7
Grammar,
Plain and
1
Fanciful
Plain grammar gives us the horrors. Our eyes glaze over
when we read “Nouns are words that name or designate
persons, places, things, states, or qualities.” Nevertheless,
we need to have some understanding of grammar to survive the writing sections on the SAT. That brings us to fanciful grammar, the rules of grammar illustrated in ways to
keep both the reader and the writer awake.
First, we need to be sure we understand what a sentence
is. A sentence consists of at least two parts: a subject or
topic (the someone or something we are talking about) and
a predicate or comment (what we are saying about that
someone or something). It may have other parts, but these
two are essential.
Let’s look at a few sentences.
The witch is bending over the cauldron.
The witch bending over the cauldron is a student.
The cauldron bubbled.
The pot overflowed.
She was scalded.
Her long, thin, elegant fingers writhed with the agony
of her burns.
The professor of herbology concocted a healing salve.
The witch’s blistered digits twitched as the infirmarian
slathered dollops of ointment on the irritated skin.
In each of the sentences above, the complete subject
appears in boldface. Within each complete subject, there
is a simple subject, the heart of the matter, a noun or
pronoun.
In each of the sentences below, the simple subject appears
in boldface also.
The wizard wavered.
The troll pounced.
It bounced off the bannister.
The incantations chanted by the enchanter were
consistently off-key.
A spoonful of sugar makes the elixir go down.
(Wizard, troll, incantations, and spoonful all are nouns. It is
a pronoun, of course.)
Now let’s look at the predicate, the comment about the
subject.
The witch is bending over the cauldron.
Berenice and Benedick hid under the cloak of invisibility.
The professor of herbology concocted a healing salve.
The troll pounced.
The mandrake began to scream.
In each of the sentences above, the part in boldface is the
complete predicate, or everything the sentence has to say
about its subject. Just as within each complete subject lies
a simple subject, within each complete predicate lies a simple predicate, or verb. The simple predicate (the verb)
appears in boldface in each of the sentences below.
The witch is bending over the cauldron.
The mandrake began to scream.
Berenice and Benedick hid under the cloak of invisibility.
The troll pounced.
1
With thanks and/or apologies to J. K. Rowling, J. R. R.
Tolkien, C. S. Lewis, William Butler Yeats, Diana Wynne
Jones, Homer (the Great), Homer (the Simpson), and of
course the ever-popular Anon.
269
270 Grammar, Plain and Fanciful
The subject usually precedes the predicate. However,
exceptions do occur.
Over the parapets and into the sky flew a silver and
gold Rolls Royce.
There were twenty-nine would-be wizards practicing
their potions.
Simple subjects can be compound (that means you’re talking about more than one someone or something). A compound subject consists of at least two subjects, linked by
and, or, or nor. These subjects have something in common:
they may or may not enjoy doing things together, but they
do share the same verb.
A witch and an apprentice are bending over the
cauldron.
Witches want equal rites.
Witches want some enchanted evenings.
Witches want a chicken in every cauldron.
Witches want not to be hassled by wizards.
Witches want to sit down for a spell.
Now we know. The complement clues us in, satisfying our
curiosity as it helps the verb tell its tale. Complements
come in several guises. There is the direct object. Direct
objects are directly affected by the actions of verbs. They
are like punching bags: they feel the effect of the blow.
In the following examples, the direct object is underlined.
The troll holds several captives.
Berenice or Benedick lurked beneath the balustrade.
The troll holds his tongue with difficulty.
Either the lion or the witch escaped from the wardrobe.
The troll holds him in a headlock.
The Greeks and the Trojans ran down to the sea
higgledy-piggledy.
The troll holds her in shackles and suspense.
Neither the mandrake nor the mummy enjoyed being
dug up.
Simple predicates can be compound as well (that means
the schizophrenic subject gets to do more than one thing at
a time). A compound predicate consists of at least two
verbs—linked by and, or, nor, yet, or but—that have a common subject.
The cauldron bubbled and overflowed.
Her long, thin, elegant fingers writhed with the agony
of her burns or flexed in evidence of her dexterity.
The glum troll neither bustled nor bounced.
I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree.
The Greeks and the Trojans ran down to the sea
higgledy-piggledy yet never got their armor wet.
The walrus wept but ate the oysters, every one.
Completing this discussion of the basic sentence pattern
and completing the predicate as well is the complement.
The complement is the part of the predicate that lets us
know just what (or whom) the verb has been up to. It completes the verb. Often it answers the question “What?”
Witches want. (This could be an existential comment
on the nature of witches, but it’s simply an incomplete
predicate.)
What do witches want?
Some verbs may have both a direct object and an indirect
object. Examples include assign, award, bake, bring, buy,
furnish, give, grant, issue, lend, mail, offer, present, sell,
send, ship, show, and take. These verbs raise a fresh question: To whom or for whom (to what or for what) is the subject performing this action? The indirect object is the person
(or place or thing) to whom or for whom the subject performs the action.
The troll sends his compliments.
[The subject is troll; the verb, sends; the direct object,
compliments.]
To whom does the troll send his compliments?
The troll sends the chef his compliments.
[The indirect object is chef.]
The owl bought new sails.
[The subject is owl; the verb, bought; the direct object,
sails.]
For what did the owl buy new sails?
The owl bought the pea-green boat new sails.
[The indirect object is boat.]
The Greeks showed no mercy.
[The subject is Greeks; the verb, showed; the direct
object, mercy.]
To whom (or to what) did the Greeks show no mercy?
The Greeks showed the Trojans no mercy.
The Greeks showed Troy no mercy.
Grammar, Plain and Fanciful 271
Yet another form of complement is the subject (or subjective) complement. Just as transitive verbs2 by definition
must have direct objects to be complete, linking verbs (be,
become, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste, etc.) must
hook up with a noun, adjective, or pronoun to avoid going
through an identity crisis.
The troll is. (Yet another existential comment on the
“is-ness” of trolls? No, just an example of a linking verb
looking for its missing link.)
The troll is what?
The troll is a born storyteller. [The noun storyteller,
the subject complement, identifies or explains troll, the
subject.]
The troll is what?
The troll is so droll. [The adjective droll, meaning
whimsically humorous, describes or qualifies troll.]
Only certain verbs take subject complements: to be, in all
its forms (am, are, is, was, were, etc.); sensory verbs (feel,
look, smell, sound, taste); and other state of being verbs
(appear, become, grow, prove, remain, seem, stay, turn).
Imogen looks a fright.
The potion proved palatable. In other words, it tasted
good.
2
A transitive verb must have a direct object to complete its
meaning. For example, take the verb hate. It's a typical transitive verb: without a direct object it feels incomplete. Only a
refugee from a bad horror movie would wander around proclaiming, "I hate, I hate...." The subject hates something. "I hate
spinach." "I hate Donald Trump." "I hate MTV."
Verbs that do not have direct objects are called intransitive
verbs. These verbs tell you all you need to know about the subject. No direct objects needed at all. Think of the seven dwarfs.
Doc blusters. Grumpy frowns. Bashful stammers. Sleepy dozes
and snores. Happy chuckles. Sneezy...you guessed it. Linking
verbs (forms of be, seem, feel, etc., that relate the subject to
the subject complement) are by definition intransitive verbs.
Some verbs can be transitive in one sentence and intransitive
in another:
"Auntie Em," cried Dorothy, "I missed you so much!"
(Transitive)
"Oops!" said the knife-thrower. "I missed." (Intransitive)
Do not worry about these labels. What's important is that you
understand how the words are being used.
The troll grows bold, but Sybilla remains cold. (The
troll’s emotions seem palpable, though perhaps less
palpable than his enlarged spleen.)
Our final group of complements consists of the object (or
objective) complements. These tagalongs follow the direct
object, identifying it or qualifying it. We find them in the
vicinity of such verbs as appoint, call, consider, designate,
elect, find, label, make, name, nominate, render, and term.
The walrus found the oysters. [The subject is walrus; the
verb, found; the direct object, oysters.]
The walrus found the oysters yummy. [Direct object is
oysters. Object complement is yummy.]
Sybilla considers the troll an uncouth brute. [Direct
object is troll. Object complement is brute. Sybilla is not
being very complimentary about the troll.]
Sybilla’s scorn makes the troll melancholy. In fact, it
renders him downright glum.
On this note, we leave the basic sentence. In the following
chapter we, together with the troll, the walrus, and several
junior witches, will explore some common problems in
grammar and usage that are likely to turn up on the SAT.
8
Common Problems
in Grammar
and Usage
Common Problems in
Grammar
Sentence Fragments
What is a sentence fragment? A sentence fragment is a
broken chunk of sentence in need of fixing. The poor fractured thing can’t stand alone. In this section, we’ll look at
some broken sentences and fix them, too.
Here are the fragments. Let’s examine them one at a time.
When the troll bounced off the bannister.
Muttering over the cauldron.
To harvest mandrakes nocturnally.
In our preparation of the purple potion.
Or lurk beneath the balustrade.
Say the first sentence fragment aloud: “When the troll
bounced off the bannister.” Say it again. Do you feel as if
something is missing? Do the words trigger questions in
your mind? “What?” “What happened?” That’s great. You
are reacting to a dependent clause that is being treated as
if it were a sentence. But it isn’t.
Here are a couple of ways to correct this fragment. You can
simply chop off the subordinating conjunction when, leaving
yourself with a simple sentence:
The troll bounced off the bannister.
You can also provide the dependent clause with an independent clause to lean on:
When the troll bounced off the bannister, he bowled
over the professor of herbology.
The little wizards laughed to see such sport when the
troll bounced off the bannister.
Now for the second fragment, “Muttering over the cauldron.”
Again, something feels incomplete. This is either a participial phrase or a gerund phrase. It needs a subject; it also
needs a complete verb. Here’s the simplest way to repair
the fragment:
The witch is muttering over the cauldron.
Here’s another:
Muttering over the cauldron is a bad habit that good
witches should avoid.
Here’s a third:
Muttering over the cauldron, the witch failed to enunciate the incantation clearly.
The third fragment again has several fixes. You can turn
the infinitive phrase “To harvest mandrakes nocturnally” into
a command:
Harvest mandrakes nocturnally! (The professor of
herbology does not recommend that you harvest them
by day.)
You can provide a simple subject and complete the verb:
We will harvest mandrakes nocturnally.
You can treat “To harvest mandrakes nocturnally” as the
subject of your sentence and add a predicate:
To harvest mandrakes nocturnally is a task that only a
fearless junior wizard would undertake.
You can also keep “To harvest mandrakes nocturnally” as
an infinitive phrase and attach it to an independent clause:
To harvest mandrakes nocturnally, you must wait for a
completely moonless night.
The next to last sentence fragment, “In our preparation of
the purple potion,” is a participial phrase.
To fix it, you can provide a simple subject and create a
verb:
We prepared the purple potion.
You can assume an implicit subject (you) and turn it into a
command:
Prepare the purple potion!
273
274 Common Problems in Grammar and Usage
You can also attach it to an independent clause:
We miscalculated the proportions in our preparation
of the purple potion.
The final sentence fragment, “Or lurk beneath the
balustrade,” is part of a compound predicate. Take away
the initial Or and you have a command:
Lurk beneath the balustrade!
Provide a simple subject and you have a straightforward
declarative sentence:
Orcs lurk beneath the balustrade.
Combine the fragment with the other part or parts of the
compound predicate, and you have a complete sentence:
Orcs slink around the cellarage or lurk beneath the
balustrade.
Here is a question involving a sentence fragment. See
whether you can select the correct answer.
Some parts of the following sentence are underlined.
The first answer choice, (A), simply repeats the underlined part of the sentence. The other four choices present four alternative ways to phrase the underlined part.
Select the answer that produces the most effective sentence, one that is clear and exact. In selecting your
choice, be sure that it is standard written English, and
that it expresses the meaning of the original sentence.
Try this second question, also involving a sentence
fragment.
The new vacation resort, featuring tropical gardens
and man-made lagoons, and overlooks a magnificent
white sand beach.
(A) resort, featuring tropical gardens and man-made
lagoons and overlooks a magnificent white sand
beach
(B) resort overlooks a magnificent white sand beach,
it features tropical gardens and man-made
lagoons
(C) resort, featuring tropical gardens and man-made
lagoons and overlooking a magnificent white
sand beach
(D) resort, featuring tropical gardens and man-made
lagoons, overlooks a magnificent white sand
beach
(E) resort to feature tropical gardens and man-made
lagoons and to overlook a magnificent white
sand beach
Example:
What makes this a sentence fragment? Note the presence
of and just before the verb overlooks. The presence of and
immediately before a verb is a sign of a compound predicate, as in the sentence “The cauldron bubbled and overflowed.” (Definition: A compound predicate consists of at
least two verbs, linked by and, or, nor, yet, or but, that have
a common subject.) But there is only one verb here, not two.
J. K. Rowling, a British novelist, whose fame as an
innovator in the field of fantasy may come to equal
that of J. R. R. Tolkien.
How can you fix this fragment? You can rewrite the sentence, substituting the verb features for the participle featuring so that the sentence has two verbs:
(A) J. K. Rowling, a British novelist, whose fame as
an innovator
(B) A British novelist who is famous as an innovator, J. K. Rowling
(C) J. K. Rowling, who is a British novelist and
whose fame as an innovator
(D) J. K. Rowling is a British novelist whose fame
as an innovator
(E) A British novelist, J. K. Rowling, who is a
famous innovator
Did you spot that the original sentence was missing its
verb? The sentence’s subject is J. K. Rowling. She is a
British novelist. That is the core of the sentence. Everything
else in the sentence simply serves to clarify what kind of
novelist Rowling is. She is a novelist whose fame may
come to equal Tolkien’s fame. The correct answer is
choice D.
The new vacation resort features tropical gardens and
man-made lagoons and overlooks a magnificent white
sand beach.
Or, you can simply take away the and. The sentence then
would read:
The new vacation resort, featuring tropical gardens and
man-made lagoons, overlooks a magnificent white sand
beach.
This sentence is grammatically complete. It has a subject,
resort, and a verb, overlooks. The bit between the commas
(“featuring...lagoons”) simply describes the subject. (It’s
called a participial phrase.) The correct answer is choice D.
The Run-On Sentence
The run-on sentence is a criminal connection operating
under several aliases: the comma fault sentence, the
comma splice sentence, the fused sentence. Fortunately,
there’s no need for you to learn the grammar teachers’
names for these flawed sentences. You just need to know
they are flawed.
Problems with Agreement 275
Here are two run-on sentences. It’s easy to spot the comma
fault or comma splice: it’s the one containing the comma.
EXAMPLE 1:
The wizards tasted the potion, they found the mixture
tasty.
EXAMPLE 2:
The troll is very hungry I think he is going to pounce.
The comma splice or comma fault sentence is a sentence
in which two independent, self-supporting clauses are
improperly connected by a comma. Clearly, the two are in
need of a separation if not a divorce. Example 1 above
illustrates a comma splice or comma fault. The fused sentence (Example 2) consists of two sentences that run
together without benefit of any punctuation at all. Such sentences are definitely not PG (Properly Grammatical).
You can correct run-on sentences in at least four different
ways.
1. Use a period, not a comma, at the end of the first independent clause. Begin the second independent clause
with a capital letter.
The wizards tasted the potion. They found the mixture
tasty.
The troll is very hungry. I think he is going to pounce.
2. Connect the two independent clauses by using a
coordinating conjunction.
The wizards tasted the potion, and they found the
mixture tasty.
The troll is very hungry, so I think he is going to pounce.
3. Insert a semicolon between two main clauses that are
not already connected by a coordinating conjunction.
The wizards tasted the potion; they found the mixture
tasty.
The troll is very hungry; I think he is going to pounce.
4. Use a subordinating conjunction to indicate that one of
the independent clauses is dependent on the other.
When the wizards tasted the potion, they found the
mixture tasty.
Because the troll is very hungry, I think he is going to
pounce.
Here is a question involving a run-on sentence. See
whether you can select the correct answer.
Some parts of the following sentence are underlined.
The first answer choice, (A), simply repeats the underlined part of the sentence. The other four choices
present four alternative ways to phrase the underlined
part. Select the answer that produces the most effective sentence, one that is clear and exact. In selecting
your choice, be sure that it is standard written English,
and that it expresses the meaning of the original
sentence.
Example:
Many students work after school and on weekends,
consequently they do not have much time for doing
their homework.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
weekends, consequently they do not have
weekends, they do not have
weekends, as a consequence they do not have
weekends, therefore they do not have
weekends; consequently, they do not have
What makes this a run-on sentence? There are two main
clauses here, separated by a comma. The rule is, use a
comma between main clauses only when they are linked by
a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet).
There’s no coordinating conjunction here, so you know the
sentence as it stands is wrong. The main clauses here are
linked by consequently, which is what grammar teachers
call a conjunctive adverb. A rule also covers conjunctive
adverbs. That rule is, use a semicolon before a conjunctive
adverb set between two main clauses. Only one answer
choice uses a semicolon before consequently: the correct
answer, choice E.
Problems with
Agreement
Subject-Verb Agreement
The verb and its subject must get along; otherwise, things
turn nasty. The rule is that a verb and its subject must
agree in person and number. A singular verb must have a
singular subject; a plural verb must have a plural subject.
Here are some singular subjects, properly agreeing with
their singular verbs:
I conjure
You lurk
She undulates
I am conjuring
You are lurking
He is ogling
I have conjured
You have lurked
It has levitated
276 Common Problems in Grammar and Usage
Here are the corresponding plural subjects with their plural
verbs:
A compound subject (two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and) traditionally takes a plural verb.
We pirouette
You pillage
They sulk
The walrus and the carpenter were strolling on the strand.
We are pirouetting
You are pillaging
They are sulking
“The King and I,” said Alice, “are on our way to tea.”
They have sulked
However, there are exceptions. If the compound subject
refers to a single person or thing, don’t worry that it is made
up of multiple nouns. Simply regard it as singular and follow
it with a singular verb.
We have pirouetted You have pillaged
Normally, it’s simple to match a singular subject with an
appropriate singular verb, or a plural subject with a plural
verb. However, problems can arise, especially when phrases or parenthetical expressions separate the subject from
the verb. Even the rudest intrusion is no reason for the subject and the verb to disagree.
A cluster of grapes was hanging just out of the fox’s
reach.
The elixir in these bottles is brewed from honey and rue.
The dexterity of her long, thin, elegant fingers has
improved immeasurably since she began playing the
vielle.
The cabin of clay and wattles was built by William
Butler Yeats.
Parenthetical expressions are introduced by as well as,
with, along with, together with, in addition to, no less than,
rather than, like, and similar phrases. Although they come
between the subject and the verb, they do not interfere with
the subject and verb’s agreement.
The owl together with the pussycat has gone to sea in a
beautiful pea-green boat.
The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe, written by C.S.
Lewis, is an admirable tale.
The Eagle and Child is a pub in Oxford where Lewis and
Tolkien regularly sampled the admirable ale.
Green eggs and ham was our family’s favorite breakfast
every St. Patrick’s Day.
The King and I is a musical comedy.
Frodo’s guide and betrayer literally bites the hand that
feeds him. (Both guide and betrayer refer to the same
creature, Gollum.)
(Note that the title of a work of art—a novel, poem, painting,
play, opera, ballet, statue—always takes a singular verb,
even if the title contains a plural subject. The Burghers of
Calais is a statue by Rodin. The burgers of Burger King are
whoppers.)
Some words are inherently singular. In American English,
collective nouns like team, community, jury, swarm,
entourage, and so on are customarily treated as singular.
The walrus with the carpenter is eating all the oysters.
The croquet team is playing brilliantly, don’t you think?
Dorothy along with the lion, the scarecrow, the woodman, and her little dog Toto is following the yellow
brick road.
The community of swamp dwellers has elected Pogo
president.
The jury was convinced that Alice should be decapitated.
Berenice as well as Benedick was hidden under the
cloak.
A swarm of bees is dive-bombing Willie Yeats.
The Trojan horse, including the Greek soldiers hidden
within it, was hauled through the gates of Troy.
My entourage of sycophants fawns on me in a most satisfying fashion.
Henbane, rather than hellebore or rue, is the secret
ingredient in this potion.
However, when a collective noun is used to refer to individual members of a group, it is considered a plural noun.
Henbane, in addition to hops, gives the potion a
real kick.
The jury were unable to reach a verdict. (The individual
jurors could not come to a decision.)
I, like the mandrake, am ready to scream.
I hate it when my entourage of sycophants compete with
one another for my attention. (This sentence is technically correct. However, it calls excessive attention to its
correctness. In real life, you’d want to rewrite it. Here’s
one possible revision: I hate it when my hangers-on
compete with one another for my attention.)
Likewise, if a clause comes between the subject and its
verb, it should not cause them to disagree. A singular subject still takes a singular verb.
The troll who lurched along the corridors was looking
for the loo.
The phoenix that arose from the ashes has scattered
cinders everywhere.
The way you’re wrestling those alligators is causing
them some distress.
Sometimes the article used with a collective noun is a clue
to whether the verb is singular or plural. The expressions
the number and the variety generally are regarded as singular and take a singular verb. The expressions a number
and a variety generally are regarded as plural and take a
plural verb.
Problems with Agreement 277
The number of angels able to dance on the head of a
pin is limited by Fire Department regulations.
A number of angels able to dance on the head of a pin
have been booked to perform at Radio City Music Hall.
The variety of potions concocted by the junior wizards is
indescribable.
A variety of noises in the night have alarmed the palace
guard. (Has Imogen been serenading Peregrine again?)
Some nouns look plural but refer to something singular.
These nouns take singular verbs. Consider billiards, checkers, and dominoes (the game, not the pieces). Each is an
individual game. What about astrophysics, economics,
ethics, linguistics, mathematics, politics, statistics (the field
as a whole, not any specific figures), and thermodynamics?
Each is an individual discipline or organized body of knowledge. What about measles, mumps, and rickets? Each is
an individual disease. Other camouflaged singular nouns
are customs (as in baggage inspections at borders),
molasses, news, and summons.
While dominoes is Dominick’s favorite pastime, billiards
is Benedick’s.
The molasses in the potion disguises the taste of garlic
and hellebore.
Rickets is endemic in trolls because of their inadequate
exposure to sunlight. (Trolls who get adequate exposure
to sunlight suffer instead from petrification.)
This summons to a midnight assignation was from
Sybilla, not from Berenice.
Some plural nouns actually name single things that are
made of two connected parts: eyeglasses, knickers, pliers,
scissors, sunglasses, tights, tongs, trousers, tweezers.
Don’t let this confuse you. Just match them up with plural
verbs.
Imogen’s knickers are in a twist.
Peregrine’s sunglasses are in the Lost and Found.
Watch out, however, when these plural nouns crop up in
the phrase “a pair of....” The scissors are on the escritoire,
but a pair of scissors is on the writing desk.
Watch out, also, when a sentence begins with here or
there. In such cases, the subject of the verb follows the
verb in the sentence.
There are many angels dancing on the head of this pin.
[Angels is the subject of the verb are.]
Here is the pellet with the poison. [Pellet is the subject of
the verb is.]
Likewise, watch out for sentences whose word order is
inverted, so that the verb precedes the subject. In such
cases, your mission is to find the actual subject.
Among the greatest treasures of all the realms is the
cloak of invisibility.
Beyond the reckoning of man are the workings of a wizard’s mind.
(An even greater mystery to men are the workings of a
woman’s mind....)
Here is a question involving subject-verb agreement.
The following sentence may contain an error in grammar, usage, choice of words, or idioms. Either there is
just one error in a sentence or the sentence is correct.
Some words or phrases are underlined and lettered;
everything else in the sentence is correct.
If an underlined word or phrase is incorrect, choose
that letter; if the sentence is correct, select No error.
Example:
Proficiency in mathematics and language skills are
A
B
tested in third grade and eighth grade as well as in
C
D
high school. No error
E
Do not let yourself be fooled by nouns or pronouns that
come between the subject and the verb. The subject of this
sentence is not the plural noun skills. It is the singular noun,
proficiency. The verb should be singular as well. The
answer containing the subject-verb agreement error is
choice B. To correct the error, substitute is for are.
Pronoun-Verb Agreement
Watch out for errors in agreement between pronouns and
verbs. (A pronoun is not a noun that has lost its amateur
standing. Instead, it’s a last-minute substitute, called upon
to stand in for a noun that’s overworked.) You already know
the basic pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they and their
various forms. Here is an additional bunch of singular pronouns that, when used as subjects, typically team up with
singular verbs.
Each of the songs Imogen sang was off-key. (Was that
why her knickers were in a twist?)
Either of the potions packs a punch.
In the wizard’s library there exist many unusual spelling
books. [Books is the subject of the verb exist.]
Neither of the orcs packs a lunch. (But, then, neither of
the orcs is a vegetarian).
Somewhere over the rainbow there lies the land of Oz.
[Land is the subject of the verb lies.]
Someone in my entourage has been nibbling my
chocolates.
278 Common Problems in Grammar and Usage
Does anyone who is anyone go to Innisfree nowadays?
Everything is up to date in Kansas City.
Somebody loves Imogen; she wonders who.
Nobody loves the troll. (At least, no one admits to loving
the troll. Everybody is much too shy.)
Does everyone really love Raymond?
Exception: Although singular subjects linked by either...or or
neither...nor typically team up with singular verbs, a different rule applies when one subject is singular and one is
plural. In such cases, proximity matters: the verb agrees
with the subject nearest to it. (This rule also holds true
when singular and plural subjects are linked by the correlative conjunctions not only...but also and not...but.)
Either the troll or the orcs have broken the balustrade.
Either the hobbits or the elf has hidden the wizard’s pipe.
Neither the junior witches nor the professor of herbology
has come up with a cure for warts.
Neither Dorothy nor her three companions were happy
about carrying Toto everywhere.
Not only the oysters but also the walrus was eager to go
for a stroll.
Not only Berenice but also Benedick and the troll have
hidden under the cloak of invisibility.
Oddly enough, not the carpenter but the oysters were
consumed by a desire to go for a stroll.
Not the elves but the dwarf enjoys messing about in
caves.
The words few, many, and several are plural; they take a
plural verb.
Many are cold, but few are frozen.
Several are decidedly lukewarm.
Here is a question involving pronoun-verb agreement.
The following sentence may contain an error in grammar, usage, choice of words, or idioms. Either there is
just one error in a sentence or the sentence is correct.
Some words or phrases are underlined and lettered;
everything else in the sentence is correct.
If an underlined word or phrase is incorrect, choose
that letter; if the sentence is correct, select No error.
Example:
Neither the President nor the members of his Cabinet
A
was happy with the reporter’s account of dissension
B
C
within their ranks. No error
D
E
Here we have one subject that is singular (President) and
one that is plural (members). In such cases, the verb
agrees with the subject nearest to it. Members is plural;
therefore, the verb should be plural as well. Substitute were
for was. The correct answer is choice B.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. (The antecedent is the noun or pronoun to
which the pronoun refers, or possibly defers.) Such a
degree of agreement is unlikely, but in grammar (almost) all
things are possible.
The munchkins welcomed Dorothy as she arrived in
Munchkinland. (The antecedent Dorothy is a third person singular feminine noun; she is the third person singular feminine pronoun.)
Sometimes the antecedent is an indefinite singular pronoun: any, anybody, anyone, each, either, every, everybody, everyone, neither, nobody, no one, somebody, or
someone. If so, the pronoun should be singular.
Neither of the twins is wearing his propeller beanie.
Each of the bronco-busters was assigned his or her own
horse.
Anybody with any sense would refrain from serenading
his inamorata on television.
When the antecedent is compound (two or more nouns or
pronouns connected by and ), the pronoun should be plural.
The walrus and the carpenter relished their outing with
the oysters.
The walrus always takes salt in his tea.
Christopher Robin and I always have honey in ours.
You and your nasty little dog will get yours someday!
When the antecedent is part of an either...or or neither...nor
statement, the pronoun will find it most politic to agree with
the nearer antecedent.
Either Sybilla or Berenice always has the troll on her
mind. (Actually, they both do, but in different ways.)
[Given the either...or construction, you need to check
which antecedent is nearer to the pronoun. The everfeminine, highly singular Berenice is; therefore, the correct pronoun is her rather than their.]
Neither the professor of herbology nor the junior wizards
have finished digging up their mandrake roots. [Wizards
is closer to their.]
Neither the hobbits nor the wizard has eaten all his
mushrooms. [Wizard is closer to his.]
Problems with Case 279
Case Study
Here is a question involving pronoun-antecedent agreement.
The following sentence may contain an error in grammar, usage, choice of words, or idioms. Either there is
just one error in a sentence or the sentence is correct.
Some words or phrases are underlined and lettered;
everything else in the sentence is correct.
If an underlined word or phrase is incorrect, choose
that letter; if the sentence is correct, select No error.
Example:
Admirers of the vocal ensemble Chanticleer
have come to wonder over the years whether the
A
group, known for their mastery of Gregorian chant,
B
might have abandoned its roots in early music
C
to explore new musical paths. No error
D
E
The error here is in choice B. The sentence is talking about
a group. Is the group known for their mastery or for its mastery? Group is a collective noun. In American English collective nouns are usually treated as singular and take singular pronouns. Is that the case here? Yes. How can you
be sure? Later in the sentence, a second pronoun appears:
its. This pronoun refers back to the same noun: group. Its is
not underlined. Therefore, by definition, the singular pronoun must be correct.
In solving error identification questions, remember that anything not underlined in the sentence is correct.
Problems with Case
Now to get down to cases. In the English language, there
are three: nominative (sometimes called subjective), possessive, and objective. Cases are special forms of words
that signal how these words function in sentences. Most
nouns, many indefinite pronouns, and a couple of personal
pronouns reveal little about themselves: they have special
case forms only for the possessive case (Berenice’s
cauldron, the potion’s pungency, its flavor, your tastebuds,
anyone’s guess, nobody’s sweetheart). Several pronouns,
however, reveal much more, as the following chart
demonstrates.
Nominative
I
we
you
he
she
it
they
who
Possessive
my/mine
our/ours
your/yours
his/his
her/hers
its/its
their/theirs
whose/whose
Objective
me
us
you
him
her
it
them
whom
The Nominative Case: I, we, he, she,
it, they, you, who
The nominative case signals that the pronoun involved is
functioning as the subject of a verb or as a subject
complement.
Ludovic and I purloined the Grey Poupon. [subject of
verb]
The only contestants still tossing gnomes were Berenice
and he. [subject complement]
The eventual winners—he and she—each received a
keg of ale. [appositives identifying the subject]
Sir Bedivere unhorsed the knight who had debagged Sir
Caradoc. [subject in clause]
The Possessive Case: mine, ours,
his, hers, theirs, yours; my, our, his,
her, its, their, your, whose
The possessive case signals ownership. Two-year-olds
have an inherent understanding of the possessive: Mine!
Drink to me only with thine eyes, and I will pledge with
mine.
Please remember that the walrus takes only salt in his
tea, while Christopher Robin and I prefer honey in ours,
and the Duchess enjoys a drop of Drambuie in hers.
Ludovic put henbane in whose tea?
The possessive case also serves to indicate that a quality
belongs to or is characteristic of someone or something.
Her long, thin, elegant fingers once again demonstrated
their dexterity.
The troll rebounded at Berenice but failed to shake her
composure.
A noun or pronoun immediately preceding a gerund (that is,
a verbal that ends in -ing and acts like a noun) is in the
possessive case.
280 Common Problems in Grammar and Usage
The troll’s bouncing into the bannister creates problems
for passersby on the staircase. [Troll’s immediately precedes the gerund bouncing.]
The troll would enjoy his bouncing more if Sybilla rather
than Berenice caught him on the rebound. [His immediately precedes the gerund bouncing.]
The Objective Case
Traditionally, the objective case indicates that a noun or
pronoun receives whatever action is taking place. A pronoun in the objective case can serve as a direct object of a
transitive verb, as an indirect object, as an object of a
preposition, or, oddly enough, as the subject or object of
an infinitive.
Berenice bounced him off the bannister again. [direct
object]
The walrus gave them no chance to refuse his invitation
to go for a stroll. [indirect object]
William Yeats, by whom the small cabin was built, was a
better poet than carpenter. [object of preposition within
a clause]
Peregrine expected her to serenade him. [subject and
object of the infinitive to serenade.]
Be careful to use objective pronouns as objects of prepositions.
Everyone loves Raymond except Berenice and me.
Between you and me, I’m becoming suspicious of
Sybilla and him.
Here are a couple of questions with problems involving
case.
The following sentences may contain an error in grammar, usage, choice of words, or idioms. Either there is
just one error in a sentence or the sentence is correct.
Some words or phrases are underlined and lettered;
everything else in the sentence is correct.
If an underlined word or phrase is incorrect, choose
that letter; if the sentence is correct, select No error.
Example:
All of the flood victims except Lloyd and I
A
have decided to accept the settlement proposed by
B
C
D
the insurance company. No error
E
The object of the preposition except should be in the objective case. Change I to me. The error in the sentence is
choice A.
Because the other jurors and her differed in their
A
B
C
D
interpretation of the judge’s instructions, they asked
for a clarification. No error
E
Here we have a compound subject. The subject of the
initial clause (“Because...instructions”) should be in the
nominative case. Change her to she. The correct answer is
choice B.
Many confusions about case involve compound subjects
(“the other jurors and she”) or compound objects of prepositions (“except Lloyd and me”). If you are having trouble recognizing which form of a pronoun to use, try reversing the
noun-pronoun word order, or even dropping the noun. For
example, instead of saying “Because the other jurors and
her differed,” try saying “Because her and the other jurors
differed.” Or simply say, “Because her differed.” Does the
pronoun sound odd to you? It should. When that happens,
check whether the pronoun is in the right case.
Problems Involving
Modifiers
Unclear Placement of Modifiers
Location, location, location. In general, adjectives, adverbs,
adjective phrases, adverbial phrases, adjective clauses,
and adverbial clauses need to be close to the word they
modify. If these modifiers are separated from the word they
modify, confusion may set in.
Some specific rules to apply:
1 Place the adverbs only, almost, even, ever, just, merely,
and scarcely right next to the word they modify.
Ambiguous: The walrus almost ate all the oysters.
(Did he just chew them up and spit them out without
swallowing?)
Clear: The walrus ate almost all the oysters. (He left a
few for the carpenter.)
Ambiguous: This elephant only costs peanuts.
Clear: Only this elephant costs peanuts. (The other elephants are traded for papayas and pomegranates.)
Clear: This elephant costs only peanuts. (What a cheap
price for such a princely pachyderm!)
Problems Involving Modifiers 281
2 Place phrases close to the word they modify.
Unclear: The advertisement stated that a used cauldron
was wanted by an elderly witch with stubby legs.
(Obviously, the advertisement was not written to reveal
the lady’s physical oddity.)
Clear: The advertisement stated that a used cauldron
with stubby legs was wanted by an elderly witch.
3 Place adjective clauses near the words they modify.
Misplaced: The owl and the pussycat bought a wedding
ring from the pig which cost one shilling.
Clear: The owl and the pussycat bought a wedding ring
which cost one shilling from the pig.
4 Words that may modify either a preceding or following
word are called squinting modifiers. (They look both ways
at once; no wonder they’re walleyed.) To correct the
ambiguity, move the modifier so that its relationship to
one word is clear.
Squinting: Peregrine said that if Imogen refused to quit
caterwauling beneath his balcony in two minutes he
would send for the troll.
Clear: Peregrine said that he would send for the troll if
Imogen refused to quit caterwauling beneath his balcony
in two minutes.
Clear: Peregrine said that he would send for the troll in
two minutes if Imogen refused to quit caterwauling
beneath his balcony.
Squinting: The oysters agreed on Sunday to go for a
stroll with the walrus.
Clear: On Sunday, the oysters agreed to go for a stroll
with the walrus.
Clear: The oysters agreed to go for a stroll with the walrus on Sunday.
Dangling Modifiers
When modifying phrases or clauses precede the main
clause of a sentence, position is everything. These modifiers should come directly before the subject of the main
clause and should clearly refer to that subject. If the modifiers foolishly hang out in the wrong part of the sentence,
they may wind up dangling there making no sense at all.
To correct a dangling modifier, rearrange the words of the
sentence to bring together the subject and its wayward
modifier. You may need to add a few words to the sentence
to clarify its meaning.
Dangling Participle: Walking down the Yellow Brick
Road, the Castle of Great Oz was seen. (Did you ever
see a castle walking? Well, I didn’t.)
Corrected: Walking down the Yellow Brick Road, Dorothy
and her companions saw the Castle of Great Oz. (The
participle walking immediately precedes the subject of
the main clause Dorothy and her companions.)
In the preceding example, the participial phrase comes at
the beginning of the sentence. In the example below, the
participial phrase follows the sentence base.
Dangling Participle: The time passed very enjoyably,
singing songs and romping with Toto. (Who’s that romping with Toto?)
Corrected: They passed the time very enjoyably, singing
songs and romping with Toto.
Watch out for dangling phrases containing gerunds or
infinitives.
Dangling Phrase Containing Gerund: Upon hearing the
report that a troll had been found in the cellars, the
building was cleared. (Again, ask yourself who heard the
report. Even though the building was a school for wizards, its walls did not have ears.)
Corrected: Upon hearing the report that a troll had been
found in the cellars, the headmaster cleared the building.
Dangling Phrase Containing Infinitive: Unable to defeat
the Trojans in open battle, a trick was resorted to by the
Greeks.
Corrected: Unable to defeat the Trojans in open battle,
the Greeks resorted to a trick.
Be careful when you create elliptical constructions (ones in
which some words are implied rather than explicitly stated)
that you don’t cut out so many words that you wind up with
a dangling elliptical adverb clause.
Dangling Elliptical Construction: When presented with
the potion, not one drop was drunk.
Corrected: When presented with the potion, nobody
drank a drop.
Corrected: When they were presented with the potion,
not one drop was drunk.
Yet Another Dangling Elliptical Construction: Although
only a small dog, Dorothy found Toto a big responsibility.
Corrected: Although Toto was only a small dog, Dorothy
found him a big responsibility.
282 Common Problems in Grammar and Usage
Here are a couple of questions involving misplaced
modifiers:
Some parts of the following sentences are underlined.
The first answer choice, (A), simply repeats the underlined part of the sentence. The other four choices present four alternative ways to phrase the underlined part.
Select the answer that produces the most effective sentence, one that is clear and exact. In selecting your
choice, be sure that it is standard written English, and
that it expresses the meaning of the original sentence.
Example:
Returning to Harvard after three decades, the campus
seemed much less cheery to Sharon than it had been
when she was studying there.
(A) Returning to Harvard after three decades, the
campus seemed much less cheery to Sharon
(B) After Sharon returned to Harvard in three
decades, it seemed a much less cheery campus
to her
(C) Having returned to Harvard after three decades,
it seemed a much less cheery campus to Sharon
(D) When Sharon returned to Harvard after three
decades, she thought the campus much less
cheery
(E) Sharon returned to Harvard after three decades,
and then she thought the campus much less
cheery
Did you recognize that the original sentence contains a
dangling modifier? Clearly, the campus did not return to
Harvard; Sharon returned to Harvard. By replacing the participial phrase with a subordinate clause (“When...decades”)
and by making she the subject of the sentence, choice D
corrects the error in the original sentence.
Try this second question, also involving a dangling modifier.
Having drafted the museum floor plan with exceptional care, that the planning commission rejected his
design upset the architect greatly.
(A) that the planning commission rejected his design
upset the architect greatly
(B) the planning commission’s rejection of his
design caused the architect a great upset
(C) the architect found the planning commission’s
rejection of his design greatly upsetting
(D) the architect was greatly upset about the
planning commission rejecting his design
(E) the architect’s upset at the planning commission’s
rejection of his design was great.
Again, ask yourself who drafted the museum floor plan.
Clearly, it was the architect. Architect, therefore, must be
the sentence’s subject. The correct answer must be either
choice C or choice D. Choice D, however, introduces a
fresh error. The phrase “rejecting his design” is a gerund.
As a rule, you should use the possessive case before a
gerund: to be correct, the sentence would have to read “the
architect was greatly upset about the planning commission’s rejecting his design. Choice D, therefore, is incorrect.
The correct answer is choice C.
Common Problems
in Usage
Words Often Misused or Confused
Errors in diction—that is, choice of words—have frequently
been tested on the SAT II Writing Test and the Writing
Section of the PSAT. You can be sure they’ll crop up on the
Writing Section of the new SAT. Here are some of the most
common diction errors to watch for:
accept/except. These two words are often confused.
Accept means to take or receive; to give a favorable
response to something; to regard as proper. Except, when
used as a verb, means to preclude or exclude. (Except may
also be used as a preposition or a conjunction.)
Benedick will accept the gnome-tossing award on
Berenice’s behalf.
The necromancer’s deeds were so nefarious that he
was excepted from the general pardon. In other words,
they pardoned everyone except him.
affect/effect. Affect, used as a verb, means to influence or
impress, and to feign or assume. Effect, used as a verb,
means to cause or bring about.
When Berenice bounced the troll against the balustrade,
she effected a major change in his behavior.
The blow affected him conspicuously, denting his skull
and his complacency.
To cover her embarrassment about the brawl, Berenice
affected an air of nonchalance.
Effect and affect are also used as nouns. Effect as a noun
means result, purpose, or influence. Affect, a much less
common noun, is a psychological term referring to an
observed emotional response.
Did being bounced against the balustrade have a beneficial effect on the troll?
The troll’s affect was flat. So was his skull.
Common Problems in Usage 283
aggravate. Aggravate means to worsen or exacerbate. Do
not use it as a synonym for annoy or irritate.
The orc will aggravate his condition if he tries to toss
any gnomes so soon after his operation.
The professor of herbology was irritated [not aggravated]
by the mandrakes’ screams.
ain’t. Ain’t is nonstandard. Avoid it.
already/all ready. These expressions are frequently confused. Already means previously; all ready means completely prepared.
The mandrakes have already been dug up.
Now the mandrakes are all ready to be replanted.
alright. Use all right instead of the misspelling alright. (Is
that all right with you?)
altogether/all together. All together means as a group.
Altogether means entirely, completely.
The walrus waited until the oysters were all together on
the beach before he ate them.
There was altogether too much sand in those oysters.
among/between. Use among when you are discussing
more than two persons or things; between, when you are
limiting yourself to only two persons or things.
The oysters were divided among the walrus, the carpenter, and the troll.
The relationship between Berenice and Benedick has
always been a bit kinky.
amount/number. Use amount when you are referring to
mass, bulk, or quantity. Use number when the quantity can
be counted.
We were amazed by the amount of henbane the troll
could eat without getting sick.
We were amazed by the number of hens the troll could
eat without getting sick.
and etc. The and is unnecessary. Cut it.
being as/being that. These phrases are nonstandard;
avoid them. Use since or that.
beside/besides. These words are often confused. Beside
is always a preposition. It means “next to” or, sometimes,
“apart from.” Watch out for possible ambiguities or ambiguous possibilities. “No one was seated at the Round Table
beside Sir Bedivere” has two possible meanings.
No one was seated at the Round Table beside Sir
Bedivere. [There were empty seats on either side of
Bedivere; however, Sir Kay, Sir Gawain, and Sir
Galahad were sitting across from him on the other side
of the table.]
No one was seated at the Round Table beside
Sir Bedivere. [Poor Bedivere was all alone.]
Besides, when used as a preposition, means “in addition to”
or “other than.”
Besides oysters, the walrus and the carpenter have
eaten countless cockles and mussels and clams.
Who will go to the bear-baiting besides Berenice and
Benedick?
Besides also is used as an adverb. At such times, it means
moreover or also.
The troll broke the balustrade—and the newel post
besides.
between. See among.
but what. Avoid this phrase. Use that instead.
Wrong: Imogen could not believe but what Peregrine
would overlook their assignation.
Better: Imogen could not believe that Peregrine would
overlook their assignation.
can’t hardly/can’t scarcely. You have just encountered
the dreaded double negative. (I can hardly believe anyone
writes that way, can you?) Use can hardly or can scarcely.
conscious/conscience. Do not confuse these words.
Conscious, an adjective, means aware and alert; it also
means deliberate.
Don’t talk to Berenice before she’s had her morning cup
of coffee; she isn’t really conscious until she has some
caffeine in her system.
When Ludovic laced the professor’s potion with
strychnine, was he making a conscious attempt to kill
the prof?
Conscience, a noun, means one’s sense of right and
wrong.
Don’t bother appealing to the orc’s conscience: he has
none.
could of. This phrase is nonstandard. Substitute could
have.
different from/different than. Current usage accepts both
forms; however, a Google check indicates that different
from is the more popular usage.
effect. See affect.
farther/further. Some writers use the adverb farther when
discussing physical or spatial distances; further, when discussing quantities. Most use them interchangeably. The
adjective further is a synonym for additional.
Benedick has given up gnome-tossing contests because
Berenice always tosses her gnomes yards farther than
Benedick can toss his. [adverb]
284 Common Problems in Grammar and Usage
This elixir is further enriched by abundant infusions of
henbane and hellebore. [adverb]
Do Not Write:
The troll pounced without scarcely a
moment’s hesitation.
Stay tuned for further announcements of the latest
results in today’s gnome-tossing state finals. [adjective]
Write:
The troll pounced with scarcely a
moment’s hesitation.
fewer/less. Use fewer with things that you can count (one
hippogriff, two hippogriffs...); less, with things that you cannot count but can measure in other ways.
“There are fewer oysters on the beach today than yesterday, I fear. How sad!” said the carpenter, and brushed
away a tear.
Berenice should pay less attention to troll tossing and
more to divination and elementary herbology.
former/latter. Use former and latter only when you discuss
two items. (Former refers to the first item in a series of two;
latter, to the second.) When you discuss a series of three or
more items, use first and last.
Who was madder, the March Hare or the Hatter? Was it
the former, or was it the latter (the Hatter)?
Though the spoon, the knife, and the fork each asked
the dish to elope, everyone knows the dish ran away
with the first.
further. See farther.
had of/had have. These phrases are nonstandard.
Substitute had.
Do Not Write:
Write:
If Benedick had of [nonstandard] tossed
the gnome a foot farther, he could of
[also nonstandard] won the contest.
If Benedick had tossed the gnome a foot
farther, he could have won the contest.
hanged/hung. Both words are the past participle of the
verb hang. However, in writing formal English, use hanged
when you are discussing someone’s execution; use hung
when you are talking about the suspension of an object.
Ludovic objected to being hanged at dawn, saying he
wouldn’t get up that early for anybody’s execution, much
less his own.
The stockings were hung from the chimney with care.
hardly/scarcely. These words are sufficiently negative on
their own that you don’t need any extra negatives (like not,
nothing, or without ) to get your point across. In fact, if you
do add that extra not or nothing, you’ve perpetrated the
dreaded double negative.
imply/infer. People often use these words interchangeably
to mean hint at or suggest. However, imply and infer have
precise meanings that you need to tell apart. Imply means
to suggest something without coming right out and saying
it. Infer means to draw a conclusion, basing it on some sort
of evidence.
When Auntie Em said, “My! That’s a big piece of pie,
young lady,” did she mean to imply that Dorothy was
being a glutton in taking such a huge slice?
Dorothy inferred from Auntie Em’s comment that she’d
better not ask for a second piece.
Imogen inferred from the fresh dent in the troll’s skull
that Berenice had been bouncing him off the balustrade
again.
in back of. Avoid this expression. Use behind instead.
incredible/incredulous. Incredible means unbelievable,
too improbable to be believed. Incredulous means doubtful
or skeptical, unwilling to believe.
When Ludovic saw Berenice juggling three trolls in the
air, he was amazed at her incredible strength.
Do you believe all this jabber about Berenice’s strength,
or are you incredulous?
irregardless. This nonstandard usage particularly irritates
graders. Use regardless instead.
kind of/sort of. In writing formal prose, avoid using these
phrases adverbially (that is, with the meaning of somewhat
or to a degree, as in “kind of bashful” or “sort of infatuated.”) Use words like quite, rather, or somewhat instead.
Informal:
Dorothy was kind of annoyed by the
wizard’s obfuscations.
Approved:
Dorothy was quite annoyed by the
wizard’s obfuscations.
kind of a/sort of a. In writing formal prose, cut out the a.
Do Not Write:
Sybilla seldom brews this kind of a potion.
Write:
Sybilla seldom brews this kind of potion.
last/latter. See former.
later/latter. Use later when you’re talking about time (you’ll
do it sooner or later). Use latter when you’re talking about
the second one of a group of two (not the former—that
comes first—but the latter).
Do Not Write:
The walrus couldn’t hardly eat another
bite.
Write:
The walrus could hardly eat another bite.
Do Not Write:
Compared to the walrus, the carpenter
ate hardly nothing.
Every night Imogen stays up later and later serenading
Peregrine.
Write:
Compared to the walrus, the carpenter
ate hardly anything (or anyone).
Berenice tossed both the troll and a gnome. The latter
bounced farther.
Common Problems in Usage 285
lay/lie. Lay, a transitive verb, means to put or place. Lie, an
intransitive verb, means to rest or recline. One way to tell
whether to use lay (laying, laid) or lie (lying, lay, lain) is to
examine the sentence. If the verb has an object, use the
correct form of lay. If the verb has no object, use lie.
Toto, lie down and roll over!
Toto lay down on the floor. [Lay is past tense of lie.]
Auntie Em, Toto’s just lying there. He’s not rolling over!
How long has he lain there, Dorothy? Maybe he’s taking
a nap. [The verb has no object. Has lain is the present
perfect tense of lie.]
Berenice, please lay the troll down gently. [Object is
troll.]
Loose the elephants!
The elf loosed his arrows at the orcs.
Lose is always a verb.
If the elf loses any more arrows in the bushes, he won’t
have any left to loose at the orcs.
Hey, baby, lose the sidekick, and you and I can have a
good time.
me and. Unacceptable as part of a compound subject.
Nonstandard:
Me and Berenice can beat any three
trolls in the house.
Preferred:
Berenice and I can beat any three trolls
in the house. (Actually, Berenice can
beat them perfectly well without any help
from me.)
Instead of laying the troll down, Berenice bounced him
off the bannister.
Ludovic laid the loot on the escritoire. [Object is loot.
Laid is past tense of lay.]
learn/teach. Learn means to get knowledge; teach means
to instruct, to give knowledge or information. Don’t confuse
the two.
Incorrect:
I’ll learn you, you stupid troll!
Correct:
I’ll teach you, you obtuse orc!
leave/let. Leave primarily means to depart; let, to permit.
Don’t confuse them. (Leave, when followed by an object
and an infinitive or a participial phrase, as in “Leave him to
do his worst” or “Leave it to Beaver,” has other meanings.
Consult an unabridged dictionary.)
Incorrect:
Leave me go, Berenice.
Correct:
Let me go, Berenice. Please let me
leave.
less. See fewer.
liable to/likely to. Likely to refers simply to probability.
When speaking informally, people are likely to use liable to
in place of likely to. However, in formal writing, liable to
conveys a sense of possible harm or misfortune.
Informal:
Preferable:
The owl and the pussycat are liable to
go for a sail. [This is a simple statement
of probability. More formally, you would
write “The owl and the pussycat are likely to go for a sail.”]
The beautiful but leaky pea-green boat
is liable to sink. [This conveys a sense
of likely danger.]
lie. See lay.
loose/lose. These are not synonyms. Loose is primarily an
adjective meaning free or inexact or not firmly fastened (“a
loose prisoner,” “a loose translation,” “a loose tooth.”) As a
verb, loose means to set free or let fly.
number. See amount.
of. Don’t write of in place of have in the expressions could
have, would have, should have, must have, and so on.
off of. In formal writing, the of is superfluous. Cut it.
Incorrect:
The troll bounced off of the bannister.
Correct:
The troll bounced off the bannister.
principal/principle. Do not confuse the adjective principal,
meaning chief, with the noun principle, a rule or law.
Berenice’s principal principle (that is, her chief rule of
conduct) is “The bigger they are, the harder they
bounce.”
In a few cases, principal is used as a noun: the principal of
a loan (the main sum you borrowed); the principal in a
transaction (the chief person involved in the deal); the principal of a school (originally the head teacher). Don’t worry
about these instances. If you can substitute the word rule
for the noun in your sentence, then the word you want is
principle.
raise/rise. Do not confuse the verb raise (raised, raising)
with rise (rose, risen, rising). Raise means to increase, to lift
up, to collect, or to nurture. It is transitive (it takes an
object). Rise means to ascend, to get up, or to grow. It is
intransitive (no objects need apply).
Incorrect:
They are rising the portcullis.
Correct:
They are raising the portcullis. [The
object is portcullis, a most heavy object
indeed.]
Incorrect:
The sun raised over the battlements.
Correct:
The sun rose over the battlements.
286 Common Problems in Grammar and Usage
real. This word is an adjective meaning genuine or concrete.
Do not use it as an adverb meaning very or extremely.
Too Informal:
This is a real weird list of illustrative
sentences.
Preferable:
This is a really weird list of illustrative
sentences.
Even Better:
This is an extremely weird list of illustrative sentences.
the reason is because. This expression is ungrammatical.
If you decide to use the phrase the reason is, follow it with a
concise statement of the reason, not with a because clause.
The reason the oysters failed
to answer is because the walrus and the carpenter had
eaten every one.
Incorrect:
Correct But Wordy:
Correct & Concise:
accede to
Sybilla graciously acceded to Peregrine’s request to
compose a villanelle.
according to
According to Abelard, Esperanto is the language of love.
accuse of
The oysters failed to answer
because the walrus and the
carpenter had eaten every one.
addicted to
Incorrect:
I have received your billet-doux and will
answer same once my messenger owl
returns home.
Correct:
I have received your billet-doux and will
answer it once my messenger owl
returns home.
scarcely. See hardly.
sort of. See kind of.
teach. See learn.
try and. Avoid this phrase. Use try to in its place.
Incorrect:
We must try and destroy the Ring of the
Enemy.
Correct:
We must try to destroy the Ring of the
Enemy.
unique. The adjective unique describes something that is
the only one of its kind. Don’t qualify this adjective by more,
most, less, least, slightly, or a little bit. It’s just as illogical to
label something a little bit unique as it is to describe someone as a little bit pregnant.
Correct:
Occasionally, you may get back papers from your teachers
with certain expressions labeled “unidiomatic.” Often these
errors involve prepositions. When you are in doubt about
what preposition to use after a particular word, look up that
word in an unabridged dictionary. Meanwhile, look over the
list below to see which preposition customarily accompanies the following words.
The reason the oysters failed
to answer is that the walrus
and the carpenter had eaten
every one.
same. Lawyers and writers of commercial documents
sometimes use same as a pronoun. In writing essays, use
the pronouns it, them, this, that in its place.
Incorrect:
Picking Proper
Prepositions
Only the One Ring has the power to rule
elves, dwarfs, and mortal men. It is most
unique.
Only the One Ring has the power to rule
elves, dwarfs, and mortal men. It is
unique.
Berenice vociferously accused the troll of borrowing her
leotard.
The professor of herbology is reputedly addicted to comfrey tea.
adhere to
Muttering the conjunction spell under his breath, the
wizard adhered the brigand to the bottom of the
balcony.
adverse to
Imogen is adverse to Peregrine’s writing verse to other
women.
afflict with
The wizard afflicted the brigand with borborygmus and
boils.
agree on (come to terms)
The owl and the pussycat could not agree on what color
to repaint their pea-green boat.
agree with (suit; be similar to; be consistent with)
Burping miserably, the carpenter confessed that a diet of
oysters did not agree with him.
agreeable to
The troll found tiddlywinks an occupation most agreeable to his tastes.
amazement at
Imagine Imogen’s amazement at discovering the brigand
dangling from the bottom of the balcony!
Picking Proper Prepositions 287
amenable to
Excessively amenable to persuasion, Imogen is the
archetypal girl who can’t say no.
appetite for
The walrus had an insatiable appetite for oysters.
appreciation of
The troll’s appreciation of the fine points of pillaging was
sadly limited.
aside from
The professor of potions had run out of ingredients,
aside from a few sprigs of dried hellebore.
associate with
Dorothy’s Auntie Em warned her not to associate with
lions and tigers and bears.
blame for, blame on
Orcs never blame themselves for ravaging the environment; instead, they blame the damage on the trolls.
capable of
Who knows what vile and abhorrent deeds trolls are
capable of?
chary of
Snow White was insufficiently chary of accepting apples
from strange old women.
compatible with
Is Peregrine compatible with Imogen? I doubt it!
comply with
Sybilla was reluctant to comply with the troll’s incessant
importuning.
conform to (occasionally conform with)
Apprentice wizards are expected to obey their masters
and conform to proper wizardly practices.
conversant with
Anyone conversant with trolls’ table manners knows better than to invite one to tea.
desire for
Even Sybilla’s desire for new experiences could not
tempt her to elope with the troll.
desirous of
Being desirous of a salad for dinner, Gargantua cut
some heads of lettuce as large as walnut trees.
desist from
If the troll does not desist from importuning Sybilla, she’s
going to sic Berenice on him.
die of
When Homer’s belching drowned out her saxophone
solo, Lisa nearly died of embarrassment.
different from
In what way is Tweedledum different from Tweedledee?
I thought they were exactly alike.
disagree with
Hellebore disagreed with the pygmy, causing his stomach to rumble. (The pygmy had borborygmi.)
disdain for
The immaculate elves were too polite to show their disdain for the unkempt orcs.
enamored of
The troll is enamored of Sybilla, who in turn is enamored
of Benedick.
indulge in
Berenice indulges in the curious hobby of tossing trolls.
inferior to
The orcs’ perfunctory grooming was inferior to the elves’
more meticulous toilette.
oblivious to
Imogen is oblivious to Peregrine’s flaws and all too
aware of his perfection.
partial to
The walrus is extremely partial to oysters; he likes them
too much for their own good.
peculiar to
A total aversion to sunlight is a condition peculiar to
vampires and trolls.
preoccupation with
The troll could not comprehend Sybilla’s preoccupation
with Benedick.
prevent from
There is nothing we can do to prevent Berenice from
bouncing the troll off the balustrade. We’ll have to catch
him on the rebound.
prior to
Prior to eating the oysters, the walrus and the carpenter
took them for a stroll.
prone to
Imogen is prone to infatuations. Just ask Peregrine.
288 Common Problems in Grammar and Usage
separate from
No wicked witch could separate Dorothy from her little
dog Toto.
Then there’s the indicative mood. If you’re making a simple
statement, indicating or pointing out something, or asking a
straightforward question, you’re using the indicative mood.
“The troll is lurking in the bushes.”
tamper with
“What do you think he wants?”
Do not tamper with the purple potion.
Finally, there’s the subjunctive mood. You use the subjunctive when things are a bit iffy:
weary of
Will Berenice ever weary of bouncing the troll off the
balustrade?
(statement contrary to fact)
“If I were the troll, I would head for the hills now.” (Why
should the troll head for the hills? Berenice is about to
pounce.)
willing to
I’m willing to bet that she won’t.
(recommendation)
“When I find the troll, I will suggest that he hide.”
The Vagaries of Verbs
Verbs are the shape-shifters of the English language. They
change their forms to indicate person (who is acting),
number (how many are acting), tense (when the action is
happening), voice (whether something is acting, as in being
active, or is being acted upon, or passive), and mood.
Mood is the best. What’s your mood? Do you feel like
ordering someone around?
“Lurk!” you command. That’s the imperative mood.
“Please lurk,” you request. The mood’s still imperative,
but polite.
Some verbs are regular : when they shift into the past
tense, they do it in the standard way by adding -ed or -d.
The troll lurked.
Berenice pounced.
Others, however, are irregular : when they form the past
tense, they either change in unusual ways (think becomes
thought ), or they don’t change at all (put stays the same).
Here is a list of irregular verbs, showing the correct forms for
the present tense, past tense, and past participle. Many you
know already, but some will be unfamiliar to you. Don’t let their
shifts in form fool you when you run into them on the SAT.
Irregular Verbs
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awaked, awoke
awaked, awoke
bear
bore
borne
beat
beat
beaten
befall
befell
befallen
begin
began
begun
bend
bent
bent
bid (command)
bade
bidden
bid (command)
bid
bid
bind
bound
bound
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
broadcast
broadcast, broadcasted
broadcast, broadcasted
build
built
built
burst
burst
bust
buy
bought
bought
cast
cast
cast
Picking Proper Prepositions 289
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
cling
clung
clung
come
came
come
creep
crept
crept
deal
dealt
dealt
dive
dived, dove
dived
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
drink
drank
drunk
drive
drove
driven
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
flee
fled
fled
fling
flung
flung
fly
flew
flown
forebear
forbore
forborne
forbid
forbade
forbidden
forget
forgot
forgotten, forgot
forgive
forgave
forgiven
forsake
forsook
forsaken
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
got, gotten
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grow
grew
grown
hang*
hung, hanged*
hung, hanged*
have
had
had
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
kneel
knelt, kneeled
knelt
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
lie
lay
lain
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
meet
met
met
put
put
put
*See the list of Words Often Misused or Confused (page 282).
290 Common Problems in Grammar and Usage
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
read
read
read
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
run
ran
run
see
saw
seen
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
shine
shone
shone
shrink
shrank, shrunk
shrunk, shrunken
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank
sunk
slay
slew
slain
sit
sat
sat
sleep
slept
slept
slide
slid
slid
sling
slung
slung
slink
slunk
slunk
speak
spoke
spoken
spring
sprang, sprung
sprung
steal
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stung
stung
stride
strode
stridden
strike
struck
struck
swear
swore
sworn
sweat
sweat, sweated
sweated
sweep
swept
swept
swim
swam
swum
swing
swung
swung
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
telecast
telecast, telecasted
telecast, telecasted
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
thrive, thrived
throve, thriven
throve, thriven
throw
threw
thrown
wake
waked, woke
waked, woken
wear
wore
worn
weep
wept
wept
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
work
worked, wrought
worked, wrought
wring
wrung
wrung
write
wrote
written
t h e r e d e s i g n e d s at ®
»
section iii
SAT Writing and Language Test
OVERALL CLAIM FOR THE TEST
Like the other tests in the battery, the redesigned sat’s Writing and
Language Test is intended to collect evidence in support of a broad claim
about student performance:
Students can demonstrate college and career readiness proficiency
in revising and editing a range of texts in a variety of content areas,
both academic and career related, for expression of ideas and for
conformity to the conventions of standard written English grammar,
usage, and punctuation.
TEST DESCRIPTION
The basic aim of the redesigned sat’s Writing and Language Test is to
determine whether students can demonstrate college and career readiness
proficiency in revising and editing a range of texts in a variety of content
areas, both academic and career related, for development, organization,
and effective language use and for conformity to the conventions
of standard written English grammar, usage, and punctuation. The
test comprises a series of high-quality multiparagraph passages and
associated multiple-choice questions. Some passages and/or questions
are accompanied by one or more graphical representations of data —
tables, charts, graphs, and the like — and certain questions require
students to make revising and editing decisions about passages in light of
information and ideas conveyed graphically. (Mathematical computation
is, however, not required to answer these questions.)
All passages are written specifically for the test so that errors (a collective
term for various rhetorical or mechanical problems) can be introduced
that students must recognize and correct. The most common question
format requires students to choose the best of three alternatives to
an indicated part of the passage (often an underlined portion) or to
determine that the version presented in the passage is the best option;
other formats, however, are also used. All graphics are either taken from
high-quality, previously published sources or created for the test based on
authentic, accurate data. In their base, “correct” form, passages are wellwritten essayistic prose pieces on topics in careers, history/social studies,
the humanities, and science, with the core writing modes of argument,
58
t h e r e d e s i g n e d s at ®
»
section iii
informative/explanatory text, and nonfiction narrative represented.
Careers passages typically deal with trends, issues, and debates in major
fields of work, such as information technology or health care. History/
social studies passages discuss historical topics or topics in the social
sciences, including anthropology, communication studies, economics,
education, human geography, law, linguistics, political science, psychology,
and sociology (and their subfields). Humanities passages delve into
subjects in the arts and letters. Science passages explore concepts, research,
and discoveries in the natural sciences, including Earth science, biology,
chemistry, and physics (and their subfields).
The questions associated with the passages place students in the role of
someone revising and editing the work of an unspecified writer. Students
are, by turns, asked to improve the development, organization, and use
of language in the passages and to ensure that the passages conform to
conventions of standard written English grammar, usage, and punctuation.
When passages and/or questions are accompanied by graphics, students
are asked to draw connections between text and graphics — for example,
to correct a passage’s inaccurate interpretation of data presented in a table.
Answers to all questions are anchored in the context of the passages.
Neither rote recall of language rules nor context-free applications of
grammar, usage, and mechanics conventions are tested; moreover, lowlevel recognition and labeling of errors is downplayed in favor of asking
students to make authentic, context-based revising and editing decisions.
In accord with best practices, the test requires students to answer
questions based on extended-prose contexts rather than in isolation or
in limited (e.g., single-sentence) contexts. Although some questions are
answerable by referring to a single phrase, clause, or sentence, many
others leverage the extended context the test’s format makes available
and require students to have an understanding of multiple sentences,
one or more paragraphs, or the passage as a whole.
The range of rhetorical and conventions issues assessed on the sat Writing
and Language Test has been carefully delineated by the test’s blueprint to
ensure that the matters deemed most relevant to future postsecondary
success are emphasized in test questions (see table below). Furthermore,
the Writing and Language Test supports the redesigned sat’s focus on
command of evidence and on relevant words in context by allocating
numerous questions to assessing whether students can develop ideas
effectively (e.g., by adding relevant supporting details or by maintaining or
improving focus and cohesion) and use words carefully and with purpose
(e.g., to improve precision or concision).
59
t h e r e d e s i g n e d s at ®
»
section iii
The Writing and Language Test also exemplifies the redesigned
sat’s emphasis on literacy across the curriculum by its inclusion of
appropriately challenging passages in numerous content areas, including
history/social studies and science. Moreover, the Writing and Language
Test reinforces the commitment of the redesigned sat to assessing
quantitative literacy by including graphics and graphics-based questions.
Much like the sat Reading Test, the sat Writing and Language Test
presents students with a rigorous, carefully designed assessment of key
literacy competencies needed for college and careers.
60
t h e r e d e s i g n e d s at ®
»
section iii
SAT WRITING AND LANGUAGE DOMAIN
Content Dimension
Description
Text Complexity
The passages on the sat Writing and Language Test represent a specified range of text
complexities from grades 9–10 to postsecondary entry.
Expression of Ideas
These questions focus on revision of text for topic development, accuracy (consistency
between text and graphic[s]), logic, cohesion, and rhetorically effective use of language.
Development
Proposition
The student will add, revise, or retain central ideas, main claims, counterclaims, topic
sentences, and the like to structure text and convey arguments, information, and ideas
clearly and effectively.
Support
The student will add, revise, or retain information and ideas (e.g., details, facts, statistics)
intended to support claims or points in text.
Focus
The student will add, revise, retain, or delete information and ideas in text for the sake of
relevance to topic and purpose.
Quantitative information
The student will relate information presented quantitatively in such forms as graphs,
charts, and tables to information presented in text.
Organization
These questions focus on revision of text to improve the logic and cohesion of text at the
sentence, paragraph, and whole-text levels.
Logical sequence
The student will revise text as needed to ensure that information and ideas are presented
in the most logical order.
Introductions,
conclusions, and
transitions
The student will revise text as needed to improve the beginning or ending of a text or
paragraph to ensure that transition words, phrases, or sentences are used effectively to
connect information and ideas.
Effective language use
These questions focus on revision of text to improve the use of language to accomplish
particular rhetorical purposes.
Precision
The student will revise text as needed to improve the exactness or content
appropriateness of word choice.
Concision
The student will revise text as needed to improve the economy of word choice (i.e., to
eliminate wordiness and redundancy).
Style and tone
The student will revise text as necessary to ensure consistency of style and tone within a
text or to improve the match of style and tone to purpose.
Syntax
The student will use various sentence structures to accomplish needed rhetorical
purposes.
Standard English Conventions
Sentence structure
Sentence formation
62
These questions focus on revising text in relation to rhetorical purpose. (Prior knowledge
of the topic is not assessed, though consistency of the material within a passage may be.)
These questions focus on editing text to ensure conformity to the conventions of
standard written English sentence structure, usage, and punctuation.
These questions focus on editing text to correct problems in sentence formation and
inappropriate shifts in construction within and between sentences.
These questions focus on editing text to correct problems with forming grammatically
complete and standard sentences.
Sentence boundaries
The student will recognize and correct grammatically incomplete sentences (e.g.,
rhetorically inappropriate fragments and run-ons).
Subordination and
coordination
The student will recognize and correct problems in coordination and subordination in
sentences.
Parallel structure
The student will recognize and correct problems in parallel structure in sentences.
Modifier placement
The student will recognize and correct problems in modifier placement (e.g., misplaced or
dangling modifiers).
t h e r e d e s i g n e d s at ®
»
section iii
SAT WRITING AND LANGUAGE DOMAIN
Content Dimension
Inappropriate shifts in
construction
These questions focus on editing text to correct inappropriate shifts in verb tense, voice,
and mood and pronoun person and number.
Verb tense, mood,
and voice
The student will recognize and correct inappropriate shifts in verb tense, voice, and mood
within and between sentences.
Pronoun person
and number
The student will recognize and correct inappropriate shifts in pronoun person and
number within and between sentences.
Conventions of Usage
Pronouns
Pronoun clarity
These questions focus on editing text to ensure conformity to the conventions of
standard written English usage.
These questions focus on the proper use of pronouns.
The student will recognize and correct pronouns with unclear or ambiguous antecedents.
Possessive determiners
The student will recognize and correct cases in which possessive determiners (its, your,
their), contractions (it’s, you’re, they’re), and adverbs (there) are confused with each other.
Agreement
These questions focus on ensuring grammatical agreement.
Pronoun-antecedent
agreement
The student will recognize and correct lack of agreement between pronoun and
antecedent.
Subject-verb
agreement
The student will recognize and correct lack of agreement between subject and verb.
Noun agreement
The student will recognize and correct lack of agreement between nouns.
Frequently confused
words
The student will recognize and correct instances in which a word or phrase is confused
with another (e.g., accept/except, allusion/illusion).
Logical comparison
The student will recognize and correct cases in which unlike terms are compared.
Conventional expression
The student will recognize and correct cases in which a given expression is inconsistent
with standard written English.
Conventions of Punctuation
63
Description
These questions focus on editing text to ensure conformity to the conventions of
standard written English punctuation.
End-of-sentence
punctuation
The student will recognize and correct inappropriate uses of ending punctuation in cases
in which the context makes the intent clear.
Within-sentence
punctuation
The student will correctly use and recognize and correct inappropriate uses of colons,
semicolons, and dashes to indicate sharp breaks in thought within sentences.
Possessive nouns
and pronouns
The student will recognize and correct inappropriate uses of possessive nouns and
pronouns as well as differentiate between possessive and plural forms.
Items in a series
The student will correctly use and recognize and correct inappropriate uses of
punctuation (commas and sometimes semicolons) to separate items in a series.
Nonrestrictive and
parenthetical elements
The student will correctly use punctuation (commas, parentheses, dashes) to set off
nonrestrictive and parenthetical sentence elements as well as recognize and correct
cases in which restrictive or essential sentence elements are inappropriately set off with
punctuation.
Unnecessary punctuation
The student will recognize and correct cases in which unnecessary punctuation appears
in a sentence.
1
1
ENGLISH TEST
45 Minutes—75 Questions
DIRECTIONS: In the five passages that follow, certain
words and phrases are underlined and numbered. In
the right-hand column, you will find alternatives for the
underlined part. In most cases, you are to choose the
one that best expresses the idea, makes the statement
appropriate for standard written English, or is worded
most consistently with the style and tone of the passage
as a whole. If you think the original version is best,
choose “NO CHANGE.” In some cases, you will find in
the right-hand column a question about the underlined
part. You are to choose the best answer to the question.
You will also find questions about a section of the passage, or about the passage as a whole. These questions
do not refer to an underlined portion of the passage, but
rather are identified by a number or numbers in a box.
For each question, choose the alternative you consider
best and fill in the corresponding oval on your answer
document. Read each passage through once before you
begin to answer the questions that accompany it. For
many of the questions, you must read several sentences
beyond the question to determine the answer. Be sure
that you have read far enough ahead each time you
choose an alternative.
PASSAGE I
Notes from Underground
A lot of people hate to ride the New York City
subways, but I love them because I like to get places fast.
1. At this point, the writer wants to provide one reason
why she likes to ride the subways. Which choice is
most relevant to the information provided in this first
paragraph?
A. NO CHANGE
B. I never know what I’ll see there.
C. they are so much cheaper than taxis.
D. they are places of enormous quiet and calm.
1
A musician balancing a cello case, two Buddhist monks
in saffron robes, and a group of stockbrokers in crisp,
charcoal gray suits get on at Wall Street. A passenger
2
placidly sews while the subway train flings and jolts. A
teenager whose holding a shoebox containing a kitten as
3
tiny as a gingersnap smiles even if a line of girls in frilly
4
white communion dresses file by. About three and a half
million people a day ride the subways I think maybe
5
I might possibly have met them all.
6
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
14
2. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
charcoal gray suits,
charcoal, gray suits
charcoal gray, suits
3. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
thats
as
who’s
4. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
as
whereas
such that
5. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
subways, and
subways, which
subways actually
6. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
perhaps I’ve
I’ve possibly
I’ve
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
Sometimes a Salvation Army volunteer boards the
subway train with sandwiches and juice to give to the
needy. “Put your pride to the side!” the volunteer shouts,
and I’ve seen many people put out their hands. The
7
speaker also raises money. Its impossible to predict which
8
people will dig into their pockets or if they were to open
9
their purses, and I’ve stopped trying to guess.
7. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
Therefore, the
In conclusion, the
In other words, the
8. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
It’s
Its’
That’s
9. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
would have opened
open
might be opening
Last week some fellow passengers and I watched
an elderly man with a portable chessboard playing
10. Which of the following alternatives to the underlined
portion would NOT be acceptable?
F. who played
G. as he played
H. played
J. who was playing
10
chess against himself. Just yesterday I sat across the
aisle with a woman who was composing music
11. A.
B.
C.
D.
11
in pink-tinted glasses in a notebook. She tapped her foot
NO CHANGE
to
at
from
12. The best placement for the underlined portion would
be:
F. where it is now.
G. after the word woman.
H. after the word was.
J. after the word composing.
12
as she reviewed what she’d written and then stopped
tapping and jotted more notes as the train hurtled along.
13. Which choice most effectively emphasizes the rapid
speed of the train?
A. NO CHANGE
B. continued on its way.
C. moved on down the tracks.
D. proceeded toward the next stop.
13
Today is my mother’s birthday. I decided to surprise
her with lilac blooms from my backyard, so this morning,
carrying a shopping bag full of the flowers, I boarded a
crowded “E” train and rode it to the very last stop in the
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
15
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
Bronx. Strangers smiled and took pains not to crush the
flowers, even when the train jerked to a halt.
14
I got off
14. If the writer were to delete the preceding sentence, this
paragraph would primarily lose a statement that:
F. provides physical descriptions of people on the
subway train.
G. supports the opening sentence of the essay.
H. provides evidence that people can be friendly on
the subway train.
J. gives an explanation for the narrator’s actions.
at an elevated station and, lifting the splendid bouquet,
rushed down to my mother, feeling delighted that I’d
brought the blooms all the way from Brooklyn on the
subway train.
Question 15 asks about the preceding passage
as a whole.
15. Suppose the writer had intended to write a brief essay
persuading readers that the subway system is New
York City’s most economical means of public transportation. Would this essay fulfill the writer’s goal?
A. Yes, because the essay supplies evidence of the
large number of people using the subways.
B. Yes, because the essay describes people who are
able to give to the needy because they have extra
money in their pockets.
C. No, because the essay focuses on the kinds of
people riding the subways, not on how inexpensive the subways are to ride.
D. No, because the essay focuses on the writer’s love
of all public transportation, not just the subways.
PASSAGE II
Navajo Code Talkers
During World War II, a group of Navajo soldiers
developed a code that became one of the most successful
in U.S. military history. This group, known as the Navajo
16
code talkers, took part in every assault the U.S. Marines
16. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
group which was
group was
group
17. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
transmitting information on:
transmitting information on
transmitting: information on
18. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
had
would have
will have
19. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
thorny
strenuous
gawky
conducted in the Pacific from 1942 to 1945,
transmitting information, on tactics, troop movements,
17
orders, and other vital communications over telephones
and radios.
American military officials have been using
18
cumbersome machines to encode and relay information
19
during battles. In preliminary tests under simulated combat
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
16
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
conditions, the Navajo encoded, transmitted, and decoded
a three-line message in twenty seconds as the machines
20
required thirty minutes to perform the same job.
Nevertheless, these tests convinced the
21
officials of the value, of using the Navajo
22
language in a code.
20. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
seconds so
seconds,
seconds, whereas
21. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
Similarly, these
Still, these
These
22. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
officials, of the value
officials of the value
officials, of the value,
23. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
makes it
make it
make them
24. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
from
with
of
The Navajo language is complex, with a structure and
sounds that makes them unintelligible to anyone without
23
extensive exposure to it. Outside Navajo communities,
24
such exposure is rare, which greatly contributed to
25. Which of the following alternatives to the underlined
portion would NOT be acceptable?
A. rare; this
B. rare this
C. rare. This
D. rare, a factor that
25
it’s success.
26
The Navajo developed and memorized the code. Since
27
their language did not have words for common U.S.
26. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
that
this
the Navajo code’s
27. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
The Navajo, who were various heights and weights,
Being of various heights and weights, the Navajo
The Navajo of different sizes
28. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
hazardous
risky
OMIT the underlined portion.
military equipment, they turned to nature. They named
planes after birds and ships after fish. Dive bombers
became gini (chicken hawk) and destroyers were called
ca-lo (shark). The skilled Japanese code breakers remained
baffled by the Navajo language. The code was never
broken.
Unfortunately, the code talkers sometimes faced
dangerous peril from their own side. Many code talkers
28
needed bodyguards to protect them from other American
soldiers, some of whom mistook the Navajo for Japanese
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
17
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
soldiers. Regardless, the Navajo were resolute and served
their country courageously.
The Navajo code remained classified after the war
that was later used, along with codes made from other
29
American Indian languages, in the Korean Conflict and the
29. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
and which
and
OMIT the underlined portion.
30. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
hush-hush actions
concealed, hidden efforts
doings, kept under wraps,
31. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
Smith, practices her art
Smith, practices her art,
Smith practices her art,
32. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
Well,
However,
At once,
33. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
who
whom
that they
Vietnam War. Now that the Navajo code is no longer used,
the code talkers, whose secret work saved American lives,
30
can finally receive public recognition for their actions.
PASSAGE III
An American Griot
[1] When storyteller Mary Carter
Smith practices her art and everybody listens.
31
[2] Wearing a brightly colored African dress, a large
turban, and bracelets, the seventy-eight-year-old Smith
seems to inhabit each of the different characters she
describes. [3] Her voice changes with each emotion she
wants to evoke. [4] Her gestures fit the pace of the
narrative. [5] And though many of the stories are intended
to make the audience laugh, Smith is fully aware of the
other values of storytelling. [6] Indeed, she identifies
32
strongly with the griots of West Africa—those village
storytellers where they use songs, poems, and narration to
33
help preserve and transmit culture and history. [7] Clearly
others recognize her as a valuable resource. [8] Smith is
the official griot of both the city of Baltimore and the state
of Maryland; she has served as griot-in-residence at
34. Which of the following alternatives to the underlined
portion would NOT be acceptable?
F. Maryland. She
G. Maryland, and she
H. Maryland and
J. Maryland, she
34
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
18
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
several universities.
35. The writer is considering deleting the phrase “at several universities” from Sentence 8. If the phrase were
deleted, the essay would primarily lose:
A. an essential link to the paragraph that follows.
B. a contrast for the purpose of making a comparison.
C. information that qualifies the term griot-in-residence.
D. an unnecessary detail.
35
Though Smith has been interested in theater since her
youth, her recognition of her own talent grew gradually.
She worked for thirty years as a teacher and librarian in the
field of education in Baltimore public schools.
She
36
36. Which of the following words or phrases from the preceding sentence is LEAST necessary and could therefore be deleted?
F. thirty
G. and librarian
H. in the field of education
J. Baltimore public
organized theater groups in her community and took
several trips to Africa to study traditional cultures. All
along, she was telling stories—everything from social
satire to her retelling of “Cinderella” as Cindy Ellie, a
37. A.
B.
C.
D.
37
poor African American girl whose rags are transformed
NO CHANGE
Ellie. A
Ellie; a
Ellie, she was a
into magnificent African-style gowns. Over time, she
was invited to perform in churches, libraries, and
museums.
38. At this point, the writer is considering adding the following true statement:
In high school, Smith was a member of both
the drama and speech clubs.
Should the writer make this addition here?
F. Yes, because it supports the idea that Smith was
telling stories throughout her life.
G. Yes, because it supports the idea expressed earlier
that Smith organized theater groups in her community.
H. No, because it contradicts the point made earlier
that Smith worked for thirty years as a teacher and
librarian.
J. No, because it distracts the reader from the main
focus of the paragraph and does not logically fit at
this point in the essay.
38
Smith realized the extent of her gift when her
friend Alex Haley who had gathered essential material
39
critical to writing his best-selling novel Roots from
40
a griot in Gambia, began to refer to her as “my
American griot,” this was a revelation to Smith.
41
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
19
39. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
friend, Alex Haley
friend Alex Haley;
friend Alex Haley,
40. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
for
important to
that was essential to
41. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
griot” that
griot.” This
griot,”
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
“Hearing that was like a man who has shoed horses all his
42. Given that all the choices are quotations from Mary
Carter Smith, which one would best support the argument the writer is making concerning Smith’s belated
discovery of her own talent?
F. NO CHANGE
G. “You’ve got to reveal truths to your listeners,” she
says.
H. “Through his novel Roots, Alex Haley was in
some ways performing the function of a griot for
America,” she says.
J. “I’d say that one of the most crucial moments in
my development as a storyteller is the few hours I
once spent listening to a griot in West Africa,” she
recalls.
42
life being told, ‘You’re a blacksmith!’” she recalls.
42
Today, Smith’s repertoire is so vast that she could
speak consecutively for twelve hours straight without
43
running out of material. It’s unlikely she would ever
44
attempt such a feat, but if she did, there would be no
43. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
continuously nonstop
perpetually
OMIT the underlined portion.
44. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
It’s unlikely,
Its unlikely,
Its unlikely
dull moments.
Question 45 asks about the preceding passage
as a whole.
45. Suppose the writer had intended to write a brief essay
focusing on the various ways that storytelling influences community values. Would this essay successfully fulfill the writer’s goal?
A. Yes, because the essay indicates that Smith believes
storytelling pulls a community together.
B. Yes, because the essay shows that Smith’s Baltimore
community valued her gift as a storyteller.
C. No, because the essay focuses on the griots of
West Africa, not on community values.
D. No, because the essay’s main focus is on one storyteller and the way in which she practices her art.
PASSAGE IV
Baseballs and Butterflies
[1] Our son has started playing organized T-ball, a
beginner’s version of baseball. [2] “Organized” is what
parents call it, anyway. [3] Joe is seven, living in those two
or three years when they can manage to throw a baseball a
46. F.
G.
H.
J.
46
few feet but when what they’re really interested in are
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
20
NO CHANGE
children
he
some of them
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
things closer at hand, bugs, butterflies, dirt (if they’re in
47
the infield), grass (if they’re in the outfield). [4] Children
47. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
hand, bugs, butterflies, dirt,
hand: bugs, butterflies, dirt
hand: bugs, butterflies, dirt,
48. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
if
whether
as to whether
of that age still think nothing of doing little dances in the
outfield, often with their backs to home plate and,
consequently, the batter. [5] It’s not as if the outfielders’
48
positions matter much, though—the ball never gets hit
hard enough to reach there.
49. The writer wishes to add the following sentence in
order to emphasize the uncertainty already expressed
about an idea in the paragraph:
I still have doubts.
The new sentence would best amplify and be placed
after Sentence:
A. 1.
B. 2.
C. 3.
D. 4.
49
50. F.
G.
H.
J.
Since there’s not much chance that a seven-year-old
50
just learning the game can hit a pitched baseball, the
NO CHANGE
While
Although
Unless
umpire puts the ball on top of a stationary tee, a piece of
flexible tubing adjusted to each batter’s height. If batters
repeatedly fail to hit the ball—and lots of them do—the
51. Which of the following alternatives to the underlined
portion would NOT be acceptable?
A. umpire patiently gives
B. umpire, who is patient, gives
C. umpire, who patiently gives
D. patient umpire gives
umpire is patient, giving them four or five chances instead
51
of the usual three.
52
When a batter finally makes
52. If the writer were to delete the word repeatedly and the
phrase “and lots of them do” (and the dashes) from the
preceding sentence, the sentence would primarily lose:
F. a tone of admiration for the work of the umpires.
G. details about the rules of T-ball.
H. an explanation of why children often fail to hit the
ball.
J. a sense of how difficult the task is for the children.
contact, the ball dribbles into the infield, where the
53. A.
B.
C.
D.
nearest player usually ends up throwing the ball at the
53
first baseman’s feet or, if the fielder is precocious, over
NO CHANGE
accomplishes a result of
attains the consequence of
results in
the first baseman’s head.
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
21
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
In a T-ball league, one needs to do something to keep
the score from reaching triple digits in the early going.
There’s a rule, therefore, that says the runner must stop
54
when any fielder from the other team picks up the ball and
54. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
instead,
likewise,
meanwhile,
55. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
regulation-sized ball.
ball, which is regulation sized.
ball, which is the same size as a regular baseball.
56. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
then, look up, to see
then look up to see,
then look up to see
57. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
That’s
It’s
Thats
58. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
grown-ups’
grown-ups
grown-ups,
59. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
they would not have been
they’re not
they’re not to be
holds it aloft. The rule might seem a good one, but the
children can’t remember to hold up the ball. Once
55
they’ve picked it up, they look at it quizzically for a
while and then, look up to see what all the ruckus is about.
56
What it’s about a bleacher section full of parents, each
57
adult frantically holding up a stiff arm. The child with the
ball wonders at the grown-up’s odd, noisy behavior.
58
Meanwhile, the runners continue to score. They score, that
is, if they were not to be distracted by the grown-ups—or
59
the butterflies.
Question 60 asks about the preceding passage
as a whole.
60. Suppose the writer had intended to write an essay
describing one child’s experiences playing T-ball.
Would this essay accomplish the writer’s goal?
F. Yes, because it reveals that the narrator’s son Joe
is now playing T-ball, and then it goes on to
describe Joe’s experiences at one of his games.
G. Yes, because it discusses the narrator’s son Joe’s
T-ball skills, such as the fact that he can throw a
baseball a few feet.
H. No, because while it mentions that the narrator’s
son Joe plays T-ball, it also notes he is more interested in things such as dirt and bugs.
J. No, because although the T-ball experiences of the
narrator’s son Joe are alluded to, it is primarily
about the general features of T-ball games.
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
22
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
PASSAGE V
Fixing Raptor Feathers
Raptors, or birds of prey, cannot afford to be
grounded for weeks waiting for a large number of
flight feathers to regrow. They must be able to fly if
they are to hunt and eat. Raptors, including eagles and
hawks, therefore normally shed their feathers slowly,
one or two at a time.
61. The writer wants to describe the way raptors shed
feathers. Which choice would be most consistent with
the way the feather-shedding process has been described
up to this point?
A. NO CHANGE
B. in an all-at-once blizzard.
C. often losing them in clumps.
D. leaving them flightless for long periods of time.
61
The premature loss of a flight feather to
injury, then, is not an incidental matter to
62. F. NO CHANGE
G. raptors.
H. raptors, most of which are mainly active during
the day—that is, diurnal.
J. raptors, daytime-hunting creatures for the most
part.
raptors, most of which are diurnal. If a feather
62
breaks off with the stub of its hollow quill shaft still in
place, the bird’s body mistakenly believes the feather is
63. Which of the following alternatives to the underlined
portion would NOT be acceptable?
A. sound.
B. complete.
C. total.
D. intact.
whole. Only when the quill socket containing the stub is
63
64. Given that all of the choices are true, which one most
clearly provides a reason for the statement that follows
in this sentence?
F. NO CHANGE
G. fasten deeply,
H. break occasionally,
J. are very light,
empty will a new feather grow. Quills are hollow, so the
64
removal of a quill stub before it is ready to be naturally
65. A.
B.
C.
D.
65
shed would be very painful to the animal. Bird
NO CHANGE
they are
those are
that is
rehabilitators, therefore, treat broken raptor feathers
through imping—the implanting of a new feather into
66. Which of the following alternatives to the underlined
portion would NOT be acceptable?
F. imping, which is the
G. imping: the
H. imping. The
J. imping, the
66
the quill stub.
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
23
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
The bird rehabilitator begins by determining which
feather has been damaged. On each wing, all flighted
birds, having ten primary flight feathers, each one shaped
67
slight different. If the left number seven feather is broken
68
off, the rehabilitator selects a number seven feather from a
67. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
birds, by having
birds, which have
birds have
68. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
slight differently.
slightly differently.
slightly more different.
collection kept exclusively for imping. If necessary, a
number six or eight feather can be carefully trimmed with
small scissors to the shape of a number seven feather.
69. The writer is considering revising the preceding sentence to read as follows:
If necessary, a number six or eight feather can
be cut to the shape of a number seven feather.
If the writer did this, the sentence would primarily lose
a sense of how:
A. limited rehabilitators’ feather collections are.
B. delicate the work being described is.
C. different each of a bird’s flight feathers is.
D. easy it is to replace a number seven feather.
69
The quill of this replacement feather is trimmed so that
when the replacement feather is eventually attached to the
quill stub still in the bird’s body, the repaired feather will
be equal in length to the original, whole feather.
70
Next, the rehabilitator whittles a bamboo chopstick
71
to duplicate the curve and slant of the complete feather
70. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
be equally long
equal the length
equal in length
71. A.
B.
C.
D.
NO CHANGE
However,
Indeed,
Finally,
72. F.
G.
H.
J.
NO CHANGE
a touch of glue is applied by the rehabilitator.
the application of a touch of glue follows.
the rehabilitator applies a touch of glue.
shaft. He or she then inserts the carved chopstick
into the quill stub. After sliding the shaft of the
replacement feather over the sturdy, light bamboo
stick, glue—just a touch—is applied. The raptor now
72
has a rebuilt, functional feather. Eventually, it will be
73. Which of the following alternatives to the underlined
portion would NOT be acceptable?
A. feather; eventually, it
B. feather, eventually, it
C. feather, which eventually
D. feather that eventually
73
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
24
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
1
1
shed, allowing a new, complete feather to grow in it’s
74. F.
G.
H.
J.
74
place.
NO CHANGE
grow in its
have grow in its
have grow in it’s
75. At this point, the writer is considering adding the following true statement:
This imping procedure is just one of the many
responsibilities bird rehabilitators have.
Should the writer make this addition here?
A. Yes, because it reveals the relative importance of
imping compared to the other work of bird rehabilitators.
B. Yes, because it reinforces the idea that imping is
of great benefit to raptors.
C. No, because it goes beyond the scope of the essay,
which focuses on how the feathers of certain types
of birds are repaired.
D. No, because it undermines the essay’s earlier
claim that imping is the most important work that
bird rehabilitators do.
75
END OF TEST 1
STOP! DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO.
ACT-59F-PRACTICE
25