later, as we have seen, he abandoned the word intelligence as a result of its maddening ambiguity in common usage. But he did not cease
to regard g as the single cognitive essence that should be called intelligence, had not
vernacular (and technical) confusion made such a mockery of the term.
T H E REAL ERROR OF C Y R I L B U R T
ing the particular kind of operation. T h e s e neural groups would thus
function as alternative "engines" into which the c o m m o n supply of
"energy" could be alternatively distributed. Successful action would always
d e p e n d , partly on the potential of energy d e v e l o p e d in the whole cortex,
and partly on the efficiency of the specific g r o u p of neurons involved. T h e
relative influence of these two factors could vary greatly according to the
kind of operation; s o m e kinds would d e p e n d m o r e on the potential of the
energy, others more on the efficiency of the engine (1923, p p . 5-6).
T h e d i f f e r i n g g - l o a d i n g s o f tests h a d b e e n p r o v i s i o n a l l y e x p l a i n e d :
o n e mental operation might d e p e n d primarily u p o n the character
of its e n g i n e ( h i g h s a n d low ^ - l o a d i n g ) , a n o t h e r m i g h t o w e its status t o t h e a m o u n t o f g e n e r a l e n e r g y i n v o l v e d i n a c t i v a t i n g its
engine (highg--loading).
S p e a r m a n felt s u r e that h e h a d d i s c o v e r e d t h e basis o f intellig e n c e , s o s u r e that h e p r o c l a i m e d his c o n c e p t i m p e r v i o u s t o disp r o o f . H e e x p e c t e d that a p h y s i c a l e n e r g y c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h g
would be f o u n d by physiologists: " T h e r e seem to be g r o u n d s for
h o p i n g that a m a t e r i a l e n e r g y o f t h e k i n d r e q u i r e d b y p s y c h o l o g i s t s
will s o m e d a y actually b e d i s c o v e r e d " ( 1 9 2 7 , p . 4 0 7 ) . I n this discove r y , S p e a r m a n p r o c l a i m e d , " p h y s i o l o g y will a c h i e v e t h e g r e a t e s t o f
its t r i u m p h s " ( 1 9 2 7 , p . 408). B u t s h o u l d n o p h y s i c a l e n e r g y b e
f o u n d , still a n e n e r g y t h e r e m u s t b e — b u t o f a d i f f e r e n t sort:
A n d should the worst arrive and the required physiological explanation remain to the end undiscoverable, the mental facts will none the less
remain facts still. If they are such as to be best explained by the concept of
an underlying energy, then this concept will have to u n d e r g o that which
after all is only what has long been d e m a n d e d by many of the best psychologists—it will have to be regarded as purely mental (1927, p. 408).
S p e a r m a n , i n 1 9 2 7 a t least, n e v e r c o n s i d e r e d t h e o b v i o u s a l t e r n a tive: that his a t t e m p t to reify g m i g h t be invalid in the first p l a c e .
T h r o u g h o u t his c a r e e r , S p e a r m a n tried t o f i n d o t h e r r e g u l a r i ties o f m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g that w o u l d v a l i d a t e his t h e o r y o f g e n e r a l
e n e r g y a n d specific e n g i n e s . H e e n u n c i a t e d ( 1 9 2 7 , p . 133) a " l a w o f
constant o u t p u t " p r o c l a i m i n g that t h e cessation o f a n y m e n t a l
activity c a u s e s o t h e r s o f e q u a l intensity t o c o m m e n c e . T h u s , h e r e a s o n e d , g e n e r a l e n e r g y r e m a i n s intact a n d m u s t a l w a y s b e a c t i v a t i n g
s o m e t h i n g . H e f o u n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , that f a t i g u e i s "selectively
t r a n s f e r r e d " — t h a t is, t i r i n g i n o n e m e n t a l activity entails f a t i g u e i n
s o m e r e l a t e d a r e a s , but n o t i n o t h e r s ( 1 9 2 7 , p . 3 1 8 ) . T h u s , f a t i g u e
2Q8
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
c a n n o t b e a t t r i b u t e d t o " d e c r e a s e i n t h e s u p p l y o f the g e n e r a l psyc h o - p h y s i o l o g i c a l e n e r g y , " b u t m u s t r e p r e s e n t a b u i l d u p o f toxins
that act selectively u p o n c e r t a i n k i n d s o f n e u r o n s . F a t i g u e , S p e a r m a n proclaimed, "primarily concerns not the e n e r g y but the
engines" (1927, p. 318).
Y e t , a s w e f i n d s o o f t e n i n the history o f m e n t a l t e s t i n g , S p e a r m a n ' s d o u b t s b e g a n t o g r o w until h e f i n a l l y r e c a n t e d i n his last
( p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d ) b o o k o f 1 9 5 0 . H e s e e m e d t o pass o f f t h e
t h e o r y o f e n e r g y a n d e n g i n e s a s a folly o f y o u t h ( t h o u g h h e h a d
d e f e n d e d it staunchly in middle age). He even a b a n d o n e d the
a t t e m p t to reify f a c t o r s , r e c o g n i z i n g b e l a t e d l y that a m a t h e m a t i c a l
a b s t r a c t i o n n e e d n o t c o r r e s p o n d with a p h y s i c a l reality. T h e g r e a t
t h e o r i s t h a d e n t e r e d t h e c a m p o f his e n e m i e s a n d recast h i m s e l f a s
a c a u t i o u s e m p i r i c i s t ( 1 9 5 0 , p. 25):
We are u n d e r no obligation to answer such questions as: whether "factors" have any "real" existence? do they admit of g e n u i n e "measurement"?
does the notion of "ability" involve at bottom any kind of cause, or power?
Or is it only intended for the purpose of bare description? . . . At their
time and in their place such themes are doubtless well e n o u g h . T h e senior
writer himself has indulged in them not a little. Duke est desipere in loco [it
is pleasant to act foolishly from time to time—a line from Horace]. But for
the present purposes he has felt himself constrained to keep within the
limits of barest empirical science. T h e s e he takes to be at bottom nothing
but description and prediction. . . . T h e rest is mostly illumination by
way of metaphor and similes.
T h e h i s t o r y o f f a c t o r analysis i s s t r e w n with t h e w r e c k a g e o f
m i s g u i d e d a t t e m p t s a t reification. I d o n o t d e n y that p a t t e r n s o f
causality m a y h a v e identifiable a n d u n d e r l y i n g , p h y s i c a l r e a s o n s ,
a n d I d o a g r e e w i t h E y s e n c k w h e n h e states ( 1 9 5 3 , p . 1 1 3 ) : " U n d e r
certain circumstances, factors may be r e g a r d e d as hypothetical
causal i n f l u e n c e s u n d e r l y i n g a n d d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o b s e r v e d relat i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n a set of variables. It is o n l y w h e n r e g a r d e d in this
light that they h a v e interest a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r p s y c h o l o g y . " M y
c o m p l a i n t lies with t h e p r a c t i c e o f a s s u m i n g that t h e m e r e e x i s t e n c e
of a f a c t o r , in itself, p r o v i d e s a license f o r causal s p e c u l a t i o n . Factorists h a v e consistently w a r n e d a g a i n s t s u c h a n a s s u m p t i o n , b u t
o u r Platonic urges to discover u n d e r l y i n g essences continue to prevail o v e r p r o p e r c a u t i o n . W e c a n c h u c k l e , w i t h t h e b e n e f i c e n c e o f
h i n d s i g h t , a t psychiatrist T . V . M o o r e w h o , i n 1 9 3 3 , p o s t u l a t e d def-
T H E REAL ERROR OF C Y R I L B U R T
inite g e n e s f o r c a t a t o n i c , d e l u d e d , m a n i c , c o g n i t i v e , a n d constitutional d e p r e s s i o n b e c a u s e his f a c t o r analysis g r o u p e d t h e s u p p o s e d
m e a s u r e s o f t h e s e s y n d r o m e s o n s e p a r a t e a x e s (in W o l f l e , 1940).
Y e t i n 1 9 7 2 t w o a u t h o r s f o u n d a n association o f d a i r y p r o d u c t i o n
w i t h f l o r i d v o c a l i z a t i o n o n t h e tiny t h i r t e e n t h axis o f a n i n e t e e n axis f a c t o r analysis f o r m u s i c a l habits o f v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s — a n d t h e n
s u g g e s t e d " t h a t this e x t r a s o u r c e o f p r o t e i n a c c o u n t s f o r m a n y
cases o f e n e r g e t i c v o c a l i z i n g " ( L o m a x a n d B e r k o w i t z , 1 9 7 2 , p . 232).
A u t o m a t i c reification is invalid f o r t w o m a j o r r e a s o n s . First, as
I d i s c u s s e d briefly o n p p . 2 8 2 - 2 8 5 a n d will t r e a t i n full o n p p . 3 2 6 3 4 7 , n o set o f factors has a n y c l a i m t o e x c l u s i v e c o n c o r d a n c e with
t h e real w o r l d . A n y m a t r i x o f positive c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients c a n
b e f a c t o r e d , a s S p e a r m a n d i d , i n t o g a n d a set o f s u b s i d i a r y factors
o r , a s T h u r s t o n e d i d , i n t o a set o f " s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e " f a c t o r s that
usually lack a single d o m i n a n t d i r e c t i o n . S i n c e e i t h e r s o l u t i o n
resolves t h e s a m e a m o u n t o f i n f o r m a t i o n , they a r e e q u i v a l e n t i n
m a t h e m a t i c a l t e r m s . Y e t t h e y lead t o c o n t r a r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l interp r e t a t i o n s . H o w c a n w e claim that o n e , o r e i t h e r , i s a m i r r o r o f
reality?
S e c o n d , a n y s i n g l e set of f a c t o r s c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d in a v a r i e t y
o f w a y s . S p e a r m a n r e a d his s t r o n g g a s e v i d e n c e f o r a single reality
u n d e r l y i n g all c o g n i t i v e m e n t a l activity, a g e n e r a l e n e r g y w i t h i n t h e
brain. Y e t Spearman's most celebrated English colleague in factor
analysis, Sir G o d f r e y T h o m s o n , a c c e p t e d S p e a r m a n ' s m a t h e m a t i c a l
results b u t consistently c h o s e t o i n t e r p r e t t h e m i n a n o p p o s i t e m a n n e r . S p e a r m a n a r g u e d that t h e b r a i n c o u l d b e d i v i d e d i n t o a set o f
specific e n g i n e s , f u e l e d b y a g e n e r a l e n e r g y . T h o m s o n , u s i n g t h e
s a m e d a t a , i n f e r r e d that t h e b r a i n has h a r d l y a n y s p e c i a l i z e d struct u r e a t all. N e r v e cells, h e a r g u e d , e i t h e r f i r e c o m p l e t e l y o r n o t a t
a l l — t h e y a r e e i t h e r o f f o r o n , with n o i n t e r m e d i a r y state. E v e r y
m e n t a l test s a m p l e s a r a n d o m a r r a y o f n e u r o n s . T e s t s with h i g h g l o a d i n g s catch m a n y n e u r o n s i n t h e active state; o t h e r s , with l o w g loadings, have simply sampled a smaller a m o u n t of unstructured
brain. T h o m s o n c o n c l u d e d (1939): "Far f r o m b e i n g divided u p
into a f e w ' u n i t a r y factors,' t h e m i n d is a r i c h , c o m p a r a t i v e l y
undifferentiated c o m p l e x of innumerable influences—on the
p h y s i o l o g i c a l side a n intricate n e t w o r k o f possibilities o f i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n . " I f t h e s a m e m a t h e m a t i c a l p a t t e r n c a n yield s u c h disp a r a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , w h a t c l a i m c a n e i t h e r h a v e u p o n reality?
THE
Spearman
on
the inheritance
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
of g
T w o o f S p e a r m a n ' s p r i m a r y claims a p p e a r i n m o s t h e r e d i t a r i a n
t h e o r i e s of m e n t a l testing: t h e identification of i n t e l l i g e n c e as a
u n i t a r y " t h i n g , " a n d t h e i n f e r e n c e o f a p h y s i c a l s u b s t r a t e f o r it. B u t
t h e s e c l a i m s d o n o t c o m p l e t e the a r g u m e n t : a single, p h y s i c a l substance m a y a c h i e v e its v a r i a b l e s t r e n g t h t h r o u g h effects o f e n v i r o n ment and education, not f r o m inborn differences. A m o r e direct
a r g u m e n t f o r t h e heritability o f g m u s t b e m a d e , a n d S p e a r m a n
s u p p l i e d it.
T h e identification o f g a n d s w i t h e n e r g y a n d e n g i n e s a g a i n
p r o v i d e d S p e a r m a n with his f r a m e w o r k . H e a r g u e d that t h e s - f a c tors r e c o r d t r a i n i n g i n e d u c a t i o n , b u t that t h e s t r e n g t h o f a p e r son's g reflects h e r e d i t y a l o n e . H o w can g be i n f l u e n c e d by
e d u c a t i o n , S p e a r m a n a r g u e d ( 1 9 2 7 , p. 3 9 2 ) , if g ceases to i n c r e a s e
b y a b o u t a g e s i x t e e n b u t e d u c a t i o n m a y c o n t i n u e indefinitely t h e r e after? H o w cang be a l t e r e d by s c h o o l i n g if it m e a s u r e s w h a t S p e a r m a n called eduction (or t h e ability to s y n t h e s i z e a n d d r a w
c o n n e c t i o n s ) a n d n o t retention (the ability to l e a r n facts a n d r e m e m b e r t h e m ) — w h e n schools a r e i n the b u s i n e s s o f i m p a r t i n g inform a t i o n ? T h e e n g i n e s c a n b e s t u f f e d full o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d s h a p e d
by t r a i n i n g , b u t t h e brain's g e n e r a l e n e r g y is a c o n s e q u e n c e of its
inborn structure:
T h e effect of training is confined to the specific factor and does not
touch the general one; physiologically speaking, certain neurons b e c o m e
habituated to particular kinds of action, but the free energy of the brain
remains unaffected. . . . T h o u g h unquestionably the development of specific abilities is in large measure d e p e n d e n t u p o n environmental influences, that of general ability is almost wholly governed by heredity (1914,
p p . 233-234)I Q , as a m e a s u r e of g, r e c o r d s an i n n a t e g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e ; the
m a r r i a g e of the two great traditions in mental m e a s u r e m e n t ( I Q
testing a n d f a c t o r analysis) was c o n s u m m a t e d with t h e issue o f
heredity.
O n t h e v e x a t i o u s issue o f g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s , S p e a r m a n ' s v i e w s
a c c o r d e d with t h e u s u a l beliefs o f l e a d i n g w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n m a l e
scientists a t t h e t i m e (see F i g . 6.9). O f b l a c k s , h e w r o t e ( 1 9 2 7 , p .
3 7 9 ) , i n v o k i n g ^ t o i n t e r p r e t t h e a r m y m e n t a l tests:
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
OI
3
On the average of all the tests, the colored were about two years behind
the white; their inferiority e x t e n d e d through all ten tests, but it was most
marked in just those which are known to be most saturated with g.
I n o t h e r w o r d s , b l a c k s p e r f o r m e d m o s t p o o r l y o n tests h a v i n g
s t r o n g e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s with g , o r i n n a t e g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e .
O f whites f r o m s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e , S p e a r m a n w r o t e
( 1 9 2 7 , p. 379), praising the A m e r i c a n I m m i g r a t i o n Restriction A c t
of 1924:
T h e general conclusion emphasized by nearly every investigator is that,
as regards "intelligence," the Germanic stock has on the average a marked
advantage over the South European. A n d this result would seem to have
6*9
Racist stereotype of a Jewish financier, reproduced from the first
page of Spearman's 1914 article (see Bibliography). Spearman used this
figure to criticize beliefs in group factors for such particular items of intellect, but its publication illustrates the acceptable attitudes of another age.
"TV4£ F I N A N C I E R ' S
IOEr\U
302
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
OF
M A N
had vitally important practical consequences in shaping the recent very
stringent American laws as to admission of immigrants.
Y e t it would be incorrect to brand S p e a r m a n as an architect of
the hereditarian
theory
for differences
in
intelligence
among
h u m a n g r o u p s . H e s u p p l i e d s o m e i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s , particularly the a r g u m e n t that intelligence is an innate, single, scorable
"thing." He also h e l d conventional views on the source of a v e r a g e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e l l i g e n c e b e t w e e n races a n d n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . B u t
h e d i d n o t stress t h e ineluctability o f d i f f e r e n c e s . I n f a c t , h e attribu t e d s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e s t o t r a i n i n g a n d social c o n v e n t i o n ( 1 9 2 7 , p .
229) a n d h a d r a t h e r little t o say a b o u t social classes. M o r e o v e r ,
w h e n d i s c u s s i n g racial d i f f e r e n c e s , h e a l w a y s c o u p l e d his h e r e d i t a r i a n c l a i m a b o u t a v e r a g e scores w i t h a n a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e r a n g e
o f v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n a n y racial o r n a t i o n a l g r o u p g r e a t l y e x c e e d s t h e
small a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n g r o u p s — s o t h a t m a n y m e m b e r s
o f a n " i n f e r i o r " r a c e will s u r p a s s t h e a v e r a g e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f a
" s u p e r i o r " g r o u p ( 1 9 2 7 , p . 380, f o r e x a m p l e ) . *
S p e a r m a n also r e c o g n i z e d t h e political f o r c e o f h e r e d i t a r i a n
c l a i m s , t h o u g h h e d i d n o t a b j u r e e i t h e r t h e c l a i m o r t h e politics:
"All great efforts to i m p r o v e h u m a n beings by way of training are
t h w a r t e d t h r o u g h t h e a p a t h y o f t h o s e w h o h o l d the sole feasible
r o a d t o b e t h a t o f stricter b r e e d i n g " ( 1 9 2 7 , p . 3 7 6 ) .
B u t , most importantly, S p e a r m a n simply didn't seem to take
m u c h i n t e r e s t i n t h e subject o f h e r e d i t a r y d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g p e o p l e s . W h i l e t h e issue s w i r l e d a b o u t h i m a n d b u r i e d his p r o f e s s i o n
i n p r i n t e r ' s i n k , a n d w h i l e h e h i m s e l f h a d s u p p l i e d a basic a r g u m e n t for the hereditarian school, the inventor of g stood aside in
a p p a r e n t a p a t h y . H e h a d s t u d i e d f a c t o r analysis b e c a u s e h e w a n t e d
to understand the structure of the h u m a n brain, not as a guide to
measuring differences between groups, or even a m o n g individuals.
S p e a r m a n m a y h a v e b e e n a r e l u c t a n t c o u r t i e r , b u t t h e politically
p o t e n t u n i o n o f I Q a n d f a c t o r analysis i n t o a h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o r y
of intelligence was e n g i n e e r e d by Spearman's successor in the chair
of psychology at University C o l l e g e — C y r i l Burt. S p e a r m a n may
h a v e c a r e d little, b u t t h e i n n a t e c h a r a c t e r o f i n t e l l i g e n c e was t h e
i d e e f i x e o f Sir C y r i l ' s life.
* Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray emphasize the same arguments to obviate
a charge of racism against The Bell Curve (1994)—see first two essays at end of book.
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
3°3
Cyril Burt and the hereditarian synthesis
The source of Burt's uncompromising hereditarianism
C y r i l B u r t p u b l i s h e d his first p a p e r in 1909. In it, he a r g u e d
that i n t e l l i g e n c e is i n n a t e a n d that d i f f e r e n c e s between social
classes a r e l a r g e l y p r o d u c t s o f h e r e d i t y ; h e also cited S p e a r m a n ' s
g as p r i m a r y s u p p o r t . B u r t ' s last p a p e r in a m a j o r journal a p p e a r e d
p o s t h u m o u s l y in 1 9 7 2 . It s a n g t h e v e r y s a m e tune: intelligence is
i n n a t e a n d t h e e x i s t e n c e of S p e a r m a n ' s g p r o v e s it. For all his m o r e
d u b i o u s qualifies, C y r i l B u r t c e r t a i n l y h a d staying power. T h e 1 9 7 2
paper proclaims:
T h e two main conclusions we have reached seem clear and beyond all
question. T h e hypothesis of a general factor entering into every type of
cognitive process, tentatively suggested by speculations derived from neurology and biology, is fully borne out by the statistical evidence; and the
contention that differences in this general factor depend largely on the
individual's genetic constitution appears incontestable. The concept of an
innate, general, cognitive ability, which follows from these two assumptions, though admittedly a sheer abstraction, is thus wholly consistent with
the empirical facts (1972, p. 188).
O n l y t h e intensity o f Sir C y r i l ' s adjectives h a d changed. I n 1 9 1 2 h e
h a d t e r m e d this a r g u m e n t " c o n c l u s i v e " ; b y 1972 i t h a d b e c o m e
"incontestable."
F a c t o r analysis lay a t t h e c o r e o f B u r t ' s definition o f i n t e l l i g e n c e
as i.g.c. ( i n n a t e , g e n e r a l , c o g n i t i v e ) ability. In his major w o r k on
f a c t o r analysis ( 1 9 4 0 , p . 2 1 6 ) , B u r t d e v e l o p e d his characteristic u s e
of S p e a r m a n ' s thesis. F a c t o r analysis s h o w s that "a general f a c t o r
e n t e r s i n t o all cognitive p r o c e s s e s , " a n d "this general factor a p p e a r s
to be l a r g e l y , if n o t w h o l l y , i n h e r i t e d or innate"—again, i.g.c. ability.
T h r e e y e a r s e a r l i e r ( 1 9 3 7 , p p . 10—11) h e h a d t i e d g t o a n inelucta»le h e r e d i t y e v e n m o r e g r a p h i c a l l y :
This general intellectual factor, central and all-pervading, shows a further characteristic, also disclosed by testing and statistics. It appears to be
inherited, or at least inborn. Neither knowledge nor practice, neither
'"terest nor industry, will avail to increase it.
O t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g S p e a r m a n h i m s e l f , h a d drawn t h e link
b e t w e e n g a n d h e r e d i t y . Y e t n o o n e b u t Sir Cyril ever p u r s u e d i t
with s u c h s t u b b o r n , a l m o s t obsessive g u s t o : and no o n e else
THE
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MAN
w i e l d e d i t a s s u c h a n e f f e c t i v e political tool. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f
h e r e d i t a r i a n bias with a reification of i n t e l l i g e n c e as a s i n g l e , m e a s u r a b l e entity d e f i n e d B u r t ' s u n y i e l d i n g position.
I h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h e r o o t s o f t h e s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t : intellig e n c e a s a reified f a c t o r . B u t w h e r e d i d t h e f i r s t c o m p o n e n t — r i g i d
h e r e d i t a r i a n i s m — a r i s e in B u r t ' s v i e w of life? It d i d n o t flow l o g i cally f r o m f a c t o r analysis itself, f o r it c a n n o t (see p p . 2 8 0 - 2 8 2 ) . I
will n o t a t t e m p t t o a n s w e r this q u e s t i o n b y r e f e r r i n g e i t h e r t o B u r t ' s
p s y c h e o r his t i m e s ( t h o u g h H e a r n s h a w , 1 9 7 9 , h a s m a d e s o m e s u g gestions). B u t I will d e m o n s t r a t e that B u r t ' s h e r e d i t a r i a n a r g u m e n t
h a d n o f o u n d a t i o n i n his e m p i r i c a l w o r k (either h o n e s t o r f r a u d u lent), a n d that i t r e p r e s e n t e d a n a p r i o r i bias i m p o s e d u p o n t h e
studies that s u p p o s e d l y p r o v e d it. I t also a c t e d , t h r o u g h B u r t ' s zealo u s p u r s u i t o f bis i d e e f i x e , a s a d i s t o r t e r o f j u d g m e n t a n d f i n a l l y
as an i n c i t e m e n t to f r a u d . *
BURT'S I N I T I A L " P R O O F " OF I N N A T E N E S S
T h r o u g h o u t his l o n g c a r e e r , B u r t c o n t i n u a l l y cited his f i r s t
p a p e r of 1909 as a p r o o f that i n t e l l i g e n c e is i n n a t e . Y e t t h e s t u d y
falters b o t h o n a flaw o f logic (circular r e a s o n i n g ) a n d o n t h e
r e m a r k a b l y scant a n d superficial c h a r a c t e r o f t h e d a t a t h e m s e l v e s .
T h i s publication proves only one thing about intelligence—that
B u r t b e g a n his s t u d y with a n a p r i o r i c o n v i c t i o n o f its i n n a t e n e s s ,
a n d r e a s o n e d b a c k i n a vicious circle t o his initial belief. T h e "evid e n c e " — w h a t t h e r e was o f i t — s e r v e d o n l y a s selective w i n d o w
dressing.
A t t h e o u t s e t o f his 1909 p a p e r , B u r t set t h r e e g o a l s f o r himself.
T h e f i r s t t w o reflect t h e i n f l u e n c e o f S p e a r m a n ' s p i o n e e r i n g w o r k
i n f a c t o r analysis ("can g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e b e d e t e c t e d a n d m e a s u r e d " ; " c a n its n a t u r e b e isolated a n d its m e a n i n g a n a l y z e d " ) . T h e
t h i r d r e p r e s e n t s B u r t ' s p e c u l i a r c o n c e r n : " I s its d e v e l o p m e n t p r e dominantly determined by environmental influence and individual
a c q u i s i t i o n , or is it r a t h e r d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e i n h e r i t a n c e of a
racial c h a r a c t e r o r family trait" ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 96).
N o t o n l y d o e s B u r t p r o c l a i m this t h i r d q u e s t i o n "in m a n y ways
* Of Burt's belief in the innateness of intelligence, Hearnshaw writes (1979, p. 49)
"It was for him almost an article of faith, which he was prepared to defend against
all opposition, rather than a tentative hypothesis to be refuted, if possible, by empirical tests. It is hard not to feel that almost from the first Burt showed an excessive
assurance in the finality and correctness of his conclusions."
:
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
the m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f all," b u t h e also gives a w a y his a n s w e r i n
stating w h y w e s h o u l d b e s o c o n c e r n e d . Its i m p o r t a n c e rests u p o n :
. . . the growing belief that innate characters of the family are more potent
in evolution than the acquired characters of the individual, the gradual
apprehension that u n s u p p l e m e n t e d humanitarianism and philanthropy
may be suspending the natural elimination of the unfit stocks—these features of contemporary sociology make the question whether ability is
inherited o n e of fundamental m o m e n t (1909, p. 169).
B u r t selected f o r t y - t h r e e b o y s f r o m t w o O x f o r d schools, thirty
sons o f small t r a d e s m e n f r o m a n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l a n d t h i r t e e n
u p p e r - c l a s s b o y s f r o m p r e p a r a t o r y s c h o o l . I n this " e x p e r i m e n t a l
d e m o n s t r a t i o n that i n t e l l i g e n c e i s h e r e d i t a r y " ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 1 7 9 ) , with
its l u d i c r o u s l y small s a m p l e , B u r t a d m i n i s t e r e d t w e l v e tests o f
"mental functions of varying degrees of complexity" to each boy.
( M o s t o f t h e s e tests w e r e n o t d i r e c t l y c o g n i t i v e i n the u s u a l s e n s e ,
b u t m o r e like the o l d e r G a l t o n i a n tests o f p h y s i o l o g y — a t t e n t i o n ,
m e m o r y , sensory discrimination, and reaction time). B u r t then
o b t a i n e d " c a r e f u l e m p i r i c a l estimates o f i n t e l l i g e n c e " f o r e a c h b o y .
T h i s h e d i d n o t b y r i g o r o u s B i n e t testing, b u t b y a s k i n g " e x p e r t "
observers to rank the boys in o r d e r of their intelligence independent of m e r e school learning. He obtained these rankings f r o m the
headmasters of the schools, f r o m teachers, and f r o m "two c o m p e tent a n d i m p a r t i a l b o y s " i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t u d y . W r i t i n g i n the
t r i u m p h a n t d a y s o f British c o l o n i a l i s m a n d d e r r i n g - d o , B u r t
i n s t r u c t e d his t w o b o y s o n t h e m e a n i n g o f i n t e l l i g e n c e :
Supposing you had to choose a leader for an expedition into an
unknown country, which of these 30 boys would you select as the most
intelligent? Failing him, which next? (1909, p. 106)
Burt then searched for correlations between performance on
t h e t w e l v e tests a n d t h e r a n k i n g s p r o d u c e d b y his e x p e r t witnesses.
H e f o u n d that f i v e tests h a d c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients with intellig e n c e a b o v e 0.5, a n d that p o o r e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s i n v o l v e d tests o f
" l o w e r s e n s e s — t o u c h a n d w e i g h t , " w h i l e t h e best c o r r e l a t i o n s
i n c l u d e d tests o f c l e a r e r c o g n i t i v e i m p o r t . C o n v i n c e d that t h e
twelve tests m e a s u r e d i n t e l l i g e n c e , B u r t t h e n c o n s i d e r e d t h e scores
t h e m s e l v e s . H e f o u n d that t h e u p p e r - c l a s s b o y s p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r
than t h e l o w e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s b o y s in all tests save t h o s e i n v o l v i n g
weight and touch. T h e upper-class boys must therefore be smarter.
But is the superior smartness of upper-class boys innate or
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acquired as a function of advantages in h o m e a n d schooling? Burt
gave four arguments for discounting environment:
1. T h e e n v i r o n m e n t o f l o w e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s b o y s c a n n o t b e p o o r
e n o u g h t o m a k e a d i f f e r e n c e since t h e i r p a r e n t s c a n a f f o r d t h e
n i n e p e n c e a w e e k r e q u i r e d t o a t t e n d s c h o o l : " N o w i n t h e case o f
the lowest social classes, g e n e r a l i n f e r i o r i t y a t m e n t a l tests m i g h t b e
a t t r i b u t a b l e t o u n f o r t u n a t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d post-natal influe n c e s . . . . B u t s u c h c o n d i t i o n s c o u l d n o t be s u s p e c t e d with t h e b o y s
w h o , at a fee of g d a week, attended the Central Elementary
School" (1909, p. 173). In other w o r d s , e n v i r o n m e n t can't m a k e a
d i f f e r e n c e until it r e d u c e s a child to n e a r s t a r v a t i o n .
2 . T h e " e d u c a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s o f h o m e a n d social l i f e " s e e m
small. I n m a k i n g this a d m i t t e d l y subjective a s s e s s m e n t , B u r t
a p p e a l e d to a fine intuition h o n e d by years of gut-level experience.
" H e r e , h o w e v e r , o n e must confess, such speculative arguments can
c o n v e y little c o n v i c t i o n t o t h o s e w h o h a v e n o t w i t n e s s e d t h e actual
m a n n e r of the respective boys."
3 . T h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e tests t h e m s e l v e s p r e c l u d e s m u c h envir o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e . A s tests o f s e n s a t i o n a n d m o t o r p e r f o r m a n c e ,
t h e y d o n o t i n v o l v e " a n a p p r e c i a b l e d e g r e e o f a c q u i r e d skill o r
k n o w l e d g e . . . . T h e r e is r e a s o n , t h e r e f o r e , to b e l i e v e that t h e diff e r e n c e s r e v e a l e d a r e m a i n l y i n n a t e " ( 1 9 0 9 , p . 180).
4. A r e t e s t i n g of t h e b o y s e i g h t e e n m o n t h s later, a f t e r s e v e r a l
had entered professions or new schools, p r o d u c e d no important
r e a d j u s t m e n t o f r a n k s . ( D i d i t e v e r o c c u r t o B u r t that e n v i r o n m e n t
m i g h t h a v e its p r i m a r y i n f l u e n c e i n e a r l y life, a n d n o t o n l y i n
i m m e d i a t e situations?)
T h e p r o b l e m w i t h all t h e s e p o i n t s , a n d w i t h t h e d e s i g n o f t h e
e n t i r e s t u d y , is a p a t e n t circularity in a r g u m e n t . B u r t ' s c l a i m r e s t e d
u p o n c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n test p e r f o r m a n c e s a n d a r a n k i n g o f
intelligence compiled by "impartial" observers. ( A r g u m e n t s about
t h e " c h a r a c t e r " o f t h e tests t h e m s e l v e s a r e s e c o n d a r y , f o r t h e y
w o u l d c o u n t f o r n o t h i n g i n B u r t ' s d e s i g n i f t h e tests d i d n o t c o r r e late w i t h i n d e p e n d e n t assessments o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . ) W e m u s t k n o w
w h a t t h e subjective r a n k i n g s m e a n i n o r d e r t o i n t e r p r e t t h e c o r r e lations a n d m a k e a n y u s e o f t h e tests t h e m s e l v e s . F o r i f t h e r a n k i n g s o f t e a c h e r s , h e a d m a s t e r s , a n d c o l l e a g u e s , h o w e v e r sincerely
a t t e m p t e d , r e c o r d t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f u p b r i n g i n g m o r e t h a n t h e differential blessings of genetics, then the ranks are primarily a r e c o r d
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
o f e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t h e test scores m a y p r o v i d e j u s t a n o t h e r (and
m o r e imperfect) measure of the same thing. Burt used the correlation b e t w e e n t w o criteria a s e v i d e n c e f o r h e r e d i t y w i t h o u t e v e r
establishing that e i t h e r c r i t e r i o n m e a s u r e d his f a v o r e d p r o p e r t y .
I n any case, all t h e s e a r g u m e n t s f o r h e r e d i t y a r e i n d i r e c t . B u r t
also c l a i m e d , as his final p r o o f , a d i r e c t test of i n h e r i t a n c e : t h e b o y s '
m e a s u r e d i n t e l l i g e n c e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h that o f t h e i r p a r e n t s :
Wherever a process is correlated with intelligence, these children of
superior parentage resemble their parents in being themselves superior.
. . . Proficiency at such tests does not d e p e n d u p o n opportunity or training, but u p o n some quality innate. T h e resemblance in d e g r e e of intelligence between the boys and their parents must, therefore, be d u e to
inheritance. We thus have an experimental demonstration that intelligence is hereditary (1909, p. 181).
B u t h o w did B u r t measure parental intelligence? T h e answer,
r e m a r k a b l e e v e n f r o m B u r t ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , i s that h e d i d n ' t : h e
m e r e l y a s s u m e d i t f r o m p r o f e s s i o n a n d social s t a n d i n g . I n t e l l e c tual, upper-class parents must be innately smarter than tradesmen.
B u t t h e s t u d y was d e s i g n e d t o assess w h e t h e r o r n o t p e r f o r m a n c e
o n tests reflects i n b o r n qualities o r t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f social s t a n d ing. O n e cannot, therefore, turn around and infer intelligence
directly f r o m social s t a n d i n g .
W e k n o w that B u r t ' s later studies o f i n h e r i t a n c e w e r e f r a u d u lent. Y e t his e a r l y a n d h o n e s t w o r k i s r i d d l e d w i t h f l a w s s o f u n d a m e n t a l that t h e y s t a n d i n scarcely b e t t e r light. A s i n t h e 1909 s t u d y ,
B u r t c o n t i n u a l l y a r g u e d f o r i n n a t e n e s s b y citing c o r r e l a t i o n s i n
intelligence b e t w e e n parents and offspring. A n d he continually
assessed p a r e n t a l i n t e l l i g e n c e by social s t a n d i n g , n o t by a c t u a l tests.
For e x a m p l e , after completing the O x f o r d study, B u r t b e g a n a
m o r e e x t e n s i v e p r o g r a m o f t e s t i n g i n L i v e r p o o l . H e cited h i g h correlations b e t w e e n p a r e n t s a n d o f f s p r i n g a s a m a j o r a r g u m e n t f o r
i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e , b u t n e v e r p r o v i d e d p a r e n t a l s c o r e s . Fifty y e a r s
later, L . S . P e n r o s e r e a d B u r t ' s o l d w o r k , n o t e d t h e a b s e n t d a t a ,
and asked B u r t h o w he had measured parental intelligence. T h e
old m a n r e p l i e d (in H e a r n s h a w , 1 9 7 9 , p . 29):
T h e intelligence of the parents was assessed primarily on the basis of
their actual jobs, checked by personal interviews; about a fifth were also
tested to standardize the impressionistic assessments.
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H e a r n s h a w c o m m e n t s ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 30): " I n a d e q u a t e r e p o r t i n g a n d
i n c a u t i o u s c o n c l u s i o n s m a r k this f i r s t i n c u r s i o n o f B u r t into t h e
g e n e t i c f i e l d . W e h a v e h e r e , r i g h t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f his c a r e e r ,
the seeds of later troubles."
E v e n w h e n B u r t d i d test subjects, h e r a r e l y r e p o r t e d t h e actual
s c o r e s a s m e a s u r e d , b u t " a d j u s t e d " t h e m a c c o r d i n g t o his o w n
assessment of their failure to measure true intelligence as he and
o t h e r e x p e r t s s u b j e c t i v e l y j u d g e d it. H e a d m i t t e d i n a m a j o r w o r k
( 1 9 2 1 , p . 280):
I did not take my test results just as they stood. T h e y were carefully
discussed with teachers, and freely corrected whenever it s e e m e d likely
that the teacher's view of the relative merits of his own pupils gave a better
estimate than the c r u d e test marks.
S u c h a p r o c e d u r e is n o t w i t h o u t its c o m m e n d a b l e intent. It d o e s
a d m i t t h e inability o f a m e r e n u m b e r , c a l c u l a t e d d u r i n g a s h o r t
series of tests, to c a p t u r e s u c h a subtle n o t i o n as i n t e l l i g e n c e . It
does g r a n t to teachers a n d others with extensive personal knowle d g e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e c o r d their g o o d j u d g m e n t . B u t i t s u r e l y
m a k e s a m o c k e r y of a n y claim that a specific h y p o t h e s i s is u n d e r
o b j e c t i v e a n d r i g o r o u s test. F o r i f o n e b e l i e v e s b e f o r e h a n d that
well-bred children are innately intelligent, then in what direction
will t h e s c o r e s b e a d j u s t e d ? *
D e s p i t e his m i n u s c u l e s a m p l e , his illogical a r g u m e n t s , a n d his
d u b i o u s p r o c e d u r e s , B u r t c l o s e d his 1909 p a p e r with a s t a t e m e n t
of personal t r i u m p h (p. 176):
Parental intelligence, therefore, may be inherited, individual intellig e n c e measured, a n d general intelligence analyzed; and they can be analyzed, measured and inherited to a d e g r e e which few psychologists have
hitherto legitimately ventured to maintain.
W h e n B u r t r e c y c l e d t h e s e d a t a in a 1 9 1 2 p a p e r f o r t h e Eugenics
Review, h e a d d e d a d d i t i o n a l " p r o o f " with e v e n s m a l l e r s a m p l e s . H e
•Sometimes, Burt descended even further into circular illogic and claimed that tests
must measure innate intelligence because the testers constructed them to do so:
"Indeed from Binet onwards practically all the investigators who have attempted to
construct 'intelligence tests' have been primarily searching for some measure of
inborn capacity, as distinct from acquired knowledge or skill. With such an interpretation it obviously becomes foolish to inquire how far 'intelligence' is due to environment and how far it is due to innate constitution: the very definition begs and setdes
the question" ( 1 9 4 3 . p- 8 8 ) .
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
d i s c u s s e d A l f r e d B i n e t ' s t w o d a u g h t e r s , n o t e d that their f a t h e r h a d
b e e n d i s i n c l i n e d t o c o n n e c t p h y s i c a l signs w i t h m e n t a l p r o w e s s , a n d
p o i n t e d o u t that t h e b l o n d , b l u e - e y e d , l a r g e - h e a d e d d a u g h t e r o f
T e u t o n i c a p p e a r a n c e w a s objective a n d f o r t h r i g h t , w h i l e t h e
d a r k e r d a u g h t e r t e n d e d t o b e i m p r a c t i c a l a n d s e n t i m e n t a l . Touche.
B u r t was no f o o l . I c o n f e s s that I b e g a n r e a d i n g h i m w i t h t h e
i m p r e s s i o n , n u r t u r e d b y s p e c t a c u l a r press r e p o r t s o f his f r a u d u l e n t
w o r k , that h e was s i m p l y a d e v i o u s a n d f o x y c h a r l a t a n . T o b e s u r e ,
that h e b e c a m e a n d f o r c o m p l e x r e a s o n s (see p p . 264—269). B u t a s
I r e a d , I g a i n e d r e s p e c t f o r B u r t ' s e n o r m o u s e r u d i t i o n , f o r his
r e m a r k a b l e sensitivity i n m o s t a r e a s , a n d f o r t h e subtlety a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f his r e a s o n i n g ; I e n d e d u p l i k i n g m o s t t h i n g s a b o u t h i m
i n spite o f myself. A n d y e t , this a s s e s s m e n t m a k e s t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y w e a k n e s s o f his r e a s o n i n g a b o u t t h e i n n a t e n e s s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e
all t h e m o r e p u z z l i n g . I f h e h a d s i m p l y b e e n a f o o l , t h e n f o o l i s h
a r g u m e n t s w o u l d d e n o t e consistency o f c h a r a c t e r .
My d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n e s an idee fixe, or fixed i d e a , as "a p e r s i s t e n t
or obsessing idea, often delusional, f r o m which a person cannot
e s c a p e . " T h e i n n a t e n e s s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e was B u r t ' s i d e e f i x e . W h e n
h e t u r n e d his intellectual skills t o o t h e r a r e a s , h e r e a s o n e d well,
subtly, a n d o f t e n w i t h g r e a t insight. W h e n h e c o n s i d e r e d t h e
i n n a t e n e s s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , b l i n d e r s d e s c e n d e d a n d his r a t i o n a l
t h i n k i n g e v a p o r a t e d b e f o r e t h e h e r e d i t a r i a n d o g m a that w o n his
f a m e a n d e v e n t u a l l y s e a l e d his intellectual d o o m . I t m a y b e
r e m a r k a b l e that B u r t c o u l d o p e r a t e w i t h s u c h a d u a l i t y i n styles o f
r e a s o n i n g . B u t I f i n d i t m u c h m o r e r e m a r k a b l e that s o m a n y o t h e r s
b e l i e v e d B u r t ' s s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t i n t e l l i g e n c e w h e n his a r g u m e n t s
a n d d a t a , all r e a d i l y available i n p o p u l a r p u b l i c a t i o n s , c o n t a i n e d
s u c h p a t e n t e r r o r s a n d s p e c i o u s c l a i m s . W h a t d o e s this t e a c h u s
a b o u t s h a r e d d o g m a m a s q u e r a d i n g a s objectivity?
LATER
ARGUMENTS
P e r h a p s I h a v e b e e n u n f a i r i n c h o o s i n g B u r t ' s earliest w o r k f o r
criticism. P e r h a p s t h e f o o l i s h n e s s o f y o u t h s o o n y i e l d e d t o m a t u r e
w i s d o m a n d c a u t i o n . N o t a t all; B u r t was n o t h i n g i f n o t o n t o g e n e t ically consistent. T h e a r g u m e n t o f 1 9 0 9 n e v e r c h a n g e d , n e v e r
g a i n e d subtlety, a n d e n d e d w i t h m a n u f a c t u r e d s u p p o r t . T h e
innateness of intelligence continued to function as d o g m a . C o n s i d e r t h e p r i m a r y a r g u m e n t o f B u r t ' s m o s t f a m o u s b o o k , The Back-
THE
MISMEASURE
OF MAN
ward Child ( 1 9 3 7 ) , w r i t t e n at t h e h e i g h t of his p o w e r s a n d b e f o r e
his d e s c e n t i n t o c o n s c i o u s f r a u d .
Backwardness, Burt notes, is defined by achievement in school,
n o t b y tests o f i n t e l l i g e n c e : b a c k w a r d c h i l d r e n a r e m o r e t h a n a y e a r
b e h i n d i n t h e i r s c h o o l w o r k . B u r t a r g u e s that e n v i r o n m e n t a l
e f f e c t s , i f a t all i m p o r t a n t , s h o u l d h a v e m o s t i m p a c t u p o n c h i l d r e n
i n this c a t e g o r y (those m u c h f u r t h e r b e h i n d i n s c h o o l a r e m o r e
clearly g e n e t i c a l l y i m p a i r e d ) . B u r t t h e r e f o r e u n d e r t o o k a statistical
study of e n v i r o n m e n t by correlating the percentage of backward
children with measures of poverty in the b o r o u g h s of L o n d o n . He
c a l c u l a t e d a n i m p r e s s i v e a r r a y o f s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n s : 0.73 w i t h
p e r c e n t a g e o f p e o p l e b e l o w t h e p o v e r t y l i n e , 0.89 with o v e r c r o w d i n g , 0.68 w i t h u n e m p l o y m e n t , a n d 0.93 w i t h j u v e n i l e mortality.
T h e s e d a t a s e e m to p r o v i d e a p r i m a - f a c i e case f o r a d o m i n a n t
environmental influence u p o n backwardness, but Burt demurs.
T h e r e i s a n o t h e r possibility. P e r h a p s t h e i n n a t e l y p o o r e s t stocks
create and then gravitate to the worst b o r o u g h s , and d e g r e e of
poverty is merely an imperfect measure of genetic worthlessness.
B u r t , g u i d e d b y his i d e e f i x e , o p t e d f o r i n n a t e s t u p i d i t y a s t h e
p r i m a r y c a u s e o f p o v e r t y ( 1 9 3 7 , p . 105). H e i n v o k e d I Q testing a s
his m a j o r a r g u m e n t . M o s t b a c k w a r d c h i l d r e n s c o r e 1 to 2 s t a n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n s b e l o w t h e m e a n ( 7 0 - 8 5 ) , w i t h i n a r a n g e technically d e s i g n a t e d a s " d u l l . " S i n c e I Q r e c o r d s i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e , m o s t backward children p e r f o r m poorly in school because they are dull, not
(or o n l y indirectly) b e c a u s e t h e y a r e p o o r . A g a i n , B u r t r i d e s his
circle. H e wishes t o p r o v e that d e f i c i e n c y o f i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e i s
t h e m a j o r c a u s e o f p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e i n s c h o o l . H e k n o w s full well
that t h e link b e t w e e n I Q s c o r e a n d i n n a t e n e s s i s a n u n r e s o l v e d
issue i n i n t e n s e d e b a t e s a b o u t the m e a n i n g o f I Q — a n d h e a d m i t s
in m a n y p l a c e s that t h e S t a n f o r d - B i n e t test is, at best, o n l y an
i m p e r f e c t m e a s u r e o f i n n a t e n e s s (e.g., 1 9 2 1 , p . 90). Y e t , u s i n g the
test scores as a g u i d e , he c o n c l u d e s :
In well over half the cases, the backwardness seems d u e chiefly to
intrinsic mental factors; here, therefore, it is primary, innate, and to that
extent beyond all h o p e of cure (1937, p. 110).
C o n s i d e r B u r t ' s c u r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n o f i n n a t e i n this s t a t e m e n t . A n
innate character, as inborn and, in Burt's usage, inherited, forms
part of an organism's biological constitution. B u t the demonstra-
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
tion that a trait r e p r e s e n t s n a t u r e u n a f f e c t e d by n u r t u r e d o e s n o t
g u a r a n t e e its i n e l u c t a b l e state. B u r t i n h e r i t e d p o o r vision. N o d o c tor e v e r r e b u i l t his e y e s t o a n e n g i n e e r ' s p a r a d i g m o f n o r m a l
d e s i g n , b u t B u r t w o r e eyeglasses a n d t h e o n l y c l o u d i n g o f his vision
was c o n c e p t u a l .
The Backward Child also a b o u n d s in t a n g e n t i a l s t a t e m e n t s that
r e c o r d B u r t ' s h e r e d i t a r i a n biases. H e w r i t e s a b o u t a n e n v i r o n m e n tal h a n d i c a p — r e c u r r e n t c a t a r r h a m o n g t h e p o o r — a n d discusses
h e r e d i t a r y susceptibility (quite plausible) w i t h a n a r r e s t i n g q u i p f o r
graphic emphasis:
. . . exceptionally prevalent in those whose faces are marked by developmental defects—by the round receding forehead, the protruding muzzle,
the short and upturned nose, the thickened lips, which combine to give to
the slum child's profile a negroid or almost simian outline. . . . "Apes that
are hardly anthropoid" was the c o m m e n t of o n e headmaster, who liked to
sum up his cases in a phrase (1937, p. 186).
H e w o n d e r s a b o u t t h e intellectual a c h i e v e m e n t o f J e w s a n d attrib u t e s it, i n p a r t , t o i n h e r i t e d m y o p i a that k e e p s t h e m o f f t h e playing fields and adapts them for poring over account books.
Before the invention of spectacles, the Jew whose living d e p e n d e d u p o n
his ability to keep accounts and read them, would have been incapacitated
by the age of 50, had he possessed the usual tendency to hypermetropia:
on the other hand (as I can personally testify) the m y o p e . . . can dispense
with glasses for near work without much loss of efficiency (1937, p. 219).
BURT'S BLINDNESS
T h e b l i n d i n g p o w e r o f B u r t ' s h e r e d i t a r i a n biases c a n best b e
a p p r e c i a t e d b y s t u d y i n g his a p p r o a c h t o subjects o t h e r t h a n intell i g e n c e . F o r h e r e h e consistently s h o w e d a c o m m e n d a b l e c a u t i o n .
H e r e c o g n i z e d t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f c a u s a t i o n a n d t h e subtle i n f l u e n c e
that e n v i r o n m e n t c a n e x e r t . H e r a i l e d a g a i n s t simplistic a s s u m p tions a n d w i t h h e l d j u d g m e n t p e n d i n g f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e . Y e t a s
s o o n a s B u r t r e t u r n e d t o his f a v o r i t e subject o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , the
blinders descended and the hereditarian catechism came forward
again.
B u r t w r o t e w i t h p o w e r a n d sensitivity a b o u t t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g
effects o f p o o r e n v i r o n m e n t s . H e n o t e d that 2 3 p e r c e n t o f the
cockney y o u t h he interviewed had n e v e r seen a field or a patch of
3/2
THE
MISMEASURE
OF MAN
g r a s s , n o t " e v e n in a C o u n c i l p a r k , " 64 p e r c e n t h a d n e v e r s e e n a
train, a n d 9 8 p e r c e n t h a d n e v e r seen t h e sea. T h e f o l l o w i n g pass a g e displays a m e a s u r e o f paternalistic c o n d e s c e n s i o n a n d stereot y p i n g , b u t it also p r e s e n t s a p o w e r f u l i m a g e of p o v e r t y in w o r k i n g class h o m e s , a n d its intellectual e f f e c t u p o n c h i l d r e n ( 1 9 3 7 , p . 1 2 7 ) .
His mother and father know astonishingly little of any life except their
own, and have neither the time nor the leisure, neither the ability nor the
disposition, to impart what little they know. T h e mother's conversation
may be chiefly limited to the topics of cleaning, cooking, and scolding. T h e
father, w h e n not at work, may spend most of his time "round the corner"
refreshing a worn-out body, or sitting by the fire with cap on and coat off,
sucking his pipe in gloomy silence. T h e vocabulary that the child absorbs
is restricted to a few h u n d r e d words, most of them inaccurate, u n c o u t h , or
mispronounced, and the rest unfit for reproduction in the schoolroom. In
the h o m e itself there is no literature that deserves the title; and the child's
whole universe is closed in and circumscribed by walls of brick and a pall
of smoke. From o n e end of the year to the other, he may go no farther
than the nearest shops or the neighborhood recreation ground. T h e country or the seaside are mere words to him, dimly suggesting s o m e place to
which cripples are sent after an accident, visualized perhaps in terms of
s o m e photographic "souvenir from Southend" or s o m e pictorial
"memento from Margate," all framed in shells, brought back by his parents on a bank-holiday trip a few weeks after their wedding.
B u r t a p p e n d e d this c o m m e n t f r o m a " b u r l y b u s c o n d u c t o r " t o his
d e s c r i p t i o n : " B o o k l e a r n i n g isn't f o r kids that'll h a v e t o e a r n their
b r e a d . It's only f o r t h e m a s likes t o g i v e t h e m s e l v e s t h e hairs o f t h e
'ighbrow."
B u r t c o u l d a p p l y w h a t h e u n d e r s t o o d s o well t o subjects o t h e r
t h a n i n t e l l i g e n c e . C o n s i d e r his v i e w s o n j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n c y a n d
left-handedness. B u r t wrote extensively on the cause of delinquency and attributed it to c o m p l e x interactions between children
a n d t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t : " T h e p r o b l e m n e v e r lies i n t h e ' p r o b l e m
c h i l d ' a l o n e : it lies always in t h e relations b e t w e e n that c h i l d a n d his
e n v i r o n m e n t " ( 1 9 4 0 , p . 243). I f p o o r b e h a v i o r a l p e r f o r m a n c e m e r its s u c h a n a s s e s s m e n t , w h y n o t say t h e s a m e a b o u t p o o r intellectual
p e r f o r m a n c e ? O n e m i g h t s u s p e c t that B u r t r e l i e d a g a i n u p o n test
s c o r e s , a r g u i n g that d e l i n q u e n t s tested well a n d c o u l d n o t b e misb e h a v i n g as a result of i n n a t e stupidity. B u t , in fact, d e l i n q u e n t s
o f t e n tested a s b a d l y a s p o o r c h i l d r e n r e g a r d e d b y B u r t a s i n n a t e l y
d e f i c i e n t i n i n t e l l i g e n c e . Y e t B u r t r e c o g n i z e d that I Q scores o f
T
H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
3'3
d e l i n q u e n t s m a y n o t reflect i n h e r i t e d ability b e c a u s e they r e b e l
against t a k i n g t h e tests:
For what to t h e m must seem nothing but a resuscitated school examination, delinquents, as a rule, feel little inclination and much distaste.
From the outset they assume they are m o r e likely to fail than succeed,
ore likely to be reproached than c o m m e n d e d . . . . Unless, indeed, to cirmvent their suspicion and secure their good-will special manoeuvers be
tactfully tried, their apparent prowess with all such tests will fall much
below their veritable powers. . . . In the causation of juvenile delinquency
. . . the share contributed by mental defect has unquestionably been magnified by those w h o , trusting so exclusively to the Binet-Simon scale, have
gnored the factors which depreciate its results (1921, p p . 189-190).
ut w h y n o t say that p o v e r t y o f t e n entails a similar d i s i n c l i n a t i o n
n d sense o f d e f e a t ?
B u r t ( 1 9 3 7 , p . 270) r e g a r d e d l e f t - h a n d e d n e s s a s t h e " m o t o r disbility . . . w h i c b i n t e r f e r e s m o s t w i d e l y w i t h t h e o r d i n a r y tasks of
the c l a s s r o o m . " A s c h i e f p s y c h o l o g i s t o f t h e L o n d o n s c h o o l s , h e
t h e r e f o r e d e v o t e d m u c h s t u d y t o its c a u s e . U n b u r d e n e d b y a p r i o r i
conviction in this case, he d e v i s e d a n d a t t e m p t e d to test a w i d e
range of potential environmental influences. He studied medieval
a n d R e n a i s s a n c e p a i n t i n g s t o d e t e r m i n e i f M a r y usually c a r r i e d t h e
infant J e s u s o n h e r r i g h t h i p . I f s o , babies w o u l d w r a p t h e i r left
arms about their mother's neck, leaving their right h a n d free for
m o r e d e x t r o u s (literally r i g h t - h a n d e d ) m o t i o n . H e w o n d e r e d i f
greater frequency of right-handedness m i g h t record the asymmetry o f i n t e r n a l o r g a n s a n d t h e n e e d f o r p r o t e c t i o n i m p o s e d b y o u r
habits. I f h e a r t a n d s t o m a c h lie t o t h e left o f t h e m i d l i n e , t h e n a
w a r r i o r o r w o r k e r w o u l d n a t u r a l l y t u r n his left side a w a y f r o m
potential d a n g e r , " t r u s t t o t h e m o r e solid s u p p o r t o f t h e r i g h t side
o f t h e t r u n k , a n d s o use his r i g h t h a n d a n d a r m f o r w i e l d i n g h e a v y
i n s t r u m e n t s a n d w e a p o n s " ( 1 9 3 7 , p . 270). I n t h e e n d , B u r t o p t e d
f o r c a u t i o n a n d c o n c l u d e d that h e c o u l d n o t tell:
should in the last resort c o n t e n d that probably all forms of lefthandedness are only indirectly hereditary: postnatal influence seems
always to enter in. . . . I must accordingly repeat that, h e r e as elsewhere in
psychology, our present knowledge is far too meager to allow us to declare
with any assurance what is inborn and what is not (1937, p p . 303-304).
Substitute " i n t e l l i g e n c e " f o r " l e f t - h a n d e d n e s s " a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t i s
a model of judicious inference. In fart, left-handedness is m o r e
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
clearly a n entity t h a n i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e subject t o
d e f i n i t e a n d specifiable h e r e d i t a r y i n f l u e n c e . Y e t h e r e , w h e r e his
case f o r i n n a t e n e s s was b e t t e r , B u r t tested all t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
influences—some rather farfetched—that he could devise, and
f i n a l l y d e c l a r e d t h e subject t o o c o m p l e x f o r r e s o l u t i o n .
BURT'S P O L I T I C A L USE OF INNATENESS
B u r t e x t e n d e d his b e l i e f i n t h e i n n a t e n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l intellig e n c e to only o n e aspect of average differences between groups.
H e d i d n o t feel ( 1 9 1 2 ) that races v a r i e d m u c h i n i n h e r i t e d intellig e n c e , a n d h e a r g u e d ( 1 9 2 1 , p . 197) that t h e d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o r s o f
b o y s a n d girls c a n b e t r a c e d largely t o p a r e n t a l t r e a t m e n t . B u t diff e r e n c e s i n social class, t h e wit o f t h e successful a n d d u l l n e s s o f t h e
p o o r , a r e reflections o f i n h e r i t e d ability. I f r a c e i s A m e r i c a ' s prim a r y social p r o b l e m , t h e n class has b e e n Britain's c o r r e s p o n d i n g
concern.
I n his w a t e r s h e d * p a p e r ( 1 9 4 3 ) o n "ability a n d i n c o m e , " B u r t
c o n c l u d e s that " t h e w i d e i n e q u a l i t y i n p e r s o n a l i n c o m e i s l a r g e l y ,
t h o u g h not entirely, an indirect effect of the wide inequality in
i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e . " T h e d a t a " d o n o t s u p p o r t t h e v i e w (still h e l d
b y m a n y e d u c a t i o n a l a n d social r e f o r m e r s ) that t h e a p p a r e n t inequality in i n t e l l i g e n c e of c h i l d r e n a n d a d u l t s is in t h e m a i n an indirect c o n s e q u e n c e o f i n e q u a l i t y i n e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s " ( 1 9 4 3 , p .
141).
B u r t o f t e n d e n i e d that h e w i s h e d t o limit o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
a c h i e v e m e n t b y r e g a r d i n g tests a s m e a s u r e s o f i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e .
H e a r g u e d , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , that tests c o u l d identify t h o s e few
i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e l o w e r classes w h o s e h i g h i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e
would not otherwise be recognized u n d e r a veneer of environmental d i s a d v a n t a g e . F o r " a m o n g n a t i o n s , success i n the s t r u g g l e f o r
survival i s b o u n d t o d e p e n d m o r e a n d m o r e o n the a c h i e v e m e n t s
o f a small h a n d f u l o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o a r e e n d o w e d b y n a t u r e with
o u t s t a n d i n g gifts o f ability a n d c h a r a c t e r " ( 1 9 5 9 , p . 3 1 ) . T h e s e people m u s t b e i d e n t i f i e d a n d n u r t u r e d t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r " t h e c o m p a r a t i v e i n e p t i t u d e o f t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c " ( 1 9 5 9 , p . 3 1 ) . T h e y must
b e e n c o u r a g e d a n d r e w a r d e d , f o r t h e rise a n d fall o f a n a t i o n d o e s
not d e p e n d u p o n genes peculiar to an entire race, but u p o n
•Hearnshaw
data.
(1979)
suspects that this paper marks Burt's first use of fraudulent
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
" c h a n g e s i n t h e relative fertility o f its l e a d i n g m e m b e r s o r its l e a d i n g classes" ( 1 9 6 2 , p . 4 9 ) .
T e s t s m a y h a v e b e e n the v e h i c l e b y w h i c h a f e w c h i l d r e n
e s c a p e d f r o m t h e strictures o f a fairly inflexible class s t r u c t u r e . B u t
w h a t was t h e i r e f f e c t o n the vast m a j o r i t y o f lower-class c h i l d r e n
w h o m Burt unfairly branded as unable, by inheritance, ever to
develop much intelligence—and therefore undeserving, by reason,
o f h i g h e r social s t a n d i n g ?
Any recent attempt to base our educational policy for the future on the
assumption that there are no real differences, or at any rate no important
differences, between the average intelligence of the different social classes,
is not only b o u n d to fail; it is likely to be fraught with disastrous consequences for the welfare of the nation as a whole, and at the same time to
result in needless disappointments for the pupils concerned. T h e facts of
genetic inequality, whether or not they conform to our personal wishes
and ideals, are something that we cannot escape (1959, p. 28). . . . A definite limit to what children can achieve is inexorably set by the limitations
of their innate capacity (1969).
Burt's
extension
of Spearman's
theory
C y r i l B u r t m a y be k n o w n best to t h e p u b l i c as a h e r e d i t a r i a n in
the field of m e n t a l t e s t i n g , b u t his r e p u t a t i o n as a t h e o r e t i c a l psychologist r e s t e d p r i m a r i l y u p o n his w o r k i n f a c t o r analysis. H e d i d
not i n v e n t t h e t e c h n i q u e , a s h e later c l a i m e d ; b u t h e was S p e a r man's successor, b o t h literally a n d f i g u r a t i v e l y , a n d h e b e c a m e the
l e a d i n g British factorist o f his g e n e r a t i o n .
B u r t ' s g e n u i n e a c h i e v e m e n t s i n f a c t o r analysis w e r e substantial.
His c o m p l e x a n d d e n s e l y r e a s o n e d b o o k o n t h e subject (1940) was
the c r o w n i n g a c h i e v e m e n t o f S p e a r m a n ' s s c h o o l . B u r t w r o t e that i t
"may p r o v e to be a m o r e lasting c o n t r i b u t i o n to p s y c h o l o g y t h a n
a n y t h i n g else I h a v e y e t w r i t t e n " (letter to his sister q u o t e d in
H e a r n s h a w , 1 9 7 9 , p . 154). B u r t also p i o n e e r e d ( t h o u g h h e d i d n o t
invent) t w o i m p o r t a n t e x t e n s i o n s o f S p e a r m a n ' s a p p r o a c h — a n
inverted t e c h n i q u e (discussed o n p p . 3 2 2 - 3 2 3 ) that B u r t called
correlation b e t w e e n p e r s o n s " ( n o w k n o w n t o a f i c i o n a d o s a s " Q m o d e factor analysis"), a n d a n e x p a n s i o n o f S p e a r m a n ' s t w o - f a c t o r
theory to a d d " g r o u p f a c t o r s " at a level b e t w e e n g a n d 5.
B u r t t o e d S p e a r m a n ' s line i n his f i r s t p a p e r o f 1909. S p e a r m a n
had insisted that e a c h test r e c o r d e d o n l y t w o p r o p e r t i e s o f m i n d —
3
i 6
THE MISMEASURK O F M A N
a g e n e r a l factor c o m m o n to all tests a n d a specific f a c t o r p e c u l i a r
t o that test a l o n e . H e d e n i e d that clusters o f tests s h o w e d any significant t e n d e n c y t o f o r m " g r o u p f a c t o r s " b e t w e e n his t w o l e v e l s —
that is, h e f o u n d n o e v i d e n c e for t h e " f a c u l t i e s " o f a n o l d e r psyc h o l o g y , n o clusters r e p r e s e n t i n g v e r b a l , spatial, o r a r i t h m e t i c ability, f o r e x a m p l e . In his 1909 p a p e r , B u r t d i d n o t e a " d i s c e r n i b l e ,
b u t s m a l l " t e n d e n c y f o r g r o u p i n g i n allied tests. B u t h e p r o c l a i m e d
i t w e a k e n o u g h t o i g n o r e ("vanishingly m i n u t e " i n his w o r d s ) , a n d
a r g u e d that his results " c o n f i r m a n d e x t e n d " S p e a r m a n ' s t h e o r y .
B u t B u r t , u n l i k e S p e a r m a n , was a p r a c t i t i o n e r o f testing
(responsible f o r all o f L o n d o n ' s schools). F u r t h e r studies i n factor
analysis c o n t i n u e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h g r o u p f a c t o r s , t h o u g h they w e r e
always s u b s i d i a r y tog. As a practical m a t t e r f o r g u i d a n c e of p u p i l s ,
B u r t r e a l i z e d that h e c o u l d not i g n o r e the g r o u p factors. W i t h a
p u r e l y S p e a r m a n i a n a p p r o a c h , w h a t c o u l d a p u p i l b e told e x c e p t
that h e was g e n e r a l l y s m a r t o r d u m b ? Pupils h a d t o b e g u i d e d
toward professions by identifying strengths and weaknesses in
m o r e specific a r e a s .
B y t h e time B u r t d i d his m a j o r w o r k i n f a c t o r analysis, S p e a r man's c u m b e r s o m e m e t h o d of tetrad differences had been
replaced by the principal components approach outlined on pp.
2 7 5 — 2 8 0 . B u r t i d e n t i f i e d g r o u p factors b y s t u d y i n g t h e p r o j e c t i o n
o f i n d i v i d u a l tests u p o n t h e s e c o n d a n d s u b s e q u e n t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s . C o n s i d e r Fig. 6.6: In a m a t r i x of positive c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients, v e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t i n g i n d i v i d u a l tests a r e all c l u s t e r e d
t o g e t h e r . T h e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t , S p e a r m a n ' s g runs
t h r o u g h the m i d d l e o f t h e c l u s t e r a n d resolves m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n
t h a n a n y o t h e r axis c o u l d . B u r t r e c o g n i z e d that n o consistent patt e r n s w o u l d b e f o u n d o n s u b s e q u e n t a x e s i f S p e a r m a n ' s two-factor
t h e o r y h e l d — f o r the v e c t o r s w o u l d n o t f o r m s u b c l u s t e r s i f their
only c o m m o n variance had already been accounted for by g. But if
t h e v e c t o r s f o r m s u b c l u s t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g m o r e specialized abilities, t h e n t h e first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t m u s t r u n between the subclusters if it is to be t h e best a v e r a g e fit to all v e c t o r s . Since the
s e c o n d p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e first, s o m e
s u b c l u s t e r s m u s t p r o j e c t positively u p o n it a n d o t h e r s n e g a t i v e l y (as
Fig. 6.6 s h o w s with its n e g a t i v e p r o j e c t i o n s f o r v e r b a l tests a n d positive p r o j e c t i o n s f o r a r i t h m e t i c tests). B u r t called t h e s e a x e s bipolar
factors, b e c a u s e t h e y i n c l u d e d clusters o f positive a n d n e g a t i v e pro-
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
j e c t i o n s . He i d e n t i f i e d as group factors t h e clusters of positive a n d
negative projections themselves.
Burt's identification of g r o u p factors m a y seem, superficially, to
c h a l l e n g e S p e a r m a n ' s t h e o r y , b u t i n fact i t p r o v i d e d a n e x t e n s i o n
and i m p r o v e m e n t that S p e a r m a n eventually welcomed. T h e
essence o f S p e a r m a n ' s c l a i m i s t h e p r i m a c y o f g , a n d t h e s u b o r d i nation o f all o t h e r d e t e r m i n a n t s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e t o it. B u r t ' s i d e n t i fication o f g r o u p factors p r e s e r v e d this n o t i o n o f h i e r a r c h y , a n d
e x t e n d e d i t b y a d d i n g a n o t h e r level b e t w e e n g a n d 5 . I n fact, B u r t ' s
t r e a t m e n t of g r o u p f a c t o r s as a level in a h i e r a r c h y s u b o r d i n a t e to
g s a v e d S p e a r m a n ' s t h e o r y f r o m t h e d a t a that s e e m e d t o t h r e a t e n
it. S p e a r m a n o r i g i n a l l y d e n i e d g r o u p f a c t o r s , b u t e v i d e n c e f o r
t h e m c o n t i n u e d t o a c c u m u l a t e . M a n y factorists b e g a n t o v i e w this
e v i d e n c e as a d e n i g r a t i o n o f g a n d as a w e d g e f o r t o p p l i n g S p e a r man's e n t i r e edifice. B u r t s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e b u i l d i n g , p r e s e r v e d t h e
preeminent role of g, and extended Spearman's theory by enum e r a t i n g f u r t h e r levels s u b o r d i n a t e t o g . T h e f a c t o r s , B u r t w r o t e
( 1 9 4 9 , p . 199), a r e " o r g a n i z e d o n w h a t m a y b e c a l l e d a h i e r a r c h i c a l
basis. . . . T h e r e is first a c o m p r e h e n s i v e g e n e r a l f a c t o r , c o v e r i n g
all c o g n i t i v e activities; n e x t a c o m p a r a t i v e l y small n u m b e r of b r o a d
g r o u p f a c t o r s , c o v e r i n g d i f f e r e n t abilities classified a c c o r d i n g t o
their f o r m or c o n t e n t . . . . T h e w h o l e series a p p e a r s to be a r r a n g e d
o n successive levels, t h e f a c t o r s o n t h e l o w e s t level b e i n g t h e m o s t
specific a n d t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s o f all."
S p e a r m a n had advocated a two-factor theory; Burt proclaimed
a f o u r - f a c t o r t h e o r y : t h e general f a c t o r or S p e a i m a n ' s g, t h e particular or group f a c t o r s that he h a d i d e n t i f i e d , t h e specific factors or
S p e a r m a n ' s s (attributes of a single trait m e a s u r e d on all o c c a s i o n s ) ,
and w h a t B u r t c a l l e d accidental f a c t o r s , or a t t r i b u t e s of a single trait
m e a s u r e d o n l y o n a s i n g l e o c c a s i o n . * B u r t h a d s y n t h e s i z e d all p e r spectives. I n S p e a r m a n ' s t e r m s , his t h e o r y w a s m o n a r c h i c i n reco g n i z i n g t h e d o m i n a t i o n of g, o l i g a r c h i c in its identification of
g r o u p f a c t o r s , a n d a n a r c h i c in r e c o g n i z i n g s-factors f o r e a c h test.
But B u r t ' s s c h e m e was n o c o m p r o m i s e ; i t was S p e a r m a n ' s h i e r a r chical t h e o r y with y e t a n o t h e r level s u b o r d i n a t e to g.
*This accidental variance, representing peculiarities of particular testing situations,
torms part of what statisticians call "measurement error." It is important to quantify, for it may form a basic level of comparison for the identification of causes in a
'amily of techniques called the "analysis of variance." But it represents the peculiarity of an occasion, not a quality either of a test or a testee.
3*8
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
Moreover, B u r t accepted and greatly elaborated Spearman's
views o n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l i n n a t e n e s s o f levels. S p e a r m a n h a d
r e g a r d e d g as i n h e r i t e d , 5 as a f u n c t i o n of t r a i n i n g . B u r t a g r e e d ,
b u t p r o m o t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e d u c a t i o n t o his g r o u p f a c t o r s a s
well. H e r e t a i n e d t h e distinction b e t w e e n a n i n h e r i t e d a n d inelucta b l e g, a n d a set of m o r e specialized abilities a m e n a b l e to i m p r o v e ment by education:
Although defect in general intelligence inevitably places a definite limit
to educational progress, defect in special intellectual abilities rarely does
so (1937, p. 537).
B u r t also d e c l a r e d , w i t h his u s u a l intensity a n d p e r s i s t e n c e , that
t h e p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e o f f a c t o r analysis lay i n its c a p a c i t y f o r
i d e n t i f y i n g i n h e r i t e d , p e r m a n e n t qualities:
From the very outset of my educational work it has seemed essential,
not merely to show that a general factor underlies the cognitive g r o u p of
mental activities, but also that this general factor (or s o m e important component of it) is innate or permanent (1940, p. 57).
T h e search for factors thus becomes, to a great extent, an attempt to
discover inborn potentialities, such as will permanently aid or limit the
individual's behavior later on (1940, p. 230).
Burt on the reification of factors
B u r t ' s v i e w o n reification, a s H e a r n s h a w h a s n o t e d w i t h f r u s t r a t i o n ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 6 6 ) , a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t a n d e v e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y (sometimes w i t h i n t h e s a m e p u b l i c a t i o n ) . * O f t e n , B u r t b r a n d e d
reification of f a c t o r s as a t e m p t a t i o n to be a v o i d e d :
No doubt, this causal language, which we all to s o m e extent favor,
arises partly from the irrepressible disposition of the h u m a n m i n d to reify
and even to personify whatever it can—to picture inferred reasons as realities and to e n d o w those realities with an active force (1940, p. 66).
* Other scholars often complained of Burt's tendency to obfuscate, temporize, and
argue both sides as his own when treating difficult and controversial issues. D. F.
Vincent wrote of his correspondence with Burt about the history of factor analysis
(in Hearnshaw, 1979, pp. 177-178): "I should not get a simple answer to a simple
question. I should get half a dozen foolscap sheets of typescript, all very polite and
very cordial, raising half a dozen subsidiary issues in which I was not particularly
interested, and to which out of politeness I should have to reply . . . I should then
get more foolscap pages of typescript raising more extraneous issues. . . . After the
first letter my problem has been how to terminate the correspondence without being
discourteous."
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
H e s p o k e w i t h e l o q u e n c e a b o u t this e r r o r o f t h o u g h t :
T h e ordinary m i n d loves to reduce patterns to single atomlike existents—to treat m e m o r y as an elementary faculty l o d g e d in a phrenological
organ, to squeeze all consciousness into the pineal gland, to call a dozen
different complaints rheumatic and regard t h e m all as the effect of a specific g e r m , to declare that strength resides in the hair or in the blood, to
treat beauty as an elementary quality that can be laid on like so much
varnish. But the whole trend of current science is to seek its unifying principles, not in simple unitary causes, but in the system or structural pattern
as such (1940, p. 237).
A n d h e e x p l i c i t l y d e n i e d that factors w e r e t h i n g s i n t h e h e a d ( 1 9 3 7 ,
p- 4 5 9 ) :
T h e "factors," in short, are to be regarded as convenient mathematical
abstractions, not as concrete mental "faculties," l o d g e d in separate
"organs" of the brain.
W h a t c o u l d b e m o r e clearly stated?
Y e t i n a b i o g r a p h i c a l c o m m e n t , B u r t ( 1 9 6 1 , p . 53) c e n t e r e d his
a r g u m e n t with S p e a r m a n n o t o n t h e issue o f w h e t h e r o r n o t f a c t o r s
s h o u l d b e r e i f i e d , b u t r a t h e r how t h e y s h o u l d b e r e i f i e d : " S p e a r m a n
h i m s e l f i d e n t i f i e d t h e g e n e r a l f a c t o r with ' c e r e b r a l e n e r g y . ' I i d e n t i f i e d i t with t h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e b r a i n . " I n t h e s a m e article,
h e p r o v i d e d m o r e details o f s u s p e c t e d p h y s i c a l locations f o r entities
identified b y m a t h e m a t i c a l f a c t o r s . G r o u p f a c t o r s , h e a r g u e s , a r e
definite a r e a s o f t h e c e r e b r a l c o r t e x ( 1 9 6 1 , p . 5 7 ) , w h i l e t h e g e n e r a l
f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t s t h e a m o u n t a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f cortical tissue: " I t
is this g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s b r a i n - t i s s u e — v i z . , t h e
g e n e r a l d e g r e e o f systematic c o m p l e x i t y i n t h e n e u r o n a l a r c h i t e c ture—that seems to me to represent the general factor, a n d
a c c o u n t f o r t h e h i g h positive c o r r e l a t i o n s o b t a i n e d b e t w e e n v a r i o u s
c o g n i t i v e tests" ( 1 9 6 1 , p p . 5 7 - 5 8 ; see also 1 9 5 9 , p . 106).*
*One might resolve this apparent contradiction by arguing that Burt refused to
reify on the basis of mathematical evidence alone (in 1 9 4 0 ) , but did so later when
independent neurological information confirmed the existence of structures in the
brain that could be identified with factors. It is true that Burt advanced some neurological arguments ( 1 9 6 1 , p. 57, for example) in comparing the brains of normal
individuals and "low grade defectives." But these arguments are sporadic, perfunctory, and peripheral. Burt repeated them virtually verbatim, in publication after
publication, without citing sources or providing any specific reason for allying mathematical factors with cortical properties.
320
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
L e s t o n e be t e m p t e d to r e g a r d t h e s e later s t a t e m e n t s as a shift
i n b e l i e f f r o m t h e c a u t i o n o f a s c h o l a r i n 1940 t o t h e p o o r j u d g m e n t
o f a m a n m i r e d i n t h e f r a u d s o f his later y e a r s , I n o t e that B u r t
p r e s e n t e d t h e s a m e a r g u m e n t s f o r reification i n 1940, r i g h t a l o n g side t h e w a r n i n g s a g a i n s t it:
N o w , although I do not identify the general factor g with any form of
energy, I should be ready to grant it quite as much "real existence" as
physical energy can justifiably claim (1940, p. 214). Intelligence I regard
not i n d e e d as designating a special form of energy, but rather as specifying
certain individual differences in the structure of the central nervous system—differences whose concrete nature could be described in histological
terms (1940, p p . 2 1 6 - 2 1 7 ) .
B u r t e v e n w e n t s o far a s t o s u g g e s t that t h e a l l - o r - n o n e c h a r a c t e r
o f n e u r a l d i s c h a r g e " s u p p o r t s the d e m a n d f o r a n u l t i m a t e analysis
i n t o i n d e p e n d e n t o r ' o r t h o g o n a l ' f a c t o r s " ( 1 9 4 0 , p . 222).
B u t p e r h a p s t h e best i n d i c a t i o n o f B u r t ' s h o p e f o r reification
lies i n t h e v e r y title h e c h o s e f o r his m a j o r b o o k o f 1 9 4 0 . H e called
it The Factors of the Mind.
B u r t f o l l o w e d S p e a r m a n in t r y i n g to find a p h y s i c a l l o c a t i o n in
the brain for mathematical factors extracted f r o m the correlation
m a t r i x o f m e n t a l tests. B u t B u r t also w e n t f u r t h e r , a n d established
h i m s e l f as a reifier in a d o m a i n that S p e a r m a n h i m s e l f w o u l d n e v e r
h a v e d a r e d t o e n t e r . B u r t c o u l d n o t b e satisfied with s o m e t h i n g s o
v u l g a r a n d m a t e r i a l a s a bit o f n e u r a l tissue f o r t h e r e s i d e n c e o f
f a c t o r s . H e h a d a w i d e r v i s i o n that e v o k e d t h e spirit o f P l a t o h i m self. M a t e r i a l objects o n e a r t h a r e i m m e d i a t e a n d i m p e r f e c t r e p r e sentations o f h i g h e r essences i n a n i d e a l w o r l d b e y o n d o u r k e n .
B u r t s u b j e c t e d m a n y k i n d s o f d a t a t o f a c t o r analysis d u r i n g his
l o n g c a r e e r . H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f factors d i s p l a y a P l a t o n i c belief
in a h i g h e r reality, e m b o d i e d i m p e r f e c t l y by m a t e r i a l objects, b u t
d i s c e r n i b l e i n t h e m t h r o u g h a n i d e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r essential,
u n d e r l y i n g p r o p e r t i e s o n p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t f a c t o r s . H e anal y z e d a suite o f e m o t i o n a l traits ( 1 9 4 0 , p p . 4 0 6 - 4 0 8 ) a n d identified
his first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t as a f a c t o r of " g e n e r a l e m o t i o n a l i t y . "
( H e also f o u n d t w o b i p o l a r factors f o r e x t r o v e r t - i n t r o v e r t a n d
e u p h o r i c - s o r r o w f u l . ) H e d i s c o v e r e d " a g e n e r a l p a r a n o r m a l factor'
i n a s t u d y o f E S P d a t a (in H e a r n s h a w , 1 9 7 9 , p . 222). H e a n a l y z e d
h u m a n anatomy and interpreted the first principal component as
a n ideal t y p e f o r h u m a n i t y ( 1 9 4 0 , p . 1 1 3 ) .
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
3
2 I
O n e n e e d n ' t , f r o m t h e s e e x a m p l e s , i n f e r B u r t ' s b e l i e f i n a lite r a l , h i g h e r reality: p e r h a p s h e t h o u g h t o f t h e s e i d e a l i z e d g e n e r a l
factors a s m e r e p r i n c i p l e s o f classification t o aid h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . B u t , i n a f a c t o r analysis o f a e s t h e t i c j u d g m e n t , B u r t
explicitly e x p r e s s e d his c o n v i c t i o n that r e a l s t a n d a r d s o f b e a u t y
exist, i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f h u m a n b e i n g s t o a p p r e c i a t e
t h e m . B u r t s e l e c t e d f i f t y p o s t c a r d s w i t h illustrations r a n g i n g f r o m
the g r e a t m a s t e r s d o w n t o " t h e c r u d e s t a n d m o s t flashy b i r t h d a y
c a r d that I c o u l d find at a p a p e r s h o p in t h e s l u m s . " He a s k e d a
g r o u p o f subjects t o r a n k t h e c a r d s i n o r d e r o f b e a u t y a n d p e r f o r m e d a f a c t o r analysis o f c o r r e l a t i o n s a m o n g t h e r a n k s . A g a i n ,
he discerned an underlying general factor on the first principal
c o m p o n e n t , declared it to be a universal standard of beauty, a n d
expressed a personal c o n t e m p t for Victorian ceremonial statuary
in i d e n t i f y i n g this h i g h e r reality:
We see beauty because it is there to be seen. . . . I am tempted to contend that aesthetic relations, like logical relations, have an i n d e p e n d e n t ,
objective existence: the V e n u s of Milo would remain m o r e lovely than
Q u e e n Victoria's statue in the Mall, the Taj Mahal than the Albert M e m orial, though every man and woman in the world were killed by a passing
comet's gas.
In analyses of intelligence, B u r t often claimed (1939, 1940,
1 9 4 9 , f o r e x a m p l e ) that e a c h level o f his h i e r a r c h i c a l , f o u r - f a c t o r
t h e o r y c o r r e s p o n d e d with a r e c o g n i z e d c a t e g o r y i n " t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
logic o f classes" ( 1 9 3 9 , p . 8 5 ) — t h e g e n e r a l f a c t o r t o t h e genus,
g r o u p f a c t o r s to species, specific f a c t o r s to t h e proprium, a n d accidental factors t o t h e accidens. H e s e e m e d t o r e g a r d t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s
as more than conveniences for h u m a n ordering of the world's complexity, b u t a s n e c e s s a r y w a y s o f p a r s i n g a h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s t r u c t u r e d
reality.
B u r t certainly believed in realms of existence b e y o n d the mater i a l reality o f e v e r y d a y objects. H e a c c e p t e d m u c h o f t h e d a t a o f
parapsychology and postulated an oversoul or p s y c h o n — " a kind of
group mind f o r m e d by the subconscious telepathic interaction of
the m i n d s o f c e r t a i n p e r s o n s n o w l i v i n g , t o g e t h e r p e r h a p s w i t h t h e
psychic r e s e r v o i r o u t o f w h i c h t h e m i n d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s n o w
deceased w e r e f o r m e d , and into which they were reabsorbed on
the d e a t h o f t h e i r b o d i e s " ( B u r t q u o t e d i n H e a r n s h a w , 1 9 7 9 , p .
225). I n this h i g h e r r e a l m o f p s y c h i c reality, t h e " f a c t o r s o f t h e
THE
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m i n d " may have real existence as m o d e s of truly universal thought.
B u r t m a n a g e d to espouse three contradictory views about the
n a t u r e o f f a c t o r s : m a t h e m a t i c a l abstractions f o r h u m a n c o n v e n i e n c e ; r e a l entities l o d g e d i n p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e b r a i n ; a n d
real categories of t h o u g h t in a h i g h e r , hierarchically organized
r e a l m o f p s y c h i c reality. S p e a r m a n h a d n o t b e e n v e r y d a r i n g a s a
reifier; h e n e v e r v e n t u r e d b e y o n d t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n u r g e f o r l o c a t i n g
idealized abstractions within physical bodies themselves. B u r t , at
least i n p a r t , s o a r e d b e y o n d i n t o a P l a t o n i c r e a l m a b o v e a n d b e y o n d
p h y s i c a l b o d i e s . I n this s e n s e , B u r t was t h e b o l d e s t , a n d literally
m o s t e x t e n s i v e , reifier o f t h e m all.
Burt and the political uses
of g
F a c t o r analysis i s usually p e r f o r m e d o n t h e c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x
o f tests. B u r t p i o n e e r e d a n " i n v e r t e d " f o r m o f f a c t o r analysis, m a t h e m a t i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e usual style, but b a s e d o n c o r r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e n p e r s o n s r a t h e r t h a n tests. I f e a c h v e c t o r i n t h e u s u a l style
(technically called R - m o d e analysis) r e p r e s e n t s t h e scores o f s e v e r a l
p e o p l e on a s i n g l e test, t h e n e a c h v e c t o r in B u r t ' s i n v e r t e d style
(called Q - m o d e analysis) reflects t h e results of s e v e r a l tests f o r a
single person. In other w o r d s , each vector now represents a person
r a t h e r t h a n a test, a n d t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n v e c t o r s m e a s u r e s
the d e g r e e of relationship between individuals.
W h y did B u r t go to such lengths to d e v e l o p a technique mathematically e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e usual f o r m , a n d g e n e r a l l y m o r e c u m b e r s o m e a n d e x p e n s i v e t o a p p l y (since a n e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n
a l m o s t a l w a y s i n c l u d e s m o r e p e o p l e t h a n tests)? T h e a n s w e r lies i n
B u r t ' s u n c o m m o n f o c u s o f interest. S p e a r m a n , a n d m o s t o t h e r factorists, w i s h e d t o l e a r n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h o u g h t o r t h e s t r u c t u r e
o f m i n d b y s t u d y i n g c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n tests m e a s u r i n g d i f f e r e n t
aspects o f m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g . C y r i l B u r t , a s official p s y c h o l o g i s t o f
t h e L o n d o n C o u n t y C o u n c i l ( 1 9 1 3 - 1 9 3 2 ) , was i n t e r e s t e d i n ranking pupils. Burt wrote in an autobiographical statement ( 1 9 6 1 , p.
56): "[Sir G o d f r e y ] T h o m s o n was i n t e r e s t e d p r i m a r i l y i n the
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e abilities tested a n d i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n
t h o s e abilities; I was i n t e r e s t e d r a t h e r in t h e persons tested a n d in
t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m " ( B u r t ' s italics).
C o m p a r i s o n , f o r B u r t , was n o abstract issue. H e w i s h e d t o
assess p u p i l s i n his o w n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w a y , b a s e d u p o n t w o g u i d i n g
T H E REAL ERROR OF C Y R I L B U R T
p r i n c i p l e s : first (the t h e m e o f this c h a p t e r ) that g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e
is a single, m e a s u r a b l e entity ( S p e a r m a n ' s g); s e c o n d ( B u r t ' s o w n
i d e e fixe) that a p e r s o n ' s g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e is a l m o s t e n t i r e l y
innate and unchangeable. T h u s , Burt sought the relationship
a m o n g p e r s o n s in a unilinear ranking of inherited mental worth. He
u s e d f a c t o r analysis t o v a l i d a t e this single scale a n d t o p l a n t p e o p l e
u p o n it. " T h e v e r y object o f t h e factor-analysis," h e w r o t e ( 1 9 4 0 , p .
1 3 6 ) , "is to d e d u c e f r o m an e m p i r i c a l set of test m e a s u r e m e n t s a
single f i g u r e f o r e a c h single i n d i v i d u a l . " B u r t s o u g h t ( 1 9 4 0 , p . 1 7 6 )
" o n e ideal o r d e r , a c t i n g as a g e n e r a l factor, c o m m o n to e v e r y
examiner and to every examinee, predominating over, though no
d o u b t d i s t u r b e d by, o t h e r i r r e l e v a n t i n f l u e n c e s . "
B u r t ' s vision of a single r a n k i n g b a s e d on i n h e r i t e d ability
f u e l e d t h e m a j o r political t r i u m p h i n B r i t a i n o f h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o ries o f m e n t a l testing. I f t h e I m m i g r a t i o n Restriction A c t o f 1 9 2 4
signalled the chief victory of A m e r i c a n hereditarians in psycholo g y , t h e n t h e so-called e x a m i n a t i o n at 11 + a w a r d e d t h e i r British
c o u n t e r p a r t s a t r i u m p h o f e q u a l i m p a c t . U n d e r this system f o r
s t r e a m i n g c h i l d r e n i n t o d i f f e r e n t s e c o n d a r y schools, p u p i l s t o o k a n
e x t e n s i v e e x a m i n a t i o n a t a g e ten o r e l e v e n . A s a result o f t h e s e
tests, l a r g e l y an a t t e m p t to assess S p e a r m a n ' s g f o r e a c h c h i l d , 20
p e r c e n t w e r e sent t o " g r a m m a r " schools w h e r e t h e y m i g h t p r e p a r e
f o r e n t r y to a u n i v e r s i t y , w h i l e 80 p e r c e n t w e r e r e l e g a t e d to technical o r " s e c o n d a r y m o d e r n " schools a n d r e g a r d e d a s u n f i t f o r
higher education.
C y r i l B u r t d e f e n d e d this s e p a r a t i o n as a wise step f o r " w a r d i n g
o f f the u l t i m a t e d e c l i n e a n d fall that has o v e r t a k e n e a c h o f t h e
g r e a t civilizations o f t h e p a s t " ( 1 9 5 9 , p . 1 1 7 ) :
It is essential in the interests alike of the children themselves and of the
nation as a whole, that those who possess the highest ability—the cleverest
of the clever—should be identified as accurately as possible. Of the methods hitherto tried out the so-called 11 + exam has proved to be by far the
most trustworthy (1959, p. 117).
Burt's only c o m p l a i n t ( 1 9 5 9 , p . 32) was that the test a n d s u b s e q u e n t
selection c a m e t o o late in a child's life.
T h e s y s t e m o f e x a m i n a t i o n a t 11 + a n d s u b s e q u e n t s e p a r a t i o n
of schools a r o s e in c o n j u n c t i o n with a series of official r e p o r t s
issued b y g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i t t e e s d u r i n g twenty y e a r s (the H a d o w
3
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r e p o r t s o f 1 9 2 6 a n d 1 9 3 1 , the S p e n s r e p o r t o f 1 9 3 8 , t h e N o r w o o d
r e p o r t o f 1 9 4 3 , a n d the B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n ' s W h i t e P a p e r o n
Educational Reconstruction—all leading to the Butler Education
A c t o f 1 9 4 4 , w h i c h set policy until t h e m i d - 1 9 6 0 s w h e n t h e L a b o u r
p a r t y v o w e d t o e n d s e l e c t i o n a t 1 1 p l u s ) . I n t h e flak s u r r o u n d i n g
t h e initial r e v e l a t i o n o f B u r t ' s f r a u d u l e n t w o r k , h e was o f t e n i d e n tified as t h e a r c h i t e c t of t h e 11 + e x a m i n a t i o n . T h i s is n o t a c c u r a t e ;
B u r t was n o t e v e n a m e m b e r o f the v a r i o u s r e p o r t i n g c o m m i t t e e s ,
t h o u g h h e d i d c o n s u l t f r e q u e n t l y with t h e m a n d h e d i d write
extensively for their reports.* Y e t it hardly matters w h e t h e r or not
B u r t ' s h a n d actually m o v e d t h e p e n . T h e r e p o r t s e m b o d y a particu l a r v i e w o f e d u c a t i o n , clearly i d e n t i f i e d with t h e British s c h o o l o f
f a c t o r analysis, a n d e v i d e n t l y l i n k e d m o s t closely with C y r i l B u r t ' s
version.
T h e 11 + e x a m i n a t i o n was a n e m b o d i m e n t o f S p e a r m e n ' s hiera r c h i c a l t h e o r y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , with its i n n a t e g e n e r a l f a c t o r p e r v a d i n g all c o g n i t i v e activity. O n e critic r e f e r r e d t o t h e series o f
r e p o r t s a s " h y m n s o f p r a i s e t o the 'g' f a c t o r " (in H e a r n s h a w , 1 9 7 9 ,
p . 1 1 2 ) . T h e f i r s t H a d o w r e p o r t d e f i n e d intellectual c a p a c i t y m e a s u r e d by tests in B u r t ' s f a v o r e d t e r m s as i.g.c. ( i n n a t e , g e n e r a l , c o g nitive) ability:
" D u r i n g c h i l d h o o d , intellectual d e v e l o p m e n t
p r o g r e s s e s as if it w e r e g o v e r n e d l a r g e l y by a s i n g l e , c e n t r a l f a c t o r ,
usually k n o w n a s ' g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , ' w h i c h m a y b e b r o a d l y
d e f i n e d as innate, all round, intellectual [my italics f o r i . g . c ] ability,
a n d a p p e a r s t o e n t e r into e v e r y t h i n g t h e c h i l d a t t e m p t s t o t h i n k ,
say, o r d o : this s e e m s the m o s t i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g his
work in the classroom."
T h e 1 1 + o w e d its g e n e r a l r a t i o n a l e t o t h e British factorists; i n
a d d i t i o n , s e v e r a l of its details can also be t r a c e d to B u r t ' s s c h o o l .
W h y , for e x a m p l e , testing and separation at a g e eleven? T h e r e
w e r e practical a n d historical r e a s o n s t o b e s u r e ; e l e v e n was a b o u t
t h e traditional a g e f o r transition b e t w e e n p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y
schools. B u t t h e factorists s u p p l i e d t w o i m p o r t a n t t h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o r t s . First, s t u d i e s o n t h e g r o w t h o f c h i l d r e n s h o w e d that g v a r i e d
•Hearnshaw ( 1 9 7 9 ) reports that Burt had greatest influence over the 1 9 3 8 Spens
report, which recommended sorting at 11 plus and explicitly rejected comprehensive schooling under a single roof thereafter. Burt was piqued at the Norwood
report because it downgraded psychological evidence; but, as Hearnshaw notes, this
annoyance "masked a basic agreement with the recommendations, which in principle did not differ so much from those of the Spens committee, which he had earlier
approved."
THE REAL ERROR O F CYRIL B U R T
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w i d e l y i n e a r l y life a n d f i r s t stabilized a t a b o u t a g e e l e v e n . S p e a r m a n w r o t e i n 1 9 2 7 (p. 3 6 7 ) : " I f o n c e , t h e n , a c h i l d o f 11 y e a r s o r
so h a s h a d his r e l a t i v e a m o u n t of g m e a s u r e d in a really a c c u r a t e
m a n n e r , t h e h o p e o f t e a c h e r s a n d p a r e n t s that h e will e v e r rise t o
a m u c h h i g h e r s t a n d i n g as a l a t e - b l o o m e r w o u l d s e e m to be illus o r y . " S e c o n d , B u r t ' s " g r o u p f a c t o r s , " w h i c h (for p u r p o s e s o f s e p aration by general mental worth) could only be viewed as
d i s t u r b e r s o f g, d i d n o t s t r o n g l y affect a c h i l d u n t i l a f t e r a g e e l e v e n .
T h e 1 9 3 1 H a d o w r e p o r t p r o c l a i m e d t h a t " s p e c i a l abilities r a r e l y
reveal themselves in any notable d e g r e e before the a g e of 1 1 . "
B u r t o f t e n c l a i m e d that his p r i m a r y g o a l i n s u p p o r t i n g 1 1 + w a s
a " l i b e r a l " o n e — t o p r o v i d e access t o h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n f o r d i s a d v a n t a g e d c h i l d r e n w h o s e i n n a t e talents m i g h t o t h e r w i s e n o t b e reco g n i z e d . I d o n o t d o u b t that a f e w c h i l d r e n o f h i g h ability w e r e
t h u s a i d e d , t h o u g h B u r t h i m s e l f d i d n o t b e l i e v e that m a n y p e o p l e
o f h i g h i n t e l l i g e n c e lay h i d d e n i n t h e l o w e r classes. ( H e also
b e l i e v e d that t h e i r n u m b e r s w e r e r a p i d l y d e c r e a s i n g a s i n t e l l i g e n t
p e o p l e m o v e d u p t h e social l a d d e r l e a v i n g t h e l o w e r classes m o r e
a n d m o r e d e p l e t e d o f intellectual t a l e n t — 1 9 4 6 , p . 1 5 . R . H e r r n stein [ 1 9 7 1 ] c a u s e d q u i t e a r u c k u s with t h e i d e n t i c a l a r g u m e n t ,
recycled, a few years back.)*
Y e t t h e m a j o r e f f e c t o f 11 + , i n t e r m s o f h u m a n lives a n d h o p e s ,
surely lay w i t h its p r i m a r y n u m e r i c a l r e s u l t — 8 0 p e r c e n t b r a n d e d
a s unfit f o r h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n b y r e a s o n o f low i n n a t e intellectual
ability. T w o i n c i d e n t s c o m e t o m i n d , m e m o r i e s o f t w o y e a r s s p e n t
in B r i t a i n d u r i n g t h e r e g i m e of 11 + : c h i l d r e n , a l r e a d y l a b e l e d sufficiently by the location of their school, daily walking t h r o u g h the
streets o f L e e d s i n t h e i r a c a d e m i c u n i f o r m s , r e a d i l y i d e n t i f i e d b y
all as t h e o n e s w h o h a d n ' t q u a l i f i e d ; a f r i e n d w h o h a d f a i l e d 11 +
b u t r e a c h e d t h e u n i v e r s i t y a n y w a y b e c a u s e she h a d l e a r n e d L a t i n
on her o w n , w h e n her secondary m o d e r n school did not teach it
a n d universities still r e q u i r e d i t f o r e n t r a n c e i n t o c e r t a i n c o u r s e s
(how m a n y o t h e r w o r k i n g - c l a s s t e e n a g e r s w o u l d h a v e h a d t h e
m e a n s o r m o t i v a t i o n , w h a t e v e r t h e i r talents a n d desires?).
B u r t w a s c o m m i t t e d t o his e u g e n i c vision o f s a v i n g B r i t a i n b y
f i n d i n g a n d e d u c a t i n g its f e w p e o p l e o f e m i n e n t talent. F o r t h e
rest, I a s s u m e that h e w i s h e d t h e m well a n d h o p e d t o m a t c h t h e i r
e d u c a t i o n w i t h t h e i r ability a s h e p e r c e i v e d it. B u t t h e 8 0 p e r c e n t
" T h e recycling reached full and lengthy fruition when Herrnstein and Charles
Murray used the same claim as the opening gambit and general basis for The Bell
Curve ( 1 9 9 4 ) .
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OF
MAN
w e r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n his p l a n f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f British g r e a t ness. O f t h e m , h e w r o t e ( 1 9 5 9 , p . 1 2 3 ) :
It should be an essential part of the child's education to teach him how
to face a possible beating on the 1 1 + (or any other examination), just as
he should learn to take a beating in a half-mile race, or in a bout with
boxing gloves, or a football match with a rival school.
C o u l d B u r t feel t h e p a i n o f h o p e s d a s h e d b y b i o l o g i c a l p r o c l a m a tion i f h e was w i l l i n g seriously t o c o m p a r e a p e r m a n e n t b r a n d o f
intellectual i n f e r i o r i t y with t h e loss of a single f o o t r a c e ?
L. L. Thurstone and the vectors of mind
Thurstone's critique and reconstruction
L . L . T h u r s t o n e was b o r n (1887) a n d b r e d i n C h i c a g o ( P h . D . ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , 1 9 1 7 , p r o f e s s o r o f p s y c h o l o g y a t his a l m a
m a t e r f r o m 1 9 2 4 t o his d e a t h i n 1 9 5 5 ) . P e r h a p s i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g
that a m a n w h o w r o t e his m a j o r w o r k f r o m t h e h e a r t o f A m e r i c a
d u r i n g the G r e a t Depression should have been the exterminating
a n g e l of S p e a r m a n ' s g. O n e c o u l d easily c o n s t r u c t a m o r a l fable in
the heroic mold: T h u r s t o n e , free f r o m the blinding d o g m a s of
class bias, sees t h r o u g h t h e e r r o r o f reification a n d h e r e d i t a r i a n
a s s u m p t i o n s to u n m a s k g as logically fallacious, scientifically w o r t h less, a n d m o r a l l y a m b i g u o u s . B u t o u r c o m p l e x w o r l d g r a n t s validity to f e w s u c h tales, a n d this o n e is as false a n d e m p t y as most in
its g e n r e . T h u r s t o n e d i d u n d o g f o r s o m e o f t h e r e a s o n s cited
above, but not because he acknowledged the d e e p e r conceptual
e r r o r s that h a d e n g e n d e r e d it. I n fact, T h u r s t o n e disliked g
b e c a u s e h e felt that i t was n o t real e n o u g h !
T h u r s t o n e d i d n o t d o u b t that f a c t o r analysis s h o u l d s e e k , a s its
p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e , t o i d e n t i f y real aspects o f m i n d t h a t c o u l d b e
l i n k e d to d e f i n i t e c a u s e s . C y r i l B u r t n a m e d his m a j o r b o o k The Factors of the Mind, T h u r s t o n e , w h o i n v e n t e d t h e g e o m e t r i c a l d e p i c t i o n
o f tests a n d f a c t o r s a s v e c t o r s (Figs. 6.6, 6.7), called his m a j o r w o r k
( 1 9 3 5 ) The Vectors of Mind. " T h e o b j e c t of f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , " T h u r s t o n e w r o t e ( 1 9 3 5 , p . 5 3 ) , "is t o d i s c o v e r t h e m e n t a l f a c u l t i e s . "
T h u r s t o n e a r g u e d that S p e a r m a n a n d B u r t ' s m e t h o d o f p r i n cipal c o m p o n e n t s h a d f a i l e d t o identify t r u e v e c t o r s o f m i n d
b e c a u s e i t p l a c e d f a c t o r a x e s i n t h e w r o n g g e o m e t r i c a l positions.
T H E REAL ERROR OF C Y R I L B U R T
He objected strenuously both to the first principal c o m p o n e n t
(which p r o d u c e d S p e a r m a n ' s g ) a n d t o t h e s u b s e q u e n t c o m p o n e n t s
(which identified " g r o u p f a c t o r s " i n clusters o f positive a n d n e g a tive p r o j e c t i o n s of tests).
T h e first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t , S p e a r m a n ' s g, is a g r a n d a v e r a g e o f all tests i n m a t r i c e s o f positive c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients, w h e r e
all v e c t o r s m u s t p o i n t i n t h e s a m e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n (Fig. 6.4). W h a t
p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g c a n s u c h a n axis h a v e , T h u r s t o n e a s k e d , i f
its position d e p e n d s u p o n t h e tests i n c l u d e d , a n d shifts drastically
f r o m o n e b a t t e r y o f tests t o a n o t h e r ?
Consider Fig. 6.10 taken f r o m Thurstone's expansion (1947) of
the Vectors of Mind. T h e c u r v e d lines f o r m a s p h e r i c a l t r i a n g l e on
the s u r f a c e o f a s p h e r e . E a c h v e c t o r r a d i a t e s f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f t h e
s p h e r e (not s h o w n ) a n d intersects t h e s p h e r e ' s s u r f a c e at a p o i n t
r e p r e s e n t e d b y o n e o f t h e t w e l v e small circles. T h u r s t o n e a s s u m e s
that the t w e l v e v e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t tests f o r t h r e e " r e a l " faculties o f
m i n d , A , B , a n d C (call t h e m v e r b a l , n u m e r i c a l , a n d spatial, i f y o u
will). T h e left set o f t w e l v e tests i n c l u d e s e i g h t that p r i m a r i l y m e a sure spatial ability a n d fall n e a r C ; t w o tests m e a s u r e v e r b a l ability
a n d lie n e a r A , w h i l e t w o reflect n u m e r i c a l skill. B u t t h e r e i s n o t h ing s a c r o s a n c t a b o u t e i t h e r t h e n u m b e r o r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f tests i n a
battery. S u c h d e c i s i o n s a r e a r b i t r a r y ; in fact, a tester usually can't
i m p o s e a d e c i s i o n at all b e c a u s e he d o e s n ' t k n o w , in a d v a n c e , w h i c h
tests m e a s u r e w h a t u n d e r l y i n g faculty. A n o t h e r b a t t e r y o f tests
(right side o f F i g . 6.10) m a y h a p p e n t o i n c l u d e e i g h t f o r v e r b a l
skills a n d o n l y t w o e a c h f o r n u m e r i c a l a n d spatial ability.
T h e t h r e e faculties, T h u r s t o n e b e l i e v e s , a r e r e a l a n d i n v a r i a n t
i n position n o m a t t e r h o w m a n y tests m e a s u r e t h e m i n a n y b a t t e r y .
B u t look w h a t h a p p e n s t o S p e a r m a n ' s g . I t i s s i m p l y t h e a v e r a g e o f
all tests, a n d its p o s i t i o n — t h e x in F i g . 6 . 1 0 — s h i f t s m a r k e d l y f o r
the a r b i t r a r y r e a s o n that o n e b a t t e r y i n c l u d e s m o r e spatial tests
(forcing g n e a r spatial p o l e C ) a n d t h e o t h e r m o r e v e r b a l tests
( m o v i n g g n e a r v e r b a l p o l e A ) . W h a t possible p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a n ing cang- h a v e if it is o n l y an a v e r a g e , b u f f e t e d a b o u t by c h a n g e s in
the n u m b e r o f tests f o r d i f f e r e n t abilities? T h u r s t o n e w r o t e o f g
( 9 4 o . P- 208):
l
Such a factor can always be found routinely for any set of positively
correlated tests, and it means nothing more or less than the average of all
the abilities called for by the battery as a whole. Consequently, it varies
T H E
M I S M E A S U R E
O F
M A N
from one battery to another and has no fundamental psychological significance beyond the arbitrary collection of tests that anyone happens to put
together. . . . We cannot be interested in a general factor which is only the
average of any random collection of tests.
B u r t h a d i d e n t i f i e d g r o u p factors b y l o o k i n g f o r clusters o f positive a n d n e g a t i v e p r o j e c t i o n s o n t h e s e c o n d a n d s u b s e q u e n t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s . T h u r s t o n e o b j e c t e d s t r e n u o u s l y t o this m e t h o d ,
n o t o n m a t h e m a t i c a l g r o u n d s , but b e c a u s e h e felt that tests c o u l d
n o t h a v e n e g a t i v e p r o j e c t i o n s u p o n real " t h i n g s . " I f a f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t e d a t r u e v e c t o r of mind, t h e n an i n d i v i d u a l test m i g h t e i t h e r
m e a s u r e that entity i n p a r t , a n d h a v e a positive p r o j e c t i o n u p o n
t h e f a c t o r , or it m i g h t n o t m e a s u r e it at all, a n d h a v e a z e r o projection. B u t a test c o u l d n o t h a v e a n e g a t i v e p r o j e c t i o n u p o n a real
vector of mind:
A negative entry . . . would have to be interpreted to mean that the
possession of an ability has a detrimental effect on the test performance.
O n e can readily understand how the possession of a certain ability can aid
6*10
Thurstone's illustration of how the position of the first principal
component (the x in both figures) is affected by the types of tests included
in a battery.
T H E R E A L E R R O R OF C Y R I L B U R T
in a test performance, and o n e can imagine that an ability has no effect on
a test performance, but it is difficult to think of abilities that are as often
detrimental as helpful in the test performances. Surely, the correct factor
matrix for cognitive tests does not have many negative entries, and preferably it should have n o n e at all (1940, p p . 193-194).
T h u r s t o n e t h e r e f o r e set o u t t o f i n d t h e " c o r r e c t f a c t o r m a t r i x "
b y e l i m i n a t i n g n e g a t i v e p r o j e c t i o n s o f tests u p o n a x e s a n d m a k i n g
all p r o j e c t i o n s e i t h e r positive o r z e r o . T h e p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t
a x e s o f S p e a r m a n a n d B u r t c o u l d n o t a c c o m p l i s h this b e c a u s e t h e y ,
p e r f o r c e , c o n t a i n e d all positive p r o j e c t i o n s on t h e first axis (g) a n d
c o m b i n a t i o n s o f n e g a t i v e a n d positive g r o u p s o n t h e s u b s e q u e n t
"bipolars."
T h u r s t o n e ' s s o l u t i o n was i n g e n i o u s a n d r e p r e s e n t s the m o s t
strikingly o r i g i n a l , y e t s i m p l e , i d e a i n t h e history o f f a c t o r analysis.
I n s t e a d o f m a k i n g t h e f i r s t axis a g r a n d a v e r a g e o f all v e c t o r s a n d
letting the o t h e r s e n c o m p a s s a steadily d e c r e a s i n g a m o u n t o f
r e m a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e v e c t o r s , w h y n o t try t o p l a c e all a x e s
n e a r clusters o f v e c t o r s . T h e clusters m a y reflect r e a l " v e c t o r s o f
m i n d , " i m p e r f e c t l y m e a s u r e d by s e v e r a l tests. A f a c t o r axis p l a c e d
n e a r s u c h a c l u s t e r will h a v e h i g h positive p r o j e c t i o n s f o r tests
m e a s u r i n g that p r i m a r y ability* a n d v e r y low z e r o p r o j e c t i o n s f o r
all tests m e a s u r i n g o t h e r p r i m a r y a b i l i t i e s — a s l o n g a s t h e p r i m a r y
abilities a r e i n d e p e n d e n t a n d u n c o r r e l a t e d .
B u t h o w , m a t h e m a t i c a l l y , c a n f a c t o r a x e s b e p l a c e d n e a r clusters? H e r e , T h u r s t o n e h a d his g r e a t i n s i g h t . T h e p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t a x e s o f B u r t a n d S p e a r m a n (Fig. 6.6) d o n o t lie i n t h e o n l y
position that f a c t o r a x e s c a n a s s u m e . T h e y r e p r e s e n t o n e possible
solution, d i c t a t e d by S p e a r m a n ' s a p r i o r i c o n v i c t i o n that a s i n g l e
g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e exists. T h e y a r e , i n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e o r y - b o u n d ,
not m a t h e m a t i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y — a n d t h e t h e o r y m a y b e w r o n g .
T h u r s t o n e decided to k e e p o n e feature of the S p e a r m a n - B u r t
s c h e m e : his f a c t o r a x e s w o u l d r e m a i n m u t u a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r , a n d
t h e r e f o r e m a t h e m a t i c a l l y u n c o r r e l a t e d . T h e real v e c t o r s o f m i n d ,
T h u r s t o n e r e a s o n e d , m u s t r e p r e s e n t independent p r i m a r y abilities.
"Thurstone reified his factors, calling them "primary abilities," or "vectors of
mind." All these terms represent the same mathematical object in Thurstone's system—factor axes placed near clusters of test vectors.
THE
MISMEASURE
OF
MAN
T h u r s t o n e therefore calculated the S p e a r m a n - B u r t principal comp o n e n t s a n d t h e n rotated t h e m to d i f f e r e n t positions until t h e y lay
as close as t h e y c o u l d (while still r e m a i n i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r ) to actual
clusters o f v e c t o r s . I n this r o t a t e d p o s i t i o n , e a c h f a c t o r axis w o u l d
receive high positive projections for the few vectors clustered near
it, a n d z e r o o r n e a r z e r o p r o j e c t i o n s f o r all o t h e r v e c t o r s . W h e n
e a c h v e c t o r has a h i g h p r o j e c t i o n o n o n e f a c t o r axis a n d z e r o o r
n e a r z e r o p r o j e c t i o n s o n all o t h e r s , T h u r s t o n e r e f e r r e d t o t h e result
as a simple structure. He r e d e f i n e d t h e f a c t o r p r o b l e m as a s e a r c h f o r
simple structure by rotating factor axes from their principal comp o n e n t s o r i e n t a t i o n t o p o s i t i o n s m a x i m a l l y close t o clusters o f vectors.
Figs. 6.6 a n d 6.7 s h o w this p r o c e s s g e o m e t r i c a l l y . T h e v e c t o r s
a r e a r r a n g e d i n t w o clusters r e p r e s e n t i n g v e r b a l a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l
tests. In F i g . 6.6 t h e first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t (g) is an a v e r a g e of
all v e c t o r s , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d is a b i p o l a r , with v e r b a l tests p r o j e c t i n g
n e g a t i v e l y a n d a r i t h m e t i c tests positively. B u t t h e v e r b a l a n d arithm e t i c clusters a r e n o t well d e f i n e d o n this b i p o l a r f a c t o r b e c a u s e
m o s t o f t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n has a l r e a d y b e e n p r o j e c t e d u p o n g , a n d
little r e m a i n s f o r d i s t i n c t i o n o n t h e s e c o n d axis. B u t i f t h e a x e s a r e
r o t a t e d t o T h u r s t o n e ' s s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e (Fig. 6.7), t h e n b o t h clusters a r e well d e f i n e d b e c a u s e e a c h i s n e a r a f a c t o r axis. T h e
a r i t h m e t i c tests p r o j e c t h i g h o n the f i r s t s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e axis a n d
low o n t h e s e c o n d ; t h e v e r b a l tests p r o j e c t h i g h o n t h e s e c o n d a n d
low on the first.
T h e f a c t o r p r o b l e m i s n o t s o l v e d pictorially, b u t b y calculation.
T h u r s t o n e u s e d s e v e r a l m a t h e m a t i c a l criteria f o r d i s c o v e r i n g simp l e s t r u c t u r e . O n e , still i n c o m m o n u s e , i s called " v a r i m a x , " o r t h e
s e a r c h f o r maximum variance u p o n e a c h r o t a t e d f a c t o r axis. T h e
" v a r i a n c e " o f a n a x i s i s m e a s u r e d b y t h e s p r e a d o f test p r o j e c t i o n s
u p o n it. V a r i a n c e i s low o n t h e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t b e c a u s e
all tests h a v e a b o u t t h e s a m e positive p r o j e c t i o n , a n d t h e s p r e a d i s
limited. B u t v a r i a n c e i s h i g h o n r o t a t e d a x e s p l a c e d n e a r clusters,
because such axes have a few very high projections and other zero
or near zero projections, thus maximizing the spread.*
T h e p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t a n d s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e s o l u t i o n s are
* Readers who have done factor analysis for a course on statistics or methodology in
the biological or social sciences will remember something about rotating axes to
varimax positions. Like me, they are probably taught this procedure as if it were a
mathematical deduction based on the inadequacy of principal components in find-
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
m a t h e m a t i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t ; n e i t h e r is " b e t t e r . " I n f o r m a t i o n is neit h e r g a i n e d n o r lost by r o t a t i n g a x e s ; it is m e r e l y r e d i s t r i b u t e d .
Preferences d e p e n d u p o n the m e a n i n g assigned to factor axes.
T h e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t d e m o n s t r a b l y exists. F o r S p e a r m a n ,
it is to be c h e r i s h e d as a m e a s u r e of i n n a t e g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e . F o r
T h u r s t o n e , it is a m e a n i n g l e s s a v e r a g e of an a r b i t r a r y b a t t e r y of
tests, d e v o i d o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , a n d c a l c u l a t e d o n l y a s a n
i n t e r m e d i a r y step i n r o t a t i o n t o s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e .
N o t all sets of v e c t o r s h a v e a d e f i n a b l e " s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e . " A
r a n d o m a r r a y w i t h o u t clusters c a n n o t b e f i t b y a set o f f a c t o r s , e a c h
with a f e w h i g h p r o j e c t i o n s a n d a l a r g e r n u m b e r o f n e a r z e r o p r o j e c t i o n s . T h e d i s c o v e r y o f a s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e i m p l i e s that v e c t o r s
a r e g r o u p e d i n t o c l u s t e r s , a n d that clusters a r e relatively i n d e p e n d ent o f e a c h o t h e r . T h u r s t o n e c o n t i n u a l l y f o u n d s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e
a m o n g v e c t o r s o f m e n t a l tests a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o c l a i m e d t h a t t h e
tests m e a s u r e a small n u m b e r o f i n d e p e n d e n t " p r i m a r y m e n t a l
abilities," o r v e c t o r s o f m i n d — a r e t u r n , i n a s e n s e , t o a n o l d e r "faculty p s y c h o l o g y " that v i e w e d t h e m i n d a s a c o n g e r i e s o f i n d e p e n d e n t abilities.
N o w it happens, over and over again, that when a factor matrix is
found with a very large n u m b e r of zero entries, the negative entries disappear at the same time. It does not seem as if all this could h a p p e n by
chance. T h e reason is probably to be f o u n d in the underlying distinct m e n tal processes that are involved in the different tasks. . . . T h e s e are what I
have called primary mental abilities (1940, p. 194).
T h u r s t o n e b e l i e v e d that h e h a d d i s c o v e r e d r e a l m e n t a l entities
with f i x e d g e o m e t r i c positions. T h e p r i m a r y m e n t a l abilities (or
P M A ' s a s h e called t h e m ) d o n o t shift t h e i r p o s i t i o n o r c h a n g e t h e i r
n u m b e r i n d i f f e r e n t b a t t e r i e s o f tests. T h e v e r b a l P M A exists i n its
d e s i g n a t e d s p o t w h e t h e r i t i s m e a s u r e d b y j u s t t h r e e tests i n o n e
battery, o r b y twenty-five d i f f e r e n t tests i n a n o t h e r .
T h e factorial m e t h o d s have for their object to isolate the primary abilities by objective experimental procedures so that it may be a question of
fact how many abilities are represented in a set of tasks (1938, p. 1).
ing clusters. In fact, it arose historically with reference to a definite theory of intelligence (Thurstone's belief in independent primary mental abilities) and in
opposition to another (general intelligence and hierarchy of lesser factors) buttressed by principal components.
THE
MISMEASL'RE
OF MAN
T h u r s t o n e reified his s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e a x e s a s p r i m a r y m e n t a l
abilities a n d s o u g h t t o specify their n u m b e r . His o p i n i o n shifted a s
h e f o u n d n e w P M A ' s o r c o n d e n s e d o t h e r s , b u t his basic m o d e l
included seven P M A ' s — V for verbal comprehension, W for word
f l u e n c y , N f o r n u m b e r ( c o m p u t a t i o n a l ) , S f o r spatial v i s u a l i z a t i o n ,
M f o r associative m e m o r y , P f o r p e r c e p t u a l s p e e d , a n d R f o r reasoning.*
B u t w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d t o g—Spearman's i n e l u c t a b l e , i n n a t e ,
g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e — a m i d s t all this r o t a t i o n o f a x e s ? I t h a d simply
d i s a p p e a r e d . I t h a d b e e n r o t a t e d a w a y ; i t was n o t t h e r e a n y m o r e
(Fig. 6.7). T h u r s t o n e s t u d i e d t h e s a m e d a t a u s e d b y S p e a r m a n a n d
B u r t to d i s c o v e r g. B u t n o w , i n s t e a d of a h i e r a r c h y with a d o m i nant, innate, general intelligence and some subsidiary, trainable
g r o u p f a c t o r s , t h e s a m e d a t a h a d y i e l d e d a set o f i n d e p e n d e n t a n d
e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t P M A ' s , with n o h i e r a r c h y a n d n o d o m i n a n t g e n e r a l f a c t o r . W h a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g c o u l d g c l a i m if it r e p r e s e n t e d b u t o n e possible r e n d e r i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n subject t o
radically different, but mathematically equivalent, interpretations?
T h u r s t o n e w r o t e o f his m o s t f a m o u s e m p i r i c a l s t u d y ( 1 9 3 8 , p . vii):
So far in our work we have not f o u n d the general factor of Spearman.
. . . As far as we can d e t e r m i n e at present, the tests that have been supposed to be saturated with the general c o m m o n factor divide their variance a m o n g primary factors that are not present in all the tests. We cannot
report any general c o m m o n factor in the battery of 56 tests that have been
analyzed in the present study.
The
egalitarian
interpretation
of PMA's
G r o u p f a c t o r s f o r s p e c i a l i z e d abilities h a v e h a d a n i n t e r e s t i n g
o d y s s e y i n t h e h i s t o r y o f f a c t o r analysis. I n S p e a r m a n ' s s y s t e m they
w e r e called " d i s t u r b e r s " o f t h e t e t r a d e q u a t i o n , a n d w e r e o f t e n
p u r p o s e l y e l i m i n a t e d by t o s s i n g o u t all b u t o n e test in a c l u s t e r — a
remarkable way of r e n d e r i n g a hypothesis impervious to disproof.
I n a f a m o u s s t u d y , d o n e specifically t o d i s c o v e r w h e t h e r o r not
•Thurstone, like Burt, submitted many other sets of data to factor analysis. Burt,
chained to his hierarchical model, always found a dominant general factor and subsidiary bipolars, whether he studied anatomical, parapsychological, or aesthetic
data. Thurstone, wedded to his model, always discovered independent primary factors. In 1 9 5 0 , for example, he submitted tests of temperament to factor analysis and
found primary factors, again seven in number. He named them activity, impulsiveness, emotional stability, sociability, athletic interest, ascendance, and reflectiveness.
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
333
g r o u p factors existed, B r o w n a n d Stephenson (1933) gave twentyt w o c o g n i t i v e tests t o t h r e e h u n d r e d t e n - y e a r - o l d b o y s . T h e y calc u l a t e d s o m e d i s t u r b i n g l y h i g h t e t r a d s a n d d r o p p e d t w o tests
" b e c a u s e 20 is a sufficiently l a r g e n u m b e r f o r o u r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e . " T h e y t h e n e l i m i n a t e d a n o t h e r f o r t h e l a r g e t e t r a d s that i t
g e n e r a t e d , e x c u s i n g t h e m s e l v e s by stating: " a t w o r s t it is no sin to
o m i t o n e test f r o m a b a t t e r y o f s o m a n y . " M o r e h i g h v a l u e s
p r o m p t e d t h e f u r t h e r e x c i s i o n o f all t e t r a d s i n c l u d i n g t h e c o r r e l a tion b e t w e e n t w o o f t h e n i n e t e e n r e m a i n i n g tests, since " t h e m e a n
of all t e t r a d s i n v o l v i n g this c o r r e l a t i o n is m o r e t h a n 5 times t h e
p r o b a b l e e r r o r . " Finally, with a b o u t o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e t e t r a d s g o n e ,
the r e m a i n i n g e l e v e n t h o u s a n d f o r m e d a d i s t r i b u t i o n close e n o u g h
to normal. Spearman's "theory of two factors," they proclaimed,
"satisfactorily passes t h e test o f e x p e r i e n c e . " " T h e r e i s i n t h e p r o o f
the f o u n d a t i o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f a scientific e x p e r i m e n t a l psyc h o l o g y ; a n d , a l t h o u g h w e w o u l d b e m o d e s t , t o that e x t e n t i t c o n stitutes a ' C o p e r n i c a n r e v o l u t i o n ' " ( B r o w n a n d S t e p h e n s o n , 1 9 3 3 ,
P- 353)F o r Cyril B u r t , the g r o u p factors, although real and i m p o r tant i n v o c a t i o n a l g u i d a n c e , w e r e s u b s i d i a r y t o a d o m i n a n t a n d
i n n a t e g.
F o r T h u r s t o n e , the o l d g r o u p f a c t o r s b e c a m e p r i m a r y m e n t a l
abilities. T h e y w e r e t h e i r r e d u c i b l e m e n t a l entities; g was a d e l u sion.
C o p e r n i c u s ' s h e l i o c e n t r i c t h e o r y c a n be v i e w e d as a p u r e l y
mathematical hypothesis, offering a simpler representation for the
s a m e a s t r o n o m i c a l d a t a that P t o l e m y h a d e x p l a i n e d b y p u t t i n g t h e
earth at the center of things. Indeed, Copernicus's cautious and
practical s u p p o r t e r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e a u t h o r o f t h e p r e f a c e t o D e
Revolutionibus, u r g e d j u s t s u c h a p r a g m a t i c c o u r s e in a w o r l d p o p u l a t e d with inquisitions a n d i n d i c e s o f f o r b i d d e n b o o k s . B u t C o p e r n i c u s ' s t h e o r y e v e n t u a l l y p r o d u c e d a f u r o r w h e n its s u p p o r t e r s ,
led by G a l i l e o , insisted u p o n v i e w i n g it as a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e r e a l
organization of the heavens, not merely as a simpler numerical
representation of planetary motion.
S o i t was with t h e S p e a r m a n - B u r t vs. t h e T h u r s t o n e s c h o o l o f
f a c t o r analysis. T h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s w e r e e q u i v a lent and equally worthy of support. T h e debate reached a fury of
intensity b e c a u s e t h e t w o m a t h e m a t i c a l schools a d v a n c e d r a d i c a l l y
334
THE
MISMEASURE
OF MAN
d i f f e r e n t v i e w s a b o u t t h e real n a t u r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e — a n d the
a c c e p t a n c e o f o n e o r t h e o t h e r e n t a i l e d a set o f f u n d a m e n t a l consequences for the practice of education.
W i t h S p e a r m a n ' s g, e a c h child c a n be r a n k e d on a s i n g l e scale
of i n n a t e i n t e l l i g e n c e ; all else is subsidiary. G e n e r a l ability c a n be
m e a s u r e d e a r l y i n life a n d c h i l d r e n c a n b e s o r t e d a c c o r d i n g t o their
intellectual p r o m i s e (as i n t h e 1 1 + e x a m i n a t i o n ) .
W i t h T h u r s t o n e ' s P M A ' s , t h e r e i s n o g e n e r a l ability t o m e a s u r e .
Some children are g o o d at some things, others excel in different
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t qualities o f m i n d . M o r e o v e r , o n c e t h e h e g e m o n y
o f g was b r o k e n , P M A ' s c o u l d b l o o m like t h e f l o w e r s i n s p r i n g .
T h u r s t o n e r e c o g n i z e d o n l y a f e w , b u t o t h e r influential s c h e m e s
a d v o c a t e d 120 ( G u i l f o r d , 1956) o r p e r h a p s m o r e ( G u i l f o r d , 1 9 5 9 ,
p . 477). ( G u i l f o r d ' s 120 f a c t o r s a r e n o t i n d u c e d e m p i r i c a l l y , b u t
p r e d i c t e d f r o m a t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l — r e p r e s e n t e d as a c u b e of
d i m e n s i o n s 6 x 5 X 4 = 1 2 0 — d e s i g n a t i n g f a c t o r s f o r e m p i r i c a l studies to find).
U n i l i n e a r r a n k i n g o f p u p i l s has n o p l a c e , e v e n i n T h u r s t o n e ' s
w o r l d o f j u s t a f e w P M A ' s . T h e e s s e n c e o f e a c h c h i l d b e c o m e s his
individuality, T h u r s t o n e wrote ( 1 9 3 5 , p. 53):
Even if each individual can be described in terms of a limited number
of i n d e p e n d e n t reference abilities, it is still possible for every person to be
different from every other person in the world. Each person might be
described in terms of his standard scores in a limited n u m b e r of independent abilities. T h e n u m b e r of permutations of these scores would probably
be sufficient to guarantee the retention of individualities.
F r o m t h e m i d s t o f a n e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n that r e d u c e d m a n y o f
its intellectual elite to p o v e r t y , an A m e r i c a w i t h e g a l i t a r i a n ideals
(however rarely practiced) challenged Britain's traditional equation
o f social class w i t h i n n a t e w o r t h . S p e a r m a n ' s g h a d b e e n r o t a t e d
a w a y , a n d g e n e r a l m e n t a l w o r t h e v a p o r a t e d w i t h it.
O n e could read the debate between Burt a n d T h u r s t o n e as a
mathematical a r g u m e n t about the location of factor axes. T h i s
would be as myopic as interpreting the struggle between Galileo
and the C h u r c h as an a r g u m e n t between two mathematically
e q u i v a l e n t s c h e m e s f o r d e s c r i b i n g p l a n e t a r y m o t i o n . B u r t certainly
u n d e r s t o o d this l a r g e r c o n t e x t w h e n h e d e f e n d e d t h e 1 1 + e x a m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t T h u r s t o n e ' s assault:
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
335
In educational practice the rash assumption that the general factor has
at length been demolished has d o n e much to sanction the impracticable
idea that, in classifying children according to their varying capabilities, we
need no longer consider their d e g r e e of general ability, and have only to
allot them to schools of different types according to their special aptitudes;
in short, that the examination at 11 plus can best be run on the principle
of the caucus-race in Wonderland, where everybody wins and each get
some kind of prize (1955, p. 165).
T h u r s t o n e , f o r his p a r t , l o b b i e d h a r d , p r o d u c i n g a r g u m e n t s
(and a l t e r n a t e tests) t o s u p p o r t his b e l i e f t h a t c h i l d r e n s h o u l d n o t
b e j u d g e d b y a single n u m b e r . H e w i s h e d , i n s t e a d , t o assess e a c h
person as an individual with strengths a n d weaknesses according
t o his scores o n a n a r r a y o f P M A ' s (as e v i d e n c e o f his success i n
a l t e r i n g t h e p r a c t i c e o f t e s t i n g i n t h e U n i t e d States, see G u i l f o r d ,
1959, and T u d d e n h a m , 1962, p. 515).
Instead of attempting to describe each individual's mental e n d o w m e n t
by a single index such as a mental age or an intelligence quotient, it is
preferable to describe him in terms of a profile of all the primary factors
which are known to be significant. . . . If a n y o n e insists on having a single
index such as an I.Q., it can be obtained by taking an average of all the
known abilities. But such an index tends so to blur the description of each
man that his mental assets and limitations are buried in the single index
(1946, p. 110).
T w o p a g e s l a t e r , T h u r s t o n e explicitly links his abstract t h e o r y o f
i n t e l l i g e n c e w i t h p r e f e r r e d social v i e w s .
This work is consistent not only with the scientific object of identifying
the distinguishable mental functions but it seems to be consistent also with
the desire to differentiate our treatment of people by recognizing every
person in terms of the mental and physical assets which make him unique
as an individual (1946, p. 112).
T h u r s t o n e p r o d u c e d his f u n d a m e n t a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h o u t
a t t a c k i n g e i t h e r o f t h e d e e p e r a s s u m p d o n s that h a d m o t i v a t e d
Spearman and Burt—reification and hereditarianism. He worked
within e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n s o f a r g u m e n t i n f a c t o r analysis, a n d
r e c o n s t r u c t e d results a n d t h e i r m e a n i n g w i t h o u t a l t e r i n g t h e p r e m ises.
T h u r s t o n e n e v e r d o u b t e d that his P M A ' s w e r e entities with
identifiable c a u s e s (see his e a r l y w o r k o f 1 9 2 4 , p p . 1 4 6 - 1 4 7 , f o r t h e
33 6
THE
MISMEASURE
OF MAN
s e e d s o f c o m m i t m e n t t o r e i f y i n g abstract c o n c e p t s — g r e g a r i o u s n e s s
i n this c a s e — a s t h i n g s w i t h i n us). H e e v e n s u s p e c t e d that his m a t h e m a t i c a l m e t h o d s w o u l d identify a t t r i b u t e s o f m i n d b e f o r e b i o l o g y
a t t a i n e d t h e tools to verify t h e m : " I t is q u i t e likely that t h e p r i m a r y
m e n t a l abilities will be fairly well isolated by t h e factorial m e t h o d s
before they are verified by the m e t h o d s of n e u r o l o g y or genetics.
E v e n t u a l l y t h e results o f t h e s e v e r a l m e t h o d s o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e
s a m e p h e n o m e n a m u s t a g r e e " ( 1 9 3 8 , p . 2).
T h e vectors of m i n d are real, but their causes may be c o m p l e x
and multifarious. T h u r s t o n e admitted a strong potential influence
for environment, but he emphasized inborn biology:
Some of the factors may turn out to be defined by endocrinological
effects. Others may be defined by biochemical or biophysical parameters
of the body fluids or of the central nervous system. Other factors may be
defined by neurological or vascular relations in s o m e anatomical locus; still
others may involve parameters in the dynamics of the autonomic nervous
system; still others may be defined in terms of experience and schooling
(1947, p. 57).
T h u r s t o n e a t t a c k e d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t s c h o o l , c i t i n g evid e n c e f r o m s t u d i e s o f i d e n t i c a l twins f o r t h e i n h e r i t a n c e o f P M A ' s .
H e also c l a i m e d t h a t t r a i n i n g w o u l d usually e n h a n c e i n n a t e d i f f e r ences, even while raising the accomplishments of both poorly and
well-endowed children:
Inheritance plays an important part in determining mental performance. It is my own conviction that the arguments of the environmentalists are too much based on sentimentalism. T h e y are often even fanatic on
this subject. If the facts support the genetic interpretation, then the accusation of being undemocratic must not be hurled at the biologists. If anyo n e is undemocratic on this issue, it must be Mother Nature. To the
question whether the mental abilities can be trained, the affirmative
answer seems to be the only o n e that makes sense. On the other hand, if
two boys w h o differ markedly in visualizing ability, for e x a m p l e , are given
the same amount of training with this type of thinking, I am afraid that
they will differ even more at the end of the training than they did at the
start (1946, p. 1 1 1 ) .
A s I h a v e e m p h a s i z e d t h r o u g h o u t this b o o k , n o s i m p l e equation c a n b e m a d e b e t w e e n social p r e f e r e n c e a n d b i o l o g i c a l c o m m i t m e n t . W e c a n tell n o c a r d b o a r d tale o f h e r e d i t a r i a n b a d d i e s
r e l e g a t i n g w h o l e r a c e s , classes, a n d s e x e s t o p e r m a n e n t biological
T H E R E A L E R R O R OF C Y R I L B U R T
337
i n f e r i o r i t y — o r o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s t g o o d i e s e x t o l l i n g the i r r e d u c i ble w o r t h o f all h u m a n b e i n g s . O t h e r biases m u s t b e f a c t o r e d
(pardon the vernacular usage) into a c o m p l e x equation. Hereditarianism becomes an instrument for assigning g r o u p s to inferiority o n l y w h e n c o m b i n e d with a b e l i e f in r a n k i n g a n d d i f f e r e n t i a l
w o r t h . B u r t u n i t e d b o t h v i e w s i n his h e r e d i t a r i a n synthesis. T h u r s t o n e e x c e e d e d B u r t i n his c o m m i t m e n t t o a n a i v e f o r m o f reificat i o n , a n d h e d i d n o t o p p o s e h e r e d i t a r i a n claims ( t h o u g h h e
certainly n e v e r p u r s u e d t h e m w i t h t h e s i n g l e - m i n d e d v i g o r o f a
B u r t ) . B u t h e c h o s e n o t t o r a n k a n d w e i g h o n a single scale o f
g e n e r a l m e r i t , a n d his d e s t r u c t i o n o f B u r t ' s p r i m a r y i n s t r u m e n t o f
r a n k i n g — S p e a r m a n ' s g—altered t h e history o f m e n t a l testing.
Spearman and Burt react
W h e n T h u r s t o n e d i s p e r s e d g a s a n illusion, S p e a r m a n w a s still
alive a n d p u g n a c i o u s a s e v e r , w h i l e B u r t w a s a t t h e h e i g h t o f his
powers a n d influence. S p e a r m a n , w h o h a d deftly d e f e n d e d g for
thirty y e a r s by i n c o r p o r a t i n g critics w i t h i n his flexible s y s t e m , realized that T h u r s t o n e c o u l d n o t b e s o a c c o m m o d a t e d :
Hitherto all such attacks on it \g] appear to have eventually w e a k e n e d
into m e r e attempts to explain it m o r e simply. N o w , however, there has
arisen a very different crisis; in a recent study, nothing has been f o u n d to
explain; the general factor has just vanished. Moreover, the said study is
no ordinary o n e . Alike for e m i n e n c e of the author, for judiciousness of
plan, and for comprehensiveness of scope, it would be hard to find any
match for the very recent work on Primary Mental Abilities by L. L. T h u r stone (Spearman, 1939, p. 78).
S p e a r m a n a d m i t t e d that g , a s a n a v e r a g e a m o n g tests, c o u l d
vary i n p o s i t i o n f r o m b a t t e r y t o battery. B u t h e h e l d that its w a n d e r i n g was m i n o r i n s c o p e , a n d that i t a l w a y s p o i n t e d i n t h e s a m e
g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n , d e t e r m i n e d b y the p e r v a s i v e positive c o r r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e n tests. T h u r s t o n e h a d n o t e l i m i n a t e d g ; h e h a d m e r e l y
o b s c u r e d it by a m a t h e m a t i c a l d o d g e , d i s t r i b u t i n g it by bits a n d
pieces a m o n g a set o f g r o u p f a c t o r s : " T h e n e w o p e r a t i o n c o n s i s t e d
essentially i n s c a t t e r i n g ^ a m o n g s u c h n u m e r o u s g r o u p f a c t o r s , t h a t
the f r a g m e n t a s s i g n e d t o e a c h s e p a r a t e l y b e c a m e t o o small t o b e
n o t i c e a b l e " ( 1 9 3 9 , p . 14).
S p e a r m a n then turned T h u r s t o n e ' s favorite a r g u m e n t against
h i m . A s a c o n v i n c e d reifier, T h u r s t o n e b e l i e v e d that P M A ' s w e r e
338
THE
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MAN
" o u t t h e r e " i n f i x e d positions within a factorial s p a c e . H e a r g u e d
that S p e a r m a n a n d B u r t ' s f a c t o r s w e r e n o t " r e a l " b e c a u s e t h e y vari e d i n n u m b e r a n d position a m o n g d i f f e r e n t batteries o f tests.
S p e a r m a n r e t o r t e d that T h u r s t o n e ' s P M A ' s w e r e also artifacts o f
c h o s e n tests, n o t i n v a r i a n t v e c t o r s o f m i n d . A P M A c o u l d b e crea t e d s i m p l y by c o n s t r u c t i n g a series of r e d u n d a n t tests that w o u l d
m e a s u r e t h e s a m e t h i n g s e v e r a l t i m e s , a n d establish a t i g h t c l u s t e r
of vectors. Similarly, any P M A could be dispersed by r e d u c i n g or
e l i m i n a t i n g t h e tests that m e a s u r e it. P M A ' s a r e n o t i n v a r i a n t locations p r e s e n t b e f o r e a n y o n e e v e r i n v e n t e d tests t o identify t h e m ;
t h e y a r e p r o d u c t s o f t h e tests t h e m s e l v e s :
We are led to the view that g r o u p factors, far from constituting a small
n u m b e r of sharply cut "primary" abilities, are endless in number, indefinitely varying in scope, and even unstable in existence. Any constitutent of
ability can b e c o m e a g r o u p factor. Any can cease being so (1939, p. 15).
S p e a r m a n h a d r e a s o n t o c o m p l a i n . T w o y e a r s later, f o r e x a m p l e , T h u r s t o n e f o u n d a n e w P M A t h a t h e c o u l d n o t i n t e r p r e t (in
T h u r s t o n e a n d T h u r s t o n e , 1 9 4 1 ) . H e called i t X i a n d i d e n t i f i e d i t
b y s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h r e e tests that i n v o l v e d t h e c o u n t i n g o f d o t s . H e e v e n a d m i t t e d that h e w o u l d h a v e m i s s e d X i
e n t i r e l y , h a d his b a t t e r y i n c l u d e d b u t o n e test o f d o t t i n g :
All these tests have a factor in c o m m o n ; but since the three dot-counting tests are practically isolated from the rest of the battery and without
any saturation on the n u m b e r factor, we have very little to suggest the
nature of the factor. It is, no doubt, the sort of function that would ordinarily be lost in the specific variance of the tests if only o n e of these dotcounting tests had been included in the battery (Thurstone and Thurstone, 1941, pp. 23-24).
T h u r s t o n e ' s a t t a c h m e n t t o reification b l i n d e d h i m t o a n o b v i o u s
a l t e r n a t i v e . H e a s s u m e d that X really e x i s t e d a n d that h e h a d previously m i s s e d it by n e v e r i n c l u d i n g e n o u g h tests f o r its r e c o g n i tion. B u t s u p p o s e t h a t X i s a c r e a t i o n o f t h e tests, n o w " d i s c o v e r e d "
o n l y b e c a u s e t h r e e r e d u n d a n t m e a s u r e s yield a c l u s t e r o f vectors
(and a p o t e n t i a l P M A ) , w h e r e a s o n e d i f f e r e n t test c a n o n l y b e
viewed as an oddball.
T h e r e i s a g e n e r a l flaw i n T h u r s t o n e ' s a r g u m e n t that P M A ' s
a r e n o t t e s t - d e p e n d e n t , a n d that t h e s a m e f a c t o r s will a p p e a r i n
a n y p r o p e r l y c o n s t i t u t e d battery. T h u r s t o n e c l a i m e d that a n indix
x
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
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v i d u a l test w o u l d a l w a y s r e c o r d the s a m e P M A ' s o n l y i n s i m p l e
s t r u c t u r e s that a r e " c o m p l e t e a n d o v e r d e t e r m i n e d " ( 1 9 4 7 , p .
3 6 3 ) — i n o t h e r w o r d s , o n l y w h e n all t h e v e c t o r s o f m i n d h a v e b e e n
p r o p e r l y i d e n t i f i e d a n d s i t u a t e d . I n d e e d , if t h e r e really are o n l y a
f e w v e c t o r s o f m i n d , a n d i f w e c a n k n o w w h e n all h a v e b e e n i d e n tified, t h e n a n y a d d i t i o n a l test m u s t fall i n t o its p r o p e r a n d
u n c h a n g i n g position within the invariant simple structure. But
t h e r e m a y b e n o s u c h t h i n g a s a n " o v e r d e t e r m i n e d " s i m p l e struct u r e , i n w h i c h all possible f a c t o r a x e s h a v e b e e n d i s c o v e r e d . Perh a p s t h e f a c t o r a x e s a r e n o t f i x e d i n n u m b e r , b u t subject t o
u n l i m i t e d i n c r e a s e a s n e w tests a r e a d d e d . P e r h a p s t h e y a r e truly
t e s t - d e p e n d e n t , a n d n o t real u n d e r l y i n g entities a t all. T h e v e r y
fact that e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e n u m b e r o f p r i m a r y abilities h a v e r a n g e d
f r o m T h u r s t o n e ' s 7 o r s o t o G u i l f o r d ' s 1 2 0 o r m o r e indicates that
vectors o f m i n d m a y b e f i g m e n t s o f m i n d .
I f S p e a r m a n a t t a c k e d T h u r s t o n e b y s u p p o r t i n g his b e l o v e d g ,
t h e n B u r t p a r r i e d by d e f e n d i n g a subject e q u a l l y close to his
h e a r t — t h e identification o f g r o u p factors b y clusters o f positive
and negative projections on bipolar axes. T h u r s t o n e had attacked
S p e a r m a n a n d B u r t b y a g r e e i n g that factors m u s t b e reified, b u t
d i s p a r a g i n g t h e E n g l i s h m e t h o d f o r d o i n g so. H e d i s m i s s e d S p e a r man's g as t o o v a r i a b l e in p o s i t i o n , a n d r e j e c t e d B u r t ' s b i p o l a r factors b e c a u s e " n e g a t i v e abilities" c a n n o t exist. B u r t r e p l i e d , q u i t e
p r o p e r l y , that T h u r s t o n e was t o o u n s u b t l e a reifier. F a c t o r s a r e n o t
material objects i n t h e h e a d , b u t p r i n c i p l e s o f classification that
o r d e r reality. ( B u r t o f t e n a r g u e d t h e c o n t r a r y position a s w e l l — s e e
p . 3 1 8 - 3 2 2 . ) Classification p r o c e e d s b y logical d i c h o t o m y a n d
ntithesis ( B u r t , 1 9 3 9 ) . N e g a t i v e p r o j e c t i o n s d o n o t i m p l y that a
~rson has less t h a n z e r o of a d e f i n i t e t h i n g . T h e y o n l y r e c o r d a
relative c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t w o abstract qualities o f t h o u g h t . M o r e o f
m e t h i n g usually g o e s with less o f a n o t h e r — a d m i n i s t r a t i v e w o r k
d scholarly p r o d u c t i v i t y , f o r e x a m p l e .
A s their t r u m p c a r d , b o t h S p e a r m a n a n d B u r t a r g u e d that
l u r s t o n e h a d n o t p r o d u c e d a c o g e n t revision o f their reality, b u t
nly a n a l t e r n a t i v e m a t h e m a t i c s f o r t h e s a m e d a t a .
We may, of course, invent methods of factorial research that will always
ield a factor-pattern showing s o m e d e g r e e of "hierarchical" formation of
if we prefer) what is sometimes called "simple structure." But again the
ults will mean little or nothing: using the former, we could almost
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always demonstrate that a general factor exists; using the latter, we could
almost always demonstrate, even with the s a m e set of data, that it does not
exist (Burt, 1940, p p . 27-28).
B u t d i d n ' t B u r t a n d S p e a r m a n u n d e r s t a n d that this v e r y
d e f e n s e c o n s t i t u t e d their o w n u n d o i n g a s w e l l a s T h u r s t o n e ' s ?
T h e y were right, undeniably right. T h u r s t o n e had not proven an
a l t e r n a t e reality. H e h a d b e g u n f r o m d i f f e r e n t a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t
the structure of mind and invented a mathematical scheme more
i n a c c o r d with his p r e f e r e n c e s . B u t t h e s a m e criticism a p p l i e s with
e q u a l f o r c e t o S p e a r m a n a n d B u r t . T h e y t o o h a d started with a n
assumption about the nature of intelligence and had devised a
m a t h e m a t i c a l s y s t e m t o b u t t r e s s it. I f t h e s a m e d a t a c a n b e f i t into
t w o s u c h d i f f e r e n t m a t h e m a t i c a l s c h e m e s , h o w c a n w e say with
a s s u r a n c e that o n e r e p r e s e n t s reality a n d t h e o t h e r a d i v e r s i o n a r y
t i n k e r i n g ? P e r h a p s b o t h v i e w s o f reality a r e w r o n g , a n d their
m u t u a l f a i l u r e lies in t h e i r c o m m o n e r r o r : a s h a r e d b e l i e f in the
reification o f f a c t o r s .
C o p e r n i c u s was r i g h t , e v e n t h o u g h a c c e p t a b l e tables o f p l a n e tary positions c a n b e g e n e r a t e d f r o m P t o l e m y ' s s y s t e m . B u r t a n d
S p e a r m a n might be right even t h o u g h Thurstone's mathematics
treats t h e s a m e d a t a with e q u a l facility. T o v i n d i c a t e e i t h e r view,
s o m e l e g i t i m a t e a p p e a l m u s t b e m a d e o u t s i d e t h e abstract m a t h e matics itself. I n this case, s o m e b i o l o g i c a l g r o u n d i n g m u s t b e discovered. If biochemists h a d ever f o u n d Spearman's cerebral
energy, if neurologists had ever m a p p e d Thurstone's PMA's to
d e f i n i t e a r e a s o f t h e c e r e b r a l c o r t e x , t h e n t h e basis f o r a p r e f e r e n c e
m i g h t h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . A l l c o m b a t a n t s m a d e a p p e a l s t o biolo g y a n d a d v a n c e d t e n u o u s c l a i m s , b u t n o c o n c r e t e tie has even
b e e n c o n f i r m e d b e t w e e n a n y n e u r o l o g i c a l object a n d a f a c t o r axis.
W e a r e left o n l y w i t h t h e m a t h e m a t i c s , a n d t h e r e f o r e cannot
v a l i d a t e e i t h e r s y s t e m . B o t h a r e p l a g u e d with t h e c o n c e p t u a l e r r o r
of reification. F a c t o r analysis is a fine d e s c r i p t i v e t o o l ; I do not
t h i n k that it will u n c o v e r the elusive (and illusory) f a c t o r s , or vect o r s , o f m i n d . T h u r s t o n e d e t h r o n e d g n o t b y b e i n g r i g h t with his
alternate system, but by b e i n g equally w r o n g — a n d thus exposing
the methodological errors of the entire enterprise.*
*Tuddenham ( 1 9 6 2 , p. 5 1 6 ) writes: "Test constructors will continue to employ factorial procedures, provided they pay off in improving the efficiency and predictive
value of our test batteries, but the hope that factor analysis can supply a short inven-
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL BURT
Oblique axes and second-order g
Since T h u r s t o n e p i o n e e r e d the geometrical representation of
tests as v e c t o r s , it is s u r p r i s i n g that he d i d n ' t i m m e d i a t e l y g r a s p a
t e c h n i c a l d e f i c i e n c y in his analysis. If tests a r e positively c o r r e l a t e d ,
t h e n all vectors m u s t f o r m a set in w h i c h no t w o a r e s e p a r a t e d by
a n a n g l e o f m o r e t h a n 9 0 (for a r i g h t a n g l e i m p l i e s a c o r r e l a t i o n
coefficient o f z e r o ) . T h u r s t o n e w i s h e d t o p u t his s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e
axes as n e a r as possible to clusters w i t h i n the total set of v e c t o r s .
Y e t h e insisted that a x e s b e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o e a c h o t h e r . T h i s criterion g u a r a n t e e s that a x e s c a n n o t lie really close to clusters of vectors—as Fig. 6 . 1 1 indicates. For the maximal separation of vectors
is less t h a n 90°, a n d a n y t w o a x e s , f o r c e d to be p e r p e n d i c u l a r , m u s t
t h e r e f o r e lie o u t s i d e t h e clusters t h e m s e l v e s . W h y n o t a b a n d o n this
c r i t e r i o n , let t h e a x e s t h e m s e l v e s b e c o r r e l a t e d ( s e p a r a t e d b y a n
angle o f less t h a n 9 0 ) , a n d p e r m i t t h e m t o lie r i g h t w i t h i n t h e clusters of vectors?
0
0
Perpendicular axes have a great conceptual advantage. T h e y
are m a t h e m a t i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t ( u n c o r r e l a t e d ) . I f o n e w i s h e s t o
identify f a c t o r a x e s a s " p r i m a r y m e n t a l abilities," p e r h a p s t h e y h a d
best b e u n c o r r e l a t e d — f o r i f f a c t o r a x e s a r e t h e m s e l v e s c o r r e l a t e d ,
then d o e s n ' t t h e c a u s e o f that c o r r e l a t i o n b e c o m e m o r e " p r i m a r y "
than t h e factors t h e m s e l v e s ? B u t c o r r e l a t e d a x e s also h a v e a d i f f e r ent k i n d o f c o n c e p t u a l a d v a n t a g e : they c a n b e p l a c e d n e a r e r t o
clusters o f v e c t o r s that m a y r e p r e s e n t " m e n t a l abilities." Y o u can't
have i t b o t h w a y s f o r sets o f v e c t o r s d r a w n f r o m a m a t r i x o f positive
correlation coefficients: f a c t o r s m a y b e i n d e p e n d e n t a n d o n l y close
to clusters, or c o r r e l a t e d a n d w i t h i n clusters. ( N e i t h e r s y s t e m is
"better"; e a c h h a s its a d v a n t a g e s i n c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s . C o r r e lated a n d u n c o r r e l a t e d a x e s a r e b o t h still u s e d , a n d t h e a r g u m e n t
c o n t i n u e s , e v e n i n t h e s e d a y s o f c o m p u t e r i z e d sophistication i n factor analysis.)
T h u r s t o n e invented rotated axes and simple structure in the
early 1930s. I n the late 1930s h e b e g a n t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h sotory of 'basic abilities' is already waning. The continuous difficulties with factor analysis over the last half century suggest that there may be something fundamentally
rong with models which conceptualize intelligence in terms of a finite number of
"near dimensions. To the statistician's dictum that whatever exists can be measured,
* factorist has added the assumption that whatever can be 'measured' must exist,
ut the relation may not be reversible, and the assumption may be false."
w
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called o b l i q u e s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e s , o r systems o f c o r r e l a t e d a x e s .
( U n c o r r e l a t e d a x e s a r e called " o r t h o g o n a l " o r m u t u a l l y p e r p e n d i c ular; correlated axes are "oblique" because the angle between t h e m
is less t h a n 90°.) J u s t as s e v e r a l m e t h o d s m a y be u s e d f o r d e t e r m i n ing orthogonal simple structure, oblique axes can be calculated in
a v a r i e t y of w a y s , t h o u g h t h e object is always to p l a c e a x e s within
clusters o f v e c t o r s . I n o n e relatively s i m p l e m e t h o d , s h o w n i n Fig.
6 . 1 1 , a c t u a l v e c t o r s o c c u p y i n g e x t r e m e positions within t h e total set
a r e u s e d a s f a c t o r a x e s . N o t e , i n c o n t r a s t i n g F i g s . 6.7 a n d 6 . 1 1 , h o w
the f a c t o r a x e s f o r v e r b a l a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l skills h a v e m o v e d
f r o m o u t s i d e t h e a c t u a l clusters (in t h e o r t h o g o n a l solution)
to the clusters t h e m s e l v e s (in t h e o b l i q u e s o l u t i o n ) .
M o s t factor-analysts w o r k u p o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n that c o r r e l a tions m a y h a v e c a u s e s a n d that f a c t o r a x e s m a y h e l p u s t o identify
them. If the factor axes are themselves correlated, why not apply
6*11
Thurstone's oblique simple structure axes for the same four mental tests depicted in Figs. 6-6 and 6-7. Factor axes are no longer perpendicular to each other. In this example, the factor axes coincide with the
peripheral vectors of the cluster.
T H E REAL ERROR OF C Y R I L B U R T
343
t h e s a m e a r g u m e n t a n d ask w h e t h e r this c o r r e l a t i o n reflects s o m e
h i g h e r o r m o r e basic c a u s e ? T h e o b l i q u e a x e s o f a s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e
f o r m e n t a l tests a r e usually positively c o r r e l a t e d (as in Fig. 6 . 1 1 ) .
M a y n o t t h e c a u s e o f this c o r r e l a t i o n b e identified with S p e a r m a n ' s
g? Is t h e o l d g e n e r a l f a c t o r i n e l u c t a b l e a f t e r all?
T h u r s t o n e w r e s t l e d with w h a t h e called this " s e c o n d - o r d e r " g .
I c o n f e s s that I do n o t u n d e r s t a n d w h y he w r e s t l e d so h a r d , unless
the m a n y y e a r s o f w o r k i n g with o r t h o g o n a l solutions h a d set his
mind and r e n d e r e d the concept too unfamiliar to accept at first. If
a n y o n e u n d e r s t o o d the geometrical representation of vectors, it
was T h u r s t o n e . T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n g u a r a n t e e s that o b l i q u e a x e s
will be positively c o r r e l a t e d , a n d that a s e c o n d - o r d e r g e n e r a l f a c t o r
m u s t t h e r e f o r e exist. S e c o n d - o r d e r g is m e r e l y a f a n c i e r w a y of
a c k n o w l e d g i n g w h a t t h e r a w c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients s h o w — t h a t
n e a r l y all c o r r e l a t i o n coefficients b e t w e e n m e n t a l tests a r e positive.
I n a n y case, T h u r s t o n e f i n a l l y b o w e d t o inevitability a n d a d m i t ted t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a s e c o n d - o r d e r g e n e r a l f a c t o r . H e o n c e e v e n
described it in almost Spearmanian terms (1946, p. 110):
i e r e seems to exist a large numbei of special abilities that can be identified as primary abilities by the factorial methods, and underlying these
special abilities there seems to exist s o m e central energizing factor which
promotes the activity of all these special abilities.
I t m i g h t a p p e a r a s i f all the s o u n d a n d f u r y o f T h u r s t o n e ' s
d e b a t e with t h e British factorists e n d e d i n a k i n d o f stately c o m p r o mise, m o r e f a v o r a b l e t o B u r t a n d S p e a r m a n , a n d p l a c i n g p o o r
T h u r s t o n e i n t h e u n e n v i a b l e position o f s t r u g g l i n g t o save f a c e . I f
the c o r r e l a t i o n of o b l i q u e a x e s yields a s e c o n d - o r d e r g, t h e n
w e r e n ' t S p e a r m a n a n d B u r t r i g h t all a l o n g i n their f u n d a m e n t a l
insistence u p o n a g e n e r a l f a c t o r ? T h u r s t o n e m a y h a v e s h o w n that
g r o u p factors w e r e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n a n y British factorist h a d
ever a d m i t t e d , b u t h a d n ' t the p r i m a c y of g r e a s s e r t e d itself?
A r t h u r Jensen (1979) presents such an interpretation, but it
badly m i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e history of this d e b a t e . S e c o n d - o r d e r g d i d
ot unite t h e d i s p a r a t e schools o f T h u r s t o n e a n d the British facorists; it d i d n o t e v e n p r o d u c e a substantial c o m p r o m i s e on e i t h e r
' d e . A f t e r all, the q u o t e s I cited f r o m T h u r s t o n e o n the futility o f
n k i n g b y I Q a n d t h e necessity o f c o n s t r u c t i n g profiles b a s e d o n
n m a r y m e n t a l abilities f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l w e r e w r i t t e n a f t e r h e
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h a d a d m i t t e d t h e s e c o n d - o r d e r g e n e r a l f a c t o r . T h e t w o schools
w e r e not united and S p e a r m a n ' s g was not vindicated for three
basic r e a s o n s :
1. F o r S p e a r m a n a n d B u r t . g c a n n o t m e r e l y exist; i t m u s t d o m i n a t e . T h e hierarchical v i e w — w i t h a c o n t r o l l i n g i n n a t e g a n d subsidiary t r a i n a b l e g r o u p f a c t o r s — w a s f u n d a m e n t a l f o r t h e British
s c h o o l . H o w else c o u l d u n i l i n e a r r a n k i n g b e s u p p o r t e d ? H o w else
c o u l d t h e 1 1 + e x a m i n a t i o n b e d e f e n d e d ? F o r this e x a m i n a t i o n
s u p p o s e d l y m e a s u r e d a c o n t r o l l i n g m e n t a l f o r c e that d e f i n e d a
c h i l d ' s g e n e r a l p o t e n t i a l a n d s h a p e d his e n t i r e intellectual f u t u r e .
T h u r s t o n e a d m i t t e d a s e c o n d - o r d e r g, b u t he r e g a r d e d it as
secondary in i m p o r t a n c e to w h a t he c o n t i n u e d to call " p r i m a r y "
m e n t a l abilities. Q u i t e a p a r t f r o m a n y p s y c h o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n ,
t h e basic m a t h e m a t i c s c e r t a i n l y s u p p o r t s T h u r s t o n e ' s view. S e c o n d o r d e r g (the c o r r e l a t i o n o f o b l i q u e s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e a x e s ) r a r e l y
a c c o u n t s f o r m o r e t h a n a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e total i n f o r m a t i o n
i n a m a t r i x o f tests. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , S p e a r m a n ' s g (the first
principal component) often encompasses m o r e than half the inform a t i o n . T h e e n t i r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s , a n d all t h e p r a c t i c a l
s c h e m e s , o f the British s c h o o l d e p e n d e d u p o n t h e p r e e m i n e n c e o f
g, n o t its m e r e p r e s e n c e . W h e n T h u r s t o n e r e v i s e d The Vectors of
Mind in 1 9 4 7 , a f t e r a d m i t t i n g a s e c o n d - o r d e r g e n e r a l f a c t o r , he
c o n t i n u e d t o c o n t r a s t h i m s e l f w i t h t h e B r i t i s h factorists b y a r g u i n g
that his s c h e m e t r e a t e d g r o u p f a c t o r s a s p r i m a r y a n d t h e s e c o n d o r d e r general factor as residual, while they extolled g a n d conside r e d g r o u p factors a s s e c o n d a r y .
2. T h e central reason for claiming that T h u r s t o n e ' s alternate
v i e w d i s p r o v e s t h e n e c e s s a r y reality of S p e a r m a n ' s g retains its full
f o r c e . T h u r s t o n e d e r i v e d his c o n t r a s t i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f r o m the
same data simply by placing factor axes in different locations. O n e
could no longer m o v e directly f r o m the mathematics of factor axes
to a p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a n i n g .
I n the a b s e n c e o f c o r r o b o r a t i v e e v i d e n c e f r o m b i o l o g y f o r o n e
scheme or the other, h o w can o n e decide? Ultimately, h o w e v e r
m u c h a scientist h a t e s to a d m i t it, t h e d e c i s i o n b e c o m e s a m a t t e r of
taste, o r o f p r i o r p r e f e r e n c e b a s e d o n p e r s o n a l o r c u l t u r a l biases.
S p e a r m a n a n d B u r t , a s p r i v i l e g e d citizens o f class-conscious Brita i n , d e f e n d e d g a n d its l i n e a r r a n k i n g . T h u r s t o n e p r e f e r r e d individual
profiles
and
numerous
primary
abilities.
In
an
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unintentionally a m u s i n g aside, T h u r s t o n e once m u s e d over the
t e c h n i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n B u r t a n d himself, a n d d e c i d e d that
Burt's propensity for algebraic rather than geometrical representation o f f a c t o r s a r o s e f r o m his d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e spatial P M A :
T h e configurational interpretations are evidently distasteful to Burt,
for he does not have a single diagram in his text. Perhaps this is indicative
of individual differences in imagery types which lead to differences in
m e t h o d s and interpretation a m o n g scientists (1947, p. ix).
3. B u r t and S p e a r m a n based their psychological interpretation
of f a c t o r s on a b e l i e f that g was d o m i n a n t and r e a l — a n i n n a t e , g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , m a r k i n g a p e r s o n ' s essential n a t u r e . T h u r s t o n e ' s
analysis p e r m i t t e d t h e m , at best, a w e a k s e c o n d - o r d e r g. B u t s u p p o s e t h e y h a d p r e v a i l e d a n d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e inevitability o f a d o m i n a n t g? T h e i r a r g u m e n t still w o u l d h a v e f a i l e d f o r a r e a s o n so
basic that i t p a s s e d e v e r y b o d y by. T h e p r o b l e m r e s i d e d i n a logical
e r r o r c o m m i t t e d b y all t h e g r e a t factorists I h a v e d i s c u s s e d — t h e
d e s i r e to reify f a c t o r s as entities. In a c u r i o u s w a y , t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y
that I h a v e t r a c e d d i d n ' t m a t t e r . I f B u r t a n d T h u r s t o n e h a d n e v e r
lived, i f a n e n t i r e p r o f e s s i o n h a d b e e n p e r m a n e n t l y satisfied with
S p e a r m a n ' s t w o - f a c t o r t h e o r y a n d h a d b e e n s i n g i n g t h e praises o f
its d o m i n a n t g f o r t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of a c e n t u r y since he p r o p o s e d it,
the flaw w o u l d be as g l a r i n g still.
T h e fact o f p e r v a s i v e positive c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n m e n t a l tests
m u s t b e a m o n g t h e m o s t u n s u r p r i s i n g m a j o r d i s c o v e r i e s i n t h e history o f s c i e n c e . F o r positive c o r r e l a t i o n i s t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f a l m o s t
e v e r y c o n t r a d i c t o r y t h e o r y a b o u t its p o t e n t i a l c a u s e , i n c l u d i n g b o t h
e x t r e m e views: p u r e hereditarianism (which S p e a r m a n and B u r t
c a m e close t o p r o m u l g a t i n g ) a n d p u r e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m ( w h i c h n o
major t h i n k e r h a s e v e r b e e n foolish e n o u g h t o p r o p o s e ) . I n t h e
f i r s t , p e o p l e d o j o i n t l y well o r p o o r l y o n all sorts o f tests b e c a u s e
they a r e b o r n e i t h e r s m a r t o r s t u p i d . I n t h e s e c o n d , t h e y d o j o i n t l y
well o r p o o r l y b e c a u s e t h e y e i t h e r a t e , r e a d , l e a r n e d , a n d l i v e d i n
an enriched or a d e p r i v e d fashion as children. Since both theories
p r e d i c t p e r v a s i v e positive c o r r e l a t i o n , t h e fact o f c o r r e l a t i o n itself
can c o n f i r m n e i t h e r . S i n c e g is m e r e l y o n e e l a b o r a t e w a y of
e x p r e s s i n g t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s , its p u t a t i v e e x i s t e n c e also says n o t h i n g
about c a u s e s .
34&
THE
MISMEASURE
OF MAN
Thurstone on the uses of factor analysts
T h u r s t o n e s o m e t i m e s a d v a n c e d g r a n d i o s e claims f o r t h e
e x p l a n a t o r y s c o p e o f his w o r k . B u t h e also p o s s e s s e d a s t r e a k o f
m o d e s t y t h a t o n e n e v e r detects i n B u r t o r S p e a r m a n . I n reflective
m o m e n t s , he r e c o g n i z e d that t h e c h o i c e of f a c t o r analysis as a
m e t h o d r e c o r d s t h e p r i m i t i v e state o f k n o w l e d g e i n a f i e l d . F a c t o r
analysis is a b r u t a l l y e m p i r i c a l t e c h n i q u e , u s e d w h e n a d i s c i p l i n e
h a s n o f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d p r i n c i p l e s , b u t o n l y a mass o f c r u d e d a t a ,
a n d a h o p e that p a t t e r n s o f c o r r e l a t i o n m i g h t p r o v i d e s u g g e s t i o n s
f o r f u r t h e r a n d m o r e f r u i t f u l lines o f i n q u i r y . T h u r s t o n e w r o t e
(1935, p. xi):
No o n e would think of investigating the fundamental laws of classical
mechanics by correlational m e t h o d s or by factor methods, because the laws
of classical mechanics are already well known. If nothing were known
about the law of falling bodies, it would be sensible to analyze, factorially,
a great many attributes of objects that are d r o p p e d or thrown from an
elevated point. It would then be discovered that o n e factor is heavily
loaded with the time of fall and with the distance fallen but that this factor
has a zero loading in the weight of the object. T h e usefulness of the factor
m e t h o d s will be at the borderline of science.
N o t h i n g h a d c h a n g e d w h e n he r e v i s e d The Vectors of Mind ( 1 9 4 7 ,
p . 56):
T h e exploratory nature of factor analysis is often not understood. Factor analysis has its principal usefulness at the borderline of science. . . .
Factor analysis is useful, especially in those domains where basic and fruitful concepts are essentially lacking and where crucial experiments have
been difficult to conceive. T h e new m e t h o d s have a humble role. T h e y
enable us to make only the crudest first map of a new domain.
N o t e t h e c o m m o n p h r a s e — u s e f u l "at t h e b o r d e r l i n e o f scie n c e . " A c c o r d i n g t o T h u r s t o n e , the decision t o u s e f a c t o r analysis
as a p r i m a r y m e t h o d i m p l i e s a d e e p i g n o r a n c e of p r i n c i p l e s a n d
c a u s e s . T h a t t h e t h r e e g r e a t e s t factorists i n p s y c h o l o g y n e v e r got
b e y o n d t h e s e m e t h o d s — d e s p i t e all t h e i r lip s e r v i c e t o n e u r o l o g y ,
e n d o c r i n o l o g y , a n d o t h e r p o t e n t i a l w a y s o f d i s c o v e r i n g a n innate
b i o l o g y — p r o v e s h o w r i g h t T h u r s t o n e w a s . T h e t r a g e d y o f this tale
is that t h e British h e r e d i t a r i a n s p r o m o t e d an innatist i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f d o m i n a n t g n o n e t h e l e s s , a n d t h e r e b y b l u n t e d t h e h o p e s o f millions.
T H E REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
341
Epilogue: Arthur Jensen and the resurrection
of Spearman's g
W h e n I r e s e a r c h e d this c h a p t e r in 1 9 7 9 , I k n e w that t h e g h o s t
o f S p e a r m a n ' s g still h a u n t e d m o d e r n t h e o r i e s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . B u t
I t h o u g h t that its i m a g e was v e i l e d , a n d its i n f l u e n c e l a r g e l y u n r e c o g n i z e d . I h o p e d that a historical analysis of c o n c e p t u a l e r r o r s in
its f o r m u l a t i o n a n d u s e m i g h t e x p o s e t h e h i d d e n fallacies i n s o m e
contemporary views of intelligence and I Q . I never expected to
f i n d a m o d e r n d e f e n s e o f I Q f r o m a n explicitly S p e a r m a n i a n p e r spective.
B u t then America's best-known hereditarian, A r t h u r Jensen
('979) revealed himself as an unreconstructed Spearmanian, and
c e n t e r e d a n e i g h t - h u n d r e d - p a g e d e f e n s e o f I Q o n t h e reality o f g .
M o r e recently, R i c h a r d H e r r n s t e i n a n d C h a r l e s M u r r a y also base
their e q u a l l y l o n g Bell Curve ( 1 9 9 4) on the s a m e fallacy. I shall a n a lyze J e n s e n ' s e r r o r h e r e a n d The Bell Curve's v e r s i o n in the first two
essays a t t h e e n d o f t h e b o o k . History o f t e n cycles its e r r o r s .
J e n s e n p e r f o r m s m o s t o f his f a c t o r a n a l y s e s i n S p e a r m a n a n d
Burt's p r e f e r r e d principal c o m p o n e n t s orientation (though he is
also w i l l i n g to a c c e p t g in t h e f o r m of T h u r s t o n e ' s c o r r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e n o b l i q u e s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e axes). T h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k , h e
n a m e s a n d reifies factors b y t h e u s u a l invalid a p p e a l t o m a t h e m a t ical p a t t e r n a l o n e . We h a v e g's f o r g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e as well as g's
f o r g e n e r a l athletic ability (with s u b s i d i a r y g r o u p factors f o r h a n d
and a r m s t r e n g t h , h a n d - e y e c o o r d i n a t i o n , a n d b o d y b a l a n c e ) .
J e n s e n explicitly d e f i n e s i n t e l l i g e n c e as " t h e g f a c t o r of an
indefinitely l a r g e a n d v a r i e d b a t t e r y o f m e n t a l tests" (p. 249). " W e
identify i n t e l l i g e n c e with g," he states. " T o t h e e x t e n t that a test
o r d e r s i n d i v i d u a l s on g, it c a n be said to be a test of i n t e l l i g e n c e "
(p. 224). I Q i s o u r m o s t e f f e c t i v e test o f i n t e l l i g e n c e b e c a u s e i t p r o j ects so s t r o n g l y u p o n t h e first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t (g) in f a c t o r
analyses o f m e n t a l tests. J e n s e n r e p o r t s (p. 2 1 9 ) that Full Scale I Q
of the W e c h s l e r a d u l t scale c o r r e l a t e s a b o u t 0.9 w i t h g, w h i l e t h e
•937 S t a n f o r d - B i n e t projects a b o u t 0.8 u p o n a g that r e m a i n s
"highly stable o v e r successive a g e l e v e l s " (while t h e f e w small g r o u p
factors are n o t a l w a y s p r e s e n t a n d t e n d t o b e u n s t a b l e i n a n y case).
J e n s e n p r o c l a i m s t h e " u b i q u i t y " of g, e x t e n d i n g its s c o p e into
realms that m i g h t e v e n h a v e e m b a r r a s s e d S p e a r m a n himself. J e n sen w o u l d n o t o n l y r a n k p e o p l e ; h e b e l i e v e s that all G o d ' s c r e a t u r e s
THE MISMKASURE O F M A N
c a n b e o r d e r e d onag scale f r o m a m o e b a e a t t h e b o t t o m (p. 175) t o
e x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e s at the t o p (p. 248). I h a v e n o t e n c o u n t e r e d s u c h an e x p l i c i t c h a i n of b e i n g since last I r e a d K a n t ' s specu l a t i o n s a b o u t h i g h e r b e i n g s o n J u p i t e r that b r i d g e t h e g a p
between man and God.
J e n s e n has c o m b i n e d t w o o f t h e o l d e s t c u l t u r a l p r e j u d i c e s o f
Western thought: the ladder of progress as a m o d e l for organizing
life, a n d t h e reification of s o m e abstract quality as a c r i t e r i o n f o r
r a n k i n g . J e n s e n c h o o s e s " i n t e l l i g e n c e " a n d actually claims that the
p e r f o r m a n c e o f i n v e r t e b r a t e s , f i s h e s , a n d turtles o n s i m p l e b e h a v ioral tests r e p r e s e n t s , i n d i m i n i s h e d f o r m , t h e s a m e e s s e n c e that
h u m a n s possess in g r e a t e r a b u n d a n c e — n a m e l y g, reified as a m e a s u r a b l e object. E v o l u t i o n t h e n b e c o m e s a m a r c h u p t h e l a d d e r t o
realms of m o r e and m o r e g.
As a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , I am a s t o u n d e d . E v o l u t i o n f o r m s a c o p i ously b r a n c h i n g b u s h , n o t a u n i l i n e a r p r o g r e s s i v e s e q u e n c e . J e n s e n
s p e a k s o f " d i f f e r e n t levels o f the p h y l e t i c s c a l e — t h a t is, e a r t h w o r m s , c r a b s , f i s h e s , turtles, p i g e o n s , rats, a n d m o n k e y s . " D o e s n ' t
h e realize that m o d e r n e a r t h w o r m s a n d c r a b s a r e d e s c e n d a n t s o f
l i n e a g e s that h a v e e v o l v e d s e p a r a t e l y f r o m v e r t e b r a t e s f o r m o r e
t h a n 500 million y e a r s ? T h e y a r e n o t o u r a n c e s t o r s ; t h e y a r e n o t
e v e n " l o w e r " o r less c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n h u m a n s i n any m e a n i n g f u l
sense. T h e y r e p r e s e n t g o o d solutions f o r their o w n way o f life; they
m u s t n o t b e j u d g e d b y t h e h u b r i s t i c n o t i o n that o n e p e c u l i a r prim a t e f o r m s a s t a n d a r d f o r all o f life. A s f o r v e r t e b r a t e s , " t h e t u r t l e "
is n o t , as J e n s e n c l a i m s , " p h y l o g e n e t i c a l l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e fish."
T u r t l e s e v o l v e d m u c h e a r l i e r t h a n m o s t m o d e r n f i s h e s , a n d they
exist a s h u n d r e d s o f s p e c i e s , w h i l e m o d e r n b o n y f i s h e s i n c l u d e
a l m o s t t w e n t y t h o u s a n d distinct k i n d s . W h a t t h e n is "the fish" a n d
"the t u r t l e " ? D o e s J e n s e n really t h i n k that p i g e o n - r a t - m o n k e y h u m a n represents an evolutionary sequence a m o n g warm-blooded
vertebrates?
J e n s e n ' s c a r i c a t u r e o f e v o l u t i o n e x p o s e s his p r e f e r e n c e f o r
u n i l i n e a r r a n k i n g by i m p l i e d w o r t h . W i t h s u c h a p e r s p e c t i v e , g
b e c o m e s a l m o s t irresistible, a n d J e n s e n uses it as a u n i v e r s a l criterion of rank:
T h e c o m m o n f e a t u r e s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l tests d e v e l o p e d b y c o m p a r a t i v e
psychologists t h a t m o s t clearly d i s t i n g u i s h , say, c h i c k e n s f r o m d o g s , dogs
from m o n k e y s , a n d m o n k e y s from c h i m p a n z e e s suggests t h a t they a r e
THE REAL ERROR OF CYRIL B U R T
349
roughly scalable along ag dimension . . .g can be viewed as an interspecies
concept with a broad biological base culminating in the primates (p. 251).
N o t satisfied w i t h a w a r d i n g g a r e a l status a s g u a r d i a n o f e a r t h l y
ranks, Jensen would extend it throughout the universe, arguing
that all c o n c e i v a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e m u s t b e m e a s u r e d b y it:
T h e ubiquity of the concept of intelligence is clearly seen in discussions
of the most culturally different beings o n e could well imagine—extraterrestrial life in the universe. . . . Can o n e easily imagine "intelligent" beings
for w h o m there is no g, or whose g is qualitatively rather than quantitatively different f r o m g as we know it (p. 248).
J e n s e n discusses T h u r s t o n e ' s w o r k , b u t dismisses it as a criticism b e c a u s e T h u r s t o n e e v e n t u a l l y a d m i t t e d a s e c o n d - o r d e r g. B u t
J e n s e n has n o t r e c o g n i z e d that if g is o n l y a n u m e r i c a l l y w e a k , seco n d - o r d e r e f f e c t , t h e n it c a n n o t s u p p o r t a c l a i m that i n t e l l i g e n c e is
a u n i t a r y , d o m i n a n t entity of m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g . I t h i n k that J e n sen senses his difficulty, b e c a u s e o n o n e c h a r t (p. 220) h e calculates
b o t h classical g as a first p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t a n d t h e n rotates all
the f a c t o r s ( i n c l u d i n g g) to o b t a i n a set of s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e a x e s .
T h u s , h e r e c o r d s t h e s a m e t h i n g twice f o r e a c h t e s t — g a s a f i r s t
principal c o m p o n e n t and the same information dispersed a m o n g
s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e a x e s — g i v i n g s o m e tests a total i n f o r m a t i o n o f
m o r e t h a n 100 p e r c e n t . S i n c e b i g g ' s a p p e a r i n t h e s a m e c h a r t with
l a r g e l o a d i n g s o n s i m p l e - s t r u c t u r e a x e s , o n e m i g h t b e falsely l e d t o
infer t h a t g remains large even in simple-structure solutions.
Jensen is contemptuous of Thurstone's orthogonal simple
s t r u c t u r e , d i s m i s s i n g it as "flatly w r o n g " (p. 6 7 5 ) a n d as "scientifically a n e g r e g i o u s e r r o r " (p. 258). S i n c e h e a c k n o w l e d g e s that simple s t r u c t u r e i s m a t h e m a t i c a l l y e q u i v a l e n t t o p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s ,
w h y t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g rejection? I t i s w r o n g , J e n s e n a r g u e s ,
" n o t m a t h e m a t i c a l l y , b u t p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y a n d scientifically" (p. 6 7 5 )
b e c a u s e "it artificially h i d e s o r s u b m e r g e s t h e l a r g e g e n e r a l f a c t o r "
(p. 258) by r o t a t i n g it a w a y . J e n s e n has f a l l e n i n t o a vicious circle.
H e a s s u m e s a p r i o r i t h a t g exists a n d t h a t s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e i s w r o n g
because it disperses g. B u t T h u r s t o n e d e v e l o p e d the concept of
simple s t r u c t u r e l a r g e l y to c l a i m that g is a m a t h e m a t i c a l artifact.
T h u r s t o n e wished to disperse g and succeeded; it is no d i s p r o o f of
his p o s i t i o n t o r e i t e r a t e t h a t h e d i d so.
J e n s e n also u s e s g m o r e specifically to b u t t r e s s his c l a i m that t h e
a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e i n I Q b e t w e e n whites a n d b l a c k s r e c o r d s a n
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i n n a t e d e f i c i e n c y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a m o n g blacks. H e cites t h e q u o t a tion o n p . 2 7 1 a s " S p e a r m a n ' s i n t e r e s t i n g h y p o t h e s i s " that blacks
s c o r e m o s t p o o r l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o whites o n tests s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d
w i t h g:
This hypothesis is important to the study of test bias, because, if true,
it means that the white-black difference in test scores is not mainly attributable to idiosyncratic cultural peculiarities in this or that test, but to a
general factor that all the ability tests measure in c o m m o n . A m e a n difference between populations that is related to o n e or m o r e small g r o u p factors would seem to be explained m o r e easily in terms of cultural
differences than if the mean g r o u p difference is most closely related to a
broad general factor c o m m o n to a wide variety of tests (p. 535).
H e r e w e see a r e i n c a r n a t i o n o f t h e o l d e s t a r g u m e n t i n t h e
Spearmanian tradition—the contrast between an innate dominant
g a n d t r a i n a b l e g r o u p f a c t o r s . B u t g, as I h a v e s h o w n , is n e i t h e r
clearly a t h i n g , n o r necessarily i n n a t e if a t h i n g . E v e n if d a t a e x i s t e d
t o c o n f i r m S p e a r m a n ' s " i n t e r e s t i n g h y p o t h e s i s , " t h e results c o u l d
not support Jensen's notion of ineluctable, innate difference.
I a m g r a t e f u l t o J e n s e n f o r o n e t h i n g : h e has d e m o n s t r a t e d b y
e x a m p l e that a reified S p e a r m a n ' s g is still t h e o n l y p r o m i s i n g j u s tification f o r h e r e d i t a r i a n t h e o r i e s o f m e a n d i f f e r e n c e s i n I Q
a m o n g h u m a n g r o u p s . The Bell Curve of H e r r n s t e i n a n d M u r r a y
( 1 9 9 4 ) has r e i n f o r c e d this p o v e r t y , i n d e e d b a n k r u p t c y , o f justification for t h e t h e o r y o f u n i t a r y , r a n k a b l e , i n n a t e , a n d effectively imm u t a b l e i n t e l l i g e n c e — f o r these a u t h o r s also g r o u n d their e n t i r e
edifice o n t h e fallacy o f S p e a r m a n ' s g . T h e c o n c e p t u a l e r r o r s o f
reification h a v e p l a g u e d g f r o m the start, a n d T h u r s t o n e ' s critique
r e m a i n s as valid t o d a y as it was in t h e 1930s. S p e a r m a n ' s g is n o t an
i n e l u c t a b l e entity; i t r e p r e s e n t s o n e m a t h e m a t i c a l solution a m o n g
m a n y e q u i v a l e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s . T h e c h i m e r i c a l n a t u r e o f g i s t h e rotten c o r e of J e n s e n ' s w o r k , The Bell Curve, a n d of the e n t i r e h e r e d i tarian s c h o o l .
A final thought
T h e tendency has always been strong to believe that whatever
received a n a m e must be an entity or being, having an i n d e p e n d e n t
existence of its own. A n d if no real entity answering to the n a m e could be
found, m e n did not for that reason suppose that n o n e existed, but
imagined that it was something peculiarly abstruse and mysterious.
J O H N S T U A R T MILL
SEVEN
A Positive Conclusion
W A L T W H I T M A N , that g r e a t m a n o f little b r a i n (see p . 1 2 4 ) , a d v i s e d
u s t o " m a k e m u c h o f n e g a t i v e s , " a n d this b o o k h a s h e e d e d his
w o r d s , s o m e m i g h t say with a v e n g e a n c e . W h i l e m o s t o f u s c a n
a p p r e c i a t e a c l e a n s i n g b r o o m , s u c h a n object r a r e l y elicits m u c h
affection; it certainly p r o d u c e s no integration. B u t I do not r e g a r d
this b o o k a s a n e g a t i v e e x e r c i s e i n d e b u n k i n g , o f f e r i n g n o t h i n g i n
r e t u r n once the errors of biological determinism are e x p o s e d as
social p r e j u d i c e . I b e l i e v e that w e h a v e m u c h t o l e a r n a b o u t o u r selves f r o m t h e u n d e n i a b l e fact that w e a r e e v o l v e d a n i m a l s . T h i s
u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n n o t p e r m e a t e t h r o u g h e n t r e n c h e d habits o f
t h o u g h t that l e a d u s t o reify a n d r a n k — h a b i t s that arise w i t h i n
social c o n t e x t s a n d s u p p o r t t h e m i n r e t u r n . M y m e s s a g e , a s I h o p e
to c o n v e y it at least, is s t r o n g l y positive f o r t h r e e m a j o r r e a s o n s .
Debunking as positive science
T h e p o p u l a r i m p r e s s i o n that d i s p r o o f r e p r e s e n t s a n e g a t i v e
side o f s c i e n c e arises f r o m a c o m m o n , b u t e r r o n e o u s , v i e w o f history. T h e i d e a o f u n i l i n e a r p r o g r e s s n o t o n l y lies b e h i n d t h e racial
r a n k i n g s that I h a v e criticized as social p r e j u d i c e t h r o u g h o u t this
b o o k ; i t also s u g g e s t s a false c o n c e p t o f h o w science d e v e l o p s . I n
this v i e w , a n y s c i e n c e b e g i n s i n t h e n o t h i n g n e s s o f i g n o r a n c e a n d
moves toward truth by gathering m o r e and m o r e information, cons t r u c t i n g t h e o r i e s a s facts a c c u m u l a t e . I n s u c h a w o r l d , d e b u n k i n g
would be primarily negative, for it would only shuck some rotten
apples from the barrel of accumulating knowledge. But the barrel
o f t h e o r y i s a l w a y s full; sciences w o r k with e l a b o r a t e d c o n t e x t s f o r
e x p l a i n i n g facts f r o m t h e v e r y o u t s e t . C r e a t i o n i s t b i o l o g y was d e a d
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w r o n g a b o u t the o r i g i n o f s p e c i e s , b u t C u v i e r ' s b r a n d o f c r e a t i o n i s m was n o t a n e m p t i e r o r l e s s - d e v e l o p e d w o r l d v i e w t h a n D a r w i n ' s .
Science advances primarily by replacement, not by addition. If the
b a r r e l i s always full, t h e n t h e r o t t e n a p p l i e s m u s t b e d i s c a r d e d
before better ones can be a d d e d .
Scientists d o n o t d e b u n k o n l y t o c l e a n s e a n d p u r g e . T h e y r e f u t e
o l d e r i d e a s in the light of a d i f f e r e n t v i e w a b o u t t h e n a t u r e of t h i n g s .
Learning by debunking
If
more
more
dices
ports
it is to have any e n d u r i n g value, sound d e b u n k i n g must do
t h a n r e p l a c e o n e social p r e j u d i c e w i t h a n o t h e r . I t m u s t u s e
a d e q u a t e b i o l o g y t o d r i v e o u t fallacious i d e a s . (Social p r e j u themselves may be refractory, but particular biological supfor them can be dislodged.)
W e h a v e r e j e c t e d m a n y specific t h e o r i e s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n ism b e c a u s e o u r k n o w l e d g e a b o u t h u m a n b i o l o g y , e v o l u t i o n , a n d
g e n e t i c s has i n c r e a s e d . F o r e x a m p l e , M o r t o n ' s e g r e g i o u s e r r o r s
c o u l d n o t be r e p e a t e d in so b a l d a w a y by m o d e r n scientists c o n s t r a i n e d t o follow c a n o n s o f statistical p r o c e d u r e . T h e a n t i d o t e t o
G o d d a r d ' s c l a i m that a single g e n e c a u s e s f e e b l e - m i n d e d n e s s was
n o t p r i m a r i l y a shift in social p r e f e r e n c e s , b u t an i m p o r t a n t
advance in genetical t h e o r y — t h e idea of polygenic inheritance.
A b s u r d a s i t s e e m s t o d a y , t h e early M e n d e l i a n s d i d try t o a t t r i b u t e
e v e n t h e m o s t s u b t l e a n d c o m p l e x traits (of apolitical a n a t o m y a s
well a s c h a r a c t e r ) t o t h e a c t i o n o f single g e n e s . P o l y g e n i c i n h e r i t a n c e a f f i r m s t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f m a n y g e n e s — a n d a h o s t o f environmental a n d interactive effects—in such characters as h u m a n
skin c o l o r .
M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , a n d a s a p l e a f o r t h e necessity o f b i o l o g i c a l
k n o w l e d g e , t h e r e m a r k a b l e lack o f g e n e t i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a m o n g
h u m a n g r o u p s — a m a j o r b i o l o g i c a l basis f o r d e b u n k i n g d e t e r m i n i s m — i s a c o n t i n g e n t fact of e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y , n o t an a p r i o r i or
necessary truth. T h e world might have been o r d e r e d differently.
S u p p o s e , f o r e x a m p l e , that o n e o r s e v e r a l species o f o u r a n c e s t r a l
g e n u s Australopithecus h a d s u r v i v e d — a p e r f e c t l y r e a s o n a b l e scenar i o i n t h e o r y , since n e w species arise b y splitting o f f f r o m o l d o n e s
(with a n c e s t o r s u s u a l l y s u r v i v i n g , at least f o r a t i m e ) , n o t by t h e
w h o l e s a l e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f a n c e s t o r s t o d e s c e n d a n t s . W e — t h a t is,
A POSITIVE CONCLUSION
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Homo sapiens—would t h e n h a v e f a c e d all t h e m o r a l d i l e m m a s
i n v o l v e d i n t r e a t i n g a h u m a n species o f d i s d n c t l y i n f e r i o r m e n t a l
c a p a c i t y . W h a t w o u l d w e h a v e d o n e with t h e m — s l a v e r y ? e x t i r p a tion? c o e x i s t e n c e ? m e n i a l l a b o r ? r e s e r v a t i o n s ? z o o s ?
S i m i l a r l y , o u r o w n species, Homo sapiens, m i g h t h a v e i n c l u d e d a
set o f s u b s p e c i e s (races) w i t h m e a n i n g f u l l y d i f f e r e n t g e n e t i c c a p a c i ties. I f o u r species w e r e millions o f y e a r s old ( m a n y a r e ) , a n d i f its
r a c e s h a d b e e n g e o g r a p h i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d f o r m o s t o f this time witho u t significant g e n e t i c i n t e r c h a n g e , t h e n l a r g e g e n e t i c d i f f e r e n c e s
m i g h t h a v e slowly a c c u m u l a t e d b e t w e e n g r o u p s . B u t Homo sapiens
is, a t m o s t , a f e w h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d y e a r s o l d , a n d all m o d e r n h u m a n races p r o b a b l y split f r o m a c o m m o n ancestral stock o n l y a b o u t
a h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d y e a r s a g o . A f e w o u t s t a n d i n g traits of e x t e r n a l
a p p e a r a n c e l e a d t o o u r subjective j u d g m e n t o f i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . B u t biologists h a v e r e c e n t l y a f f i r m e d — a s l o n g s u s p e c t e d —
that t h e o v e r a l l g e n e t i c d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g h u m a n races a r e astoni s h i n g l y small. A l t h o u g h f r e q u e n c i e s f o r d i f f e r e n t states o f a g e n e
d i f f e r a m o n g r a c e s , w e h a v e f o u n d n o " r a c e g e n e s " — t h a t is, states
f i x e d i n c e r t a i n r a c e s a n d a b s e n t f r o m all o t h e r s . L e w o n t i n ( 1 9 7 2 )
studied variation in seventeen genes c o d i n g for differences in blood
a n d f o u n d that o n l y 6.3 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a r i a t i o n c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o
racial m e m b e r s h i p . Fully 8 5 . 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e variation o c c u r r e d
w i t h i n local p o p u l a t i o n s (the r e m a i n i n g 8.3 p e r c e n t r e c o r d s d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g local p o p u l a t i o n s within a r a c e ) . A s L e w o n t i n rem a r k e d (personal communication): if the holocaust comes and a
small tribe d e e p i n t h e N e w G u i n e a forests a r e t h e o n l y s u r v i v o r s ,
a l m o s t all t h e g e n e t i c variation n o w e x p r e s s e d a m o n g t h e i n n u m e r a ble g r o u p s o f o u r f i v e billion p e o p l e will b e p r e s e r v e d .
T h i s information about limited genetic differences a m o n g
h u m a n g r o u p s is useful as well as interesting, often in the deepest
s e n s e — f o r s a v i n g lives. W h e n A m e r i c a n e u g e n i c i s t s a t t r i b u t e d diseases o f p o v e r t y t o t h e i n f e r i o r g e n e t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p o o r p e o p l e ,
t h e y c o u l d p r o p o s e n o systematic r e m e d y o t h e r t h a n sterilization.
W h e n J o s e p h G o l d b e r g e r p r o v e d t h a t p e l l a g r a was n o t a g e n e t i c
disorder, but a result of vitamin deficiency a m o n g the p o o r , he
c o u l d c u r e it.
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Biology and human nature
I f p e o p l e a r e s o similar g e n e t i c a l l y , a n d i f p r e v i o u s claims f o r a
d i r e c t b i o l o g i c a l m a p p i n g o f h u m a n affairs h a v e r e c o r d e d c u l t u r a l
prejudice and not nature, then does biology come up empty as a
g u i d e i n o u r s e a r c h t o k n o w o u r s e l v e s ? A r e w e a f t e r all, a t b i r t h ,
t h e tabula rasa, or b l a n k slate, i m a g i n e d by s o m e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
empiricist philosophers? As an evolutionary biologist, I cannot
a d o p t s u c h a nihilistic p o s i t i o n w i t h o u t d e n y i n g t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
i n s i g h t o f m y p r o f e s s i o n . T h e e v o l u t i o n a r y u n i t y o f h u m a n s with
all o t h e r o r g a n i s m s i s t h e c a r d i n a l m e s s a g e o f D a r w i n ' s r e v o l u t i o n
f o r nature's most a r r o g a n t species.
We are inextricably part of nature, but h u m a n uniqueness is
n o t n e g a t e d t h e r e b y . " N o t h i n g b u t " an a n i m a l is as fallacious a
statement as "created in God's o w n i m a g e . " It is not m e r e hubris to
a r g u e that Homo sapiens is special in s o m e s e n s e — f o r e a c h species is
u n i q u e i n its o w n w a y ; shall w e j u d g e a m o n g t h e d a n c e o f t h e b e e s ,
the song of the h u m p b a c k whale, and h u m a n intelligence?
T h e impact o f h u m a n uniqueness u p o n the world has been
e n o r m o u s because it has established a new kind of evolution to
s u p p o r t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n across g e n e r a t i o n s o f l e a r n e d k n o w l e d g e
and behavior. H u m a n uniqueness resides primarily in o u r brains.
I t i s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e c u l t u r e built u p o n o u r i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d t h e
p o w e r i t gives u s t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e w o r l d . H u m a n societies c h a n g e
b y c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n , n o t a s a result o f b i o l o g i c a l a l t e r a t i o n . W e
h a v e n o e v i d e n c e f o r b i o l o g i c a l c h a n g e i n b r a i n size o r s t r u c t u r e
since Homo sapiens a p p e a r e d in t h e fossil r e c o r d s o m e fifty t h o u s a n d y e a r s a g o . ( B r o c a was r i g h t i n stating that t h e c r a n i a l c a p a c i t y
o f C r o M a g n o n skulls was e q u a l i f n o t s u p e r i o r t o ours.) A l l t h a t w e
h a v e d o n e since t h e n — t h e g r e a t e s t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t h e s h o r t e s t
t i m e that o u r p l a n e t h a s e x p e r i e n c e d since its c r u s t solidified n e a r l y
f o u r billion y e a r s a g o — i s t h e p r o d u c t o f c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n . B i o l o g ical ( D a r w i n i a n ) e v o l u t i o n c o n t i n u e s i n o u r s p e c i e s , b u t its r a t e ,
c o m p a r e d w i t h c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n , is so i n c o m p a r a b l y slow that its
i m p a c t u p o n t h e h i s t o r y of Homo sapiens h a s b e e n small. W h i l e the
g e n e f o r sickle-cell a n e m i a d e c l i n e s i n f r e q u e n c y a m o n g black
A m e r i c a n s , we have invented the railroad, the automobile, radio
a n d television, t h e a t o m b o m b , t h e c o m p u t e r , t h e a i r p l a n e a n d
spaceship.
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Cultural evolution can proceed so quickly because it operates,
as biological evolution does not, in the " L a m a r c k i a n " m o d e — b y the
inheritance of acquired characters. Whatever one generation
l e a r n s , i t c a n pass t o t h e n e x t b y w r i t i n g , i n s t r u c t i o n , i n c u l c a t i o n ,
r i t u a l , t r a d i t i o n , a n d a h o s t o f m e t h o d s that h u m a n s h a v e d e v e l o p e d to assure continuity in culture. Darwinian evolution, on the
o t h e r h a n d , i s a n i n d i r e c t p r o c e s s : g e n e t i c v a r i a t i o n m u s t first b e
available t o c o n s t r u c t a n a d v a n t a g e o u s f e a t u r e , a n d n a t u r a l selection m u s t t h e n p r e s e r v e it. S i n c e g e n e t i c v a r i a t i o n arises a t r a n d o m ,
not preferentially directed toward advantageous features, the Darw i n i a n p r o c e s s w o r k s slowly. C u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n i s n o t o n l y r a p i d ;
it is also r e a d i l y r e v e r s i b l e b e c a u s e its p r o d u c t s a r e n o t c o d e d in o u r
genes.
T h e classical a r g u m e n t s o f b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m fail b e c a u s e
t h e f e a t u r e s t h e y i n v o k e t o m a k e distinctions a m o n g g r o u p s a r e
usually the products of cultural evolution. Determinists did seek
e v i d e n c e i n a n a t o m i c a l traits built b y b i o l o g i c a l , n o t c u l t u r a l , e v o lution. B u t , in so d o i n g , they tried to use anatomy for m a k i n g
i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t capacities a n d b e h a v i o r s that t h e y l i n k e d t o anato m y a n d w e r e g a r d a s e n g e n d e r e d b y c u l t u r e . C r a n i a l capacity p e r
se h e l d as little i n t e r e s t f o r M o r t o n a n d B r o c a as v a r i a t i o n in t h i r d toe l e n g t h ; t h e y c a r e d o n l y a b o u t t h e m e n t a l characteristics s u p p o s e d l y associated w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s i n a v e r a g e b r a i n size a m o n g
g r o u p s . W e n o w b e l i e v e that d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s a n d styles o f
t h o u g h t a m o n g h u m a n g r o u p s a r e usually t h e n o n g e n e t i c p r o d u c t s
o f c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n . I n s h o r t , t h e biological basis o f h u m a n u n i q u e ness l e a d s u s t o reject b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m . O u r l a r g e b r a i n i s
the biological foundation of intelligence; intelligence is the g r o u n d
of culture; a n d cultural transmission builds a new m o d e of evolution m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n D a r w i n i a n p r o c e s s e s i n its limited r e a l m —
the "inheritance" a n d modification of learned behavior. As philoso p h e r S t e p h e n T o u l m i n stated ( 1 9 7 7 , p . 4): " C u l t u r e h a s t h e p o w e r
t o i m p o s e itself o n n a t u r e f r o m w i t h i n . "
Y e t , i f h u m a n b i o l o g y e n g e n d e r s c u l t u r e , i t i s also t r u e that cult u r e , o n c e d e v e l o p e d , e v o l v e d w i t h little o r n o r e f e r e n c e t o g e n e t i c
variation a m o n g h u m a n g r o u p s . D o e s b i o l o g y , t h e n , play n o o t h e r
valid r o l e in t h e analysis of h u m a n b e h a v i o r ? Is it o n l y a f o u n d a t i o n
without any insight to offer b e y o n d the unenlightening recognition
that c o m p l e x c u l t u r e r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n level o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ?
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M o s t biologists w o u l d f o l l o w m y a r g u m e n t i n d e n y i n g a g e n e t i c
basis f o r m o s t b e h a v i o r a l differences b e t w e e n g r o u p s a n d f o r change
i n t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f h u m a n societies t h r o u g h t h e r e c e n t h i s t o r y o f
o u r species. But what about the s u p p o s e d constancies of personality a n d b e h a v i o r , the traits o f m i n d that h u m a n s s h a r e i n all cultures? W h a t , i n s h o r t , a b o u t a g e n e r a l " h u m a n n a t u r e " ? S o m e
biologists w o u l d g r a n t D a r w i n i a n p r o c e s s e s a substantial r o l e n o t
o n l y i n e s t a b l i s h i n g l o n g a g o , b u t also i n actively m a i n t a i n i n g n o w ,
a set of specific a d a p t i v e b e h a v i o r s f o r m i n g a b i o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d " h u m a n n a t u r e . " 1 b e l i e v e that this o l d t r a d i t i o n o f a r g u m e n t — w h i c h has f o u n d its m o s t r e c e n t e x p r e s s i o n a s " h u m a n
s o c i o b i o l o g y " — i s invalid n o t b e c a u s e b i o l o g y i s i r r e l e v a n t a n d
h u m a n b e h a v i o r o n l y reflects a d i s e m b o d i e d c u l t u r e , b u t b e c a u s e
h u m a n biology s u g g e s t s a d i f f e r e n t a n d less c o n s t r a i n i n g r o l e f o r
g e n e t i c s i n the analysis o f h u m a n n a t u r e .
S o c i o b i o l o g y b e g i n s with a m o d e r n r e a d i n g o f w h a t n a t u r a l
s e l e c t i o n is all a b o u t — d i f f e r e n t i a l r e p r o d u c t i v e success of i n d i v i d u a l s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e D a r w i n i a n i m p e r a t i v e , i n d i v i d u a l s are
selected to m a x i m i z e the contribution of their o w n genes to future
g e n e r a t i o n s , a n d that is all. ( D a r w i n i s m is n o t a t h e o r y of p r o g r e s s ,
i n c r e a s i n g c o m p l e x i t y , o r e v o l v e d h a r m o n y f o r t h e g o o d o f species
or ecosystems.) P a r a d o x i c a l l y (as it s e e m s to m a n y ) , a l t r u i s m as well
a s selfishness c a n b e s e l e c t e d u n d e r this c r i t e r i o n — a c t s o f k i n d n e s s
m a y b e n e f i t i n d i v i d u a l s e i t h e r b e c a u s e they establish b o n d s o f
r e c i p r o c a l o b l i g a t i o n , o r b e c a u s e they aid kin w h o c a r r y c o p i e s o f
t h e altruist's g e n e s .
H u m a n sociobiologists t h e n s u r v e y o u r b e h a v i o r s with this crit e r i o n in m i n d . W h e n t h e y identify a b e h a v i o r that s e e m s to be
a d a p t i v e i n h e l p i n g a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s g e n e s a l o n g , they d e v e l o p a
story f o r its o r i g i n b y n a t u r a l selection o p e r a t i n g u p o n g e n e t i c variation i n f l u e n c i n g t h e specific act itself. ( T h e s e stories a r e r a r e l y
backed by any evidence beyond the inference of adaptation.)
H u m a n sociobiology is a theory for the origin and maintenance of
specific, adaptive behaviors by natural selection*; t h e s e b e h a v i o r s m u s t
*The brouhaha over sociobiology during the past few years was engendered by this
hard version of the argument—genetic proposals (based on an inference of adaptation) for specific human behaviors. Other evolutionists call themselves "sociobiologists," but reject this style of guesswork about specifics. If a sociobiologist is anyone
A POSITIVE CONCLUSION
357
t h e r e f o r e h a v e a genetic basis, since n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n c a n n o t o p e r a t e
in the absence of genetic variation. Sociobiologists have tried, f o r
e x a m p l e , to identify an adaptive a n d genetic foundation for
a g g r e s s i o n , spite, x e n o p h o b i a , c o n f o r m i t y , h o m o s e x u a l i t y , * a n d
p e r h a p s u p w a r d mobility a s well ( W i l s o n , 1 9 7 5 ) .
I b e l i e v e that m o d e r n b i o l o g y p r o v i d e s a m o d e l s t a n d i n g
b e t w e e n t h e d e s p a i r i n g c l a i m that b i o l o g y h a s n o t h i n g t o t e a c h u s
a b o u t h u m a n b e h a v i o r a n d t h e d e t e r m i n i s t i c t h e o r y that specific
items of behavior are genetically p r o g r a m e d by the action of natural selection. I see t w o m a j o r a r e a s f o r b i o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t :
1. F r u i t f u l a n a l o g i e s . M u c h o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r i s s u r e l y a d a p tive; i f i t w e r e n ' t , w e w o u l d n ' t b e a r o u n d a n y m o r e . B u t a d a p t a t i o n ,
in h u m a n s , is neither an adequate, nor even a good a r g u m e n t for
g e n e t i c i n f l u e n c e . F o r i n h u m a n s , a s I a r g u e d a b o v e (p. 3 2 4 ) , a d a p tation m a y arise b y t h e a l t e r n a t e r o u t e o f n o n g e n e t i c , c u l t u r a l e v o lution. Since cultural evolution is so m u c h m o r e rapid than
D a r w i n i a n e v o l u t i o n , its i n f l u e n c e s h o u l d p r e v a i l i n t h e b e h a v i o r a l
diversity d i s p l a y e d b y h u m a n g r o u p s . B u t e v e n w h e n a n a d a p t i v e
b e h a v i o r i s n o n g e n e t i c , b i o l o g i c a l a n a l o g y m a y b e u s e f u l i n interp r e t i n g its m e a n i n g . A d a p t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s a r e o f t e n s t r o n g , a n d
some functions may have to proceed in a certain way w h e t h e r their
underlying impetus be learning or genetic programing.
For e x a m p l e , ecologists have d e v e l o p e d a powerful quantitative
who believes that biological evolution is not irrelevant to human behavior, then I
suppose that everybodv (creationists excluded) is a sociobiologist. At this point, however, the term loses its meaning. Human sociobiology entered the literature (professional and popular) as a definite theorv about the adaptive and genetic basis of
specific traits of human behavior.
*Lest homosexuality seem an unlikely candidate for adaptation since exclusive
homosexuals have no children, I report the following story, advocated by E. O.
Wilson (1975, 1978). Ancestral human society was organized as a large number of
competing family units. Some units were exclusively heterosexual; the gene pool of
other units included factors for homosexuality. Homosexuals functioned as helpers
to raise the offspring of their heterosexual kin. This behavior aided their genes
since the large number of kin they helped to raise held more copies of their genes
than their own offspring (had they been heterosexual) might have carried. Groups
with homosexual helpers raised more offspring, since they could more than balance, by extra care and higher rates of survival, the potential loss by nonfecundity
of their homosexual members. Thus, groups with homosexual members ultimately
prevailed over exclusively heterosexual groups, and genes for homosexuality have
survived.
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t h e o r y , called o p t i m a l f o r a g i n g s t r a t e g y , f o r s t u d y i n g p a t t e r n s o f
exploitation in nature (herbivores by carnivores, plants by herbiv o r e s ) . C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t B r u c e W i n t e r h a l d e r has
s h o w n that a c o m m u n i t y o f C r e e - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s i n n o r t h e r n
O n t a r i o follow some predictions of the theory in their h u n t i n g and
t r a p p i n g behavior. A l t h o u g h W i n t e r h a l d e r used a biological theory
to understand some aspects of h u m a n h u n t i n g , he does not believe
that the p e o p l e he studied w e r e genetically selected to h u n t as ecological t h e o r y p r e d i c t s t h e y s h o u l d . H e writes ( p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i cation, July 1978):
It should go without saying . . . that the causes of h u m a n variability of
hunting and gathering behavior lie in the socio-cultural realm. For that
reason, the models that I used were adapted, not adopted, and then
applied to a very circumscribed realm of analysis. . . . For instance, the
models assist in analyzing what species a h u n t e r will seek from those available once a decision has been made to go hunting [his italics]. T h e y are, how-
ever, useless for analyzing why the Cree still hunt (they don't need to),
h o w they decide on a particular day whether to hunt or join a construction
crew, the m e a n i n g of hunting to a Cree, or any of a plethora of important
questions.
I n this a r e a , sociobiologists h a v e o f t e n f a l l e n i n t o o n e o f t h e m o s t
c o m m o n errors of reasoning: discovering an analogy and inferring
a g e n e t i c similarity (literally, in this case!). A n a l o g i e s a r e u s e f u l b u t
l i m i t e d ; t h e y m a y reflect c o m m o n c o n s t r a i n t s , b u t n o t c o m m o n
causes.
a . B i o l o g i c a l potentiality vs. b i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s m . H u m a n s
are animals, a n d e v e r y t h i n g we do is constrained, in s o m e sense, by
o u r b i o l o g y . S o m e c o n s t r a i n t s a r e s o i n t e g r a l t o o u r b e i n g that w e
r a r e l y e v e n r e c o g n i z e t h e m , f o r w e n e v e r i m a g i n e that life m i g h t
p r o c e e d in a n o t h e r way. C o n s i d e r o u r narrow r a n g e of average
a d u l t size a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f l i v i n g i n t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l w o r l d
of large organisms, not the world of surface forces inhabited by
insects ( W e n t , 1 9 6 8 ; G o u l d , 1 9 7 7 ) . O r t h e fact that w e