Strength and Conditioning

1015 Mark Avenue • Carpinteria, CA 93013 1.800.892.4772 • 1.805.745.8111 (international) ISSAonline.com Fourth Edition Strength and Conditioning Course Textbook for SPECIALIST IN STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING International Sports Sciences Association 800.892.4772 • ISSAonline.com Strength and Conditioning Thomas Fahey, EdD Fourth Edition Course Textbook for SPECIALIST IN STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING Strength and Conditioning Thomas D. Fahey, EdD Strength and Conditioning (Edition 4) Official course text for: International Sports Sciences Association’s Specialist in Strength and Conditioning Program 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Copyright © 2019 Thomas D. Fahey. Published by the International Sports Sciences Association, Carpinteria, CA 93013. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, or in any information storage and retrieval system without the written permission of the publisher. Direct inquiries about copyright and permissions requests for content, weightlifting and training photos, and photos owned by Fitness Technologies, Inc, to: Fitness Technologies, Inc, 5043 Via Lara Lane, Santa Barbara, CA 93111, bodyimage@mac.com. Direct reproduction and publishing inquires to: International Sports Sciences Association, 1015 Mark Avenue, Carpinteria, CA 93013 1.800.892.4772 • 1.805.745.8111 (local) • 1.805.745.8119 (fax) Disclaimer of Warranty This text is informational only. The data and information contained herein are based upon information from various published and unpublished sources that represents training, health, and nutrition literature and practice summarized by the author and publisher. The publisher of this text makes no warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the currency, completeness, or scientific accuracy of this information, nor does it warrant the fitness of the information for any particular purpose. The information is not intended for use in connection with the sale of any product. Any claims or presentations regarding any specific products or brand names are strictly the responsibility of the product owners or manufacturers. This summary of information from unpublished sources, books, research journals, and articles is not intended to replace the advice or attention of health care professionals. It is not intended to direct their behavior or replace their independent professional judgment. If you have a problem or concern with your health, or before you embark on any health, fitness, or sports training programs, seek clearance and guidance from a qualified health care professional. About the Author | iii About the Author Thomas Fahey, EdD Professor, California State University, Chico Chico, CA Thomas Fahey, Ed.D. is a professor of Kinesiology at California State University, Chico. He received his doctorate from University of California, Berkeley, specializing in exercise physiology, motor development, and biomechanics. He was an All-American track and field athlete in college in the discus throw. He continued to pursue athletic excellence after graduation and was masters world champion in the discus throw (won medals in five consecutive world championships, including the gold in 2003), eleven-time US masters national discus champion (consecutive), and four-time gold medal winner in Master’s World Games (consecutive). In 2008, the US Track and Field (USATF) named him the outstanding masters field athlete of the year. In 2006, he was named outstanding professor at California State University, Chico. Dr. Fahey has authored 25 books on exercise physiology, wellness, and strength, and has written hundreds of articles for scientific journals and bodybuilding and fitness magazines. He writes monthly research reviews and articles for Muscular Development, Fitness RX for Men, and Fitness RX for Women. International Sports Sciences Association Contents Introduction: Essential Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning, p1 PHYSICAL TRAINING, p14 2.1 Principles of Physical Fitness, p15 Building Strength and Power: Crucial Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning, p17 Defining Fitness, p17 Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance, p24 Flexibility, p27 Body Composition, p28 Which Component Should You Emphasize for Your Client?, p28 Putting the Program in Proper Perspective, p29 2.2 Principles of Training: Adaptation to Stress, p32 Specificity, Motor Control, and Motor Learning, p34 Transferring Strength, Power, and Speed to Competitive Performance, p35 Progressive Overload and the FITT Principle, p38 Reversibility—Adapting to Reduced Training, p41 Individual Differences—Limits of Adaptability, p41 Guidelines for Training, p42 MUSCULAR STRENGTH AND ENDURANCE, p47 3.1 Bone and Joints, p48 Organic and Inorganic Bone Components, p50 Structure of Bone, p51 Epiphyseal Growth Centers, p52 The Human Skeleton, p52 The Healthy Bone Triad: Calcium, WeightBearing Exercise, and Healthy Hormone Levels, p54 Hormones and Bone Health, p57 Exercise, p57 The Female Athlete Triad, p59 3.2 Joints, p62 Synovial Joints, p64 3.3 Muscles and Their Actions, p70 Levers and Movement, p71 3.4 Muscle Physiology, p83 Skeletal Muscle and Structure, p85 Muscle Strength: Size, Neural Activation, Elasticity, and Skill, p91 Muscle and the Nervous System, p96 Elastic Muscle Energy, p98 Skill, p100 ENDURANCE AND ENVIRONMENT, p102 4.1 Basic Physiology of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Exercise, p103 The Cardiorespiratory System, p104 Metabolism, p112 4.2 Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance Program, p117 Setting Goals, p119 Applying the FITT Principle to Endurance Program Design, p120 Warming Up and Cooling Down, p125 Building Cardiorespiratory Fitness, p126 Maintaining Cardiorespiratory Fitness, p129 4.3 Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning, p132 Principles of Temperature Regulation, p134 Exercise in the Heat, p137 Preventing Heat Problems, p141 Exercise in the Cold, p142 Physical Activity at Altitude, p143 Exercise and Air Pollution, p145 Travel and Jet Lag, p145 BIOMECHANICS AND MOTOR CONTROL, p149 5.1 Developing Basic Movement Skills for Strength Development, p150 Assessing and Developing Movement Skills for Loaded Lower Body Exercises, p152 Transitioning into Whole-Body Lifts, p159 5.2 Core Fitness, p161 Core Muscles as Stabilizers, p163 Train Movements—Not Muscles, p164 Beyond Sit-Ups, p164 The “Basic Four” Core Training Exercises, p166 Other Core Fitness Exercises, p168 TOOLS OF THE SPECIALIST IN STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING, p172 6.1 Resistance Exercise Methods, p173 Resistance Exercise Methods, p175 Choosing the Exercises, p177 Muscle Hypertrophy, p179 Muscle Power, p180 Muscle Endurance, p180 Basic Cycling Techniques, p182 Safety and Injury Prevention, p185 6.2 Basic Weight Training Exercises, p189 Chest and Shoulder Exercises, p191 Upper Back Exercises, p195 Arm Exercises, p195 Abdominal Exercises, p196 Lower-Body Exercises, p197 Exercises for the Calves, p199 Basic Weight-Training Programs, p199 6.3 The Bench Press, p203 The Bench Press as a Whole-Body Exercise, p203 Use the Right Equipment, p203 Using Technique to Increase Bench Press Strength, p205 Training Aids to Improve Bench Press Strength, p207 Bench Press Training, p208 6.4 Squat and Deadlift, p213 Squats: The Ultimate Functional StrengthBuilding Exercises, p215 Back Squat Basics, p215 Front Squats, p219 Overhead Squats, p219 Box Squats, p220 Power-Rack Squats, p221 Thoughts on Squat Training, p221 Building Large Lower Body Muscles with High Set Deep Squat Workouts, p222 High Set Workouts to Promote Lower Body Muscle Hypertrophy, p222 6.5 Olympic Lifts, p224 Applying Olympic Weightlifting Techniques to Power Sports, p226 Deadlift, p226 Snatch, p228 Integrating the Snatch into Power Workouts, p230 The Clean and Jerk, p230 Learning Progression, p233 Squat Snatch Evaluation Checklist, p234 Clean and Jerk Evaluation Checklist, p236 6.6 Resistive Exercise Without Weights, p238 Air Squat, p240 Lunge, p241 Burpee, p241 Curl Up, p242 Spine Extension (“Bird Dog”), p243 Isometric Side Bridge, p243 Thrusters, p244 Overhead squats, p244 Front Plank, p244 Push-ups, p245 Six Principles of Body-Weight Training, p245 6.7 Cross Training and Circuit Training, p247 Cross-Training, p249 Circuit Training, p253 6.8 Suspension Training, p256 Suspension Training Builds Core Fitness, p258 Suspension Training Workouts, p260 Where to Purchase Suspension Training Devices, p261 6.9 Plyometric Exercises, p263 Stationary Plyometrics, p267 Horizontal Jumps and Hops, p271 Upper Body Plyometrics, p274 Box Jumping, p275 Medicine Ball Exercises, p277 Other Exercises to Develop Speed and Power, p279 6.10 Power and Speed, p281 Elements of Power, p284 Sprinting, p287 Peak Power Training on a Stationary Bicycle, p294 Agility Training, p295 Peak Power Weight Training, p296 Bench Throws, p296 Functional Training, p297 Other Exercises to Develop Speed and Power, p299 Integrating Power Training into Workouts, p299 6.11 Flexibility, p301 What Determines Flexibility?, p303 Tissues That Obstruct Range of Motion, p304 Types of Stretching Techniques, p307 Benefits of Flexibility and Stretching Exercises, p309 Principles of Flexibility, p312 Basic Stretching Exercises, p312 ASSESSMENT, p319 7.1 Assessment: Tests and Measurement, p320 Designing the Testing Program, p323 Choosing the Correct Tests, p324 Interpreting Test Results, p325 Measuring Strength, p326 Measuring Strength-Endurance, p334 Assessing Core Fitness, p337 Other Strength Tests, p340 Tests of Power, p340 Speed Tests, p344 Endurance Fitness and Maximal Oxygen Consumption, p347 Agility Tests, p351 7.2 Obesity and Measuring Body Composition, p354 Overweight Versus Obesity, p356 Obesity and Health, p357 Obesity and Exercise Performance, p360 Measuring Body Composition, p360 Body Composition Measurement Techniques, p364 PROGRAM DESIGN FOR SPORTS, p375 8.1 Designing Training Programs for Recreational Athletes, p376 Designing the Program, p378 General Fitness for Health, p378 Higher Levels of General Fitness, p379 Fitness Programs for Power Sports, p380 Skill Development for Athletes, p380 Endurance Fitness, p383 8.2 Football, p385 Football and Endurance, p388 Strength Training, p388 Flexibility, p390 Plyometrics and Sprint Training, p390 Agility, p390 Body Composition, p391 Fitness Testing, p391 Training for Football, p392 Essential Elements of the Football Training Program, p392 8.3 Basketball, p396 Physical Demands of Basketball, p398 Fitness Testing for Basketball, p399 Physical Conditioning for Basketball, p402 8.4 Baseball and Softball, p407 Baseball and Softball Skills, p409 Fitness Testing for Baseball, p410 Physical Conditioning for Baseball, p417 8.5 Swimming, p423 Physiology of Swimming, p425 Testing Swimmers, p427 Training, p427 Injuries in Swimming, p428 Weight Training and Plyometrics for Swimmers, p431 8.6 Soccer, p434 Physiology of Soccer, p436 Testing Soccer Players, p437 Training for Soccer, p438 Fitness and Soccer, p439 8.7 Track and Field, p441 Training Throwers, p443 Training Sprinters, p446 Training Jumpers and Vaulters, p447 Training Middle-Distance and Distance Runners, p449 Weight Training and Plyometrics for Runners, p450 Progression of Training Methods during the Last Century, p450 Over-Distance Training (Long-Slow Distance or LSD Training), p451 Interval Training, p451 8.8 Bodybuilding, p454 How Muscle Tissue Changes with Training, p456 Maximizing Muscle Tension to Promote Muscle Growth, p460 Effective Techniques for Increasing Muscle Mass and Strength, p461 How Often Should Bodybuilders Use High Tension Training Techniques?, p469 Total Muscle Fiber Training Techniques, p469 Program Design, p471 8.9 Weightlifting and Powerlifting, p473 Weightlifting, p475 Testing Weightlifters, p478 Promoting Fitness and Preventing Injury, p478 Designing a Weightlifting Program, p480 Powerlifting, p482 Testing Powerlifters, p485 Training for Powerlifting, p485 Injuries in Powerlifting, p488 SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY, p543 8.10 Golf, p490 Golf and Health, p493 Elements of the Golf Swing, p495 Golf and Flexibility, p496 Minimize Golf Injuries, p496 Developing Golf Fitness, p497 Golf Hazards, p498 INJURY, p563 NUTRITION, SUPPLEMENTS, AND DRUGS, p502 9.1 Nutrition for Health and Performance, p503 Essential Nutrients, p506 The Healthy, High-Performance Diet and MyPlate, p517 Nutrition, Exercise, and Weight Control, p521 Principles of Losing Weight for Active People, p521 Poly-Drug and Food Supplement Phenomenon in Sports, p524 9.2 Ergogenic Aids: Drugs and Supplements, p526 Strength Coaches and the Ethics of Ergogenic Aids, p528 Common Drugs and Supplements Available to Athletes, p529 Agents Taken to Promote Muscle Hypertrophy, Strength, and Power, p529 Agents Taken to Speed Recovery, p537 Substances Taken to Increase Aggressiveness and Training Intensity, p539 Substances Taken to Aid Weight Control, p540 10.1 Sports Psychology for the Personal Trainer, p544 The Winning Edge, p547 The Psychology of the Champion Athlete, p548 The Elements of Success, p552 Measuring Anxiety in Athletes, p557 Imagery and Athletics, p557 11.1 Prevention and Care of Athletic Injuries, p564 Minimizing Injuries, p565 Importance of Prior Planning, p572 11.2 Managing Common Athletic Injuries and Illnesses, p573 Injuries to Joints and Muscles, p575 Wound Healing: Recovery from Soft Tissue Injury, p576 RICE—Method and Controversies, p578 Post-Injury Rehabilitation, p579 Overuse Injuries, p580 Back Pain, p582 Knee Injuries, p584 Rotator Cuff Injuries, p589 Systemic Disorders, p590 Common Viral Illnesses, p592 Maintaining a Healthy Immune System, p593 UNIT 1.1 Essential Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning 2 | Unit 1.1 Unit Outline 1. Introduction: Scope of duties and responsibilities 3. Economics for the strength and conditioning specialist: A. Job opportunities B. Recruiting clients 2. Essential knowledge for the strength and conditioning specialist 1. A. Education: basic scientific knowledge, applied scientific knowledge 1. 2. General public 3. Teams Training in basic sciences, e.g., anatomy, physiology, chemistry, physics C. Brochure D. Relationship with parents B. Understand the principles of training: development of health and performance fitness components 1. Sports nutrition 2. Measurement Athletes E. Relationship with schools, sports clubs, and health clubs F. Working with unique populations G. Working with clients 4. Legal and ethical considerations 3. Motor learning A. Behave ethically 4. Psychology of sport B. Insurance 5. Prevention and treatment of athletic injuries C. Written questionnaire C. Practical experience: athletics, coaching, training experience 5. Certification A. Continuing education 6. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Define the duties and responsibilities of the strength and conditioning specialist • Understand the importance of strong academic preparation in basic sciences • Learn that strength and conditioning specialists need a good understanding of exercise physiology, biomechanics, nutrition, pharmacology, pathophysiology, sport psychology, motor learning, and motor development. Strength and Conditioning • Learn that strength and conditioning specialists must understand basic principles of fitness such as overload, specificity, whole-body functional training, individual differences, reversibility, periodization, rest, over-training, and stimulus variability. • Learn that strength and conditioning specialist should have a practical knowledge of training techniques and exercise programming. • Learn about economic opportunities for strength and conditioning specialists • Learn the importance of ethical behavior Essential Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning | 3 To be competitive, modern athletes must be in top shape. Nearly all athletes can benefit from the services of a strength and conditioning specialist. The trainer can help athletes develop consistent habits in their training, motivate them, give them a scientifically structured training and nutrition program, and integrate the many aspects of the program into a cohesive strategy to improve performance. Strength and conditioning specialists possess an impressive array of training, nutritional, and psychological tools to help athletes excel. At the same time, coaches in high school, college, and sports clubs unfortunately are often poorly trained because of the sorry state of coaching education in many American colleges and universities. This presents opportunities for strength and conditioning coaches to fill the void and to help motivate athletes to “be the best they can be” on and off the playing field. The strength and conditioning specialist must have the scientific and practical knowledge to help people improve their fitness and achieve the level of performance they want. This process involves determining the client’s goals, identifying the sport’s requirements, assessing fitness and physical capacity, and designing a program to help the client achieve his or her goals. Strength and conditioning coaches with specialized knowledge in strength and conditioning are invaluable at all levels. They can teach high school athletes the principles of training for strength, power, and endurance. They can help prepare college or professional athletes for the high demands of elite sport—often determining whether or not they make the team. Trainers can also help the “average” person reach higher levels of performance in recreational tennis, skiing, master’s sports, league basketball, softball, and bodybuilding, to name just a few. The trainer also can be a motivating factor helping people maintain a healthy lifestyle involving regular exercise, proper nutrition, reduced stress, and the reduction of disease risk factors. Working with the average person is often the bread and butter for the strength and conditioning coach. America faces an obesity epidemic. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (www.cdc.gov/) reported that 66% of Americans are either obese or overweight. About 50% of people are physically inactive and could benefit from the services of a qualified strength and conditioning coach. Special populations also are potential clients— even for the strength and conditioning specialist. People with diabetes, asthma, spinal cord injury, amputation, or cerebral palsy or who are developmentally disabled will benefit from the services of a knowledgeable trainer. Families of these people may have discretionary income that will pay for your services. You could help these people improve their physical capacities for sport or health and well-being. International Sports Sciences Association 4 | Unit 1.1 Essential Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning Anatomy: The study of the structure of the body and the relationship between its parts. Physiology: The study of how living organisms function. Exercise physiology: The study of how living organisms function during exercise. Biomechanics: The study of mechanical basis of locomotion of the body (informative website dealing with biomechanics: https:// isbweb.org). Pharmacology: The study of the discovery, chemistry, effects, uses, and manufacture of drugs. Sports psychology: The study of the conscious mind and its effects on behavior in an athletic environment. Sports nutrition: The study of foods and the physical and chemical process by which the body uses them during sport and exercise. Strength and Conditioning Strength and conditioning specialists who work with serious athletes must be more than good athletes themselves. They must have detailed knowledge of fitness assessment, specific sports, and exercise program development, including general knowledge of anatomy, physiology, exercise physiology, biomechanics, sports training, pharmacology, sports psychology, and sports nutrition. They must know the science behind training, diet, supplements, and psychology. Just as important, they should understand the “art” behind blending these elements in a way that works for the athlete. Education: Basic Scientific Knowledge, Applied Scientific Knowledge Ideally, a strength and conditioning specialist should have a college degree in kinesiology, physical education, or physical therapy. The combination of a general education, training in basic sciences (anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and physics), and a theoretical and practical knowledge of exercise physiology, biomechanics, nutrition, pharmacology, pathophysiology, sport psychology, motor learning, and motor development provide invaluable insight and understanding for long-term client development. Strength and conditioning specialists should have adequate academic preparation so they know why they should prescribe specific exercises and training programs. A UCLA study of 115 experienced personal trainers showed only 42 % passed a test of fitness knowledge! The trainers were employed in health clubs, colleges, or private practices. Almost all trainers with specialized college degrees passed. Disappointingly, 44 % of trainers with five or more years of experience failed the test. The most knowledgeable trainers had a college degree and a proper certification as a personal trainer. Degree programs are available at most universities and community colleges. ISSA currently offers an associate’s degree in exercise science with a specialization in personal training and is moving toward establishing a bachelor’s degree program in the not so distant future. Essential Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning | 5 Anatomy and Physiology: Every strength and conditioning specialist should have a thorough understanding of anatomy and physiology. There is just no way around this. Anatomy describes body structures. You should know the major muscles and their actions. You cannot strengthen healthy or injured muscles unless you know where they are and what they do. Joints are complicated structures containing delicate lubrication systems and unique tissues. Understanding them will help you prevent life-long injury and disability and contribute to long-term health. A basic knowledge of the structure and function of the brain, bone, heart, liver, kidneys, lungs, blood vessels, muscle, and skin will help you understand their roles in health, disease, and performance. Strength and conditioning specialists should have a comprehensive understanding of metabolism—the sum total of the chemical reactions occurring in the body. During metabolism, the body converts food energy into other forms of energy the body can use at rest and during exercise. The physically fit athlete is an efficient energy manager. Physical training improves metabolic capacity. The knowledgeable strength and conditioning specialist can improve the metabolism without causing overtraining or injury. Exercise and nutrition interact to influence metabolism and its adaptability. Know the function and regulation of the lungs, heart, and blood vessels. Knowledge of the structure and function of the cardiorespiratory system will help you understand the basis for aerobic capacity, metabolic health, and cardiovascular disease. A high capacity cardiorespiratory system is important for health and performance—even in high-power athletes. Athletes such as throwers and weightlifters must have good cardiovascular capacity necessary to endure long practice sessions. In sports such as American football, soccer, volleyball, and water polo, cardiovascular fitness can mean the difference between winning and losing. For the average person, a high capacity cardiorespiratory system is vital for health and longevity. Strength and conditioning specialists should also understand the function of hormones and their effects on metabolism. Hormones are critical for maintaining muscle and bone mass with age and for maximizing the effects of training and nutrition. Some athletes take banned hormones such as human growth hormone, testosterone and other anabolic steroids, and erythropoietin (EPO). Trainers should understand how these substances work and be aware of alternatives involving training and nutrition. A working knowledge of genetics is essential for the modern strength and conditioning specialist. The human genome was identified more than 10 years ago. Since then, scientists have found variants of genes that control endurance, strength, speed, and psychological characteristics. Trainers should understand the benefits and limitations of specific gene variants and how they influence the training process. Strength and conditioning specialists should understand the brain and nervous system. New and exciting tools such as PET, MRI, and CT scans have enabled us to learn about this previously little understood area of physiology and function. Trainers should understand the influence of trauma on brain function and long-term health. They should also understand International Sports Sciences Association 6 | Unit 1.1 the importance of precise motor patterns in the nervous system that dictate how we learn and perform motor skills. Principles of Training: Trainers should have strong knowledge of the physical and psychological adaptations to training. Changes in training status improve fitness and capacity of the physiological systems. Knowledge of muscle, cardiopulmonary, and metabolic physiology, and how they adapt to training, is critical for any strength and conditioning specialist. Strength and conditioning coaches must understand basic principles of fitness training such as overload, specificity, whole-body functional training, individual differences, reversibility, periodization, rest, overtraining, and stimulus variability. Trainers should also know how to achieve training effects quickly, efficiently, and without injury. Development of Health and Performance Fitness Components: It is difficult to separate health- and performance-related physical fitness. Certainly they overlap. For simplicity, health-related fitness components include endurance, strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition. Performance-related fitness includes all of the above including power, agility, speed, balance, and skill. The knowledgeable strength and conditioning specialist should understand the physiology of each fitness component and know training techniques to develop them in athletes and physically active clients. Sports Nutrition: Nutrition supplies the energy required for growth and fuels metabolism during exercise. Twenty years ago, the best advice a coach could give a young athlete was to “eat a Strength and Conditioning well-balanced diet containing a variety of foods.” This remains good advice. In addition, sports scientists have developed many nutritional techniques to improve performance. Sports drinks, dietary composition, nutrient timing, and some dietary supplements can boost performance under a variety of circumstances. Strength and conditioning specialist, particularly strength and conditioning specialists, should be able to design diets for athletes that consider the nutritional needs of intense training and provide the essential nutrients to improve performance. Some states have laws regulating nutritional counseling, so be aware of the requirements in your area (www.nutritionadvocacy.org). Measurement: Strength and conditioning specialists should use scientific methods if they want to remain effective. This involves using valid measurement tools to measure weaknesses in fitness and improvements in the training program. You should know basic tests to assess fitness in the most common health and performance components and relate them to performance in the athlete’s sport. You should become familiar with the basic statistical terms mean, standard deviation, percentile rank, correlation, and regression. These terms are important for interpreting the research results you read in journals and articles. Motor Learning: Motor learning involves the study of how people learn physical skills. Strength and conditioning coaches attempt to improve fitness that can be transferred to faster and more powerful sports performances. Strength and power transfer is automatic. Simply increasing the amount of weight an athlete bench presses or squats does not automatically Essential Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning | 7 improve power in football, track, or basketball. The newly acquired strength must be integrated into the specific sports movements. Strength and conditioning coaches should understand how athletes best learn sports skills and how specific training exercises affect learning them. Psychology of Sport: Success in sport or an exercise program requires dedication and motivation. Strength and conditioning coaches can help athletes succeed by believing in them, helping them focus on goals, and providing them with concrete methods to improve performance. Intense training is difficult for athletes at any level. The trainer can help athletes maintain a balanced “good” life. Strength and conditioning coaches must know enough about sports psychology to help athletes cope with the stresses of sport and some stresses unrelated to sport. You can help them keep sport in its proper perspective and ensure that training for athletics remains a healthy, positive experience. Prevention and Treatment of Athletic Injuries: A fine line often separates improved fitness from training and breakdown and injury from overtraining. The strength and conditioning specialist must know how much training causes positive adaptation and how much is excessive. Injuries do occur in sports. Part of your job as a strength and conditioning coach is to work around the injury to maintain fitness or at least to prevent deterioration. You should also know basic rehabilitative exercises for major injuries and the important role of conditioning in injury prevention. Strength and conditioning coaches must know emergency medical procedures in the unlikely event an athlete suffers a serious medical condition or injury. You must keep meticulous records of your injury management procedures to protect yourself from a lawsuit. Practical Experience: Athletics, Coaching, and Training Experience Strength coaches should walk the walk. It’s nearly impossible to teach the nuances of Olympic lifts, plyometrics, power lifts, kettlebell exercises, and functional training if you can’t perform the exercises. Learning these exercises takes thousands of hours of practice. If all your knowledge comes from a book, you “don’t know what you don’t know.” You will gain valuable and unique experiences from academic preparation, participating in athletics, coaching, and continuing education. The blend of theory and practice is essential for any trainer. The strength and conditioning specialist who is all theory won’t have the practical experience necessary to influence athletes and clients. Conversely, the purely practically trained strength and conditioning specialist won’t be able to provide a rationale for specific training or nutritional programs. They are more likely to follow the fad of the week or month. Athletics are the ultimate proving ground for training methods and theories. Athletes quickly pay the price for poor preparation. Academic preparation and continuing education will help you master the theory of training and provide a rationale for exercise and nutrition recommendations. Coaching and athletic experiences put International Sports Sciences Association 8 | Unit 1.1 theories to the test. Sometimes the theories are useful, but sometimes they are impractical and essentially worthless. Power: Work per unit of time. From a practical standpoint, defined as ability to exert force rapidly. Skill: Ability to perform a discrete motor task. Coordination: Harmonious functioning of muscles, joints, bones, and soft tissues during the performance of motor skills. Speed: Ability to move quickly. Reaction time: Time from the onset of a stimulus until the body responds. Balance: Ability to remain steady and under control from a moving or stationary base. Specific training: The body’s adaptation to the nature of the stressor. Strength and conditioning coaches must know how to promote fitness for wellness (i.e., cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition). Trainers should know the latest information about the influence of diet and exercise on heart disease, cancer, stroke, diabetes, and immune function. They should be well versed in training techniques that develop power, skill, coordination, speed, reaction time, and balance. These skills are largely developed through specific training—stressing the body the way you want it to change and improve. Building fitness for competition takes more time than does building fitness for wellness. The investment in time is worth the effort because of the many physical and mental rewards provided by competitive sports. At the highest levels, working with athletes preparing for the NFL, NBA, Olympics, or professional wrestling can help them earn millions of dollars and achieve life-long dreams. Economics for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning: Athletes, General Public, Teams, and Job Opportunities CNN rated personal trainer among the top 20 best jobs in the United States. There is solid evidence that regular exercise is essential for health and longevity. Unfortunately, more than 50% of Americans do not get the exercise they need. Medical costs have exceeded the rate of inflation for more than 50 years. This makes disease prevention and health promotion essential for the economic prosperity of countries around the world. According to industry statistics, the median pay for strength and conditioning coaches is $56,000 a year, with many trainers exceeding $100,000 a year. Job growth is expected to increase by 24% in the next 10 years. We hope that salaries will increase proportionately. Job opportunities are extremely diverse. Although many trainers work for established health clubs and gyms, others work in Strength and Conditioning Essential Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning | 9 health-care facilities such as hospitals; retirement facilities; specialized treatment centers (i.e., diabetes, pregnancy); high school, college, or professional teams; and physical therapy practices. This course will prepare strength and conditioning specialists to work with tactical athletes such as military personnel, firefighters, and police officers. Many strength and conditioning specialists maintain private practices. They often work with high-level athletes but more often specialize in high school or college athletes. Recruiting Clients: Most strength and conditioning coaches work with adults who have money and discipline and generally are motivated to exercise. Adults want to look physically attractive, thin, fit, and healthy. The competition for competitive athletes is often fierce, which is why you need both academic knowledge and practical experience. The market is large and, to some extent, untapped. The strength and conditioning coaches can help people improve health and fitness, and they can make athletes more competitive and develop training skills that will help them succeed in sports. Most strength and conditioning coaches obtain clients through health clubs, word of mouth, or their private office or home practice. Working with athletes is not much different. Athletes typically participate on club and school teams, so these are good places on which to focus your recruiting efforts. Your best bet is to attain the endorsement or at least passive cooperation of the coach. People can also become aware of your services through blogs, Internet sites, newspaper advertising, after-school activities, social media, bulletin boards, and brochures. Brochure: A good brochure is vital to any strength and conditioning coach. Handing out a well-produced brochure enhances your image as a professional and will help attract customers willing to spend money for a quality trainer. Your brochure should include your photograph, target population, list of services, schooling, certifications, and experience (athletic and personal training). Be upbeat and emphasize your strong points. If you have only a high school diploma but are a champion bodybuilder or fitness competitor, emphasize your athletic experience and certifications. Push your credentials to the max if you have a master’s degree in exercise physiology or related fields. Create your brochure or website with a professional flair. Explain your services simply and concisely. Have a rate (cost) sheet available, but do not publish it in the brochure. Distribute the brochure in places frequented by athletes or their parents—sporting goods stores, health clubs, gyms, school bulletin boards, and online. Relationship with Parents: If you work with young athletes, parents are the best link to new clients. Obviously, parents pay the bills, so you will not get far without them. In addition, parents often have higher ambitions for their children than the children do themselves. The bottom line: get parents on your side. You are the professional, so you need to draw the line at parents’ telling you how to do your job. This requires tact and finesse. Overzealous or overprotective parents can negatively affect a child’s progress, self-image, and motivation for training. The strength and conditioning coach must walk a fine line between soliciting parental support and maintaining independence. International Sports Sciences Association 10 | Unit 1.1 Relationship with Schools and Sports Clubs: Schools are an excellent source of clients. Many school athletic programs use part-time coaches and lack continuity from one year to the next or even one season to the next. The strength and conditioning coach can help athletes develop fitness systematically over a long period. Strength and conditioning coaches can also be seen as a threat to the school program. Jealousy from the coach, other athletes, or parents can cause problems. The trainer must walk a fine line between doing what is best for the child and getting along with the school administration. You must not ignore the coach’s or school administration’s wishes. At the same time, you probably know training techniques of which they are unaware. If you do not maintain good cooperation with the school, try to coordinate your training program with the school timetable to avoid overtraining the athlete or interfering with his or her sports skill development. Club Sports: Club sports are common in most parts of the world—particularly in Europe and South America. Poor sports programs in many American schools have prompted the development of well-funded club sports programs particularly in soccer, gymnastics, figure skating, volleyball, tennis, baseball, swimming, water polo, and long-distance running. Sports clubs are a great source of clients. Some trainers develop formal relationships with clubs—even to the extent of becoming the club’s strength and conditioning coach. As is the case with schools, be aware of the club coach’s “turf” concerns. Schools: Schools often restrict their facilities, particularly during school hours. Be aware of local regulations when using school facilities Strength and Conditioning for training. Never decide just to use a facility because it is there! Volunteering as a part-time coach will often allow you access to school facilities and offer you some legal protection. Health Clubs: Gyms have built-in clientele— athletes would not be there if they or their parents were uninterested in fitness and sports. Some gyms allow outside trainers to use their facilities, whereas others will not. Try to establish a formal relationship with several clubs in town. Even if you have to share revenue, maintaining a good relationship with the best clubs in town will pay dividends to you in the end. Working with unique populations: People with special needs—physically or mentally disabled, asthmatics, diabetics, or the overweight and obese—remain a potentially lucrative income source. Many trainers specialize and center their business on special populations. If you choose this route, learn as much about the disability as possible from up-to-date textbooks and sources of reliable information online. Examples include the American Diabetes Association (http://diabetes.org), American Lung Association (www.lung.org/lung-disease/asthma/), American Heart Association (www.heart. org/HEARTORG/), Obesity Society (www. obesity.org), and the United States Department of Agriculture (www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/ usdahome). You need special knowledge about how exercise, growth, and development affect the specific disability. Sports for athletes with disabilities are extremely advanced and involve truly elite athletes. This can be a good opportunity for strength and conditioning specialists. Working with Clients: You will make the most progress with clients and establish a thriving Essential Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning | 11 business if you have a plan. This plan includes legal and ethical considerations, a preliminary questionnaire and history, the establishment of goals and objectives, a pre-training fitness measurement, the training plan, and reevaluation. Legal and Ethical Considerations Strength and conditioning coaches are not licensed, so few standards of practice exist. In the event of legal problems, however, a judge will expect you to behave at a level consistent with that of other professionals. Working with young athletes poses legal risks not present when working with adults. Physically or sexually abusive clients, or even the hint of such, can have serious legal consequences. Behave Ethically: You must protect yourself— being unjustly accused of impropriety is little better than actually doing something wrong. The benefit of the doubt will go to the athlete. You can minimize problems by always maintaining a professional demeanor, not becoming overly friendly with clients—particularly of the opposite gender—and documenting training sessions, evaluations, and training programs. Keep a detailed daily log and always record the date and time of workout sessions along with any notes germane to the workout session such as injuries, complaints, progress. Psychologists describe the phenomenon of transference between coaches and athletes as physical attraction developed by working closely with each other. Fit young people can look like adults and appear physically attractive. The strength and conditioning coach should remember that young athletes are typically immature and easily swayed by the attention received from the strength and conditioning specialist or coach. Be a professional and do not become involved with your clients—ever. Even a false accusation can ruin your life and end your career. Drug use by athletes represents another ethical issue. You do not want to be accused of advising athletes to use illegal drugs such as anabolic steroids or growth hormone. Nearly 5% of high school athletes have used steroids, and use among college and professional athletes is invariably higher than that, so it is inevitable that you will work with people who use these drugs. Discourage drug use in your clients (https://www.dea.gov). Encourage athletes to develop strength, speed, and power naturally without the aid of illegal drugs. It is acceptable to educate athletes about the risks and benefits of these drugs, but the strength and conditioning specialist should never be perceived as advocating their use. Insurance: Most professional organizations offer professional liability and malpractice insurance to their members. These policies are usually reasonable and well worth the money. Defending even a groundless lawsuit can be financially draining. It would be prudent to consult with a lawyer about which type of insurance and coverage to purchase. Written Questionnaire: The history and goals questionnaire is essential to assessing your client, prescribing the exercise program, and determining the nature and intensity of training. Begin with a thorough medical history, including past illnesses, surgeries, and medications. The questionnaire should include background International Sports Sciences Association 12 | Unit 1.1 about the parents, including health and athletic history. Obtain a detailed account of athletic and fitness experiences including health clubs, school sports, club sports (e.g., Little League baseball), professional sports, and sports camps. Record a physical description of the client that includes height, weight, and age. Ask for a list of short-term and long-term goals. Certification Congratulations! You have chosen a specialized certification within the many offered by ISSA. This demonstrates your professionalism, your dedication to the field, and your desire to improve your skills. ISSA is the industry-leading first fitness organization in the United States to be accredited by a federally recognized agency (Distance Education Accrediting Commission, DEAC). The Accrediting Commission is listed by the US Department of Education as a nationally recognized agency, recognized by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA), and recognized by the International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association Strength and Conditioning (IHRSA). ISSA is an approved full affiliate of the National Board of Fitness Examiners. Currently, strength and conditioning coaches are not licensed by any state in the United States. However, legislation has been introduced in several states requiring licensure. That said, strength and conditioning coaches are still required to act professionally as though they are licensed. Trainers must meet standards consistent with common practices followed by similar professionals. This means that certification standards by leading organizations such as ISSA become the benchmark by which personal strength and conditioning coaches are judged and held accountable. Continuing Education The fitness industry and concepts of physical training and exercise science change rapidly. Even the most thoroughly trained person forgets basic concepts over time. ISSA, and certifying agencies in nearly all fields (e.g., medicine, law, veterinary medicine, real estate), require continuing education. This is essential for maintaining relevancy in the field. Essential Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning | 13 Summary The strength and conditioning specialist must have the scientific and practical knowledge to help people improve fitness and achieve the level of performance they seek. This process involves determining the client’s goals, identifying the sport’s requirements, assessing fitness and physical capacity, and designing a program to help people achieve their goals. The combination of a general education; training in basic sciences (anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and physics); and a theoretical and practical knowledge of exercise physiology, biomechanics, nutrition, pharmacology, pathophysiology, sport psychology, motor learning, and motor development provides invaluable insight and understanding for long-term development of clients. Trainers must understand basic principles of fitness such as overload, specificity, whole-body functional training, individual differences, reversibility, periodization, rest, over-training, and stimulus variability. They should know how to achieve training effects quickly, efficiently, and without injury. Strength and conditioning coaches should have well-developed movement skills. It is impossible to teach the nuances of Olympic lifts, power lifts, plyometrics, kettlebell exercises, functional training, and bodybuilding if you cannot perform the exercises. Learning these exercises takes many hours of practice. The blend of theory and practice is essential for any trainer. The strength and conditioning specialist who is all theory will not have the practical experience required to influence athletes and clients. Conversely, the purely practically trained will not be able to provide a rationale for specific training or nutritional programs. Opportunities for strength and conditioning coach are increasing rapidly and chances for employment are expected to increase by 24% in the next decade. Job opportunities are extremely diverse. Although many trainers work for established health clubs and gyms, others work in health-care facilities such as hospitals, retirement facilities, specialized treatment centers (i.e., diabetes, pregnancy) and with high school, college, or professional teams, and physical therapy practices. Many strength and conditioning specialists have private practices. They often work with high-level athletes but more often specialize in high school or college athletes. Trainers should strictly observe legal and ethical standards. Even the appearance of impropriety can have serious professional and personal consequences. Good practice—whether self-employed or working for a company—includes maintaining accurate records, following standard practice protocols, carrying liability insurance, and maintaining relevancy in the field. No state in the United States requires licensure of personal trainers or strength and conditioning coaches. However, you should follow expected and normal practices as outlined in your ISSA courses. Keep abreast of changes in the field by participating in continuing education activities. International Sports Sciences Association SECTION TWO Physical Training UNIT 2.1 Principles of Physical Fitness 16 | Unit 2.1 Unit Outline 1. f. Building Strength and Power: Crucial Knowledge for the Strength and Conditioning Specialist g. Muscular Endurance h. Muscular Endurance for Wellness 2. Defining Fitness a. i. Physical Fitness for Athletes and Recreationally Active Adults a. 5. Body Composition a. Strength and Aging 6. Which Fitness Component Should You Emphasize for Your Client? b. Strength and Wellness Muscular Power 7. d. Muscular Power for Wellness e. Body Composition and Wellness b. Body Composition and Performance 3. Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance c. Flexibility and Wellness b. Flexibility and Performance Exercising to Develop Aerobic Capacity d. Increasing Physical Activity to Improve Health and Wellness a. Muscular Endurance for Performance 4. Flexibility b. Aerobic or Cardiorespiratory Capacity c. Exercising to Develop Power Putting the Program in Proper Perspective 8. Summary Muscular Power for Performance Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand basic techniques for building power such as plyometrics, speed exercises, interval training, weightlifting exercises (i.e., Olympic lifting and modified “O” lifts, whole body functional training, and compensatory acceleration training. • Define fitness and its meaning for athletes and physically active people • Define aerobic capacity and understand basic techniques for developing it. • Understand the importance of regular exercise and physical activity for health • Understand the importance of muscle endurance for health and performance. • Define muscular strength, power, and speed • • Understand the importance of maintaining muscle strength, power, and size for health— particularly with age Understand the importance of flexibility for health and performance. • Understand the importance of body composition for health and performance. Strength and Conditioning Principles of Physical Fitness | 17 Building Strength and Power: Crucial Knowledge for the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning Strength coaches must know the theory and practice of building strength, power, and muscle mass. This requires a great deal more knowledge than simply stringing together exercises for cookie-cutter training programs. The best coaches assess athletes’ specific needs and prescribe appropriate programs. A bodybuilding program is terrific for competitive bodybuilders and for improving physical appearance but inappropriate for a football or soccer player, golfer, swimmer, or discus thrower. Except in the case of bodybuilders and people interested in general fitness, the strength coach’s goal should be to improve strength, power, and speed in highly specific motor skills. Performance in motor skills such as hitting a baseball or golf ball, blocking in football, throwing the hammer, or slalom skiing requires precise motor patterns developed by thousands of hours of practice. The conditioning program should support motor performance, not substitute it. Bench pressing 225 pounds 50 times or running a 40-yard dash in 4.5 seconds is no substitute for biomechanically precise technique. Some exercise training programs try to build power fitness by including every exercise under the sun. The best way to improve power for sports is to improve skill. Then—and only then—should you add intense conditioning. Strength and power exercise help skilled more than unskilled athletes. Building high levels of power, strength, and speed is essential for reaching the highest levels of sport, but they should never serve as a substitute for skill. This field is plagued by misinformation, zealotry, and ignorance. Forget macho exercise programs, and train smart. More is not necessarily better. Popular programs involving random high-volume high-stress exercises interfere with motor performance. Athletes cannot perform precise motor skills if they hurt so badly that they have trouble walking and can’t practice. Train for the long haul. Strength coaches should not cause muscle and joint injuries. The strength and conditioning program should complement the athlete’s training program. Programs that trigger shoulder rotator cuff or back injuries hinder or destroy progress and have lifelong consequences. Athletes will be old much longer than they will be young! Research shows that stronger athletes run faster, jump higher, and throw farther. The effective strength and conditioning coach has an effective knowledge of applying effective training methods and exercises that build high levels of strength and power without interfering with motor skill development. Defining Fitness Few strength and conditioning specialists have the luxury of working exclusively with elite athletes. A good knowledge of physical fitness and physical training for health is essential to the average trainer’s economic survival. International Sports Sciences Association 18 | Unit 2.1 Physical fitness: The ability to meet the demands of physical effort. Exercise: Planned, structured, repetitive movement designed specifically to improve or maintain physical fitness. Physical fitness refers to the body’s ability to adapt to the demands of physical effort. Fitness is specific to the sport. A lineman, for example, needs strength, power, and speed for short, all-out efforts. Distance runners and cyclists need endurance to exercise and power to move quickly. Gymnasts, figure skaters, hammer throwers, and quarterbacks must have the fitness to repetitively execute complex motor tasks. Exercise is a planned, structured, repetitive movement designed specifically to improve or maintain physical fitness Physical Fitness for Athletes and Recreationally Active Adults Physical activity: Body movement that increases metabolic rate. Metabolic fitness: Normal or optimal metabolic function. Aerobic capacity: The ability of the body to consume, transport, and use oxygen, sometimes called maximal oxygen consumption. Muscular strength: The ability of muscles to exert force. Muscular endurance: The ability of muscles to exert force for sustained periods. Flexibility: The capacity to move a joint through a range of motion (ROM). Body composition: The physical makeup of the human body. The two main components include fat weight and fat-free weight. Strength and Conditioning Scientists have distinguished between physical fitness—a measure of physical capacity—and physical activity—any movement of the body carried out by the muscles and requiring energy to produce. Physical activity is just as important as physical fitness is to promote health. Physical activity promotes metabolic fitness, which benefits the body in its day-to-day functioning. For more than 50 years, fitness has been defined as aerobic capacity. Developing aerobic capacity has been the primary goal of fitness training since 1965 when Kenneth Cooper published his landmark book Aerobics. This book, based on numerous studies conducted since the early 1900s, defined fitness as the body’s ability to transport and use oxygen. Aerobic capacity is also known as cardiorespiratory capacity. The quest for aerobic fitness led to popular exercise crazes such as jogging beginning in the 1970s and aerobics classes beginning in the 1980s. Aerobic capacity, however, is only one dimension of fitness. Though important, it is not the only fitness factor necessary to develop an athlete’s peak performance. Fitness experts realize that fitness means more than a healthy heart. In addition to aerobic capacity, other components of fitness are vital to health and performance. These include muscular strength and power, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition. Power sports such as football, basketball, baseball, golf, tennis, throwing, sprinting, and volleyball each have special fitness requirements that go well beyond the body’s need for oxygen and wellness promotion. Principles of Physical Fitness | 19 Aerobic or Cardiorespiratory Capacity Supplying energy for activities lasting more than 30 seconds depends on the consumption and use of oxygen (O2). Most physical activities in daily life and athletics take more than 90 seconds, so O2 consumption is critical for survival including performance. Oxygen consumption increases as we progress from rest to easy exercise to intense exercise. The maximum rate that people consume O2, called • maximal oxygen consumption or VO2max (a scientific symbol meaning the volume of oxygen consumed per minute), is one of the most important factors determining how hard they can exercise, how long they can sustain exercise, and how quickly they recover. Maximal oxygen • consumption (VO2max): The ability to consume, transport, and use oxygen, sometimes called aerobic capacity. Aerobic capacity includes two components: 1. Oxygen transport capacity 2. Cellular endurance capacity Oxygen transport capacity moves oxygen from the outside ambient air into the cells. It depends on well-functioning lungs, heart, and blood vessels. Cellular endurance capacity refers to how cells consume oxygen, process fuels, and transform energy for cell functions such as muscular work. Cellular endurance capacity is an extremely important part of aerobic capacity because the cells ultimately supply energy for exercise. Oxygen consumption and much of the cell’s energy production occur in the mitochondria—the powerhouses of the cells. Mitochondria allow the cells to consume oxygen, use fat as fuel, and protect themselves against destructive chemicals called free radicals. Free radical damage may be a cause of aging, disease, and tissue injury. Exercising to Develop Aerobic Capacity Endurance exercise best develops both components of aerobic capacity. Examples include walking, running, swimming, climbing, cycling, and cross-country skiing. Tennis, volleyball, soccer, and basketball also develop aerobic capacity. High-intensity endurance exercise develops oxygen transport capacity Mitochondria: Small intracellular organelle in a cell responsible for energy production and cellular respiration. Free radicals: Highly reactive molecules with an unsatisfied electron valence pair. Free radicals are produced in both normal and pathological processes. They are proven or suspected agents of tissue damage in a wide variety of circumstances including radiation, damage from environmental chemicals, and aging. Natural and pharmacological prevention of free radical damage is being actively investigated. International Sports Sciences Association 20 | Unit 2.1 most effectively. A general recommendation for developing oxygen transport capacity includes these four factors: 1. Mode of Activity: Do aerobic type exercise such as running, cycling, swimming, or cross-country skiing. 2. Frequency of Training: Exercise three to five days a week. 3. Intensity of Training: Train at 55/65 to 90% of maximum heart rate. The lower intensity values (55 to 64% of maximum heart rate) apply most to people who are unfit or sedentary. Athletes or those who desire extremely high levels of aerobic fitness often practice interval training at maximum intensity. Interval training involves repeated exercise bouts at a relatively high intensity with brief rest periods between bouts. 4. Duration of Training: Do 15 to 60 minutes of continuous aerobic activity. Duration depends on the intensity of the activity. Serious endurance athletes must train much harder than this. The strength and conditioning will work with many people who mainly want to promote health and well-being. This general exercise prescription for endurance works well for the average person. Over-distance training or prolonged endurance exercise is best for developing cellular endurance capacity. People serious about developing high levels of cellular endurance often run, cycle, or swim many miles in the quest for superior endurance levels. Section 4 of this course discusses the development of aerobic capacity and endurance in further detail. Strength and Conditioning Exercise and Health It is official. The surgeon general has determined that lack of exercise is hazardous to health. In 1996, the government issued the landmark “The Surgeon General’s Report on Physical Activity and Health.” It stated that regular, moderate activity dramatically reduces risk of many diseases and health problems. Prior to 1980, exercise recommendations emphasized vigorous exercise and participation in team sports such as basketball and soccer and activities individuals could pursue on their own such as jogging. The first exercise recommendations from the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) were issued in 1975. The ACSM recommended exercise three to five days a week for 15 to 60 minutes at 50% to 85% of heart rate reserve (maximum heart rate – resting heart rate + resting heart rate). These guidelines were modified in 1978, 1990, 1998, and 2011 to reflect current knowledge on the effects of exercise on health and body composition. During the 1980s and 1990s, research showed that moderate-intensity exercise promoted health and longevity. This led to changes in exercise recommendations from the United States Surgeon General (issued in 1996), the Department of Health and Human Services (2005 and 2008), and the American College of Sports Medicine and American Heart Association (2007 and 2011). In 2008 and 2010, the US Surgeon General issued The Surgeon General’s Vision for a Healthy and Fit Nation and the US Department of Health and Human Services made Principles of Physical Fitness | 21 specific recommendations for promoting exercise and health (https://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/index.htm). These reports stressed the importance of regular physical activity and emphasized that some physical activity is better than none. Regular exercise may be the single most important lifestyle activity that will make people healthier and more resistant to disease. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the lead federal agency for protecting the health and safety of people Prevention (www.cdc. gov/), and the Office of the Surgeon General, the nation’s leading spokesperson on matters of public health (www.surgeongeneral. gov/sgoffice.htm), stated that regular exercise is perhaps the single most important lifestyle practice people can undertake to enhance wellness. The following summarizes six ways that regular exercise can enhance overall health status: 1. Exercise lowers the risk of premature death. People who exercise experience a lower death rate from all causes. The lower all cause of death risk includes the leading killers—coronary artery disease and cancer—and accidents. 2. Exercise reduces the risk of developing coronary artery disease. People who exercise have a lower risk of developing and dying from heart disease than those who do not. Active people also have a lower risk of developing hypertension (high blood pressure), an important contributing risk factor of heart disease and stroke. Regular exercise reduces the risk factors of heart disease. Physical activity lowers cholesterol and low-density lipoproteins, raises high-density lipoproteins, reduces the risk of developing type 2 diabetes, makes blood platelets less sticky, and helps reduce body fat. Exercise also reduces heart disease risk for people who smoke cigarettes. 3. Exercise reduces the risk of developing some types of cancer. Physical activity during work or leisure lowers the risk of developing colon cancer by speeding up the transit time of food through the gastrointestinal tract. Although less clear, several studies have shown a link between physical activity and reduced risk of breast cancer, prostate cancer, and perhaps other reproductive cancers. Physical activity during high school and college years may be particularly important for preventing breast cancer during adulthood. A word of caution: Some types of cancer may be related to Hypertension: High blood pressure. Usually defined at pressures greater than 140 mm Hg. systolic or 90 mm Hg. diastolic. Stroke: Brain injury from a lack of oxygen that can lead to reversible or irreversible paralysis. Causes of interrupted blood flow to the brain include a blood clot or burst blood vessel. A stroke can cause coma, paralysis, speech problems, and dementia. High-density lipoproteins: Cholesterolcarrying particles in the bloodstream. Raised highdensity lipoprotein levels reduce the risk of coronary artery disease. Less than 35 mg/dl is considered a positive risk factor for coronary artery disease; over 60 mg/dl is considered a negative risk factor. Type 2 diabetes: Mild form of diabetes, typically appearing first in adulthood and exacerbated by obesity. This disease often has no symptoms, is usually diagnosed by tests that indicate glucose intolerance and is treated with changes in diet and an exercise regimen. It is also called noninsulin-dependent diabetes or adult-onset diabetes. Platelets: Blood cells important for blood clotting. International Sports Sciences Association 22 | Unit 2.1 problems with the immune system, the body’s first-line method to fight disease. Doing too much exercise on a chronic basis, a condition sometimes called overtraining, may impair the immune system and increase the risk of developing other types of cancers. Unfortunately, scientists know extremely little about the effects of excessive exercise on disease. 4. Regular exercise improves mental health. Exercise helps relieve symptoms of depression and anxiety and improves mood and sense of well-being. Increasingly, mental health professionals use exercise as an inexpensive way to treat patients. Osteoporosis: Reduced bone mass that leads to fractures following minimal trauma. Fast-twitch motor units: Skeletal muscle fibers and their motor nerve; the fibers have high myofibrillar ATPase activity, high glycolytic enzyme activities, and an intermediate glycogen content that produce a fast twitch. Types include type IIa, type IIb, and type IIx. Osteoarthritis: Noninflammatory, degenerative joint disease characterized by wasting of the joint cartilage, hypertrophy of bone at the margins, and changes in the synovial membrane. It is accompanied by pain and stiffness, particularly after prolonged activity. Rheumatoid arthritis: Chronic inflammatory disease accompanying destruction of joints. It appears to be an autoimmune disorder in which immune complexes form in joints and trigger joint inflammation. Strength and Conditioning 5. Exercise may prevent osteoporosis and sarcopenia that occurs commonly in older adults. Osteoporosis is the loss of bone mass, whereas sarcopenia is the loss of muscle tissue. Exercise during growth and early adulthood help increase or maintain bone mass, which may be important in preventing postmenopausal bone loss. Physical activity also may help post-menopausal women maintain bone mass. In older people, exercise helps preserve muscle mass and movement skills to help prevent accidents and life-threatening fractures. Sedentary people by age 70 can expect to lose 20% of their active muscle tissue. The connection of nerve and muscle is lost in many motor units. Fast-twitch motor units, necessary for powerful movement, gradually switch to less powerful slow-twitch motor units. Strength training can prevent much of this deterioration that occurs with age. Older adults can benefit from the services of a strength and conditioning specialist. Maintaining strength and muscle mass is critical to health and longevity. Resistance training is the best way to preserve muscle mass, and it is an important contributor to metabolic health. 6. Exercise may prevent arthritis and help those with the disease. Physical activity is important for maintaining joint mobility in people who have osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis and, if not too severe, can reduce disease symptoms. Increasing Physical Activity to Improve Health and Wellness In 2013, the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) issued Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Midcourse Report, following up its landmark 2008 report, titled Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, which made specific recommendations to promote exercise and health. In addition, in 2011, the ACSM released its exercise Principles of Physical Fitness | 23 guidelines for healthy adults titled “Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: Guidance for prescribing exercise.” (You can read these reports at www.health.gov/paguidelines and http://www.acsm.org/public-information/ acsm-journals/guidelines) As discussed, these reports stress the importance of regular physical activity and emphasize that some physical activity is better than none. They also present evidence that regular activity promotes health (Table 2.1-1) and prevents premature death and many diseases. The reports include the following core guidelines for adults: • • For substantial health benefits, adults should do at least 150 minutes (two-and-a-half hours) a week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity, or 75 minutes (one hour and 15 minutes) a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity. Activity should preferably be spread throughout the week. For additional and more extensive health benefits, adults should increase their aerobic physical activity to 300 minutes (five hours) a week of moderate-intensity activity, or 150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity activity, or an equivalent combination of moderateand vigorous-intensity activity. Adults can enjoy additional health benefits by engaging in physical activity beyond this amount. The Health and Retirement Study (http://hrsonline.isr.umich.edu)— a long-term study of older adults—found that people who exercised vigorously had a lower death rate than did those who exercised at moderate intensities or did no physical activity. After 16 years, the survival rate was 84% in those doing vigorous exercise, 78% in those doing moderate Table 2.1-1: Sixteen Major Health Benefits of Regular Exercise Reduced risk of premature death (all causes) Reduced risk of coronary heart disease Influences other risk factors of coronary heart disease Reduces blood pressure Lowers body fat Lowers blood fats Increases HDL (protective substance) Reduces platelet stickiness (platelets are a type of blood cell) Reduces effects of stress Improves glucose tolerance (related to a type of diabetes) Encourages healthy living habits Reduces the risk of some types of cancer Improves mental health Prevents or delays osteoporosis Prevents or improves symptoms of arthritis Prevents muscle and nerve deterioration with aging intensity physical activity, and only 65% in those doing no physical activity. • Adults should also do muscle-strengthening activities that are moderate or high intensity and that involve all major muscle groups two or more days a week, as these activities provide additional health benefits. • Everyone should avoid inactivity. Adults, teenagers, and children should spend less time in front of a television or computer screen because extended sitting decreases metabolic health and contributes to a sedentary lifestyle and increases obesity risk. The reports state that physical activity benefits people of all ages and of all racial and ethnic groups, including people with disabilities. The reports emphasize that the benefits of activity outweigh the dangers. These levels of physical International Sports Sciences Association 24 | Unit 2.1 activity promote health and wellness by lowering risk of high blood pressure, stroke, heart disease, type two diabetes, colon cancer, and osteoporosis and by reducing feelings of mild to moderate depression and anxiety. The daily total of physical activity can be accumulated in multiple bouts of 10 or more minutes a day—for example, two 10-minute bike rides to and from work and a brisk 10-minute walk to the store. In this lifestyle approach to physical activity, people can choose activities they find enjoyable and that fit into their daily routines; everyday tasks at school, work, and home can be structured to contribute to the daily activity total. If all Americans who are currently sedentary were to increase their lifestyle physical activity to 30 minutes daily, there would be an enormous economic and public health benefit. Muscular Strength, Power, and Endurance One-rep maximum: Maximum weight lifted in an exercise for one repetition. Lean body mass: Body weight minus non-essential fat. Motor nerves: Nerves that activate muscle fibers. Motor units: Single motor nerve together with the group of muscle fibers the nerve supplies. Muscular strength is a second major fitness component. Closely related to muscular strength is power. Although strength can be defined as ability to exert force, power is the ability to exert force rapidly. In most sports, power is more important than strength is. As examples, football players, sprinters, and jumpers must exert force rapidly to achieve maximum performance. Strength is the basis of power. There is a high association among basic measures of strength—such as one-rep maximum lifts in the bench press, deadlift, and squat—and ability to jump, sprint, and throw. Scientists also have determined that power is a critical component of endurance. Athletes who can run, swim, or sprint fast will win in endurance events if they also develop resistance to fatigue. Speed is another critical component of sports performance. Speed, the ability to move rapidly, is actually the same as power. Rapid movements such as swinging a baseball bat, throwing a discus, or charging off the line in football require as much force production as possible at very fast speeds. The faster you move, the less force you can apply during the movement. However, the force is still maximum for that speed. The speed of powerful movements depends on the load. Strength contributes significantly to sports performance and Strength and Conditioning Principles of Physical Fitness | 25 wellness. It helps keep the skeleton in proper alignment, helps exert force so individuals can move more easily, and helps maintain lean body mass (fat-free weight). bathtub or automobile, walking up a flight of stairs, or even doing light yard chores. People with poor strength can easily slip in the tub or hurt their backs when lifting objects. Proper skeletal alignment is important for preventing back and knee pain. For example, weak abdominal and back muscles tilt the pelvis forward more than usual, putting excessive pressure on sensitive spinal nerves that trigger back pain. Weak quadriceps muscles, the muscles on the front of the thigh, can cause the kneecap to ride to the outside of the knee joint and cause pain to the bone’s under surfaces. As people age, the nerves that turn on muscle fibers called motor nerves become disconnected from individual muscle fibers—they develop “loose” connections between the nerves and muscles. Muscle physiologists estimate that by age 70 in most people, 15% of the motor nerves become disengaged from their muscle fibers. Strengthening exercises can prevent much of this loss. Adequate or better muscle strength is essential for smooth, efficient performance of everyday activities. Carrying groceries, lifting boxes, getting out of a chair, and walking up a flight of stairs are much easier with good muscle strength. Stronger people can hit the ball harder in tennis, get over an edge better in skiing, and jump higher in volleyball. Muscles have fast and slow motor units. Quick, powerful movements require large, fast motor units, whereas slower movements to maintain posture use smaller, slower motor units. In older muscles, the slower motor units start to take over, which makes powerful movements more difficult. Muscles become slower due to physical inactivity. Doing strength exercises helps minimize this loss. Good muscle strength helps maintain a higher lean body mass (fat-free weight), important to control body composition. Scientists have discovered that the rate we use energy relates to lean body mass, which primarily consists of muscle. Increasing muscle mass through strength training will make it easier to keep body fat lower and under control. Strength and Aging: Muscle mass begins to decline after age 30. At first, people cannot play sports as well as they could in high school. However, with years of inactivity and loss of strength, people may have trouble performing even simple movements required in everyday tasks. Some people eventually have trouble getting out of a Practicing resistance exercise with weights, weight machines, or bodyweight as resistance is important for fitness and wellness. Strength training makes movements more powerful, helps maintain muscle mass (important for weight control), and contributes to healthy joints. Many middle-aged and older adults no longer are content to sit in their rocking chairs and pass their time into a senior care facility. They want to participate in track and field, soccer, basketball, volleyball, bowling, and swimming. They need the services of personal trainers who can help them reach and then exceed their physical potential. International Sports Sciences Association 26 | Unit 2.1 Resistive exercises: Exercises done under an external load. Strength and Wellness: Nearly everyone should do some exercise to develop the major muscle groups and maintain optimal joint health. People should do strength exercises at least twice weekly. Even doing simple resistive exercises that require no equipment such as knee bends and push-ups will help to ensure sound muscle and joint health. Strength and Performance: People who want to improve sports performance will often benefit from resistance exercise programs that develop muscles important in the sport. However, improving sports performance is largely a matter of improving skill. Increased strength is only valuable in sports if it can be incorporated into the skill. Muscular Power: Power has been an underemphasized area of fitness, yet it is critical for good performance in most sports. A client’s sports performance and general movement skills improve when the focus concentrates on developing power. In endurance sports, increased power helps people run, swim, and bike faster. In sports, increased power helps people hit golf or tennis balls harder, jump higher, and move more quickly. Many factors affect power, including strength, muscle size, muscle elasticity, skill, and body mechanics. A basic principle of this course is to train movements—not muscles— when training for power. Power cleans: Exercise in which the athlete lifts the bar from the floor to the chest. Snatches: Exercise in which the athlete lifts the bar from the floor to overhead in one continuous motion. Push presses: Military press accomplished with help from the legs. High pulls: Similar to a power clean except the athlete does not rack the weight—the lifter pulls the weight as high as possible without supporting it at the chest. Strength and Conditioning Muscular Power for Wellness: Accidents are a leading cause of death at any age. Rapid, powerful movements are often required to avoid accidents. Everyday incidents such as recovering your balance when you slip on a wet surface are nearly impossible without adequate muscular power. Good power also makes movements easier and helps maintain energy levels throughout the day. Muscular Power for Performance: Muscular power is critical for performance in most sports. Practicing the sport is the best way to improve sports specific power. Serious athletes benefit from exercises that force the muscles to exert force rapidly. Exercising to Develop Power: Doing general strength exercises is sufficient for developing power in people interested in fitness for health and wellness. Athletes who want more power for sports should do specialized power exercises. These exercises will be Principles of Physical Fitness | 27 presented in detail in Section 6. Five general examples of power exercises include: 1. Plyometric exercises. These exercises repeatedly load muscles suddenly and then immediately contract them. Examples include repeated standing long jumps, hops, vertical jumps, and box jumps. 2. Speed exercises. These exercises force you to exercise at maximum power output. They overload muscles during maximum effort. Examples include the high-knee sprint exercise (vigorously lift your knees while driving your arms in a sprinting motion), harness and sled pulls, bounding sprint strides with vigorous hip extensions, and downhill sprinting (sprinting down a 2%–3% grade). 3. Interval training. Repeated bouts of sprints or short distances from 20 yards to 1 mile. An example of an interval training program is to run 8 x 400 meters (440 yards) in 80 seconds with five minutes of rest between runs. 4. Olympic lifts. Weight lifting—often called Olympic weightlifting—is a competitive sport that includes the snatch and clean and jerk lifts. Power athletes often practice these lifts and their variations to improve strength and power. Variations include power cleans and snatches, push presses, high pulls, and overhead squats. 5. Whole-body functional training. These involve using functional training machines, rocks, sleds, and powerballs. 6. Compensatory acceleration training: This involves pushing weights at maximum velocity during the concentric phase of a lift (concentric is a muscle contraction involving muscle shortening), regardless of the weight. Muscular Endurance: Muscular endurance refers to a sustained given level of muscle force. It is important for tasks such as standing or sitting for long periods. In endurance sports, it allows athletes to exercise at high intensities for prolonged durations. Muscular endurance depends on a combination of muscle strength and cellular endurance capacity. Muscle endurance is best developed by many exercise repetitions and practicing sports and activities that require considerable muscle endurance. Muscular Endurance for Wellness: Good muscular endurance is extremely important for preventing low back and neck pain. Fit muscles can help maintain the spine in a position that curtails excessive pressure on sensitive spinal nerves and maintains good spinal joint health. In fact, recent research found that muscle endurance is more important than strength is in preventing back pain. Faithfully practicing endurance and strength exercises helps develop adequate muscle endurance. Muscle endurance for performance: In sports, muscular endurance is important in activities requiring sustained muscle contractions as in running, cycling, snow and water skiing, snowboarding, wrestling, and rock climbing. As with muscular power, muscular endurance is best developed by practicing the sport or movement. Performing many repetitions of exercises that develop muscles used in the activity can develop this fitness component. Flexibility Flexibility is the ability to move a joint through its full and normal range of motion (ROM). Flexibility is important for joint health and for maintaining normal ROM of the body’s major International Sports Sciences Association 28 | Unit 2.1 joints. The importance of flexibility exercises for sports is highly controversial. Recent studies show that, contrary to popular belief, static stretching before exercise decreases muscle strength and may increase injury risk! Flexibility and Wellness: Flexibility helps keep joints and muscles in proper alignment. It may prevent common disorders such as lower back pain. Flexibility is particularly important in preventing joint deterioration common in aging. Maintaining normal ROM promotes joint lubrication, essential to joint soft tissue metabolism. Flexibility and Performance: Flexibility training (at the end of workouts when the muscles are warm) may help prevent injury and can improve movement capacity. For example, pitchers with greater shoulder flexibility can exert force through a greater ROM and thus throw the ball harder. Many gymnastics or dance movements are impossible without considerable flexibility. Practicing the specific movements develops flexibility for sports best. Flexibility can be enhanced with stretching exercises for the muscles and joints used in the activity. Body Composition The ideal body composition is one that has an acceptable level of body fat for the athlete’s age and gender and a high proportion of lean body mass. Lean body mass is essentially fat free, mainly composed of skeletal muscle and bone. Skeletal muscle is not only essential for muscle strength but is a high energy-consuming tissue that helps minimize body fat. Strength and Conditioning Body composition and wellness: Excessive body fat relates to many health problems, including increased risk of coronary artery disease, hypertension (high blood pressure), stroke, joint problems, diabetes, gallbladder disease, cancer, injury proneness, and back pain. The American Heart Association classifies obesity as a leading risk factor for developing coronary artery disease. As we all know, reducing body fat remains a difficult task for most people. Research shows that the best way to reduce weight and keep it off is to engage in a life-long program of sensible diet and exercise. The diet should be low in calories and balanced but contain enough calories to maintain stability between energy input and energy output. The ideal exercise program should include endurance, strength, and flexibility exercises to help “burn” calories, maintain a high metabolic rate, and remain injury free. Body composition and performance: The ideal body composition differs for each sport. For example, champion male and female distance runners typically have about 7 and 14% fat, respectively. Champion shot putters of both genders often carry more than 20%–25% fat. Body composition management for athletes uses the same principles as with the general population—control food intake and increase energy expenditure and muscle mass. Which Component Should You Emphasize for Your Client? The structure of your client’s exercise program depends on his or her fitness goals. If a person’s Principles of Physical Fitness | 29 goal is good health, the main goal should be to do some physical activity every day. Plan ways to become more physically active. For example, park several blocks away from work or school instead of in the parking lot next door. Take the stairs instead of the elevator. Mow the lawn yourself instead of hiring someone else to do it. Take some time every day for a walk or jog. Make physical activity an integral part of your life. If the client enjoys recreational rock climbing, for example, analyze the physical requirements of the sport and develop the appropriate type of fitness program. The rock climber needs muscle endurance; thus, recommending high repetition weight training exercises is appropriate. Rock climbers must also lift their own body weight, so include exercises like pull-ups, push-ups, and squats. Climbers also need endurance, so walking up hills of differing elevations or using a stair-climbing or elliptical training machine would be beneficial. Bodybuilders want to achieve an attractive body so they should cut body fat and build toned-looking muscles. It is important to balance all the fitness components. They need power to maximize muscle fitness, and aerobic and cellular fitness to help control body composition and enhance health. If the athlete is interested in power sports (e.g., tennis, basketball, volleyball, skiing), emphasize power and do not devote too much time to over-distance exercises because these decrease speed. Do not neglect skill development, and structure the program to prevent athletic injuries before they occur. Distance athletes (e.g., marathon runners and long-distance swimmers and hikers) must develop cellular endurance capacity but cannot neglect the other fitness components. Successful endurance athletes have relatively low body fat, yet need considerable energy for the activity. Therefore, structure their diet very carefully. Exercising only a small amount every day confers health benefits. Recent research has revealed that people who are only interested in fitness for health can obtain benefits through increased daily physical activity. Accumulating 30 minutes daily of almost any exercise can prevent heart disease and extend the lifespan. No single fitness program is right for everyone. Some people want to do only enough exercise to look good. Others exercise to improve health. Still others want to develop high levels of strength or endurance for sports. Analyze your client’s’ fitness goals, skill level, and age and then systematically develop each of the fitness components they need for success. Almost everyone can benefit from an exercise program. Your clients will receive the most from their activity program if you plan ahead. Putting the Program in Proper Perspective Millions of people around the world work to develop “a perfect body” and high fitness level. The good news is that anyone can improve fitness with a well-structured exercise program. The bad news is that not everyone can have the body of a fashion model or bodybuilder, or achieve Olympic or Super Bowl fitness levels. Genetic and motivational factors often limits one’s abilities to achieve a lean, muscular body or superior International Sports Sciences Association 30 | Unit 2.1 strength, endurance, and power. Encourage clients to do the best they can, and do not expect perfection. The most important thing is to “sell” and endorse the physically active lifestyle and enjoy the process. If you learn all you can about exercise training, your clients will make satisfactory progress toward developing a healthy, more attractive looking body and a higher level of physical fitness and performance. Summary The best strength coaches assess the specific needs of athletes and prescribe appropriate programs. Performance in motor skills such as hitting a baseball or golf ball, blocking in football, throwing the hammer, or slalom skiing require precise motor patterns developed by thousands of hours of practice. The conditioning program should support motor performance, not substitute for it. Strength and power exercises help skilled more than unskilled athletes. Stronger athletes run faster, jump higher, and throw further. The effective strength and conditioning coach has a good knowledge of applying current training methods and exercises that build high levels of strength and power without interfering with motor skill development. Physical fitness refers to the body’s ability to adapt to the demands of physical effort. Fitness is specific to the sport. Fitness is often thought to be synonymous with aerobic capacity. While important, aerobic capacity it is not the only fitness factor necessary for developing an athlete’s peak performance. Crucial fitness components include muscular strength and power, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition. Fitness and physical activity are essential to good health. Regular exercise may be the single most Strength and Conditioning important lifestyle activity that will make people healthier and more resistant to disease. Regular exercise promotes longevity and prevents a variety of degenerative diseases. For substantial health benefits, adults should do at least 150 minutes (two and a half hours) a week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity, or 75 minutes (One hour and 15 minutes) a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity. Activity should preferably be spread throughout the week. A second major component of fitness is muscular strength. Closely related to muscular strength is power. Almost everyone should do some exercise to develop the major muscle groups and maintain optimal joint health. Power is critical for good performance in most sports. Power exercises include plyometrics, speed exercises, interval training, Olympic lifts, and functional training. Muscular endurance refers to a sustained given level of muscle force. In sports, muscular endurance is important in activities requiring sustained muscle contractions as in running, cycling, snow and water skiing, wrestling, and rock climbing. Performing many repetitions of Principles of Physical Fitness | 31 exercises that develop muscles used in the activity can develop this fitness component. Flexibility is the ability to move a joint through its full and normal range of motion (ROM). Flexibility is important for joint health and maintaining the normal ROM of the body’s major joints. The importance of flexibility exercises for sports is highly controversial. Recent studies show that stretching before exercise decreases muscle strength and may increase injury risk. The ideal body composition is one that has an acceptable level of body fat for the athlete’s age and gender and a high proportion of lean body mass. Excessive body fat relates to many health problems, including increased risk of coronary artery disease, hypertension (high blood pressure), stroke, joint problems, diabetes, gallbladder disease, cancer, injury proneness, and back pain. The AHA classifies obesity as a leading risk factor for developing coronary artery disease. Reducing body fat, however, is a difficult task for most people. The ideal body composition differs for each sport. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 2.2 Principles of Training: Adaptation to Stress Principles of Training: Adaptation to Stress | 33 Unit Outline 1. Specificity, Motor Control, and Motor Learning 4. Reversibility—Adapting to Reduced Training 2. Transferring Strength, Power, and Speed to Competitive Performance 5. Individual Differences—Limits on Adaptability 3. Progressive Overload and the FITT Principle 6. Guidelines for Training a. 7. Frequency Summary b. Intensity c. Time d. Type (Mode of Activity) Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand the principle specificity and the precision of neural control when performing sports skills • Understand the importance of thousands of hours of focused practice for achieving athletic excellence. • Understand that no drill, conditioning program, or learning strategy can substitute for actually performing the sport at full speed and competitive intensity. • Understand that the principle of specificity represents the single most important factor influencing the results and benefits of the training program. • • Understand that poorly designed training activities will not carry over to competitive sports performance and may actually interfere with skill development. Understand that strength and power workouts must be integrated into the skill development program. • Understand that weight training exercises transfer to motor skills best when the neurological activation pattern of the muscles most closely resembles the skill. • Understand that the overload principle involves progressively subjecting the body to increasing amounts of physical stress. • Manipulate overload using the FITT principle: The amount of overload needed to maintain or improve a particular fitness level for a particular fitness component is determined through four dimensions, represented by the acronym FITT: Frequency—how often; Intensity—how hard; Time—how long (duration); Type—mode of activity. • Understand that reduced training will reverse training gains. • Understand that genetics in part accounts for individual differences in fitness, skill, and the rate of skill acquisition. • Understand that fifteen principles of training influence the effectiveness of the training program. 34 | Unit 2.2 The human body is remarkably adaptable. The greater the demands made on it, the more it adjusts to meet those demands. Over time, immediate short-term adjustments translate into long-term changes and fitness improvements. When breathing and heart rate increase during exercise, for example, the heart gradually develops the ability to pump more blood with each beat. Then, during exercise, the heart doesn’t need to beat as fast to meet the cells’ oxygen demands. The main goal of physical training is to produce these long-term adaptations and improvements in how the body functions. People differ in the maximum levels of physical fitness and performance they can achieve through training. The strength and conditioning coach is the crucial person involved in maximizing each client’s potential. Few athletes will make the Olympic team or play professional sports, but every athlete can run faster, lift more weight, jump higher, and throw farther through a progressive, well-constructed, scientifically based training program. Specificity, Motor Control, and Motor Learning Strength coaches should understand how the body performs motor skills and how training and learning alters them. Motor control is the process in which the central nervous system (CNS) produces purposeful, coordinated movements. Motor learning is the study of how performance of physical skills changes in response to practice or experiences and how they are Strength and Conditioning influenced by the cells and tissues of the body, physical training, and the environment. We perform skills such as striking a golf ball, turning a ski, or performing a snatch through motor programs in the brain that centrally organize and control the many possible movements involved in performing integrated muscle actions. These programs work like stored computer programs imprinted on the brain that are played back as reflexes. In unskilled people, these motor patterns remain imprecise and variable. A beginning tennis player, for example, is often just as likely to hit the ball over the fence as on the court. With practice, the motor patterns become more precise and ingrained. The skilled athlete performs a movement with maximum certainty and consistency and minimum commitment of energy or time. Practice is the principal element needed to develop skilled performance. A popular but controversial theory is that skilled performance requires 10,000 hours of focused practice. No one really knows the optimal number of hours required to achieve top proficiency. We do know that extensive focused practice builds consistent motor patterns in the brain that result in fluid performance. Movements such as the golf swing, discus throw, or pitching action become reflex. Movements in variable environments as required by quarterbacks in football or by a guard bringing up the ball against a full court press also involve building many interrelated skill sets that are available for “call up” depending on the circumstances. Some athletes learn skills faster than others do, but everyone requires extensive practice involving hundreds to thousands of hours to “groove” movements. Principles of Training: Adaptation to Stress | 35 Training and motor performance (skill) are highly specific. This means the maximum benefits of training occur when exercises and drills mimic the movements and energy systems the sport requires. No drill, conditioning program, or learning strategy can substitute for actually performing the sport at full speed and competitive intensity. The principle of specificity represents the single most important factor influencing the results and benefits of the training program. Training effects are so specific that even minor differences between practice and competition in movement sequence, velocity, and intensity will disrupt muscle movement patterns and cause undesirable training effects. Poorly designed training activities will not carry over to competitive sports performance and may actually interfere with skill development. For example, practicing a skill at half-speed in training will interfere with competitive performance requiring all-out, full-speed effort. The nervous system’s ability to recruit or activate motor units composed of a motor nerve and a group of muscle fibers is critical for forceful, efficient movements. Scientists discovered that athletes only train motor units if they activate the unites during highly specific practice sessions. The large, powerful motor units only are activated during whole-body functional movements. Athletes wanting to train those motor units must perform vigorous, explosive movements with good form during exercise sessions. Intense training helps activate these large, fast, powerful motor units. Motor control: The process in which the central nervous system (CNS) produces purposeful, coordinated movements. Motor learning: The study of how performance of physical skills change in response to practice or experiences and how they are influenced by the cells and tissues of the body, physical training, and the environment. Specificity: A sport training principle that states that training a certain body part or component of fitness yields benefits that are specific and related to it. Motor unit: Neuromuscular structure composed of a motor nerve and a group of muscle fibers. Transferring Strength, Power, and Speed to Competitive Performance Fitness transfer is the strength and conditioning coach’s bread and butter and raison d’être (“reason to be”). In the short run, training with weights, plyometrics, and functional training does not improve motor performance beyond that obtained by practicing the sport itself. Improving strength and power will eventually transfer to athletic performance, provided sports skills continue to improve. Fitness transfer: The extent to which increased fitness in sports is developed in the weight room or training facility. High-power sports involve fast, powerful movements. They include the throwing, jumping, and sprinting events in track and field, International Sports Sciences Association 36 | Unit 2.2 basketball, football (soccer and American), volleyball, baseball, weightlifting, handball, and tennis. One of the distinguishing attributes of a successful high-power athlete is the ability to exert just the right amount of force rapidly when performing various movement skills. Increasing power enhances performance in high-power sports. Empirical and experimental evidence strongly suggests that sports movements will become more powerful by increasing skill, enhancing neuromuscular system capacity to exert force rapidly, increasing the capacity of the contractile tissues in muscle to exert forces at exactly the right moment, and employing the proper sequence to achieve the desired muscle action. Coaches, athletes, and researchers often assume that improvements in strength, developed through resistive or plyometric exercises, automatically result in more powerful movements in specific sports. For example, discus throwers sometimes suppose that if they increase the weight they lift in the bench press, squat, snatch, or clean, they will automatically throw the discus farther. A large body of research and empirical evidence suggests this simply is not true. Increasing strength and power can produce large improvements in performance in skilled athletes. The most effective strategy is to improve fitness and skill. Movement skills are highly specific. In spite of widely held beliefs of strength transferability to motor skills, research has shown that improving strength does not automatically produce more powerful movements and improved performance. Strength transfer occurs only when specific strength and power development programs are thoroughly integrated into skill development. Strength and Conditioning A logical relationship exists between increased strength developed through weight training or plyometric exercises and increased power during motor performance. Much of the evidence for strength to power transfer is circumstantial. Performances in most high-power sports have increased rapidly since the widespread use of weight training that began in the 1950s. For example, the world records in the shot put and discus throw increased by over 70% between 1950 and 2015. Concurrently, strength levels (as measured by maximum weight lifts) of elite high-power athletes increased substantially. Paradoxically, many research studies have failed to establish a link between increased strength developed through resistive exercise training and increased power when performing motor skills. Think about that for a moment. Even if you strength train like a true warrior, there is no guarantee you will gain power in the particular motor performance. A significant relationship between strength and performance has been reported in studies of other high-power sports including soccer, alpine ski racing, wrestling, shot-putting, American football, basketball, rowing, synchronized swimming, gymnastics, rugby, golf, and tennis. However, this relationship is not always evident in children. No relationship between strength and performance was found in young swimmers, tennis players, or untrained children. Strength serves as a basis of performance in high-power sports. High-power plyometrics and speed exercises are more effective for enhancing neural activation than are intensely progressive overload exercises. A critical review of the literature suggests Principles of Training: Adaptation to Stress | 37 that speed and power exercises—such as plyometrics—should be emphasized in the weeks (6 to10 weeks) before competition. Progressive overload exercises that stimulate hypertrophy and changes in muscle cell contractile capacity should be a long-term training strategy. Dynamic strength is an important foundation of power. Remember, it must be gradually and systematically integrated with skilled movements. Training for high-power sports requires a balance between intense progressive overload and power exercises. Weight training exercises transfer motor skills best when the neurological activation pattern of the muscles most closely resembles the skill. Closed kinetic chain exercises, such as squats or power cleans, transfer power to motor skills such as jumping better than open kinetic chain exercises such as knee extensions or leg curls do. In a closed kinetic chain exercise, movement begins at the segment freest to move and ends at the fixed segment. Movements typically involve several joints moving simultaneously or in sequence, much the way they do during most motor tasks. In open kinetic chain exercises, movement begins at the fixed segment and involves typically only one joint. Exercises done on many popular exercise machines such as knee extensions and biceps curls are open kinetic chain, whereas free weight squats, cleans, and snatches are closed kinetic chain. The additional benefit is the need to overcome any imbalances experienced in executing the movement. Even if the instability is only slight, it still requires muscular adaptation to “smooth out” the movement so the instability seems to disappear. In this case, some instability as, for example, balancing a free weight bench press between right and left arms, serves a definite purpose because this “stresses” the CNS to learn to incorporate and overcome the instability, no matter how slight. Hypertrophy: Increased size of a muscle fiber. Can also refer to enlargement of other types of cells such as fat cells. Motor skill: Intentional movement involving a muscular component. Closed kinetic chain exercises: Exercise performed in which the hand (for arm movement) or foot (for leg movement) is fixed in space and cannot move. Open kinetic chain exercises: Exercises performed in which the hand or foot is free to move. Performance in closed kinetic chain strength exercises such as squats is more closely related to jumping and sprint performance than performance in open kinetic chain strength knee extension exercise. Studies overwhelmingly (e.g., Stone et al. 2003; LOTURCO et al. 2016) demonstrate that strength training enhances skilled performances most when the exercises use the same posture required in the skill. Weight training exercises should be performed as close as possible in form to the target motor skill—strengthen the muscles in the specific manner you want them to improve. International Sports Sciences Association 38 | Unit 2.2 Elastic muscle energy enhances muscle force development in a process called the stretch-shortening cycle. Sudden movements, like jumping or throwing, stretch muscles’ elastic structures. The stretch represents potential energy that can enhance the force produced by muscles’ contractile component. Immediately following the muscle stretch, the muscle actively contracts, with the recoil of the elastic elements assisting the force development. Fiber type and movement techniques strongly influence the storage and reuse of elastic energy during the stretch-shortening cycle. Improved technique is the best way to augment the stretch-shortening cycle in high-power sports. In the discus throw, for example, coaching athletes to concentrate on lower body movements during the technique causes “separation” between the upper and lower body. This increases the use of the stretch-shortening cycle. There also is considerable evidence that the stretch-shortening cycle is trainable. Training stiffens elastic tissues and enhances muscle spindle reactivity, which potentiates the action of the stretch-shortening cycle in powerful movements. Scientific studies on power development are confusing. Based on available research—along with practical observations—strength and conditioning coaches should consider these five factors when trying to maximize strength and power transfer in their athletes: 1. Strength—as measured by large muscle exercises, such as the bench press, deadlift, snatch, and clean and jerk—serves as an important base for powerful motor performance. Strength is best developed in athletes Strength and Conditioning by centering the program on presses (e.g., bench press, military press, incline press), pulls (e.g., snatch, clean, high pull), and squats (e.g., back squats, front squats, overhead squats, one-leg squats). 2. Improved strength does not readily cause more powerful movements in sport. Rather, increased strength is only valuable when it can be effectively integrated into the skill. 3. Training methods that increase neuromuscular activation and the stretch-shortening cycle should become part of every program to improve performance in high-power sports. These methods include specific skill training at full speed, plyometrics (e.g., box jumping and medicine ball tosses), speed exercises (e.g., high knee, fast arm sprint exercise), and stretch-shortening cycle training (e.g., specific skill training—proper weight transfer and upper-lower body separation along with plyometrics). 4. Speed and plyometric exercises are more effective than is high-tension weight training for power development over an 8 to 12 week period. As such, strength-building strategies should be focused on long-term development and athletic careers, whereas speed and plyometric training should help athletes prepare for specific competitions. Note: Improving skill should be the essential component to produce more powerful movements. Never sacrifice skill development for just a strength and fitness program. Progressive Overload and the FITT Principle The body adapts to the demands of exercise by improving its functioning. When the amount of exercise (also called overload or stress) is Principles of Training: Adaptation to Stress | 39 increased progressively, fitness continues to improve. This is the important principle of progressive overload. The amount of overload is important. Too little exercise will have no effect on fitness (although it may improve health); too much may cause injury and problems with the body’s immune or endocrine (hormone) systems. The point at which exercise becomes excessive is highly individual; it occurs at a much higher level in an Olympic athlete than in a sedentary person. For every type of exercise, there are three considerations: 1) a training threshold at which fitness benefits begin to occur, 2) a zone that maximum fitness benefits occur in, and 3) an upper limit of safe training. Progressive overload: Strength and fitness improve by gradually exercising at increased intensities and volumes. The amount of required exercise depends on the athlete’s current fitness level, the person’s genetically determined capacity to adapt to training, his or her fitness goals, and the specific component being developed. A novice, for example, might experience fitness benefits from jogging a mile in 10 minutes, but this level of exercise would cause no physical adaptations in a trained distance runner. Beginners should start at the lower end of the fitness benefit zone; fitter individuals will make more rapid gains by exercising at the higher end of the fitness benefit zone. Progression is critical because fitness increases only if the volume and intensity of workouts increase. Exercising at the same intensity every training session will maintain fitness but will not increase it, because the training stress is below the threshold required to produce adaptation. The amount of overload needed to maintain or improve a particular fitness level for a particular fitness component is determined through four dimensions, represented by the acronym FITT: Frequency—how often Intensity—how hard FITT: Acronym representing frequency, intensity, time, and type to describe the structure of an exercise program. Time—how long (duration) Type—mode of activity Progressive overload is important because fitness increases only when the volume and intensity of exercise increase. The body adapts to overload by becoming more fit. International Sports Sciences Association 40 | Unit 2.2 Frequency. Developing fitness requires regular exercise. Optimum exercise frequency, expressed in number of days a week, varies with the component being developed and the athlete’s fitness goals. The workout frequency depends on time of year (competitive or off-season), skill level, fitness, and injury status. As discussed, building strength and power are important but should never substitute for skill development. An important consideration in determining appropriate exercise frequency is recovery time, which is highly individual and depends on factors such as training experience, age, and training intensity. For example, 24 hours of rest between highly intense workouts involving heavy weights or track sprints is not enough recovery time for safe and effective training. Intense workouts need to be spaced out during the week to allow for sufficient recovery time. Athletes must learn to “listen to their bodies” to get enough rest between workouts. Intensity. Fitness benefits occur when athletes exercise harder and beyond than their normal levels of activity. The appropriate exercise intensity varies with each fitness component. To develop cardiorespiratory endurance, for example, athletes must increase their heart rates and metabolic rates above normal. To develop muscular strength, they must lift heavier weights than normal. To develop flexibility, they must stretch muscles beyond their normal length. Time (Duration). Fitness benefits occur when you exercise for an extended period. For cardiorespiratory endurance exercise, between 20 and 60 minutes is recommended for the average person and more than that for the athlete. Strength and Conditioning High-intensity exercise poses a greater risk of injury than does low-intensity exercise. Recent studies on high-intensity interval training known as HIIT have questioned the necessity for long training sessions. HIIT is discussed in Section 4 of the course. To build muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility, similar amounts of time are advisable, but these exercises are more commonly organized in terms of a specific number of repetitions of particular exercises. For resistance training, for example, a basic program might include one or more sets of 8–12 repetitions of 8–10 individual exercises that work the major muscle groups. Modern periodized workouts for athletes use a wide variety of programs structures that vary the sets, repetitions, number, and types of exercises according to desired outcomes. Type (Mode of Activity). The type of exercise you give to athletes varies with their fitness goals. Keep in mind the principle of specificity. Exercises should overload both major and minor muscles used in the sport. Training cadence, rest intervals, and load should also reflect the desired outcome. Cross-training. Cross-training involves a variety of random exercises and is an extremely popular type of training. The thinking behind this type of training is that athletes should be ready for an array of exercise challenges. Although cross-training develops fitness, it is not specific enough for most athletes. It typically involves high rep sets performed at high intensity and practiced often, which could result in overtraining and interfere with skill development. Strength and conditioning coaches should Principles of Training: Adaptation to Stress | 41 avoid programs that negatively affect skill development. In addition, critical exercises such as squats and presses only are practiced several times a month, which is inadequate for building high levels of strength in crucial exercises. Reversibility—Adapting to Reduced Training Fitness is a reversible adaptation. The body adjusts to lower levels of physical activity the same way it adjusts to higher levels. This is the principle of reversibility. When an athlete stops exercising, up to 50% of fitness improvements are lost within two months. However, not all fitness levels reverse at the same rate. Strength fitness is extremely resilient, so an athlete can maintain it by doing resistance exercise as infrequently as once weekly. In contrast, cardiovascular and cellular fitness reverse themselves more quickly—sometimes within just a few days or weeks. If athletes must temporarily curtail their training, they can maintain their fitness improvements by keeping the intensity of their workouts constant while reducing their frequency or duration. Reversibility: Decreases in fitness from inactivity or reduced training intensity or volume. Training triggers long-term adaptations that make it easier to restore fitness following periods of inactivity. Strength training activates and incorporates structures called satellite cells, which are integrated into the muscle cells as new nuclei (genetic structures that organize protein synthesis). The new satellite cells remain intact during deconditioning but activate quickly when training resumes. Training (and anabolic steroids) also increases the activity of androgen receptors, which affect sensitivity to testosterone. The increased androgen receptor density remains elevated during deconditioning and helps restore strength and power levels when athletes train again. Individual Differences—Limits of Adaptability Anyone watching the Olympics can see that, from a physical standpoint, we are not all created equal. There are significant individual differences in our ability to improve fitness, achieve a desirable body Individual differences: Differences among athletes in athletic performance, the capacity to learn motor skills, and the ability to improve performance through training. International Sports Sciences Association 42 | Unit 2.2 composition, and learn and perform sports skills. Some people are able to run longer distances, lift more weight, or kick a soccer ball more skillfully than others will ever be able to, no matter how much they train. People respond to training at different rates, so a program that works for one person may not be right for another person. Genes: Linear sequence of nucleotides along a segment of DNA that provides the coded instructions for protein synthesis There are limits on the adaptability—the potential for improvement—of any human body. The body’s ability to transport and use oxygen, for example, can be improved by only about 5%–30% through training. An endurance athlete must therefore inherit a large metabolic capacity to reach competitive performance levels. In the past few years, scientists have identified specific genes that influence body fat, strength, and endurance. For example, scientists have identified more than 800 genes associated with endurance performance, and 100 of those determine individual differences in exercise capacity. It is clear that physical training improves fitness regardless of heredity. For the average person, the body’s adaptability is enough to achieve reasonable fitness goals. Guidelines for Training The following 15 guidelines will make the athlete’s training program more effective and successful. 1. Train the Way You Want the Body to Change: Stress the body so it adapts in the desired manner. To have a more muscular build, lift weights. To be more flexible, do stretching exercises. To improve performance in a particular sport, practice that sport or its movements. 2. Train Regularly: Consistency remains the key to improving fitness. Fitness improvements are lost if too much time passes between exercise sessions. Regardless of the activity chosen, it is important that an exercise program begin slowly and progress gradually. Once you achieve the desired level of fitness, you can maintain it by exercising three to five days a week. Strength and Conditioning Principles of Training: Adaptation to Stress | 43 3. Start Slowly and Get in Shape Gradually: An exercise program can be divided into three phases: Beginning phase. The body adjusts to the new type and level of activity. Progress phase. Fitness increases. Maintenance phase. The targeted fitness level is sustained over the long term. When beginning a program, start slowly to give your body time to adapt to the stress of exercise. Choose activities carefully according to your fitness status. If you have been sedentary or are overweight, try walking or swimming, which won’t jar the body or strain the joints. As you progress, increase duration and frequency before increasing intensity. If you train too much or too intensely, you are more likely to suffer injuries or become overtrained, a condition characterized by lack of energy, aching muscles and joints, and decreased physical performance. Injuries and overtraining slow down an exercise program and impede motivation. The goal is not to get in shape as quickly as possible but to gradually become and then remain physically fit. Overtrained: Imbalance between training and recovery that results in decreased performance, impaired immunity, soreness, and extreme fatigue. The Fitness/Fatigue Model describes the process of balancing training and recovery. The long-term program should systematically prepare athletes to train hard to make gains and to provide adequate recovery for subsequent intense training days. 4. Warm Up Before Exercise: Warming up can decrease your chances of injury by helping your body gradually progress from rest to activity. A good warm-up can increase muscle temperature, reduce joint stiffness, bathe the joint surfaces in lubricating fluid, and increase muscle blood flow, including the heart’s. Some studies suggest that warming up may also enhance muscle metabolism and mentally prepare you for a workout. A warm-up should include low-intensity, whole-body movements similar to those used in the subsequent activity. The warm-up might include dynamic stretching that involves whole-body movements through full ranges of motion, such as lunge walking. Runners might walk and jog slowly prior to running at full speed. A tennis player might hit forehands and backhands at a low intensity before playing a vigorous set of tennis. A warm-up is not the same as a International Sports Sciences Association 44 | Unit 2.2 stretching workout. For safety and effectiveness, it is best to stretch after an endurance or strength-training workout, when muscles are warm—and not as part of a warm-up. 5. Cool Down Following Exercise: During exercise, as much as 90% of circulating blood is directed to the muscles and skin, up from as little as 20% during rest. If you suddenly stop moving after exercise, the amount of blood returning to your heart and brain may be insufficient, and you may experience dizziness or a drop in blood pressure. Cooling down at the end of a workout helps safely restore circulation to its normal resting condition. As such, after you exercise, cool down before you sit or lie down or jump into the shower. Cool down by continuing to move at a slow pace—walking for 5 to 10 minutes, for example, as your heart and breathing rate and blood pressure slowly return to normal. At the end of the cool-down period, do stretching exercises while your muscles are still warm. Cool down longer following intense exercise sessions. 6. Exercise Safely: Physical activity can cause injury or even death if you don’t seriously consider safety. For example, you should always: Wear a helmet when biking, skiing, or pole vaulting; Wear bright clothing when exercising on a public street; Walk or run with a partner on a deserted track or in a park; Be aware in the weight room of people exercising near you and use spotters when appropriate. Overloading muscles and joints can lead to serious injury; thus athletes should train within their capacity. They should Strength and Conditioning use well-maintained, high-quality equipment. Athletic weight rooms are notorious for poorly maintained facilities. Repairing broken cables and collars and maintaining good sanitation can prevent needless injuries requiring medical attention. 7. Athletes Should Listen to Their Bodies and Get Adequate Rest: Rest can be as important as exercise to improving fitness. Fitness reflects an adaptation to the stress of exercise. Building fitness involves a series of exercise stresses, recuperation, and adaptation leading to improved fitness, followed by further stresses. Build rest into your training program, and do not exercise if it doesn’t feel right. Sometimes you need a few days of rest to recover enough to train with the intensity required for improving fitness. The recovery process depends on getting enough sleep. That said, you can’t train sporadically either. You will not make any progress if you listen to your body and it always tells you to rest. 8. Cycle Workout Volume and Intensity: To add enjoyment and variety to your program and to further improve fitness, athletes should not train at the same intensity during every workout. Train intensely on some days and train lightly on others. Proper management of workout intensity is a key to improving physical fitness. Use cycle training, also known as periodization, to provide enough recovery for intense training: By training lightly one workout, you can train harder the next. However, take care to increase the volume and intensity of your program gradually—never more than 10% per week. 9. Vary Training Activities: Change your exercise routine from time to time to keep things fresh and to help develop a higher degree of fitness. The body adapts quickly to exercise stresses. Gains in fitness in a particular activity become more difficult with time. Varying the exercises in the program allows athletes to adapt to many types of exercise Principles of Training: Adaptation to Stress | 45 and develops fitness in a variety of activities. Changing activities may also help reduce your injury risk. However, always consider the principle of specificity, and don’t drift too far from the central purpose of your training regimen. 10. Train with a Partner: Training partners can motivate and encourage each other through rough spots and help each other develop proper exercise techniques. Training with a partner can make exercising seem easier and more fun. It also can help to keep you motivated and on track. A commitment to a friend is a powerful motivator. Training with a personal strength and conditioning coach is even better for athletes. 11. Train the Mind: Becoming fit requires commitment, discipline, and patience. These qualities come from understanding the importance of exercise and having clear and attainable goals. 12. Fuel Exercise Training Appropriately: Good nutrition, including rehydration and resynthesis of liver and muscle carbohydrate stores, is an essential component of optimal recuperation from exercise. Consume enough calories to support your exercise program without gaining body fat. Many studies show that consuming carbohydrates and protein before or after exercise promotes restoration of stored fuels and helps heal injured tissues so you can once again exercise intensely. 13. Have Fun: You are more likely to stick with an exercise program if it’s fun. The successful strength and conditioning coach challenges athletes while making the experience enjoyable. 14. Track the Athletes’ Progress: Monitoring the progress of the program can help keep athletes motivated and on track. Depending on the activities you’ve included in the program, you can track different measures of the program, including minutes of jogging, miles of cycling, laps of swimming, number of push-ups, amount of weight lifted, and so on. All athletes should keep a training diary that helps them monitor their workouts, accomplishments, and goals. 15. Keep the Exercise Program in Perspective: As important as physical fitness is, it is only part of a well-rounded life. Athletes need time for work and school, family and friends, relaxation and hobbies. Some people become over involved in exercise and neglect other parts of their lives. They think of themselves as runners, football players, swimmers, or triathletes rather than as people who participate in those activities. Doing that, though, is extremely difficult for accomplished, high-level athletes. Summary The human body is remarkably adaptable. The greater the demands made on it, the more it adjusts to meet those demands. People differ in the maximum levels of physical fitness and performance they can achieve through training. The strength and conditioning coach is instrumental in maximizing each athlete’s potential. Training and the adaptation to exercise stress are highly specific. The exercise program should reflect the sport’s requirements. We perform International Sports Sciences Association 46 | Unit 2.2 skills such as throwing a ball, turning a ski, or performing a snatch through motor programs in the brain that centrally organize and control movement. Practice is the crucial element in developing skilled performance. The maximum benefits of training occur when exercises and drills reproduce the movements and energy systems involved in the sport. Fitness transfer is the strength and conditioning coach’s bread and butter. Sports movements can become more powerful by increasing skill, enhancing the capacity of the neuromuscular system to exert force rapidly, and increasing the capacity of the contractile tissues in muscle to exert force. A logical relationship exists between increased strength developed through weight training or plyometric exercises and increased power during motor performance. In high power sports, strength serves as a basis of performance, but increased strength is only valuable when it can be integrated effectively into sports skill. Fitness continues to improve when the amount of exercise (also called overload or stress) is increased progressively. This is the principle of progressive overload. The amount of overload is important. Too little overload will have no effect on fitness (although it may improve health); too much may cause injury and problems with the body’s immune or endocrine (hormone) systems. The amount of overload needed to maintain or improve a particular fitness level for a particular fitness component is determined through four dimensions represented by the FITT acronym: frequency, intensity, time, and type. Fitness is a reversible adaptation. The body Strength and Conditioning adjusts to lower levels of physical activity the same way it adjusts to higher activity levels. Training triggers long-term adaptations that make it easier to restore fitness after periods of inactivity. There are large individual differences in an athlete’s ability to improve fitness, achieve a desirable body composition, and learn and perform sports skills. Scientists have identified specific genes that influence body fat, strength, and endurance. Fifteen training guidelines important for training success, injury prevention, and program enjoyment include: 1. Train the way you want the body to change 2. Train regularly 3. Start slowly, and get in shape gradually 4. Warm up before exercise 5. Cool down after exercise 6. Exercise safely 7. Listen to body and get adequate rest 8. Cycle the volume and intensity of workouts 9. Vary training activities 10. Train with a partner or strength and conditioning coach 11. Train the mind 12. Fuel exercise training appropriately 13. Have fun 14. Track the athletes’ progress 15. Keep the exercise program in perspective SECTION THREE Muscular Strength and Endurance UNIT 3.1 Bone Bone | 49 Unit Outline 1. Organic and Inorganic Components of Bone d. Calcium supplements 2. Structure of Bone e. Vitamin D, diet, and sunshine 3. Epiphyseal Growth Centers f. Vitamin K 4. The Human Skeleton 5. The Healthy Bone Triad: Calcium, Weight-Bearing Exercise, and Healthy Hormone Levels a. Banking Bone during the Growing Years and maintaining it b. Calcium c. Protein, fruits and vegetables, and body composition g. Iron 6. Hormones and Bone Health a. 7. Estrogens Exercise 8. The Female Athlete Triad 9. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Identify the major bones of the body • Understand the basic structure and function of bone • Understand the role of calcium, exercise, and hormones in maintaining healthy bone • Be familiar with the organic and inorganic components of bone • • Identify compact and cancellous bone and the components of long bones Understand the importance of banking bone through exercise, diet, and hormone management during childhood and young adulthood for preventing osteoporosis later in life • Understand how bones grow and the vulnerability of bone growth centers in growing athletes • Understand the importance of the female athlete triad— abnormal eating patterns, menstrual irregularity, and bone loss— in athletic women Bone, a connective tissue, consists of a network (matrix) of organic (living) fibers produced by specialized cells strengthened by the addition of inorganic, nonliving substances, mainly crystallized salts. Most of bone’s composition is inorganic. Bone and cartilage are categorized as supporting connective tissues because they are capable of supporting weight. Bone is the body’s primary structural element. Bone thus provides a strong framework that protects vital organs including the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. Bones also act as levers for skeletal muscles and serve as a reservoir of calcium and phosphate. International Sports Sciences Association 50 | Unit 3.1 Bone marrow: Soft, spongy tissue found in the center of most large bones that produce white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Erythrocytes: Red blood cells. Granular leukocytes: Type of white blood cell important in the body’s immune system. Platelets: Blood cell important to blood-clot dformation. Calcium: Element consumed in the diet essential for body functions such as neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and heart muscle contractions. Phosphorus: Salt important to bone metabolism. Magnesium: Mineral important to metabolism. Sodium: Critical nutrient involved in fluid balance and nerve and muscle impulses. Fracture: Broken bone. Lymphatics: Small thin channels similar to blood vessels that collect and carry tissue fluid in the body and drain into the bloodstream. Osteoblasts: Cells that arise from fibroblasts that produce bone. Osteocytes: Osteoblasts embedded in the bone matrix—mature bone cells. Osteoclasts: Bone cells that absorb and remove bone. Osteoid: Uncalcified bone consisting mainly of collagen (a connective tissue). Strength and Conditioning Bone plays a significant role in metabolism. Bone contains soft tissue called bone marrow, which produces blood cells (erythrocytes, granular leukocytes, and platelets). Bone marrow is particularly productive in the long bones, vertebrae, sternum, and ribs. The marrow of most of the long bones becomes infiltrated with fat and is unproductive after age 20, but the marrow in the other productive areas continues to produce blood cells throughout life. Bone also stores the important essential minerals such as calcium, phosphates, magnesium, and sodium. Bone is affected by nutritional status, hormones, infectious disease, physical training, and aging. Although bone’s metabolic rate is relatively low, it quickens in certain states such as during the healing of a fracture. Organic and Inorganic Bone Components The organic bone components include cells and a matrix of fibers, blood vessels, and lymphatics. The three types of bone cells include osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts build bone tissue by producing the organic matrix where the crystallized salts are deposited. The matrix is called osteoid, and the process of its formation is called ossification. Calcium deposits in the matrix after it’s been formed. The terms ossification and calcification are often used synonymously, but this is incorrect. An osteocyte is a mature bone cell. Osteoclasts are bone cells that respond to the body’s need for the main bone mineral, calcium, and that break down bone and release bone minerals for use by other tissues. Osteoclasts are also important for bone remodeling following injury or disuse. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in bone. In addition to providing bone structure, it is involved in blood clotting, maintaining normal nerve function, muscle contraction, acid-base balance, adhesiveness between cells and tissues, and maintaining normal cell membranes. Phosphorus is the second most abundant element in bone. It is vital in regulating neuromuscular function and acid-base balance and is critical in energy metabolism. Bone | 51 Structure of Bone Bone’s organic and inorganic components combine to form compact (dense) and cancellous (spongy) bone. Bones may be very large such as the femur or very small such as the stapes; they may be flat such as the scapula and sternum, short such as the carpus and tarsus, or long such as the humerus and tibia. Regardless of gross form, most bones have a dense wall called cortical bone (compact bone), with an arrangement of “beams” on the inside known as trabecular (cancellous or spongy bone) (Figure 3.1-1). Compact bone: Compressed, non-cancellous portion of bone. Cancellous (trabecular) bone: Loosely organized adult bone found at the end of long bones. Trabecular bone: Same as cancellous bone. In the long bones, the trabeculae are at the ends where complex tensional forces require a strong structural arrangement. The shaft Figure 3.1-1 The structure of bone. of a long bone is called the diaphysis and is composed of cortical bone with a central cavity called the medullary canal, which contains bone marrow. With the exception of articular surfaces (place where bones meet), the outer surface of bone is lined with tissue called periosteum. The periosteum has a rich vascular and nerve supply and contains fibroblasts that can become osteoblasts and participate in the healing of fractures. The articular surfaces of many bones are covered with hyaline cartilage that absorbs shock and protects the underlying subchondral bone (bone underneath the cartilage cells) from erosion. As a diaphysis flares near the ends of the bone, it gives way to the epiphysis. At this point, a cartilage growth plate, called the epiphyseal plate, separates the metaphysis from the epiphysis. Some bones such as the tibia have an epiphyseal plate and epiphysis at Cortical bone: Compact bone’s thin outer layer. Articular surfaces: Bone surface that makes contact with another bone. Periosteum: Membrane of fibrous connective tissue. Fibroblasts: Connective tissue cells change into cells that make cartilage, collagen, and bone cells. Diaphysis: Shaft of a long bone. Epiphysis: Growth center of bone. International Sports Sciences Association 52 | Unit 3.1 Figure 3.1-2 Maturation and growth of bone at the epiphyses during growth. Development of the distal radius in males. Bone age, determined from a composite of the developmental status of the bones in the hand and wrist, serves as a measure of a child’s maturational level. Phalanges: Finger bones. both ends, whereas shorter bones such as the phalanges have only one plate and one epiphysis. Epiphyseal Growth Centers Triquetral bone: Wrist bone. Humerus: Upper arm bone. The epiphyses of the bone continue to grow until they fuse with the metaphysis (Figure 3.1-2). Fusion of the bone growth centers (epiphyses) occurs at different ages in different bones. For example, although the distal femoral epiphysis appears before birth, it does not fuse until about age 19. The earliest epiphyseal fusion usually occurs in the triquetral bone (a wrist bone); the latest occurs in the lateral epicondyle of the humerus (arm bone) between ages 20 to 22. Norms exist that establish the normal ages of bone fusion. An X-ray can estimate skeletal age and maturation. The Human Skeleton The personal trainer should know the body’s major bones. The body moves by pulling on these bones with muscles through various planes. Understanding movement requires an understanding of the bones, their locations, and how they work. The human skeleton consists of 206 bones divided into the skull (29 bones), thorax (25 bones), vertebral column (26 bones), upper extremity (64 bones), and lower extremity (62 bones). The bones are shown in Figure 3.1-3. Strength and Conditioning Bone | 53 Figure 3.1-3 The major bones of the human skeleton. International Sports Sciences Association 54 | Unit 3.1 The Healthy Bone Triad: Calcium, Weight-Bearing Exercise, and Healthy Hormone Levels Strength and conditioning specialists who work with women should have a thorough knowledge of the effects of training and nutrition on bone health. Training tends to strengthen bone, but overtraining and some types of exercise can actually weaken it. Few components of good health are more important for independent living and long life than strong bones are. Bones give the body structure, protect organs, anchor muscles, and store calcium. Women should build bone when they’re young. Strong bones reduce the risk of painful, life-threatening fractures and provide a solid foundation that allows a vigorous, healthy life. The strength and conditioning specialist who works with women, particularly young women, can have a major influence on lifelong bone health. Peak bone mass occurs in the early 20s, so women should build up as much bone as possible when they are young. Women who have dense bones in their 20s and 30s usually have denser bones later in life. Unfortunately, increasing bone density during old age is nearly impossible. In the future, new drugs and DNA manipulation may offer therapeutic solutions. Women can promote bone health by eating a wholesome diet, doing the right kind of exercises, and maintaining healthy hormone levels. This means eating foods with plenty of calcium, doing weight-bearing exercise, and seeking medical attention when they have irregular menstrual cycles. Women who follow a lifelong healthy bone program will have strong Strength and Conditioning vital bones and reduce the risk of osteoporosis (thinning bone) later in life. Banking and Maintaining Bone Bones grow nearly continuously until people reach their late teens or early 20s. Bone density reaches a peak during the early to late 20s. After that, bone density decreases slowly and continuously throughout life. As people age, the best they can hope for is to slow the rate of bone loss. Most people think of bones as big, solid structures—like rock walls—that give the body form and strength. Bone is a surprisingly active tissue. Bone cells continuously dissolve old bone and replace it with new bone so that the skeleton stays fresh and strong. During growth, people build more bone than they break down. This causes increases in height and bigger and stronger bones. Bone researchers stress the importance of “banking bone when you’re young”— building up as much bone as possible between ages 8 to 30. Bone banking will buffer the effects of gradual bone loss during the remainder of the lifespan. Women older than 25 or 30 years cannot do much about peak bone density, but they can prevent further bone loss—at least to an extent. Calcium: Calcium is essential for good bone health, muscle strength, and normal cell function. Calcium helps build bone mass in girls and young women and maintains it into middle and old age. It is important for preventing Bone | 55 osteoporosis and fractures during aging. Calcium intake alone will not prevent bone thinning but remains a critical part of a healthy bone maintenance program. diet slows calcium absorption when calcium intake is less than 500 milligrams a day or less. Therefore, taking in enough calcium and protein in the diet promotes bone health. Many women—particularly after menopause— do not get enough calcium in their diets. In fact, many consume less than half of the daily recommended amount of calcium. Women need 1,000 to 1,200 milligrams of this mineral every day. Fortunately, there are many ways for people to consume the calcium they need. Eating plenty of calcium-rich foods like low-fat dairy products (e.g., milk and cheese), broccoli, and calcium-fortified foods like orange juice, cereals, and breakfast bars helps increase calcium intake. Another way to boost calcium intake is to add non-fat milk to homemade meals such as casseroles, bread, pudding, cookies, soup, gravy, and desserts. A 12-ounce latte is a good way to add calcium. A healthy diet containing plenty of fruits and vegetables is important for bone health. Highfat low-carbohydrate diets may decrease bone density, so there may be a tradeoff between losing weight and maintaining bone mass. High-fat diets increase blood acidity slightly, which speeds bone breakdown. Eating a healthy variety of food is important because many nutrients, especially magnesium and iron, influence bone health. Many women have trouble digesting dairy products because they lack an enzyme called lactase that breaks down lactose called milk sugar. Lactose-intolerant people can usually tolerate acidophilus milk, yogurt, and hard cheeses. Commercial lactase helps people tolerate dairy products and get the calcium they need. An 8-ounce serving of yogurt contains nearly 500 mg of calcium— about half the daily requirement for young adult women. Protein, fruits and vegetables, and body composition: A high-protein intake can either increase or decrease calcium absorption. Consuming at least 1,000 milligrams of calcium a day and eating an adequate amount of protein—0.8 to 1.5 grams per kilogram body weight per day— increases calcium absorption. A high-protein Carrying extra fat increases bone density, whereas leanness promotes fractures and bone loss. This is an example in which bone and cardiovascular health collide. Heart disease is the most significant health problem in adult women, so they should not attempt to become obese to improve bone health. Rather, they should carry a healthy amount of fat: 18%–30% of body weight—and build bone and muscle through weight training and plyometrics. Calcium supplements: People should try to satisfy calcium requirements through the diet. Many women need supplements to meet their needs. Women who drink more than two carbonated cola beverages a day may also need to take calcium supplements because the drinks contain high amounts of phosphorous, which impairs calcium absorption. People should choose a supplement that is easily absorbed by the body. A good test is to see whether the supplement dissolves within 30 minutes after placing it in a glass of warm water International Sports Sciences Association 56 | Unit 3.1 or vinegar. Viactiv, a soft calcium chew that contains vitamins D and K and calcium, and Citracal, are examples of good calcium supplements. But excessive consumption of calcium supplements might increase the risk of coronary artery disease. Vitamin D: Vitamin produced in the skin in a reaction involving sunlight or consumed in the diet that essential for normal teeth and bone development. Vitamin D, diet, and sunshine: Vitamin D helps maintain normal blood levels of calcium and promotes bone health. It is found in food such as vitamin D-fortified dairy products, egg yolks, saltwater fish, and liver and is made by the body in a reaction triggered by sunlight. People can satisfy their vitamin D requirement by getting 10–15 minutes of sun exposure to your hands, arms, and face two to three times weekly. Sunscreen decreases vitamin D production, so some bone experts suggest sitting in the sun for 15 minutes before applying sunscreen when sunbathing. Overweight women have lower blood levels of vitamin D. The vitamin is fat soluble, so much of it is stored in the fat cells and cannot be used to help regulate calcium metabolism. Overweight people are often vitamin D deficient and should take supplements. The recommended daily vitamin D intake for optimal bone health is 400 to 800 international units (IU). Low levels of vitamin D decrease calcium absorption during digestion, which can result in calcium deficiency even though the diet contains adequate calcium. Vitamin C also promotes calcium absorption. Vitamin K: Vitamin involved in blood clotting and bone metabolism. Iron: Essential mineral involved in red blood cell metabolism and bone health. Estrogens: Hormones important for bone health produced mainly in the ovaries or from the conversion of testosterone. Strength and Conditioning Vitamin K: Vitamin K is primarily involved in blood clotting, but it activates at least three proteins involved in bone health. Women with low intake of vitamin K have more fractures and lower bone mass. Research has shown that women who took vitamin K and D supplements had increased bone density after two years. Good sources of vitamin K include spinach, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, liver, asparagus, and soybean oil. Cooked spinach has more vitamin K than raw spinach. Iron: This vital mineral is important for strong bones and healthy blood cells. University of Arkansas researchers showed that women who consumed more iron had greater bone densities. The results applied to women who consumed more than 20 milligrams of iron daily and 800 to 1,200 milligrams of calcium each day. This was an important study because the recommended iron intake Bone | 57 (RDA) for iron in postmenopausal women is only 8 milligrams a day. The possible link between iron and bone density might reflect the bone-strengthening effects of a good diet rather than the benefits of iron. Hormones and Bone Health Maintaining healthy hormone levels is the most important factor in determining bone density. Women with abnormal hormone levels that affect bone metabolism, such as estrogen, glucocorticoids, and testosterone, experience weakened bones—even if these women exercise and consume enough calcium. Estrogens are the most important hormones affecting bone density. The greatest bone loss in women occurs during the first three years following menopause—when they experience a dramatic decrease in estrogens. Likewise, they get the greatest increase in bone density during the two years following their first menstrual period (menarche)—when estrogens increase dramatically. Menopause and puberty are critical times for ensuring optimal bone health. The two to three years following the first menstruation are critical to build bone. Girls 9 to 18 years old should take in 1,300 mg of calcium a day. Unfortunately, girls 9 to 13 consume less than 800 mg, whereas teens ages 14 to 18 take in less than that. Regular exercise and adequate calcium intake have a major effect on the bone density of growing girls. It doesn’t take much to increase bone density at that age—drinking even one glass of nonfat milk a day will increase bone density. Excessive exercise can suppress hormones in young women and weaken bones. Amenorrhea—the prolonged absence of menstruation— is common in women runners, bodybuilders, gymnasts, and triathletes. Women can train intensely without having hormone problems if they consume enough calories and rest adequately between training sessions. Menstrual irregularity in young active women can precipitate as much as 3%–5% loss of bone mass yearly. Physicians often prescribe birth control pills when treating active women with menstrual problems. This may be a mistake. Two recent studies showed that active young women given oral contraceptives decreased their bone density following two-year exercise programs. Again, it looks like diet and exercise are the best ways to build bone when you’re young and maintain it as you age. Exercise Bones gets stronger when they are loaded and weaker when they are not. Exercise is important for building bone, but not all activities are appropriate for everyone. Teenagers and 20- to 30-year-old adults should engage in a variety of recreational sports, weight training, and plyometrics. Recreational sports include high-impact sports such as tennis, gymnastics, volleyball, or weight-bearing activities involving frequent and rapid changes of direction, such as basketball and racquetball. Research from Oregon State University showed that the rate of stress applied to bone is more important than is the absolute stress. This means that doing high-impact plyometrics and International Sports Sciences Association 58 | Unit 3.1 rope skipping builds bone more than walking does. Non-weight bearing swimming and cycling can actually reduce bone density faster than doing no exercise at all does. Swimmers have lower bone density than expected because the body doesn’t weigh very much in the water due to buoyancy. Walking and running builds more bone density than does cycling or similar non-weight-bearing exercises (stationary bike). Although walking, running, and tennis are important, no aerobic exercise will build bone the way weight training does. Lift weights two to three days a week for optimal bone health. Loading should be greater than everyday activities when trying to build or maintain bone mass through exercise. Most women should include plyometrics (bounce exercise) in their bone preservation program. Plyometrics (e.g., jumping from a small box) should be included in every schoolgirl’s physical education program. This type of exercise builds bone much better than running or walking does. Women with low bone density, severe arthritis, urinary incontinence (urine leakage), or severe dizziness should not do high-impact exercises such as plyometrics. Weight training and weight-bearing exercise in general are the best ways to build and bank bone. Free-weight exercises place more stress on the skeleton, so they are better than machine exercises for building bone. Squats and lunges work better than leg presses do because they force all the major bones in your lower skeleton to take more stress. Women should not neglect the bones in the upper body. Weight-training exercises such as bench presses, rows, standing presses, lat pulls, and pull-ups stress and build upper-body bones. Also, doing upper-body Strength and Conditioning plyometrics, including wall bounce push-ups, builds shoulder and upper backbones. Bone responds best to high-tension exercises, so women should exercise intensely. Bone responds to the stress of exercise and the pull of muscles on bone surfaces. Work hard for strong bones. Bones only respond to exercise when they are stressed. Stressing spinal bones does not necessarily stress the hipbones. Standing weight-training exercises—squats, lunges, step-ups, and deadlifts—are best for skeletal loading. Some researchers suggest that women wear weighted vests during exercise so that they can better load the bones of the spine, hips, and legs. Women who stop loading their bones (i.e., stop exercising) will lose any gains made during the weight-training program. They don’t have to do many exercises to promote bone health. Even if they do only a few exercises weekly, the extra bone load will protect them. Young bones respond to exercise better than old bones do, so it is vital that women begin a bone-building program as early as possible. The best time to start the program is before age 8. Training in the 20s and 30s is good but not as good as beginning earlier. However, even women in their 70s and 80s can benefit from exercise and skeletal loading—provided it’s done safely and under supervision. Do not expect changes overnight. Bone scans of women on weight-training programs show that increases in bone density take about nine months if pursued diligently. Strong Muscles Build Strong Bones: Bones and muscles both become strong when muscles Bone | 59 contract and exert force and pull against bone. Swimming and cycling do not promote bone density, but they build muscle and help strengthen the cardiorespiratory system. The best exercises for building muscle and bone are those where you move your body, weight, or some other kind of resistance against gravity. Exercises that build muscles and bone simultaneously include lifting weights, exercising with elastic bands, using weight machines, exercising using bodyweight as resistance, and undertaking functional movements such as chair squats. The Female Athlete Triad Although obesity is at epidemic levels in the United States, many girls and women strive for unrealistic thinness in response to pressure from peers and a society obsessed with appearance. This quest for thinness has led to an increasingly common, underreported condition called the female athlete triad. The triad consists of three interrelated disorders: abnormal eating patterns (and excessive exercising), followed by lack of menstrual periods (amenorrhea), followed by decreased bone density (premature osteoporosis). Left untreated, the triad can lead to decreased physical performance, increased incidence of bone fractures, disturbances of heart rhythm and metabolism, and even death. Female athlete triad: Disorder common in female athletes characterized by amenorrhea, eating disorders, and decreased bone density. Amenorrhea: The lack of menstrual periods. Abnormal eating is the singular event from which the other two triad components flow. Abnormal eating ranges from moderately restricting food intake to binge eating and purging (bulimia) and to severely restricting food intake (anorexia nervosa). Whether serious or relatively mild, eating disorders prevent women from getting enough calories to meet their bodies’ needs. Disordered eating combined with intense exercise and emotional stress suppresses hormones that control the menstrual cycle. If the menstrual cycle stops for three consecutive months, the condition is called amenorrhea. Prolonged amenorrhea can lead to osteoporosis. Bone density may erode to the point that a woman in her 20s will have the bone density of a woman in her 60s. Women with osteoporosis have fragile, easily fractured bones. Some researchers have found that even a few missed menstrual periods can decrease bone International Sports Sciences Association 60 | Unit 3.1 density. Women should seek the advice of an endocrinologist (doctor specializing in endocrine function) if symptoms persist. All physically active women and girls can potentially develop one or more components of the female athlete triad. For example, it is estimated that 5%–20% of women who exercise regularly and vigorously may develop amenorrhea. But the triad is most prevalent among athletes who participate in certain sports: those in which appearance is highly important, those that emphasize a prepubertal body shape, those that require contour-revealing clothing for competition, those that require endurance, and those that use weight categories for participation. Such sports include gymnastics, figure skating, swimming, diving, distance running, cycling, cross-country skiing, track, volleyball, rowing, horse racing, and cheerleading. The female athlete triad can be life threatening. Typical signs of the eating disorders that trigger the condition are extreme weight loss, dry skin, hair loss (alopecia), brittle fingernails, cold hands and feet, low blood pressure and heart rate, swelling around the ankles and hands, and weakening of the bones. Female athletes who have repeated stress fractures may be suffering from the condition. Early intervention is the key to stopping this series of interrelated conditions. Unfortunately, once the condition has progressed, long-term consequences, especially bone loss, are unavoidable. Teenagers may need only to learn about good eating habits; college-age women with a long-standing problem may require psychological and medical counseling. Summary Bone is the primary structural element of the body. Bone provides a strong framework for the body, protecting vital organs such as the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. Bones also act as levers for skeletal muscles. Bone plays a significant role in metabolism by regulating calcium metabolism and producing red blood cells. The three types of bone cells are osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts build bone tissue by producing the organic matrix where crystallized salts deposit. Osteocytes are mature bone cells. Osteoclasts are bone cells Strength and Conditioning that respond to the body’s need for the main bone mineral, calcium. Osteoclasts break down bone and release bone minerals for use by other tissues. The epiphyses are the bone growth centers. Bones grow at the epiphyses until they fuse during late adolescence. X-rays of epiphyses in the wrist can estimate skeletal age and maturation. The human skeleton consists of 206 bones divided into the skull (29 bones), thorax (25 bones), vertebral column (26 bones), upper Bone | 61 extremity (64 bones), and lower extremity (62 bones). Strength and conditioning specialists who work with women should have a thorough knowledge of the effects of training and nutrition on bone health. Peak bone mass occurs in the early 20s, so women should build up as much bone as possible when they are young. Women can promote bone health by eating a wholesome diet, doing the right kind of exercises, and maintaining healthy hormone levels. Bone becomes stronger when loaded and weaker when unloaded. The rate that stress is applied to bone is more important than is the absolute stress. High-impact exercises plyometrics and rope skipping build bone more than walking does. Non-weight-bearing swimming and cycling can actually reduce bone faster than doing no exercise at all. People should lift weights two to three days a week for optimal bone health. The female athlete triad consists of three interrelated disorders: abnormal eating patterns (and excessive exercising), followed by lack of menstrual periods (amenorrhea), followed by decreased bone density (premature osteoporosis). Left untreated, the triad can lead to decreased physical performance, increased incidence of bone fractures, disturbances of heart rhythm and metabolism, and even death. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 3.2 Joints Joints | 63 Unit Outline 1. Synovial Joints iii. Joint Capsules a. iv. Bursa Synovial Joint Characteristics i. Articular Surface of Synovial Joints ii. Synovial Fluid b. Joint Motions 2. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand the roll of healthy joints in promoting health and performance in athletes • Identify the three types of joints • Understand the basic structure and function of synovial joints and the importance of preserving and protecting joint surfaces • Understand the importance of synovial fluid for joint lubrication • Identify joint motions for the six types of synovial joints Joints or articulations are skeletal structures that interface or connect bones. Their construction promotes motion yet protects joint surfaces of connecting bones and their adjoining soft tissues. Joints play a vital role in the synchronized motions of athletic movements. Personal trainers should design exercise programs to preserve normal joint function to prevent injury and increase joint support. This occurs by strengthening muscles, tendons, and ligaments surrounding major joints. Joints: Skeletal structures that interface or connect bones. Three types of joints are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial. Fibrous and cartilaginous joints have little functional significance in sports. Fibrous joints are fixed joints such as the syndesmosis (bones united by fibrous connective tissue) formed by the inferior tibiofibular joint. Articulated bones separated by a cartilaginous junction or fibrocartilage disk characterize cartilaginous joints. The symphysis Synovial joint: Join bones whose connecting surfaces are covered in hyaline cartilage within a joint cavity lined with synovial membrane and fibrous tissue that secretes synovial fluid for joint lubrication. Fibrous joints: Fixed joint involving bones joined by fibrous connective tissue. Cartilaginous joints: Joint formed by cartilaginous junction or fibrocartilage disk. International Sports Sciences Association 64 | Unit 3.2 pubis is a cartilaginous joint formed by the articulation of the pubis bones with fibrocartilage that lacks a synovial surface. Synchondroses are temporary cartilaginous junctions between the metaphysis and epiphysis, and these disappear after growth ceases. Synovial joints differ from fibrous and cartilaginous joints because bones of a joint are not continuous with each other but instead remain in extremely close proximity. A thin layer of specialized cartilage covers the bony surfaces bathed by synovial joint fluid. This joint structure has little friction between bones, allowing for easy sliding between joint surfaces. Synovial Joints Synovial joints join bones whose connecting surfaces are covered in hyaline cartilage within a joint cavity that is lined with synovial membrane and fibrous tissue that secretes synovial fluid for joint lubrication. Synovial Joint Characteristics Synovial joints are classified by three factors—complexity of organization, movement capability, and gross morphology. Synovial joints are simple, compound, or complex. A simple joint has two articulating surfaces. A compound joint has more than one pair of articulating surfaces. A complex synovial joint has an intracapsular disk or meniscus composed of fibrocartilage. Uniaxial synovial joint: Single axis joint that can only rotate. Biaxial synovial joint: A synovial joint that can perform completely independent movements around two axes. Triaxial synovial joint: A synovial joint that can move about three axes and thus has the maximum degree of freedom of motion, for example the glenohumeral joint. Strength and Conditioning The movements of synovial joints include uniaxial, biaxial, and triaxial. A uniaxial or single axis joint can only rotate. A biaxial joint can perform completely independent movements around two axes. A triaxial joint can move about three axes and thus has the maximum degree of freedom of motion; an example is the glenohumeral joint. There are six types of synovial joints. Plane or gliding joints (also called arthrodial joints) form when flat surfaces come together. Hinge joints (also called ginglymus joints) look like the hinges of a door with uniaxial movements. Bicondylar joints, which are hinge joints, have surfaces formed by two distinct, convex, knuckle-shaped condyles that articulate with two concave surfaces. Pivot or trochoidal joints form when a cylindrical surface of one bone joins Joints | 65 Figure 3.2-1 Types of synovial joints a ringed surface of another bone, again with uniaxial movement. Ellipsoid joints also called condyloidal joints are biaxial. Sellar or saddle joints are characterized by the concave surface of one bone fitting complementarily into the convex surface of another. Spheroidal ball-andsocket joints also called enarthrodial joints involve the ball-shaped head of one bone fitting into the concave socket of an opposing bone. International Sports Sciences Association 66 | Unit 3.2 Table 3.2-1: Joint Classifications Fibrous Joints Synarthrosis Minimum fibrous tissue between bones. No movement. Adjacent bones overlap or form interlocking edges. Example: Sutures of the skull. Table 3.2-2: Synovial Joint Classifications Plane joints: Formed when flat joint surfaces connect. Example: Intercarpal joints Hinge joints (ginglymi): Uniaxial joints that resemble door hinges. Example: Interphalangeal joints. Syndesmosis More fiber between bones than in synarthrosis, so some movement is possible. Example: Distal tibiofibular joint. Cartilaginous joints Synchondroses Temporary cartilaginous junctions between the diaphysis (metaphysis) and epiphysis that disappear when skeleton matures. Pivot (trochoid) joints: Articulation formed by a cylindrical surface of one bone and a ringed surface of another bone. Example: Articulation of proximal radius and ulna. Bicondylar joints: Two distinct, convex, knuckle-shaped condyles of one bone articulate with two concave surfaces of another. Example: Knee joint. Example: Growth plates of the long bones. Fibrocartilaginous joints Composed of a slightly movable fibrocartilage disk that separates bones covered with hyaline cartilage. Ellipsoid (condyloid) joints: Biaxial joints allow movements about two axes at right angles. Example: Metacarpophalangeal joints. Example: Symphysis pubis and vertebral joints Sellar (saddle) joints: Concave surface of one bone fits into the convex surface of another. Synovial joints Example: First metacarpal articulation with the trapezium. Freely movable joints surrounded by a joint capsule and lined (except on the articular surfaces) by synovial membranes that secretes synovial fluid. Example: Most joints of the body, including the knee, hip, and elbow. Spheroidal ball-and-socket joints: Ball-shaped head of one bone fits into a concave socket. Example: Hip. Articular Surface of Synovial Joints The articular surface of most bones is composed of cartilage that helps movement, absorbs shock, and protects the bone underneath the cartilage cells. Articular cartilage is usually 1–2 millimeters thick but may be as thick as 5–7 Strength and Conditioning millimeters in larger joints. Young or immature cartilage is typically white, smooth and, to the naked eye—glistening. Aging cartilage is thinner, less cellular, and more brittle and has a yellowish opacity with irregular surfaces. Joints | 67 Articular cartilage is porous and enhances the tissue’s shock absorption function. Until recently, articular cartilage was not considered a metabolically active tissue. Research over the last 25 years demonstrates that this tissue has a surprisingly active metabolism. Replacement and repair of cartilage take place under avascular conditions or without blood supply. These processes are extremely complex and primarily rely on carbohydrates for fuel. Synovial Fluid Synovial fluid is a clear, viscous fluid of slightly alkaline pH located within the cavities of synovial joints, bursa, and tendon sheaths. This fluid provides a liquid environment within a narrow pH range for the joint surfaces and serves as a source of nutrition for the articular cartilages, discs, and menisci. It also serves as a lubricant, which increases joint efficiency and reduces surface erosion. In addition to producing synovial fluid, the synovial membrane can remove unwanted materials from the joint cavity. Synovial inflammation, called synovitis, occurs if joint injury or overuse affects this removal function. Synovial fluid: A clear, viscous fluid of slightly alkaline pH located within the cavities of synovial joints, bursa, and tendon sheaths. Joint Capsules Synovial joints have a fibrous joint capsule consisting of bundles of white connective tissue fibers. The capsule has a nerve and blood supply and may contain one or more openings through which the synovial membrane protrudes to form a pouch or sac. Fibrous joint capsules are often reinforced or replaced by tendons from neighboring muscles. The synovial membrane lines the fibrous capsule and blankets any bony surfaces, ligaments, and tendons contained within the capsule. Bursa Bursa are flattened sacs of synovial membrane supported by dense irregular connective tissue. They reduce friction and promote movement. Each bursa contains a capillary film of synovial fluid to lubricate and provide a moist environment for synovial membrane cells. Most bursae lie between tendons and bone or tendons and ligaments. Bursa: Flattened sacs of synovial membrane supported by dense irregular connective tissue that reduce friction and promote movement. International Sports Sciences Association 68 | Unit 3.2 Joint Motions The strength and conditioning coach should use precise terms when describing joint motions. Use the terms in Table 3.2-3 when describing motions employed in exercise or motor skills. Table 3.2-3: Joint Motion Flexion: Movement of a joint that decreases the angle between two adjacent segments or bones. Dorsiflexion: Foot movement toward its dorsal (upper) surface. Plantar flexion: Foot movement toward its plantar (lower) surface. Extension: Return from flexion; joint movement that increases the angle between two adjacent segments. Abduction: Lateral movement of a body segment away from the body’s midline. Adduction: Lateral movement of a body segment toward the midline of the body. Rotation: Movement of a body segment around its longitudinal axis. Pronation: Forearm inward rotation. Supination: Forearm outward rotation. Inversion: Foot rotation that lifts the medial border of the foot upward. Eversion: Foot rotation that lifts the lateral border of the foot upward. Circumduction: Movement of a body segment around a point so that the free end traces a circle and the segment traces a cone. Strength and Conditioning Joints | 69 Summary Joints or articulations are skeletal structures that serve as interfaces or connections between bones. Personal trainers should design exercise programs that preserve normal joint function by preventing injury and increasing joint support. This can be established by strengthening the muscle, tendons, and ligaments surrounding the major joints. The three types of joints are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial—synovial joints of greatest interest to strength and conditioning coaches. The three types of synovial joints are simple, compound, or complex. A simple joint has two articulating surfaces. A compound joint has more than one pair of articulating surfaces. A complex synovial joint has an intracapsular disk or meniscus composed of fibrocartilage. There are six types of synovial joints: 1. plane joints, 2. hinge joints (ginglymi), uniaxial joints that resemble door hinges, 3. pivot or trochoid joints, 4. bicondylar joints (a type of hinge joints), 5. ellipsoid or condyloid joints, and 6. spheroidal ball-and-socket joints. The articular surface of most bones is formed of a special variety of cartilage that helps movement, absorbs shock, and protects the bone underneath the cartilage cells. Research over the last 25 years demonstrates that this tissue has a surprisingly active metabolism. Synovial fluid is a clear, viscous fluid of slightly alkaline pH located within the cavities of synovial joints, bursa, and tendon sheaths. This fluid provides a liquid environment within a narrow pH range for the joint surfaces and serves as a source of nutrition for the articular cartilages, discs, and menisci. Strength and conditioning coaches should be precise when describing joint movements. Joint movements include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, plantar flexion, dorsiflexion, rotation, pronation, supination, inversion, eversion, and circumduction. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 3.3 Muscles and Their Actions Muscles and Their Actions | 71 Unit Outline Learning Objectives 1. After completing this unit, you will be able to: Levers and Movement a. Types of Levers • Understand the concept of muscle agonists, antagonists, and stabilizers for controlling movement • Identify levers in the musculoskeletal system that promotes movement and increases force-generating capacity ii. Types of Muscle Contractions • Define first, second, and third-class levers iii. Muscles and the Skeleton • Identify the origins, insertions, and actions of the major muscles in the body i. First-class levers ii. Second-class levers iii. Third-class levers b. How Muscles Produce Movement i. Fiber Arrangement 2. Summary The muscular system includes the skeletal muscles and associated connective tissue that make up muscle groups. Muscles almost always appear in pairs because they can only generate force when they shorten. Thus, they use an antagonist muscle to return the muscle back to its original length and position. For example, the biceps muscle flexes the elbow, while the triceps muscle—the bicep’s antagonist—extends the elbow and returns it to its previous state. Antagonist muscles make the smooth co-ordination of movement possible. As the one muscle contracts, the antagonistic muscle relaxes, and vice versa. When muscles contract, they become shorter and thicker. This action pulls on the bones to which they are attached and cause movement. Muscles become longer and thinner as they relax. Muscles move the skeleton only by pulling on bone as they contract. Muscles do not cause movement by pushing as they lengthen. Levers and Movement Most muscles are arranged in systems of levers. Levers increase either the force or the velocity of movement. You can move because of muscle pull on bones in this lever system. Three factors that determine the effectiveness of these levers include force, load, and fulcrum. Force moves the lever about a fulcrum. The fulcrum is a fixed point in a lever system. The place where you apply force to the lever is called the Force: Rate of change of momentum with time. According to Newton’s second law of motion, force is equal to mass times acceleration (f = ma). Load: Weight or resistance that must be moved or overcome. Fulcrum: Fixed point in a lever system. International Sports Sciences Association 72 | Unit 3.3 Point of effort: Area where force is applied to the lever. Moment of force: Rotating force about the fulcrum. point of effort. The load is the weight that must be moved or overcome. The rotating force about the fulcrum is called the moment of the force. It depends on two factors: (1) the size of the force, and (2) the distance from the fulcrum that the force is applied. This basic principle is very important when lifting weights. For example, you have better leverage when doing dead lifts if you keep the weight close to your body than if you lift the weight away from you. Types of Levers First-class lever: Fulcrum lies between the effort and load. Second-class lever: Load lies between the fulcrum and point where force is applied. Third-class lever: Effort is applied between the fulcrum and load. Levers are subdivided into first-, second- and third classes, based on the relationship between the fulcrum, point of effort, and point of resistance (load point). First-class levers This lever system is best described as a teeter-totter—the fulcrum lies between the effort and the load. We use a first class lever when we make nodding motions with our head. The head is the resistance; the contraction of the neck muscles lifts the weight around the fulcrum (i.e., the joints of the neck). Second-class levers Fascicles: Bundles of muscle fibers. Parallel fibers: Long fibers extend full length of muscle. Fusiform fibers: Muscle with a large belly and few fibers near the tendon. Pinnate fibers: Tendon extends through most of the fiber’s length. Triangular fibers: Fascicles spread out at one end and converge at the other end. Circular fibers: Circular fibers that form a sphincter. Strength and Conditioning A wheelbarrow is a good example of this lever, where the load lies between the fulcrum and the place of applied force. In the wheelbarrow, a small upward force applied to the handles can lift the weight in the barrow. You use this lever when you go up on your toes: you need little effort to raise your body weight. Similarly a relatively small muscular effort is required to raise the body weight. This type of leverage allows us to walk and run and is effective for overcoming resistance. Third-class levers This lever works like a piston in an engine. The effort is exerted between the fulcrum and the load. Doing a biceps curl is an example of this lever in action. The elbow is the fulcrum, the dumbbell is the resistance (or load), and the biceps muscles create the effort to perform the curl. This lever allows for rapid movement. Muscles and Their Actions | 73 A B C Figure 3.3-1 (A) First-class lever. (B) Second-class lever. (C) Third-class lever. How Muscles Produce Movement Fiber Arrangement Muscle fibers are arranged in bundles called fascicles. Fibers within a fascicle are parallel to each other but fascicles within a muscle are not necessarily parallel to the muscle’s tendons. Stronger muscles have more fibers per fascicle, and muscles with greater ranges of motion have longer muscle fibers. Skeletal muscles have five characteristic patterns: parallel, fusiform, pennate, triangular, or circular. In the Parallel pattern, long fibers extend the full length of muscle (i.e., from tendon to tendon). In pennate muscles, the tendon extends through most of the length of the fiber. Pennate muscle can be unipennate, the fascicles International Sports Sciences Association 74 | Unit 3.3 Parallel: Fascicles parallel to longitudinal axis of muscle; terminate at either end in flat tendons. Example: Stylohyoid Multipennate: Fascicles attach obliquely from many directions to several tendons. Example: Deltoid Fusiform: Fascicles nearly parallel to longitudinal axis of muscle; terminate in flat tendons; muscle tapers toward tendons where diameter is less than at belly. Example: Biceps brachii Unipennate: Fascicles are arranged on only one side of tendon. Example: Flexor pollicis longus Triangular: Fascicles spread over broad area coverage at thick central tendon; gives muscle triangular appearance. Example: Pectoralis Bipennate: Fascicles are arranged on both sides of cantrally positioned tendon. Example: Soleus Figure 3.3-2 Muscle fiber arrangements. are on one side of the tendon; bipennate, the fascicles are on two sides of the tendon; and multipennate, with several tendons, each with bipennate fascicles. In the fusiform arrangement, the muscle has a large belly with few fibers near the tendon. In triangular muscles, the fascicles spread out at one end and converge at the other end. Finally, circular muscles involve circular fibers that form a sphincter. Fiber arrangement helps to determine the muscles strength, power, and range of motion. With strength training, fiber alignment gets closer to the pulling angle of the tendon, which makes the muscles denser. Strength and Conditioning Types of Muscle Contractions Muscle contractions are either concentric, eccentric, or static (isometric). Muscles shorten during concentric contractions, lengthen during eccentric contractions, and stay the same length during static contractions. Muscles can exert the most force during eccentric contractions, which helps explain why they are most associated with muscle soreness, strains, and sprains. Static contractions provide stability and support during movement. They are particularly important for stabilizing and stiffening the core during all whole-body movements. Muscles and Their Actions | 75 Muscles and the Skeleton The role of muscles in movement—and the difficulty in developing programs to train them—can be complicated because a single muscle can produce more than one movement. For example, the hamstring muscles cause knee flexion and also hip extension. Hamstring injuries usually happen during hip extension rather than knee flexion. But most people rehabilitate these muscles by doing leg curls, which is a knee flexion exercise. Also, muscles receive help from other muscles. Muscles that produce the movement are the agonists. The main muscle causing movement is called the prime mover. Muscles that oppose a movement are called antagonists. The agonists may produce an unwanted secondary movement, and synergist muscles prevent the unwanted actions of the agonists. Some muscles act primarily to stabilize a joint rather than to produce movement. During movement of the hands or feet, muscles may stabilize a joint to provide a stable base for muscle contraction. Every muscle has an origin, where it originates and an insertion where it inserts. Muscles move the bone from the insertion toward the origin. The attachment to the stationary bone is the origin. The attachment to the movable bone is the insertion. The well-versed personal trainer should know the muscles well. You cannot design an effective training program for athletes unless you know the muscular requirements of the sport. Also, you will spend as much time healing and preventing injuries as you will to enhance fitness. Knowing the precise actions of the major muscles will help you to design intelligent and effective programs. Agonists: Muscles that produce movement. Prime mover: Main muscle-producing movement. Antagonists: Muscles that oppose movement. Synergists: Muscles that assist with movement. Stabilizers: Muscles that make a joint rigid so other muscles can cause movement. Origin: Muscle’s attachment to the stationary bone. Insertion: Attachment of the muscle to the movable bone. International Sports Sciences Association BACK (Posterior View) BACK (Posterior View) 1. Trapezius (upper) 2. Trapezius (middle) 3. Posterior deltoid 4. Teres minor 5. Triceps brachii (lateral head) 6. Rhomboids (underlying) 7. Triceps brachii (long head) 8. Latissimus dorsi 9. Erector spinae 10. Gluteus medius 11. Gluteus maximus 12. Gracilis 13. Semitendinosus 14. Biceps femoris 15. Gastrocnemius 16. Soleus (deep to gastrocnemius) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 FRONT (Anterior View) 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 FRONT (Anterior View) 12 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 13 14 Sternocleidomastoid Trapezius (upper) Medial deltoid Anterior deltoid Clavicular pectoralis major Sternal pectoralis major Biceps brachii Serratus Anterior Rectus abdominis Internal oblique (underlying) Brachioradialis External oblique Palmaris longus Pectineus Tensor fasciae latae Adductor longus Rectus femoris Gracilis Sartorius Vastus lateralis Vastus medialis Peroneus longus Tibialis anterior 34 35 36 37 15 16 38 39 Muscles and Their Actions | 77 Shoulder Muscles SHOULDER GIRDLE MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Trapezius Upper: base of skull, occipital protuberance and posterior ligaments of neck Upper: posterior aspect of the lateral clavicle Upper: scapula elevation and extension of the head at neck Middle: spinous process of 7C and T1-T3 Middle: medial border of the acromion process and upper border of acromion Middle: elevation, upward rotation and adduction of scapula Lower: spinous process of T4-T12 Lower: base of scapular spine (triangular shape) Lower: depression adduction, upward rotation of the scapula Levator scapulae Transverse process of C1-C4 Above base of scapular spine on medial border Elevates medial margin of scapulae Rhomboid Spinous process of C7 and T1-T5 Medial boarder of scapula below spine (retraction) draw scapula toward spinal column (downward rotation) (elevation) Serratus anterior Surface of upper 9 ribs at side of chest Anterior aspect along entire length of medial border of scapula (protraction) draws medial border of scapulae away from vertebrae (upward rotation) Pectoralis minor Anterior surfaces 3rd to 5th ribs Coracoid process of scapula (protraction) draws scapula forward (downward rotation) (depression) MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Deltoid Anterior: anterior lateral third of clavicle Anterior: deltoid tuberosity on lateral humerous Anterior: abduction, flexion, horizontal adduction, and internal rotation of glenohumeral joint Middle: lateral aspects of acromion Middle: deltoid tuberosity on lateral humerous Middle: abduction of the glenohumeral joint Posterior: inferior edge of spine scapula Posterior: deltoid tuberosity on lateral humerous Posterior: abduction, extension, horizontal abduction, and external rotation of glenohumeral joint Coraco-brachialis Coracoid process of scapula Medial border of middle humeral shaft Flexion, adduction, and horizontal adduction of glenohumeral joint Supraspinatus Medial 2/3 of supraspinatus fossa Superiorly on greater tubercle of humerus Weak abduction and stabilization of humeral head in glenoid fossa Infraspinatus Medial aspect of infraspinatus fossa just below spine of scapula Posteriorly on greater tubercle of humerus External rotation, horizontal abduction, and extension of the glenohumeral joint, stabilization of humeral head in glenoid fossa Teres minor Posteriorly on middle, upper aspect of lateral border of scapula Posteriorly on greater tubercle of humerus External rotation, horizontal abduction, and extension of glenohumeral joint; stabilization of humeral head in glenoid fossa SHOULDER JOINT International Sports Sciences Association 78 | Unit 3.3 Shoulder Muscles Subscapularis Entire anterior surface of subscapular fossa Lesser tubercle of humerus Internal rotation, adduction, and extension of glenohumeral joint; stabilizes humeral head in glenoid fossa Teres major Posteriorly on inferior 3rd of lateral border of scapula and slightly superior to inferior angle Medial lip of intertubercular groove of the humerus Extension, internal rotation, and adduction of glenohumeral joint Latissimus dorsi Posterior crest of illium, back of sacrum, and spinious process of lumbar and lower T6-T12, slips from lower 3 ribs Medial side of intertubercular groove of humerus Addition, extension, and internal rotation of glenohumeral joint; horizontal abduction of glenohumeral joint Pectoralis major Clavicular: medial half of anterior surface of clavicle Clavicular: flat tendon 2 or 3 inches wide to the outer lip of intertubercular Clavicular:: internal rotation, horizontal adduction, flexion abduction, and adduction (when the arm is 90˚ of abduction of the glenohumeral joint Sternal: anterior surfaces of costal cartilage of first 6 ribs and adjacent portion of sternum Sternal: groove of humerus Sternal: internal rotation, horizontal adduction, extension, and adduction of the glenohumeral joint Elbow and Radioulnar Joint MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Biceps brachii Long head: supraglenoid tubercle above the superior lip of glenoid fossa Tuberosity of radius and bicipital aponeurosis Flexion of elbow, supination of forearm Weak flexion shoulder joint Short head: coracoid process of scapula and upper lip of glenoid fossa Brachialis Distal half of anterior portion of humerus Coronoid process of the ulna Flexion of elbow Brachioradialis Distal 2/3 of lateral condyloid ridge of humerus Lateral surface, distal end of the radius at styloid process Flexion of elbow, pronation from supinated to neutral position, supination from pronation to neutral position Triceps brachii Long head: infraglenoid tubercle below inferior lip of glenoid fossa of scapula Olecranon process of the ulna Long head: adduction of the shoulder joint, extension of elbow Lateral head: upper half of posterior surface of humerus All heads are involved in the extension of the elbow Medial head: distal 2/3 of posterior surface of humerus Anconeus Posterior surface of lateral condyle of the humerus Strength and Conditioning Posterior surface of the olecranon process of the ulna Extension of the elbow Muscles and Their Actions | 79 Trunk and Spinal Column MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Rectus abdominis Superior surface of pubis around syphysis Inferior surfaces of costal cartilages (ribs 5-7) and xiphoid process of sternum Depresses ribs, flexes vertebral column Transversus abdominis Cartilages of the lower ribs, iliac crest, and lumbodorsal fascia Linea alba and pubis Compresses abdomen External oblique External and inferior borders of ribs 5-12 Linea alba and iliac crest Compresses abdomen; depresses ribs; flexes, bends to side, or rotates spine Internal oblique Lumbodorsal fascia and iliac crest Inferior surfaces of ribs 9-12, costal cartilages 8-10, linea alba, and pubis Compresses abdomen; depresses ribs; flexes, bends to side, or rotates spine Hip Joint and Pelvic Girdle MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Rectus Femoris Anterior iliac spine of the ilium and groove (posterior) above the acetabulum Superior aspect of patella and patellar tendon to tibial tuberosity Flexion of hip, extension of knee Gluteus maximus Posterior 1/4 of the crest of ilium, posterior surface of sacrum and coccyx near the ilium, and fascia of lumbar area Oblique ridge on lateral surface of greater trochanter and iliotibial band of fasciae Extension of hip, external rotation of hip, lower fibers which assist in adduction Semitendinosus Ischial tuberosity Upper anterior medial surface of tibia Extension of hip, flexion of knee, internal rotation of hip and knee Semi-membranosus Ischial tuberosity Posteromedial surface of medial tibial condyle Extension of hip, flexion of knee, internal rotation of hip and knee Biceps femoris Long head: ischial tuberosity Lateral condyle of tibia and head of fibula Extension of hip, flexion of knee, internal rotation of hip and knee Short head: lower half of linea aspera, and lateral condyloid ridge International Sports Sciences Association 80 | Unit 3.3 Knee Joint MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Vastus lateralis Intertrochanteric line, anterior and inferior borders of greater trochanter gluteal tuberosity, upper half of the linea aspera and entire lateral intermuscular septum Lateral border of patella and patellar tendon to tibial tuberosity Knee extension Vastus intermedius Upper 2/3 of anterior surface of the femur Upper border of patella and patellar tendon to tibial tuberosity Knee extension Vastus medialis Entire length of linea aspera and the medial condyloid ridge Medial half of upper border of patella and patellar tendon to tibial tuberosity Knee extension MUSCLE ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION Gastrocnemius Medial head: posterior surface of the medial femoral condyle Posterior surface of the calcaneus (Achilles tendon) Plantar flexion of the ankle, flexion of the knee Ankle and Foot Lateral head: posterior surface of the lateral femoral condyle Soleus Posterior surface of the proximal fibula and proximal 2/3 of the posterior tibial surface Posterior surface of the calcaneus (Achilles tendon) Plantar flexion of the ankle Tibialis anterior Upper 2/3 of the lateral surface of tibia Inner surface of medial cuneiform and the first metatarsal bone Dorsal flexion of ankle, inversion of foot Strength and Conditioning Muscles and Their Actions | 81 Summary The muscular system includes the skeletal muscles and associated connective tissue that make up muscle groups. When muscles contract, they become shorter and thicker; this pulls on the bones to which they attach and causes movement. Most muscles are arranged in systems of levers. Levers increase either the force or the velocity of movement. Three principal factors determining the effectiveness of these levers include force, load, and fulcrum. The fulcrum is a fixed point in a lever system. The area where you apply force to the lever is called the point of effort. The load is the weight that must be moved or overcome. The rotating force about the fulcrum is called the moment of the force. Levers are subdivided into first, second, and third classes based on the relationship among the fulcrum, point of effort, and point of resistance (load point). In first-class levers, the fulcrum lies between the effort and the load (e.g., teeter-totter). This lever is found in the neck at the atlanto-occipital joint and in the elbow joint. In second-class levers, the load lies between the fulcrum and the area where force is applied (e.g., wheelbarrow). This lever is used during plantar flexion of foot to raise body up on toes. In third-class levers, the effort is exerted between the fulcrum and load. This lever is used when the hamstring contract to flex the lower leg at the knee. The arrangement of muscle fibers influences their ability to exert force. Five skeletal muscles fiber patterns include parallel, fusiform, pennate, triangular, and circular. Every muscle has an origin where it originates and an insertion, where it inserts. Muscles move the bone from the insertion toward the origin. The origin is the attachment to the stationary bone, and the insertion is the attachment to the movable bone. The well-versed strength and conditioning trainer should know the muscles well. Muscle contractions are either concentric, eccentric, or static (isometric). Muscles shorten during concentric contractions, lengthen during eccentric contractions, and stay the same length during static contractions. Muscles can exert the most force during eccentric contractions, which helps explain why they are most associated with muscle soreness, strains, and sprains. Static contractions provide stability and support during movement. They are particularly important for stabilizing and stiffening the core during all whole-body movements. Muscles are prime movers when they are the most important muscle producing a specific movement. The biceps brachius, for example, is the prime mover for elbow flexion. Antagonists oppose or reverse a particular motion. The triceps brachius causes extension of the elbow in opposition to the biceps brachius, which flexes the elbow. Synergists are muscles that assist prime movers. For example, the brachialis is a synergist to the biceps during elbow flexion because it assists the movement. Sometimes muscles that work concentrically International Sports Sciences Association 82 | Unit 3.3 during one phase of an exercise will work eccentrically during another phase. For example, the biceps work concentrically to curl a dumbbell but work eccentrically when returning the weight to the starting position. Even though the triceps extends the elbow, the biceps contract eccentrically to lower the weight during the curl. Strength and Conditioning Fixators immobilize joints so that prime movers have stable support to cause movement. The core muscles, such as the rectus abdominis, obliques, and transversus abdominis, act as fixators during many whole-body movements. UNIT 3.4 Muscle Physiology 84 | Unit 3.4 Unit Outline 1. Skeletal Muscle Structure a. 3. Muscle and the Nervous System The Motor Unit a. b. The Sarcomere and Muscle Contraction 2. Muscle Strength: Size, Neural Activation, Elasticity, and Skill a. Hypertrophy or Hyperplasia? b. How Muscle Fibers Become Larger c. Protein Synthesis d. Muscle Tension e. Hormones f. Amino Acid Concentration and Nutritional Status Increased Strength Through Improved Motor Unit Recruitment 4. Elastic Muscle Energy a. Physiology of Muscle Elasticity 5. Skill 6. Coordinating Cellular, Neural, Elastic and Skill Components of Strength 7. Summary g. Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand critical factors in muscle protein synthesis including muscle tension, energy intake, protein and amino acid consumption, hormones, and recovery • Identify the basic structure of muscles, muscle fibers, connective tissue support, and sarcomeres • Understand the basic energetics of muscle contraction • Understand the causes and symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness. • Identify motor unit structure and function and their recruitment patterns during exercise and sport • Improve performance through improved motor unit recruitment. • Optimize muscle size, neural activation, elasticity, and skill to promote performance Improve performance by maximizing the use of elastic muscle energy • Know the difference between muscle hypertrophy and hyperplasia Understand the physiology of muscle elasticity • Coordinate cellular, neural, elastic, and skill components of the neuromuscular system for improved performance • • • Understand the process of protein synthesis and its role in improving health and performance Strength and Conditioning Muscle Physiology | 85 Skeletal Muscle and Structure Strength and conditioning trainers must know the basics of muscle physiology—the study of muscle function—because muscle reacts differently to various training regimens. Bodybuilders, for example, want to build large, symmetrical muscles covered by a minimum of surface fat. Individual muscle fibers are arranged in bundles called fasciculi and subdivided into myofibrils and myofilaments (Figure 3.4-1). Muscle cells are connected and supported by connective tissue constructed mainly of collagen. Connective tissue runs from end to end in the muscle (i.e., from the tendon of origin to the tendon of Muscle fibers: Cells of muscle tissue that contain large amounts of the proteins actin and myosin, which can contract at a small fraction of their resting length. Fasciculi: Bundles of muscle fibers. Myofibrils: Slender threads in a muscle fiber that run parallel with the long axis of the fiber composed of numerous myofilaments. Myofilaments: Microscopic threads of proteins that compose myofibrils in muscle. Thick filaments contain myosin and thin filaments actin. Collagen: Protein substance of the white fibers of skin, tendon, bone, cartilage, and all other connective tissues. Figure 3.4-1 Basic structure of skeletal muscle—fascicles, fibers, and myofibrils. International Sports Sciences Association 86 | Unit 3.4 Gastrocnemius: Large muscle found in the lower leg (calf). Hypertrophy: Enlarged organ or tissue from increased cell size. Striated: Striped appearance—marked by narrow lines or grooves, usually parallel. Isotropic: Tissues whose physical properties remain independent of the direction in which they are measured. Actin: Filament-like protein involved in muscle contraction in smooth and skeletal muscle. Anisotropic: Structure whose appearance varies with the observation angle. Myosin: Filament-like protein involved in muscle contraction in smooth and skeletal muscle; binds with actin to produce muscle contraction. H band: Located at the center of each muscle sarcomere. It is light when stained and consists only of myosin fibers (no actin fibers); light when stained. Sarcomere: Repeating contracting subunits within the muscle cells to construct myofibrils of striated muscle. Z lines: Line formed where actin filaments attach between two sarcomeres and serves as the boundary between sarcomeres. insertion) and surrounds the fibers, giving rise to muscle bundles. In some muscles, the cells run from end to end, whereas in other muscles, the fibers attach to connective tissue within the muscle. Consequently, in some muscles, the fibers do not run exactly in the direction of the muscle tissue (e.g., gastrocnemius). Muscle fibers are subdivided into smaller units called myofibrils. When muscles receive the signal to contract, protein filaments within the myofibrils slide across one another, causing them to shorten. Resistance training enlarges individual muscle fibers by increasing the number of myofibrils. Larger muscle fibers mean a larger and stronger muscle. Hypertrophy refers to the development of large muscle fibers. Under a microscope, skeletal muscle fibers have a striped or striated appearance (Figure 3.4-2b). These striations are due to the presence of actin and myosin, the two main proteins of contraction and principal components of the myofibrils. The lighter I (isotropic) band allows more polarized light to pass because of the presence of the thin actin filaments and mitochondria. The darker A (anisotropic) bands block more light because of the presence of both thick myosin and thin actin filaments. Under higher magnification, a thin H band appears in the A band’s center. The H band results from the structure of the myosin filament, which is less dense at the center (Figure 3.4-2b). A close-up of the muscle fiber under a light microscope shows the striated or stripped appearance in Figure 3.4-2b. This figure also shows how the thin actin filaments attach to the Z line. The Z line provides the foundation for shortening in muscle. The sarcomeres— consisting of contractile proteins lying between two Z lines—form the basic functional muscle unit. Muscle contraction occurs when actin (A) combines with myosin (M) and the high-energy chemical adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to produce force and with adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). The reaction leading to muscle contraction is shown in the following equation: Actin + Myosin + ATP A + M + ADP + Pi + Force (Eq. 3.4-1) Strength and Conditioning Muscle Physiology | 87 Epimysium Tendon Perimysium Bon e Fascicle Muscle Fiber* Myofibril Thin (actin) filament Troponin Tropomyosin Sarcomere Z-line Myosin head I H zone A *Also referred to as “muscle cell“ Actin I Thick (myosin) filament Myosin/actin cross bridge Figure 3.4-2a Organization of human skeletal muscle. Figure 3.4-2b Parallel myofibrils with glycogen (darker) particles between myofibrils. International Sports Sciences Association 88 | Unit 3.4 The Motor Unit Motor unit: Single motor nerve and the group of muscle fibers innervated by it. A motor unit consists of an alpha (α)-motor neuron or motor nerve and its associated muscle cell fibers. The motor unit (Figure 3.4-3 a, b) is the functional unit of the neural control of muscular activity. At least one motor neuron innervates all muscle fibers, and an action potential or nerve impulse turns on the muscle fibers and makes them contract. One motor nerve may be connected to as few as 3 and as many as 1,000 muscle fibers. When the motor unit fires, all the muscle fibers in the unit contract to their maximum capacity. The fibers within a motor unit have similar biochemical and strength characteristics. Fast-twitch fibers: Small muscle fibers with high strength and power capacities rich in glycogen. They fatigue quickly but have more power than slowtwitch fibers do. Muscle fibers are classified as fast twitch or slow twitch according to their strength, speed of contraction, and fatigue resistance (Figure 3.4-4). To achieve greater precision, muscle physiologists classify human muscle fibers as Type I (slow twitch; slow oxidative, SO), IIa (fast twitch; fast oxidative glycolytic, FOG), and IIx (fast twitch; fast glycolytic, FG). Fibers are classified by their biochemical characteristics and their strength, power, speed, and endurance. Slow-twitch fibers: Small muscle fibers with high-endurance capacity rich in blood supply and mitochondria. They have less strength and power than fast-twitch fibers do but are fatigue resistant. The fiber’s myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform determines how fast the myosin fiber contracts. A myosin isoform is a variation of the basic myosin filament. There are at least nine distinct mammalian MHC isoforms. About half of the MHC isoforms are found in the heart or fetuses, whereas the rest appear in skeletal muscles. Type 2a is found in most FOG fibers, including type 2b and 2x in FG fibers. Type 2b fibers are extremely rare in humans. The complexity of muscle fiber typing is confusing to the personal trainer, coach, or athlete. To simplify matters, think of fiber types in one of two categories—slow twitch and fast twitch (Figure 3.4-5). Slow-twitch fibers are relatively fatigue resistant, but they do not contract as rapidly or strongly as fast-twitch fibers do. The principal energy system that fuels slow-twitch fibers is aerobic. Fast-twitch fibers contract more rapidly and forcefully than slow-twitch fibers do but fatigue more quickly. Oxygen is important in the energy system that fuels fast-twitch fibers, although they rely more on anaerobic (without oxygen) metabolism than slow-twitch fibers do. Strength and Conditioning Muscle Physiology | 89 A B Figure 3.4-3 (a) The motor unit is composed of a motor neuron (nerve) and its muscle fibers. (b) A micrograph of a motor endplate showing the connection of the motor nerve to the muscle fibers. Figure 3.4-4 Characteristics of principal motor units. Type I fibers (slow oxidative) have excellent endurance but poor strength, speed, and power. Type IIx (Fast glycolytic; formerly called Type IIb) are fast and powerful but fatigue quickly. Type IIa (fast oxidative glycolytic) are fast fibers with some endurance capacity. From: Edington, DW and Edgerton, PW. The Biology of Physical Activity. Houghton Mifflin. Boston, 1976. 90 | Unit 3.4 Figure 3.4-5 Mechanism of muscle contraction. Triggered by a calcium ion, actin binds to myosin. ATP splits, providing energy for myosin to move and disengage from actin. Most muscles contain a mixture of slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibers. Individual muscles vary in fiber types. Fast-twitch fibers predominate in the gastrocnemius in the calf, whereas slow-twitch fibers predominate in the soleus. Genetics determines the fiber mixture in large prime movers such as the quadriceps and gluteus maximus. Great power athletes typically have greater percentages of fast-twitch fibers in these muscles, whereas elite endurance athletes usually have more slow-twitch fibers. Aerobic or power training can change fiber characteristics slightly, but genetic makeup ultimately determines basic muscle fiber characteristics. The type of fiber called into play depends on the type of movement required. Endurance activities like jogging tend to use slow-twitch fibers, whereas strength and power sprinting and rapid, powerful movements rely on fast-twitch fibers. Resistance training increases the size and strength of both fast-twitch and slow-twitch Strength and Conditioning fibers, although fast-twitch fibers are increased preferentially. To exert force, the body recruits one or more motor units to contract. As discussed, a motor unit consists of a nerve connected to a number of muscle fibers. When a motor nerve calls on its fibers to contract, all fibers contract to their full capacity. The number of recruited motor units depends on the amount of strength required. When a person lifts a light weight, fewer motor units are used than when a heavier weight is lifted. ALL forms of resistance training improve how the body recruits motor units—a phenomenon called “muscle learning.” This important principle means that increases in strength occur before the size of the muscle increases. Muscle learning is an important means to gain strength during childhood and in most women because low testosterone levels make it difficult to significantly increase muscle size. Muscle Physiology | 91 The Sarcomere and Muscle Contraction Muscle performance during exercise is determined at several levels of organization—beginning at the brain and ending at the contractile proteins that develop force and produce movement. The central nervous system controls muscle movements, whether they are simple reflexes or learned skills. Within a cell, the muscle contraction caused by actin and myosin interaction is triggered by calcium ion (Ca++) that binds with muscle controller proteins called troponin and tropomyosin. This process is called the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction, which explains how muscle proteins slide past each other to cause muscle contractions and movement. Troponin and tropomyosin block the binding sites of actin and prevent muscle contraction. Removing these proteins by calcium ions allows actin and myosin binding and hence muscle contraction. Actin and myosin form cross-bridges that are responsible for muscle tension and contraction. Muscle contraction begins with the release of calcium ion from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, a cell structure that gathers calcium ions. Calcium causes the cell proteins troponin and tropomyosin to move away from the actin-binding site so myosin can trigger the contraction. An enzyme called myosin ATPase breaks down ATP, providing the energy for myosin movement and muscle contraction. ATP also supplies the energy to pump calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum and unbind the actin and myosin. Troponin: Muscle controller protein that, along with tropomyosin, blocks the binding sites of actin and prevents contraction. Tropomyosin: Muscle controller protein acting in concert with troponin to block the binding sites of actin and prevent contraction. Sarcoplasmic reticulum: Cell structure that gathers calcium ions for release when a nerve signals the muscle fiber to contract. Myosin ATPase: Enzyme that speeds the breakdown of myosin and releases ATP and provides the energy source for muscle contraction. Calcium and the contractile muscle proteins actin and myosin are not the only factors that affect muscular performance. The elastic properties of muscles and tendons also contribute to muscle force. Additionally, the anatomical arrangement of muscle cells within muscle tissue, including the attachment of muscles to the skeleton, affects movement quality. Muscle Strength: Size, Neural Activation, Elasticity, and Skill Resistance training increases muscle strength because it increases the size of muscle fibers and improves the ability to call on (recruit) motor units to exert force. Optimal muscle performance requires (1) International Sports Sciences Association 92 | Unit 3.4 Elasticity: Capacity of a tissue or substance to recover its former structure following the removal of external pressure or altering its force. Hyperplasia: Increase in the number of cells and fibers. good muscle size, (2) coordination between the muscles and nervous system, (3) efficient use muscle elasticity, and (4) specific skill development. Each factor depends on the coordinated action of the others for peak muscular development. Muscles develop best when subjected to tension. Considering the neural and elastic properties of muscle, in addition to muscle protein, will ultimately produce faster and more impressive gains. The important concept is to have all three systems working in concert. Hypertrophy or Hyperplasia? For over 100 years, researchers have argued whether strength training increases muscle fiber number or only muscle fiber size. Most studies show that strength training makes muscle fibers larger (hypertrophy) not more numerous (hyperplasia). However, some proof exists that muscle fibers can increase in number under certain circumstances. In addition, some extremely strong people may be born with more muscle fibers than others are. Generally, muscle hypertrophy makes muscles larger and stronger. How muscle fibers become larger: Muscle fibers become larger by increasing the number of myofibrils—in other words, muscles increase in size by adding protein. Strength and size increase as myofibrils are added to the muscle. The more myofibrils added to the muscle, the greater the increase in strength and size. Satellite cells: Nucleus surrounded by minimal cell content close to the membrane of a muscle fiber that promotes muscle hypertrophy and cell repair. During hypertrophy the muscle cells incorporate satellite cells into the cell cytoplasm (inner cell space). A satellite cell is a nucleus surrounded by minimal cell content that lies close to the membrane of a muscle fiber. During muscle hypertrophy, satellite cells divide. One of the satellite cells is incorporated into the muscle cell, and the other is used for further muscle cell repair and growth. Muscle growth factors cause the satellite cells to combine with stressed or damaged muscle cells during training and assist in cell repair and adaptation. Satellite cell formation is important because it maintains a balance between the number of cell nuclei and cell mass (http:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.2012.232751/full). Muscle cells go into overdrive to make new proteins following meals high in proteins and amino acids and workouts involving high muscle tension. Measurable changes in muscle size take weeks. Why does this take so long? Muscle size reflects the balance between making new Strength and Conditioning Muscle Physiology | 93 protein and breaking down old protein. Muscle breakdown accelerates with age—often exceeding the rate of protein synthesis. The catabolic (breakdown) hormones, corticosteroids, and anti-growth factor such as myostatin speed the rate of muscle breakdown. Protein synthesis: As the muscle continues to undergo increased demands, the activity of the cells’ protein-making machinery increases. Regulation of muscle size depends on a balance between signaling systems that either promote or suppress muscle growth. Mammalian target of rapamycin kinase (mTOR) stimulates muscle protein synthesis and growth. It responds to dietary protein, amino acids (particularly leucine), the hormone insulin-like growth factor, and resistance exercise to activate protein synthesis. The mTOR system is balanced by AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activated during starvation and endurance exercise to conserve energy and inhibit muscle protein synthesis. Training simultaneously for muscle growth and endurance compromises muscle hypertrophy. Endurance training activates AMPK, an important energy-sensing enzyme that monitors cellular energy status. AMPK inhibits mTOR, a cell-signaling chemical that promotes muscle protein synthesis and muscle hypertrophy. These control systems explain why specificity of training is so vital. Train the way you want your muscle cells to respond. The nucleus serves as the control center for protein synthesis in muscle cells. Most cells in the body contain a single nucleus. Muscle cells, however, contain many nuclei, which give them a high capacity to produce new proteins. Proteins are constructed from amino acids on cell structures called ribosomes. The protein-making genes in the nucleus send messages to the ribosomes with instructions on how to arrange the amino acids to form a specific protein. The cells also manufacture proteins such as enzymes. These structures play important roles in cell function and physical performance. Factors influencing protein production in muscle include muscle tension, hormones, amino acid concentration, and nutritional status. Mammalian target of rapamycin kinase (mTOR): Signaling molecule that stimulates muscle protein synthesis and growth. It responds to dietary protein, amino acids (particularly leucine), the hormone insulin-like growth factor, and resistance exercise to activate protein synthesis. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK): Signaling molecule that promotes production of mitochondria that responds to low energy levels and endurance exercise and inhibits mTOR activity. Ribosomes: Small cellular structures involved in protein synthesis composed of specialized ribosomal RNA and ribonucleic acid or RNA. Muscle tension: Muscle tension represents the most important factor increasing the rate of muscle protein development. Muscle tension speeds the movement of amino acids into the muscle cells and triggers International Sports Sciences Association 94 | Unit 3.4 the nucleus to build new muscle. A faster movement of amino acids into the muscle coincides with a greater rate of muscle protein synthesis. In other words, optimal muscle growth depends on triggering tension receptors in the cell and the rate that amino acids enter the cell. Any training program designed to stimulate muscle growth must maximize the intensity and duration of muscle tension. Hormones: Testosterone, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor, and insulin are the four most important hormones affecting protein synthesis in muscle. Each hormone influences muscle cell nuclei and their messengers to speed muscle protein production. Insulin also speeds the movement of amino acids into the muscle cell. This is critical for muscle growth— more amino acids transported into the muscle cell produces a greater rate of muscle hypertrophy. Testosterone and insulin-like growth factor stimulate the cell nuclei to increase protein synthesis. Growth hormone works by increasing the activity of insulin-like growth factor. Other hormones cause protein breakdown. The most important of these are the corticosteroids produced by the adrenal glands (hormone-secreting glands that lie on top of each kidney). Corticosteroids such as cortisol are produced during times of stress. They increase substantially following strenuous workouts or during overtraining. Overtraining is an imbalance between training and recovery. It leads to decreased performance, soreness, fatigue, and suppression of the immune system. With overtraining, blood levels of these hormones rise, and testosterone levels fall. This places the individual in a catabolic state—making gains in muscle size impossible. Strength and Conditioning Amino acid concentration and nutritional status: Optimal amino acid transport requires an adequate concentration of amino acids in the blood and muscles. Usually this is not a problem, because most athletes consume enough protein in their diets to supply the muscles with adequate amino acids. However, during times of heavy training, extensive soft tissue injury, or overtraining, amino acid concentration may be inadequate. Energy intake also is important. Without adequate calorie intake, the body must break down its structural proteins to supply the body’s energy requirements. Training does not lead to continual gains in muscle size or strength. Muscle size increases for a while and then levels off and sometimes regresses. One reason this occurs is protein turnover—the constant buildup and breakdown of structural proteins. If one provides the optimal training environment for the muscles (i.e., good muscle tension during training and ideal concentrations of anabolic hormones and amino acids), then muscles will tend to increase in size. The individual would be in an anabolic (build-up) or growing phase. A chemical called myostatin—under the control of the myostatin gene—acts as a balance and inhibits muscle growth, so there is a limit to how much muscles grow. If training and nutritional considerations are not optimal, training gains will be less, or the individual may actually lose ground. The training program’s goal should be to stay anabolic and avoid catabolic (breakdown) periods. This involves a careful balance between training and recovery. Tension should be optimized for workouts by using cycles. Intense workouts increase muscle size, and the Muscle Physiology | 95 individual must be adequately rested to train intensely. If people overdo it, they will never recover enough to continue to train hard. The quality of the training stimulus is the key to maximizing protein synthesis in muscle. A client’s training regimen must be designed to optimize intense workouts. Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS): DOMS is muscle soreness experienced one to three days following a workout. Until recently, muscle soreness was attributed to either lactic acid build-up or muscle spasms. We now know though that sore muscles are caused by cell damage and inflammation in the muscle cells. Heavy workouts involving eccentric muscle contractions can cause damage to the fibers and calcium storage depots within the cells. Calcium, a chemical trigger, causes muscles to contract. Unfortunately, high concentrations of calcium produces muscle breakdown. Following muscle damage, calcium leaks into the muscle and causes breakdown of muscle proteins. This triggers a pain response and muscle inflammation. After a few days, the muscles generate protective proteins to temporarily protect the muscle from further damage and soreness. If the individual skips too many workouts, these protective proteins diminish and become susceptible to additional muscle soreness. Overtraining: An imbalance between training and recovery characterized by decreased performance, soreness, fatigue, and immune system suppression. Anabolic: Chemical processes that promote synthesis in the body. Myostatin: A chemical under the control of the myostatin gene that inhibits muscle growth. Catabolic: Chemical processes that promote breakdown. Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS): Due to muscle injury and damage to fibers during tissue inflammation. Muscle injury is an important stimulator of muscle hypertrophy and increased strength. Suppressing muscle inflammation with over-thecounter drugs such as non-steroidal inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs (e.g., ibuprofen or Motrin, aspirin or Ascriptin, and naproxen or Aleve) after training can interfere with muscle protein synthesis and hypertrophy (Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 287: C475-483, 2004). NSAIDS stop cyclooxygenase, enzymes called COX enzymes, from working. These enzymes accelerate production of the hormone-like molecules prostaglandin. These substances cause pain sensation by irritating sensitive nerve endings. Tylenol (acetaminophen), not an NSAID, is a common alternative pain reliever. Prescription-only NSAIDS include Celebrex (celecoxib), Voltaren (diclofenac), Mobic (meloxicam), Naprosyn (naproxen), Relafen (nabumetone), and 10 or more similar drugs. Long-term NSAID use has undesirable side effects. International Sports Sciences Association 96 | Unit 3.4 Muscle and the Nervous System As discussed previously, muscle fibers receive the signal to contract from nerves connected to the spinal column. Nerve-muscle combinations are called motor units. The powerful quadriceps muscles in the legs have large motor units—with each motor nerve connected to many muscle fibers. Smaller muscles such as those found around the eye have much smaller motor units The three types of motor units are fast glycolytic (FG; Type 1), fast oxidative glycolytic (FOG; Type IIa), and slow oxidative (SO; Type IIx). The fiber types are subdivided based on three factors: (1) their strength and contraction speed, (2) their speed of nerve conduction, and (3) their fatigue resistance. The type of motor unit chosen by the body for a particular muscular activity depends on the requirements of the muscle contraction. The body selects FG fibers for lifting heavy weights or for sprinting because these fibers are fast and powerful. However, SO fibers are chosen for prolonged standing or slow walking because they are more resistant to fatigue. Motor unit recruitment: The activation of motor units to increase force. Size principle: nervous system recruits small motor units before larger ones. All-or-nothing principle: muscle fibers within a motor unit contract maximally when recruited. Electromyography (EMG): measurement of the electrical activity of muscle to measure its activation level. The body exerts force by calling on one or more motor units to contract. The important process of calling on motor units to contract is called motor unit recruitment. The nervous system recruits smaller, weaker motor units to pick up a light object such as a pencil and large motor units to lift heavy weights. This is called the size principle of motor unit recruitment. When a motor unit calls on its fibers to contract, all of the fibers contract to their maximum capacity, which is called the all-or-nothing principle. Motor units are activated by size. Smaller motor units are called on for light loads. Large, powerful motor units are only activated when the body exerts maximum force. The muscles’ fibers in large, high-threshold motor units can increase in size more than smaller motor units can. These fibers are not trained to any extent unless they are stressed. It is important to include heavy reps in a program to cause recruitment of these hard-to-train large motor units. Failure to do so will limit muscle size. Increased strength through improved motor unit recruitment: Resistance training improves how the nervous system coordinates Strength and Conditioning Muscle Physiology | 97 muscle fiber recruitment. Think of this as a kind of “muscle learning”—an important way to increase strength. Most changes that occur in strength during the first weeks of weight training are due to neurological adaptations, not to real increases in the muscle’s protein content. Most athletes concentrate on muscle tissue when trying to increase muscular strength. Elaborate diets, ergogenic aids such as anabolic steroids and growth hormone, and intense load cycles are usually aimed at increasing muscle bulk. Strength, however, depends not only on the muscle’s size but also on how well the nervous system activates them. Resistance training triggers the nervous system to more fully “turn on” the important muscles required in specific movements and to better coordinate their actions. These neural changes allow the individual to exert greater force. Muscles increase force by recruiting more motor units. For a maximum lift to occur, it is ideal to recruit as many motor units as possible. Recruiting more motor units increases the potential to increase strength. When you hear the grunt and groan of a competitive weightlifter just prior to a heavy lift, you can be certain the objective is to “rev up” as many motor units as possible to make them come into play just prior to and during the lift. The neural component of strength is studied primarily with electromyography or EMG. This technique quantifies the electrical activity in muscle and is similar to the electrocardiogram (ECG) to study heart action. EMG provides valuable information about the rate, extent, and coordination of motor unit recruitment. In general, greater electrical activity measured by EMG in a muscle reflects greater motor unit recruitment. Eight factors affect neural adaptations to strength training: 1. Increased muscle electrical activity 2. Increased rate of motor unit activation 3. Activating motor units when the muscle is suddenly stretched 4. Improved coordination of antagonistic muscle groups 5. Cross-training effects (training one limb produces a training effect in the complementary limb on the body’s opposite side) 6. Enhanced motor unit coordination 7. Enhanced recruitment of high-threshold motor units 8. Increased time for activating high-threshold motor units Increased muscle electrical activity occurs early in the strength training process. The early increases in strength achieved by the novice weight lifter during the first weeks of training are due mostly to learning and improved neural activation rather than true muscle growth. This early apparent strength increase is due to an enhanced ability to recruit motor units. In children and women, these neural changes are critical for maximum strength because muscle hypertrophy does not occur in women and children to the same extent as it does in men due to men’s higher testosterone levels. Some motor units are harder to recruit than others are. The high threshold units are the hardest to activate, but also are the strongest and most powerful. Two related International Sports Sciences Association 98 | Unit 3.4 neural adaptations—enhanced recruitment of high-threshold motor units and increased time high-threshold motor units can be activated—have important implications for overall strength development. A motor unit is trained in direct proportion to its recruitment. What this means is that the high threshold motor units (i.e., muscle fibers and their motor nerve) will not respond to training unless they are recruited during training. Neural adaptations that activate high threshold motor units must occur before these motor units can be trained. When trying to develop explosive power, the exerciser must concentrate on recruiting the high threshold motor units and must keep them “turned on” as long as possible. In summary, to achieve maximum strength, it is essential to train high threshold motor units. These units are trained only if they are recruited with intense training. In resistance training, this is achieved by concentrating on accelerating the reps performed. Elastic Muscle Energy Most great athletes are extremely effective at tapping muscle elastic energy that can increase strength and add to training gains. Most great athletes are effective at using elastic muscle energy. It makes their movements look smooth and explosive. They combine elastic recoil and muscle contractions from successive joints to maximize force. A good example of this is the triple extension of the ankles, knees, and hips when jumping or performing Olympic lifts. Elastic muscle energy allows them to exert much more force than possible during normal muscle contractions. Strength and Conditioning Elastic muscle energy is much like a rubber band. When you stretch a rubber band and let go of the ends, it rebounds back to its normal shape. Muscle works in a similar way. When stretched suddenly, a muscle attempts to rebound to its resting state. The muscle captures the elastic energy as potential energy, which can be used later to help exert force. When muscle stretch is immediately followed by a muscle contraction, the rebound from the stored elastic energy greatly increases the contraction force. It is much like getting a push when you start to run or receive an active assist when lifting a weight. The stretched muscle rebounds back to its shorter length. When the muscle contracts at the same time, the combined forces of muscle contraction and elastic recoil produce more force than either factor alone would. Stored elastic energy must be used immediately or it is lost as heat. The secret of using elastic energy effectively is to coordinate the nervous and muscle contraction systems with muscle stretch. After the stretch, the muscles must be turned on instantly to take advantage of the muscles’ elastic recoil. Many sports movements provide good examples of elastic loading. Discus throwers and baseball pitchers elastically load the arm, chest, and shoulders by driving with the legs and hips during the initial part of the throwing motion. The leg drive puts the upper body on the stretch. The elastic loading of the upper body increases the total force during the throw. The elastic loading causes a whip-like motion required for long throws. Muscle Physiology | 99 Muscle stretch is important during resistance training. Even in the controlled environment of a weightlifting contest, stretch greatly affects the amount lifted. Weight lifts are combinations of eccentric and concentric muscle actions. Eccentric contraction is force development while the muscle lengthens. Concentric contraction is force development while the muscle shortens. Lifters often make the mistake of concentrating only on the pushing or active phase of the lift. Concentric muscle contractions (i.e., the active phase of the lift) are not isolated movements. The push always follows an eccentric contraction, during which the muscles in the lift are put in a stretched position. Energy is stored in the muscles during the stretch phase, which means the stored energy can be used during the lift’s active phase to produce more force. Coordination of stretch and muscle contraction is critical during the bench press. The pectoralis major, triceps, and deltoid muscles work eccentrically to control the bar while the weight is lowered to the chest. The muscles are elastically loaded as the bar reaches the chest. With only a minimal delay, the stored elastic energy can be used to assist with the pushing motion. The elastic recoil in the chest, shoulders, and arms helps push more weight. The ideal lift consists of combined eccentric, elastic, and concentric phases of the movement. Coordinating these processes will allow you to push much more weight than would be possible during a purely concentric bench press (i.e., a lift starting from the chest). Physiology of Muscle Elasticity Muscle contains elastic structures that can be stretched, absorb energy, and enhance force development. The elastic properties of muscle have been divided into two components z—series elastic and parallel elastic—working together with muscle’s contractile component to produce force. The contractile components include various sarcomere structures. The sarcomere is part of the muscle tissue that causes contraction. Each muscle fiber has many linked sarcomeres, which form a contractile unit that produces force. The series elastic component includes the muscle fibers, tendons, and cross-bridges. The cross bridges are small structures within the muscle fiber that develop muscle force. The series elastic component is the most important component for translating stretch into force. The parallel elastic component includes membrane structures that surround muscle bundles to provide stability and protection to the muscle. The contractile and elastic components share common elements. For example, the cross-bridges are included in the contractile and elastic components. They affect contraction and give the muscle elasticity. Elastic loading occurs even in motions not preceded by an eccentric muscle contraction (i.e., lowering the weight in preparation for the lift), such as the deadlift. During the lift, the cross-bridges load elastically when tension develops. If the contraction occurs rapidly, the elastic recoil of the cross-bridges enhances the contraction force. Elastic muscle energy increases muscle force in a process called the stretch-shortening cycle. Elastic structures are stretched during sudden jumping or throwing movements. The stretch represents potential energy to enhance the contractile component’s force. The muscle actively contracts once it is stretched. The elastic elements recoil assists in force development. International Sports Sciences Association 100 | Unit 3.4 Many types of human motion incorporate stretch-shortening cycles. When jumping in basketball or high jumping, the leg muscles are stretched immediately before the jump. The elastic loading of the leg enhances the force development during the jump. Hitting a baseball or golf ball includes a stretch-shortening cycle. Movement of the legs and hips leads movement of the upper body, which creates an elastic load on the torso and a subsequent whiplike upper-body motion. More power generates than would have been possible if using the upper-body muscles alone. Athletes can increase muscle force during lifts by timing the recoil from muscle stretch as soon as muscle contraction begins. This advice is contrary to that given by many experts. They suggest doing lifts in a slow, controlled manner. Although slow, controlled training certainly has its place, some portion of the training program should attempt to activate elastic muscle energy because of its incredible capacity to increase muscle force and ultimately muscle size. Note that rapid movement training is appropriate for power athletes and bodybuilders. The personal trainer and coach should always consider the athlete’s needs and specific physiological demands. Even in the controlled setting of a weightlifting contest or when performing low-rep high-intensity lifts, athletes can tap the muscle’s stored elastic energy. This is achieved by “exploding” when they lift. This allows the nervous system to turn on muscles rapidly and effectively using the elastic recoil of the muscle stretch. Effective strength and conditioning programs must consider the contractile, neural-muscular, Strength and Conditioning and elastic components of muscle contraction and movement. Many athletes and coaches focus on contractile tissue adaptations when designing training programs. Maximum strength, power, and muscle size require coordination of neural activation, storage and release of muscular elastic energy, and muscle contraction. Skill As discussed in Section 2.2, motor skills are highly specific. They involve precise motor unit recruitment patterns orchestrated by the nervous system. Franklin Henry, professor of physical education at the University of California, Berkeley in the 1960s, compared this process to a computer program that is stored on a “memory” disk in the brain’s higher centers. The program imprinted on the brain played back as a motor reflex. Years of motor learning research have shown that practicing skills at the same speed and manner required in competition produces the best results. Research on most high-power sports demonstrates that athletes benefit more from skill improvements than through strength improvements. A basic principle is that skill development should never be sacrificed for strength and fitness training. Coordinating Cellular, Neural, Elastic, and Skill Components of Strength Maximizing force development requires coordination of the four strength components. Some evidence suggests that training can slightly alter muscle stiffness and elasticity. Elastic energy is most useful when coordinated into motor movements. Nervous system changes occur Muscle Physiology | 101 early in the strength-training program, whereas cellular changes occur later and are likely the main limiting factor for further strength development. Improvements in skill can occur throughout life and can thus contribute to maximum force development. Summary Scientists know a great deal about the way muscles become stronger and increase in size. Systematically applying sports medicine information will help clients make rapid, effective gains in performance. When a muscle contracts or shortens, it moves a bone by pulling on the tendon that attaches the muscle to the bone. Muscles consist of individual muscle cells or muscle fibers connected in bundles. Muscle fibers are subdivided into smaller units called myofibrils. When muscles are given the signal to contract, protein filaments within the myofibrils slide across one another, causing the muscle fiber to shorten. Resistance training causes the size of individual muscle fibers to increase by increasing the number of myofibrils. Larger muscle fibers mean a larger and stronger muscle. Hypertrophy refers to the development of large muscle fibers. Resistance training increases muscle strength because it increases the size of muscle fibers and improves ability to recruit motor units to exert force. Optimal muscle performance requires (1) good muscle size, (2) coordination between the muscles and nervous system, (3) efficient use of the muscles’ elasticity, and (4) specific skill development. Four factors influence protein production in muscle: (1) muscle tension, (2) hormones, (3) amino acid concentration, and (4) nutritional status. The three types of motor units are fast glycolytic (FG; Type 1), fast oxidative glycolytic (FOG; Type IIa), and slow oxidative (SO; Type IIx). The fiber types are subdivided based on three factors: (1) their strength and contraction speed, (2) their speed of nerve conduction, and (3) their fatigue resistance. The type of motor unit chosen by the body for a particular muscular activity depends on the muscle contraction’s requirements. Eight neural adaptations to strength training include: (1) increased muscle electrical activity, (2) increased rate of motor unit activation, (3) turning on motor units when the muscle suddenly stretches, (4) improved coordination of antagonistic muscle groups, (5) cross-training effects (training one limb produces a training effect in the complementary limb on the opposite body side), (6) enhanced motor unit coordination, (7) enhanced recruitment of high-threshold motor units, and (8) increased time to activate high-threshold motor units. A basic principle is that skill development should never be sacrificed for strength and fitness training. Optimal muscle performance requires (1) good muscle size, (2) coordination between the muscles and nervous system, (3) efficient use of the muscles’ elasticity, and (4) specific skill development. Factors influencing protein synthesis in muscle include muscle tension, hormones, amino acid concentration, and nutritional status. International Sports Sciences Association SECTION FOUR Endurance and Environment UNIT 4.1 Basic Physiology of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Exercise 104 | Unit 4.1 Unit Outline 1. The cardiorespiratory system a. 3. Metabolism a. The Heart Energy from Food b. The Blood Vessels b. ATP: The Energy “Currency” of the Cells c. c. The Respiratory (Pulmonary) System 2. The Cardiorespiratory System at Rest and during Exercise Exercise and the Three Energy Systems i. The Immediate Energy System ii. The Non-Oxidative Energy System iii. The Oxidative Energy System 4. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Know the structure and function of the cardiorespiratory system and how it delivers blood to the lungs and systemic circulation. • Understand the importance of blood pressure for health and performance. • Understand the structure and function of blood vessels for health and performance. • Understand the three processes of pulmonary physiology: ventilation, diffusion, and lung blood flow. • • Understand the process and scope of metabolism. • Understand the role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in providing energy for muscle contraction, propagation of nerve impulses, protein synthesis, and fluid control in the body. • Understand the three energy systems – immediate, non-oxidative, and oxidative – and their role in exercise metabolism. • Understand that the capacity to increase metabolic rate is the most important factor defining cardiorespiratory and metabolic fitness. Understand the role of the respiratory system in supplying oxygen, eliminating carbon dioxide, and controlling acid-base balance. The Cardiorespiratory System The cardiorespiratory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and respiratory or pulmonary system. The cardiorespiratory system circulates blood through the body, transporting oxygen, nutrients, and other crucial substances to the organs and tissues that need them. It also carries waste products to be used or expelled. Strength and Conditioning The Heart The heart, a four-chambered, fist-sized muscle located in the middle of the chest just beneath the sternum (breastbone), pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and delivers oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body. Blood travels through two separate circulatory systems—the Basic Physiology of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Exercise | 105 right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary circulation, and the left side pumps blood through the rest of the body in the systemic circulation. (Figure 4.1-1) Cardiorespiratory system: Circulates blood through the body; it consists of the heart, blood vessels, and respiratory system. 1. Waste-laden, oxygen-poor blood travels through large vessels called venae cavae into the heart’s right upper chamber or atrium. Pulmonary circulation: The part of the circulatory system that moves blood between the heart and lungs; controlled by the heart’s right side. 2. After the right atrium fills, it contracts and pumps blood into the heart’s right lower chamber or ventricle. 3. When the right ventricle is full, it contracts and pumps blood through the pulmonary artery into the lungs. Systemic circulation: The part of the circulatory system that moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body and controlled by the heart’s left side. 4. In the lungs, individual red blood cells capture oxygen and discard carbon dioxide. These gases move from the lungs to the blood (oxygen) and from the blood to the lungs (carbon dioxide) by a process called diffusion. During nearly all forms of physical activity, breathing increases to promote diffusion. Venae cavae: Large veins through which blood returns to the heart’s right atrium. 5. The cleaned, oxygenated blood flows from the lungs through the pulmonary veins into the heart’s left atrium. From head, neck, and upper body Superior vena cava To head, neck, and upper body Arteries Aorta To right lung Pulmonary artery To left lung From right lung Branches of right pulmonary vein From left lung Branches of left pulmonary vein Left atrium The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body’s tissues. Right atrium Tricuspid valve Blood passes through the tricuspid (AV valve) to the right ventricle. Right ventricle Inferior vena cava The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary artery. From trunk and lower extremity Mitral (bicuspid) valves Semilunar (aortic) valves Left ventricle Purkinje fibers Septum Aorta To trunk and lower extremity Oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein returns to the left atrium. Blood passes through the bicuspid (mitral) valve to the left ventricle. The left ventricle ejects blood through the aortic (semilunar) valve into the aorta for transport in the systemic circuit. Figure 4.1-1: The heart’s chambers. Blood enters the right atrium and pumped to the lungs via the right ventricles. It reenters the heart at the left atrium and is pumped into the general circulation from the left ventricle. International Sports Sciences Association 106 | Unit 4.1 capillary region of the upper body (head and arms) CO2 O2 Jugualr vein O2 Carotid artery Lungs CO2 Capilary region of the lung Pulmonary vein Pulmonary artery Superior vena cava Aorta Left atrium Right atrium Left ventricle Right ventricle Inferior vena cava Lymph node Heart Hepatic vein Liver Digestive tract Hepatic portal vein Mesenteric arteries Lymphatic vessels Renal vein Renal artery Iliac vein CO2 Figure 4.1-2 Systemic circuit Strength and Conditioning Iliac artery Kidneys capillary region of the lower body (trunk and legs) O2 Basic Physiology of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Exercise | 107 6. After the left atrium fills, it contracts and pumps blood into the left ventricle. 7. When the left ventricle is full, it pumps blood through the aorta— the body’s largest artery—for distribution to the rest of the body’s blood vessels. The period when the heart contracts is called systole, whereas the period of relaxation is called diastole. During systole, the atria contract first, pumping blood into the ventricles. A fraction of a second later, the ventricles contract, pumping blood into the lungs and throughout the body. The opposite occurs during diastole—blood flows into the heart. Blood pressure, the force exerted by blood on the walls of the blood vessels, is created by the heart’s pumping action. Blood pressure is greater during systole than diastole. A person weighing 150 pounds has about 5 liters of blood, which at rest circulates about once every minute. Nerve impulses control the heartbeat—the split-second sequence of contractions of the heart’s four chambers. These signals originate in a bundle of specialized cells in the right atrium called the pacemaker or sinoatrial (SA) node. The heart produces nerve impulses at a steady rate— unless the brain speeds it up or slows it down in response to external stimuli such as increasing intensities of physical activity. The Blood Vessels Blood vessels are classified by size and function. Veins carry blood to the heart. Arteries carry it away from the heart. Veins have thin walls, but arteries have thick elastic walls that enable them to expand and relax spontaneously according to the volume of blood being pumped through them. The blood vessels are lined with endothelial cells that secrete nitric oxide—a chemical messenger that regulates blood flow. Blood vessel disease, which is promoted by at least six factors—inflammation, physical inactivity, poor diet, smoking, high blood pressure, and insulin resistance—contribute to a wide range of negative effects ranging from erectile dysfunction to heart disease. Regular physical activity helps maintain healthy blood vessels. Atrium: One of the heart’s two upper chambers in which blood collects before passing to the ventricles (plural is atria). Ventricle: One of the heart’s two lower chambers from which blood flows through arteries to the lungs and other body regions. Aorta: The body’s largest artery, which receives blood from the left ventricle for distribution throughout the body. Systole: Contraction of the heart. Diastole: Relaxation of the heart. Blood pressure: Force exerted by the blood on blood vessel walls created by the heart’s pumping action. Veins: Vessels that deliver blood to the heart. Arteries: Vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Endothelial cells: Cells lining blood vessels. Nitric oxide: Gas released by the endothelial cells to promote blood flow, an important marker of good health. International Sports Sciences Association 108 | Unit 4.1 Capillaries: Tiny blood vessels that distribute blood to all parts of the body. Coronary arteries: Pair of large blood vessels that branch off the aorta to supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood. After leaving the heart, the aorta branches into progressively smaller vessels. The smallest arteries branch still farther into capillaries, the smallest blood vessels only one cell thick. The capillaries deliver oxygen and nutrient-rich blood to the tissues and pick up oxygen-poor, waste-laden blood. From the capillaries, this blood empties into small veins called venules and then into larger veins that return it to the heart to repeat the cycle uninterrupted for a lifetime. Blood pumped through the heart does not reach the heart’s own cells, so the organ has its own network of blood vessels. Two large vessels, the right and left coronary arteries, branch off the aorta and supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood. Regular moderate physical activity helps prevent coronary artery disease. The Respiratory System Respiratory system: Lungs, air passages, and breathing muscles, which supply oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide. Alveoli: Tiny lung air sacs that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between lungs and blood. Diffusion: Movement of a gas or chemical from a high concentration to a lower concentration; oxygen decreases, and carbon dioxide increases in the muscles during exercise to trigger increased breathing, which concentrates oxygen and decreases carbon dioxide in the lungs and promotes diffusion. Strength and Conditioning The respiratory or pulmonary system supplies oxygen to the body, carries off carbon dioxide—a waste product of body processes—and helps regulate acid produced during metabolism. Air passes in and out of the lungs as a result of pressure changes brought about by the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and rib muscles. As air is inhaled, it passes into the lungs through the nasal passages, throat, larynx, trachea (windpipe), and bronchi. The lungs consist of a series of branching tubes that end in tiny thin-walled air sacs called alveoli. (Figure 4.1-3) Ventilation moves air in and out of the lungs and is quantified as liters per minute. The volume of each breath is called tidal volume, and the number of breaths per minute is called breathing frequency. The purpose of ventilation replaces oxygen taken up by the blood and eliminates carbon dioxide (CO2) moved into the lungs from the blood. Breathing also helps control metabolic acids through the bicarbonate buffer system. The three processes of pulmonary physiology are ventilation, diffusion, and lung blood flow (Figure 4-1-4). Ventilation moves air into and out of the lungs. Diffusion involves oxygen movement from the alveoli into the pulmonary blood vessels and the movement of CO2 from the pulmonary blood vessels into the alveoli. Lung blood flow involves the right part of the heart’s pumping fresh blood containing Basic Physiology of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Exercise | 109 Alveoli Vein Artery Muscle Figure 4.1-3 Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange at rest between alveoli and blood and between blood and tissues. Photo used with permission from Dr. Frank I. Katch, Santa Barbara, CA. International Sports Sciences Association 110 | Unit 4.1 Air Ventilation Alveolus O2 Diffusion Perfusion CO2 Pulmonary Capillary Figure 4.1-4 Elements of pulmonary physiology—ventilation, diffusion, and perfusion (lung blood flow). reduced oxygen and increased carbon dioxide through the lung circulation where it releases CO2and takes in oxygen. Carbon dioxide and oxygen exchange between alveoli and lung capillaries. Carbon dioxide passes from blood cells into the alveoli, where it is carried up and out of the lungs during a process called exhalation. Oxygen from inhaled ambient air passes from the alveoli into blood cells; these oxygen-rich blood cells then return to the heart for pumping throughout the body. Oxygen is an important component of the body’s energy-producing system; as such, the cardiorespiratory system’s ability to pick up and deliver oxygen is critical for the body to function. Strength and Conditioning Basic Physiology of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Exercise | 111 The Cardiorespiratory System at Rest and During Exercise At rest and during light physical activity, the cardiorespiratory system functions at a fairly steady pace. The heart beats at a rate of about 50–90 beats a minute, and breathing rate is about 12–20 breaths a minute. A typical resting blood pressure in a healthy adult, measured in millimeters of mercury, is 120 systolic and 80 diastolic and symbolized as 120/80 or stated as 120 over 80. During exercise, the demands on the cardiorespiratory system increase. Body cells, particularly working muscles, need to obtain more oxygen and fuel and eliminate more waste products. To meet these demands, the body adapts in the following six ways: 1. Heart rate increases up to 170 to 210 beats a minute during intense exercise. 2. The heart’s stroke volume increases, meaning that the heart pumps out more blood with each beat. Stroke volume: Amount of blood the heart pumps with each beat. 3. The heart pumps and circulates more blood per minute due to the faster heart rate and greater stroke volume. During exercise, this cardiac output (the product of heart rate and stroke volume) increases to 20 or more liters each minute, compared with about 5 liters each minute at rest. 4. Blood flow changes, so as much as 85%–90% of the blood may be delivered to working muscles. At rest, about 15%–20% of blood is distributed to the skeletal muscles. Stated somewhat differently, the muscles require about 15%–20% of the total circulating blood. Cardiac output: The amount of blood pumped by the heart each minute determined by heart rate times stroke volume. 5. Systolic blood pressure increases, while diastolic blood pressure holds steady or declines slightly. A typical exercise blood pressure might be 175/65. 6. To oxygenate the increased blood flow, deeper breaths are taken and breathing increases up to 40–60 breaths each minute. The brain controls and exquisitely coordinates all of these changes, which rely on highly selective chemical messengers to control these processes. International Sports Sciences Association 112 | Unit 4.1 Metabolism Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical processes necessary to sustain all of the body’s normal processes. Energy continually fuels vital body functions to build and break down tissue, contract muscles, conduct nerve impulses, regulate body temperature, coordinate breathing, circulation, and digestion, including hundreds of thousands of chemical reactions that control these processes. The rate at which your body uses energy—its metabolic rate—depends on your level of physical activity. At rest, you have a low metabolic rate; metabolic rate increases as you begin to walk. If you jog, your metabolic rate may increase more than 800% above its resting level. Olympic-caliber distance runners can increase their metabolic rate by 2000% or more. Energy from Food The body converts chemical energy from food into substances cells use as fuel. These are used immediately or stored for later use. The body’s ability to store fuel is critical because if all the energy from food were released immediately, much of it would be wasted. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are the three classes of energy-containing nutrients in food. During digestion, most carbohydrates degrade into the simple sugar glucose. Some glucose remains circulating in the blood called “blood sugar” where it serves as a quick fuel source to produce energy. Glucose also can convert to glycogen and stored mainly in the liver and muscles. When glycogen stores fill up to meet the body’s immediate need for energy, the Strength and Conditioning remaining glucose converts to fat and stored in the body’s fatty tissues. Excess energy from dietary fat also stores as body fat. Protein in the diet, primarily to build new tissue, can break down for energy or incorporated into fat stores. Glucose, glycogen, and fat are important fuels for energy production in cells; protein is a significant energy source only when other fuels are lacking. ATP: The Energy “Currency” of Cells The basic form of energy used by cells is the high-energy chemical compound adenosine triphosphate or ATP. When a cell requires energy, it breaks down ATP, a process that releases energy in the only form the cell can use directly. Cells store a small amount of ATP; when they need more, they create it through chemical reactions that use the body’s stored fuels—glucose, glycogen, and fat. When you exercise, your cells need to produce more energy. Consequently, your body mobilizes its fuel stores to increase ATP production. Exercise and the Three Energy Systems The body’s muscles use three energy systems to create ATP and fuel cellular activity. These systems rely on different fuels and chemical processes to perform different, highly specific functions during exercise. ATP/CP Energy Pathway This immediate (“explosive”) energy system provides energy rapidly but for only a short Basic Physiology of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Exercise | 113 period. It fuels activities for about 10 or less seconds—examples in sports include weight lifting and shot-putting, and examples in daily life include rising from a chair or lifting a bag of groceries. The components of this energy system include existing cellular ATP stores and creatine phosphate (CP), another chemical compound that cells use to create ATP. CP levels deplete rapidly during exercise; thus, the utmost capacity of this energy system achieves its maximum within a few seconds. Cells must then “switch over” to the other energy systems to restore ATP and CP levels. Without adequate ATP, muscles stiffen and become unusable. The recovery time of the ATP/CP system is about two to three minutes after one set of exhaustive exercise (Yoshida, 2002), but recovery time is also affected by training status and metabolites such as hydrogen and potassium ions, calcium metabolism, and neural fatigue. Recovery time is an important consideration when trying to exert maximum effort during repeated bouts of exercise. Athletes striving for peak effort during repeated sets during weight training or interval training should rest long enough for ATP/CP restoration (and other factors). During intense weight lifting, this might be as long as four to five minutes between sets. Metabolic rate: Rate at which the body uses energy. Glucose: Simple sugar that circulates in the blood that can be used by cells to fuel adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production. Glycogen: Complex carbohydrate stored principally in the liver and skeletal muscles; the major fuel source during most forms of intense exercise; serves as the storage form of glucose. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): Energy source for cellular processes. Immediate (“explosive”) energy system: System that supplies energy to muscle cells through the breakdown of cellular stores of ATP and creatine phosphate (CP). Nonoxidative Energy System The nonoxidative (anaerobic) energy system is called on when exercise begins and for high-intensity activities lasting for about 10 seconds to two minutes such as the 400-meter run. During daily activities, this system is called on routinely to catch a bus or dash up several flights of stairs. The nonoxidative energy system creates ATP by breaking down glucose and glycogen. This system does not require oxygen, which is why it is sometimes referred to as the anaerobic (without oxygen) system. This system’s capacity to produce energy is limited but can generate considerable ATP in a short period. For this reason, it is the most important energy system for extremely intense exercise. Nonoxidative (anaerobic) energy system: System that supplies energy to muscle cells through the breakdown of muscle stores of glucose and glycogen; also called the anaerobic system because chemical reactions take place without oxygen and produce lactic acid (lactate). Anaerobic: Occurring in the absence of oxygen. The nonoxidative energy system has two core problems during exercise. First, the body’s supply of glucose and glycogen is limited—roughly 500 grams: 400 in muscle and 100 grams in the liver. International Sports Sciences Association 114 | Unit 4.1 Muscle glycogen is only available locally, which means that glycogen in the legs is not available in the arms. If these stores are depleted, a person may experience fatigue, dizziness, and impaired judgment. Note that the brain and nervous system rely on carbohydrates as fuel. Second, increases in hydrogen and potassium ions interfere with metabolism and muscle contraction and cause fatigue. During heavy exercise such as sprinting to catch a bus, large increases in hydrogen and potassium ions cause muscles to fatigue rapidly. Lactic acid: Metabolic acid resulting from the metabolism of glucose and glycogen and broken down in the body into lactate and hydrogen ion as it is produced. Lactic acid is not present in any significant amount in the blood. High hydrogen ion levels mean that the acid levels are higher in blood and muscle. Lactate: Formed in blood when lactic acid loses a proton or hydrogen ion and not present in any significant amount in the blood. Oxidative (aerobic) energy system: System that supplies energy to cells through glucose, glycogen, and fat breakdown; also called the aerobic system because its chemical reactions require oxygen. Aerobic: Dependent on the presence of oxygen. Mitochondria: Cell “energy factory” structures that convert the energy in food to a form the body can use. Strength and Conditioning The anaerobic energy system also creates metabolic acids. Fortunately, exercise training increases the body’s ability to cope with metabolic acids. Improved fitness allows you to exercise at higher intensities before the abrupt buildup of metabolic acids—a point that scientists call the lactate threshold. One metabolic acid, lactic acid or lactate, is often linked to fatigue during intense exercise. Lactic acid does not remain long in blood. It breaks down immediately into lactate and hydrogen ion (acid) upon its production. Lactate is an important fuel at rest and during exercise and not merely an undesirable fuel source. Oxidative Energy System The oxidative (aerobic) energy system is used during any physical activity that lasts longer than about two minutes such as distance running, swimming, hiking, or even standing in the grocery line. The oxidative system requires oxygen to generate ATP, which is why it is considered an aerobic system. The oxidative system cannot produce energy as quickly as the other two systems can, but it can supply energy for much longer periods. It provides energy during most daily activities. In the oxidative energy system, ATP production occurs in cellular structures called mitochondria. Because mitochondria can use carbohydrates (glucose and glycogen) or fats to produce ATP, the body’s fuel stores for this system exceed those for the other two energy systems. The actual fuel use depends on exercise intensity and duration and the individual’s fitness status. Carbohydrates are favored during more intense exercise that exceeds about 65% of maximum capacity; fats are favored for mild low-intensity activities. During a prolonged Basic Physiology of Cardiorespiratory Endurance Exercise | 115 exercise session, carbohydrates serve as the predominant fuel at the start of a workout, but fat use increases with increasing activity durations. Fit individuals use a greater proportion of fat as fuel because increased fitness allows people to perform activities at lower intensities. This is an important adaptation because glycogen depletion is one of the limiting factors for the oxidative energy system. Thus, by using more fat as fuel, a fit individual can exercise longer before glycogen depletion promotes muscular fatigue. Aerobic exercise and high-intensity interval training increase the number and capacity of mitochondria. Increased mitochondrial capacity is the most important benefit of exercise. Mitochondrial health and fitness is linked to reduced disease risk and improved longevity. Oxygen delivery and use is another limiting factor of exercise capacity. The oxygen requirement of this energy system is proportional to exercise intensity. Oxygen consumption increases with exercise intensity. The body’s ability to increase oxygen use is limited and is referred to as max• • imal oxygen consumption or VO2max. VO2max determines how intensely a person can perform endurance exercise and for how long. This measure is usually considered the best overall measure of the capacity of the cardiorespiratory system. (The assessment tests described in chap• ter 7.1 are designed to help evaluate VO2max.) Energy Systems in Combination during exercise. Activity intensity and duration determine which system predominates. For example, when you play tennis, the body calls upon the immediate energy system to hit the ball but replenishes cellular energy stores by sequencing to the nonoxidative and oxidative systems. When cycling, the oxidative system predominates. However, if you must suddenly exercise intensely—by riding up a steep hill— the other systems take over in importance because the oxidative system cannot supply ATP rapidly enough to sustain high-intensity effort. Physical Fitness and Energy Production Physically fit individuals can easily increase their metabolic rate substantially, generating the energy needed for powerful or sustained exercise. People who are less fit cannot respond to exercise in the same way. Their bodies are less capable of delivering oxygen and fuel to exercising muscles. Less fit individuals cannot burn as many calories during or after exercise, and they are less able to cope with excess lactate and other substances produced during intense physical activities that accelerate fatigue. The bottom line is this— they become fatigued more rapidly; their legs hurt, and they breathe heavily walking up a flight of stairs. Regular physical training substantially improves how the body produces energy to meet the challenges of increased physical activity. The body incorporates all three energy systems International Sports Sciences Association 116 | Unit 4.1 Summary The cardiorespiratory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and respiratory (pulmonary) system. The cardiorespiratory system circulates blood through the body, transporting oxygen, nutrients, and other important substances to the organs and tissues that need them. It also carries away waste products so they can be used or expelled. The heart pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and delivers oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body. The period of the heart’s contraction is called systole, and the period of relaxation is called diastole. Blood pressure, the force exerted by blood on blood vessel walls, is created by the heart’s pumping action. The respiratory or pulmonary system supplies the body with oxygen, carries away carbon dioxide—a waste product of body processes— and helps regulate metabolic acid compounds produced during metabolism. The three processes of pulmonary physiology include ventilation, diffusion, and lung blood flow. Ventilation moves air into and out of the lungs. Diffusion involves oxygen movement from the alveoli into the pulmonary blood vessels and movement of CO2 from the pulmonary blood vessels into the alveoli. Lung blood flow involves the right part of the heart’s pumping fresh blood containing reduced oxygen and increased carbon dioxide through the lung circulation where it releases CO2and takes in oxygen. During exercise, the demands on the cardiorespiratory system increase. Body cells, particularly working muscles, need to obtain Strength and Conditioning more oxygen and fuel and to eliminate more waste products. These demands are met by ramping up heart and lung activity to meet any increased metabolic demands. Metabolism refers to the sum of all the chemical processes required to maintain the body’s many functions. Energy is required to fuel vital body functions—to build and break down tissue, contract muscles, conduct nerve impulses, regulate body temperature and coordinate breathing, circulation, and digestion, including the hundreds of thousands of chemical reactions that control these processes. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins represent the three classes of energy-containing food nutrients. The basic form of energy used by cells is adenosine triphosphate or ATP. The cells need to produce more energy during exercise. Consequently, the body mobilizes its stores of fuel to increase ATP production. The body’s muscles use three energy systems to create ATP and fuel cellular activity. The energy systems include the immediate energy system, nonoxidative energy system, and oxidative or aerobic energy system. The body’s ability to process oxygen is limited and is referred to as maximal oxygen • • consumption or VO2max. VO2max determines how intensely a person can perform endurance exercise and for how long, and it is considered the best overall measure of the capacity of the cardiorespiratory system. Physically fit individuals can increase their metabolic rate substantially, generating the energy needed for powerful or sustained exercise. UNIT 4.2 Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance Program 118 | Unit 4.2 Unit Outline 1. Setting goals 2. Applying the FITT principle a. 3. Warming up and cooling down 4. Building cardiorespiratory endurance a. Frequency of Training b. Interval Training b. Training Intensity i. Target Heart Rate Zone ii. METs iii. Rating of Perceived Exertion Over-Distance Training 5. Maintaining cardiorespiratory endurance 6. Summary iv. Talk Test c. Training Time (Duration) d. Activity Type Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to • Understand the concept of the MET • Understand the five guidelines to create a successful endurance exercise program. • Use Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) to estimate exercise intensity. • Teach athletes how to set reasonable goals for an endurance training program. • How to warm-up before exercise. • Understand factors that affect maximal oxygen consumption. • Know effective methods for building cardiorespiratory endurance. • How to apply the FITT principle to endurance exercise program design. • Know effective over-distance training methods. • Understand methods for gauging exercise intensity during endurance exercise. • Know interval training methods for athletes in different sports and for active adults. • Calculate target heart rate. • Know effective methods for maintaining cardiorespiratory endurance. Strength and Conditioning Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance Program | 119 Endurance is a crucial fitness component for the average person and for most athletes. Many people are new to endurance sports. It is now more common to see children, elite athletes, and masters (older adults) competing together in long-distance running, triathlons, and endurance swimming. Endurance sports carry risks and benefits for participants. More than 66% of Americans are overweight or obese—a condition closely mirrored in other Western countries. Endurance sports and exercise provide an excellent way to cut fat and prevent long-term degenerative coronary artery disease. Endurance distance running, cycling, swimming, and triathlons require more one-dimensional training discipline than do soccer, football, or tennis. Many people do not yet have the psychological makeup to contend with the training drudgery required in these sports. Nevertheless, individuals who stick with it and train hard can attain success in endurance sports that may have eluded them in other activities. Cardiorespiratory endurance exercises best develop the type of fitness associated with good health and should serve as the central focus of nearly every exercise programs. Follow these five guidelines to create a successful endurance exercise program: 1. Set realistic goals. 2. Set the starting exercise frequency, intensity, and duration at appropriate levels. 3. Choose suitable activities. 4. Warm up and cool down. 5. Adjust the program as fitness improves. Setting Goals Incorporate the results of cardiorespiratory fitness assessment tests in Section 7 of the course to establish endurance program goals. The goals should be set high enough to ensure a healthy cardiorespiratory system and achieve athletic success but not too high that they will present a barrier to achievement. Through endurance training, an individual should under normal circumstances improve • maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) by about 10%–30%. The amount of possible improvement depends on these important four factors: (1) genetics, (2) age, (3) health status, and (4) initial fitness level. People who start at a low fitness level can improve by a greater percentage than elite athletes can because the latter have already attained a higher fitness level, one that may approach their genetic • physical limits. Athletes tracking VO2max by using the field tests described in Section 7 of the course could possibly increase their score by more than 30% from improvements in other physical factors, such as muscle power, which can affect performance on the tests. The • VO2max only improves by 10%–30%, so other factors such as fatigue resistance and speed determine performance in endurance events. Another useful measure for monitoring progress is resting heart rate at complete rest measured in the morning before rising from bed. Resting heart rate may decrease by as much as 10–15 beats a minute in response to endurance training. Changes in resting heart rate may be noticeable after only about four to six weeks of training. International Sports Sciences Association 120 | Unit 4.2 Other types of goals may be useful in the endurance training program. For example, setting time or distance goals might be useful such as working up to walking 5 miles in one session, completing a 4-mile run in 28 minutes, or cycling a total of 100 miles a week. A more modest goal for a beginner or recreational exerciser might be to achieve the US Department of Health and Human Services’ (HHS) recommendation of 150 minutes a week of moderate-intensity physical activity. Although it’s best to base the program on “smart” goals, athletes may also want to set more qualitative goals such as becoming more energetic, sleeping better, and improving body composition. Applying the FITT Principle to Endurance Program Design The acronym FITT is useful for remembering principal parameters of the endurance training program: Frequency, Intensity, Time (duration), and Type of activity. Frequency Accumulating at least 150 weekly minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity or at least 75 minutes weekly of vigorous physical activity will promote better health for the average person. Most experts recommend that people exercise three to five days weekly to build cardiorespiratory endurance. Training more than five days a week can lead to injury and is unnecessary for the typical person following an exercise regimen designed to promote wellness. Training less than Strength and Conditioning three days weekly makes it difficult to improve fitness unless exercise intensity remains high. Endurance athletes often train more than five days a week. Many elite runners run as often as 14 times per week. However, most athletes cannot train that much without the potential for injury or overtraining. The ideal frequency should be judged by training progress and recovery, which differs for every athlete. Some distance runners run upward of 150 miles a week. Most people cannot tolerate this training rigor because it usually leads to overtraining and decreased performance. In this case, more certainly is not necessarily better! Intensity Intensity is the most important factor to increase aerobic fitness. Athletes must exercise intensely enough to stress their bodies so that fitness improves. Methods of monitoring exercise intensity include heart rate, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and metabolic equivalents (METs). Athletes should select the method that works best for them. They should make adjustments in their intensity levels based on environmental or individual factors. For example, decrease intensity on a hot and humid day or on the first day back following an illness. Target Heart Rate Zone: One of the best ways to monitor cardiorespiratory endurance exercise intensity is to measure heart rate. It is unnecessary to exercise at maximum heart rate to stimulate improvements in maximal oxygen consumption. Fitness adaptations occur at lower heart rates with a lower injury risk. However, Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance Program | 121 training at high intensities improves fitness faster and promotes the highest levels of performance. According to the International Sports Sciences Association, the target heart rate zone—rates at which recreational exercisers should exercise to experience cardiorespiratory benefits—occurs between 55% and 85% maximum heart rate. Follow these two steps to calculate the target heart rate zone: Step 1. Estimate maximum heart rate (MHR) by subtracting the athlete’s age from 220, or have it measured precisely by undergoing an exercise stress test in a doctor’s office, hospital, or sports medicine lab. Note that the formula to estimate MHR carries an error of about ±10 to 15 beats a minute and can be inaccurate for some people, particularly older adults and young children. If the exercise heart rate seems inaccurate—that is, exercise within the target zone seems either too easy or too difficult—then use the perceived exertion method described in the next section or measure maximum heart rate precisely. You can achieve a reasonable estimate of an athlete’s maximal heart rate with exercise at maximal intensities on a stationary bike, treadmill, or elliptical trainer with a built-in heart rate monitor. This method is not recommended unless the athlete is physically fit and accustomed to intense exercise. FITT Principle: Acronym for frequency, intensity, time, and type of activity useful for exercise prescription. Target heart rate zone: Range of heart rates that should be reached and maintained during cardiorespiratory endurance exercise to obtain training effects. Step 2. Multiply the MHR by 55% and 85% to calculate the target heart rate zone. Extremely unfit people should use 55% of MHR for their training threshold. For example, a 19-year-old would calculate his or her target heart rate zone as follows: MHR = 220 – 19 = 201 55% training intensity = 0.55 x 201 = 111 bpm 85% training intensity = 0.85 x 201 = 171 bpm To gain fitness benefits, the athlete in this example would need to exercise at an intensity that raises the heart rate to between 131 and 181 bpm. An alternative method to calculate target heart rate range uses heart rate reserve, the difference between maximum heart rate and resting Heart rate reserve: Difference between maximum heart rate and resting heart rate; used in one method to calculate target heart rate range. International Sports Sciences Association 122 | Unit 4.2 heart rate. Using this method, target heart rate equals resting heart rate plus between 50% (40% for very unfit people) and 85% of heart rate reserve. Some people (particularly those with very low levels of fitness) will obtain more accurate results using this more complex method, yet both methods provide reasonable estimates of an appropriate target heart rate zone. Minimally fit people should begin by exercising at the lower end of the target heart rate range (65% of maximum heart rate or 50% of heart rate reserve) for at least three weeks. Exercising closer to the top of the range can cause fast and significant gains in maximal oxygen consumption but increase the risk of injury and overtraining. People can achieve significant health benefits by exercising at the bottom of the target range; so don’t feel pressure to exercise at an unnecessarily intense level. Exercising at a lower intensity can increase training duration or frequency, both of which benefit health outcomes. For people with a low initial fitness level, a lower training intensity of 55%–64% of maximum heart rate or 40%–49% of heart rate reserve may serve as the threshold to achieve improvements in maximal oxygen consumption, especially when beginning an exercise program. Intensities of 70%–85% of maximum heart rate are appropriate for recreational athletes. Monitoring heart rate is a good way to determine whether athletes are working hard enough to improve, not hard enough, or too hard. As the program progresses and fitness improves, athletes will need to jog, cycle, or walk faster to reach the intended target heart rate zone. Monitor exercise pulse rate with a heart rate monitor. Athletes can also count their pulses Strength and Conditioning while moving or immediately after exercising. Count beats for 10 seconds within 5 seconds of stopping, and multiply that number by six (6) to ensure that the heart rate falls within the target zone. Table 4.2-1 shows target heart rate ranges and 10-second counts based on the maximum heart rate formula. METs: Scientists often describe fitness by the individual’s capacity to increase metabolism Table 4.2-1: Target Heart Rate Range and 10-Second Counts Age (years) Target Heart Rate Range (bpm)* 10-Second Count (beats) 20–24 127–180 21–30 25–29 124–176 20–29 30–34 121–171 20–28 35–39 118–167 19–27 40–44 114–162 19–27 45–49 111–158 18–26 50–54 108–153 18–25 55–59 105–149 17–24 60–64 101–144 16–24 65+ 97–140 16–23 Target heart rates lower than those shown here are appropriate for individuals with a low initial fitness level. Ranges are based on the following formula: target heart rate = 0.65%–0.90% of maximum heart rate, assuming maximum heart rate = 220 – age. The heart rate range values shown here correspond to ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) values of about 12 to 18. Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance Program | 123 or energy usage level above rest. METs assess the metabolic cost MET: Unit of measure that of an exercise. One MET represents the body’s resting metabolic represents the body’s resting rate—that is, the energy or calorie requirement of the body at rest. metabolic rate—the body’s It equals an oxygen consumption of 3.5 milliliters of oxygen per energy requirement at rest. kilogram body weight. Exercise intensity is expressed in multiples of resting metabolic rate. For example, an exercise intensity of two METs refers to twice the resting metabolic rate and so on for other intensity levels. You also can think of the increase in METs as the increase in calories burned. Thus, a 10-MET activity (10 times resting) would increase the calorie burn by 10 times the calorie burn of a 1-MET activity level. Table 4.2-2: Approximate MET and Caloric Costs of METs describe exercise intensities for occupaSelected Activities for a 154-Pound Person tional activities and exercise programs. Exercise Activity METs Caloric Expenditure intensities of less than 3 to 4 METs are consid(kilocalories/min) ered low. Household chores and most industrial Rest 1 1.2 jobs fall into this category. Exercise performed at Light housework 2–4 2.4–4.8 these intensities does not improve fitness for most Bowling 2–4 2.5–5 people but will improve fitness for people with low Walking 2–7 2.5–8.5 physical capacities. Activities that increase meArchery 3–4 3.7–5 tabolism by 6 to 8 METs are classified as moderDancing 3–7 3.7–8.5 ate-intensity exercises and are suitable for most Hiking 3–7 3.7–8.5 people beginning an exercise program. Vigorous Horseback riding 3–8 3.7–10 exercise increases metabolic rate by more than 10 Cycling 3–8 3.7–10 METs. Fast running or cycling, including intense Basketball (recreational) 3–9 3.7–11 play in racquetball, soccer, and field hockey, can Swimming 4–8 5–10 place people in this category. Table 4.2-2 lists the Tennis 4–9 5–11 MET ratings for various activities. Fishing (fly, stream) 5–6 6–7.5 METs are intended to serve only as an approximation of exercise intensity. Four factors affect MET accuracy—skill, body weight, body fat, and environment. As a practical matter, these limitations can be disregarded. METs are a good way to express exercise intensity because this system is easy for people to remember and apply. In-line skating 5–8 6–10 Skiing (downhill) 5–8 6–10 Rock climbing 5–10 6–12 Scuba diving 5–10 6–12 Skiing (cross-country) 6–12 7.5–15 Jogging 8–12 10–15 Ratings of Perceived Exertion: Monitoring perceived exertion level is another way to estimate intensity. Repeated pulse counting during exercise Source: Adapted from American College of Sports Medicine. 2013. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 9th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/ Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health. Note: Intensity varies considerably with effort, skill, and motivation. International Sports Sciences Association 124 | Unit 4.2 Rating of perceived exertion (RPE): System to monitor exercise intensity by assigning a number to the subjective perception of target intensity. Warm-up: Preliminary exercise performed before a workout or competition designed to increase muscle temperature, lubricate joints, and provide practice. Cool-down: Gradually reducing exercise intensity at the completion of a workout or competition to reestablish resting metabolism. Strength and Conditioning can become a nuisance if it interferes with the activity. As the exercise program progresses, athletes will probably become familiar with the amount of exertion required to raise their heart rates to target levels. In other words, athletes will know how they feel when they have achieved the desired exercise intensity. If this occurs, they can use the scale of ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) shown in Table 4.23 to monitor the session’s exercise intensity without checking their pulse. Table 4.2-3: Rating of Perceived Exertion (Borg Scale) and approximate percentages of maximum heart rate RPE Description 7 Easy Intensity Level 8 9 Very Light 10 11 50% MHR Fairly Light 12 13 60% MHR Somewhat Hard 14 70% MHR 15 16 Hard 80% MHR 17 18 19 Very Hard 90% MHR To use the RPE scale, 20 Very, Very Hard athletes should select a rating that corresponds to their subjective perception of how hard they exercise when training in their target heart rate zone. If the target zone is about 135 to 155 beats a minute, they should exercise intensely enough to raise the heart rate to that level and then associate a rating—for example, “somewhat hard” or “hard” (14 or 15)—with how hard they feel they are working. To reach and maintain a similar intensity in future workouts, athletes should exercise hard enough to attain the same exertion level. They should periodically check their RPE against their target heart rate zone and make any adjustments. RPE accurately gauges exercise intensity, and athletes may find it easier and more convenient than measuring heart rate. Talk test: The talk test is another easy method to monitor exercise exertion during continuous training runs or bike rides. Breathing rate will increase during moderate-intensity cardiorespiratory endurance exercise, but individuals should not work out so intensely Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance Program | 125 Table 4.2-4: Estimating Exercise Intensity Method Moderate Intensity Vigorous Intensity Percentage of maximum heart rate 55%–69% 70%–90% Heart rate reserve 40%–59% 60%–85% Rating of perceived exertion 12–13 (somewhat hard) 14–16 (hard) Talk test Speech with some difficulty Speech limited to short phrases that they cannot speak comfortably. Speech is limited to short phrases during vigorous-intensity exercise. The talk test is an effective gauge of intensity for many types of activities. Table 4.2-4 provides a quick reference to each of the four methods of estimating exercise intensity discussed in this section of the course. Time A total duration of 20–60 minutes daily is recommended for the recreational athlete; exercise can take place in a single session or in multiple sessions lasting 10 or more minutes. The total duration of exercise depends on its intensity. To improve cardiorespiratory endurance during low- to moderate-intensity activity walking or slow swimming, for example, athletes should exercise for 30–60 minutes. For high-intensity exercise performed at the top of the target heart rate zone, 20 minutes is sufficient. Some studies have shown that 5–10 minutes of extremely intense exercise (greater than 90% of maximal oxygen consumption) improves cardiorespiratory endurance. However, training at high intensity, particularly during high-impact activities, increases injury risk. In addition, because of the discomfort of high-intensity exercise, athletes are more likely to discontinue their exercise programs. Longer duration low- to moderate-intensity activities generally result in more gradual gains in maximal oxygen consumption. In planning the program, start with less vigorous activities and gradually increase intensity. For serious athletes, training duration will be considerably longer. As mentioned, many elite endurance athletes employ multiple training sessions in one day. Tolerance for these training sessions may be a prerequisite for competitive excellence. Type Cardiorespiratory endurance exercises include activities that involve the rhythmic use of large-muscle groups for an extended period of jogging, walking, cycling, group exercise, cross-country skiing, and swimming. Start-andstop tennis and racquetball also qualify if skill levels are sufficient to play continuously and intensely enough to raise the heart rate to target levels. Other important considerations include access to facilities, expense, equipment, and time required to achieve adequate skill levels. Warming Up and Cooling Down It is important to warm up before every session of cardiorespiratory endurance exercise and to cool down afterward. Because the body’s muscles work better with slightly elevated temperature above resting levels, warming up enhances performance and decreases the chance of injury. It gives the body time to redirect blood International Sports Sciences Association 126 | Unit 4.2 to active muscles and the heart time to adapt to increased demands. Warming up also helps spread protective fluid throughout the joints, which prevents injury to their surfaces. A warm-up session should include low-intensity, whole-body movements similar to those in the follow-up activity such as jogging slowly before beginning a training run. A promising warm-up method is myofascial release involving foam rolling, which increases range of motion without impairing performance (Cheatam et al. 2015). An active warm-up of 5–10 minutes is adequate for most exercise modes. Warm-up time depends on fitness level, experience, and individual preferences. Athletes should not stretch statically as part of their pre-exercise warm-up. Warm-up stretches do not prevent injury and have little or no effect on post-exercise muscle soreness. Static stretching before exercise can increase the workout energy cost and adversely affect strength, power, balance, reaction time, and movement time. Stretching interferes with muscle and joint receptors vital to performance of sport and movement skills. For these reasons, it is best to stretch at the end of the workout while muscles remain warm with the joints lubricated. Dynamic stretching, however, does not impair performance and might prevent injury and boost performance. Cooling down following exercise is important to return the body to a non-exercising state. A cool-down helps maintain blood flow to the heart and brain and redirects blood from working muscles to other body areas. This helps prevent a large drop in blood pressure, dizziness, Strength and Conditioning and other potential cardiovascular complications. A cool-down, consisting of 5–10 minutes of reduced activity, should follow every workout to allow heart rate, breathing, and circulation to return to normal. Decrease the intensity of exercise gradually during the cool-down. For example, following a running workout, begin the cool-down by jogging at half speed for 30 seconds to a minute; then do several minutes of walking, reducing the speed slowly. A good rule of thumb is to cool down at least until the heart rate declines below 100 beats a minute. Static stretching after exercise is beneficial. It increases range of motion, might prevent injury, and increases strength. Stretch after exercise when the muscles are warm and the joints maximally lubricated. Building Cardiorespiratory Fitness Building cardiorespiratory fitness is as much art as science. Fitness improves by overloading the body. However, athletes must carefully increase exercise intensity, frequency, and duration to avoid injury and the overtraining syndrome. At the initial program stage, which can last from three to six weeks, recreational athletes should exercise at the low end of the target heart rate zone. Begin with a frequency of three to four days a week and choose a duration appropriate for the fitness level: 12–15 minutes if they are very unfit, 20 minutes if they are sedentary but otherwise healthy, and 30–40 minutes if they are experienced exercisers. Use Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance Program | 127 this program stage to allow both their bodies and schedule to adjust to the new exercise routine. Once they can exercise at the upper levels of frequency (four to five days weekly) and duration (30–40 minutes) without excessive fatigue or muscle soreness, they are ready to progress. The next phase of the program is the improvement stage, which lasts from four to six months. During this phase, athletes should slowly and gradually increase overload until they reach their target fitness level (see the sample training progression in Table 4.2-5). Take care not to increase overload too quickly. It usually is best to avoid increasing intensity and duration during the same session or to increase all three training variables in one week. Increasing duration in increments of 5–10 minutes every two to three weeks usually works best. Four signs of increasing overload too quickly include (1) muscle aches and pains, (2) lack of usual interest in exercise, (3) extreme fatigue, and (4) inability to complete a workout. Athletes should keep a daily exercise log or training diary to monitor workouts and document progress. Table 4.2-5: Sample Progression for an Endurance Program Stage/ week Frequency (days/ week) Intensity* (beats/ minute) Time (minutes) 1 3 120–130 15–20 2 3 120–130 20–25 3 4 130–145 20–25 4 4 130–145 25–30 Initial stage Improvement stage 5–7 3–4 145–160 25–30 8–10 3–4 145–160 30–35 11–13 3–4 150–165 30–35 14–16 4–5 150–165 30–35 17–20 4–5 160–180 35–40 21–24 4–5 160–180 35–40 160–180 20–60* Maintenance stage 25+ 3–5 Target heart rates shown above are based on calculations for a healthy 20-year-old with a resting heart rate of 60 beats a minute; the program progresses from an initial target heart rate of 50% to a maintenance range of 70%–85% of heart rate reserve. Source: Adapted from American College of Sports Medicine. 2009. ACSM’s Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. Over-Distance Training Over-distance training involves exercising for sustained periods. For the beginner, over-distance training might involve going for a 30-minute walk five times a week. A dedicated jogger might go for a one-hour run, whereas a serious swimmer might swim 3,000 yards. Over-distance training for a bicyclist might be a 25-mile ride. The cross-country skier might ski a 5–10 mile loop. People who are serious about over-distance training typically train three to six days weekly. Training more frequently usually leads to overuse injuries. Training less frequently also can lead to injury and is less effective in building high endurance levels. Over-distance training: Continuous endurance exercise training typically performed at submaximal intensities. International Sports Sciences Association 128 | Unit 4.2 Over-distance training increases mitochondria in cells, which enhances the cell’s metabolic capacity. This helps burn fats better, consumes more oxygen, and protects cells from chemical damage from undesirable free radicals. These chemical compounds are produced during normal metabolism that are like biological “rust”; they associate with cell membrane breakdown, genetic damage, illness, and aging. A technique called Fartlek training, also called Swedish speed play, combines over-distance training with periods of high-velocity training. This desirable technique helps approximate endurance competition conditions. High-intensity Interval Training (HIIT) High Intensity Interval training (HIIT): Series of brief high-intensity exercise sessions interspersed with short rest periods Few exercise techniques are more effective at improving fitness rapidly than is high-intensity interval training (HIIT)—a series of very brief high-intensity exercise sessions interspersed with short rest periods. The four components of interval training include distance, repetition, intensity, and rest, defined as follows: 1. Distance refers to either the distance or time of the exercise interval. 2. Repetition refers to the number of times repeating the exercise. 3. Intensity refers to the speed of performing the exercise. 4. Rest refers to the time spent recovering between exercises. Canadian researchers determined that six sessions of high-intensity interval training on a stationary bike increased muscle oxidative capacity by nearly 50%, muscle glycogen by 20%, and cycle endurance capacity by 100%. The subjects made these remarkable improvements by exercising only 15 minutes in two weeks. Each workout consisted of four to seven repetitions of high-intensity exercise (each repetition consisted of 30 seconds at near maximum effort) on a stationary bike. Follow-up studies showed that practicing HIIT three times weekly for six weeks improved endurance Strength and Conditioning Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance Program | 129 and aerobic capacity as well as training five times a week for 60 minutes for six weeks did. These studies and many others showed the value of high-intensity training in building aerobic capacity and endurance. Athletes can use interval training for any type of predominantly aerobic exercise. In fact, the type of exercise selected is not important if intensity is high. HIIT training even can help develop sports skills. For example, a runner might do four to eight repetitions of 200-meter sprints at near-maximum effort. A tennis player might practice volleys against a wall rapidly for four to eight repetitions lasting 30 seconds each. A swimmer might swim four to eight repetitions of 50 meters at 100% effort. It is important to rest from three to five minutes between repetitions, regardless of the exercise type being performed. Athletes should not practice interval training more than three days a week. Intervals are exhausting and easily lead to injury. Individual response determines how many days athletes can tolerate. If they become overly tired after doing interval training three days a week, cut back to two days. If they feel good, try increasing the intensity or volume of intervals (but not the number of days a week) and see what happens. As with any kind of exercise program, begin HIIT training slowly and progress conservatively. Although the Canadian studies showed that HIIT training produced substantial fitness improvements by itself, it is best to integrate HIIT into the total exercise program. High-intensity interval training appears to be safe and effective in the short term, but there are concerns about the long-term safety and effectiveness of this type of training, so consider the following three issues: 1. Maximal-intensity training could be dangerous for some people. A physician might be reluctant to give certain patients the green light for this arduous type of exercise training. 2. Always warm up with several minutes of low-intensity exercise before practicing HIIT. Maximal-intensity exercise without a warm-up can precipitate cardiac arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms) even in healthy people. 3. HIIT might trigger overuse injuries in unfit people. For this reason, it is essential to start gradually, especially for someone at a low level of fitness. Exercise at submaximal intensities for at least four to six weeks before starting high-intensity interval training. Reduce interval training or advocate rest if the athlete feels overly fatigued or develops excessive soreness in joints or muscles. Maintaining Cardiorespiratory Fitness Fitness does not improve indefinitely. The more fit athletes become, the harder they must work to improve. There are limits to the level of fitness athletes can achieve, and if they increase intensity and duration indefinitely, they are likely to become injured or overtrained. After an improvement stage of four to six months, they often attain their goal of an acceptable fitness level. They can then maintain fitness by continuing to exercise at the same intensity at least three nonconsecutive days every week. If they stop exercising, they lose gains in fitness fairly rapidly. International Sports Sciences Association 130 | Unit 4.2 If they take time off for any reason, they should start their program again at a lower level and rebuild fitness slowly and systematically. Cross-training: Alternating two or more activities to improve fitness. When they reach the maintenance stage, they may want to set new goals for their program and make adjustments to maintain their motivation. Adding variety to the program can be a helpful strategy. Engaging in multiple types of endurance activities, an approach known as cross-training (see Section 6.7), can help boost enjoyment and prevent some types of injuries. For example, someone who has been jogging five days a week may change the program to jogging three days a week, play tennis one day a week, and ride a bike one day a week. Athletes decondition rapidly when they cease endurance training. They should train year-round, decreasing training volume, intensity, and frequency when not preparing for competition. Successful athletes are made during the off-season. They will not be successful if they begin just prior to the season’s start. Like any other type of training, building high levels of endurance requires years of preparation. One season should serve as the foundation for the next. Strength and Conditioning Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance Program | 131 Summary Cardiorespiratory endurance exercises best develop the type of fitness associated with good health and should serve as the central focus of most exercise programs. Factors involved in successful endurance training programs include setting realistic goals; establishing appropriate levels of frequency, intensity, and duration of exercise; choosing suitable activities; properly warming up and cooling down; and adjusting the program to adapt as fitness improves. • Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) serves as an important foundation for endur• ance performance. VO2max only improves by 10%–30%, so other factors such as fatigue resistance and speed determine performance in endurance events. The acronym FITT is useful for remembering core parameters of the endurance training program—frequency, intensity, time (duration), and type of activity. The average person should undertake at least 150 minutes a week of moderate-intensity physical activity (or at least 75 minutes weekly of vigorous physical activity) to promote health. Athletes, in contrast, often train several times daily. Runners might cover 100 miles per week or even more. Most athletes cannot tolerate this level of training, which usually leads to overtraining and decreased performance. More is not necessarily better. Exercise intensity can be estimated with heart rate, perceived exertion, or speed. It is important to warm up before every session of cardiorespiratory endurance exercise and to cool down afterward. Because the body’s muscles work better when their temperature is slightly above resting level, warming up enhances performance and decreases chances of injury. Cooling down after exercise is important for returning the body to a non-exercising state. A cool-down helps maintain blood flow to the heart and brain and redirect blood from working muscles to other body areas. Over-distance and interval training serve as the primary ways to build endurance. A technique called Fartlek training, also known as Swedish speed play, combines over-distance training with periods of high-velocity training. High-intensity interval training (HIIT)—a series of brief high-intensity exercise sessions interspersed with short rest periods—builds fitness rapidly. Until recently, endurance athletes primarily practiced intervals. Research shows that HIIT builds fitness rapidly in recreational athletes in less time than traditional exercise programs do. Endurance fitness decreases rapidly when athletes stop training, so it is important for them to do at least some training all year long. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 4.3 Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning | 133 Unit Outline 1. Principles of Temperature Regulation 4. Exercise in the Cold a. 5. Physical Activity at Altitude Heat Production b. Heat Loss 2. Exercise in the Heat 3. Preventing Heat Problems 6. Exercise and Air Pollution 7. Travel and Jet Lag 8. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand the effects of the environment— temperature, altitude, and air quality— on performance. • Understand that humans must maintain a near constant body temperature— not too hot or too cold. Even small changes in body temperature can lead to poor performance, illness, and death. • Understand the way the body gains and looses heat. • Understand the effects of heat acclimatization on the body. • Know techniques for minimizing heat stress during “two-a-day” training programs. Personal trainers who work with athletes must have a good working knowledge of human temperature regulation during physical activity. Unfortunately, over the past 30 years, more than 100 football players and collegiate wrestlers have died from excessive heat stress during practice or competition. Heat injury also commonly occurs during military training and field operations, including longer duration athletic events and, sadly, in farming involving • Understand the risks of dehydration and over-hydration. • Know basic techniques for preventing heat problems. • Understand the challenges of exercising in the cold. • Understand the effects of altitude on performance and the value of acclimatization. • Understand the effects of air pollution on performance and techniques to limit damage from exposure. • Know how to minimize the effects of travel and jet lag on performance. migrant workers who spend long hours in the heat. Intense exercise increases heat production 10–20 times above rest. Humans are mammals and must maintain a near constant body temperature. Thermoregulation plays such an important role in the body’s heat-balancing mechanisms that the price of failure often is death, which can occur quickly if the rise in body temperature begins to exceed 105°F and remains unchecked. International Sports Sciences Association 134 | Unit 4.3 Principles of Temperature Regulation Normal resting body temperature ranges between 36.5°C to 37.5°C (97.7°F to 99.5°F). Body temperature refers to the core temperature— the temperature of principal parts of the brain and vital internal organs, mainly the heart and liver. Core temperature reflects the balance between heat production and heat loss. Heat balance: The rate of heat production exactly balances the rate of heat loss. Hypothalamus: Portion of the lower brain that secretes metabolism-controlling substances through the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus helps regulate body temperature, appetite, water balance, blood sugar, and fat metabolism. The hypothalamus also regulates ovaries, testes, parathyroids, and the thyroid. When the rate of heat production exactly equals the rate of heat loss, the body is in heat balance (Figure 4.3-1). When this ratio goes out of balance, the body either gains or loses heat. Heat balance, controlled in the brain by the hypothalamus, receives neural feedback from the skin’s heat and cold sensors. The hypothalamus works like a thermostat by triggering heat production when body temperature falls and triggering heat loss when it rises. The body regulates temperature using physical and chemical methods. Physical temperature regulation works by changing the resistance to heat flow, whereas chemical methods increase the body’s metabolic rate. Figure 4.3-1 Heat balance: the body remains in heat balance when heat production equals heat loss Strength and Conditioning Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning | 135 Heat Production The body produces heat in five principal ways: 1. Through resting and exercise metabolism 2. Shivering 3. Heat-producing chemicals 4. Hormones 5. Tissues The body also gains heat via three mechanisms: (1) radiation, (2) conduction, and (3) convection (see heat-loss mechanisms below). Metabolism: Metabolism refers to the body’s source of internal heat production. Metabolism represents the sum total of all the chemical reactions in the body. Most of the energy exchanges during metabolism produce heat. During exercise, heat production is substantial. Three principal mechanisms produce heat: (1) voluntary exercise, (2) involuntary (shivering) muscle contraction, and (3) biochemical heat production. Shivering: In the cold, shivering is the primary mechanism for increasing heat production. Maximal shivering can increase the body’s heat production by up to five times that of resting in a neutral environment. Heat-generating hormones, chemicals, and tissues: Increased thyroxine secretion from the thyroid, norepinephrine release from the sympathetic nervous system, and epinephrine (adrenaline) secretion from the adrenal glands also increase metabolic rate. Chemicals called uncoupling proteins cause cells to release energy as heat instead of using it to produce usable energy (i.e., ATP) or storing it as fat. Uncoupling proteins are particularly plentiful in brown fat located primarily in the upper torso and neck regions, which is an important tissue for weight control. Brown fat is a special kind of fat cell that generates heat and burns calories instead of storing energy. Metabolism: The sum of all the physical and chemical processes occurring in the body—including anabolic and catabolic reactions. Shivering: Physiologic method of heat production in humans and other mammals that involves involuntary trembling or quivering from muscle contraction or twitching. Epinephrine: Adrenal hormone that helps regulate blood flow. It increases the strength of muscle contraction, stimulates carbohydrate metabolism, and plays an important role in the body’s response to danger and arousal. Is also called “adrenaline.” Uncoupling proteins: Cause cells to release energy as heat instead of using it to produce usable energy or storing it as fat. International Sports Sciences Association 136 | Unit 4.3 Heat Loss The body loses heat in four ways: 1. Radiation 2. Conduction 3. Convection 4. Evaporation At room temperature, when skin temperature exceeds air temperature, most heat is lost by the outward flow of heat. In the heat or during most physical activities, evaporation of sweat becomes the chief way the body disposes of heat buildup. The body also can gain heat via radiation, conduction, and convection if the heat source (e.g., outside or ambient temperature, hot tub temperature, heating pad) exceeds the body’s temperature. Radiation: Heat loss or gain in the form of infrared rays. Radiation: Radiation refers to the gain or loss of heat by infrared rays. At room temperature and at rest, radiation accounts for 60% of the body’s total heat loss. Radiant heat loss varies with body position and clothing. The body gives off and receives radiant heat at the same time. If body temperature exceeds environmental temperature, more heat radiates from the body than to it. On extremely hot days, the body gains heat by radiation. Clothing type can affect both the gain and loss of radiant heat. Conduction: Transfer of heat between objects. Conduction: The process of conduction transfers heat between the body and surrounding objects. About 3% of the total heat loss at room temperature occurs by means of this mechanism. A good example of conduction is the transfer of heat to a chair while a person sits on it. Heat loss in urine and feces is another example of conduction. An individual gains heat from heating pads and hot water bottles. Convection: Gain or loss of heat to or from air or water. Convection: The conduction of heat to or from air or water is called convection. This accounts for about 12% of the heat loss at normal room temperature. In convection, heat conducted to air or water moves so that other particles also can be heated. As heat moves to the surrounding air, it rises to allow additional heat transfer to the surrounding air. Heat loss by convection occurs more rapidly in Strength and Conditioning Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning | 137 water than in air. People gain heat from convection when they sit in a hot bath or hot tub. Heat loss by convection is greater in the wind because colder air quickly replaces warmed air and lowers the effective ambient temperature. The effect of wind on temperature is called windchill. Evaporation (sweating): At rest in a comfortable environment, about 25% of heat loss comes from evaporation of sweat. It is the only means of cooling the body at high environmental temperature and is critical during exercise. Body temperature can rise precipitously if it cannot lose heat by evaporation. Wind-chill: Effects of air movement on reducing the effective temperature. Evaporation: Change from a liquid to a vapor (gas) form. The body loses approximately 0.6 kilocalories of heat for each gram of sweat that evaporates. Sweat is effective for cooling only if it evaporates. The rate of evaporation is greatly reduced or completely prevented during high humidity, allowing the sweat to remain in the fluid state. Lack of air movement hampers effective evaporation because the air surrounding the body saturates with water vapor, just as it does inside a sweat suit or football uniform. In hot weather, a person not accustomed to the heat achieves a maximum sweat rate of about 1.5 liters an hour, whereas an acclimatized person sweats more—up to 4 liters an hour. This is an example of a positive adaptation from physical training—the body becomes more efficient by pouring out more sweat to cool the body. Exercise in the Heat Exercise in the heat sets the stage for increased body temperature. The rate of performing exercise is the most important factor causing this increase (Figure 4.3-2). Core temperature increases proportionally with increasing exercise intensities. Although considerable variability exists in core temperature at any absolute exercise intensity, very little variation occurs when the load is expressed as a percentage of maximum capacity. During exercise in the heat, the need for blood by the muscles, skin, and other body tissues can decrease exercise capacity. Sweating is the main way the body controls body temperature during exercise. International Sports Sciences Association 138 | Unit 4.3 Temperature (ºC) 41 Muscle Temperature Rectal Temperature 37 33 Mean Skin Temperature 29 25 50 75 100 Exercise Intensity (Percent of Maximum Effort) Figure 4.3-2 During exercise, muscle and core (rectal) temperatures increase with intensity. Skin temperature decreases and stabilizes as sweat evaporates. Acclimatization: Physiological adaptation to an environmental stressor. Acclimatization: During the first week of heat exposure, the body makes several adjustments that include these si factors: 1. Increased movement of heat out of the body 2. Increased plasma volume 3. Increased sweating capacity 4. Fall in the threshold of skin temperature for sweating onset 5. More effective distribution of sweat over the skin surfaces Core temperature is lower during exercise in acclimatized humans. Dehydration: Excessive loss of body water. Acclimatization to heat produces an approximate 12% increase in plasma volume, provided exercise training accompanies the heat exposure. The increased plasma volume helps maintain stroke volume, central blood volume, and sweating capacity. It also enables the body to store more heat. Hyponatremia (water intoxication): Low levels of sodium in the blood caused by overconsumption of water. The increase in plasma volume accompanies an almost threefold increase in sweating capacity from about 1.5 liters an hour to 4 liters an hour. This is accompanied by a more complete and even distribution of sweating across the skin. This is an advantage when exercising in the heat accompanied by high humidity. Acclimatized people sweat earlier during exercise, which is important for keeping Plasma volume: Volume of plasma—the noncellular portion of blood. Strength and Conditioning Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning | 139 core temperature under control during the early stages of activity. In elite endurance-trained athletes, “beads” of sweat form over the body sooner compared with the “sheet-like” effect in relatively untrained individuals. Sweat losses of sodium chloride (salt) decrease with acclimatization to heat. Exercise training is essential for heat acclimatization. Training by itself will not provide a full measure of heat adaptation, but it helps. A person from a cooler environment who engages in endurance training in a hot room can acclimatize and then achieve greater success when competing in the heat. Guidelines for “Two-a-Day” Training (https://www.indystar.com/story/sports/ high-school/2014/08/03/two-days-becomingrare-high-school-football/13557239/) Twoa-day training programs in football, soccer, and field hockey can subject athletes to heat stress because of the cumulative nature of heat exposure and dehydration. Athletes can minimize heat stress during two-a-days by: • Drinking 16–20 ounces of water or sports drinks at least 30 minutes before exercise; • Drinking fluids during exercise—particularly early in the training session; • Drinking fluids that are cold (50 to 59°) and contain carbohydrates (7%) and electrolytes; • Drinking at least 20 ounces of fluid after exercise; • Avoiding drinking excessive amounts of water to avoid water intoxication (hyponatremia); • Being physically fit before beginning twoa-day training programs. Fitness is the best defense against thermal distress. Thermal distress: The popularity of distance running and competitive sports for weekend athletes has unfortunately triggered increases in thermal distress and heat injury. In addition, the popularity of high-intensity training has increased the risk of heat injury in athletes. Fortunately, you can prevent heat stress and injury by following simple precautions. Thermal distress includes dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. The United States Weather Service website promotes a heat index chart regarding increased risk of thermal injury (www.nws.noaa.gov/os/heat/index.shtml). The index considers temperature (dry bulb temperature) and relative humidity. Dehydration: Dehydration occurs when the body loses fluids. Dehydration can decrease sweat rate, plasma volume, cardiac output, maximal oxygen uptake, work capacity, muscle strength, and liver glycogen. Dehydration is a common condition during exercise in the heat but also can occur in any temperature. A water deficit of 700 ml (approximately 1% of body weight) causes thirst. Athletes must have regular fluid breaks rather than rely only on their thirst sensations for fluid replacement. Athletes should be weighed before and after each practice, especially during early season and in hot weather. Modern athletic fluid replacement beverages are backed by numerous research studies and are excellent products for rehydration. Cold water is another excellent fluid replacement beverage. Drinking too much water can cause water intoxication or hyponatremia. This can be deadly and can occur when active people are overzealous with fluid replacement. International Sports Sciences Association 140 | Unit 4.3 Heat cramps: Involuntary cramping and spasm in the muscle groups activated during exercise characterize heat cramps. Although salt and potassium depletion from the muscles is involved with the problem, the primary cause is muscle fatigue. Heat cramps reflect muscle fatigue, so replacing fluids and electrolytes confers little or no immediate benefit. The best treatment is gentle static stretching, fluid and electrolyte replacement, and well-timed rest. Heat cramps: Muscle spasms and pain caused by intense exercise in the heat; sometimes related to salt deficiency, hyperventilation, or alcohol overindulgence. Heat exhaustion: Heat illness related to dehydration. Common symptoms include fatigue, lightheadedness, nausea, vomiting, headache, rapid heartbeat, and low blood pressure. Heat exhaustion: Heat exhaustion and heat stroke are not distinct entities but rather represent two degrees of thermal injury. Symptoms of heat exhaustion include a rapid and weak pulse, low blood Table 4.3-1: Heat Index Heat Index Possible heat disorders for people in higher risk groups 130˚ or higher Heatstroke/sunstroke highly likely with continued exposure 105˚–130˚ Sunstroke, heat cramps or heat exhaustion likely, and heatstroke possible with prolonged exposure and/or physical activity 90˚–105˚ Sunstroke, heat cramps or heat exhaustion possible with prolonged exposure and/or physical activity 80˚–90˚ Fatigue possible with prolonged exposure and/or physical activity Relative Humidity (%) Temperature (˚F) 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 110 136 108 130 137 106 124 130 137 104 119 124 131 137 102 114 119 124 130 137 100 109 114 118 124 129 136 98 105 109 113 117 123 128 134 96 101 104 108 112 116 121 126 132 94 97 100 103 106 110 114 119 124 129 135 90 95 100 Heat Index (apparent temperature) 92 94 96 99 101 105 108 112 116 121 126 131 90 91 93 95 97 100 103 106 109 113 117 122 127 132 88 88 89 91 93 95 98 100 103 106 110 113 117 121 86 85 87 88 89 91 93 95 97 100 102 105 108 112 84 83 84 85 86 88 89 90 92 94 95 98 100 103 82 81 82 83 84 84 85 86 88 89 90 91 93 95 80 80 80 81 81 82 82 83 84 84 85 86 86 87 Heat Index, calculated from temperature and relative humidity, helps predict the dangers of heat exposure. Source: National Weather Service Strength and Conditioning Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning | 141 pressure, faintness, profuse sweating, and psychological disorientation. Heat exhaustion results from inadequate blood returning to the heart from competition for blood between the muscles and skin. Heat exhaustion treatment includes supine rest in a cool area and fluid replacement. Intravenous fluid administration may be appropriate in some instances. The athlete should not participate in any further activity for the rest of the day and should be encouraged to liberally drink fluids for the next 24 hours. Heatstroke (sunstroke): Heatstroke is the failure of the hypothalamic temperature regulatory center and represents a major medical emergency. It is principally caused by a failure of the sweating center, which leads to an explosive rise in body temperature because the body does not sweat enough. Heat stroke is characterized by a high core temperature (greater than 41°C or 105.8°F), hot, dry skin, and mental confusion or unconsciousness. In exercise-related heatstroke, the person still may be sweating. The cardiovascular effects are variable, with some individuals experiencing low blood pressure and others experiencing a full bounding pulse and high blood pressure. A heat stroke victim should be packed in ice and immediately transported to a hospital. Heatstroke: Severe and often fatal illness produced by exposure to excessively high temperatures, especially when accompanied by intense exercise. Preventing Heat Problems The following 10 simple principles can minimize the problems associated with exercising in the heat: 1. Ensure that athletes are in good physical condition. There should be a gradual increase in intensity and duration of training until the athlete fully acclimatizes. 2. Schedule practice sessions and games during cooler times of the day. 3. Modify or cancel exercise sessions when the wet bulb globe temperature reaches or exceeds 25.5°C. Wet bulb temperature determines humidity, and globe temperature indicates radiant heat (http://www.srh.noaa.gov/tsa/?n=wbgt). 4. Plan for regular water breaks (30–60 minute intervals). 5. Supply a cold drink (8–13°C), low in sugar (less than 8 grams per 100 ml), containing a small amount of electrolytes. Electrolyte: Chemical that dissociates into ions (with a negative or positive charge) in a solution that thus conducts electricity (nerve or muscle impulses). International Sports Sciences Association 142 | Unit 4.3 6. Encourage athletes to “tank up” before practice or games by drinking 400 to 600 ml of water 30 minutes before activity. 7. Encourage fluid replacement during the early stages of practice and competition. As exercise progresses, water absorption from the gut decreases. 8. Make it a routine practice to weigh athletes every day before the training session. Any athlete showing a decrease in body weight of 3% or more should not be allowed to participate until he or she rehydrated. People who tend to lose considerable weight in the heat should be identified and closely monitored. 9. Do not use salt pills. Encourage athletes to consume ample amounts of salt at mealtime. 10. Discourage wearing of rubberized “sauna suits” to reduce weight. Emphasize attaining an optimal body composition for the sport. Exercise in the Cold Hypothermia: Low body temperature from cold exposure. Frostbite: Cold injury accompanied by pallor, numbness, and loss of cold sensation. Acute mountain sickness (AMS): Temporary flulike illness caused by high altitude exposure. Symptoms include headache, insomnia, irritability, weakness, vomiting, elevated heart rate, and disturbance of breathing. Strength and Conditioning Until recently, hypothermia was a factor in sports and exercise only when survival was at stake following mishaps in skiing, climbing, hiking, or camping. People rarely experienced cold stress during diverse physical activities, because the resulting increased metabolism largely prevented negative heat balance, and individuals could add more clothing when they became cold. About 35 years ago, large numbers of marginally fit people—including children—began participating in endurance triathlons (competitions involving long-distance swimming, bicycling, and running) and marathons that sometimes exposed them to cold temperatures for multiple hours. People became hypothermic because the heat production of the activity could not keep pace with heat loss. Cold causes problems for athletes, as evident when we watch football players compete in the snow. The numbing of exposed flesh and the awkwardness and extra weight of protective clothing handicap the players. Cold impairs the finger dexterity needed for catching and throwing—it effectively anesthetizes the hands’ sensory receptors. Exposed flesh, particularly on the face, is susceptible to frostbite, which can become a serious medical condition. Wearing the correct type of clothing is important during cold weather physical activity. The insulation value of the clothing (referred to as “clo”) must be Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning | 143 balanced with the increased metabolic heat production of activity. Clothes are valuable in the cold because they increase the body’s insulation. Clothing entraps warm air next to the skin and decreases heat loss by conduction and convection. The best clothing for exercise in the cold allows for evaporation of sweat while providing added thermal protection from the cold. Clothing should be worn in layers so that it can be removed as the physical activity increases metabolic heat production. Hypothermia: The hypothalamus cannot control body temperature at extremely low core temperatures. Hypothermia depresses the central nervous system, so it thwarts shivering and sleepiness and eventually leads to coma. A lower temperature also reproduces a lower cellular metabolic rate; this creates a vicious circle leading to decreased metabolism with less heat production, which further depresses metabolism. Hypothermia becomes a problem when the rate of heat production during physical activity does not keep pace with the rate of heat loss induced by the cold environment. Physical Activity at Altitude People who participate in alpine and cross-country skiing, rock climbing, and backpacking must contend with reduced oxygen pressure, which makes it more difficult to exercise. Understanding the stresses of altitude will help the strength and conditioning specialist prepare athletes who exercise and compete at altitude. The decreased pressure of altitude results in less oxygen per volume of air. Maximal oxygen • consumption (VO2max) decreases by 3% at 5,000 feet and by 3% for each additional 1,000 feet of elevation. The oxygen consumption required for a given exercise intensity remains the same, but capacity decreases, making any intensity of exercise more difficult. During acute exposure to altitude (first three days), increases occur in resting and submaximal exercise heart rate, breathing rate, breathing volume, blood pressure, blood pressure in the lungs, and stress hormones, and plasma volume decreases. Use of carbohydrates as fuel increases, as do lactate levels. The slow movement of oxygen across the lungs, referred to as pulmonary diffusion, makes exercise at altitude more difficult. Many people experience acute mountain sickness (AMS) at altitudes above 5,000–6,000 feet. Symptoms include headache, insomnia, irritability, weakness, vomiting, elevated heart rate, and disturbance of breathing. AMS is a mild disorder that usually disappears in two to three days. However, it can evolve into a medical emergency involving swelling in the lungs or brain. The best treatment for any kind of AMS is to descend to lower altitudes, but it may be prevented with medications such as acetazolamide (Diamox). Acclimatization: Physiological adaptation to altitude literally begins during the first few hours of exposure and thereafter for approximately the next three days. Blood becomes more acid by excreting the blood buffer bicarbonate in the urine. The breathing center in the lungs also makes adjustments to changes in blood levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Long-term changes in blood vessels, blood cells, and muscle mitochondria occur following a month of exposure. International Sports Sciences Association 144 | Unit 4.3 Low oxygen levels increase the production of red blood cells and hemoglobin. Muscle mitochondria and muscle blood vessels increase during the first month of altitude exposure. A gradual increase also occurs in lung blood pressure, lung blood volume, and the number of lung blood vessels. Altitude and performance: Altitude causes marked improvements in events of short duration and high intensity such as sprints and throwing events but deterioration in endurance events of long duration and lower intensity. Athletes who must compete at altitude should acclimatize for one to eight weeks prior to competition. Athletes involved in short-duration sprints, jumps, and throws need only acclimatize long enough to overcome the nauseating effects of mountain sickness. Although the adjustments in acid-base balance take less than a week, the changes in oxygen-carrying capacity can take many months. Athletes in championship form may risk losing their peak condition by too much acclimatization because they will be unable to train as hard at altitude compared with training at sea level. Controversy exists over the effects of altitude training on subsequent performance at sea level. Most studies show no improvement in maximal oxygen consumption or maximal work capacity when returning from altitude. In the studies that show an improvement, the subjects may not have been in good condition to start with. At altitude, they improved their exercise capacity, but the improvement was no greater than they would have achieved by training at sea level. However, several studies have Strength and Conditioning found that weight training in simulated altitude chambers accelerates strength development. The physiological adaptations to altitude are not necessarily beneficial at sea level. Although the increase in hemoglobin is helpful, the decrease in plasma volume and alkaline reserve (bicarbonate, HCO -) are a decided disadvantage. 3 During high-intensity exercise, the decrease in HCO - may slow lactate movement from mus3 cle to blood. This may decrease muscle pH and perhaps trigger the earlier onset of muscular fatigue. In addition, the decreased blood volume and increased hematocrit will increase blood viscosity (thickness), which may negatively affect oxygen transport capacity. Finally, the increased ventilation at altitude is worthless at sea level, where the oxygen tension is much higher. Training intensity and duration are the most important factors in improving exercise performance. Athletes cannot train as hard at high altitude. Even though they can reach the same relative percentage of maximum, their maximum will remain lower. However, some of the world’s premier endurance coaches and athletes strongly believe in altitude training for competition at sea level. High-altitude natives from Kenya have established remarkably successful performances at sea level. As such, the possible benefits of high-altitude training cannot be ruled out. A popular training technique is to “live high and train low.” Some athletes sleep in special tents to regulate the oxygen content of the air and then train normally at sea level. Elevation training masks—devices that reduce the inspired oxygen percent without affecting barometric pressure—are ineffective for the same reasons that high altitude training does Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning | 145 not promote performance at sea level: diminished training intensity, reduced blood buffering capacity, and decreased plasma volume. In addition, the masks have no effect on red cell volume. Intense training is critical for improving performance; blood bicarbonate helps the body cope with metabolic acids, and plasma volume is critical for temperature regulation and cardiac output. Exercise and Air Pollution Air pollution is common in urban centers throughout the world. Smog can have a serious effect on physical performance, particularly in people suffering from asthma. Air pollutants may include ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, particulates, and carbon monoxide. Scant data are available on elite athletes. Generalizations may be possible in athletes by examining studies of young people. Smog may negatively affect exercise performance because it causes tightening in the chest, difficulty taking deep breaths, eye irritation, pharyngitis (inflammation of the pharynx), headache, lassitude, malaise, nausea, and throat dryness. The effects of air pollution are exaggerated during physical activity and become increasingly severe as the air pollution level increases. Although most of these factors have little impact on measurable physiological markers such as maximal oxygen consumption, they still create a negative psychological effect. Increased airway resistance in the lungs may lead to discomfort, which limits the athletes’ motivation to perform. Particulate air pollutants—dust and pollen— can seriously affect exercise performance of allergy-prone athletes. Many great athletes have suffered from the effects of airborne particulate matter to such an extent that it severely compromises their athletic careers. Antihistamines (drugs that combat allergic reactions) can cause marked drowsiness and impair performance. Some people benefit from desensitization procedures available from allergy specialists. Practice time and competitions should be limited during periods of peak concentrations of air pollution. Air pollution levels are higher during the commute hours (6–9 a.m. and 4–7 p.m. in most places) and during the middle of the day when temperature is highest. Air pollution is simply a fact of life in many areas, and there is no evidence that the human body acclimatizes to it. Bottom line—limit exposure to polluted air, particularly if you have an existing respiratory condition. Travel and Jet Lag Traveling across time zones for skiing, hiking, bicycling, or competitive sports is extremely common. Changes in culture and customs, local diseases, weather, temperature, and altitude can cause physical distress. Walking during the flight or stopping to take short exercise breaks during long drives helps minimize the fatigue accompanying extended duration trips. At the end of the trip, taking a shower and getting a good night’s sleep does wonders for restoring normal life. During long trips that cross multiple time zones, these measures are not enough. International Sports Sciences Association 146 | Unit 4.3 Jet lag: Fatigue and disorientation from crossing multiple time zones. Jet lag is characterized by fatigue and disorientation. Symptoms include fatigue and general tiredness, inability to sleep at night, loss of concentration and drive, headaches, and general malaise. In short, disrupting the body’s normal rhythms causes jet lag. Following a trip across many time zones, your biological rhythms are similar to those of the point of departure. Changes in the time of sunrise and sunset (light and darkness) soon disrupt these rhythms. Body temperature changes during the day are slow to accommodate to the new time zone, which can cause sleep loss for several days. Exercise performance usually suffers for several days after arrival in the new time zone. Factors affecting the severity of jet lag include the number of time zones crossed and the temperature of the new environment. The severity of symptoms may be worse two to three days after arrival than on the first day in the new time zone. Symptoms then gradually decrease. The direction of travel affects the severity of jet lag. Flying westward is less stressful than flying eastward is. When time zone shifts approach 12 hours, there is little difference between traveling east and west. Physical performance also decreases more traveling eastward than westward. Changing exercise times to more closely resemble the new time zone prior to the trip helps relieve symptoms. Younger and more physically fit people have fewer problems with jet lag than do older or less fit people. In the week prior to departure, you can reduce the symptoms of jet lag by changing the time that you wake up and going to bed according to the new time zone. This does not work well if the time zone change is more than two or three hours. During the trip, set your clock to the new time zone and synchronize your activities to the destination. During the flight, drink plenty of fluids, but avoid drinks with caffeine and alcohol because they promote dehydration. Some research suggests that eating meals high in carbohydrates and low in protein before sleep induces drowsiness. Carbohydrates increase serotonin production, a neurotransmitter that helps regulate sleep. Upon waking, eat a breakfast containing caffeine and low-carbohydrate high-protein foods to increase arousal and prevent sleepiness. Sleeping when you feel drowsy will slow adjustment to the new times zone and reaffirms the rhythms of the former time zone. Strength and Conditioning Environmental Factors in Strength and Conditioning | 147 When going from east to west, try to sleep following your arrival. Do the opposite when traveling west to east. Exercise lightly within an hour after arrival to instill new biological rhythms. Exercise speeds up the adaptation to a new time zone. Avoid all-out effort in the new time zone following the first few days after arrival. Your coordination is impaired, which can increase injury risk. Drinking alcohol at night disrupts sleep patterns and prevents adaptation to the new time zone. Try to consume high-carbohydrate meals at night to promote sleep. Consume enough fiber (25 to 30 grams daily) to prevent constipation. Summary Humans are mammals who must maintain a near constant body temperature. When the rate of heat production exactly equals the rate of heat loss, the body attains heat balance. The body produces heat through resting and exercise metabolism, shivering, heat-producing chemicals, hormones, and tissues. The body also can gain heat via radiation, conduction, and convection. The body loses heat by four mechanisms—radiation, conduction, convection, and evaporation. Sweating is the only means of cooling at high environmental temperature and is critical during exercise. Exercise intensity represents the most important factor increasing core temperature in the heat. During exercise in the heat, the need for blood by the muscles, skin, and other body tissues can decrease exercise capacity. Acclimatization, the physiological adaptation to heat stress, includes five factors: increased movement of heat out of the body, increased plasma volume, increased sweating capacity, a decrease in the threshold of skin temperature for the onset of sweating, and a better distribution of sweat over the skin. Thermal distress includes dehydration, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heatstroke. Prevent heat stress by maximizing physical fitness, acclimatizing to the heat, avoiding severe heat stress with adequate hydration, and training and competing at cooler times during the day. Athletes cannot expect any significant acclimatization to the cold and must wear proper clothing to prevent hypothermia and frostbite. Altitude causes marked improvements in events of short duration and high intensity (sprints and throwing events) and deterioration in endurance events of long duration and lower intensity. Endurance performance decreases at altitudes above 5,000 feet due to reduced oxygen availability. People begin to acclimatize to altitude during the first three days of exposure, but full acclimatization takes at least 30 days. Blood becomes more acid by excreting the blood buffer bicarbonate in the urine. The breathing center in the lungs also makes adjustments to changes in blood levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Long-term changes in blood International Sports Sciences Association 148 | Unit 4.3 vessels, blood cells, and muscle mitochondria occur after a month of altitude exposure. pharyngitis, headache, lassitude, malaise, nausea, and dryness of the throat. Air pollution is common in urban centers throughout the world. Smog can seriously affect physical performance, particularly in people who suffer from asthma. Smog may negatively affect exercise performance because it causes tightening in the chest, difficulty making a deep breath, eye irritation, Travel can decrease performance and cause extreme physical distress because of jet lag, changes in culture and customs, local diseases, weather, temperature, and altitude. Exercise performance usually suffers for several days after arrival in a new time zone. Strength and Conditioning SECTION FIVE Biomechanics and Motor Control UNIT 5.1 Developing Basic Movement Skills for Strength Development Developing Basic Movement Skills for Strength Development | 151 Unit Outline 1. The Hip Hinge 2. Assessing and Developing Movement Skills for Loaded Lower Body Exercises 3. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand that athletes should learn to hinge at the hips rather than in the spine when performing squats, lifting from the floor, and performing rotational exercises. • Understand that athletes should maintain a stiff, neutral spine during most movements so the torso (core muscles) acts as a spring to transfer force from the lower body to the upper body. • Understand that most athletes do squats improperly, which increases the risk of knee and back pain. Poor lower body movement skills impair the ability to learn deadlifts, cleans, and snatches. • Administer following functional test will measure the athlete’s ability to perform more complex training exercises. • Understand how kettlebell exercises can condition athletes and teach them techniques that can transfer to learning lifts such as the clean, snatch, and deadlift. The Hip Hinge Building strength and power is important for athletes and nonathletes of all ages and sizes. Athletes should develop good whole-body movement skills from the beginning their careers. A foundational principle emphasizes that athletes should train movements, not muscles. Powerful movements usually begin in the lower body using hip and thigh muscles. Athletes should maintain a stiff, neutral spine during most movements so the torso (core muscles) acts as a spring to transfer force from the lower body to the upper body. Athletes should learn to hinge at the hips rather than in the spine when performing squats, lifting from the floor, and performing rotational exercises (e.g., hitting a golf ball or baseball, throwing a discus or javelin, or serving a volleyball). Neutral spine: The spine maintains its normal anatomical position. Many experienced high school and college athletes fail to use the International Sports Sciences Association 152 | Unit 5.1 Figure 5.1-1 Seated hip hinge with proper form. The forward bending of the trunk occurs by flexing the hips rather than the spine. Hip hinge: Forward trunk movement using the hip joint (hip flexion) rather than the spinal joints (spinal flexion). During squatting motions, athletes should emphasize hip flexion to reduce spinal stress. hip hinge when doing squats and platform lifts (Figure 5.1-1). These athletes often bend their spines, overuse their quads, and fail to properly activate the gluteal and hamstring muscles. Athletes should develop basic lower-body movement skills before being allowed to perform squats, step-ups, cleans, snatches, and deadlifts. These skills help develop lower-body power and a stable spine that will promote musculoskeletal health for a lifetime. For males and females ages 20–70 who fail to adhere to good back health practices, more than half will experience some form of lower back pain and discomfort, often leading to emergency room treatment and surgical intervention, or require ongoing pharmacologic relief. Assessing and Developing Movement Skills for Loaded Lower Body Exercises Most athletes do squats improperly, which increases the risk of knee and back pain. Poor lower body movement skills impair the ability to learn deadlifts, cleans, and snatches. The following functional Strength and Conditioning Developing Basic Movement Skills for Strength Development | 153 test will measure the athlete’s ability to perform more complex training exercises. Each functional test is progressively more difficult, so athletes should not do the next test until they have scored at least a “3” on the current test. After giving the athletes instruction, rate their ability to perform the following movements (you can give partial credit with scores of 4 or 2): Chair Squats Sit up straight in a chair with the back resting against the backrest and arms at the sides. The feet should be placed more than shoulder width apart. Begin the motion of rising out of the chair by flexing at the hips and not at the back. Then squat up using a hip hinge movement (no spine movement). Stand without rocking forward, bending the back, or using external support, and keep the head in a neutral position (eyes forward). The hip angle will be approximately 80 degrees (Hara et al. 2014). Return to the sitting position (i.e., sit) while maintaining a flat back (neutral spine) and weight placed over the center of the feet. The thighs should abduct (spread) when sitting back in the chair. Use the hip extensor muscles as much as possible to stand and hip flexors to sit. Do five repetitions of this exercise. (Note: Person should sit in chair with back on backrest, and arms should be at the side.) Scoring Key 5 points Performed chair squat properly with good back and thigh position and weight centered over the middle of the feet. Good use of hip extensors on the way up and the hip flexors on the way down, thighs abducted when sitting while keeping head in a neutral position. Maintained good form during all repetitions. 3 points Weight was forward on the toes while standing, with some rounding of the back. Excessive use of knee extensors and minimal use of hip extensors and flexors when standing and sitting. Form deteriorated with repetitions. 1 point Could only stand by rocking forward, rounded back badly, little or no abduction of thighs, used mainly knee extensors to stand, and had poor muscular endurance. 0 points Could not stand from the chair without assistance. International Sports Sciences Association 154 | Unit 5.1 Step-Ups Stand facing a bench with the right foot placed on the middle of the bench, right knee bent at 90 degrees, and arms at the sides, fingers pointing downward. Step up on the bench until the leg is straight, maximizing the use of the hip extensors. Return to the starting position. Keep the hips stable, back straight, chest up, shoulders back, and head neutral during the entire movement. Do five repetitions. Repeat the same number of repetitions with the left leg. Scoring Key 5 points Performed step-up properly with good back and thigh position, weight centered over the middle of the foot, chest out, and shoulders back. Good use of the hip extensors on the way up and hip flexors on the way down. Good strength on the right and left sides and maintained good form during all repetitions. 3 points Weight was forward on the toes while standing, with some rounding of the back. Used knee extensors excessively rather than hip extensors during the step-up. Head and chest were too far forward. One side was stronger than the other was and form deteriorated during the five-repetition test. 1 point Could not step up without rocking forward, rounded back badly, used mainly knee extensors to stand, and chest and head were forward. Had difficulty performing the movement. 0 points Could not perform a step-up. Unweighted Squats Stand with feet placed slightly more than shoulder width apart, toes pointed out slightly with hands on hips, head neutral, and back straight. Center the weight over the arches or slightly behind. Squat keeping the weight centered over the arches and actively flexing the hips until the legs break parallel. During the exercise, keep the back straight, shoulders back, chest out and let the thighs part to the side as “squatting between your legs.” Push back to the starting position, maximizing the use of the hip extensors, while maintaining a straight back and neutral head position. Do five repetitions. Scoring Key Strength and Conditioning 5 points Performed properly with good back and thigh position, weight centered over middle of feet, chest out, and shoulders back. Good use of hip flexors on the way down and hip extensors on the way up. Maintained good form during all repetitions. 3 points Weight was forward on the toes during the squat, with some rounding of the back. Used knee extensors excessively during the squat (little use of hip extensors). Head and chest were too far forward. Form deteriorated with increased repetitions. 1 point Could not squat without lifting heels and rocking forward, rounded back badly, little or no abduction of thighs, used mainly knee extensors to stand, and chest and head were forward. Had difficulty lowering thighs to parallel with the floor. 0 points Could not perform a squat. Developing Basic Movement Skills for Strength Development | 155 Single-leg lunge squat with rear foot support Stand about 3 feet in front of a bench with back to the bench. Place the instep of the left foot on the bench and put most of the weight on the right leg (keep left leg bent), with hands at the sides. Squat on the right leg until the thigh is parallel with the floor. Keep the back straight, chest up, shoulders back, and head neutral. Return to the starting position and repeat two more times, for a total of three. Perform this functional test with both legs. Scoring Key 5 points Performed lunge-squat properly with good back and thigh position, weight centered over the middle of the foot, chest out, and shoulders back. Good use of the hip flexors on the way down and hip extensors on the way up. Good strength on the right and left sides and maintained good form for three repetitions. Knee stayed behind toes. 3 points Weight forward on the toes, with some rounding of the back, and trunk flexed. Used knee extensors excessively during the lunge-squat. Head and chest were too far forward. Significantly stronger on one side of the body than the other, and technique deteriorated with more repetitions. Could not reach parallel. 1 point Had difficulty squatting on one leg, rounded the back badly, little use of hip extensors, and chest and head forward. One leg markedly stronger than the other was, and could not perform multiple repetitions. 0 points Could not perform a lunge-squat. Using Kettlebells to Teach the Hip Hinge A kettlebell is a large iron ball connected to a handle. Two-arm and one-arm kettlebell swings are excellent exercises for learning critical lower-body movement skills that involve the hip hinge and the stiff elastic core. Athletes must use proper technique to prevent injuries and develop movement skills to enable them to train harder as they age. Kettlebell: A cast-iron or cast steel weight (resembling a cannonball with a handle) used to perform dynamic exercises. There is nothing new about kettlebells. Nineteenth-century strongmen Arthur Saxon, Eugene Sandow, and Ivan Poddubny used them to build lean, powerful, lightning-fast physiques that allowed them to perform incredible feats of strength and athleticism. Russian athletes and soldiers have used kettlebells in their training programs for more than 300 years. Single-handedly, Pavel Tsatsouline, a former International Sports Sciences Association 156 | Unit 5.1 physical training instructor for the Soviet Special Forces and a nationally ranked kettlebell competitor in the former Soviet Union, popularized kettlebell training in the United States. He elevated it from an obscure, quaint training method of ancient athletes to a wildly popular form of exercise that has applications for people ranging from elite athletes to elderly people in nursing homes (http://www.strongfirst.com). On the surface, kettlebells do not look much different from standard dumbbells. They have a handle connected to a weight just like dumbbells do, and they come in a variety of sizes. But that is where the similarity ends. The kettlebell weight is located at the end of the handle instead of on either side of it. In addition, the design of the kettlebell allows performance of high-speed ballistic exercises with a pendulum–like action. Many kettlebell exercises such as swings, snatches, and cleans, require high-speed eccentric muscle actions that produce surprisingly high muscle forces. High-speed kettlebell training develops whole-body fitness rapidly, with little or no delayed-onset muscle soreness or DOMS. Kettlebell training is not the end-all substitute for traditional resistive exercise. However, almost any exercise that can be done with free weights and machines can be done with kettlebells. They are terrific training tools that build strength, power, muscle endurance, and aerobic capacity—and they promote fat loss. Strength and Conditioning They also offer a training stimulus (i.e., highspeed ballistic and eccentric training) that other exercise modes do not. Most modern health clubs contains scores of expensive exercise equipment that isolate specific muscle groups in the arms, shoulders, thighs, and abdomen. Isolation training is important in bodybuilding, but it does not develop functional fitness important for athletes that can be used in sports or activities of daily life. Most kettlebell exercises work the body in a dynamic way that link and coordinate large muscle contractions while promoting smooth, powerful movements. Choose the appropriate weight. Table 5.1-1 shows suggested kettlebell weights appropriate for beginning and more advanced athletes. Emphasize technique over weight. Kettlebells are a fun and enjoyable way for athletes to build strength, power, muscle endurance, spinal stabilization, and aerobic capacity (if athletes do enough reps). Table 5.1-1 Kettlebell weights appropriate for men and women Athlete Starting Kettlebell Recommended weights for different athletes Average Man 35 lb 35, 44, 53, 70 lb Strong Man 44 lb 44, 53, 70 lb Strength Athlete 53 lb 53, 70, 88 lb Average Woman 18 lb 18, 26, 35 lb Strong Woman 26 lb 26, 35, 44 lb Developing Basic Movement Skills for Strength Development | 157 Basic Kettlebell Exercises There are countless varieties of kettlebell exercises, with the one- and two-arm swing and onearm snatch central to learning the hip hinge and elastic spine concept critical for athletic success. The Kettlebell Swing (Two- and One-Arm Swings) The kettlebell swing represents the principal exercise in kettlebell training routines. The exercise appears simple but requires well-coordinated, linked thigh, buttocks, core, and upper-body muscle contractions to execute it properly. To begin, stand a foot or so behind the kettlebell, sit back, and grasp the handle with both hands. Transfer a large portion of your weight to your heels while at the same time swinging the kettlebell backward so it pendulates (rocks back and forth) fairly close to your groin. Then drive the hips forward and forcibly contract the quads, glutes, pelvic floor, and abdominal muscles; this will promote a rapid acceleration of the kettlebell upward to shoulder level. Exhale sharply (but not fully) at the top of the swing to accentuate the bracing motions of the major body muscles. Keeping the spine in an upright neutral position (i.e., maintaining the natural spinal curves), let the kettlebell accelerate downward as you flex or bend your hips and knees, and maintain straight arms. Perform 10 to 20 repetitions of this exercise. As skill (coordination) increases, do the swings in a rhythmic motion one arm at a time. Figure 5.1-2 (a) Two-arm kettlebell swing. (b) One-arm kettlebell swing. International Sports Sciences Association 158 | Unit 5.1 One-Arm Kettlebell Snatch As athletes hone their two-arm and one-arm swing skills, they can graduate to the one-armed snatch. The snatch involves raising the kettlebell overhead in one continuous motion. Pick up the kettlebell, swing it back between your legs, and snatch the kettlebell overhead in one uninterrupted motion to a straight-arm lockout, with the biceps muscle close to your head. During the upward swing, use the bracing movement created by simultaneously contracting the quads, glutes, pelvic floor, and abdominal muscles to propel the kettlebell upward. Stop momentarily with the arms and legs straight and the feet and body stationary. Lower the kettlebell between your legs with one loose, uninterrupted motion without touching the chest or the shoulder, and repeat the motion again. Do this exercise with the right arm and then the left arm. More experienced athletes can do high repetition routines that build high levels of fitness quickly. Figure 5.1-3 One-arm kettlebell snatch. Strength and Conditioning Developing Basic Movement Skills for Strength Development | 159 Transitioning into Whole-Body Lifts Athletes must perfect proper body mechanics using kettlebells, chair-sits, step-ups, and unloaded double- and single-leg squats. Gradually, athletes can add resistance by holding dumbbells or kettlebells during these movements. They should not begin loaded back or front squats or pulling exercises from the floor until they develop “perfect” technique in basic movement skills, build strong thigh and buttock muscles, and develop the strength and flexibility to maintain a neutral spine when performing unloaded movements. It is vital to concentrate on performing each of the exercise movements as perfectly as possible rather than just “crank out” reps with less than desirable form. The goal is to perfect movement technique for each of the exercises until each exercise becomes routine—which means the nervous system (and corresponding muscles) has learned how to execute the movements automatically. Whole-body lifts: Exercises simultaneously using upper body, lower body, and core muscles. Athletes also benefit from more traditional strength-training methods. Almost any resistive exercise will produce positive results as long as the athlete uses proper technique. Some exercises such as sit-ups are not recommended because they put excessive stress on spinal disks. Younger athletes will probably not experience immediate spinal disk problems from inappropriate sit-ups on a slant board or back hyperextensions. However, these exercises can cause gradual spinal deterioration that might require back surgery when the person reaches ages 30 or 40. A guiding principle for weight training or sports training is that “good technique does not hurt.” Fatigue is a natural part of sports training, but pain—particularly if it persists immediately following exercise—indicates a training error—and the culprit is usually improper technique! After mastering basic movement techniques (i.e., good body mechanics involving the hip hinge and neutral spine), athletes interested in high-power football, basketball, track and field, baseball and softball, and soccer can do whole-body squats (back, front, overhead) and weight-lifting exercises (snatch and clean and jerk and Olympic lifting transfer exercises). Power athletes should build core strength and avoid doing too many bodybuilding exercises. Likewise, bodybuilders should concentrate on building muscle size and definition. International Sports Sciences Association 160 | Unit 5.1 Summary Athletes should develop good whole-body movement skills from the beginning. A chief foundational principle is that athletes should train movements, not muscles. Powerful movements usually begin in the lower body using hip and thigh muscles. Athletes should maintain a stiff, neutral spine during most movements so that the muscles in the torso (core muscles) act as a spring for transferring force from the lower body to the upper body. They should learn to hinge at the hips rather than in the spine when performing squats, lifting from the floor, and performing rotational exercises. Athletes must develop basic lower-body movement skills Strength and Conditioning before being allowed to perform squats, stepups, cleans, snatches, and deadlifts. Simple functional tests measure the ability to do more complex training exercises. These tests include the chair squat, step-ups, unloaded squat, and one-leg squat. Kettlebell swings and snatches teach athletes how to perform the hip hinge and lower-body brace involving simultaneous contraction of the quadriceps, posterior chain muscles, and abdominal muscles. Athletes can progress to whole-body squats (back, front, and overhead), clean and jerk, snatch, deadlifts, and Olympic lifting transfer exercises. UNIT 5.2 Core Fitness 162 | Unit 5.2 Unit Outline 1. Core muscles as stabilizers 2. Train Movements— Not Muscles 5. Other Core Fitness Exercises 6. Summary 3. Beyond Sit-ups 4. The “Basic Four” Core Training Program a. The McGill Curl-up b. Side Bridges c. Bird Dogs d. Kettlebell Swings Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand that the core muscles provide stabilization vital to all motions and postures and help transfer force between the lower and upper body. • Understand that high load exercises during spinal flexion and extension can increase the risk back injury. • Understand the importance of training movements rather than muscles for maximizing health and performance The core muscles in the torso provide a stable midsection vital to all motions and postures. The core muscles stabilize the spine and help transfer force between the lower and upper body. They stabilize the midsection when you sit, stand, reach, walk, jump, twist, squat, throw, or bend. The muscles on the front, back, and sides of the trunk support the spine when you Strength and Conditioning • Teach and perform the four basic core exercises: McGill curl-up, side bridge, birddog, and kettlebell swing. • Teach and perform other static core exercises such as hip raise, hip thrusters, stir the pot exercise, cable chops, ab wheel rollouts, staggered hand push-ups, TRX pikes, inverted row, farmer’s bar carries, overhead slam-ball winds, Pallof press, and overhead hammer winds with a plate. sit in a chair and fix the midsection as you use your legs to stand up. When hitting a forehand in tennis or slugging a baseball, most of the force is transferred from the legs, across the core muscles, and to the arms and hands. Strong core muscles make movements more forceful and preserve a healthy spine to help prevent back pain. Core Fitness | 163 Core Muscles as Stabilizers The traditional road to building strong tight-looking abdominal muscles was simple: lose fat and do thousands of sit-ups and leg raises. This was a practical approach that seemed to work, at least if you believe the people who achieved abdominal muscle sculpting. For decades beginning in the early 1900s (and earlier in Germany and Sweden), it served as the foundation for abdominal development in power athletes, bodybuilders, and the average person. However, consider these exercises a silent killer that can destroy the back! They place tremendous loads up and down the spine that can injure and rupture spinal disks and give you a lifetime of agonizing back pain. What’s more, they isolate only a few “look-good” muscles and do a poor job of developing functional fitness in core muscles that link the upper and lower body. As alternatives, spine-saving exercises build the core muscles without precipitating back pain. Such exercises tone muscles without damaging the fragile spinal disks and will give you a lean, toned midsection and functionally strong core muscles that work together flawlessly and maintain a pain-free spine that should last a lifetime. The torso region needs stability and stiffness to transmit forces between the upper and lower body. During any dynamic movement such as smashing a tennis ball or lifting a bag full of groceries, the core produces force in some muscles, reduces force in others, and importantly stabilizes the midsection. When specific core muscles are weak, tired, or both, the nervous system steps in and uses alternative accessory muscles to produce movement. This causes abnormal stresses on joints, loads sensitive spinal disks, decreases power, and increases injury risk. The core maintains body control by keeping the body mass over its base of support during dynamic movements. Core support works much like a camping tent. The spine is like the pole holding up the tent, and the muscles are like the ropes that stabilize the pole. The tent is most stable when all the ropes are tight and adjusted at the same tension. The tent will collapse in a stiff wind if the ropes are loose or if one rope is tighter than the others are. The core muscles lie in layers—some are deep, and some are superficial—which increases central body stabilization. The layer effect works much like the multiple layers of plywood do to increase strength and stability. The entire core is strongest and provides the most support when all of its elements are fit and toned. Core muscle endurance is more important than strength is to stabilize the spine and thorax. Muscles with good endurance can hold the spine in place and serve as a stable platform for large body movements. You lose stability as individual muscles fatigue, which places abnormally high stresses on other muscles. The core muscles support the spine and promote movement best when they are equally fit and developed. Other muscles must take over if even one of the core muscles fatigues prematurely and is not performing its assigned job. For example, weakness in the transverse abdominis—a deep abdominal muscle—decreases pressure inside the abdomen when you move; this creates an unstable spine and stresses muscles and joints in International Sports Sciences Association 164 | Unit 5.2 Core muscles: Torso muscles. Stabilizers: Muscles that contract statically or isometrically so that other muscles can initiate movement. Proprioception: The body’s perceptions about movements and positions of the muscles and bones. Newton: Measure of force. the upper and lower body (including the knee or shoulder). However, the transverse abdominis is difficult to isolate and should be developed concurrently with other core muscles. Train Movements—Not Muscles An essential principle of core training is to train movements—not muscles. This course emphasizes that core training teaches the muscles to work together in a coordinated and precise fashion. Muscles do not work in isolation. Rather, they help each other: while some shorten to cause movement, others contract and stiffen to provide stability, lengthen to brake a movement, or send signals to the brain about the movements and positions of the muscles and bones (proprioception). Core muscles work together to support the midsection and to provide a platform of support for jumping, throwing, and changing directions rapidly. The ideal exercise program helps the muscles in the pelvis, lower back, hips, and abdomen work in harmony to provide graceful, pain-free movement. The core helps control the body’s center of gravity—the point where the weight is perfectly balanced in all directions. Strong, fit core muscles help you balance and move effortlessly and fluidly. Build core balancing capacity using static postures (e.g., planks, side-bridges) and dynamic exercise (e.g., unsupported weight training exercises such as kettlebell swings, squats, and snatches). Dynamic core training prepares your body for unexpected movements and changes in direction that often are implicated in knee and ankle injuries. It also fine-tunes “neuromuscular control” that allows for turning muscles on and off quickly as needed when playing soccer or running for a bus or in golf hitting a lob shot over a bunker softly onto the green. Beyond Sit-Ups Until recently, most personal trainers and coaches thought that sit-ups were the key to a fit, flat midsection. Sure, you had to lose fat around the middle to reveal the muscles below, but sit-ups were the key. They have been the mainstay of abdominal exercise for more than 100 years. Strength and Conditioning Core Fitness | 165 That’s changed—not only are sit-ups not the best ab exercise, they are dangerous. Do enough of them, and you will probably be a candidate for back surgery. The best strategy for building a firm, toned midsection is to develop all the muscles of the core—the abs, back, side stabilizers, and hips. Build these muscles as a functioning unit so they learn to work together harmoniously, and you will have a strong core to promote powerful movements on the playing field (Lee and McGill, 2015). This concept is not without critics. For example, Contreras and Schoenfeld (2011) argued that a variety of abdominal exercises are necessary for optimal core development, and the choice of exercises should be dictated by individual goals and capacities. Serious bodybuilders try to isolate muscles to make them grow or hypertrophy. Isolation is an efficient way to build individual muscles but can lead to muscle imbalances. Worse, imbalances put abnormal stresses on the spine that can cause injuries throughout the body. All the muscles create a link among joints that scientists call the kinetic chain. What this means is that every joint movement depends on other joints in the body to stabilize or assist in a particular movement or series of movements. The key to these linked movements is the midsection—the abdominal muscles, deep side stabilizing muscles, and spinal extensor muscles. Build these core muscles, and you will have a strong midsection that contributes to whole-body power. Dr. Stuart McGill, researcher from the University of Waterloo in Canada, is the world’s expert on spinal biomechanics and back pain development. His extensive research on the spine has provided invaluable information about how to develop the muscles of the abdomen, back, hips, and legs and how to prevent back pain. Dr. McGill said that when choosing core exercises— particularly abdominal exercises—consider the load on the spine (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=033ogPH6NNE). Although sit-ups may prove excellent for developing the abdominal muscles, they do increase the risk of back injury. McGill’s research convincingly showed that stressing the back repeatedly lowers its injury tolerance. The upper limit of back compression to prevent back injury is 3,300 Newtons (N). A Newton is a measure of force. One bentknee sit-up creates 3,350 N, whereas straight leg sit-ups create a whopping 3,506 N—greater than the maximum level set by researchers for predicting work-related back injuries. Curlups—one of the major exercises in a basic core-training program—created only 1,991N of spinal compression; side-bridges (an excellent exercise for strengthening the obliques and quadratus lumborum—muscles on the sides of your abs) created 2,585 N. Part of our preoccupation with sit-ups comes from a misunderstanding of the role of abdominal muscles in movement. The torso region requires stability and stiffness to transmit force between the upper and lower body. The main function of the rectus abdominis—the long, wide muscle in the front of the abdomen—is not just to shorten and flex the trunk. Rather, it is a crucial stabilizer and force transmitter. This is suggested by the structure of the muscle: tendons break the muscle into four portions, which give the well-developed rectus a six-pack appearance. The muscle is designed to distribute stresses around the spine, which increases the International Sports Sciences Association 166 | Unit 5.2 efficiency of the obliques—the muscles on both sides of the abdomen. The rectus abdominis and underlying transverse abdominis are more important as spinal stabilizers than as major muscles in trunk movement. The “Basic Four” Core Training Exercises The “Basic Four” exercise program builds core fitness without injuring the spine. Athletes should always practice perfect form when doing these exercises. Athletes can do other core exercises but should start with the “Basic Four” and do them a minimum of three days a week. The four exercises are: McGill Curl-up (Figure 5.2-1; https:// www.youtube.com/watch?time_ continue=75&v=kukmaW9CmSU): two sets of 20 repetitions; one-minute rest between sets. The technique: Lie on your back on the floor with Figure 5.2-1 McGill Curl-up Strength and Conditioning one hip flexed (bent) with foot placed flat on the floor and the other leg straight. Place your hands under the small of your back for support and to maintain the normal low back curve. Slowly raise the chest, shoulders, and head as a unit while maintaining a neutral spine. Try to isolate the rectus abdominis. Do not grasp your hands around your head when doing crunches because you might injure your neck. Side-bridges (Figure 5.2-2): two sets of 10 repetitions (each side), holding each rep for five seconds; one-minute rest between sets. The technique: Lie on your side and support your body between your forearm and knees (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=pfIe7Ekc2ho). As you increase fitness, first move your nonsupport arm across your body as you hold the side-bridge (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=BxuShmEkg9g); later, support your weight between your forearm and feet. Do this exercise on your left and right side and try to hold your spine straight—avoid letting Core Fitness | 167 left arm. Extend your leg to the rear and reach to the front with your arm. Do not arch your back during this exercise. Hold this position for five seconds and repeat with the opposite arm and leg. Do multiple repetitions (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=FUwm3-QkTSU). Figure 5.2-2 Side-bridges it sag during the exercise. The rolling plank is an advanced form of this exercise. It involves rotating from a left side-bridge to a front plank and then to a right-side bridge (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=FiQjPLTVjb4). For the front bridge (plank), in a prone position, support your weight between your forearms and toes. Keep your back straight and head in a neutral position. Holding each position for 10 seconds and do multiple repetitions. Kettlebell swings (Figure 5.2-4): two sets of 20 repetitions; two-minute rests between sets (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=yHxcTn1UeAc). The “Basic Four” Core Training Program provides a simple and comprehensive workout that develops core fitness quickly and safely. Curl-ups isolate the rectus abdominis muscle without spine overload. Side bridges improve the fitness of the obliques and quadratus lumborum muscles on both sides of the torso. Bird dogs emphasize the back support muscles while maintaining a neutral spine. The kettlebell swing is an Bird dogs (Figure 5.2-3): Two sets of 10 repetitions (each side), holding each rep for five seconds. The technique: Balance on your right hand and left knee. Lift your right leg and Figure 5.2-3 Bird dogs Figure 5.2-4 Kettlebell swings International Sports Sciences Association 168 | Unit 5.2 excellent whole-body exercise that works the important core muscles and muscles in the upper and lower body. Many activities build core strength, including kettlebell, yoga, Pilates, Tai Chi, plyometrics, Swiss and bosu ball training, medicine ball exercise, functional training machines (e.g., Life Fitness, Cybex), and standing dumbbell and barbell exercise. Some of these activities place too much stress on the spine, making them unacceptable in a fitness improvement regimen. For example, straight leg and bent knee sit-ups work the abdominal muscles better than almost any other exercise does, but they over stress the spine and for this important reason are unsafe for most people. The best core exercises maintain a neutral spine with most movements originating at the hip rather than the back. forming a straight line with your thighs and spine. Support your weight on your upper back, with feet flat on the floor. Extend the hips while maintaining a neutral spine, and then return under control to the starting position (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDP6O_aJpDg). Hip thrusters (Figure 5.2-6): Use a hip thruster bench or portable bench and barbell, chains, elastic bands, or sand bags for resistance. Place a loaded barbell directly above your hips and lean back against the bench. Extending your hips vertically, drive the bar upward. Support your weight between your upper back and your feet. Return to the starting position (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=A8nFGuY77CE). Other Core Fitness Exercises Many exercises stiffen the core muscles while building prime movers such as the glutes. Athletes can incorporate these examples of 11 core exercises into their training regimen: Hip raise (Figure 5.2-5): Lying on your back with knees bent, extend the hips vertically, Figure 5.2-5 Hip raise Strength and Conditioning Figure 5.2-6 Hip thrusters Core Fitness | 169 Stir the pot exercise (Figure 5.2-7): Place your forearms on a Swiss ball and extend your legs to the rear and (plank position). While maintaining stiff core muscles, move the ball in small circles with your forearms (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=3EuMtm2MzRA). Low to high cable chops or high to low cable chops (Figure 5.2-9): Stand to the side of a cable machine and adjust the pulley to the lowest or highest position. Grasp the handle with both hands and pull the handle diagonally from low to high or vice versa, using the core muscles. Stabilize the pelvis throughout the exercise (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=I1gVhQ0kOEY). Figure 5.2-7 Stir the pot Ab wheel rollouts (Figure 5.2-8): Kneel on the ground grasping an ab roller with both hands. Slowly roll the ab roller forward, stretching your body until you reach a modified push-up position. Roll the device back to the starting position. Do this exercise under control and avoid extraneous movements (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=1uS-Hh2iH4U). Figure 5.2-9 Low to high cable chop Staggered hand push-ups (Figure 5.2-10): Do push-ups with one hand about one foot behind the other (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=0CZLos-i1PM). Figure 5.2-8 Ab wheel rollouts Figure 5.2-10 Staggered hand push-ups International Sports Sciences Association 170 | Unit 5.2 Pike on TRX (Figure 5.2-11): Place your feet in the handles of the TRX unit and assume a push-up position. Keeping your core stiff, flex your hips into a pike position. Return to the starting position under control (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=n695qkA0yug). Inverted row (Figure 5.2-13): Assume a rear pike position, grasping a low bar or TRX device. Pull upward, keeping your body straight and core muscles stiff (https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=vfTTDsBwLkk). Figure 5.2-11 Pike on TRX Farmer’s bar suitcase carries (Figure 5.212): Pick up a farmers bar or kettlebell with one hand, arm extended, and walk with it. Switch arms. You can also do this exercise carrying weights or farmers bars in each hand (https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=NxJd1_OtMo). Figure 5.2-12 Suitcase carries Strength and Conditioning Figure 5.2-13 Inverted row Overhead slam-ball winds (Power rope balls; Figure 5.2-14): Rotate a slam-ball or hammer overhead, maintaining a stiff core and using the hips to generate momentum (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=i0GR7TEBBew). Figure 5.2-14 Overhead slam-ball winds Core Fitness | 171 Overhead hammer winds with plate (Figure 5.2-15): From a standing position, hold a weight plate in front of your chest and then rotate it around your head while maintaining stable hips (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=4gIp96EIJl0). Figure 5.2-15 Overhead hammer winds with plate Summary The core represents your center of power. Athletes will experience results quickly with the basic core workout presented in this section of the course. Many people can significantly reduce or eliminate back pain and move more fluidly after doing the basic core exercises (curl-ups, side-bridges, bird dogs, kettlebell swings) following only several workout sessions. Building core stiffness and engaging the core muscles as a spring will help transfer force between the lower and upper body, prevent injury, and enhance balance and overall body stability. International Sports Sciences Association SECTION SIX Tools of the Specialist in Strength and Conditioning UNIT 6.1 Resistance Exercise Methods 174 | Unit 6.1 Unit Outline 1. Resistance Training Methods 4. Muscle Power a. 5. Muscle Endurance Isometrics b. Free-weights c. Weight machines 6. Basic Cycling Techniques a. d. Calisthenics 2. Choosing the Exercises a. Days per Week b. Order of Exercise 7. Load ii. Repetitions c. 3. Muscle Hypertrophy Spotting d. Collars iv. Rest between sets Sessions per week Breathing b. Decorum in the Weight Room iii. Sets v. Safety and Preventing Injury a. b. Workout structure i. Daily undulating periodization e. Clothing f. Weight-Lifting Supplies 8. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand basic techniques for building muscle size, strength, power, and endurance. • Understand the basic principles of periodization of training. • Understand the basics of the various resistance training methods including isometrics, free weights, and calisthenics. • You will understand the benefits and limitations of weight machines. • Understand and demonstrate basic lifting techniques to minimize back injuries. • You will understand the wide variety of exercises available to the strength and conditioning specialist and how to apply them. • Understand the importance of warm-up. • Understand the role of breathing during weight lifting exercises. • Understand and demonstrate basic spotting techniques. • Show a basic understanding of weightlifting supplies such as belts, wraps, and straps. • Know how to structure a training program including sessions per week, repetitions, sets, load, and rest. • Know how to predict 1-RM lifts from multiple repetitions using the Brycki and Baechle equations. Strength and Conditioning Resistance Exercise Methods | 175 Resistance Exercise Methods Four ways to do resistance exercise include isometrics (muscle contractions without movement), free weights (dumbbells, barbells, and kettlebells), weight machines, and calisthenics (exercises that use body weight as the resistance). Athletes can perform isometrics and calisthenics almost anywhere. They are an efficient way to develop strength in your clients with minimal investment in equipment. Isometrics Isometric: Application of force without movement. Also called “static.” Free weight: A weight used in weight training that is not attached to an apparatus. Calisthenics: Exercises that use body weight and gravity for resistance. Isometrics were extremely popular shortly after World War II. Unfortunately, you increase strength only in the joint positions you work during the movement (within about 15 degrees). Isometric movements, such as side-bridges and planks, are excellent for building core muscles that are vital for providing a strong base of support. Core muscles also contract isometrically during whole-body squats and cleans to support the spine. Several effective isometric exercises for abdominal and neck muscles can be easily added to your program. Examples of effective isometric exercises are described in Section 5.2 of the course. Free Weights Most serious strength trainers prefer free weights because they are inexpensive, are readily available, and are easily adaptable to almost any movement or muscle action. Whole-body dynamic clean and snatch exercises are impossible using weight machines. These advanced exercises, described in Section 6.5 of the course, are popular with serious power athletes. Free weights consist of barbells, dumbbells, kettlebells, and miscellaneous equipment such as stones and sandbags. Standard barbells come in a variety of sizes, with the bar’s weighing 15–30 lb Weight plates for these barbells usually range in weight from 1.25–25 lb Dumbbells are adjustable or fixed weight. Fixed dumbbells, usually found in gyms and health clubs, range in weight from 1 lb. to 150 lb or more. Kettlebell exercises are discussed in Section 5.1. International Sports Sciences Association 176 | Unit 6.1 Most serious weight trainers use Olympic barbells. These are typically 7 feet long and weight 20 kg or 45 lb. The bars are better balanced than standard barbells are and are designed to hold more weight. Typical weight-plate configurations range from 2–25 kg. However, smaller weight increments also are available for weightlifting contests. Athletes who do dynamic clean and jerk and snatch exercises use rubber covered bumper plates that do not damage the floor when dropped. Olympic bars are available in weights as low as 15 pounds, which is a good starting weight for most preadolescent children and for women. Weight Machines Weight machines are the most popular resistive exercise devices for recreational exercise enthusiasts. They are preferable for beginning athletes because they present a lower risk of injury. Machines are safer, easier to set up, provide better support, and require less skill, and some are more comfortable than free weights. They also have “high-tech” appeal and do not clutter the floor with weight plates. Weight machines are expensive and usually only available in health and fitness clubs. Be careful about weight machines designed for the home. Inexpensive versions sold in some “sports-oriented” specialty stores are typically poorly constructed and can be potentially dangerous. Weight machines come in a variety of designs that can be overwhelming to even an Strength and Conditioning experienced weight trainer. Some incorporate variable resistance so that the resistance increases progressively throughout the exercise range of motion. Machines provide resistance using weight stacks, weight plates, air, bands, and hydraulic fluid. Some machines provide resistance during the active phase of the lift (concentric), whereas others also provide resistance during the active and recovery (eccentric) phases of the exercise. Athletes can increase strength on nearly any weight machine if they exercise on it regularly and consistently. Calisthenics Calisthenics are exercises that use body weight as resistance. Athletes should learn to handle their own body weight. Pull-ups, step-ups, and push-ups that use the athlete’s body weight as resistance are excellent for beginners and experienced athletes. They also are excellent for people who want to develop muscle strength but are unwilling to join a fitness club or devote too much time to developing that strength. Athletes who are serious about increasing strength should join a gym or fitness club. These facilities typically offer equipment beyond the scope of a home gym. Gyms let young athletes mingle with advanced older athletes. This is important because observing skilled and more physically fit athletes can be a source of motivation and provide insights about different techniques of movement. Resistance Exercise Methods | 177 Choosing the Exercises Choose exercises that develop the major muscle groups, including the shoulders, chest, upper back, arms, abdomen, low back, thighs and gluteals, and calves. This section of the course suggests 10 popular and well-known exercises. There are many other resistive exercises, many just as effective as the ones listed in this section. I cover this topic thoroughly in my book Basic Weight Training for Men and Women, 8e (ISBN13: 978-0078022623). Athletes interested in high power sports (e.g., football, basketball, most track and field events, baseball and softball, soccer) should center their programs around whole-body exercises squats, lunges, step-ups, push-presses, cleans, snatches, kettlebell swings and snatches, bench presses, and deadlifts. Power athletes should build core strength and avoid doing too many bodybuilding exercises. Likewise, bodybuilders should concentrate on building muscle size and definition, emphasizing exercises for antagonistic muscle groups in the program. Muscles work much like a seesaw—an antagonistic muscle group opposes every movement initiated by a muscle group. For example, the quadriceps muscles cause the knee to extend (straighten), whereas its antagonistic muscles, the hamstrings, cause the knee to flex (bend). If you develop the quadriceps muscles without working on the hamstrings, you create a muscular imbalance that can lead to injury and poor movement patterns. Strength should be developed through sport-specific movement patterns appropriate for the sport. Program design begins with individual assessment, goals, training, and medical history. The program should identify weaknesses and past injuries to assess weaknesses and exercises to remedy them. Days per Week Increase strength by making the muscles work against increased resistance. This stress is called overload. It is best to overload specific muscle groups two to three days a week. Beginners typically choose 6 to 10 exercises and do them three times a week. More advanced power athletes typically do only a few high-intensity exercises. Bodybuilders train four or more days a week (called a split routine), alternating between exercises for upper and lower body. Split routines can include exercises for the chest, arms, shoulders, back, and abdominal muscles two days a week (for example, Monday and Thursday) and exercises for the gluteal, thigh, and calf muscles the other two days (e.g., Tuesday and Friday). Split routines are excessive for most beginning athletes. Athletes must balance hard work in the gym with adequate rest. Muscles increase strength and size following the workout. You cannot make significant gains if you do not allow them to rest adequately between workouts. Sometimes rest is just as important as hard work is to improve fitness. A sound nutrition program is also vital for optimal recovery. Furthermore, overtraining in the weight room interferes with skill development. Improving sports skills is the most effective way to increase power on the playing field. International Sports Sciences Association 178 | Unit 6.1 Circuit training: Performing a number of exercises rapidly in series. Cross training: Performing different types of exercises on different days. Repetition: Number of times performing an exercise during one set. Set: Group of repetitions followed by rest. Circuit training (performing exercises rapidly in series) and cross-training (performing different types of mixed exercises on different days). These training methods are extremely effective for developing general fitness, muscular endurance, and strength. However, they are less appropriate for building specific fitness in athletes performing precise motor skills in track and field, baseball, basketball, and volleyball. Workout Structure Weight-training programs are subdivided into repetitions, sets, load, rest, and sessions per week (Med Sci Sports Exerc. 41(3): 687– 708, 2009). Completing the exercise movement one time is called a repetition, whereas a group of repetitions is called a set. Load is the weight or resistance and is typically expressed as a percentage of one-repetition maximum (1-RM). One repetition maximum is the maximum weight that can be lifted for one repetition. Rest is the time between sets. Load: Load is usually expressed as a percentage of one-repetition maximum or as the maximum weight that can be lifted for a given number of repetitions. For example, 5-RM would be the maximum load for five repetitions. Brzycki (1993) and Baechle (2000) have developed equations that can predict 1-RM from maximum weight lifted during multiple repetitions (online calculator: http://www. brianmac.co.uk/maxload.htm). Brycki equation: 1-RM = Weight ÷ (1.0278- (0.0278 x number of repetitions)) Baechle equation: 1-RM = Weight x (0.033 x number of repetitions) Repetitions: In theory, you could do almost any number of repetitions (one to thousands). However, in practice, most people perform 1 to 20 repetitions of each exercise—depending on the training goal. Power athletes might do 5 to 10 repetitions per set when building base strength or general conditioning but do only 1 to 3 repetitions per set when trying to build peak strength or power or in the weeks prior to major competitions. Training velocity or each repetition is a consideration in promoting athletic performance. Fast contraction velocity Strength and Conditioning Resistance Exercise Methods | 179 improves athletic performance better than slow velocity training does—fast-velocity training likely recruits more motor units. Older athletes should generally perform more repetitions per set (12–15 reps) than should younger ones. Sets: Typical weight-training programs include 3 sets, but they may vary from 1 to 10 or more sets per exercise. Program sets also depend on goals and objectives of the program. Sets should be arranged so that large muscle exercises precede small muscle exercises. Rest between sets: Weight training has significant effects on metabolism, heart, lungs and blood vessels, hormones, and nerves. Short rest intervals might improve endurance but compromise strength and muscle mass because of inadequate recovery. Although many experts recommend one-minute recovery between sets, adequate recovery between sets might take three to five minutes or more. Some bodybuilding routines using supersets (see below) use no rest between exercise pairs and short rest periods after each pair. Sessions per week: Training frequency varies considerably— depending on goals and training philosophy. Power athletes often train once per week during championship season, but some weightlifters train three or four times a day, seven days per week (Bulgarian training method). Intermediate level weight trainers doing wholebody workouts should train three days per week, but those employing split routines (emphasizing different body parts in successive workouts) should train four days per week. Advanced power athletes should train four to six days per week during the building phase and fewer days per week during the active season. The exact training schedule depends on the sport, level, time of year, and athlete’s experience. Training for Strength Building strength should include concentric, eccentric, and isometric loading. Novice and intermediate lifters should train with 60%–70% of 1RM for 8 to 12 repetitions. An advanced lifter might do far fewer repetitions—sometimes doing single reps at 100% (1-RM). Novices can benefit from training on machines, but advanced athletes should emphasize free weights. Rest two to three minutes between sets unless doing multiple sets close to 1-RM. Then, rest as long as five minutes between sets. Novice lifters should train two to three days per week, whereas advanced lifters should train three to six days per week. Muscle Hypertrophy Most athletes like building muscle mass, but muscle growth is central to the sport of bodybuilding. Beginning bodybuilders should train two to four days per week, doing one to three sets of 7 to 10 exercises, resting two to three minutes between sets. Beginners should also use a moderate rep speed. Advanced athletes trying to increase muscle size should train four to six days per week. Athletes should vary training velocity and include concentric, eccentric (negatives), and isometric exercises. Recent studies found that high-protein diets (2.3 grams per kilogram body weight) combined with high-intensity exercise increases lean body mass—even during significant caloric restriction (Longland et al., 2016). There is also some evidence that training to repetition failure maximizes muscle hypertrophy. International Sports Sciences Association 180 | Unit 6.1 Muscle Power Athletes should use multi-joint exercises and center their programs on presses, pulls, and squats. Intermediate lifters should train with heavy weights to gain strength (50%–100% of 1-RM) but emphasize moderate intensity programs using three to six reps for two to six sets, resting two to three minutes between sets. Athletes training for power should lift weights two to four days per week. Power athletes should include plyometric exercises two to three days per week. Athletes in high-power sports should spend much their training efforts at skill development. Power athletes generally use two to five exercises per workout—plus plyometrics. Muscle Endurance Pyramiding: Training technique that uses increasing amounts of weight with succeeding sets. After achieving a maximum weight, the remaining sets are done with decreasing amounts of weight. Constant set method: Same weight used and number of sets and repetitions done for each exercise. Failure method: Performing an exercise to the point of fatigue. Super sets: Two sets of exercises performed in rapid succession, usually working opposing muscle groups. Giant sets: Use of multiple exercises in succession for the same muscle group. Drop sets: Technique in which you perform an exercise and then reduce the weight and continue for more reps until failure. Paused reps: Resting within a set. Strength and Conditioning Muscle endurance training involves 10 to 50 reps of one to six sets of three to eight exercises. This type of training has become more popular with the increased popularity of cross training and boot camp-type training. Athletes should maintain proper form when performing high-rep muscle endurance workouts, particularly during whole-body exercises such as snatches and squats. Several training systems use a technique called pyramiding, which contains a built-in warm-up. In pyramiding, you practice an exercise for three or more sets, increasing the weight during each set. In 1945, army physician Thomas L. DeLorme introduced this technique while devising rehabilitation exercises for injured servicemen and recommended patients perform three sets of 10 repetitions of each exercise. He believed the resistance should progressively increase from 50%– 75% to 100% of maximum capacity. Zatsiorsky & Kraemer contend that maximal weight should be lifted as early as possible in a training session (immediately following a warm up). There are many other systems for regulating loads, including the constant set method, the failure method, circuit training, cross training, super sets, giant sets, drop sets, and paused reps (see Table 6.1–1 for examples of selected programs). These methods apply most to bodybuilding and are less applicable to people interested in high-power sports. Some of these techniques reduce the weight during later sets after you have reached the maximum weight. Any technique you choose should allow for a warm up before significantly loading your muscles. Resistance Exercise Methods | 181 Table 6.1-1: Selected Weight-Set-Repetition Methods Circuit Training Six to twenty exercise stations set up in a circuit (i.e., in series). The person progresses from one station to the next, either performing a given number of repetitions or as many repetitions as possible during a given period (e.g., 20 seconds) at each station, with minimal rest between exercises. Cross Training High intensity, whole-body training using bodyweight exercises, gymnastics, deadlifts, cleans, squats, presses, jerks, kettlebell exercises, snatches, plyometrics, sled pulls, and weight carrying. Also includes aerobic running, cycling, and rowing, but the emphasis is on speed and intensity. Cross-training programs attempt to develop well-rounded fitness by including exercises that build cardiovascular and respiratory endurance, stamina, strength, flexibility, power, speed, coordination, agility, balance, and accuracy. Constant Set Method Uses the same weight and number of sets and repetitions for each exercise. Example: Bench press five sets of five repetitions at 80 lb Rest one to five minutes between sets; take longer rest periods to build maximum strength and shorter rest periods to develop muscle endurance and general fitness. Pyramid Method Uses multiple progressive sets, either ascending or ascending–descending, for each exercise. Variations: Increase weight while decreasing repetitions, or decrease weight while increasing repetitions. Rest one to five minutes between sets. Ascending Pyramid Set 1; 5 repetitions 75 lb Set 2; 5 repetitions 100 lb Set 3; 5 repetitions 120 lb Ascending– Descending Pyramid Set 1; 5 repetitions 75 lb Set 2; 5 repetitions 100 lb Set 3; 5 repetitions 120 lb Set 4; 5 repetitions 100 lb Set 5; 5 repetitions 75 lb DeLorme Method Three sets of 10 repetitions at 50%, 75%, and 100% of maximum. Rest one to two minutes between sets Example: Client who can do 10 repetitions at 100 lb Set 1; 10 repetitions 50 lb (50%) Set 2; 10 repetitions 75 lb (75%) Set 3; 10 repetitions 100 lb (100%) Supersets Usually uses two exercises, typically with opposing muscle groups, in rapid succession. No rest within each super set. Set 1; 10 repetitions 30-lb.knee extensions Set 1; 10 repetitions 15-lb.knee flexion Rest one minute Repeat Rest one minute Repeat Giant Sets Uses multiple exercises in succession for the same muscle group. No rest within each giant set. Set 1; 10 repetitions 75-lb.bench press Set 1; 10 repetitions 5-lb.dumbbell fly Rest one minute Repeat Rest Repeat Drop Sets Terrific technique for pushing muscles to their absolute maximum. Use this technique during the last set of an exercise. Do as many reps as you can. Then immediately reduce the weight by 10%– 15% and try to squeeze out a few more reps without rest. Continue to use even less weight and do as many reps as you can. Keep going until you cannot perform any more repetitions. This technique is extremely difficult but a great strategy to overload muscles. Paused Reps Designed to achieve more reps in a workout by pausing regularly in the middle of sets. Pause in the unloaded part of the motion—the lockout (fully extended) position when doing the bench, incline, or dip, and with the machine unloaded during the overhead press exercise. Pausing for 5–15 seconds in the middle of a set allows your muscles to recover quickly, enabling you to complete more repetitions and work harder. International Sports Sciences Association 182 | Unit 6.1 Basic Cycling Techniques Periodization of training: Training technique that varies the volume and intensity of exercises between workouts. Also called “cycle training.” Many elite athletes use cycle training, or periodization of training, a powerful technique that allows the body to adapt rapidly without overtraining and prepares it to accept and benefit from intense workouts. In cycle training, the type, volume, and intensity of training are varied throughout the year. In athletics, the year is divided into off-season, preseason, early season, and peak season. The weight-training program differs during each part of the year. Modern terminology for the phases of periodization includes microcycles lasting 1 to 2 weeks, mesocycles lasting 4 to 12 weeks, and the macrocycle or annual plan for achieving athletic success. During the off-season, athletes should undertake general conditioning exercises (conditioning mesocycle). The program maintains fitness and provides mental and physical rest from the rigors of training. A tennis or field hockey player might run, play volleyball, swim, and do some circuit training or cross training. Light training in the sport maintains skill. During the preseason and early season (sometimes called the “load phase” or load mesocycle), if the goal is to develop maximum power for a high-power sport such as track and field, the program develops base fitness—strength that serves as the basis for maximum lifts later in the season. The weight-training program involves high volume (five sets of five to eight repetitions for the major exercises performed at Daily undulated periodization: Uses different loads, reps, and sets in a resistance-training program on different days of the week. Strength and Conditioning Table 6.1-2: Periodization of Training Cycle Designs Mesocycles are training phases during yearly training program designed for build base strength (load cycle), competitive strength and power (peak cycle), off season conditioning (conditioning cycle), and recovery (recovery cycle) Load Cycle Moderate volume, moderate intensity example 6 sets of 6 reps Peak Cycle Low volume, high intensity example 4 sets of 2 reps Recovery Cycle Active rest Conditioning Cycle Physical fitness, general weight training sets of 10 reps Resistance Exercise Methods | 183 moderately high intensities). This phase typically is very exhausting. The peak phase (competitive phase or peak mesocycle) helps the athlete achieve peak performance. The weight-training program involves high-intensity workouts with much less volume than in the preseason and early season. The athlete should get plenty of rest between intense workouts (e.g., 48 to 72 hours), a technique that allows peak performance or “peaking.” If you time the workouts and rest intervals correctly, you can predict top performances. Each major mesocycle contains microcycles in which volume, intensity, and rest vary from workout to workout or from week to week. The purpose of microcycles is to allow muscle systems adequate recovery time. Several studies have shown that intensity is the chief factor in enhancing fitness. In traditional training programs, athletes train hard every session, but such practices may lead to overtraining. Microcycles prepare individuals for intense training days by giving them time to recover. Daily Undulating Periodization Daily undulating periodization is a new variation of this training technique. It recognizes the value of training with heavy weights for few reps for strength and lighter weights and higher reps for endurance and combines them on successive training days. Cycle training encourages steady adaptations while minimizing injury risk. You make small, consistent gains over a long time interval. The Table 6.1-3 Principles of training progressions in two-week microcycles within each four to eight week-long load macrocycles Squats 3 times in 2-weeks Bench press 2 times per week Pulls 2-3 times per week Intensity progression Hard, Easy, Moderate, Easy, Harder Goal Plan for Intense Workouts Plan and structure of programs will vary in individual athletes system improves fitness, and peak performance happens at a predetermined time in the season. One basis for this method is that people adapt better to changing stimuli than to a constant program—partly because learning progresses fastest when a new activity is introduced and partly because change is psychologically stimulating. Considerable muscle and connective tissue damage occurs during and after intense endurance or strength training. Although scientists do not completely understand the relationship between tissue healing rate and the structure of the training program, common sense tells us there is a relationship. Muscle fibers need to heal to some extent before you can safely stress them again. Cycle techniques are ideal for people participating in general conditioning programs. It is unnecessary to do the same exercises every session using the same weights. Vary your program. Do some exercises intensely during one workout and other exercises intensely during the next. An example of a periodized weight-training program of an Olympic discus thrower appears in Table 6.1-4. International Sports Sciences Association 184 | Unit 6.1 Table 6.1-4: 4 Weeks of an 8-Week Load Cycle for a World-Class Discus Thrower Week Monday Wednesday Friday Week 1 Power clean 2x4 100 kg Snatch high pull Power clean 3x8 90 kg 1x5 135 kg Squat Squat 1x5 142.5kg 2x8 170 kg 1x3 200 kg Hack squat Bench press 3x10 100 kg 3x8 145 kg Squats Dumbbell bench press 3x10 130 kg 4x8 45 kg Behind neck press 2x6 185 kg Good morning 3x10 90 kg Behind neck press 3x5 95 kg Week 2 2x4 95 kg Snatch high pull Squat Bench press 1x4 120 kg 2x10 100 kg 6x6 175 kg 1x4 135 kg Good morning Hack squat 1x4 150 kg 4x10 90 kg 3x10 100 kg Squat Squats 4x6 165 kg 3x10 148 kg Bench press Dumbbell bench press 1x4 150 kg 4x8 45 kg 1x4 155 kg 1x4 160 kg Week 3 Power clean Snatch high pull Snatch high pull 1x4 120 kg 3x8 90 kg 3x8 90 kg Squat Squat Squat 4x4 150 kg 2x8 190 kg 1x4 210 kg Bench press 2x6 200 kg 1x3 185 kg Behind neck press Dumbbell flys 3x3 100 kg 4x8 22.5 kg Week 4 Bench press 1x6 165 kg Dumbbell bench press 4x8 45 kg Power clean Snatch high pull Bench press 1x5 140 kg 1x4 125 kg 6x6 190 kg 1x5 150 kg 1x4 140 kg Squat 1x5 155 kg 1x4 160 kg 1x6 145 kg Good morning Squat Good morning 4x10 90 kg 3x10 155 kg 4x10 100 kg Bench press Behind neck press Dumbbell bench press 1x10 145 kg 3x5 85 kg 4x10 50 kg 1x4 155 kg Strength and Conditioning Resistance Exercise Methods | 185 Table 6.1-4 Peak Cycle Preparation for Competition In An Olympic Discus Thrower Week Monday Wednesday Friday Week 1 Power snatch Power snatch Competition 1x3 90 kg 1x1 130 kg Incline dumbbells 1x1 140 kg 4x6 45 kg 1x1 142.5 kg Bench press 1x1 145.5 kg 1x3 175 kg Squats 1x3 190 kg 1x2 200 kg 1x2 220 kg 1x2 240 kg 1x2 255 kg Week 2 Squats Power snatch 1x5 170 kg 1x1 90 kg Bench Press Dumbbell flies 1x3 185 kg 3x10 12.5 kg 1x2 197.5 kg Biceps curls 1x2 212.5 kg 3x10 57.5 kg National Championship 1x2 220 kg Week 3 Squats Bench press 1x2 200 kg 1x2 175 kg 1x2 225 kg 1x2 190 kg 1 x 2 250 kg 1x1 202.5 kg No competition 1x1 215 kg United State Olympic Trials Order of Exercises If the primary goal is to gain strength, do large muscle presses, pulls, and squats before doing exercises for smaller muscle groups such as wrist curls, flys, biceps curls, and calf raises. Small muscle exercise fatigues these muscles, causing them to limit performance when engaging larger muscle groups. Always do a pulling exercises (e.g., cleans, snatches, high pulls) first, squats second, auxiliary leg exercise third (lunges, step-ups), and core work last. Safety and Injury Prevention Even experienced professional athletes often forget the primary purpose of exercise training—to stimulate the body to improve its functional capacities. Athletes who exercises improperly or overtrain will not improve. Worse, they may become injured or ill. Athletes should do all of the exercise properly. International Sports Sciences Association 186 | Unit 6.1 Their spines are extremely vulnerable to poor lifting technique. Observe the following seven principles when lifting any weight: 1. Lift the weight with your legs rather than your back, emphasizing hinging at the hip and not at the spine. Stiffen the core muscles. The legs and buttock muscles are the strongest in the body. The muscles surrounding your spine are small and vulnerable. 2. Keep the weight close to the body when lifting. This promotes lifting the weight with the legs and hips rather than the back. 3. Keep your back straight and head level when picking up a weight from the ground. 4. Lift the weight smoothly from the ground. 5. Do not twist the torso when lifting a weight. Twisting puts abnormal pressure on spinal muscles and disks. 6. Athletes should not lift if they are tired and unable to use proper lifting techniques. They should always lift within their capacity. 7. When using weight machines, make sure they are adjusted properly to the athlete’s body. Athletes should sit properly to support their spines. Warm up before performing resistance exercise. Warming up increases the temperature of muscles, which makes them work more efficiently and helps prevent tissue injuries. It also helps spread synovial fluid throughout the joints and protects vulnerable joint surfaces. Warming up also helps reinforce motor patterns within the brain—allowing the body to perform exercises more efficiently. Athletes should do a few “total body” warm-ups such as easy treadmill running, jumping jacks, Strength and Conditioning or stationary cycling exercises before beginning their workouts. In addition, they should do some easy repetitions of each exercise before attempting more resistance. For example, athletes doing squats with 150–300 pounds should do 6–10 repetitions of the exercise with a lighter weight (i.e., 135 pounds or unloaded squats) before attempting heavy weights. Static stretching should not be part of the pre-exercise warm-up. Multiple studies have shown that static stretching decreases strength and power and may increase the injury risk. Stretching is important, but do the exercises following exercise when the muscles are “warm.” Breathing Proper breathing is important when performing weight-training exercise. Breath holding and straining (called a Valsalva maneuver) increases blood pressure and may cause fainting. In general, exhale during the active phase of the lift and inhale when returning to the exercise starting position. For example, in the bench press, inhale when lowering the weight to the chest and exhale when pushing the weight. However, it is virtually impossible to lift near maximal weights without using the Valsalva maneuver, which helps stabilize the thorax and provide a more stable platform for lifting heavy weights. Decorum in the Weight Room Although being sociable is an enjoyable aspect of lifting weights, do not let it interfere with progress or safety. Athletes—even high school and college students—love to play around in Resistance Exercise Methods | 187 the weight room. This can be dangerous. Teach them to be aware of their surroundings and to follow these three rules: 1. Do not walk close to moving weight stacks or people doing lifts. 2. Be particularly cautious around people doing dynamic lifts such as cleans, snatches, or kettlebell swings. 3. Do not disturb people doing heavy lifts. This may distract them and cause them either to miss the lift or to get injured. Spotting Use an experienced spotter whenever doing a lift that could potentially result in injury from a falling weight or missed lift. Spotters also can assist when doing the lift, thus increasing the overall exercise intensity. They can help a person complete a lift that he or she ordinarily might miss. Instruct young athletes in proper spotting techniques. Collars These devices hold the weights on the bar. Athletes should always use collars when they lift. Without collars, weights can easily slip off the bar and cause injury. Lightweight collar clips are effective for securing the weights to the bar. Valsalva maneuver: Expiration against a closed glottis by attempting to forcibly exhale while keeping the mouth and nose closed. Clothing Wear workout clothes that will not become caught in the machines or interfere with exercise performance. If you are doing squats, cleans, or snatches, wear shorts that will not tear during the motion. Shoes should be closed toed and provide good support when athlete is lifting dynamically. Sexually well-developed girls and young women should wear bras that provide good breast support. Weight-Lifting Supplies Weight-lifting belts help support the spine and maintain good posture during lifts. Athletes should not wear belts because belts prevent the development of trunk muscles during weight lifting. Nevertheless, belts will help the athlete lift more weight when performing low-rep, high-weight exercises. Serious weight trainers often wrap their knees Weight-lifting belt: A belt, approximately 4 inches wide, used to support the abdomen and back and to maintain proper spinal alignment during weightlifting exercises. International Sports Sciences Association 188 | Unit 6.1 and wrists for additional support. Weight training can create hand calluses, so many people use weight-lifting gloves to prevent calluses. Weight-lifting supplies, such as belts, wraps, and shoes, can be purchased at sporting goods stores or through a variety of fitness magazines. Summary Four ways to do resistance exercise include isometrics, free weights, weight machines, and calisthenics. Isometric side-bridges and planks are excellent for building core muscles vital for providing a strong base of support. Most serious strength trainers prefer free weights because they are inexpensive, readily available, and easily adaptable to nearly any movement or muscle action. Weight machines present a lower risk of injury and are safer and easier to set up, provide better support, require less skill, and are more comfortable than free weights. Calisthenics use body weight as resistance and are appropriate for athletes at any level. Athletes interested in Strength and Conditioning high-power sports should center their program on whole-body squats, lunges, step-ups, push-presses, cleans, snatches, kettlebell swings and snatches, bench presses, and deadlifts. Many elite athletes use cycle training, or periodization of training, a powerful technique that allows the body to adapt rapidly without overtraining and prepares it to accept and benefit from intense workouts. In cycle training, the type, volume, and intensity of training are varied throughout the year. Cycle training helps prevent injury and overtraining. Athletes who exercise improperly or overtrain will not improve. Worse, they may become injured or ill. UNIT 6.2 Basic Weight Training Exercises 190 | Unit 6.2 Unit Outline 1. Chest and Shoulder Exercises a. 3. Arm Exercises a. Bench press b. Triceps push-downs b. Seated press c. Upright rowing 4. Abdominal Exercises d. Deltoid raises a. Curl-ups i. Front raises b. Lower body exercises ii. Side raises c. iii. Back raises 2. Upper Back Exercises a. Biceps curls Lat pulls Hamstring curls d. Calf raises 5. Basic Weight Training Programs 6. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand that isometric core exercises are better for developing core strength and stiffness than flexion and extension exercises because such exercises strengthen muscles, improve muscular endurance, reduces low back pain, and boosts sports performance. Greater core stiffness transfers strength and speed to the limbs, increases the load bearing capacity of the spine, and protects the internal organs during sports movements. • Understand and demonstrate basic exercises for building the chest and shoulders. These exercises include the bench press, seated press, upright rowing, deltoid raises. • Understand and demonstrate basic exercises for building the upper back (latissiumus dorsi and trapezius). These include upright rowing, pull-ups, lat pulls, cleans, and snatches. • Understand and demonstrate basic exercises for building the arms including curls and triceps push-downs. • Understand and demonstrate basic exercises for building the lower body muscles including squats, step-ups, pulling exercises. • Understand and demonstrate basic exercises for building the abdominal, spine, and core muscles. • Understand the hundreds of weight training exercises for specific muscle groups. Strength and Conditioning Basic Weight Training Exercises | 191 There are hundreds of weight-training exercises. Learning countless exercises is counterproductive for beginning strength coaches. With experience, you will learn which exercises best suit your situation. Table 6.2-1 lists the most popular exercises for the major muscle groups. This section of the course describes basic exercises that serve as the basis for beginning strength-training programs. They are most appropriate for recreational athletes and beginners and those interested in improving general fitness. Athletes interested in developing power should emphasize more whole-body functional training exercises. Descriptions and videos of spotting techniques are widely available on the Internet (http://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/ spotting-101-how-to-spot-the-bench-squat-anddumbbell-press.html). Chest and Shoulder Exercises Table 6.2-1 Basic Weight Training Exercises for Major Muscle Groups Note: Most exercises build muscle groups. For example, while squats work mainly the quads and glutes, they also activate the core, shoulders, arms, hands, calves, and feet. This table lists exercises according to their prime movers. Some of these exercises, while popular, are contraindicated or controversial. Neck Harness neck extension and flexion Isometric neck extension, flexion, lateral flexion Front and back neck bridges Shoulder shrugs Upright rowing Neck machine: neck extension, flexion, lateral flexion Pulling exercises: clean, snatch, high pull Trapezius Upright rowing: barbell, dumbbell, cable Shoulder shrugs: barbell and dumbbell Shoulder shrugs, behind the back Cable shrugs Machine shrugs: shrug machine, Hamerstrength shrug, Smith machine Calf machine shrugs Scapular pull-up Pulling exercises: clean, snatch, high pull (clean and snatch) Dips Shoulders Deltoid raises: front, side, back Deltoid raise machine Empty can and open can raises Barbell press: standing, seated, push, behind the neck Dumbbell press: standing, seated Kettlebell press, snatch Anti-gravity press Arnold dumbbell press Clean and jerk Pulling exercises: clean, snatch, high pulls Overhead shot or medicine ball toss Battling rope exercise Bench press: barbell or dumbbell Incline press: barbell or dumbbell Push-ups Dips Waiter rock carry Turkish get-up Chest Bench press: barbell, dumbbell, machine Incline press: barbell, dumbbell, machine Decline press: barbell, dumbbell, machine Flys: dumbbell, machine, cable Push-ups Pullovers: barbell, dumbbell, machine Standing chest press: functional training machine The major muscles include the pectoralis major (chest), deltoid (shoulders), and trapezius (upper shoulder, upper back, and neck). The bench press and incline press are the best exercises for developing these muscles. Exercises that isolate specific muscles also are helpful. For example, fly exercises, which bring your arms across the chest, isolate the pectoralis major muscles (large chest muscle; one on each side). Bench Press (Figure 6.2-1) This is a popular exercise and works the muscles of the chest and the shoulders and arms (pectoralis major, deltoid, and triceps muscles). It can be performed with barbells, dumbbells, or weight International Sports Sciences Association 192 | Unit 6.2 Table 6.2-1 Basic Weight Training Exercises for Major Muscle Groups Table 6.2-1 Basic Weight Training Exercises for Major Muscle Groups Lats Pull-ups and chin-ups Lat pulls Pullovers: barbell, dumbbells, machine, E-Z bar Rope climb Rowing: machine, bench, T-bar Core Muscle Rhomboids Rowing machine Bent over rows Dumbbell incline row Rope pull Inverted row, low bar Prone bench rows: dumbbells, barbells Pull-ups and chin-ups T-bar row Biceps Standing and seated curls: barbell, E-Z bar, dumbbell, cable Hammer curls: dumbbell, cable Preacher curls: dumbbell, E-Z bar, barbell, cable Clean curls Pulling exercises: clean, snatch, high pull Presses (eccentric phase): bench, overhead, incline Rowing Triceps Forearms Skull crusher Lat machine triceps extensions Standing triceps extensions: dumbbell, cable Machine elbow extensions Dips: parallel bar, bench, dip machine Press (narrow grip): bench, overhead, incline, E-Z bar French curls Wrist curls Pulling exercises: deadlift, cleans, deadlift, high pull Farmer’s bar carries Finger push ups Plate finger carries Hand grip exercisers Squeezing rubber ball Strength and Conditioning Dynamic: Crunches Sit-ups Leg raises Captain’s chair knee or leg lifts Leg lift on pull-up bar Bicycle exercise Side bends Hip extensions: bench Back hyperextensions Glute-ham raises Whole body exercises: squats, snatch, clean, overhead press, deadlift, chopping wood, shoveling Sled pushing Harness pulling Battling rope exercise Static: Planks Bird dogs Ab roller Side-bridges Torsional buttress Pallof presses Stir the pot exercise Carry exercises Inverted row Cable woodchoping Glutes (Hip extensors) Squats: back, front, overhead, single leg Glute-ham machine raises Hip extensions (glute bridge): floor, bench Glute kickback machine Kneeling squats Cable kickbacks Lunge: static and walking Pulling exercises Sled pushing Step-ups Quads (knee extension, hip flexion) Squats: back, front, overhead, single leg Hack squats Leg press Knee extension Leg raises Lunge: static and walking Pulling exercises Sled pushing Step-ups Calves Calf raises: machine, barbell Seated calf raises Calf raises on leg press machine Basic Weight Training Exercises | 193 weight to your chest under control, and then push the weight to the starting position. Spotting the bench press: The spotter and lifter should have signals for lifting the weight from the rack and for when and how to assist the lifter in the event the lifter stalls or fails during the attempt. The spotter should stand behind the bar and assist the lifter in moving the bar from the rack to the starting position. The spotter should remain close but not so much that it disturbs the lifter. The spotter should use a pronated or mixed grip when assisting the lifter with missed attempts. Lifters attempting heavy weights often prefer spotters at each end of the bar or three spotters. Seated Press (Figure 6.2-2) This exercise develops the deltoids, triceps, and trapezius muscles. The standing or military press has been a popular exercise for many years. However, many people bend their low backs excessively when doing this exercise, which increases the risk of injury to spinal Figure 6.2-1 Bench Press machines. When using a barbell, use a spotter and a bench with a built-in rack. The bench press is discussed extensively in Section 6.3. Description: Lie on a bench face up with feet flat on the floor, and start with arms extended and the weight over your chest, grasping the bar at approximately shoulder width. Lower the Figure 6.2-2 Seated Press International Sports Sciences Association 194 | Unit 6.2 muscles and disks. Variations of the seated press include standing barbell or dumbbell press (military press), push press, and seated dumbbell press. There are also many weight machines for performing seated and standing overhead and behind-the-neck presses. Description: Sit on a bench with neutral spine. Begin with weights in line with ears, elbows at a 90˚angle, triceps parallel to the floor. Push the weight straight overhead and fully extend the elbows. Return the weight to starting position. The spotter stands behind the lifter and pushes under the upper arm if the lifter needs assistance. The spotter should be prepared to grasp the weights during missed overhead lifts. Upright Row (Figure 6.2-3) This exercise develops the deltoids, biceps, and trapezius muscles. It is particularly useful for athletes such as football players, wrestlers, and martial artists who need strong neck muscles. This exercise can be performed with barbells or dumbbells in either the upright or the bent over position. Description: Stand with the feet shoulder width apart and grasp the bar in the middle with hands approximately 4 inches apart and arms fully extended. Pull the weight upward until the bar reaches the collarbones. Return the bar to the starting position. Deltoid Raises Deltoid raises develop deltoids, the round-like muscles that form the shape of your shoulders. Because of the shape of this muscle, you must perform this exercise to the front (anterior deltoid), side (lateral deltoid), and back (posterior deltoid) to develop all parts of it. Front Raises (anterior deltoid) (Figure 6.2-4) Description: Stand with your arms at your sides and elbows extended and hold a dumbbell in each hand. With your palms down and arms straight, raise your right arm until it is level with your shoulder in front of you. Lower the weight to the starting position; repeat the exercise using your left arm. Figure 6.2-4 Front Raise. Side Raises (lateral deltoid) (Figure 6.2-5) Description: Stand with your arms at your sides and Figure 6.2-3 Upright Row Strength and Conditioning Figure 6.2-5 Side Raises Basic Weight Training Exercises | 195 elbows extended, holding a dumbbell in each hand. With palms down and arms straight, raise your right arm until it is level with your shoulder to the side of you. Lower weight to the starting position; repeat the exercise using your left arm. Back Raises (posterior deltoid) (Figure 6.2-6) Description: From a standing position, bend at the waist, and stand with the arms at your sides and elbows extended, holding a dumbbell in each hand. With palms down and arms straight, raise the right arm to the rear as far as possible. Lower the weight to the starting position; repeat the exercise using the left arm. Figure 6.2-7 Lat Pulls restrains your body with a seat belt or thigh support. You must use a spotter if using heavy weights on a freestanding machine. Variations of this exercise include pull-ups and chin-ups (see 6.6 Resistive Exercise without Weights) and pullovers (machine or free weights). Figure 6.2-6 Back Raises Upper Back Exercises Description: From a seated or kneeling position (depending on the machine), grasp the bar overhead with your hands placed beyond shoulder width apart. Pull the bar down until it reaches your chest, and then return to the starting position. The major muscles of the upper back include the trapezius (“traps”) and latissimus dorsi (“lats”) muscles. The upright rowing exercise, described previously, is excellent for developing the traps. Other pulling exercises such as the clean and snatch also are excellent and will be described in Section 6.3 of the course. Arm Exercises Lat Pulls (Figure 6.2-7) Biceps Curls (Figure 6.2-8) This exercise requires a lat machine. There are two basic types of lat machines: a freestanding machine that uses body weight to stabilize you during the exercise and one with a seat that Athletes can do biceps curls with barbells, dumbbells, or biceps curl machines. Curl bars, which position the forearms at a 45-degree angle, are popular because they place less stress Arm exercises are popular with weight-trainer instructors. The two major arm muscles include the biceps brachius, which flexes or bends the elbow, and the triceps brachius, which extends or straightens the elbow. International Sports Sciences Association 196 | Unit 6.2 Figure 6.2-9 Triceps Pushdowns Figure 6.2-8 Biceps Curls on the forearms during the exercise. They also can isolate the upper arm during the exercise by using special curl benches (i.e., preacher stand). Many other exercises also develop the biceps, including lat pulls, pull-ups, upright rows, cleans, and snatches. Description: Grasp a barbell at shoulder width with palms facing outward. Stand with your elbows extended and arms against your body. Keep your elbows close to your body as you flex your elbows, bringing the bar to your chest. Return to the starting position. Use the biceps muscles to lift the weight and do not “cheat” by swaying the body. Triceps Pushdowns (Figure 6.2-9 ) This exercise uses the lat machine, which builds the triceps muscles (muscle on back of each arm). Other exercises that isolate the triceps use barbells, dumbbells, and exercise machines Strength and Conditioning include French curls and supine bench triceps extensions. Pressing exercises that also develop the triceps muscles include the bench press, incline press, military press, and jerk. Description: Stand facing the lat machine. Grasp the bar with your hands approximately 4–6 inches apart with your palms facing your body. Fully extend your arms with your elbows held closely at your side. From this starting position, with elbows locked to your side, allow your hands to be pulled up to your chest; then firmly push the weight back to the starting position. You are cheating if your elbows move during this exercise. Abdominal Exercises Abdominal muscles are part of the core muscles that protect and support the spine. They are important for health, performance, and appearance. These muscles help stabilize the spine, which helps minimize back pain. Avoid loaded trunk twisting movements because they can damage the spine. For rotational movements, emphasize rotating from the hips while maintaining a stiff and neutral spine. Rotational movements are Basic Weight Training Exercises | 197 critical in sports that require weight transfer as in tennis, baseball, bowling, throwing (baseball, discus, javelin, hammer), karate, and boxing. Rotating with the spine without using the hips results in weak, less powerful motions and puts the spine at risk. Strong abdominal muscles are important for stabilizing the trunk in almost all movements that use large muscles (i.e., running and jumping). Lean, toned midsections are prized as a critical part of a healthy, attractive-looking body. As discussed in Section 5.2, the core muscles are best developed through static exercises. For more than 100 years, traditional core training included dynamic exercises such as sit-ups, back extensions, and twists. Isometric core exercises are better for developing core strength and stiffness because such exercises strengthen muscles, improve muscular endurance, reduce low back pain, and boost sports performance. Greater core stiffness transfers strength and speed to the limbs, increases the load-bearing capacity of the spine, and protects the internal organs during sports movements. A landmark study by Canadian researchers Benjamin Lee and Stuart McGill demonstrated that isometric exercises for the core resulted in greater core stiffness than did performing whole-body dynamic exercises that activated core muscles. Isometric core exercises included planks, bird dogs, side-bridges, torsional buttress, pallof presses, stir the pot exercise, carry exercises, inverted row, and cable woodchopping. Dynamic core exercises include curl up, Superman, side curl up, twisting curl up, advance curl up, back extension, Russian barbell twist, curl up twitch, Superman twitch, lateral medicine ball throw, and rotational medicine ball throw. This study’s results cast doubts on traditional core training methods. This extremely important study might in fact change the way we train for sport. See Section 5.2 for a thorough discussion of core exercises. Curl Ups (Figure 6.2-10) Curl ups are a variation of the sit-up abdominal exercise. Full sit-ups are not necessary to develop fully trained abdominals. The abdominal muscles receive a tremendous workout by moving through an extremely small range of motion. Curl ups are just as effective as sit-ups are, and curl ups place less stress on the back. Figure 6.2-10 Curl Ups Description: Lie on your back on the floor with one leg straight and the other foot flat on the floor. With your arms placed under the lumbar region of the spine, curl the trunk using the rectus abdominis muscle, while minimizing movement of the head and shoulders. The back should remain stationary. Lower-Body Exercises Leg and thigh muscles are more important for sports performance than are arm, chest, and shoulder muscles. Yet visit nearly any gym, and you will see many people doing bench presses and curls and very few people doing squats and International Sports Sciences Association 198 | Unit 6.2 power cleans. If you want to improve performance in sports that require you to run, jump, or transfer your weight from back to front foot (e.g., tennis, golf, baseball, softball, boxing), do exercises that develop the large muscles of the legs and hips. Exercises for these muscles include back squats, front squats, cleans, snatch, lunges, step-ups, knee extensions, leg curls, jerks, push-presses, and calf raises. The lower body major muscle groups include the quadriceps (quads: muscles on front of the thigh), gluteal muscle (large buttocks muscles), hamstrings (back of thigh), and calf muscles (back of lower leg). The quads and hamstrings move the hip and knee joints. The quads extend or straighten the knee and flex or bend the hip. The hamstrings flex the knee and extend the hip. Squats and step-ups use the knees and hips and work the hamstrings and quadriceps during the pushing (concentric) phase of the lift. Squats (Figure 6.2-11) This exercise requires a barbell and squat rack. These racks must be adjustable to properly fit each athlete. Many people like a squat rack with a safety platform to the side where they can rest the weight if they fail to complete the lift. In addition, during this lift, it is crucial to use collars, and make sure to adjust the squat rack properly for your height. Squats strengthen the quadriceps, gluteal muscles, hamstrings, and calf muscles. The squat is discussed extensively in Section 6.4. Spotting: Spotting the squat is more complex than spotting the bench press is. Stand behind the lifter as he or she takes the weight off Strength and Conditioning Figure 6.2-11 Squats the rack. Heavy lifts might require spotters at both ends of the bar and behind the lifter. It is particularly important to assist the lifter when returning the bar to the rack to avoid pinching or crushing the lifter’s fingers. Description: Place the bar so that it rests on the fleshy part of your upper back. Grasp the bar with your hands for support. Some people like to put a pad on the bar to increase comfort. Stand with your feet shoulder width apart (or slightly wider) with toes pointed slightly outward. Keep your head neutral and your back straight during the lift. Squat down until your thighs are approximately parallel with the floor. Drive upward toward the starting position, maintaining a neutral spine throughout the lift. Never “bounce” at the bottom of the squat—this maneuver has a high probability of injuring knee ligaments. Hamstring Curls (Figure 6.2-12) This exercise requires a curl machine. As discussed, squats also develop the hamstrings. The Basic Weight Training Exercises | 199 Figure 6.2-12 Hamstring Curls standing hamstring curl is also a good exercise for these muscles. Description: Sit in a leg curl machine and adjust the seat so the knee joint is in the middle of the fulcrum point of the machine. The lower pad should be on the back of the ankles. Adjust the upper pad so that it is securely over the quadriceps Feet should be in a neutral position. Contract the hamstrings and draw the lower leg back towards the seat. Make sure the thighs and hips are firmly against the pad. Once you have reached a full range of motion of the concentric phase, slowly raise the roller to the starting position and repeat. Exercises for the Calves The gastrocnemius and soleus are the two major calf muscles. These muscles plantar flex the ankle, which means they work when you lift your heels and go up on your toes. These muscles are important for jumping and running and are developed by putting weights on your shoulders, using a barbell or calf machine, and raising your heels off the ground. Figure 6.2-13 Calf Raises Calf Raises (Figure 6.2-13) Description: Place the feet hip width apart, with the knees slightly bent (this can also be done on the edge of a step). Position the shoulders directly under the barbell and press up until the barbell is removed from the rack and the body is erect with a neutral spine. The feet and knees should be pointed straight ahead. This is the starting position. Press up on your toes (plantar flexion) through a full range of motion and pause briefly at the top while your calves are fully contracted. Slowly lower your heels to the starting position and repeat. Basic Weight-Training Programs There are countless variations of weight-training programs. Start with a general warm-up such as easy-pace exercise on a treadmill or stationary bicycle for one to two minutes. Most commonly, weight trainers warm up by doing a set of an exercise with light weights before progressing to heavier resistance. Do large muscle bench press International Sports Sciences Association 200 | Unit 6.2 and squat exercises before smaller muscle exercises such as biceps and hamstring curls. Complete all the sets for an exercise before moving to the next exercise. A basic weight-training program is shown in Table 6.2-2Power athletes can develop significant strength and muscle fitness performing three to four whole-body functional training exercises in a workout. Follow this most important guideline— do the program regularly and progressively. Table 6.2-2 Basic Weight-Training Program for a Beginning Athlete or Recreational Weight Trainer. Details Training Days Monday, Wednesday, Friday Load 75% 1RM Rest between sets 90 seconds Exercise Sets Repetitions Bench Press 3 10 Seated Press 3 10 Lat Pulls 3 10 Upright Rowing 3 10 Deltoid Raises 3 10 Biceps Curls 3 10 Triceps Pushdowns 3 10 Crunches 3 10 Squats 3 10 Hamstring Curls 3 10 Calf Raises 3 10 Strength and Conditioning Summary Beginning athletes can make substantial gains in strength, power, and muscle mass safely from lifting weights and performing resistance exercises using body weight. Keep it fun and build strength gradually and consistently. Athletes should develop good whole-body movement skills from the beginning and should train movements, not muscles. Maintain a stiff spine during most movements so that the core muscles act as a spring for transferring force from the lower body to the upper body. Individuals must learn to hinge at the hips rather than in the spine when doing squats, lifting from the floor, and performing rotational exercises. Poor lower-body movement skills impair one’s ability to learn other lifts such as deadlifts, cleans, and snatches. Test the athlete’s capacity to perform basic lower-body movements before including weight-bearing squats or step-ups in the weight-training program. Athletes also benefit from more traditional strength-training methods. A guiding principle for weight training or sports training in general is that “good technique doesn’t hurt.” Fatigue is a natural part of sports training but pain—particularly if it persists following exercise—is an indication of a training error. Athletes interested in high power sports should center their programs on whole-body squats, lunges, step-ups, push-presses, cleans, snatches, kettlebell swings, bench press, and deadlifts. UNIT 6.3 The Bench Press 202 | Unit 6.3 Unit Outline 1. The Bench Press as a Whole-Body Exercise d. Chains and bands 2. Use the Right Equipment a. Olympic bar b. The bench 3. Using Technique to Increase Bench Press Strength c. Board training f. Supplements a. The conditioning cycle: 8 weeks b. Load cycle and base conditioning program: 12 weeks Bench shirt b. Power rack training Training on unstable surfaces 5. Bench Press Training 4. Training Aids to Improve Bench Press Strength a. e. c. Peak cycle: 12 weeks 6. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • • • Understand that bench-pressing heavy weight is a skill. The nervous system develops motor patterns based on practice and then “rewinds” these nervous patterns when you perform the skill. Understand that the bench press is a wholebody exercise. Grip, placement of the feet, butt, shoulders, elbows, hands, bar path during the lift, and exercise cadence are critical for maximizing performance. Understand the importance of equipment (i.e., bar, bench, rack) for maximizing performance. Most people use the bench press as a measure of strength, power, and sometimes even athletic ability. The bench press is the king of strength exercises— regardless of the popularity of functional training, kettlebells, cross-training, or yoga. The strength and conditioning specialist Strength and Conditioning • Demonstrate the bench stance. • Demonstrate proper spotting techniques for the bench press. • Understand and demonstrate power rack training for improving bench press strength. • Understand the value of training with boards, chains, and bands. • Understand the possible value of training on unstable surfaces. • Understand cycle training (periodization) for bench press training. must have a thorough knowledge of this lift because of its special place in the strength culture. It matters little that leg strength is more important than upper body strength is in most sports. The bench press is the hallmark of a person’s strength. The Bench Press | 203 Next time you go to the gym, see what people do when they see a person bench-pressing 300 or 400 pounds. Typically conversations stop, and everyone watches in envy as the strong man benches the mammoth weight. The other people in the gym seem almost embarrassed as they struggle with 165 pounds. The sad part is they could bench press big weights too if they used good bench-pressing technique and followed a scientifically designed training program as I outline in this chapter. The Bench Press as a Whole-Body Exercise Bench-pressing heavy weight is a skill— just like smashing a tennis ball, throwing a baseball, or shooting a three-pointer in basketball is. The nervous system develops motor patterns based on practice and then “rewinds” these nervous patterns when you perform the skill. You must learn and practice skills precisely to maximize performance. Individuals who want to lift more weight must learn a precise motor pattern that allows them to bench press considerable weight for just one repetition. The bench press amounts to a whole-body lift. Most people approach the bench press casually and pay little consideration to factors that determine success in the lift. They lie down on the bench, hoist the bar over their chest, and do the exercise without thinking about grip, proper feet placement, butt, shoulders, elbows, hands, the path the bar follows during the lift, or ideal exercise cadence. They often use the wrong bar or bench and choose unprepared and untrained spotters. Learn proper technique and use the right equipment, and you can increase your bench press significantly in a few weeks. Improved skill serves as the foundation for substantial gains in acquiring future strength. Weight-training books describe the bench press as an upper body exercise that builds mainly the pectoralis major (chest), triceps brachius (back of the arms), and deltoid muscles (round shoulder muscles). Although these muscles are certainly important, building a big bench press also requires strong legs and core muscles that act as stabilizers during the lift. Additionally, individuals need to acquire newly developed strength and flexibility to maximize the height of the chest and minimize the distance the bar travels during the lift. Use the Right Equipment Choosing the right bar and bench are critical to building strength in this lift. You must have absolute confidence in your equipment to excel in the bench press. Figure 6.3-1 The best bar for bench pressing International Sports Sciences Association 204 | Unit 6.3 Eleiko: A leading manufacturer of weightlifting bars and plates. Knurling: Small ridges or grooves on the surface of the bar. Olympic bar: Use an Olympic bar designed for powerlifting and avoid bars bent from overuse. Although Olympic weightlifting bars made by companies such as Eleiko are wonderful for doing cleans and snatches, these bars are too elastic and unstable for bench pressing and require too much energy to maintain control. Some bars are thicker than others are, so find one that feels comfortable (circumference of 9–9.5 cm. or 3.5–3.7 in.). Use a bar with comfortable knurling or roughened part of the bar. Too little knurling will cause your hands to slip during the lift, whereas too much feels uncomfortable and can tear up your hands. Many lifters use gym chalk (magnesium carbonate) to keep their hands from slipping. Take careful note of the circular markings on the bar because they help achieve a balanced grip. Most lifters grasp the bar with the pinky fingers just inside the ring, but the location of the ring varies from one bar to the next. Try to use the same bar every time you bench press because even small changes in grip width can negatively affect your lift. The bench: The bench’s dimensions are critical for peak performance in the bench press. Firm leg support is a crucial part of peak performance in this exercise. You are dead in the water before you start if your legs flail around during the lift because the bench is too high. Most competitive benches are 17.5 inches high, which allows average-sized people to place their feet flat on the floor with knees bent at an acute angle of slightly less than 90 degrees. The bench should be wide enough to support your scapulae (shoulder blades) but not so wide that it restricts arm movements. Most benches used in competition are 12.5 inches wide. Use a bench with firm foam that rebounds when compressed. Choose a bench with variable weight support heights so you can grasp the bar with your arms almost fully extended. Lifting with low weight supports can cause serious shoulder rotator cuff injuries— even when using light weights. The rack should support the bar at the ends of the gripping areas to prevent hand injuries. Finding a bench you like can make a huge difference in how much weight you can lift. Try benches in different clubs before choosing a gym. Some newer benches include hydraulic lifts to move the bar up and down and special hardware to attach elastic bands for variable resistance training. Strength and Conditioning The Bench Press | 205 Using Technique to Increase Bench Press Strength Use the major muscles of your body to bench press—not just your chest, arms, and shoulders. Proper setup determines short-term and longterm success—just as it does in golf, bowling, tennis, and discus throwing. Start with a firm position with your feet planted firmly, and you will make improvements in leaps and bounds. Lie on the bench with the bar at eye level. Place your feet flat on the floor, slightly wider than shoulder width apart. Try to move your feet backward toward your head while keeping them flat on the floor. This position provides stability and will help maintain an arched back with chest up during the lift. It also will allow you to drive with your legs during the exercise without lifting your butt from the bench. The back of the head should be resting on the bench and should not be lifted off the bench at anytime during the lift. Never lift your butt from the bench, because do so puts excessive stress on the spine, reduces your base of support, and increases risk of injury to the active muscle groups and joints activated during the exercise. Moreover, lifting your butt from the bench is not permitted in powerlifting. Arching the back and pushing out with the chest are difficult at first but will improve as you increase flexibility. The technique allows for rapid improvements because you can minimize pushing the bar as far, and the position gives you an exceptionally strong, athletic base. Pull your scapulae (shoulder blades) together, Figure 6.3-2 The bench press stance try to keep them retracted during each exercise repetition, and stabilize your spine by pulling down with your lats. This position provides spinal support and helps maintain a high chest and arched back during the lift. Grasp the bar firmly with your thumbs aligned in the opposite directions from your fingers. Rest the bar near the heel of your palm so that your wrists remain straight so they can assist in International Sports Sciences Association 206 | Unit 6.3 force transfer to the bar from your chest, shoulders, and arms. Do not use a thumbless grip. An average of five people a year are killed in the United States doing the bench press because they drop the weight on their throat or head—most from not using spotters and using the thumbless grip. Start with hands spaced slightly wider than shoulder width apart. For most people, that means gripping the bar just inside the circular spacing marks. For competitive powerlifting (squat, bench press, deadlift), the maximum hand spacing cannot exceed 81 centimeters measured between the forefingers. Grip spacing is highly individual, so experiment with wider and narrower grips. In addition, training with varying grip widths is a good idea because each hand placement works the muscles differently: A narrower grip puts more load on the triceps, whereas a wider grip puts greater stress on the chest. Many of the top bench pressers now use a more narrow grip because the wider grip puts excessive stress on the rotator muscles and increase the chance of injury (Green and Comfort 2007). Valsalva maneuver: Expiration against a closed glottis; straining To increase stability, brace or tighten your ab muscles without sucking them in. Learn to brace and breathe independently. Be sure to strain and hold your breath during the first part of the lift to maximize stability. This technique called the Valsalva maneuver, named after the Italian anatomist who invented the procedure in the early 1700s, increases blood pressure but will help you to lift more weight. In addition, few people can lift more than 85% of maximum effort without generating a Valsalva. Lower the bar under control to a point below the nipple line. Pause briefly, squeeze your glutes together, retract your lats to increase shoulder stability, and push the bar explosively in a straight line above the chest, keeping the elbows in and shoulders back while keeping an arch in your lower back. Drive the feet forcefully into the ground at the same time the bar is pressed off the chest. This will help prevent the low back from collapsing into the bench. Pushing the weight explosively from the bottom activates more motor units (muscle fibers and their nerve) and decreases the chance of the bar’s stalling during the lift. Most people push the bar in a curve until it goes over their eyes. The bar travels backward in a J-curve and finishes directly over the gleno-humeral joint (shoulder) in a strong support position. Have the spotter help you rack the bar after completing your last rep. Strength and Conditioning The Bench Press | 207 Technique is an important part of bench pressing big weights. Always use good form, whether warming up with 135 pounds or doing heavy singles. Lift explosively when doing reps or singles: train your nervous system to react quickly when pushing the bar from your chest. Finally, keep focused and work consistently for small gains. On heavy training days, try to lift at least one more pound than you did during the last workout. As four-time Olympic discus thrower and coach John Powell says, “Yard-by-yard is hard; inch-by-inch is a cinch.” Spotting the bench (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=qekA2x6Ltk0): Use a spotter to help move the weight over your chest. Try to use the same spotter every time you lift or at least someone with experience who is not intimidated by heavy weights. Establish a signal, such as “one, two, three,” and lift the weight above the lower chest using a reverse grip—one hand palms up and one hand palms down. The spotter should stand behind the bench, but not so close as to interfere with the lift or make the lifter feel uncomfortable. The spotter should not touch the bar unless the lifter fails and needs help or is purposely helping the lifter (i.e., assisted lift). The spotter should use a good lifting technique (including the hip hinge) to avoid injury in case of a missed lift using heavy weight. Two or three spotters might be necessary when lifting heavy weights. Training Aids to Improve Bench Press Strength Great bench pressers have developed some effective techniques and training aids to boost their bench press strength; this includes power rack training, band and chain training, and board training. Power rack training: The power rack is a box-like metal frame found in most well equipped gyms. The power rack consists of a base and four columns supported on top with cross braces. Each column has a series of holes drilled through it so that long steel pins can be placed through them at different levels. Put a bench inside the rack and set the pins to work different parts of the range of motion of the lift: bar at chest level, bar 2 inches from the chest, bar 4 inches from the chest, and lockouts. For variety, use elastic bands attached to the power rack and bar to help you handle even heavier weights. Power rack: The power rack is a box-like metal frame used to promote lifting safety and to practice restricted range exercises. International Sports Sciences Association 208 | Unit 6.3 A typical power rack bench press routine would be as follows: 1. Begin with the bar placed at chest level. Warm up with a light weight (1 to 2 sets of 10 at 30% of max). Start the workout with a weight equivalent to 75% of your one repetition maximum or 1RM. Do one rep using good form, and then increase the weight and repeat. Continue increasing the weight until you achieve your maximum. 2. After you have maxed out with the weight at your chest, raise the pins one to two holes so the bar location is in the middle of your bench press groove. Start with the weight you completed when the bar was directly off your chest. Do one rep, add weight, and repeat. Continue adding weight until you can no longer complete a rep. 3. Finally, raise the pins so the bar location is near the end of the range of motion for the bench press (lock-outs). At this point, you only are pushing the weight a few inches. You will be able to handle much more weight than you can do during the normal exercise. Load up the bar and do one rep using as much weight as you can. Continue with progressively heavier max singles until you can no longer continue. Use the power rack once every two weeks during the peak cycle. This technique will boost your one-rep max in the bench but can lead to overtraining injuries if used excessively. The rack will help prepare you for lifting heavy weights and is a great way to increase your bench press max. Bench press champions such as Ryan “Bench Monster” Kennelly have used this technique with great success. Board training: This technique is similar to using the power rack to build your bench press strength. It involves placing boards of various Strength and Conditioning heights on your chest to alter the range of motion during the lift. Chains and Bands: On training days involving maximum effort, be sure to push the bar with maximal force on each rep. Chains and bands increase the resistance at the end of the range of motion of the lift. They are particularly useful during load cycles. Bands also increase the intensity of the eccentric action of the lift (lowering the weight to the chest); this will help to increase your capacity to accelerate the bar from your chest. Buy chains at any hardware store and bands at powerlifting supply Internet sites. Training on unstable surfaces: Many health clubs encourage members to train on unstable surfaces such as Swiss or Bosu balls. This is a mistake because it decreases your capacity to exert maximum force and will interfere with your progress. Supplements: Take a protein-carbohydrate supplement containing approximately 30 grams of protein and three grams of the amino acid leucine following each workout— particularly during the load cycle. In addition, taking 5 grams of creatine monohydrate per day may also boost your bench max. Creatine supplements increase creatine phosphate (CP) levels in the muscles. CP, a high-energy compound, plays a crucial role for achieving maximum muscle strength output during a lift. Bench Press Training Bench press training involves overloading the muscles to increase muscle size, muscle density, and contractile capacity and conditioning the nervous system to maximize and coordinate The Bench Press | 209 motor unit recruitment so the muscles react quickly and explosively during the lift. The training process involves a preliminary conditioning cycle to prepare the muscles for intense training, a load cycle to build base strength, and a peak cycle to help increase bench press single rep maximum. The conditioning cycle is a basic weight-training program generally involving three sets of 10 repetitions of standard exercises. The load cycle generally involves four to six sets of 4–6 repetitions of the primary exercises (barbell bench, dumbbell bench). The peak cycle uses high-intensity, low-volume workouts designed to overload the neuromuscular system. For example, perform three to eight sets of 1 to 3 reps in the major lifts using maximum poundage. Muscles work together during the bench press— not in isolation. Although some muscles shorten to cause movement, others contract statically to provide stability, lengthen to brake movement, or act as “motion sensors” called proprioceptors. The ideal bench press training program helps the leg, back, abdomen, chest, shoulder, and arm muscles work in concert, like a finely practiced orchestra, to provide powerful, pain-free movement. The pecs, triceps, and deltoids are the major muscles used during the bench press, but the muscles of the back (e.g., lats and rhomboids), legs (quads, hamstrings, and gluts), and abs (rectus abdominis, transversus abdominis) stabilize and control the motion. Muscles develop best when you subject them to many types of stress. For example, barbell bench presses will increase the weight you can bench, but strengthening the triceps, deltoids, and pecs with other exercises called auxiliary exercises also will help. In addition, using overload techniques, bands and chains, board training, negatives, and power rack training will allow one to use more resistance than just practicing regular bench presses. DO NOT over train. Bench no more than twice a week and only use maximum weights once a week. As emphasized previously, train in cycles: Begin with general conditioning to get used to weight training, progress to base training involving intense moderate repetition exercises (for example, six sets of 6 reps), do peak training involving heavy singles and doubles. Remember, bench pressing is a skill. Your training program should be directed toward lifting considerable weight for one rep. For making truly stellar progress, do not mix base and peak cycles. For example, during the peak cycle your bench strength will increase at a rapid pace. You will feel so strong you will want to grind out 10 to 20 reps with 225 pounds just to impress others in the gym. Avoid the temptation! Give your body a chance to adjust to pushing heavy weights. You will be glad you followed this advice. The Conditioning Cycle: 8 weeks Do this cycle if you are a beginner or have not weight trained seriously in the last year. If you are well trained and ready to boost your bench, skip this program and begin with the load cycle. Do this program three days a week if you decide to do the conditioning cycle. Rest approximately one minute between sets and three minutes between exercises. You can combine this weight-training program with basketball, outdoor jogging, or treadmill running. Rest at International Sports Sciences Association 210 | Unit 6.3 least two days a week. Remember: increase the intensity of your lifts gradually. Table 6.3-1: Sample 8-week conditioning cycle. Table 6.3-2: Sample 12-week load cycle to increase bench press performance. Rest 3 to 5 min between sets. Day Incline dumbbell press 4 X 10 Lat pull 3 X10 Seated or bent-over rows 3 X 10 Dips 3 X 10 Flies 3 X 10 Squats 3 X 10 Roman chair knee raises 3 X 10 Back extensions 3 X 10 Strength and Conditioning Friday Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Weeks 5–12 Rest three to five minutes between sets. Your goal is to increase your bench press, thus you should rest enough so you can lift as much weight as possible during each set. Progression is critical. Each week try to add resistance during each exercise—even if it is only 2.5 pounds. Monday Load Cycle and Base Conditioning Program: 12 weeks The load cycle builds base strength in the major muscle groups involved in the bench press, in the support muscles that provide a platform for the lift, and in antagonistic muscles that give muscular balance to the joints and help control the movement. Work as hard as you can during each exercise. Your spotter should assist you when you cannot complete a rep. However, if you can, try to do each repetition without help. About once every two weeks, use chains or bands when doing bench presses to add variety to your workout. Wednesday 4 X 10 Friday Bench press Wednesday (Sets x Repetitions) Week 1 Exercise Monday Load: 75% of 1RM, Rest: 60 to 90 sec between sets Exercise Sets x Reps Weight Bench press (bar) 6x6 Dumbbell Inclines 4x6 Do all exercises to repetition failure Lat pulls 4x6 Seated Rows 4x6 Squats 4x5 Roman chair leg raise 4 x 10 Back extensions 3 x 10 Without weight Dumbbell bench press 5x5 Dips with weight 5x5 Do all exercises to repetition failure Dumbbell Flies 4x5 Bent-over rows 4x5 Bench press (bar) 3x5 Bench press (bar) 6x6 Dumbbell Inclines 4x6 Lat pulls 4x6 Seated Rows 4x6 Squats 4x5 Roman chair leg raise 4 x 10 Back extensions 3 x 10 Without weight Dumbbell bench press 5x5 Dips with weight 5x5 Do all exercises to repetition failure Dumbbell Flies 4x5 Bent-over rows 4x5 Bench press (bar) 3x5 80%-100% of 5-rep max Holding weight plate on chest Do all exercises to repetition failure 80%–100% of 5-rep max Holding weight plate on chest Repeat week 1 Progressively add weight Repeat week 2 Progressively add weight Repeat weeks 1&2 (alternating) Progressively add weight Table 6.3-2: Sample 12-week peak cycle to increase bench press performance. Rest 3 to 5 min between sets. Monday Wednesday Friday Week 2 Monday Trust the peak cycle! As discussed, you will feel incredibly strong and energized because you are lifting heavy weights while minimizing volume. Avoid the temptation of adding high rep sets to the point of exhaustion. The peak cycle will boost your bench press more than you thought was possible. Enjoy the rest and watch your bench press increase rapidly! Wednesday This is the cycle when you become strong. Use as much weight as possible and push as hard as you can during each repetition. Lift explosively, but maintain good form: feet planted on the floor, firm grip, back arched, butt down, chest out, elbows in, and lats and shoulder blades retracted. Use a spotter for each major lift. Take as much rest as you need between sets—usually about three to five minutes. Day Week 1 Peak Cycle: 12 weeks Exercise Sets x Reps Bench press (bar) 5X2 Dumbbell Inclines 3X6 Lat pulls 3X6 Seated Rows 3X6 Squats 3X5 Roman chair leg raise 3 X 10 Back extensions 3 X 10 Bench press (bar) 5X1 Dips with weight 3X5 Dumbbell flys 3X 5 Bent-over rows 3X5 Bench press (bar) 5X2 Dumbbell Inclines 3X6 Lat pulls 3X6 Seated Rows 3X6 Squats 3X5 Roman chair leg raise 3 X 10 Back extensions 3 X 10 Weight Do all exercises to repetition failure 80%-100% of 5-rep max Without weight Holding weight plate on chest Do all exercises to repetition failure Do all exercises to repetition failure 80%–100% of 5-rep max Without weight Holding weight plate on chest Power rack bench press—Single reps to max 3–4 pin settings Dips 3X 5 Dumbbell flys 3X5 Bent-over rows 3X5 Bench press (bar) 3X5 Do all exercises to repetition failure Week 3 5X1 Repeat week 1 Progressively add weight Week 4 Bench press (bar) Repeat week 2 Progressively add weight Weeks 5–12 Friday -or- Repeat weeks 1&2 (alternating) Progressively add weight Note: Do power rack bench press single repetitions to maximum using three to four pin placements (depending on the length of your arms). If no power rack is available, substitute five sets of one rep at maximum weight. Have an experienced spotter assist if you cannot complete a rep. 212 | Unit 6.3 Summary Anyone can bench press with more weight if he or she trains consistently and uses good technique. Some people respond almost immediately and bench press big weights before finishing the program; others will have to do repeated load and peak cycles. The principles from this part of the course will help your clients become better bench pressers. Bench-pressing heavy weight is a skill—just like smashing a tennis ball, throwing a baseball, or shooting a three-pointer in basketball is. The nervous system develops motor patterns based on practice and “rewinds” these neural patterns when you perform the skill. You must Strength and Conditioning learn and practice skills precisely to maximize performance. Use the major muscles of the body to bench press—not just your chest, arms, and shoulders. Technique is a crucial part of successful bench pressing. Always use good form no matter how much weight you can lift. Bench press training aids include a power rack, boards, chains and bands, and supplements. By themselves, these aids do not matter that much, but they can be significant when combined. Cycle training is important to achieve maximum performance. Incorporate conditioning, load, and peak cycles to attain quality overload with a reduced risk of overtraining. UNIT 6.4 The Squat 214 | Unit 6.4 Unit Outline 1. Squats: The Ultimate Functional Strength-Building Exercises 2. Back Squat Basics a. Bar placement b. The descent c. The ascent or pushing phase d. Lifting tempo e. Breathing f. Returning the weight to the rack g. Progression 3. Front Squats 4. Overhead Squats 5. Box Squats 6. Power-Rack Squats 7. Thoughts on Squat Training 8. Building Large Lower Body Muscles with High Set Deep Squat Workouts 9. High Set Workouts to Promote Lower Body Muscle Hypertrophy 10. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand the value of the squat for improving athletic performance • Understand the importance of good squat biomechanics and technique for improving lower body strength and minimizing injury. • Understand and demonstrate the back squat technique including bar placement, stance, the descent, the ascent, lifting tempo, breathing, and returning the bar to the rack. Developing excellent squat strength is central to strength and power athletes. That is the consensus of most power athletes, strength coaches, fitness experts, and bodybuilders. Squats build basic strength in the legs, hips, and core muscles. This strength is vital to success in sports and serves as the foundation of a fit, powerful-looking physique. Squats are critical for developing running speed, acceleration Strength and Conditioning • Understand and demonstrate squat variations including face-wall-squat, front squat, overhead squats, box squats, and power rack squats. • Understand basic programming technique for improving squat strength. power, and jumping ability. They help build a solid strength base that serves as the foundation of athleticism. The squat represents one of the fundamental weight-training exercises (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=lt9otTWuaOQ). How many times have you seen athletes in the gym with big arms and chests but undeveloped legs? According to most strength experts, The Squat | 215 these people may look strong but will fold when they have to perform powerful movements on the playing field. Scientific studies show that weight-training exercises should be performed as closely as possible to the target motor skill. Strengthen the muscles in the specific manner you want them to improve. Squats build strength from the basic athletic position—knees and hips flexed, back straight, and chest out. Squats are more applicable to sports than are exercises that build leg muscles in nonfunctional positions. Unfortunately, squats can be dangerous if performed incorrectly. The basic principle of all squats is to hinge at the hips and to maintain a neutral spine. Most people overuse the quad muscles and underuse the larger, stronger glute and hamstring muscles when doing squats. People round their backs, which increases the risk of serious spinal injuries. Poor squatting technique puts excessive stress on the knee joints and sets the stage for a lifetime of back pain. Learn to squat correctly to build strength without injury. This section of the course presents a variety of squat exercises that will build lower-body strength and power for transfer to the playing field. form is essential in this lift. Beginners often use too much weight; consequently, they round their backs excessively during the lift, which exposes them to injury. There is more to squats than merely putting a bar on your back and bending your knees. Performing the many varieties of squats builds rock-solid base strength, core fitness, and whole-body power. Squat exercises include back squats, front squats, overhead squats, box squats, and power rack squats. Each adds another dimension to lower body strength and power. Back Squat Basics Safety is the first consideration when doing squats. Use good equipment that will not break down during the lift. Clear all debris from the squatting platform. Use a solid rack that allows you to perform the lift without excessive forward or backward movement. Use collars and a straight bar to prevent weights from falling off during the exercise. Bars will sometimes bend dangerously after years of repeated use. Use experienced spotters. Position one spotter behind the lifter if the weight is light, or Squats: The Ultimate Functional StrengthBuilding Exercises Many people avoid squats because of reports that deep knee bends overstretch the knee ligaments. In fact, you can squat very low before the knee ligaments stretch significantly. Good Figure 6.4-1 Spotting the squat International Sports Sciences Association 216 | Unit 6.4 use three spotters—one behind and two on the sides—if the weight is heavy or the lifter is attempting a maximum lift. Lifting belts and wraps increase the weight you can squat. Do not use them when training with submaximal loads. Squats use core muscles as stabilizers. Training with belts and wraps decreases the stress to these muscles so that they do not benefit fully from the exercise. In addition, wraps can put excessive stress on kneecaps and contribute to kneecap pain. Wear wraps and belts for max lifts only; otherwise, leave them in your gym bag. Wear a good pair of shoes that provide lateral support. Consider purchasing a pair of weightlifting shoes once you become serious about this exercise. Otherwise, a good pair of tennis shoes, such as Chuck Taylor Converse (www. converse.com), will do. Do not wear jogging or running shoes! In general, high bar close stance squatters do better with Olympic lifting shoes, while wide stance low bar squatters do better with “Chucks.” Bar Placement: Place the bar on the rack so you only need to lift it a few inches to begin the exercise. Lifters use low bar or high bar squats. Most powerlifters prefer low bar squats, whereas most Olympic lifters (weightlifters) and many power athletes prefer the high bar squat. For a low bar squat, put the bar about 3–4 inches lower on the back right above the spine of the scapula just above the rear deltoids. For the high bar back squat, place the bar on top of the trapezius muscles. Low-Bar: Positioned on the rear deltoids Figure 6.4-2 Bar placement. while maintaining a neutral position with your head. Keep your shoulders level and back arched slightly. Stand up and take two steps back from the rack—just enough to avoid bumping it during the exercise. Adjust your feet to establish an initial solid starting position. The Stance: Stand with your feet wider than shoulder width apart. A wider stance allows you to squat without excessive forward lean. A narrow stance makes it more difficult to engage the hips during the squat. Consequently, you rock forward on your toes and take much of the load on your back and quads, which can cause Taking the bar from the rack: Facing the rack, with the bar on your back, bend your knees Figure 6.4-3 Stance. Strength and Conditioning High-Bar: Positioned on the upper trapezius The Squat | 217 pain in the knees, back, and neck. However, increasing the stance width enhances the load on the large gluteal muscles and allows you to maintain a neutral spine during the exercise. Neutral refers to the three natural curves that are present in a healthy spine. Point your toes outward slightly, 40–45 degrees, which helps align the femur and pelvis for a powerful movement during the pushing phase of the lift. Olympic lifters often use a shoulder-width stance to build strength and power in positions specific to their sport. The Descent: Squat until your hips are lower than your knees, which mean your thighs are below parallel. Keep your head in a neutral position throughout the lift. Begin your descent by gliding your hips backward before breaking your knees (a backward movement of your butt). Keep your torso upright and avoid excessive forward lean so your hips remain under the bar at all times. The movement is similar to sitting in a low chair or on the toilet. Think about squatting between your thighs and spreading the floor with your feet. Use your hip flexors to pull you down into the squat. Keep your weight over the arches of your feet, which will keep you from bending over at the waist or sitting back on your heels as you do the active or pushing part of the lift. Placing too much weight on your toes will make your hips rise faster than your shoulders do, which will make the movement look more like a good morning exercise (back extension from a squat position). Maintaining a neutral spine and head will place your center of gravity over your hips and legs and put you in a powerful position for the active phase of the squat. Figure 6.4-4 Bottom position of the squat. At the bottom of the squat position, the angles formed by the knee and hip joints should be approximately equal. Stay tight at the bottom position by keeping the muscles contracted. The Ascent or Pushing Phase: Push out of the bottom position following the same path that you used during the descent phase. Keep your torso and back erect and maintain your hips under the bar throughout the pushing phase of the lift. As you push, strive to extend the hips and knees at the same rate. Extending the knees prematurely will place excessive stress on your low back and subject your spine to dangerous shear forces and possible back injury. The low back muscles should maintain a stable spine so that the force from the legs can be applied directly to the weight and help you complete the International Sports Sciences Association 218 | Unit 6.4 risk. Descending slowly may also increase the stress on your muscles so you achieve a better training effect. Figure 6.4-5 Ascent phase of the squat. lift successfully. Try to explode upward during the pushing phase of the exercise so the motion remains smooth and fluid. Lifting Tempo: A good rule of thumb is to go down under control and up fast. The descent phase should take one to two seconds, so it is not excessively slow. Dropping too fast during the descent phase causes unnecessary and potentially dangerous stresses on the knee and spine because the knee and hip extensors must exert more force to slow down the movement. Descending under control helps you stay tight and maintain good form that puts you in a powerful position during the pushing phase of the lift; these movements help decrease injury Strength and Conditioning Breathing: Try to breathe in during the descent phase and breathe out during the ascent phase. Once the load exceeds 80% of maximum weight, it is difficult or impossible not to use the Valsalva maneuver—increasing the pressure in the abdomen by closing the glottis and activating trunk and abdominal muscles. Valsalva causes large increases in blood pressure but desirably increases abdominal pressure to stabilize the spine during the movement so that you can lift more weight. While a forced Valsalva may not be desirable for people with weakened arteries or known cardiovascular disease or multiple risk factors for the disease, the Valsalva maneuver protects the spine and increases squatting power. Heavy squatting increases the stiffness of the arteries. The longterm effects of weight-training-induced arterial stiffness are unknown. Returning the Weight to the Rack: Blood pressures—measured directly inside the arteries—have reached as high as 480/350 mm Hg during heavy squats (resting blood pressure is typically 120/80 mmHg). Such huge increases in blood pressure can compromise blood flow to the brain and leave you dizzy and disoriented. Let your spotters help you return the bar to the rack. They should make sure that the lifter’s hands are clear of the supports when reracking the weight. Even the strongest lifter can lose control after heavy squatting. It is not unusual for healthy weight lifters to pass out during or after doing squats. Spotters should be vigilant when assisting with this exercise. Progression: Few things look more ridiculous The Squat | 219 than a person who loads the bar with a monster weight and squats down 2 inches. “Curtsey” squats do little to build leg muscles or improve lower body power. Start with a lower weight— the bar if necessary—and do the lift correctly. Do not add weight until you can do the exercise without breaking the position and keeping your spine neutral. At first, do between 10 and 20 repetitions per set until you develop the flexibility and muscle endurance to do the lift using proper form. The “face the wall squat” is a good technique for learning good squat mechanics (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=dsM87HtIqrA). Stand about 6 inches facing a wall with arms extended close to the body in front of you. Squat down keeping chest out, back straight, thighs abducting, with your feet flat on the floor during the movement. You will be unable to hold this position if you round your back or fail to use the hip hinge. Front Squats The front squat is a variation of the squat used mainly in the training programs of Olympic-style weight lifters (https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=lt9otTWuaOQ). It is also popular among cross-trainers. This lift is better for isolating the leg muscles than the regular squat because you cannot use your back as much to assist in the movement; consequently, you cannot lift as much weight in this exercise. Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart and toes pointed slightly outward. Support the weight on your upper chest (clavicles and anterior deltoid), elbows up, and bar resting on the Figure 6.4-6 Front squat. ends of your fingers. Squat down until your butt is one inch lower than the knees. Do this exercise with good control because you can easily lose your balance. This exercise takes practice but is a terrific addition to a lower body-training program. Some athletes like to do this exercise with the arms crossed on the chest to support the bar. This is not recommended because it tends to round the back, which makes the lift more dangerous. A better solution is to attach straps to the bar while lifting the elbows. This is a good solution for athletes who initially lack the flexibility to do this exercise correctly. Overhead Squats The overhead squat is the granddaddy of wholebody functional exercises that demand proper technique. Master this exercise, and you join a select group of journeyman squatters. Few International Sports Sciences Association 220 | Unit 6.4 Box Squats The box squat is an excellent lift for developing strength and power in the hip extensors (http://www.exrx.net/WeightExercises/ GluteusMaximus/BBBoxSquat.html). This exercise involves squatting to a box, sitting upright, and then driving the hips vigorously to Figure 6.4-7 Overhead squat. exercises build lower body and core fitness better than overhead squats do. You must hinge at the hips and maintain a neutral spine, or you will not be able to do it—even with a bar or wooden dowel. Stand holding a barbell overhead with straight arms, feet placed slightly more than shoulder width apart, toes pointed out slightly, head neutral, and back straight. Athletes should learn this lift with a snatch grip (wide) but can also use a shoulder-width grip as they gain competence. Center your weight over your arches or slightly behind. Squat down, keeping your weight centered over your arches, and actively flex the hips (butt back) until your legs break parallel. During the movement, keep your back straight, shoulders back, and chest out, and let your thighs part to the side so that you are “squatting between your legs.” Try to “spread the floor” with your feet. Push up to the starting position, maximizing the use of the posterior hip and thigh muscles, maintaining a straight back and neutral head position. Figure 6.4-8 Box squat. Strength and Conditioning The Squat | 221 the starting position. On the way down, push your butt backward as much as possible while keeping your shins straight. Push your thighs outward while pushing hard on the floor with the outside of your feet. Maintain a neutral spine and squat to the box. Next, drive upward from the box by pushing the traps into the bar first and explosively extending the hips and then the legs. Pushing with the legs prematurely will make you bend your back and risk injuring your spine. This is an advanced exercise, but it builds power for heavy lifting. Power-Rack Squats Power-rack squats allow you to use the power rack to overcome sticking points in the squat’s range of motion (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=j_zAoI_Gyuw). Select three positions along the range of motion and work out at each one. Place the bar on the first pair of pegs that allows it to rest on your shoulders with your thighs parallel to the ground. Push the weight upward until you are standing upright. After your workout at the first position, move the pegs so the bar lies in the middle of the range of motion. Repeat the exercise sequence. Finally, move the pegs so the bar travels only a few inches during the exercise. At this peg stop, you will be capable of handling much more weight than you can from the parallel squat position. Thoughts on Squat Training Programming for strength and conditioning is as much art as science. Top strength coaches gave their thoughts on incorporating squats into a power athlete’s training routine. Some of these ideas are contradictory, which reinforces the concept that there is no single training method that is best for achieving results. • Start with a general fitness program for three weeks before hitting the weight room. Include circuit training and running, and target specific muscle weaknesses and joint stability and mobility. • When lifting begins, use slow-tempo back squats for three weeks—five seconds down and five seconds up—stressing time under tension rather than reps. • Vary your squat workouts. Some variations on the basic exercise include front squats, paused front squats, and chain back squats. For the last, drape chains over the bar. At bottom of the squat, the chains are on the ground. The weight gets heavier as you come up. • Squat on Monday and Thursday and do not have a light/ heavy day. Try to progress through weight or volume every workout. • Athletes should squat 1 inch below parallel. • Always do a pulling exercises (e.g., cleans, snatches, high pulls) first, squats second, Figure 6.4-9 Power-rack squat. International Sports Sciences Association 222 | Unit 6.4 • Avoid squatting heavy early in a cycle to prevent disturbing crucial sports movement patterns. By the third workout in a cycle, the athletes begin to adapt; then you can add more weight. Do not allow athletes to do plyometric exercises until they can squat one and a half times body weight for one rep. Building Large Lower Body Muscles with High Set Deep Squat Workouts Promoting muscle hypertrophy is beneficial in many power sports. The latest research from the sports medicine lab is that high set workouts build muscle size better than fewer sets do. Australian scientists found that performing eight sets of squats (80% of one repetition maximum) increased strength more than one set of squats did. Squat strength increased by 19% in the eight-set group and 11% in the one-set group after 12 weeks. High Set Workouts to Promote Lower Body Muscle Hypertrophy Squat below parallel. Canadian researchers determined that squatting below parallel overloads the quads and glutes better than parallel or partial squats do and triggers more significant muscle activation. Form often breaks down during deep squats. When learning Strength and Conditioning The best way to build large lower body muscles is to perform high-volume squat workouts. Squat two days per week for eight weeks to develop additional leg hypertrophy and build total-body strength. Do the following workout on Mondays and Fridays. Rest one minute between sets and five minutes between exercises. Use good form for all reps. Maintain a neutral spine during the exercises and explode out of the “hole.” Integrate this workout into your normal training regimen. Week 1 Monday • this exercise, hinge at the hips and maintain a neutral spine. Avoid rounding the back and increase squat depth gradually. The squat is one of the best exercises for power athletes and bodybuilders but dangerous if performed incorrectly. Friday auxiliary leg exercise third (lunges, step-ups), and finish with core work. Back squats, below parallel: Eight sets of 10 repetitions (80% of one repetition maximum for back squats Front squats, below parallel: Four sets of 10 repetitions (80% of one repetition maximum for front squats) Box squats, parallel: Eight sets of 10 repetitions (80% of one repetition maximum for box squats) Overhead squats, below parallel: Four sets of 10 repetitions (80% of one repetition maximum for overhead squats) Only a few exercises build lower body strength and power. Adding other exercises to your training arsenal include step-ups, lunges, oneleg squats, hack squats, and Zercher squats. Making squats an important part of athletic workouts will produce significant improvements in whole-body strength and power. The Squat | 223 Summary Good squat strength is pivotal to strength and power athletes. Squats build basic strength in the legs, hips, and core muscles. The squat is one of the fundamental exercises of weight training. Squats can be dangerous if performed incorrectly. Most people overuse the quad muscles and underuse the larger, stronger glute and hamstring muscles when doing squats. They round their backs, which increases the risk of serious spinal injuries. Poor squatting technique puts excessive stress on the knee joints and unfortunately can set the stage for a lifetime of back pain. There are many squat variations, including back squats, front squats, overhead squats, box squats, and power rack squats. Other lower body exercises that contribute to athletic strength and power include step-ups, lunges, one-leg squats, hack squats, and Zercher squats. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 6.5 Olympic Lifts: Dynamic Exercises Modified from the Sport of Weightlifting Olympic Lifts: Dynamic Exercises Modified from the Sport of Weightlifting | 225 Unit Outline 1. Applying Olympic Weightlifting Techniques to Power Sports 4. The Clean and Jerk a. 2. Deadlift a. b. The jerk Conventional deadlift c. b. Sumo-style deadlift 3. Snatch a. The clean Modified clean and jerk lifts i. Jerk, push jerk, push-press 5. Learning Progression Modified Snatch Exercises i. Power Snatch ii. Hang Power Snatch 6. Summary b. Integrating the Snatch into Power Workouts Learning Objectives • Know basic weightlifting techniques and how to apply them to power and endurance sports. • Understand and execute modifications of the “Olympic” lifts such as power cleans and hang snatch. • Understand the role of the deadlift for helping athletes progress into the more technical Olympic lifts and their modifications. Weightlifting—sometimes called Olympic lifting—and powerlifting are competitive sports. Weightlifting involves competition in the snatch and clean and jerk, whereas powerlifting involves competition in the squat, bench press, and deadlift. Currently, only weightlifting is contested in the Olympic Games. Both sports require skill and strength. However, powerlifting requires more brute force, whereas • Understand that the deadlift is essentially a hip hinge. • Perform conventional and sumo deadlift style deadlifts. • Execute a snatch and its developmental exercises (e.g., power snatch, hang power snatch) and understand coaching points for teaching the lifts. weightlifting requires more quickness and technique. Some power athletes—particularly throwers, football players, and wrestlers—compete in weightlifting or powerlifting to help them enhance strength and power for their primary sport. Weightlifting has been an Olympic sport since the first modern Olympics in 1896. In 1932, the two-hand press, snatch, and clean and jerk were International Sports Sciences Association 226 | Unit 6.5 selected as the officially contested lifts. In 1972, the two-handed press was eliminated from competition. These extremely dynamic lifts work the large muscles of the upper and lower body. The competitors are placed into weight categories, and athletes are given three attempts at each lift. The highest weights lifted in the snatch and clean and jerk are added together to give the lifter a total. The athlete with the highest total wins the event. Applying Olympic Weightlifting Techniques to Power Sports Developing elite level weightlifting skills is a long-term enterprise that requires specialization, years of dedicated training, and expert coaching. However, power athletes can use weightlifting exercises and their modifications to increase strength and power on the playing field. These lifts are also central parts of most cross-training programs. These are difficult-to-master large-muscle, multi-joint exercises yet are among the best exercises for building well-rounded fitness, total body strength and power, and quickness. The “O” lifts are difficult to learn, so they are seldom part of traditional health club exercises. In fact, many gyms do not allow Olympic lifting and will ask you to leave if you drop the weights on the floor or platform. Few exercises build sequential strength better than the Olympic lifts do. Fortunately, you can learn modifications of the Strength and Conditioning basic weightlifting exercises—power cleans and snatches and modified Olympic lifts from a hang that are relatively easy to learn—and still build excellent strength and power. Posture and technique are critical for preventing injury and making satisfactory progress in the Olympic lifts. A good strength and conditioning coach is essential for helping athletes avoid common mistakes with technique and will provide expertise in guiding their progress in these exciting and beneficial exercises. Deadlift The deadlift is one of the three powerlifts, but it is an excellent exercise for helping athletes progress into the more technical Olympic lifts and their modifications. Research on sprinters, jumpers, and throwers found that pulling power from the floor was one of the best predictors of performance (Fahey 2001). Deadlifting is a whole-body exercise that uses the major muscle groups of the body. This exercise builds the glutes, legs, back, and shoulders. It is one of the best ways to increase grip strength. The deadlift is essentially a hip hinge, which is one of the primary movements we stress in this course. Deadlift styles include conventional and sumo. The conventional lift uses a shoulder width stance with the hands grasping the bar on the outside of the knees and lower legs, while the conventional style uses a wider stance, with hands and arms placed on the inside of the legs. Athletes have developed world class pulling power using both styles. In general, taller athletes with long torsos often prefer the sumo style, while athletes with shorter torsos prefer the conventional style. Olympic Lifts: Dynamic Exercises Modified from the Sport of Weightlifting | 227 Conventional deadlift: Stand close to the bar with feet placed shoulder width apart and toes straight ahead or slightly outward. Grasp the bar using a deadlift grip— a pronated grip (palm down) with one hand and a supinated grip (palm up) with the other hand and straighten your arms. Keeping your weight on your heels, hinge your hips by pushing your pelvis backward, while maintaining a neutral spine. Actively pull yourself into the hip hinge by vigorously activating the hip flexors. During the ascent (pulling phase of the lift), straighten the knees and hips simultaneously. Your butt should never rise faster than your shoulders. In addition, keep the torso locked and do not try to bend the elbows. The power from this exercise comes from the hips. Squeeze your buns together, brace your abs (contract the layers of the ab muscles), and bring your shoulders back slightly as you lock out the bar. The back should remain flat and the head should remain in line with the vertebral column. Many athletes will have trouble maintaining a good position from the floor when learning this lift. A good strategy for learning to “hip hinge” the bar during the deadlift is to do partial movements. Using a power rack, place the bar slightly below the kneecaps, flex the hips, maintain a neutral spine, and then pull the bar to lockout using a vigorous hip hinge. Sumo style: The principles for the sumo deadlift are similar to the conventional style. This technique is easiest for the beginner. Stand with feet wider than shoulder width apart and turn the toes out slightly. Try to “grip the ground with your toes.” Sit back and hinge at the hips, while maintaining a neutral spine. Your head should also be neutral, neither looking up nor down. You should be able to see a spot on the floor six to ten feet away when your hips are Figure 6.5-1 Deadlift International Sports Sciences Association 228 | Unit 6.5 Brief Description: Figure 6.5-2 Sumo deadlift hinged fully. Your shins should be close to vertical. As with the conventional technique, do not squat too low or keep your legs too stiff. The ascent is similar to the conventional technique: drive vigorously with the hips, maintaining a constant balance between hip and knee extension. Straighten your arms. Your butt should never rise faster than your shoulders. Also, keep the torso locked and do not try to bend the elbows. The power from this exercise comes from the hips. Snatch The snatch is a complex and difficult exercise. The object of the lift is to pull the bar over your head in one movement and catch it overhead in a squat with your arms straight. Good coaching is essential to mastering this lift. (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=7rZV5P3cAa4) Strength and Conditioning Place the bar on the floor in front of your shins, with your feet approximately shoulder width apart, and toes pointed straight ahead or slightly outward. Grasp the bar with palms facing you. Hand placement is wider than the clean— typically the distance from the edge of the clenched fist of one hand to the opposite shoulder when the arm is straight out from the side. Squat, keeping your arms and back straight and your head up. Pull the weight up past your knees to your chest while throwing your hips upward and shoulders shrugged. Emphasize an explosive triple extension of the ankles, knees, and hips. After pulling the weight as high as you can, go into a squat and catch the bar overhead with your arms straight. Stand up straight with the bar overhead. Return the bar to the starting position while maintaining a neutral spine. The snatch checklist at the end of this chapter summarizes the nuances of the exercise. The snatch has three distinct pulls. The first pull involves pulling the bar from the floor to the top of the knees. At this point, the hips are flexed, the knees bent, chest is out, with the head and spine remaining neutral. The second pull involves extending the hips and knees, shrugging the shoulders, and driving up on the toes as much as possible before pulling with the arms. During the third pull, the weight is moving upward from the force provided by the second pull, and the lifters actively pull themselves under the weight. Maintaining the proper position during the first pull is critical and difficult. Many power athletes Olympic Lifts: Dynamic Exercises Modified from the Sport of Weightlifting | 229 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Figure 6.5-3 Snatch and cross-trainers do snatches from a hang, as this position makes it easier for the athlete to maintain good posture, reducing injury risk. Modified Snatch Exercises The snatch takes years to perfect. For people interested in power sports, the goal of explosive whole-body training is to increase strength and power for well-rounded fitness. Performing modifications of this lift requires less precise technique and builds high levels of strength more quickly. Power Snatch The objective is to pull the bar over your head in one movement and catch it overhead with your arms straight. The secret of good performance in this lift is a vigorous triple extension of the ankles, knees, and hips. Unlike the snatch, the lifter bends the knees slightly rather than performing a complete overhead squat. Good coaching is essential to mastering this lift. Brief Description: Place the bar on the floor in front of your shins. Keep your feet approximately shoulder width apart and toes pointed straight ahead or slightly outward. Grasp the bar with palms facing you, hands placed wide apart and squat, flexing the hips, and keeping your arms and back straight and your head up. As discussed, hand spacing is the distance from the edge of the clenched fist of one hand to the opposite shoulder when International Sports Sciences Association 230 | Unit 6.5 the arm is straight out from the side. Pull the weight up past your knees to your chest while throwing your hips forward and shoulders back. Emphasize a vigorous triple extension of the ankles, knees, and hips. After pulling the weight as high as you can, bend the knees slightly and catch the bar overhead with your arms straight. Stand up straight with the bar overhead. Return the bar to the starting position while maintaining a neutral spine. Hang Power Snatch Begin with the bar in the high hang position (above the knees) or the low hang position (below the knee caps), hips back, arms and back straight, and knees bent. Begin the lift with the second pull. Extend the hips and knees vigorously, shrug your shoulders, and drive with your feet, and then drop under the bar (third pull) and catch the bar overhead with the knees bent slightly. If doing multiple reps, return the bar under control to the floor or to the hang position. You can also execute this exercise with a full squat (hang squat snatch). (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=K6QunmuTZOQ) Integrating the Snatch into Power Workouts The triple extension of the ankles, knees, and hips used in the snatch develops whole-body power in football, track and field, basketball, baseball, and softball. Most cross-training workouts involve multiple repetitions of snatches, power snatches, or hang snatches along with additional exercises. Maintaining good technique is vital to preventing injury, particularly Strength and Conditioning when you are beginning to experience fatigue. Rounding the back, extending the hips prematurely, or overusing the arms during the lift can cause serious and disabling back injuries. One of your guiding principles should be to use good form on every lift. Cross-training workouts are timed, which encourages bad technique. Move quickly and explosively, but do each lift movement properly! The Clean and Jerk This exercise is excellent for developing power in the muscles used for jumping and lifting objects from the floor (https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=Bc-0lFV1KWQ). It is a core exercise for cross-trainers and for power athletes—throwers, football players, and volleyball and basketball players. Brief Description: The clean: Place the bar on the floor in front of your shins. Keep your feet approximately 2 feet apart. Grasp the bar with palms facing you, hands at shoulder-width and squat, keeping your arms and back straight and your head up. Pull the weight up past your knees to your chest while throwing your hips forward and shoulders back. After pulling the weight as high as you can, squat down suddenly and catch the bar on your chest at a level just above your collarbones. Stand up straight with the bar at chest level, with feet shoulder width apart and toes pointed forward or slightly outward. The main power for this exercise should come from your hips and legs. Think of the middle phase of the lift as a vertical jump, which makes you drive the weight up with your hips and legs, not your arms. Olympic Lifts: Dynamic Exercises Modified from the Sport of Weightlifting | 231 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.. Figure 6.5-4 Clean and jerk The jerk: Holding the bar high on your chest, bend your knees and then extend fully, driving the bar upward. Drop underneath the bar, while driving your bent right leg forward and your straight left leg backward and slightly to the side. Holding the bar overhead with arms extended, stand with feet shoulder width apart. Return the bar to the floor. Some elite weightlifters do a squat jerk rather than the traditional split. Modified Clean and Jerk Exercises: The squat clean and squat snatch take years to perfect. For people interested in cross-training, the goal of explosive whole-body training is to increase International Sports Sciences Association 232 | Unit 6.5 strength and power for well-rounded fitness. Performing modifications of the complete lifts requires less precise technique and builds high levels of strength more quickly. Power Clean (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=K6QunmuTZOQ) This excellent exercise develops power in muscles for jumping and pulling objects from the floor. It develops strength and power from the basic athletic position and is a popular exercise in cross-training programs. Brief Description: Place the bar on the floor in front of your shins. Keep your feet approximately 2 feet apart. Grasp the bar with palms facing you, hands at shoulder-width and squat, keeping your arms and back straight and your head neutral. Pull the weight up past your knees to your chest while throwing your hips forward and shoulders back. After pulling the weight as high as you can, bend the knees suddenly and catch the bar on your chest at a level just above your collarbones. Stand up straight with the bar at chest level. Return the bar to the starting position. The main power for this exercise should originate from your hips and legs. Think of the middle phase of the lift as a vertical jump—this makes you drive the weight up with your hips and legs rather than with your arms. Variations: Variations include the high pull and squat clean. The high pull is identical to the power clean, except you do not turn the bar over at the top of the lift and catch it at your chest. This variation permits you to Strength and Conditioning handle more weight with less stress on the wrists and forearms. The squat clean is a more difficult lift than the power clean is. At the top of the pulling phase of the clean, bend your knees fully and catch the weight at your chest while in a full squat position. When you master this movement, you will be able to clean much more weight than you can power clean because you do not have to pull the weight as high. Jerk, Push Jerk, Push-Press: To the novice, the jerk, push jerk, and push-press look very much like a shoulder or military press. These lifts are principally leg exercises. Hoist the bar overhead by driving with your legs and then dropping underneath the bar with a split lunge (jerk; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2av_qXinO78), with bent knees (push jerk; https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=wt0qF-k9is8), or legs locked out (push press; https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=g0gEsMc1JZ4). Directions: Begin the exercise with the bar at the top of the clean position, resting on your chest approximately at collarbone level. Take the bar to this position by doing a clean or taking the bar from a rack and placing it at a chest-high level. Bend your knees and then thrust the bar up vigorously using your legs and arms. Drop underneath the bar with a split movement, one leg forward with bent knee and the other leg extended back and to the side slightly. Then bring your feet together, front foot back first followed by the back foot so you remain in a standing position with bar overhead and in control. Olympic Lifts: Dynamic Exercises Modified from the Sport of Weightlifting | 233 Learning Progression A basic principle of this course is that the hip hinge and stiff spine are the bases for powerful movements in sport. Athletes should not be allowed to use heavy weights until they have mastered these basic movements. Start athletes with a dowel, broomstick, or bar. The kettlebell swing is a good way to teach the hip hinge, and it is an excellent conditioning exercise. Progress to deadlifts from a power rack or block, emphasizing a vigorous hip hinge. Then do deadlifts from the floor. The kettlebell deadlift is an effective way to learn basic body mechanics. Drill the basic movements before progressing to weights. However, don’t train with dowels for too long. Adding weight will quickly reveal technique problems, but do not allow athletes to lift significant weight until they have mastered the basic movements. At the same time, continue doing other basic exercises such as squats, presses, plyometrics, carries, and functional training exercises. Building fitness will make the learning progress much easier. As discussed, motor pathways are extremely precise and difficult to change once established. Drill the proper movements until they become reflex. Then and only then should you progress to greater intensity. Some popular training methods require athletes to perform high rep snatches, front squats, and thrusters. This is a bad idea. Use technology to help athletes learn the techniques. Use smartphones and tablets to get instant videos of technique. Identify the errors and then correct them as soon as possible. Have athletes watch technique of elite athletes on sites such as YouTube. Break down the skills and drill athletes until they know them by heart. Developing precise skills takes thousands of hours of practice. Most power athletes are not weightlifters, but they should drill the techniques enough so they can perform the skills competently. Summary Weightlifting is a competitive sport involving the snatch and clean and jerk. Power athletes can use weightlifting exercises and their modifications to increase strength and power on the playing field. They are among the best exercises for building well-rounded fitness, total body strength and power, and quickness. These exercises are complex and difficult to learn, yet power athletes can learn modifications of the basic lifts and build significant strength and power with less technique work. These lifts present a high risk of injury if performed incorrectly. Use the technique checklists to assess proper lifting techniques. The hip hinge and stiff spine are the bases for powerful movements in sport. When performing these dynamic lifts, drill the basic movements using dowels or unloaded barbells before progressing to weights. Drill the proper movements until they become reflex. Use smartphones and tablets to get instant videos of technique. Identify the errors and then correct them as soon as possible. International Sports Sciences Association Squat Snatch Evaluation Checklist The Starting Position Load the barbell correctly with the appropriate weight and safety collars in place to secure the plates. Stand with feet spaced hip to shoulders width apart, with toes directly under the bar slightly pointed out, with no stagger, feet flat on the floor, knees straight, and barbell 2inches from the shins. The First Pull Reach down for the barbell using a hook grip. Grip the barbell as tightly as possible when using heavier weights. Once you have the proper grip, bend the knees so the bar is close to the shins. Tighten the torso muscles, and pull the bar off the floor with a smooth, slow, easy pull. Use a wide hand spacing, keeping the arms straight, and your knees inside your arms. Hand placement is wider than the clean— typically the distance from the edge of the clenched fist of one hand to the opposite shoulder when the arm is straight out from the side. Keep the elbows locked with arms extended and forearms pronated. Keep your back flat, head up, chest out, shoulder blades pulled together, trapezius muscles relaxed, and arms straight with forearms pronated. Keep your hips higher than the knees but lower than your shoulders and with the barbell touching the shins. Keep your hips parallel and your shoulders directly over or slightly in front of the bar. Keep your torso rigid and push your abdominal muscles outward, shoulder blades pulled together lifting the chest, creating a steeply angled back. The back maintains the same angle with the floor from the beginning to the end of the lift. Keep your head facing straight forward (focal point straight ahead). Keep the hips higher than the knees but lower than the shoulders, maintaining a flat back with the shoulders still over the barbell. Keep your head in a neutral position with your eyes focusing straight ahead (do not look at the ceiling) and maintain a flat back. Keep your feet flat on the floor, balancing at midfoot. The first movement is a smooth, slow, easy pull off the floor Pull the bar upward with your arms straight. Move your hips forward and up as the shoulders continue upward. Your hips and shoulders should rise at the same rate. The Second Pull The starting point for the second pull is when you have raised the bar to your kneecaps or slightly higher. At this point, pull the bar upward quickly, keeping your arms straight and the barbell close to your body. Emphasize the triple extension of the ankles, knees, and hips. International Sports Sciences Association Curl your hands forcefully into your body. Pull your body under the bar. Keep your elbows high moving up over the wrists, which keeps your elbows over the bar. Move your elbows down under the bar as the bar passes your head and turnover your wrists. Catch the bar with you in a squat position. When the barbell reaches mid-thigh level, explode upward exerting as much force as possible. Extend up on your toes, shrug your shoulders upward and pull the barbell above your belly button— (keep the barbell as close to the body as possible.) At this point, your toes should be fully extended and your shoulders fully shrugged. Keep your arms straight and the barbell close to The bar, shoulders, hips, and ankles should be in a vertical line, with your arms locked. Your feet should remain flat on the floor. Recovery to Standing Position Contract the gluteal and thigh muscles and straighten your legs. your body. Keep the bar, shoulders, and ankles in a straight line. Shrug your shoulders toward your ears, keeping your arms straight. Stand fully erect with arms locked in a straight line with your torso. Keep your head facing forward with your focal point straight ahead. Bring your feet closer together and parallel. Pull the bar upward explosively with your legs completely extended as though you were jumping. The Descent and Catch (Third pull) Begin your descent to the squat as the bar passes your navel and you are fully extended Move your shoulders backward slightly. Lowering the Bar to the Floor Lower the bar under control to your thighs. Bend at the knees and hips, squat down, and bring the bar to the floor. Keep your back straight. International Sports Sciences Association Clean and Jerk Evaluation Checklist The Starting Position Load the barbell correctly with the appropriate weight and safety collars in place to secure the plates. Stand with feet spaced hip to shoulder width apart, with toes directly under the bar slightly pointed out, with no stagger, feet flat on floor, knees straight, and barbell 2 inches from the shins. Reach down for the barbell using a hook grip (thumb wedged between your index and middle fingers). Grip the barbell as tightly as possible when using heavier weights. Once you have the proper grip, bend the knees so the bar remains close to the shins. Keep your back flat, head up, chest out, shoulder blades pulled together, trapezius muscles relaxed, and arms straight with forearms pronated (palms toward the body). Keep your hips higher than the knees but lower than your shoulders and with the barbell now touching your shins. The First Pull Tighten the torso muscles, and pull the bar off the floor with a smooth, slow, easy pull. International Sports Sciences Association Keep your head in a neutral position with your eyes focused straight ahead (do not look at the ceiling) and maintain a flat back. Keep your feet flat on the floor, balancing at mid foot. The Second Pull You have reached the major power position of the lift—the starting point for the second pull— when you have raised the bar to the level of your kneecaps or slightly higher. At this point, pull the bar upward quickly, keeping your arms straight and the barbell close to your body. Emphasize the triple extension of the ankles, knees, and hips. When the barbell reaches mid-thigh level, explode upward using as much force as possible. Extend up on your toes, shrug your shoulders upward, and pull the barbell above your belly button— keeping the barbell as close to the body as possible. At this point, your toes should be fully extended, and your shoulders fully shrugged. Keep your arms straight and the barbell close to your body. Keep the hips higher than the knees but lower than the shoulders, maintaining a flat back with the shoulders still over the barbell. Keep your elbows locked with arms extended and forearms pronated. International Sports Sciences Association Rack and Recovery With your body fully extended (ankles, knees, hips with spine straight and shoulder shrugged), bend your arms (upright row posture) and begin to drop under the rising barbell by rotating the elbows out in front and dropping to a full squat. Your feet may have to widen slightly at this point so that you assume a secure, balanced position. As the hips go below the knees, the barbell should come to rest on your deltoids and clavicles. As you ride the weight down to a front squat position, you have reached the clean catch position. Stand up, keeping the elbows up, the torso rigid, and the chest high and hold the barbell tightly across the deltoids. From this position, bring the feet back to the starting stance. Jerk Bend your knees, lowering your body about 3–5 inches. Straighten your legs explosively, driving the barbell up from the shoulders with your arms, while pushing upward on your toes. As the barbell passes above your head, push your toes forcefully from the floor and drive one leg forward about 1 foot and the other foot backward in the opposite direction about 2–3 feet ( “lunge” position). As your feet land, lockout the barbell overhead with your arms. This is the split jerk catch position. Return to the standing erect position by pushing back with the front foot and stepping up with the rear foot, pushing up hard to keep the barbell overhead. The finish position of the clean and jerk is when the barbell is locked out overhead with the feet in line and the body held in an erect position. Lower the bar under control back to the floor. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 6.6 Resistive Exercise without Weights Resistive Exercise without Weights | 239 Unit Outline 1. Air Squat 7. Thrusters 2. Lunge 8. Overhead squats 3. Burpee 9. 4. Curl up 10. Push-ups 5. Spine extension (“bird dog”) 11. Six Principles of bodyweight Training 6. Isometric side-bridge 12. Summary Front plank Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand the principles of increasing strength without weights using bodyweight and gravity as resistance. You can increase strength without weights using your bodyweight and gravity as resistance. These exercises will not build strength as well as weight training does, but they are convenient. People interested mainly in aerobic exercise can do these exercises to help increase muscle mass without having to join a gym or enroll in a special class. Table 6.6-1 describes a basic home program that does not require any equipment (other than a doorframe pull-up bar). Table 6.6-2 presents a • Understand that bodyweight exercises train movements and not muscles. • Demonstrate basic bodyweight exercises such as air squats, lunges, burpees, curl-ups, bird dogs, side bridges, thrusters, front plank, and push-ups. list of common body-weight exercises. Descriptions and video demonstrations of these exercises are widely available on the Internet. Because your bodyweight remains constant, increase exercise intensity by doing more repetitions or decreasing the rest intervals. For some exercises, you can increase resistance by changing body position or using household items to add weight to your body. For example, push-ups become more difficult if you elevate your feet by putting them on a chair. For pull-ups, add bodyweight by putting sandbags in your pockets. You can International Sports Sciences Association 240 | Unit 6.6 Table 6.6-1: Resistance workout using bodyweight Table 6.6-2: Examples of bodyweight exercises Rest 2 minutes between sets Whole-body exercises Upper body exercises Mountain climbers Pull-ups Burpees Chin-ups Thrusters Rope climbing Bear crawl Muscle ups Good morning Inverted rows Exercise Sets Reps / Hold Push-ups 2 20 reps per set Pull-ups 2 5 reps per set Unloaded squats 2 10 reps per set Curl-ups 2 20 reps per set Front plank 3 10-second hold Push-ups Side bridges 3 10-second hold (left and right sides) Core exercises Spine extensions 3 10-second hold (left and right sides) Front plank make sandbags by filling old socks with sand. With a little imagination, you can create a “home gym” without any special equipment. A basic principle of resistive exercise remains the same—“train movements and not muscles.” This means that you should overload the body in everyday sitting and standing movements from a chair, climbing a fence, getting out of a swimming pool without a ladder, and standing after lying on the ground. The following exercises help build the strength and stamina for the tasks of daily life and improve overall muscular fitness for recreational activities. The exercises are ideal for all ages and fitness levels. Diamond push-ups Push-up and rotate Prone walkout Plyometric push-up (hands only or hands and feet bounce) Superman Handstand push-ups Flutter kick Handstand walking Bicycle Assisted wheelbarrow walking Side bridge Crunch Shoulder bridge Dips: parallel bars, rings, chairs Reverse plank bridge Arm circles Reverse crunch Dip hold Helicopter Pallof press Lower body exercises Air squats Lunges Air sumo squat Clock lunge Overhead squat Lunge walk Squat and reach Calf raise Air Squat Squat jump (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=C_VtOYc6j5c) Pistol squat Glute-ham raise (glute-ham machine or from floor) Instructions: Keep your back straight and head level, and stand with feet slightly more Strength and Conditioning Wall sits One-leg squat Step-up Hip thruster Single leg deadlift Single leg balance touch Resistive Exercise without Weights | 241 Figure 6.6-1 Air Squat. Figure 6.6-2 Lunge. than shoulder width apart and toes pointed slightly outward. Hold your hands out in front of you. Squat down until your thighs are below parallel with the floor. Let your thighs move laterally (outward) so that you “squat between your legs.” Hinge at your hips and don’t let your back sag. This will help keep your back straight and keep your heels on the floor. Drive upward toward the starting position, hinging at the hips and keeping your back in a fixed position throughout the exercise. laterally for increased stability. Lunge forward with one leg, bending it until the thigh is parallel to the floor. The heel of the lead leg should stay on the ground. Do not shift your weight so far forward that the knee extends past the toes. Repeat the exercise using the other leg. Keep your back and head as straight as possible and maintain control while performing the exercise. Muscles developed: Quadriceps, gluteal muscles, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, and core muscles Lunge (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=L8fvypPrzzs) Instructions: Stand with one foot in front of the other, with the back foot placed slightly Muscles developed: Quadriceps, gluteus maximus, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, and core muscles Burpee (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=TU8QYVW0gDU) Instructions: From a standing position with feet shoulder width apart, squat down and place your hands on the floor shoulder width apart, and then kick your legs behind you and land in the “up” push-up position. Next, drive your International Sports Sciences Association 242 | Unit 6.6 Figure 6.6-3 Burpee. knees forward until you are in a squat position, and then spring up as high as you can into a full jump, landing on the balls of your feet followed by heel contact. Repeat. You can make this exercise more difficult by performing a push-up after kicking your legs to the rear. (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=TU8QYVW0gDU) chest, and neck muscles. This exercise is mainly an isometric contraction that also can be done with an exercise ball. As discussed in Section 5.2, we recommend the McGill curl-up because it places less stress on the spine. Muscles developed: Rectus abdominis, obliques Muscles developed: quadriceps, gluteal muscles, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, deltoids, pectoralis major, triceps brachius, and core muscles Curl Up Instructions: (a) Lie supine on the floor with your arms folded across your chest and your feet on the floor or on a bench. (b) Curl your trunk up about two to three inches while contracting your abdominal muscles, minimizing your head and shoulder movement. Lower to the starting position. Focus on using your abdominal muscles rather than your shoulder, Strength and Conditioning Figure 6.6-4 Curl-up. Resistive Exercise without Weights | 243 Spine Extension (“Bird Dog”) Instructions: Begin on all fours with your knees below your hips and your hands below your shoulders. Unilateral spine extension: (a) Extend your right leg to the rear and reach forward with your right arm. Keep your spine neutral and your raised arm and leg in line with your torso. Do not arch your back or let your hip or shoulder sag. Hold this position for 10–30 seconds. Repeat with your left leg and left arm. Bilateral spine extension: (b) Extend your left leg to the rear and reach forward with your right arm. Keep your spine neutral and your raised arm and leg in line with your torso. Do not arch your back or let your hip or shoulder sag. Hold this position for 10–30 seconds. Repeat with your right leg and left arm. You can make this exercise more difficult by making box patterns with your arms and legs. Isometric Side Bridge Instructions: Lie on the floor on your side with your knees bent and your top arm lying alongside your body. Lift and drive your hips forward so your weight is supported by your forearm and knee. Hold this position for 3–10 seconds, breathing normally. Repeat on the other side. Perform 3–10 repetitions on each side. Variation: You can make the exercise more difficult by keeping your legs straight and supporting yourself with your feet and forearm or with your feet and hand (with elbow straight). An advanced version of this exercise that builds the core and shoulder muscles is a side bridge on the right side, rotate to a front plank, and then rotate to a side bridge on the left side. Hold each position for three seconds. Muscles developed: Obliques, quadratus lumborum, deltoids, pectoralis major, upper back muscles. Muscles developed: Erector spinae, gluteal muscles, hamstrings, deltoids Figure 6.6-6 Isometric Side Bridge. Figure 6.6-5 Spine Extension (“Bird Dog”). International Sports Sciences Association 244 | Unit 6.6 Thrusters (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=aea5BGj9a8Y) Instructions: From a standing position, hold a weighted object in each hand (e.g., rocks or filled soup cans) at chest level with palms facing outward. The feet should be shoulder width apart with toes pointed slightly outward and head held neutral. Squat down until your thighs are parallel with the floor. Immediately stand and press the objects overhead in one continuous motion. Lower the objects to the starting position and immediately repeat the exercise. Muscles developed: quadriceps, gluteal muscles, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, deltoids, pectoralis major, triceps brachius, and core muscles Overhead squats (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=RD_vUnqwqqI) Instructions: Stand holding a broom handle, rocks, or filled soup cans overhead with straight Figure 6.6-7 Overhead squats. Strength and Conditioning arms, feet placed slightly more than shoulder width apart, toes pointed out slightly, head neutral, and back straight. Center your weight over your arches or slightly behind. Squat down, keeping your weight centered over your arches, and actively flex the hips (hinge at the hips with buttocks back) until your legs break parallel. During the movement, keep your back straight, shoulders back, and chest out, and let your thighs part to the side so you “squat between your legs.” Try to “spread the floor” with your feet. Push up to the starting position, maximizing the use of the posterior hip and thigh muscles and maintaining a straight back and neutral head position. Muscles developed: Quadriceps, gluteal muscles, core muscles Front Plank (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=CO7MktWaoD8) Instructions: Lying on your front side with body straight, raise your body upward and support your weight on your forearms and toes. Hold the position. Begin with 10-second holds Figure 6.6-8 Front Plank. Resistive Exercise without Weights | 245 and progress until you can hold the plank for repeat sets of 30 seconds. Breathe normally. Tighten your abs, glutes, and quads as you do this exercise. You can also do planks with arms extended in a push-up position Muscles developed: core muscles, trapezius, rhomboids, deltoids, pectorals, and gluteal muscles pointed forward. Lower your chest to the floor with your back straight, and then return to the starting position. For this exercise, a good addition is to bend at the knees so both legs remain off the ground as you lower your chest to the ground. Muscles developed: pectoral muscles, triceps, deltoids, and core muscles Push-ups (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=eFOSh8vpd6I) Instructions: Start in the push-up position with your bodyweight supported by your hands and feet. Your arms and back should be straight and your fingers pointed forward. Lower your chest to the floor with your back straight, and then return to the starting position. Do modified push-ups if you cannot complete at least 10 regular push-ups. Modified push-ups: Start in the modified push-up position with your bodyweight supported by your hands and knees. Your arms and back should be straight and your fingers Six Principles of Bodyweight Training Bodyweight training can improve fitness and decrease the risk of injury in sport if you adhere to simple principles. 1. As with all exercises, use good form. Cut down on reps if form starts to deteriorate. 2. Maintain a stiff core and neutral spine. 3. Let the large muscles do the work. 4. Try to train explosively without sacrificing technique. 5. Modify the exercises or cut down on sets and reps if you develop joint or muscle pain. Small pains can become chronic if they persist. 6. Body-weight exercises will not develop the high levels of strength required in the power sports of football, discus throwing, shot-putting, and highland games. Figure 6.6-9 Push-ups. International Sports Sciences Association 246 | Unit 6.6 Summary You can increase strength without weights using your bodyweight and gravity as resistance. These exercises will not build strength as well as weight training does, but they are convenient. As with all exercises, use good form. Cut down on reps if form starts to deteriorate. Maintain a stiff core and a neutral spine. Let the large muscles do the work. Strength and Conditioning A basic principle of resistive exercise is to “train movements and not muscles.” This means that you overload the body in everyday movements like sitting and standing from a chair, climbing a fence, getting out of a swimming pool without a ladder, and standing after lying on the ground. UNIT 6.7 Cross-Training and Circuit Training 248 | Unit 6.7 Unit Outline 1. Cross-Training d. Downside of Cross-Training a. e. Science Behind High Intensity Cross-Training Programs b. Basic Program Based on Cross-Training Principles c. CrossFit Games 2. Circuit Training 3. Summary Nine Cross-Training Principles Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand the basic concepts behind cross-training. • Understand and demonstrate basic cross training exercises such as deadlifts, cleans, squats, presses, jerks, kettlebell exercises, snatches, plyometrics, sled pulls, and weight carrying. • Understand and demonstrate basic cross training body weight exercises such as pullups, dips, rope climbing, push-ups, handstands, pirouettes, flips, and splits. • Understand basic methods for improving endurance involving running, cycling, rowing, and swimming. • Understand the concept of high intensity interval training. Cross-training stresses whole-body, high-intensity exercise consisting of deadlifts, cleans, squats, presses, jerks, kettlebell exercises, snatches, plyometrics, sled pulls, and weight carrying. Cross-trainers learn to handle their body weight by practicing gymnastics, pull-ups, dips, rope climbing, push-ups, handstands, Strength and Conditioning • Understand the value of high intensity exercise for improving strength, power, and endurance. • Design basic cross training exercise programs. • Understand the problems and limitations associated with some cross-training programs. • Understand the principle of specificity and the importance of focused preparation for sport. • Understand basic training methods for CrossFit games. • Understand the principles of circuit training and how to design and implement a circuit training workout. pirouettes, flips, and splits. They also run, cycle, and row to improve the capacity of the aerobic systems, but the emphasis is on speed and intensity. Cross-training programs, such as GymJones and CrossFit, can develop well-rounded fitness by including exercises that build cardiovascular and respiratory endurance, stamina, Cross-Training and Circuit Training | 249 strength, flexibility, power, speed, coordination, agility, balance, and accuracy. Circuit-training is similar. Athletes perform a series of exercises for a set amount of time (e.g., 30 seconds) or repetitions, moving rapidly between exercise stations. Most modern cross-training systems perform unique exercises each workout, whereas circuit training typically involves the same exercises. In both forms of training, athletes attempt to perform exercise repetitions as rapidly and explosively as possible. Cross-Training CrossFit, founded by Greg Glassman and Lauren Jenai in 1995, is the granddaddy of cross-training programs (www.crossfit.com). The number of CrossFit-affiliate gyms increased from 18 in 2005 to about 11,000 in 2015. Some CrossFit level-one trainers freelance cross-training programs in their own facilities or as personal trainers. Many of the people involved in the ground floor of CrossFit such as Mark Twight (GymJones, Salt Lake City), Mark Rippetoe (Starting Strength, Wichita Falls), Robb Wolf (Norcal Strength and Conditioning, Chico, CA), and Greg Everett (Catalystathletics, Sunnyvale, CA) have become fitness gurus in their own right. Several have become bestselling authors (Wolf and Rippetoe) and celebrity trainers (Twight, trainer for the film The 300). Cross-training programs change the exercises in the program frequently and try to use broad and constantly varying training stimuli. They also try to develop metabolic capacity by combining aspects of high-intensity aerobic exercise and interval training. Their goal is to build the broadest and most general fitness possible. Their specialty is not specializing. Combat, survival, and many sports reward this kind of fitness and punish the specialist. The best cross-training workouts are tough but tailored to physical capacity and age. Good technique is essential. When performing squats and pulling exercises from the floor (e.g., cleans, snatches, deadlifts), people should maximize the use of the hips and protect the spine. This can be difficult because cross-training programs emphasize speed and high intensity. Performing high-speed cleans and squats improperly can lead to severe injury. Over the past 10 years, leading health-promoting organizations (American College of Sports Medicine, Surgeon General’s Office, and American Heart Association) have toned down their exercise recommendations. Currently, they recommend that people do 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise weekly that includes some weight training and flexibility activities. Their reasoning is that moderate amounts of exercise provide most of the health benefits of physical activity. In contrast, CrossFit and GymJones have moved in the opposite direction. Functional fitness is their main objective. They achieve this through a series of grueling exercises that build endurance, strength, power, flexibility, and quickness. A workout might include a high-speed bike ride, kettlebell swings, medicine ball tosses, and pull-ups. Program elements are as diverse as wind sprints on a rowing machine or stationary bike, sled pulls, rock carries, static holds with a heavy kettlebell, push presses, plyometrics, Olympic lifts, and pullovers on the still rings. International Sports Sciences Association 250 | Unit 6.7 These programs link burpees, pull-ups, front squats, deadlifts, push presses, tumbling, and box jumps into excruciating combinations that test the limits of human endurance. Science behind High-Intensity Cross-Training Programs The appeal behind cross-training programs is that the workouts are short and intense and produce relatively fast results. The programs build muscle and cardiorespiratory fitness simultaneously without requiring hours of repetitive exercise on a treadmill or elliptical trainer. Recent studies from Canada showed that high-intensity interval training (HIIT) produced rapid results. Researchers reported that HIIT on a stationary bike increased muscle oxidative capacity (citrate synthase) by almost 50%, muscle glycogen by 20%, and cycle endurance capacity by 100%. The subjects made these improvements by exercising only 15 minutes in two weeks. A follow-up study in moderately active women using the same training method showed that interval training increased whole-body and skeletal-muscle capacity for fat use during exercise. Ohio State University researchers reported that 10 weeks of CrossFit-based power training triggered substantial improvements in maximal oxygen consumption and body composition in men and women of various fitness levels. Aerobic capacity increased an average of 12%, while fat decreased by almost 20%. University of Georgia researchers found that Strength and Conditioning subjects who performed four sets of burpees at maximum intensity for 30 seconds followed by four minutes’ rest produced a physiological load similar to HIIT workouts on a stationary bike. Cross-training programs can integrate a variety of high-intensity techniques to quickly build aerobic capacity, strength, and power. The crucial element in these studies was to train at 100% of maximum effort, revealing the importance of high-intensity training to build aerobic capacity and endurance. Cross-training combines long slow-distance training, high-intensity interval training, high-rep calisthenics, and heavy lifts to create a well-rounded and high level of fitness. The workout takes about 20 minutes plus warm-up. Most workouts involve about 150 repetitions of various exercises. The goal is to move as quickly as possible while maintaining good form and posture. They build a combination of strength, power, and muscle endurance by including heavy deadlifts and presses with high rep pushups, pull-ups, dips, thrusters, and burpees. Accountability is an important part of cross-training regimens. CrossFit, for example, uses six benchmark, timed workouts named after women (e.g., Barbara, Angie, Chelsea) to help gauge performance and improvement. For example, the Barbara workout includes five rounds of 20 pull-ups, 30 push-ups, 40 sit-ups, and 50 squats with three-minute rest intervals between rounds. The benchmark workouts include modifications to accommodate older or less fit people. Cross-Training and Circuit Training | 251 Basic Program Based on CrossTraining Principles It is not possible to provide a comprehensive cross-training program in a short chapter. The basic concept is to change the exercises frequently, train intensely, and workout quickly. Moreover, maintain good form, particularly when you become tired. Table 6.7-1 presents an example of this type of training Table 6.7-1: Sample Cross-Training Workouts Change exercises during week 2 40 push-ups Monday 10 Standing long jumps 40 Squats with hands on your hips 20 Dumbbell swings Skip rope rapidly for three minutes Wednesday Nine Cross-Training Principles 1. Perform whole-body functional exercises. Practice major lifts—deadlifts, snatches, squats, presses, and clean and jerks. Do dumbbell and kettlebell exercises—swings, thrusters, one arm snatches, and overhead squats. In addition, include basic gymnastic exercises on the floor, rings, and parallel bars. 2. Throw objects far. Examples include medicine balls, shots, heavy stones. 3. Train intensely and take minimal rest between sets. 20 pull-ups 4. Vary your exercises every workout. Use many different patterns and combinations of sets, reps, and types of exercise. 20 dumbbell thrusters 5. Play and learn many sports and movements. Rest three minutes; repeat circuit two more times 20 overhead squats 10 kettlebell snatches (10 for each arm) Two minutes spent standing spinning on bike, maximum intensity Rest three minutes; repeat circuit two more times 20 burpees with push-ups 40 deadlifts Friday Perform the circuits three times but do not exceed 20–30 minutes for the workout. Separate the exercises into sets if you cannot complete all the reps (e.g., 20 pull-ups). Record your time. Train as hard and fast as you can while maintaining good technique. Select a weight that allows you to complete all reps in the sets. Sprinting in place (high knee, fast arms), one minute at maximum intensity 20 lunges with arm curls (20 for each leg) 20 push presses with barbell Run 800 meters at 90% intensity 6. Build rest into the exercise sequences. 7. Always emphasize good technique. Maintain a neutral spine and maximize the use of your hip muscles (glutes and hamstrings) rather than your back (erector spinae) and thigh muscles (quads) when doing exercises. 8. Build cardiovascular fitness with high-intensity interval training. 9. Exercise within your capacity. For example, although a 20-year old man might do iron crosses on the rings, an 80-year old heart patient might pull against a chest high bar or rope. Rest three minutes; repeat circuit two more times International Sports Sciences Association 252 | Unit 6.7 Downside of Cross-Training Cross-training programs have their critics. They disapprove of inadequate education and inexperience of some trainers, the increased risk of severe injuries, and the lack of implementation of the specificity principle. Level 1 certification for CrossFit, for example, requires that potential trainers attend a weekend workshop and pass a short test of CrossFit principles. Cross-training includes a wide variety of exercises, including the Olympic lifts and complicated gymnastic movements. These skills take years to master. A novice could never begin to learn them in just a few days. However, many cross-training instructors are highly motivated and dedicated. For example, Katie DeLuca—my former teaching assistant and a past coach at Norcal Strength and Conditioning (bestselling author Robb Wolf’s gym)––has a BS degree in exercise physiology, has earned several CrossFit certifications (level 1 and children), is a certified USA Weightlifting coach, studied with Mark Rippetoe for two weeks and is featured on one of his DVDs, and has training certifications in gymnastics. She also has competed at the college level in volleyball, basketball, and softball. Most cross-training coaches have passion, which we hope includes far more education and training than that obtained at a weekend seminar. Commercial cross-training programs stress pain and agony. Performing high speed, high rep sit-ups or squats often push muscles and joints to failure, potentially causing severe knee or back injury or muscle destruction (rhabdomyolysis; “rhabdo”). Until recently, physicians only encountered rhabdo following extreme Strength and Conditioning trauma from automobile accidents. These days, rhabdo is common because of the popularity of “feel the burn” cross-training programs. Canadian biomechanist researcher Dr. Stuart McGill believes that high-speed sit-ups and squats damage the spine. The benefits of high levels of fitness are counterbalanced by the risk of injury. A basic philosophy of most cross-training programs is that you are only fit if you perform well in 10 areas of fitness. Most sports require superior fitness in a few components of fitness. Movement is highly specific. In the 1950s, sports science pioneer Dr. Franklin Henry from the University of California, Berkeley developed the basic principle of training specificity. His many research experiments demonstrated that most movements are indeed highly specific, which translates to mean that skill development is unique to a given movement performed at a given speed. Additional motor control studies from UCLA showed that practice reinforces the brain’s motor patterns. As it turns out, these patterns also are highly specific to each movement. The concept of general coordination, general agility, general balance, and general accuracy is more myth than science. For example, the specific balance required in skiing is different from the specifically required balance to stand on one foot with eyes closed or to perform tricks on a skateboard. There are many “balances,” and each one is highly specific to the task, with little transfer among tasks requiring balance. Achieving good balance in downhill skiing does not automatically “transfer” to the highly specific movement patterns required in water skiing or ice skating. Each has its own Cross-Training and Circuit Training | 253 discrete set of balance requirements, and each must be practiced to achieve proficiency in a particular sport or activity. Practicing onelegged stands with eyes closed will not develop the precise balances required in either downhill skiing, water skiing, or ice skating. Athletes will not learn complex motor tasks, such as snatches and tumbling, practicing them only once or twice a month. Also, complicated movement skills such as discus throwing, the golf swing, hitting in baseball, and the volleyball serve require thousands of hours of very purposeful practice and specific conditioning exercises to ensure success. Maximal gains in strength, power, or hypertrophy are rarely achieved with cross-training because the adaptive responses interfere with each other (deSouza et al. 2014) Conversely, cross-training enthusiasts develop many specific skills. In my college strength-coaching courses, it was rare to see women who were skilled Olympic lifters. That has changed. Every semester, I encounter women who are highly skilled in the Olympic and power lifts, gymnastics, kettlebells, and high-intensity interval training. These women are not experts at these exercises, but they are skilled enough to develop high levels of fitness by doing them. In spite of its shortcomings, cross-training is fun. More than 50% of people fail to meet even the minimum exercise recommendations of the American College of Sports Medicine. People who practice cross-training do much more than the minimum and develop high levels of fitness in a relatively short period. CrossFit Games CrossFit games are the decathlon of physical fitness. They involve four days of competition in workouts announced a few hours before the games. Workouts might include aerobics, weightlifting, gymnastics movements, functional training exercises, open water swimming, a short triathlon, or even a softball throw. About 275,000 athletes compete in CrossFit games with prize money totaling $2 million. Athletes must qualify to compete in the annual CrossFit Games by placing high enough in regional competitions. Each competition generally consists of three to four workouts (or events) over a span of two days. The workouts details are not disclosed until the day before or the day of the competition. The training programs must include a wide variety of movements to prepare for the variability of the games. The CrossFit Games typically include a non-standard exercise such as the softball throw or open water swim, which are not part of standard CrossFit workouts. Athletes must be strategic and methodical with their training, include considerable variability in their workouts and refrain from neglecting weaknesses. Circuit Training Cross-training is a form of circuit training. Traditional circuit training programs such as Parcourse and Keep Fit Trails often are conducted outdoors and have set exercises arranged on a trail in local parks and schools. Outdoor International Sports Sciences Association 254 | Unit 6.7 Table 6.7-2 Example of an indoor circuit designed for a Division I swim program Program courtesy of Dan Tripps, Seattle University Exercise Wt Bronze Level Reps Exercise I II III IV V Gold Level Wt Reps I II III IV V Bench Press 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Bench Press 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 Pull Down 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Pull Down 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 Medial leg raise, L 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Medial leg raise, L 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 Medial leg raise, R 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Medial leg raise, R 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 12 14 16 18 20 Jump Rope 72 84 96 108 120 12 13 14 15 16 Seated Row 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 Abdominal Crunch Seated Row 0.50 Seated Press 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Seated Press 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 Lateral leg raise, L 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Lateral leg raise, L 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 Lateral leg raise, R 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Lateral leg raise, R 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 12 14 16 18 20 Abdominal Crunch 48 56 64 72 80 Abdominal Crunch Triceps Extension 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Triceps Extension 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 Biceps Curl 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Biceps Curl 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 Leg Extension 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Leg Extension 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 Leg Curl 0.50 12 13 14 15 16 Leg Curl 0.60 12 13 14 15 16 12 14 16 18 20 Stair Climb 12 14 16 18 20 Abdominal Crunch Time Standard 25:00 Silver Level Time Standard I II III IV V Bench Press 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 Pull Down 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 Medial leg raise, L 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 Medial leg raise, R 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 24 28 32 36 40 Abdominal Crunch Seated Row 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 Seated Press 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 Lateral leg raise, L 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 Lateral leg raise, R 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 36 42 48 54 60 Triceps Extension 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 Biceps Curl 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 Leg Extension 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 Leg Curl 0.55 12 13 14 15 16 24 28 32 36 40 Jump Rope Abdominal Crunch Time Standard 30:00 Strength and Conditioning 35:00 circuit training courses are effective for building general fitness but will not build significant strength and power for high-level power sports. Elite athletes rarely if ever use circuit training. Circuit training is an effective outdoor or indoor training technique if you are working with large groups. Table 6.7.2 shows a circuit that was successfully used with a Division I swim team. The circuit has different levels representing increasing levels of difficulty. Athletes would start at the “Bronze Level” step I. For the bench press, for example, athletes would perform 12 repetitions using 50% of their one-repetition maximum and then move to the lat pull down. When they could perform the circuit within the target time (e.g., 25 minutes for Bronze Level), they could progress to level II. Athletes can start anywhere along the circuit, which facilitates training large groups. Cross-Training and Circuit Training | 255 Summary Cross-training stresses whole-body, high-intensity exercise using deadlifts, cleans, squats, presses, jerks, kettlebell exercises, snatches, plyometrics, sled pulls, and weight carrying. Cross-trainers learn to handle their body weight by practicing gymnastics, pull-ups, dips, rope climbing, push-ups, handstands, pirouettes, flips, and splits. They also run, cycle, and row to enhance aerobic capacity, but the emphasis is on speed and intensity. Circuit training is similar. Athletes perform a series of exercises for a set amount of time (e.g., 30 seconds), moving rapidly between exercise stations. The appeal behind cross-training and circuit training is that the workouts are relatively brief, are intense, and produce fast results. The best cross-training workouts are “tough” but tailored to physical capacity and age. Good technique is essential. Cross-training programs use a variety of high-intensity techniques to quickly build aerobic capacity, strength, and power. The core element in these studies was training at 100% of maximum effort. These studies showed the importance of high-intensity training for building aerobic capacity and endurance. Although cross-training programs build physical fitness, they are not specific to any sport. Sports skills are highly specific to each movement. The concept of general coordination, general agility, general balance, and general accuracy is more myth than science. The balance required in skiing is different from the balance required to stand on one foot with eyes closed or to perform tricks on a skateboard. Athletes will not learn complex motor tasks such as snatches and tumbling by practicing them only once or twice a month. Complicated movement skills in discus throwing, the golf swing, hitting in baseball, and the volleyball serve require thousands of hours of purposeful practice and specific conditioning exercises to ensure success. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 6.8 Suspension Training Suspension Training | 257 Unit Outline 1. Suspension Training Builds Core Fitness 2. Suspension Training Workouts 3. Where to Purchase Suspension Training Devices 4. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • • Understand and demonstrate basic suspension exercises such as single-leg squat, balance lunge, hamstring curl, hip abduction, chest press, back row, “Y” deltoid raise, biceps curl, triceps curl, pull through, oblique leg raise, and suspended crunch. • Understand how to construct a simple suspension exercise trainer. Understand the principles and applications of suspension training using devices such as Total Resistance Exercise (TRX) and Redcord. Suspension training is a resistive exercise modality using ropes and webbing as equipment and body weight as resistance. It involves whole-body exercises that typically require stabilization and static contractions of core muscles. Popular suspension training devices include Total Resistance Exercise (TRX; www.trxtraining.com) in the United States and Redcord in Western Europe (www.redcord.com). Suspension training: Resistive exercise technique that uses ropes and webbing as equipment and body weight as resistance. Randy Hetrick, a former Navy Seal squadron commander, developed a simple suspension device that he later named the TRX Suspension Trainer (www.trxtraining.com/discover/who-we-are/ heritage). It allowed his combat teams to maintain peak fitness while aboard ship or in hostile environments around the world. The TRX started as two parachute suspension lines looped over a tree limb or wooden or steel beam that were used to perform standard push-ups, curls, and rows. Gradually, Hetrick and his fellow Seals developed scores of imaginative exercises that develop whole-body functional fitness using only body weight as resistance. The device has skyrocketed in popularity and currently is available in gyms and fitness training centers throughout the United States. International Sports Sciences Association 258 | Unit 6.8 Hetrick refined the device so that it was more aesthetically appealing to the average person. The TRX Suspension Training System consists of two adjustable nylon strips with a handle and foot stirrup at each end. Exercisers attach the TRX to an overhanging bar, tree limb, or pipe by another sturdy section of nylon cord and a carabiner. The unit also comes with an optional doorjamb anchor. Sling exercise therapy: Exercise technique involving supporting body segments with slings to induce static loads on stabilizing muscle groups. Neuromuscular training: Exercises that challenge proprioception and neuromuscular control. Exercise challenges include those that stimulate the stretch-shortening cycle, balance, core stiffness, and stretch reflexes. Redcord is the most popular suspension training system in Western Europe and the Scandinavian countries. In Europe, the Redcord system has targeted physical therapists and specialized sports trainers rather than marketing it as a training system for the general population. The Redcord sling exercise therapy and neuromuscular training techniques were designed to build muscle strength and endurance, improve core fitness, and treat chronic musculoskeletal lower back, neck, and shoulder pain and dysfunction. Suspension training has become extremely popular worldwide due to its simplicity, quality, and value. The systems use body weight as a resistance rather than relying on weights, hydraulics, elastic bands, or pulleys. Changing body position or adjusting the length of the straps increases or decreases the exercise intensity. These devices are versatile and work the body’s major muscle groups. Suspension Training Builds Core Fitness Closed kinetic chain exercise: The lower or upper body stays in contact with the ground during the movement. Suspension training exercises are closed kinetic chain, which means that the lower or upper body stays in contact with the ground during the movement as in the simple push-up. These exercises are only possible through coordinated muscle action working across multiple joints. Muscles supporting the spine (i.e., “the core”) act as stabilizers that allow powerful motions in the upper or lower body and transfer force between the legs and arms. Developing core fitness is important for performance, health, and building an attractive looking body. Core training is a major shift from typical older training methods developed since 1950—at least in America. At the heart of this training philosophy, as discussed in Section 5.2 of the course, is Strength and Conditioning Suspension Training | 259 that athletes should train movements rather than muscles. Strong, fit core muscles create a relatively stiff torso that promotes force transfer from the lower to upper body. Peripheral joints and muscles receive increased stress in the face of core muscle instability, an important prerequisite required to overcome in performing complex motor tasks. Poor core strength increases injury risk to knee ligaments and shoulder rotator cuff and can translate to poor, weak performance. Suspension trainers work the body through many natural movement patterns that require and build strong and stable core muscles. The pike exercise is an example of a wholebody movement that stabilizes the core while overloading the shoulders and legs (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=KvCMHJ_bMnQ). Bodybuilding has had a strong influence on strength training in the United States during the last 100 years. Strength training pioneers Eugene Sandow and Charles Atlas made fortunes selling books and bodybuilding courses to people trying to improve their appearance and health. In the 1960s, equipment manufacturers built multicomponent weight-training machines that developed specific muscles—biceps, shoulders, and quadriceps. The widespread use of these machines led to training programs that emphasized muscle isolation. Although muscle isolation exercises are desirable for building and improving specific muscle appearances, they do not build fitness that athletes or average people can translate into practice. Isolation training programs served as a justification for commercial weight machines, but they did little to improve functional fitness. The body does not use muscles the way we develop them on weight machines. Instead of isolated muscle actions, common movements use many muscle groups activated in precise sequences. Simple actions in walking, playing tennis or golf, or hanging a picture on the wall require coordinated actions of scores of muscles. Strong, fit core muscles stabilize the midsection when you sit, stand, reach, walk, jump, twist, turn, squat, throw, or bend. The muscles on the front, back, and sides of the trunk support the spine when you sit in a chair and fix your midsection as you use your legs to stand up. Isolated muscle development leads to muscle imbalances and does not prepare the body for “real-life” movements. International Sports Sciences Association 260 | Unit 6.8 contractions of major muscle groups and stabilization by the core muscles. They build muscles in the way we move. Suspension Training Workouts (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=RNoS20NSXSI) The basic workout recommended by TRX consists of a warm-up followed by 12 exercises done continuously for 60 seconds, each followed by 20 seconds of rest. Exercises include the single-leg squat, balance lunge, hamstring curl, hip abduction, chest press, back row, “Y” deltoid raise, biceps curl, triceps curl, pull through, oblique leg raise, and suspended crunch. Intensity is progressive. Increasing the load depends on the capacity to maintain good posture and to do the movements smoothly. During normal movements, some muscles shorten actively, while others stabilize joints or assist the movement. Other times, muscles contract as they lengthen (contract eccentrically) to provide control. Or they contract isometrically (contract with little or no movement) to stabilize the skeleton so other muscles can contract forcefully. The brain controls muscles to provide movement, stabilization, and control at the right joint, at the right time, and at the right movement plane. The core muscles produce force, reduce force, and stabilize the spine to execute complex movement patterns. Suspension trainers build functional fitness through exercises that require powerful and coordinated Strength and Conditioning Although this program sounds like a traditional bodybuilder’s muscle isolation workout, each exercise develops total body fitness and helps stabilize the core. Increase the intensity of each exercise by moving more rapidly or explosively, changing body position to increase load, or doing exercises on one leg to decrease stability. It is important as you perform each exercise to concentrate on good form, rather than just cranking them out. Fitness Anywhere, the maker of TRX, designed a series of workouts that concentrate on the core muscles. The basic workout includes exercises such as standing back extensions, kneeling rollout, leg raises, suspended crunch, suspended side plank, and reaching V-sit. People attempt to do Suspension Training | 261 each exercise for 15–30 seconds and build up to 60 seconds. The advance program includes high rotation, suspended high, oblique leg raise, supine bicycle, suspended pendulum, and resisted roll-up exercises. As in the beginning workout, people do each exercise for 15–30 seconds and gradually increase the time to one minute. Suspension training programs emphasize muscle endurance and core stiffness, which are vital to functional fitness and back health. It is less effective than powerlifting or Olympic lifting is for building strength and power. Many athletes who play football, baseball, or the throwing events in track and field can often lift massive amounts of weight in the bench press or squat. They are, however, often deficient in muscle endurance and core strength, which are also vital to their performance. Suspension trainers are not “end all” comprehensive exercise devices. They are, however, valuable to complement other modes of exercise and to help you get a good workout almost anywhere. Where to Purchase Suspension Training Devices The TRX represents a quality, somewhat expensive piece of exercise equipment. The TRX Professional sells for about $250 and is available on the company’s website (www.trxtraining. com) and at sporting goods stores, including discounts at the Amazon Internet site (www. amazon.com). The TRX Suspension Trainer Basic Kit + Door Anchor by TRX sells for about $190. It includes the TRX Suspension Trainer, instructional DVD, suspension anchor, and laminated exercise guide. You can also purchase an optional door or wall mount. The company offers other packages for slightly more money that include specialized training programs for the military or specific sports (e.g., golf) and packages with the door mount included. Redcord is a suspension training device developed in Norway currently used principally by physical therapists and sports trainers in nearly all sporting events (e.g., track and field, swimming, rowing, cycling, martial arts, skiing, gymnastics). Its training methods are more involved than the TRX system is and includes use of isolated vibration training and supported suspension to retrain previously inactive brain-muscle signaling. The Redcord website has extensive scientific information on the validity of suspension training and specific exercise programs for sports and athletic performance improvement (www.redcord.com). An alternative to commercially produced suspension trainers is to construct one from inexpensive material available at any military surplus store and most hardware and big box retailers (e.g., Home Depot, Lowes). For the price of a short rope, webbing, and belt, you can make a first-rate suspension exercise device at a fraction of the cost of that of commercial units. Suspension exercise devices are important weapons in your training arsenal. They build strength, power, flexibility, and endurance using whole-body training methods. They are relatively inexpensive, high quality, and extremely portable. You can take them anywhere, so now you have no excuse for missing a workout or putting one off. International Sports Sciences Association 262 | Unit 6.8 Summary Suspension training is a resistive exercise modality using ropes and webbing as equipment and body weight as resistance. It involves whole-body exercises that typically require stabilization and static contractions of the core muscles. Total Resistance Exercise (TRX) is the most popular suspension exerciser in the United States, and Redcord is the most popular in Europe. Suspension training exercises are closed kinetic chain, which means that the lower or upper body stays in contact with the ground during the movement. Suspension trainers work the Strength and Conditioning body through many natural movement patterns that require and build strong and stable core muscles. These versatile devices can be used to work the body’s major muscle groups. A basic workout might include standing back extensions, kneeling rollout, leg raises, suspended openly crunch, suspended side plank, and reaching V-sit. People attempt to do each exercise for 15–30 seconds and build up to 60 seconds. The advance program includes high rotation, suspended high, oblique leg raise, supine bicycle, suspended pendulum, and resisted roll-up exercises. UNIT 6.9 Principles of Plyometric Training 264 | Unit 6.9 Unit Outline 1. Principles of Plyometric Training 5. Box Jumping a. 2. Stationary Plyometrics a. b. Standing long jump from a box Calf jumps c. b. Rope skipping and rope ladder exercises c. e. Butt kick squat jumps f. One-leg squat jumps Ski box jumps d. Single leg jump-ups Squat jumps d. Tuck squat jumps Step-downs 6. Medicine Ball Exercises a. Play catch with yourself i. Chest high catch g. 360º Squat Jumps ii. Behind the neck catch h. Ice skater iii. Waist-high catch i. Lunge jumps b. Medicine ball, heavy stone, or shot put throws 3. Horizontal Jumps and Hops a. Standing long jumps b. Multiple standing long jumps c. c. d. Skiers Four squares or dot jumping f. Cone hops g. Hurdle hops 4. Upper Body Plyometrics a. Overhead throw ii. Front waist throw iii. Waist throw to the side Standing triple jump e. i. 7. Medicine ball exercises with a partner i. Chest passes ii. Overhead passes Other Exercises to Develop Speed and Power 8. Summary Bounce push-ups b. Wall bounce push-ups c. Floor bounce push-ups Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand the benefits of plyometric training • Understand the science behind plyometric training and how to maximize the use of the stretch-shortening cycle for initiating training effects. Strength and Conditioning • Understand that the three phases of a plyometric exercise include loading, amortization, and concentric. • Understand and execute stationary plyometric exercises such as calf jumps, rope skipping, rope ladder exercises, squat jumps, tuck squat jumps, butt kick squat jumps, 360º squat jumps, one-leg squat jumps, ice skaters, and lunge jumps. Principles of Plyometric Training | 265 • • Understand and execute horizontal jumps and hops such as standing long jumps, multiple standing long jumps, standing triple jumps, skiers, four squares and dot jumping, cone hops, and hurdle hops. • Understand principles and methods of jumping to and from boxes, benches, or steps. • Understand principles and methods of medicine ball training and overhead training with stones and shots. Understand and execute upper body plyometric exercises such as bounce push-ups, wall bounce push-ups, and floor bounce push-ups. Plyometric exercises are excellent for building basic muscle strength, power, and speed. They improve on-field performance in power and endurance sports and help build bone mass in girls and young women to protect against fractures with aging. These exercises are fun, challenging, and excellent additions to most training programs. Table 6.9-1 summarizes the eight physiological benefits of plyometrics. Plyometric exercise: Rapid eccentric muscle contractions immediately followed by rapid concentric contractions of muscle groups during highly dynamic movements (i.e., stretch-shortening cycle). Table 6.9-1: Eight Benefits of Plyometrics 1. Increases bone mass in children, young women, and premenopausal women 2. Increases elastic component stiffness of ankle plantar flexors 3. Improves lower body strength, power, and stretch-shortening cycle muscle function 4. Increases neural drive to prime mover muscles 5. Improves intermuscular coordination 6. Changes muscle size and architecture to increase force-generating capacity 7. Improves jumping, sprinting, agility, and endurance performance 8. Reduces risk of lower-extremity injuries in female athletes Plyometrics enhance performance in sports because during movement, they increase leg power and train the nervous system to activate large muscle groups quickly. The exercises enhance the capacity for single “explosive” jumping, throwing a baseball or softball, smashing a tennis ball, or crushing a golf ball. International Sports Sciences Association 266 | Unit 6.9 Stretch-shortening cycle: Eccentric muscle contraction followed immediately by a concentric contraction. Loading phase of plyometrics: Occurs during landing and involves eccentric muscle contractions. Amortization phase of plyometrics: The transition between the eccentric and concentric phases of the plyometric exercise. Concentric phase of plyometrics: Muscle shortening that results in actively moving the joints. It is enhanced by the elastic energy stored in the muscles and tendons during the loading phase of the activity. Plyometric exercises involve rapid stretching and then shortening of muscle groups during highly dynamic movements. The stretching causes a stretch reflex and elastic recoil in the muscles and tendons, which, when combined with vigorous muscle contractions, create great force that overloads muscle and increases strength and power. Scientists call the rapid coupling of muscle stretch and contraction the stretch-shortening cycle. Plyometric exercises include three phases: loading, amortization, and concentric. The loading phase occurs during landing and involves eccentric muscle actions, which stores potential energy. The amortization phase of plyometrics refers to the transition between the eccentric to concentric phases of the activity. Athletes should strive to minimize the amortization phase so they progress rapidly from eccentric to concentric contractions (i.e., shock absorption to active contraction). The concentric phase involves muscle shortening that results in actively moving the joints. The elastic energy stored in the muscles and tendons during the loading phase of the exercise enhances the concentric phase of the muscle action. Plyometrics range in difficulty from simple calf jumps off the ground to more advanced multiple one-leg jumps to and from boxes. The calf jump is a simple plyometric exercise involving jumping in place repeatedly, using mainly the calf muscles. As you land on the ground after the first jump, you stretch your calf muscles as they help control the landing. The recoil from the stretch adds to the force of the muscle contraction used for the next jump. The basic principle for all plyometric exercises is to absorb the shock with the arms or legs and then immediately contract these muscles. For example, if doing a series of squat jumps, as soon as you land after one jump, jump again as quickly as possible. The more quickly you jump, the more you overload the muscles. These movements train the nervous system to react quickly. In untrained people, the nervous system activates the muscles slowly during repeated muscle contractions as occurs during calf jumping. This protective reflex is designed to spare the legs from injury. With conditioning, you train the nervous system to react more quickly Strength and Conditioning Principles of Plyometric Training | 267 and activate leg muscles rapidly. Stronger muscles and joints no longer need reflex protection. Plyometric exercises cause significant stress to muscles, bones, and joints. All of the exercises are considered moderate to high impact. It is critical to progress slowly. Do not perform these exercises more than two to three days a week. If you feel pain in your muscles and joints for hours or days following a workout, modify your program or stop doing the exercises that precipitates the trouble. Injured and less conditioned athletes can perform plyometrics in water or sand to decrease impact forces. This section begins with simple, relatively low-impact exercises. More difficult exercises are presented later in this section. Do not attempt advanced exercises until you are in good condition and can perform the exercises without pain. There is a difference between pain and discomfort. Pain “hurts,” and you should stop. Discomfort is annoying but tolerable to different degrees depending on how much of the discomfort you are willing to tolerate. Pain forces you to stop, and you should. jump to and from the same place on the ground. More advanced exercises will progress to repeated distance jumps and finally to box jumps. Calf Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=x8lyw-zjmq0) This basic exercise helps develop jumping power in the calf muscles. This is an excellent beginning plyometric exercise. The Technique (Figure 6.9-1): Stand with feet shoulder width apart and hands on hips, with knees bent slightly. Using mainly your calf muscles, jump rapidly in place for 10 repetitions. Variations: Advanced variations include calf jump spins and one-leg calf jumps. With calf jump spins, attempt to spin as you jump, eventually going 360 degrees between jumps. Do one-leg calf jumps the same way you do two-leg jumps, except lift one leg off the ground when doing the exercise. Begin by doing one to two sets of about three to four exercises. As you become better conditioned, build up to three sets of 6–10 exercises. Perform these exercises correctly (i.e., precisely) and intensely. It is better to do only one set with precision than many sets incorrectly and at half speed. Rest at least one minute between sets. Stationary Plyometrics Begin with these simple exercises before progressing to movements that place more stress on muscles and joints. With these exercises, you Figure 6.9-1 Calf Jumps International Sports Sciences Association 268 | Unit 6.9 The Technique: Hold one handle in each hand with the rope behind you. Swing the rope over your head and jump over it when it reaches your feet. Continue swinging the rope and jumping over it. Speed up the tempo as your skill improves. Start with five to ten 15-second segments and progress to five to twenty 1- to 3-minute segments. Figure 6.9-2 Rope Skipping Rope Skipping and Rope Ladder Exercises Rope skipping is essentially the same as calf jumping is, except it is more vigorous (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LsWui2L_ r2c). This excellent conditioning exercise stresses the non-oxidative energy system for developing jumping power, particularly in calf muscles. Do this exercise using either “boxer” or playground style. In boxer style, use a short rope and jump by yourself. In playground style, two people swing the rope while a third person jumps. For most people, boxer style is most practical. Good jump ropes can be purchased at almost any sporting goods store. The best ropes are made of leather with wooden handles and ball-bearing swivels. With these, the rope turns easily in the hand without tangling. Buy one that fits the athlete—it should not be so short that the athlete cannot turn the rope without hunching over during the exercise or so long that it makes turning difficult. Strength and Conditioning As skill improves, try some of the many rope-skipping variations. These include crossing your hands in front as you jump the rope and swinging the rope for two revolutions between jumps. You also can vary your foot movements so that they resemble running or dancing. Using a heavy rope or wearing a weighted vest increases the conditioning effect of rope skipping. Rope ladder exercises are really a more intricate version of rope skipping (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=gXkt1txOunI). Many coaches use ladder exercises to develop “quick feet.” As with any plyometric exercise, these must be very close to movement skills to have any hope of transferring to the playing field. Movements required in intricate ladder drills are not the same as kicking a soccer ball, running a pass pattern, or shooting a jump shot. They have a value for conditioning, but they will not develop general agility. Squat Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=qv3hoZqSk3c) These are similar to calf jumps, except you bend your knees and squat in between jumps. This basic exercise is excellent to improve jumping Principles of Plyometric Training | 269 power and serves as an important part of any plyometric program. The Technique (Figure 6.9-3): Stand with feet shoulder width apart and bend your knees slightly. Jump up and drive your arms upward. As you land, retract your arms and squat down and then jump again quickly and explosively. Do 5–10 repetitions per set. slightly. Jump up and drive your arms upward. Tuck your knees underneath you as you reach the height of the jump. As you land, extend your legs, retract your arms, and prepare to jump again. Do between 5 and 10 repetitions, taking as little time as possible between jumps. Butt Kick Squat Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=_35ojuFRUvY) This is another variation of squat jumps. The Technique: Stand with feet shoulder width apart and bend your knees slightly. Jump up and drive your arms upward. As you reach the height of the jump, kick your heels backward and touch the back of your thighs. As you land, extend your legs, retract your arms, and prepare to jump again. Do 5–10 repetitions, taking as little time as possible between jumps. Figure 6.9-3 Squat Jumps Tuck Squat Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=r7oBejx1PHM) This is similar to the squat jump, except more vigorous. You have to jump higher off the ground to perform the knee tuck and still achieve a balanced landing. 360º Squat Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=hqSDDYT88BY) This exercise is another variation of squat jumps. It requires more fitness than most squat jumps do. Start with 45- to 90-degree turns and progress to 360º turns. The Technique (Figure 6.9-5): Stand with feet shoulder width apart and bend your knees slightly. The Technique (Figure 6.9-4): Stand with feet shoulder width apart and bend your knees Figure 6.9-4 Tuck Squat Jumps Figure 6.9-5 360º Squat Jumps International Sports Sciences Association 270 | Unit 6.9 Jump up and drive your arms upward, spinning in the air as much as possible. As you land, retract your arms and prepare to jump again. Start by rotating in only one direction. As you become more advanced, rotate to the left on one repetition and to the right on the next. Do 5 to 10 repetitions, taking as little time as possible between jumps. Advanced variations of this exercise include 360º tuck and mule kicks. drive your arms upward. As you land, retract your arms and immediately jump again. Repeat for 5 to 10 repetitions, taking as little time as possible between jumps. One-Leg Squat Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=kxoYuRVtryE) (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ZQSwbpn12ps) Do not try these until you have conditioned your legs for at least two weeks with two-leg squat jumps. Progress slowly; if you feel ankle, knee, or hip pain after this exercise, cut down on the volume or eliminate it from your program. The Technique (Figure 6.9-6): Stand on one leg and bend your knee slightly. Jump up and Variations (all advanced): 1-leg tuck squat jumps, 1-leg mule kick squat jumps, 1-leg 360º squat jumps. Ice Skater This exercise is excellent for developing thigh muscles for lateral movements and for stabilizing spinal muscles for dynamic movements. Your shoes should give good traction. Choose an area that provides good footing. The Technique (Figure 6.9-7): Stand with weight on the inside part of your feet. Using a speed skating motion, drive off your left leg and swing both arms to the right, and then immediately drive with the right leg to the left. Move as quickly as possible when going from one leg to the other. Variations: Sand Ice Skaters: do the ice skater Figure 6.9-6 One-Leg Squat Jumps Strength and Conditioning Figure 6.9-7 Ice Skater Principles of Plyometric Training | 271 exercise in the sand. This is a good way to begin doing this exercise because it is less stressful to the knee, hip, and ankle joints. Another variation is to use angled boxes. These wedge-shaped boxes allow better footing during the push-off phase and are popular with skaters and skiers. You can also do ice skaters on a slide board. Slide-boards are available commercially or can be manufactured cheaply using a piece of Formica and a wooden frame made from 2-by-4s (www.youtube.com/watch?v=SbJp3MyG5N4). Lunge Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=y7Iug7eC0dk) The lunge or split jump builds the thigh, gluteal, and back muscles. It is an excellent exercise for developing striding power for sprinting and lower body flexibility. The Technique (Figure 6.9-8): From a standing position, jump up and then land in a split position with your right leg bent and your left leg extended behind you and slightly to the side. After you land, immediately jump up, and again land in a split position with your legs reversed. One repetition occurs when each leg has been in the forward position. During this exercise, Figure 6.9-8 Lunge Jumps try to keep your body straight and jump up as high as possible. Horizontal Jumps and Hops These more advanced exercises involve jumping and hopping horizontally. They are excellent for developing basic leg power for jumping and running. Standing Long Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=8kdgVdCIqpg) In addition to being excellent for increasing basic leg power, this is a good exercise to gauge your progress. Measure the athlete’s standing long jump every few weeks. The Technique (Figure 6.9-9): Stand with feet shoulder width apart and toes just behind the starting or “scratch line.” Bend your knees and bring your hands below your waist, then jump as far forward as you can. Try to extend fully with your ankles, knees, hips, and arms to jump as far as possible. Figure 6.9-9 Standing Long Jumps International Sports Sciences Association 272 | Unit 6.9 Multiple Standing Long Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=6TgXNRFK3jg) This is similar to standing long jumps, except that you take three jumps in succession. The Technique: Stand with feet shoulder width apart and toes just behind the starting or scratch line. Bend your knees and bring your hands below your waist, then jump as far forward as you can, extending fully with your ankles, knees, hips, and arms. As soon as you land, try to jump again as soon as possible. Repeat until you have jumped three times. Standing Triple Jump (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=vX0XdhhuIWE) The triple jump is contested in track and field competitions. It used to be called the “hop, step, and jump,” which describes its basic movements. The Technique: Stand with feet shoulder width apart and toes just behind the starting or scratch line. Bend your knees and bring your hands below your waist, then hop as far as you can on one leg, extending fully with your ankles, knees, hips, and arms. Land on the same leg from which you took off, then step Figure 6.9-10 Standing Triple Jump Strength and Conditioning vigorously with the other leg. As you land, immediately jump with that leg and complete the exercise. A sequence might be to hop with the right leg, extend and land on the left leg (step), and then complete the jump with the left leg. Skiers (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=EjwjAc1mcNI) Skiers are good for alpine and cross-country skiers, skaters, and those who must change direction rapidly when running. The Technique (Figure 6.9-11): Stand with your feet together. Jump with both feet together forward and to the left side, land, and then jump forward and to the right. Jump as quickly as possible for 5 to10 repetitions. You have done one repetition when you have jumped to the left and right sides. Figure 6.9-11 Skiers Principles of Plyometric Training | 273 Four Squares or dot jumping Hurdle Hops (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=PR7s4nXtWSw) (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=tvVr-Gca9FI) This exercise also helps build leg power for lateral movements. This is an advanced form of cone hops but instead uses hurdles. Do not attempt this exercise unless you are well conditioned and have good jumping ability and technique. If the hurdles have adjustable stabilization weights, set them so that the hurdle falls down easily if hit. You can construct mini-hurdles from PVC pipe. These are safer for the beginner. The Technique: Keeping your feet together (or single leg jumps), jump in various patterns to the front, back, and sides. For example, jump front, back, left, right, and repeat. Many combinations are possible. Cone Hops (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Lhi4Se9U6ak) This exercise is similar to the multiple standing long jumps, except you try to jump for height over the cones as well as distance. You can also place the cones in different patterns to develop lateral fitness. The Technique (Figure 6.9-13): Place three to five hurdles approximately 3 feet apart. Start with hurdles at their lowest heights. Keeping feet shoulder width apart, hop over the hurdles as quickly as possible using both legs. An advanced version of this exercise is the one-leg hurdle hop. The Technique (Figure 6.9-12): Space three to six large 2-foot cones (or similar objects) approximately 3 feet apart. Stand in front of the first cone with feet shoulder width apart. Jump over the cones as quickly as possible. Figure 6.9-12 Cone Hops Figure 6.9-13 Hurdle Hops International Sports Sciences Association 274 | Unit 6.9 Upper Body Plyometrics Floor Bounce Push-ups Bounce Push-Ups (http://www.coreperformance.com/knowledge/ movements/push-up-plyometric-continuous. html) You can do bounce push-ups against a wall, steeplechase hurdle, or on the floor. These are excellent for developing upper body pushing power. Wall Bounce Push-Ups (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=z4iE5zjsl_Y) These are the simplest, least stressful push-ups. Start with these until your muscles and joints become accustomed to the stress of upper body plyometric exercise. The Technique: Lean against a wall or steeplechase hurdle at a 45- to 60-degree angle. Push up forcefully; then allow yourself to go back against the wall and absorb your fall with your arms. Immediately push off again. These are more stressful and difficult than wall push-ups are. Do not attempt these until you can do at least 10–15 push-ups. They can be done from a regular or modified push-up position. In the modified push-up position, rest your weight on your knees instead of your toes. The Technique (Figure 6.9-15): From a standard or modified push-up position, push up forcefully, extending your elbows fully until your hands leave the ground. Bounce back to your hands and then repeat the exercise. Figure 6.9-15 Floor Bounce Push-ups Figure 6.9-14 Wall Bounce Push-Ups Strength and Conditioning Variation: “Clap” bounce push-ups (Marine push-ups): Repeat this exercise as described above, except immediately clap your hands after your hands leave the ground. In this sequence, Principles of Plyometric Training | 275 you push up and leave the ground, clap your hands, bounce back to the push-up position, and repeat. A more advanced variation is the fourlimb plyometric push-up, in which the hands and feet lose contact with the floor simultaneously during the pushing phase of the exercise. Variation: “Rocky Balboa” one-arm push-ups: This difficult exercise was popularized in the movie Rocky. Do it the same way as bounce push-ups described above, except use only one arm. Start in a modified push-up position and graduate to the full push-up position when you gain the necessary strength and power to complete the exercise with good form. Figure 6.9-16 Step-Downs Box Jumping Box jumping involves jumping to and from boxes, benches, or steps. Landing creates more stress to the muscles and joints, so these exercises should only be attempted after doing exercises in which you jump to and from the ground. In addition, only do a few repetitions of these exercises. Box height varies from approximately 6 to 42 inches. Begin with smaller boxes and progress slowly to higher ones. As with other plyometric exercises, the object is to attempt to jump as soon as possible after you land. Step-Downs (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=6fNmCW2-ki4) This is the simplest, least stressful box jump. Begin with a low box (approximately one to two feet high). This exercise progresses from simply stepping down from the box and absorbing the shock with the legs to jumping down, landing, then vigorously jumping into the air. You should ultimately progress to jumping between a series of boxes. The Technique (Figure 6.9-16): Phase 1—Stepdowns: Stand on a box or bench with feet at shoulder width, knees bent, and spine erect. Step off the bench and land with bent knees. Phase 2—Step down, jump up: Stand on a box or bench with feet at shoulder width, knees bent, and spine erect. Step off the bench and land with bent knees and then immediately jump up using both legs and arms. Phase 3—Repeat step down, jump up: Place three to six boxes or benches approximately 3 feet apart. Jump from the first box to the ground, then up to the next box, then to the ground, and so forth. Jump as quickly as possible between benches. International Sports Sciences Association 276 | Unit 6.9 Standing Long Jumps from a Box Ski Box Jumps (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=lH5JAF4hXTA) (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=yb0osnxN9NY) This is similar to standing long jumps described in Fig 6.9-17, except that it stresses the legs more when you land. This exercise is sometimes called “depth jumping.” This exercise is similar to “skiers” described in Fig 6.9-10, except that you jump to and from a box as you jump side to side. The Technique (Figure 6.9-17): Stand on a box or bench with feet placed shoulder width apart. Jump as far forward as possible, extending fully your ankles, knees, hips, and arms. Land with bent knees. As your fitness improves, increase the height of the box. A variation of this exercise is to land on the ground and then jump (standing long jump) again immediately. The Technique (6.9-18): Stand with your side to a box or bench. With feet together, jump up vigorously onto the bench, then immediately jump to the ground on the other side, then jump back to the bench, and then jump back to the starting position, and so on. Figure 6.9-18 Ski Box Jumps Single Leg Jump-Ups (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=b9SDuaS7dnQ) This exercise is excellent for isolating powerful thigh muscles and developing jumping power in activities involving a single leg takeoff (i.e. layup in basketball or jumping for a ball when running). The Technique: Stand to the side of a bench or box and place your foot on the top of it. Drive Figure 6.9-17 Standing Long Jumps from a Box Strength and Conditioning Principles of Plyometric Training | 277 are a good whole-body exercise because you must engage your legs, arms, and trunk to perform them properly. Chest High Catch Figure 6.9-19 Single Leg Jump-Ups hard with your leg and extend fully with your ankle, knee, and hip and jump into the air; land on the bench and return to the starting position; then repeat immediately. Medicine Ball Exercises A medicine ball resembles a basketball in size but is heavier and softer. It is usually made of leather. However, newer medicine balls are usually made of rubber, and some even have handles. Medicine balls usually weigh 2–20 pounds. Because of their weight, medicine balls are excellent for plyometrics. When you catch them, your muscles stretch and contract eccentrically as you attempt to slow down and control the ball. You can do medicine ball exercises by yourself or with a partner. Play Catch with Yourself (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=psuefcS75nA) Do this exercise with the ball starting from your chest, behind the neck, or waist. You can do them against the wall or freestanding. These The Technique: Stand with feet shoulder width apart and hold the ball with both hands at chest level. Vigorously press the ball overhead with both hands until it flies into the air straight above you. Use your legs to help push the ball overhead. Catch the ball with both hands and then immediately throw the ball into the air again. Repeat. Figure 6.9-20 Play Catch with Yourself Behind the Neck Catch The Technique: Stand with feet shoulder width apart and hold the ball behind your head with both hands. Vigorously press the ball overhead with both hands until it flies into the air straight above you. Use your legs to help push the ball overhead. Catch the ball behind your head with both hands and then immediately throw the ball into the air again. Repeat. Do not do this exercise if you have any type of shoulder problem. Start with a light medicine ball (2–5 pounds) before progressing to a heavier one. Waist-High Catch The Technique: Stand with feet shoulder width apart and place your hands under the ball at waist level. Vigorously pull the ball overhead with both hands until it flies into the air straight International Sports Sciences Association 278 | Unit 6.9 above you. Use your legs to help push the ball overhead. Catch the ball with both hands and then immediately throw the ball into the air again. Repeat. As you become accustomed to this exercise, jump into the air as you throw the ball, land and catch the ball, and repeat. Medicine Ball, Heavy Stone, or Shot Put Throws (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=QVKix69FYlI) You can also develop power by throwing a medicine ball, shot, or heavy stone in various ways. Exercises include overhead, underhand, and side-rotation throws. The Technique: Overhead Throw (Figure 6.921): The motion for this exercise is similar to the underhand catch described above, except throw a medicine ball or shot put over your head, behind you. Try to throw the object as far overhead as possible. Extend fully with the ankles, knees, hips, and arms and jump from the ground as you throw the ball. Advanced power athletes can use Atlas stones weighing 30–100 pounds, which can be purchased on the Internet (http://www.roguefitness.com/ strongman/stones) or made at home (http:// www.bodyresults.com/s2stone.asp). The Technique: Front Waist Throw: This is also an underhand throw initiated at the waist, except that you throw the ball or shot put in front of you. You can also perform this exercise by throwing the ball from your waist in front of you or rotating to the side. The Technique: Waist Throw to the Side: Hold the ball or shot in both hands. Rotate to the right and then to the left and throw the object as far as possible. During the throw, try to transfer your weight from the rear to front foot. Repeat the exercise on the other side of the body. Medicine Ball Exercises with a Partner These exercises are excellent for developing power in the upper and lower body. Variations are limited only by your imagination. Chest Passes (Figure 6.9-22) (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=xR6kRAfGTvE) Chest passes are excellent for developing the pushing muscles in the upper body. They also strengthen the muscles of the trunk and lower body. The Technique: Stand with one foot in front of the other with knees bent slightly, approximately 6–10 feet from a partner. Hold the ball in both hands at chest level and throw it to your partner using a motion similar to a basketball chest pass. Your partner should catch the ball Figure 6.9-21 Overhead Throw Strength and Conditioning Principles of Plyometric Training | 279 ball forward over your head so your partner catches it with arms extended overhead. Your partner then retracts the ball overhead and throws it back to you. Other Exercises to Develop Speed and Power Figure 6.9-22 Chest Passes and immediately throw the ball back to you. The catching motion should blend continuously with the throwing motion in a semicircular pattern. You can also do this exercise from a kneeling position to isolate the upper body muscles. You can also do this exercise against the wall. Overhead Passes (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Ln-dMnF7dxE) This excellent exercise develops power in your triceps and shoulder muscles. Do not attempt this exercise if you have any type of shoulder problem. The Technique: Kneel facing your partner approximately 6–10 feet apart. Hold the ball in both hands behind your head. Throw the Variations of plyometric exercises are limited only by your imagination. Obviously, you cannot include all the exercises presented in your exercise program. Choose those whose movements most closely resemble your favorite sports. In general, choose 6 to 12 speed and power exercises and integrate them into a program that includes cardiovascular, strength, and flexibility activities. Sample exercise routines and exercise programming are discussed later in the course. The principle of motor skill specificity dictates that the gains you make from these exercises will not transfer automatically to increased power in sports. You need to practice the skill and gradually integrate increased power into the movements. If you work consistently on sports skills and do exercises to increase strength and power, you will eventually become more powerful in your sport. International Sports Sciences Association 280 | Unit 6.9 Summary Plyometric exercises involve rapid stretching and then shortening of muscle groups during highly dynamic movements. They are excellent to build basic muscle strength, power, and speed. They improve on-field performance in power and endurance sports and help build bone mass in girls and young women to protect them against fractures as women age. Plyometrics enhance performance in sports because they increase leg power and train the nervous system to activate large muscle groups quickly during movement. The stretching causes a stretch reflex and elastic recoil in muscles and tendons, which when combined with vigorous muscle contractions, Strength and Conditioning creates great force that overloads the muscles and increases strength and power. Scientists call the rapid coupling of muscle stretch and contraction the stretch-shortening cycle. The three phases of plyometrics include loading, amortization, and concentric. Plyometrics range in difficulty from simple calf jumps off the ground to advanced multiple one-leg jumps to and from boxes. Athletes should master simple two-leg plyometrics from the ground before they progress to single-leg exercises and box jumps. Injured and less conditioned athletes can perform plyometrics in water or sand to decrease impact forces. UNIT 6.10 Power and Speed 282 | Unit 6.10 Unit Outline 1. Elements of Power j. Stadium stairs a. k. High knee, fast arms l. Bounding strides Genetics b. Metabolic capacity c. Muscle size d. Skill e. Technology and skill f. Nervous system responsiveness 2. Sprinting a. Sprint starts, running 3. Power Training on a Stationary Bike 4. Agility Training 5. Peak Power Training a. 6. Functional Training a. b. Sprint starts, swimming c. c. d. Lateral sprinting Backward sprinting f. Downhill sprinting Stone training b. Carry exercises Short sprints e. Bench Throws Sledgehammer training d. Functional training machines e. Weightlifting (Olympic weightlifting) g. Speed parachute 7. h. Harness sprinting 8. Integrating Power Training into Workouts i. 9. Low hurdles Other Exercises to Develop Speed and Power Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand that the bases of power included genetics, metabolic capacity, muscle size, skill, technology and skill, and nervous system responsiveness. • Understand that while genetics are important for success, champions are produced through years of focused practice. • • Understand that skill is developed best through purposeful practice that reinforces correct movements to produce better, more skillful performance. Understand that fitness, strength, and power should not substitute for skill development. Strength and Conditioning • How to use smart phone apps such as Coaches’ Eye to improve skill. • Understand that technique is critical to execute powerful movements. • Understand and demonstrate proper sprint start techniques from blocks, standing, and three point stance. • Understand and demonstrate biomechanical principles vital to sprinting performance on a running track. • Understand and demonstrate lateral and backward sprinting techniques. Power and Speed | 283 • • • Understand and demonstrate sprint development techniques such as downhill and uphill sprinting, speed parachute, harness sprinting, low hurdles, stadium stairs, high knee-fast arms, and bounding strides. Understand and demonstrate effect power development programs on stationary bikes and elliptical trainers. Understand and demonstrate agility training exercises but recognize that repeating specific movements in the sport must develop agility. • Understand and demonstrate peak power weight training techniques. • Understand and demonstrate functional training techniques such as stone training, sledgehammer training, functional training machines, and Olympic lifting. • Know effective techniques for integrating power training into workouts in the gym and on the playing field. We marvel at the sheer power of elite athletes. It is easy to conclude that they are genetically gifted and their performance is beyond that of the average athlete. Although they may never reach elite levels, nearly all athletes can build strength and power through training, which will help them perform better in sports. In addition, they can learn techniques to help them in their daily lives and throughout their athletic careers. In sports, power is the ability to produce force rapidly. It is the most important fitness component in high-intensity tennis, football, soccer, basketball, most track and field events, field hockey, ice hockey, downhill skiing, golf, lacrosse, volleyball, and baseball. People move quickly and forcefully in these sports. How hard you smash the ball, how quickly you move on the court or field, or how rapidly and precisely you can apply force to the edge of the ski when you want to dictates performance quality. Power also is important for endurance distance running, cycling, swimming, and cross-country skiing. Endurance refers to the capacity to sustain a given exercise intensity. Except perhaps for marathon dancing (an event popular during the 1930s in which you danced “till you dropped”), there are no pure endurance events. Endurance sports are contested over finite distances. The winner is the one who completes the distance in the fastest time. In other words, the winner is the most powerful person over the contested distance. Although endurance is obviously important in Power: Work divided by time. In sports, it is more loosely defined as the ability to exert force rapidly. Endurance: Capacity to sustain a given exercise intensity. International Sports Sciences Association 284 | Unit 6.10 these events, athletes need power—and plenty of it—even in endurance sports. This section describes exercises to develop speed and power for gross movements used in sprinting and in rapidly changing directions on the court or field. These exercises complement plyometric exercises that also develop speed and power in large lower and upper body muscle groups. Elements of Power Power in sports depends on six important and interrelated components: genetics, metabolic capacity, muscle size, nervous system capacity, and skill. With the exception of genetics, the athlete or client’s training program must address each factor to maximize power for sport. Genetics Great athletes—Michael Jordan, LeBron James, Serena Williams, Usain Bolt, Ronda Rousey, Babe Ruth, and Muhammad Ali—were born with the capacity to produce great power when they moved. They are the “geniuses” of the sports world. Just as the mental giants Einstein, Beethoven, and Newton were born with native intellect, superstar athletes are born with a gift for generating tremendous power on the playing field. They had to train hard and consistently to become stars, but they started from a much higher level than the rest of us did. Average people cannot expect to equal the superstars’ physical prowess no matter how hard they train. Nevertheless, one can improve performance in strength-speed sports by systematically developing the components of power. Strength and Conditioning Metabolic Capacity The metabolic basis of exercise was discussed in Unit 4 of the course. To summarize, each sport relies primarily on one of the three energy systems—immediate, nonoxidative, and oxidative. All of the energy systems are important to sustain life, and success in specific sports tends to rely on one system more than on the others. As examples, weightlifters rely predominantly on the immediate system, 400-meter sprinters on the nonoxidative system, and marathon runners on the oxidative system. To maximize power, one must develop the energy system that sustains movement in the sport. Muscle Size Since the 1950s, athletes have weight trained to make them more powerful in their sport. Today’s athletes are much bigger and stronger than those of 40 to 50 years ago were, largely because of weight training. In the 1950s, it was common to see 200-pound linemen in football. Compare that with average weights of offensive and defensive linemen of over 325 pounds on today’s teams! Many of today’s baseball players have forearms like Popeye, whereas pre-1960 players usually had very ordinary-looking muscles. In women’s swimming, track and field, softball, volleyball, alpine skiing, and basketball, extensive weight training has produced athletes with well-developed and shapely muscles. Performance differences between men and women are largely due to differences in power output capacity. Weight training has helped women narrow the gender gap in many sports. They can develop proper sports skills—vital for powerful performance. Power and Speed | 285 A muscle’s size largely determines how much force it can develop. Larger muscles have more tissue to contract, so they exert more force. In sports, the rate that muscles exert force is more important than absolute force development is in determining subsequent sports performance. Although weight training is important for developing power for sports, it will not be effective unless one learns to properly use the newly acquired strength in the sport. Effective strength (i.e., strength you can use in the sport) is determined by how well the nervous system controls the muscles and movement skill and efficiency. Skill Skilled performers make it look easy. They exhibit an economy of effort with little wasted motion. They concentrate all their forces into their movements and perform seemingly flawless performances. The power produced by an NBA superstar dunking the ball, an Olympic discus thrower throwing more than 70 meters, or a world-class ballet dancer leaping through the air seems beyond human capacity. These feats are possible because the athletes precisely channel their incredible power into skilled movements. Skill is the capacity to perform a specific movement. Skilled movements are exquisitely orchestrated under nervous system control so that core body positions and muscle contractions occur in precise sequences and speeds. The major aim of purposeful practice is to reinforce correct movements to produce better, more skillful performance. Simultaneously and equally as important, the object is to eliminate inefficient or incorrect movements. Skill: Capacity to perform a specific movement. Skill, a prerequisite to successful performance in sports, occurs regardless of the person’s physical condition. An individual cannot be effective in a sport without a certain degree of skill. For example, highly skilled Olympic gymnasts would do poorly on the golf course unless they developed the proper mechanics of the golf swing. Aspiring gymnasts turned golfers would need to learn to control their body movements during the golf swing in the same way they had when they had mastered difficult movements on the balance beam or rings. Athletes in any skilled sport must direct most of their energies toward developing skill. A basic premise of this course is that practicing the skill to train the required movement patterns must never take a back seat to physical conditioning. International Sports Sciences Association 286 | Unit 6.10 Many athletes mistakenly emphasize weight training at the expense of skill development. Strength gained in the weight room transfers slowly to the playing field. In fact, one can increase strength by 20%–30% in the weight room with little or no power improvement in a particular sports movement or series of movements. Only if one practices the skill will movements become more powerful. Powerful, skilled movements depend on skill practice and proper conditioning. Skill can overcome physical and conditioning deficiencies. Proper body positions, use of leverage, and timing produce great force. Athletes are much less likely to become injured when they move skillfully (and thus gracefully). Skilled movements depend on optimal movement postures, which place much less stress on bones, muscles, tendons and ligaments, and joints. Technology and Skill We live in the Internet age for honing sports skills. Even the average person can integrate video, computers, and smartphones to improve technique in any motion. Athletes can do this even without a coach. Smartphone movement analysis apps: Applications available for smartphones and tablets that enable sophisticated video analysis of sports movements. Apps such as Coach’s Eye, Hudl Technique, and Dartfish are relatively inexpensive and extremely helpful for analyzing movements. The procedure is simple. Inexpensive smartphone movement analysis apps such as Coach’s Eye (www.coachseye.com; https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=SVHS2M9IaLw), Hudl Technique (http://www.hudl.com; https://www.youtube.com/user/ HudlSupport), and Dartfish (www.dartfish.com; https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=DdpFYJoQE0M) can help analyze a golf swing or tennis forehand in slow motion. The downloadable programs even make it possible to compare progress by showing several performances side by side—one of the athletes and one a comparison with the “expert.” Take a video of the client or athlete’s performing a skilled movement (examples include the tennis forehand, golf swing, sprinting, or softball swing). Analyze the technique frame by frame and compare it to videos of experts downloadable from the Internet (e.g., YouTube). A knowledgeable coach can help point out important aspects of technique. Technique is extremely difficult to change. Athletes require hundreds of hours of purposeful practice to alter even small aspects of their sports movements. Video helps them be accountable in Strength and Conditioning Power and Speed | 287 their sports practice. The process is tedious but necessary: 1) shoot video, 2) identify technique problems, 3) try to change movement errors (one at a time), 3) shoot video, 4) assess progress, and 5) repeat. Systematically changing technique is the most effective way to improve sports movement skills. Nervous System Responsiveness The nervous system’s ability to recruit or activate motor units (muscle fibers + motor nerve) is critical for generating power. Scientists have discovered that motor units are trained only if they are recruited. The large, powerful motor units are only recruited during maximum powerful movements. To train those motor units, one must perform maximum explosive movements during the training sessions. High resistance weight training helps recruit these difficult-to-train motor units. High-speed training exercises and plyometrics overload the motor units to make individuals run fast, jump high, and throw far. The goal is to turn on these “performance” motor units and activate them for a longer period. This allows one to sustain powerful movements during sports performances. Like strength training, plyometric and speed exercises are only effective for improving sports performance if accompanied by proper skills practice. Research has demonstrated that simultaneously practicing speed and plyometric exercises and skills produce rapid improvement in sports performance. Strength training takes much longer to transfer to skilled movement. Weight training and speed-plyometric training both eventually produce more powerful movements if integrated into a long-term, systematic conditioning program. This section of the course describes basic speed and power exercises. Combining weight training, general conditioning, and skill development serves as a scientifically sound strategy to improve a client’s performance in all sports. Sprinting (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=E-VcKB2RN6s) In sprinting, peak power occurs during the first 20–30 meters. You can only sustain it for about three seconds before it declines. In a sprint 100- or 200-meter race, the winner is the one with the highest generated peak power output who slows down the least at the end of the race (power and speed-endurance). In most power sports, critical movements last only a few seconds but require great power. In football, for example, an offensive play seldom last more than three seconds. In tennis, you move from a “ready” position, shot setup, and then execute the stroke. Again, these critical movements take only several seconds. In skiing, power applications occur when setting the edge. The remainder of the turn involves unweighting and setting up for the next turn. Baseball and softball players exert great force when striking the ball, running bases, or chasing down a long fly in the field. Movements in these sports are done at their maximum capacity and are highly explosive for a few seconds. The rest of the time, the players are relatively “inactive.” International Sports Sciences Association 288 | Unit 6.10 When developing power for power sports, one needs to enhance the capacity to accelerate from a stationary position to full speed in a short time and alter the direction of movement rapidly. You can build these capacities in your clients with proper training and conditioning. extend fully during powerful movements, they will “learn” to run faster and jump higher than they ever believed possible. Be systematic—analyze their movement patterns and change them systematically using video and sports movement apps. Technique is critical to execute powerful movements. When sprinting, either laterally or in a straight line, powerful movements depend on getting your power leg under you (i.e., cut or claw foot) and on full leg and hip extension. The large muscles in the front and back of the thighs and hips are the body’s strongest. Use these muscles to their full capacity for sprinting, moving laterally to smash a tennis ball, or leaping during a rebound in basketball. Sprint Starts, Running When athletes train to move efficiently and Figure 6.10-1 Sprint Starts, Running Strength and Conditioning (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0aoWI2EARM&list=PL74674E0CE7EFF67B) Sprint starts are excellent for developing leg power and acceleration capacity. The photo sequence shows proper sprint starting technique (Figure 6.10-1). The athlete in this sequence is a world-class sprinter. Note the incredible extension he gets as he bursts from the blocks. Training to develop this kind of “explosive” Power and Speed | 289 strength may carry over to other sports requiring power and speed. When working on sprint starts, it is best to use starting blocks; however, they are not absolutely necessary. Football players should perform sprint starts from the football stance. Tennis players, soccer players, or baseball players should perform your starts from the ready position for the sport. The ready position refers to your waiting position before you initiate the first movement. Directions: “On your marks position”: Your feet are staggered 10–14 inches apart, with your front foot placed approximately 20 inches from the starting line. Try to relax in this position. “Set position”: Raise your back and hips. Your front leg bends about 90 degrees and your rear leg 120 degrees. Right-handed people generally start with their left foot forward. Your back is flat, and your hips are slightly higher than your shoulders. You contact the ground with your fingertips, which raises your shoulders as high as possible. Do not put too much weight on your fingertips. to extend fully with your hips and knees and use your arms dynamically during the driving phases of the movement. After the start, run as fast as possible for three to five strides. Start with 3 sprint starts and progress to between 10 and 20 starts as you increase fitness. After a few weeks, have someone time your starts to gauge your progress. In addition, videotape your starts to ensure you are extending fully at the hips and knees. Sprint Starts, Swimming (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=M8XBLq8cN5Y) Swimmers can also develop acceleration capacity by working on starts (Figure 6.10-2). Starts also are beneficial for people who want to develop basic leg power but also want to add program variety. Modern starting technique uses an arc dive for entering the water. In this technique, the swimmer extends the body up and out. At the top of the arc, the swimmer bends at the waist to enter the water at a relatively steep trajectory. This technique allows the swimmer to travel farther “Go”: Raise your shoulder so you can direct force with your front driving leg through the length of your body. Drive the front leg fully so your body forms a straight line from your hip to your heal. Push your rear foot hard against the block or ground as you drive your knee forward. As you do this, the arm on the side of the front foot drives straight forward, while the rear foot arm drives straight backward. Both arms are bent approximately 90–110 degrees. Try Figure 6.10-2 Sprint Starts, Swimming International Sports Sciences Association 290 | Unit 6.10 over the water and enter the pool more cleanly than when using a flat dive technique. If you are a serious swimmer, use the arc dive technique. However, it does not matter which technique is used when swimming for conditioning. Directions: You can start from the side of the pool or from a swimming starting block. Grasp the front of the block or side of the pool, with head down and knees bent slightly. Pull against the block or poolside as you lift your head and flex your knees. Drive your body and arms upward and outward, fully extending the hips, knees, ankles. If doing an arc dive, pike at the waist as you reach the peak of the dive. In the flat dive, continue to extend fully with the hips, knees, ankles, and shoulders. Enter the water as cleanly as possible by attempting to make the body enter the same “hole” in the water. As with sprinting, do no more than 3–5 strokes after hitting the water. Start with 3–5 starts and progress to 15–20 as fitness improves. Short Sprints Shorts sprints, ranging from 10 to 50 yards, develop lower body power and acceleration that will improve performance in most strength-speed sports (Figure 6.10-3). As with sprint starts, emphasize full knee and hip extension during the driving phase of the sprint movement. Powerful arm movement is Directions: Start with longer distances (50–100 yards) at less than top speed. As fitness improves, increase speed until you can sprint at 100%. Discontinue if you feel any pain or cramping in your muscles. Start with 3–5 repetitions with 30- to 60-second rests between sprints; gradually increase to 10–20 repetitions. Proper technique helps you run faster and with more power. Extend your hips fully during the sprint’s push-off phase. Vigorous arm action also promotes moving faster and more powerfully. Suicide Sprints (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=MPL487ToJt8) Suicide sprints are excellent for building speed, power, and aerobic capacity. They are a type of high-intensity interval training. In a gym, start at the baseline and sprint to the free-throw line and then sprint back to the baseline. Sprint to the half-court line and then back to the baseline; sprint to the free-throw line on the other side of the court and then back to the baseline. Sprint to the far baseline and back to the starting baseline. You can modify this drill on a football or soccer field. Lateral Sprinting (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=F4kys8Vv25A) Lateral sprint movements are excellent for preparation for football, soccer, and field Figure 6.10-3 Short Sprints Strength and Conditioning critical to fast sprinting. Drive your arms forcefully in the direction you want to travel. Do not flail your arms to the side. Power and Speed | 291 hockey. They also improve power in sports such as tennis, racquetball, basketball, and volleyball. Using cones, shoes, or shirts, set up a zigzag course where you run straight for 5 yards, run left at a 45-degree angle for 5 yards, and then run right at a 45-degree angle. Another variation is to place two markers (cones or shoes) 10 yards apart. Sprint from the first marker to the second, touch it, and then sprint back to the first marker. Backward Sprinting (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=86XjCgcEE_M) This is an excellent exercise for people who must occasionally sprint backward in their sport (defensive backfield in football, basketball, soccer). Backward sprinting is excellent for developing hamstring and gluteal power. Run distances of 10–50 yards and progress similarly to short sprint exercises. Add variety by pulling a sled while sprinting backward (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=N0NV36pooLQ). The world record for the backward 100-meter dash is 13.8 seconds (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ga6kIG0DcVI). Downhill Sprinting for developing sprint speed in its athletes. The University of Tokyo built a 60-meter sprint track with a one-degree decline next to its main track to help an elite sprinter accelerate his progress on the track. Directions: Find a small hill that declines about 2–3 degrees. A football field with a steep crown (higher in the middle than on the sides) is a good choice. Sprint 3–10 repetitions at distances ranging from 20 to 40 yards. Do not sprint down a steep hill greater than 6 degrees because you risk injury, and much of your energy will be devoted to keeping your balance rather than running fast. Speed Parachute (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=UffbD9Y9hzY) Speed parachutes also overload your muscles (fast-twitch motor units) during high-speed sprinting (Figure 6.10-4). Russian sprint coaches developed this device. You can purchase the chutes at track and field supply companies and at some sporting goods stores. Directions: Attach 1–3 parachutes to the waist belt. Use 1–3 parachutes; start with one and add chutes as your fitness improves. As with short (1–6%grade; https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=9GxsFdHZQwk) Sprinting downhill using a mild downgrade will allow you to increase your running speed and thus overload your fast-twitch motor units. This relatively new technique can improve your sprint speed rapidly. The Dallas Cowboy football team has a downhill track made of Tartan (expensive material used in all-weather tracks) Figure 6.10-4 Speed Parachute International Sports Sciences Association 292 | Unit 6.10 sprints, run 20–50 yards for 3–15 repetitions. Do not do parachute exercises until you have first run short sprints for two to three weeks. A useful technique is to run 10–20 yards with the chutes and then release the chutes. This causes you to suddenly surge forward, which overloads your larger fast-twitch motor units. Harness Sprinting (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=IVXbHJ2FLcU) A variation to the parachute (Figure 6-10-5), it involves wearing a harness around your waist and pulling a weight sled, truck tire, or another person who provides resistance. Vary the speed and resistance—the more resistance, the slower the speed and vice versa. Figure 6.10-5 Harness sprinting Low Hurdles (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=9b68Zc8Kaqw) Low hurdles (32 inches) are effective for developing sprint speed and jumping power. Most high schools and colleges leave their hurdles on or near the track, at least during the winter and Strength and Conditioning spring (track season). If hurdles are unavailable, use large cones or picnic benches. One can even use imaginary hurdles. If using hurdle substitutes, make sure they will topple over if hit. Directions: Set up three to four hurdles, preferably on grass, 10 yards (8.5 meters) apart. The starting point is 15 yards (13 meters) from the first hurdle. Make sure the hurdle supports face you; you want the hurdle to fall over if you hit it. In hurdling, you want to stride rather than jump over the hurdle. The takeoff distance should be far enough away from the hurdle so your leading leg sweeps forward and upward in a straight line. Jumping too close to the hurdle causes you to jump over the hurdle. If the distance is too long, however, you will strike the hurdle. The stride across the hurdle must follow smoothly and mimic the normal sprinting stride. This takes confidence, which only comes with repeated and purposeful practice. The hurdling movement starts with a quick forward and upward thrust of the leading leg toward the hurdle. As you clear the hurdle, actively press your leg toward the ground. The trailing leg extends fully as you stride toward the hurdle. As you clear the hurdle, bend your knee and stretch it away from your body. Extend your opposite arm forward for balance as you go over the hurdle. Try to take only three strides between hurdles. Start with only one hurdle. When you hurdle it with confidence, add more hurdles. When you can run the entire 3–4 hurdle course, start with 3–4 sets of hurdles, gradually increasing your speed. After you become proficient, run 6–10 sets of hurdles. Time your runs to gauge your progress. Power and Speed | 293 Stadium Stairs Running stairs is a “tried-and-true” technique for developing leg power (Figure 6.10-6). The local football stadium is a great place to do this exercise. Stair running overloads your body during the sprinting motion. Directions: Find some unobstructed stairs that will support your weight. Beware of old wooden football stadium seats that could collapse when you run on them. The number of repetitions will vary with the size of the stadium. Running up the stadium stairs at a major university’s football stadium will be much more difficult than doing so at the local high school. As with other kinds of sprint exercises, start conservatively and build up the intensity and duration as fitness improves. Variations of stadium stair running include running two steps at a time, hopping up the stairs on one or two legs, and hopping up the stairs using a side-to-side motion (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=I7w8TNefuls). The last is a good exercise for alpine skiers. An advanced strategy increases resistance by doing stadium stair exercises while wearing a weighted vest. These can range from 5 to 100 pounds and more and are available at sporting goods stores and through track and field supply catalogs. Be careful when running or hopping up stadium stairs, particularly when going down the stairs. You can easily lose your balance and become seriously injured. Have the clients stop if they lose their balance or equilibrium. In addition, this exercise may not be a good idea for individuals with kneecap pain. Stair climbing, particularly going down stairs, produces a great deal of pressure on kneecaps. If kneecap pain occurs the next day or persists several hours after running stadium stairs, cut down on training volume or eliminate the exercises from the program. Stair climbing machines, while excellent for developing cardiovascular endurance, are less effective than running stadium stairs is for developing lower body power. Doing stadium stairs forces the legs to extend vigorously during the push-off phase of the running stride and absorbs shock when landing. This develops dynamic leg strength not possible using stair climbing machines, which require minimal stride length with little or no impact. High-knees, Fast Arms (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=dWnssSlxgl4) Figure 6.10-6 Stadium Stairs This exercise is excellent for developing sprint power (Figure 6.10-7). It helps increase stride frequency, one of two factors determining sprint speed (the other being stride length). Do this exercise on a grass field or wooden International Sports Sciences Association 294 | Unit 6.10 Figure 6.10-8 Bounding Strides Bounding Strides (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=zSYq1GrCjlI) This exercise helps build stride length for sprinting (Figure 6.10-8). Rather than take many strides in a short distance (as in the highknee, fast arms exercise), take as few strides as possible over a longer distance. Figure 6.10-7 Short Sprints gym floor to minimize impact forces. This is a maximum intensity exercise. Athletes, particularly those in high school, often do this exercise at submaximal intensity. It is more efficient to complete 1 set of 10 seconds at maximum effort than 10 sets of 20 seconds at 50% effort. This exercise works best only when performed at maximum intensity. Directions: Simulating a sprint motion in a nearly stationary position, pump the arms and lift the knees as fast as possible. Try to complete 20 strides in only 10 yards. Begin with 3 repetitions (3 sets of 10 yards). Progress to between 10 and 20 repetitions. Strength and Conditioning Directions: Do this exercise on a grass field or running track over a distance of 50–100 yards. Stride as long as possible, moving your arms vigorously in synchrony with your legs. Your strides should resemble bounding jumps. Begin with 2–3 repetitions and progress to 10 repetitions. Peak Power Training on a Stationary Bicycle (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Os_mGlY5eVA) The stationary bicycle is excellent for developing leg power. By training at peak power output, one develops “explosive” leg strength that will transfer to other sports. In addition, it builds the appropriate energy systems important in power sports. Doing repeated Wingate tests is an excellent way to build peak power (see section 7.1). Power and Speed | 295 Table 6.10-1: Example of procedure for determining peak power KP setting Maximum revolution in 30 seconds Power rating 1 60 60 2 57 114 3 48 144 4 30 120 Power on a stationary bicycle is a combination of pedal revolutions (rpm) and resistance (i.e., frictional resistance measured in kilopounds or kips). Achieving peak power output requires that you establish the optimum combination of resistance (kips) and leg speed (rpms). Too high a resistance will decrease power output because rpms will be low. Likewise, if resistance is too low, power will also be low because of limited capacity to increase pedaling speed. Determining optimal frictional resistance for stationary bicycling power training (see Table 6.10-1): Use a bicycle ergometer that allows you to adjust the frictional resistance (examples include Monark and Tunturi cycle ergometers). Set the frictional resistance on the bike at 1 kip. Warm up by pedaling at an easy pace for approximately two minutes. Then turn the pedals as fast as possible for 30 seconds and count the number of pedal revolutions completed. You can attach an electronic or mechanical counter to improve counting accuracy. Every time the right leg extends counts as one pedal revolution. Multiply the pedal revolutions by 1; the result is the power index. Rest for 5 minutes, and then repeat the procedure using 2 kips. Multiply the pedal revolutions by 2. Rest for 5 minutes, and repeat using 3 kips. Repeat the procedure until the product of pedal revolutions and kips starts to decrease. Select the kip setting that produces the highest power rating. In this example, power output decreased when going from a frictional resistance of 3 kips to 4. Choose 3 or 3.5 kips as the friction for power training. Set the kips at the max power setting and sprint “all out” for 30 seconds. Begin with 3–5 sets of 30-second sprints. As fitness improves, build up to 10–15 sets of 30-second sprints. Rest 3–5 minutes between sets. Use this technique to develop power for time intervals ranging from 10 seconds to 10 minutes. The principle is the same. Count pedal revolutions for the desired exercise time. The longer the time interval, the lower the kip setting needs to be. For longer time intervals, the goal is to maintain an established power output. Athletes can do similar training on arc trainers or stair-climbers. Agility Training (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=67XP-AekUoA) Agility is the capacity to rapidly change speed or direction during whole-body movements. Common exercises for building agility include speed ladders, dot drills, and cone drills. Trainers can use their imaginations to create agility drills appropriate for specific sports. Remember, there is no such trait as general agility. Rather, agility must be developed by repeating specific movements in the sport (i.e., cutting, faking out an opponent in basketball or soccer, or rapidly negotiating a slalom course in skiing). International Sports Sciences Association 296 | Unit 6.10 Agility drills will improve fitness for sports requiring rapid changes in direction—if you also dynamically practice the sports skills. Peak Power Weight Training Table 6.10-2: Calculating training weight for peak power training Instructions Do five (5) timed reps at 45, 50, 60, and 70 of 1-rep max and calculate pounds per second Example 1-rep max bench press = 300 lbs. Percent Max Weight (lb) Reps Total weight for 5 reps (lb) Weight per second (Total weight/time) 45 135 5 675 150 50 150 5 750 156.3 = peak power 180 5 900 150 210 5 1050 123.5 One can also use the peak power 60 training technique with weight 70 training. The principle is the same as for the stationary bicycle. Calculate your peak power output for five repetitions of an exercise. In general, use a weight that coincides with 50%–60% of the maximum weight you can lift for one repetition (1-RM). Time how long it takes you to complete five repetitions. Perform the lift as rapidly as possible. It is essential to use good lifting technique when using this method. Directions: Calculate the peak power workout weight for your lift. Table 6.10-2 displays the training weight for the bench press. In this example, the lifter bench-presses 300 pounds for one repetition. Begin with a weight approximately 40%–45% of your best one-rep lift. It is a good idea to use a rubber bounce pad on the bar to protect your chest from injury. Time how long it takes to bench-press five reps, lifting the weight as rapidly as possible. Do not cheat on the lift; go all the way down and all the way up. Repeat this procedure for weights that are 50, 60, and 70% of the one-rep maximum bench press. Your workout weight will be the one that renders the highest pounds per second. Strength and Conditioning In this example, peak power output was at 50% of maximum. The workout weight should be 150–170 pounds. Do three to five sets of five repetitions at that weight, pushing the weight as quickly as possible. Increase weight when the client or athlete can perform five repetitions in less than five to six seconds. This is a highly effective training technique that produces rapid gains in strength and power. Bench Throws (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=GaGfhDEWzgo) The bench throw is a highly dynamic bench press that involves pushing the weight rapidly, letting go of the bar momentarily, and catching it again. Although the lift is effective for building power, it is potentially dangerous. Athletes must not do this exercise without a spotter (single spotter standing behind the lifter). A safer alternative is to do bench throws on a Smith machine—a weight machine with a bar attached to a track or with medicine balls. Power and Speed | 297 Functional Training All the exercises in this section of the course are functional training exercises. Trainers can design clever training programs using common everyday items such as heavy stones, heavy bars (farmer’s bars), sledge hammers, throwing implements (e.g., shot, hammer, weight, javelin, discus), sleds, backpacks, pulley machines, parachute cord suspension training, and battling rope training. Trainers can also design whole-body exercises using barbells, dumbbells, and kettlebells. Examples of functional training exercises appear in Table 6.10-3. Functional training: Exercises that train the body for common everyday carrying, pushing, pulling, climbing, throwing, and balancing. Movements are highly specific and transfer poorly from one to another. Table 6.10-3: Examples of Functional Training Exercises Olympic lifts and related exercises These include squat snatches, split snatches, power snatches, hang snatches, box snatches, one-arm dumbbell snatch, clean and jerk, squat cleans, split cleans, power cleans, curl cleans, jerks off the rack, push presses, Neider presses (high speed standing incline press), and behind the neck push presses. Overhead snatch squats Do these with a barbell, dumbbells, medicine ball, dowel, and arms overhead. Squat snatch press From a squat position holding the bar overhead with a wide grip, do overhead presses either in front or behind the head. Front squats Lunges plus upper body exercises Do upper and lower body exercises at the same time. For example, dumbbell curl + lunge, dumbbell press + lunge, dumbbell raise + lunge. Lunge + twist holding weight plate. Farmer’s carry Walk or run carrying heavy dumbbells, heavy bars, or heavy bars with handles. Heavy stone exercises Heavy stones range in weight from 10 to over Chopping wood or simulated wood chopping on a functional training machine. Functional training equipment (Life Fitness, Cybex) Do whole-body exercises specific to the sport. Sled or car pushing Push sleds or small cars. Tire exercises Exercises include spins, throws, jumps, sprints, and jumps with tires. Pole-ates Use a padded pole heavy broom handle or baseball bat. Work with a partner and provide resistance while the athlete does standard exercises, such as standing push presses and standing curls. International Sports Sciences Association 298 | Unit 6.10 Stone Training (https://www. youtube.com/ watch?v=tu7o7-j2pQk) Stones ranging in weight from 2 pounds to more than 200 pounds are excellent training aids for athletes. The best thing about stones is that they are free. You can find smooth well-worn stones in any streambed. You can also purFigure 6.10-9 Stone Training chase Atlas stones in a variety of weights that are made from small stones and cement. Use stones the way you would conventional free weights. Athletes can hold stones close to their chests and do front squats, lunges or sprints; hold them above their heads and do overhead squats; or throw them overhead or underhand with two hands. Athletes can also use them to add resistance to common hopping or jumping movements. To avoid injuries from occurring, insist that the athlete use good posture when doing these exercises. Carry Exercises (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=P5yZJoHC01I) Carrying heavy objects is an effective, low-cost way to build whole-body strength and power. Carry exercises build grip, core, leg, and upper Strength and Conditioning Figure 6.10-10 Farmer’s Bar body strength that can transfer to almost any sport. These exercises are simple: hold a kettlebell, dumbbell, farmer’s bar, or weighted suitcase in either one or both hands and walk with them for 20–100 yards. Add variety by simultaneously pulling a sled or wearing a backpack. Sledgehammer Training (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=fJWqx-zPffs) Hitting a sledgehammer against a tire or log is a great way to build whole-body strength and power. The handle of a sledgehammer is made of wood or fiberglass and ranges in length from 10–36 inches. Sledgehammers weigh between 2 and 20 pounds and can be purchased at hardware and garden supply stores. Chopping wood is a similar training method that has been used to condition athletes since the time of the Roman gladiators. Power and Speed | 299 Functional Training Machines These machines, which are sold by companies such as Life Fitness (www.lifefitness.com) and Cybex (www.cybexintl.com), are highly applicable to power athletes because they overload the body from a standing posture. They are particularly effective for unilateral training, which helps develop a stiff core for improved wholebody performance. Figure 6.10-11 Functional Training Machines Weightlifting (Olympic Weightlifting) Olympic weightlifting— more correctly called weight lifting—is a competitive sport that includes the clean and jerk and snatch. These dynamic lifts work the large muscles of the upper and lower body. Although the power gained in these lifts does not transfer immediately to sports skills, they do provide a strength and power base to help you eventually improve in many power sports. Posture and technique are critical for preventing injury and making satisfactory progress. Weight lifting techniques and their modifications were discussed in Unit 6.5 of the course. Other Exercises to Develop Speed and Power Variations of plyometric exercises are limited only by imagination. Obviously, you cannot include all the exercises presented in your exercise program. Choose those whose movements most closely resemble your favorite sports. In general, choose from 6 to 12 speed and power exercises and integrate them into a program that includes cardiovascular, strength, and flexibility exercises. Sample exercise routines and exercise programming are discussed in a latter section of the course. Remember, the power the athlete gains from these exercises does not transfer automatically to increased power in the sport. You have to practice the skill and gradually integrate the increased power into your movements. If athletes work consistently on sports skills and performs exercises to increase strength and power, they eventually will become more powerful in their sports. Integrating Power Training into Workouts Power training requires the athlete to exercise at maximum intensity. This is the only way to overload the large, fast motor units. This training is extremely effective and improves power in sports—provided skill practice also occurs. This International Sports Sciences Association 300 | Unit 6.10 Overtraining: Imbalance between training and recovery. high-intensity type of training has a higher than normal risk of injury compared with other training modalities. In addition, it is easy to over train. Overtraining refers to an imbalance between training and recovery. Athletes become overtrained when they fail to allow enough rest between workouts or when the workouts are too hard. Start gradually and progress slowly. Select one or two of these exercises and add more as the athlete improves their fitness. Gauge the appropriateness of workouts by how clients feel the next day. If they are extremely sore for one or two days following a power workout, you can surmise they have done too much. In other words, teach athletes to listen to their bodies and teach them to tone down their workouts to allow for sufficient recovery. Summary Athletes can build strength and power through training, which will help them perform better in sports. Power in sports depends on six important components—genetics, metabolic capacity, muscle size, nervous system capacity, and skill. Effective strength (i.e., useful strength in the sport) is determined by how well the nervous system controls the muscles and the skill and efficiency of movement. Athletes in any skilled sport must direct most of their energies toward developing skill. Practicing the skill must never take a backseat to physical conditioning. Weight training, speed, and plyometric training eventually produce more powerful movements if it is integrated into a long-term, systematic program that includes skill training and physical conditioning. Exercises for developing power and speed include sprint starts, sprinting, harness sprinting, hurdles, stair running, high knee– fast arms, speed ladders, speed lifting, peak power training on a stationary bike, whole-body functional training, and Olympic weightlifting. Strength and Conditioning UNIT 6.11 Flexibility 302 | Unit 6.11 Unit Outline 1. What Determines Flexibility? a. 3. Benefits of Flexibility and Stretching Exercises Tissues That Obstruct Range of Motion a. Flexibility and injury b. Muscle elasticity b. Flexibility and joint health c. c. Nervous system control of muscle length d. Flexibility and body position in sports 2. Types of Stretching Techniques a. Joint flexibility and spinal alignment e. Static stretching Flexibility and strength b. Ballistic stretching 4. Principles of Flexibility c. 5. Basic Stretching Exercises Passive stretching d. Functional or dynamic stretching a. e. b. Lower body stretches Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) c. Whole-body stretches Trunk and back stretches d. Shoulder and upper torso stretches e. Additional stretching exercises 6. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand and explain the determinants of flexibility, including the role of anatomy, muscle and tendon elasticity, and nervous system control of muscle length. • Understand and explain types of stretching techniques including static stretching, ballistic stretching, passive stretching, functional stretching, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation. Flexibility: Ability to move a joint through its range of motion. Range of motion: Full movement potential of a joint. Strength and Conditioning • Understand the principles of flexibility including best time to stretch, the effect of stretching on health and performance, optimal time holding a stretch, and the influence of flexibility on strength and power. • Understand and demonstrate whole body stretches, lower body stretches, trunk and back stretches, and shoulder and upper torso stretches. Flexibility—the ability to move a joint through its range of motion (ROM)—represents a crucial fitness component for health and performance. The topic of flexibility is perhaps the least studied and most misunderstood area of fitness. Athletes initially have excellent flexibility as children but begin to lose it gradually during growth and aging as they become much more physically inactive or play sports that do not engage the muscles through their full ROM. Flexibility | 303 Good flexibility is important for normal joint function and injury prevention. The goal should be to attain a desirable flexibility in the major joints. Extreme flexibility can cause joint instability, which can lead to discomfort and pain in the back, hips, shoulders, and knees. Balanced flexibility (not too much nor too little) provides essential joint stability and facilitates smooth, economical movement patterns. Flexible hip and thigh muscles help maintain proper spinal alignment that minimizes chances of back pain. Flexible knees, shoulders, and ankles help reduce stresses and injuries to their supporting muscle groups and soft tissues. Optimal flexibility helps maintain pain-free joint movement with aging. Some evidence even suggests that increased strength gained through resistance exercise may become impaired with resultant inadequate flexibility. Smooth sports and daily living movements are nearly impossible with suboptimal flexibility. It makes sense to help athletes develop good flexibility from the beginning of their training routines. Once lost, reestablishing the prior level of flexibility requires considerable time, effort, and discipline. Joint flexibility is a highly adaptable fitness quality and is highly specific to each joint. Good flexibility in one joint does not necessarily confer good flexibility in another joint. A joint moved regularly through its ROM will tend to provide good flexibility. Gymnasts, for example, generally have excellent spinal flexibility, whereas tennis players tend to have excellent shoulder flexibility. The affected joints in these athletes stress the limits of their movement capacities—thus requiring they possess excellent flexibility in those joints. The main determining factor for flexibility is the extent to which each joint can be stressed to the limits of its ROM. People lose flexibility when they do not exercise much or move their joints regularly through normal ranges of motion. Unfit people tend to be much less flexible than fit people—so much so that joint stiffness interferes with movements important in everyday life. Rising from a chair or reaching overhead for objects stored in a cabinet are more difficult without good flexibility. Deteriorating flexibility eventually impairs normal joint function and creates a handicapping condition. Performing exercises that contribute to flexibility (i.e., exercises that work the joints through their normal ROM or specific stretching exercises) is important for general fitness and wellness. Athletes need a balance between flexibility and stability. In the spine, for example, extreme flexibility can lead to back pain and an unstable core, whereas spinal stiffness improves performance and decreases injury risk to the back, neck, and extremities. What Determines Flexibility? (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=lAKd_Hj9csg) Two factors limit the ability to move a joint: 1. Tissues that prevent movement (the tissues either get in the way of movement or provide resistance to further movement.) 2. Muscle length established by the nervous system. Although factors such as bone structure cannot change, other factors can be altered through exercise (e.g., resting length of elastic soft tissues). International Sports Sciences Association 304 | Unit 6.11 Tissues That Obstruct Range of Motion The bones of the skeleton often limit joint movement. The structures of the bones forming joints allow movement to proceed only so far. These “bony stops” help give strength and stability to joints and are of obvious importance in human movement. Joint capsules, semi-elastic structures, surround the body’s major joints and can limit movement. Although joint capsules can be stretched slightly, they are semirigid and resist deformation. Joint capsules also contribute strength and stability to joints. The body contains many soft tissues that limit flexibility. Fat, skin, and large muscles can “get in the way” and prevent a joint from moving through a larger ROM. For example, people with extremely large biceps muscles cannot fully flex (bend) their elbows because the large upper arm muscles interfere with range of movement. Most athletes do not have this problem, but it can apply to bodybuilders. Obese people are prevented from flexing the trunk completely, for example, because excess body fat in the abdominal region impedes the ROM in this anatomic location. Obesity with accompanying excess body fat can be a problem because it can decrease flexibility. Tight skin stretched by large muscles, body fat, or pregnancy, also can interfere with established movements patterns. Muscle Elasticity Muscle tissue is the key to developing flexibility. In addition to the contractile proteins within muscles that create movement, muscle contains collagenous tissues that provide structure, elasticity, and bulk to the muscle. The two principal collagenous tissues are: Collagen: Protein substance of the white fibers of skin, tendon, bone, cartilage, and all other connective tissue. Elastin: Substance randomly coiled and crosslinked to form elastic fibers in connective tissue. Strength and Conditioning Collagen, white fibers that provide structure and support; Elastin, yellow, elastic, and flexible fibers. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zFQBaeZuotE) The elastin fibers have the capacity to stretch and rapidly snap back to their resting position when stretch is relieved. If the fibers are force loaded at low stress levels, as during exercises that gently stress Flexibility | 305 the joints to the limits of their ROM, then the elastic fibers become longer. In other words, they stretch. There is a limit to the amount of stretch a muscle can tolerate. If stretched too much, the collagen does not return to its resting shape, precipitating a likely injury. Collagen increases in stiffness with stretching. When reaching the limits of its flexibility, collagen becomes more brittle and may rupture if overstretched. The stretch characteristics of elastic tissue in muscle are important considerations in a stretching program. One must stretch the muscles enough to lengthen the elastic tissue. Overstretching a muscle may cause a serious injury. An effective and safe stretching program is one that stresses the muscle enough to slightly elongate and stretch the elastic fibers but not too much so it can return to its normal shape without injury. Nervous System Control of Muscle Length The nervous system controls muscle length through feedback from nerve structures called proprioceptors; these include stretch receptors, Golgi tendon organs (GTOs), and pacinian corpuscles. Proprioceptors help the nervous system regulate muscle length and flexibility and help control speed, strength, and coordination of muscle actions. They detect even small changes in position or force in the muscles and joints. The stretch receptors, which lie in parallel with the contractile tissue in muscle, detect changes in muscle Golgi tendon organ Muslce spindle Pacinian corpuscle Proprioceptors: Sensory receptors in muscles, joint capsules, and surrounding tissues that transmit information to the central nervous system about position and movement of body parts. Stretch receptor: Sensory receptor that responds to the stretching of surrounding muscle tissue and contributes to coordination of movement. Golgi tendon organs (GTOs): Sensory nerve ending embedded in a tendon compressed and activated by any increase of the tendon’s tension either by active contraction or by passive muscle stretch. Pacinian corpuscles: Receptors found in deep skin layers that sense vibratory pressure and touch to provide sensory information to the brain when grasping or releasing objects. International Sports Sciences Association 306 | Unit 6.11 length. The GTOs located within tendons detect increases in muscle force. The pacinian corpuscles, which lie close to the GTOs, detect movement and pressure changes in the muscles and joints. Ballistic or bounce stretching: Stretching muscles during movement. Reciprocal inhibition: Muscles on one side of a joint relax to accommodate muscle contraction on the other joint side. Static stretching: Holding the muscle in a stretched position without movement. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF): Training technique that uses muscle and neural reflexes to augment the training stimulus. Passive stretching: Partner assists in moving joints through their ROM. Stretch receptors help maintain muscle tone and protect joints and muscles from injury. Sudden changes in length cause stronger stretch reflexes. The stretch receptors monitor muscle length and the rate (how quickly) it changes length. A rapid change in muscle length causes a stretch reflex; the stretch receptor sends a signal to the spinal cord that triggers a muscle contraction and as such resists the change in muscle length. Ballistic or bounce stretching can be potentially dangerous because of increased injury risk (https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=8sbHOFMhoQY). Each bounce stretch causes a reflex contraction, so one could easily stretch the muscle while it is contracting. In contrast, it is easier and safer to stretch a muscle when it is not trying to contract. A muscle overload technique used by power athletes called plyometrics takes advantage of the stretch reflex to increase muscle strength and power. The GTOs protect muscle from too much tension. They send signals to the spinal cord about muscle tension and the rate of tension change. Excessive tension inhibits muscle contraction and promotes relaxation and lengthening of muscles and their antagonists in a process called reciprocal inhibition. The GTO signals that promote relaxation are stronger than are the signals from the muscle spindles that promote muscle contraction. Static stretching (stretching and holding a position for 10–30 seconds) helps the proprioceptors habituate or get used to a longer length. Combining stretching with muscle contractions—a technique called proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation or PNF—is a particularly effective technique to increase flexibility because it inhibits the stretch receptors and encourages the GTO signals for greater muscle relaxation. For example, vigorously contracting quadriceps muscles causes relaxation of hamstrings, making it easier to stretch them. Stretching regularly trains proprioceptors to allow greater muscle lengthening. Modifying neural control through movement and specific exercise optimally improves functional ROM. One must work on this every Strength and Conditioning Flexibility | 307 day (or several times daily) because the length and tension sensors adapt quickly. For example, the spinal multifidus muscles are critical for controlling spinal stability. Proprioceptors associated with these muscles signal the nervous system to restrict spinal motion when sitting for several hours studying or watching TV. One may experience back pain from sitting without taking a break at regular intervals to allow the muscles in the thorax (“core”) to “move” through their normal ROM. Ballistic Stretching Stretching techniques vary from simply stretching muscles during the course of normal activities to sophisticated techniques that stretch muscles with muscle reflexes to obtain more stretch during the specific movement. Improper stretching techniques have the potential to do more harm than good. Ballistic stretching involves a dynamic muscle action where muscles stretch suddenly in a bouncing to and fro action. A ballistic stretch for the hamstrings might involve touching your toes repeatedly in rapid succession. Ballistic stretching trains the elastic component of muscle (mainly composed of connective tissue that acts much like a rubber band to increase elasticity in muscle), so it may be an appropriate training method for some highly conditioned athletes. For example, tennis players stretch their hamstrings and quadriceps ballistically when they lunge for a ball, and they might benefit from ballistic stretching exercises. Nevertheless, one must exercise caution when recommending this technique because rapid stretches evoke a powerful stretch receptor response that can trigger an injury. Furthermore, after these exercises have been done, the stretch receptors remain in an “overactive” state and can lead to a running or tennis injury. Static Stretching Passive Stretching In static stretching, the muscle stretches slowly and gradually by holding the stretch for 10–30 seconds, resting for 30–60 seconds, and repeating, each time trying to increase ROM. The stretch occurs slowly, so much less “attention” occurs from stretch receptors. Stretch to the point where you feel a pull (some discomfort) but not to the point of pain. Fitness experts recommend static stretching because it is as effective as and safer than other types of stretching techniques are. One must never stretch into pain because overstretching the muscle can lead to injury. In passive stretching, a partner assists in moving limbs and joints through their ROM. One can achieve a greater ROM passively than statically. However, there is a greater injury risk because you are not controlling the movement. Passive stretching can be a valuable technique but should only be used by experienced people who thoroughly understand and have expertise with this method. There also must be good communication between those performing and those receiving passive stretches. Types of Stretching Techniques International Sports Sciences Association 308 | Unit 6.11 Functional or Dynamic Stretching Functional stretching: Dynamic stretching through the ROM in specific sports or daily life movements. This method involves dynamic stretching through the ROM used in specific sports or movements of daily life. Do functional stretches slowly to lengthen the muscles without developing high tension in the tissue and in multiple directions to maximally remodel the tissues and to train the corresponding neuromuscular control systems associated with the movements. Many people who play tennis, golf, or volleyball but do not stretch regularly have good flexibility for their activity because they move through full ranges of motion during the activity. One can combine functional stretching and functional strength exercises. For example, lunge curls stretch the hip, thigh, and calf muscles, which stabilize core muscles while simultaneously building arm strength. Many activities build functional flexibility and strength concurrently including yoga, Pilates, Tai Chi, Olympic weightlifting, plyometrics, Swiss and Bosu ball training, medicine ball exercises, and functional training resistance exercise equipment (e.g., Life Fitness, Cybex). Functional stretching is a good warm-up technique before practice or competition. It works the major muscles and joints through their normal ranges of motion without decreasing muscular strength and power. Dynamic Warm-up (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eXjK49c69Qg) Dynamic warm-up improves performance and may reduce the risk of injury (Herman and Smith 2008). It increases muscle blood flow and increases muscle reactivity to high-intensity movements during practice or competition. The athlete should begin with some easy jogging for two to three minutes before beginning the dynamic warm-up. During the warm-up, athletes should use good form and not compete. Any static stretching exercise should be followed by a dynamic movement. Table 6.11 lists examples of exercises included in a dynamic warm-up: Strength and Conditioning Flexibility | 309 Table 6.11-1: Examples of exercises included in a dynamic warm-up High knees, fast arms 20 reps Cariocas 30 yards Double leg jump 5 reps repeated Single leg jump 5 reps repeated, each leg Backward running 30 yards Air squats 10 reps Side lunges 10 reps Jumping butt-kicks 5 reps Frankensteins 10 reps Cross arm stretch 3 reps for 15 seconds Arm circles, small 10 reps each way Push-pull circles 10 reps Arm circles, large 10 reps each way Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) PNF techniques improve strength and flexibility. The technique uses reflexes initiated by muscle and joint receptors to produce greater training effects. The most popular PNF stretching technique is the contract-relax stretching method—the muscle actively contracts before it is stretched. As emphasized previously, contracting the muscle first causes it to relax more so it can be stretched more effectively, but the technique remains controversial. There is no evidence that this procedure is any more effective than static stretching alone is. Benefits of Flexibility and Stretching Exercises Flexibility has wide-ranging benefits for wellness and sports performance. Good flexibility may accomplish three goals: 1. Prevents prevention; 2. Enhances joint function; 3. Makes movements easier and more efficient. Flexibility and injury: Muscle injury occurs when muscles are loaded above their tolerance level. Muscles can stretch but only to a point. Muscles stretched too far can lead to injury. The flexible joint can move farther in the ROM before reaching critical stresses that cause injury. Until recently, most experts recommended stretching before exercise. In contrast, many studies reported that pre-exercise stretching decreased muscle strength and power and might enhance injury risk. Exercising with sensitive stretch receptors also may increase the possibility that when the muscle contracts while in a stretched position, this strategy may end in injury. Static stretching following a workout, when muscles are “warmed up,” increases joint ROM without increasing stretch receptor sensitivity. Many coaches now include functional muscle stretching before workouts or competition to avoid disrupting the function of a joint and the joint proprioceptors. More research is required before I recommend trainers adopt this strategy. International Sports Sciences Association 310 | Unit 6.11 Chondrocytes: Cells in cartilage that help maintain healthy cartilage tissue. Flexibility and Joint Health: Researchers believe that good joint health requires good flexibility. Joints supported by inflexible muscles and soft tissues from disuse are subjected to abnormal stresses that can lead to joint deterioration. In the knee joint, for example, tight quadriceps and hamstrings cause excessive pressure on kneecaps (patella) that can precipitate pain within the joints. Tight shoulder muscles can compress sensitive soft tissues in the shoulder that triggers pain and disability in the joint. There even may be radiating “referred” tingling from the shoulder to elbow. Poor joint flexibility also can produce abnormalities in joint lubrication that lead to further deterioration in sensitive cartilage cells (chondrocytes) that line a healthy joint. Joint Flexibility and Spinal Alignment: Back pain affects nearly 85% of the population at some time in their lives. Back pain may be related to poor spinal alignment, which puts pressure on nerves exiting the spinal column. Poor flexibility in the muscles around the hip and knees, and poor core stiffness and spinal instability, tend to increase lower spinal curvature and cause the pelvis to tilt forward excessively. See Section 5.2 for a discussion of the importance of core stiffness for optimal spinal health and performance. High levels of fitness in these body areas, along with good postural alignment, help prevent abnormal pressures on sensitive spinal nerves. Flexibility and Body Position in Sports: Good flexibility allows one to exert more force through a greater ROM and an ability to assume more efficient body positions. As examples, skiers with flexible hips are better able to get over the edge of their skis to make more precise turns. Swimmers with more flexible shoulders have a stronger stroke because they can pull through the water in a direction closer to the midline of the body. Hikers with flexible calves and Achilles tendons are better able to climb and descend steep hills without discomfort or pain because of their lower leg greater ranges of motion. Flexibility, Strength, and Body Position in Sports: Common belief is that weight lifting creates muscle boundness. A look at many weightlifters seems to reinforce this impression—large bulky muscles with skin stretch marks from trying to accommodate a tremendously increased bulk. It always has been apparent that strong people also can be flexible. In the 1930s and 1940s, Olympic weightlifter Strength and Conditioning Flexibility | 311 and renowned body builder John Grimek (twice Mr. America, Most Muscular Man in America, and Mr. Universe) was famous for his displays of flexibility in addition to tremendous feats of strength. Many top strength athletes of today are also flexible because they work at it in a systematic way and on a regular basis. Flexibility and Strength: Researchers have discovered a link between flexibility and strength. A minimum amount of flexibility is important to gain strength normally. With extremely poor flexibility, strength is not gained as quickly compared with individuals with normal flexibility. Research reveals that poor flexibility in antagonistic muscle groups impedes muscle strength development and hypertrophy (e.g., increase in muscle size). An antagonistic muscle opposes the action of another muscle (i.e., hamstring muscles are antagonistic muscles to the quadriceps.) Lack of hamstring flexibility affects quadriceps strength because of the basic principle of reciprocal inhibition. Reciprocal inhibition stimulates muscle spindles of the antagonist muscle (e.g., the hamstrings) to inhibit excitation of the agonist muscle (e.g., the quadriceps) through a neural process that involves the spinal cord. Muscle spindle receptors within muscles are stretch sensitive. In a squat, for example, stimulation of muscle spindles in hamstrings during the pushing phase of the lift inhibits the quadriceps. Such an action prevents exerting full force during the squat and constrains the individual from increasing strength in this lift. Many studies have examined the influence of reciprocal inhibition in limb movement. In the knee jerk reflex, for example, tapping the patellar tendon produces a stretch reflex by the muscle spindles in the quadriceps muscles, making them contract while inhibiting the hamstrings and subsequent knee extension. According to the principle of reciprocal inhibition, inflexible hamstring muscles may make it more difficult to strengthen knee extensors. During knee extension, premature stimulation of hamstring muscle spindles could reciprocally inhibit the quadriceps. Research shows that quadriceps’ strength tends to be less in people with less flexible hamstrings because hamstring muscle spindles “turn off” the quadriceps during the final phase of most lower body exercise movements. Chronic quadriceps inhibition keeps individuals from becoming as strong as they would be if they had normal hamstring flexibility. A minimum amount of flexibility in major muscles seems necessary to avoid impairing antagonistic muscle strength. For example, when hamstring flexibility is less than the flexibility threshold is, a significant portion of its muscle spindle may be prematurely stimulated during knee extension. This may produce a premature stretch reflex response in hamstrings and reflex inhibition in knee extensors. Do these findings mean that athletes should spend four to five hours a week stretching? The answer is simply no; they should not. Poor flexibility will only impair strength if the athlete is extremely tight. Research does not suggest that improved flexibility improves strength at a more rapid rate. It shows that inflexibility slows progress in strength training programs. In an extremely inflexible person, working on flexibility may make it easier to acquire new strength. Presently, the examination of strength and International Sports Sciences Association 312 | Unit 6.11 flexibility has been limited to the relationship between hamstring flexibility and quadriceps strength. There is little reason to believe that muscle spindles work differently in areas other than the legs. Studies suggest that stretching before exercise might decrease performance in maximum power jumping and throwing. As discussed previously, stretching stimulates GTOs, which act to limit muscle tension. When you stretch, try to exert maximum power or strength to avoid GTO stimulation that can hamper performance. It is better to warm up by doing low-intensity dynamic exercises. The ritual of static stretching before exercise may lead to injury and decreased performance. Pre-exercise stretching will likely remain controversial for many years to come. Basic Stretching Exercises There literally are hundreds of possible stretching exercises. Choose stretching exercises that engage the body’s major muscle groups. Try Table 6.11-2: Eight Principles of Flexibility 1. Stretch statically. Stretch and hold the position for 10–30 seconds, rest 30–60 seconds, and repeat the sequence. Do not “bounce” while stretching, because it can increase injury risk. 2. Practice stretching exercises regularly and develop flexibility gradually over time. Improved flexibility, like other fitness components, takes many months to develop. 3. Do static stretching exercises following the workout so neural changes induced by stretching do not impair performance or increase injury risk. 4. When performing stretching exercises, the person should feel a mild stretch rather than pain. Emphasize relaxation. The stretching program should not cause significant post-exercise soreness. If it does, then the stretching routine was too severe and must be dialed back. 5. Relax and breathe easily during stretching. Concentrate on trying to relax the muscles being stretched. 6. Perform all flexibility exercises on both sides of the body. 7. Avoid positions that increase low back injury risk. For example, if athletes perform straight leg toe-touching exercises, they should maintain a neutral spine and bend their knees slightly when returning to a standing position. 8. Substantial individual differences exist in joint flexibility. Avoid competition during stretching workouts—never pit one person against the other during stretching routines. Principles of Flexibility Ideally, stretch at the end of the workout when the muscles are “warm” so that stretching exercises do not impair performance or proprioception. Stretching before exercise should consist of functional movements similar to those used in the sport. Do static stretching after training or competition. The muscles will be “warmer” with less injury risk. Table 6.11-2 lists eight principles that should be followed as part of the athlete’s stretching program: Strength and Conditioning Flexibility | 313 to stretch daily, or at a minimum five days a week. Choose a regular stretching time. A good choice is at the end of workouts, in the morning after some exercise, or the evening before retiring. Do not try to become super flexible in one day or one week or even one month. Be systematic and build up stretching intensity gradually. Whole-Body Stretches “Good-Morning” Stretch (Figure 6.11-1) This simple stretch is particularly good to do after you wake up in the morning to help stretch the spine and shoulders. Directions: Stand with feet shoulder width apart and reach up over your head with arms Figure 6.11-2 “Good-Morning” Stretch with Toe Touches extended fully. Stretch by trying to extend your arms as much as possible: first one arm, then the other, and then both arms. Hold each stretch for at least 10 seconds. “Good-Morning” Stretch with Toe Touches (Figure 6.11-2) This exercise is similar to the “good-morning” stretch except add toe touches to the stretching sequence. Directions: Stand with feet shoulder width apart and reach up over your head with arms extended fully. Stretch by trying to extend your arms as much as possible: first one arm, then the other, and then both arms. Then, flex your knees slightly and bend over at the waist and reach toward your toes. Reach down until you feel the stretch in your hamstring muscles. Hold the stretch for 10–30 seconds. Then repeat the entire exercise. Figure 6.11-1 “Good-Morning” Stretch International Sports Sciences Association 314 | Unit 6.11 Lower Body Stretches Supine Alternate Hamstring Stretch (Figure 6.11-3) This is an excellent exercise for stretching the back, hamstrings, hips, knee, ankle, and buttocks. Directions: Lie on your back with both legs straight. Grasp the back of your right thigh and bring your knee to your chest (this segment is sometimes called the knee-to-chest exercise). Pull on your thigh until you feel a stretch in your low back. Hold the stretch for 10–30 seconds. Then extend your knee so you feel a stretch in the back of your right hamstring muscles (supine hamstring stretch). Hold the stretch, and then return to the starting position. You also can do knee-to-chest and supine hamstring stretches separately. Figure 6.11-4 Modified Hurdler Stretch Modified Hurdler Stretch (Figure 6.11-4) This exercise stretches the hamstring muscles and lower back. Avoid doing hurdler stretches where you sit with one leg stretched out to the side as you stretch the other extended leg. Turning out the bent leg can put excessive strain on the knee ligaments. Directions: Sit with your right leg straight and your left leg tucked close to your body. Reach toward your right foot as far as possible. Repeat for the other leg. Standing Calf Stretch (Figure 6.11-5) Flexible calf muscles help prevent knee, ankle, and foot pain. This exercise helps stretch calf muscles (gastrocnemius and soleus) and Achilles tendon. Figure 6.11-3 Supine Alternate Hamstring Stretch Strength and Conditioning Directions: This is a two-part exercise (A and B). Stand with one foot 1–2 feet in front of the other, with both feet pointing forward. (A) Keeping your back leg straight, lunge forward by bending your front knee and pushing your rear heel backward. Hold the stretch for 10–30 seconds. (B) Then pull your back foot in slightly Flexibility | 315 your hips forward and down until you feel a stretch in your quadriceps muscles. Hold the stretch for 10–30 seconds. Balance by placing your arms at your sides, on the top of your knee, or on the ground. Repeat the exercise on your left side. Groin Stretch (Figure 6.11-7) Figure 6.11-5 Standing Calf Stretch and bend your back knee. Shift your weight to your back leg and hold the stretch. Repeat this exercise on the other side. Lunge Stretch (Figure 6.11-6) This exercise stretches hip, thigh, and calf muscles. The groin muscles attach to the inside portion of the pelvis and are vital for lateral movements. These muscles often are injured in high-power sports that require sprinting and quick directional change (examples include tennis, basketball, soccer, racquetball, and field hockey). Directions: Stand in a wide straddle with the legs turned out from the hip joints and hands on thighs. Go to one side by bending one knee and keeping the other leg straight. Feel a stretch in the muscles on the inside of the thigh of the extended leg. Repeat on the other side. Directions: Step forward in a lunge with your right foot and flex your knee. Keep your knee directly above your ankle. Stretch your left leg back so it remains parallel to the floor. Press Figure 6.11-6 Lunge Stretch Figure 6.11-7 Groin Stretch International Sports Sciences Association 316 | Unit 6.11 Trunk and Back Stretches Trunk and back flexibility is essential to fluid movement and a pain-free back. An excellent exercise for stretching the low back muscles and the power hip flexors (iliopsoas muscle group) is the knee to chest exercise, which has already been described. Standing Side Stretch (Fig 6.11-8) This exercise stretches many muscles in the trunk, particularly obliques. Directions: Stand with feet shoulder width apart, knees slightly bent, and pelvis tucked under. Raise one arm over the head and bend sideways from the waist. Support the trunk by placing the hand or Figure 6.11-8 Standing forearm of the other Side Stretch arm on the thigh or hip for support. Be sure to bend directly sideways and do not move the body below the waist. Repeat on the other side. Figure 6.11-9 Trunk Rotation Stretch the trunk as far as possible to the left by pushing against the left leg with the right forearm or elbow. Keep the left foot on the floor. Repeat on the other side. Pelvic Tilt (Figure 6.11-10) This is an excellent stretch for the hip and back muscles. It helps prevent excessive low back curvature. Directions: Lie on the back with knees bent and arms extended to the side. Tilt the pelvis under, and try to flatten the lower back against the floor. Tighten buttock and abdominal muscles while holding this position for 5–10 seconds. Do not hold the breath. This exercise can be performed while standing or leaning against a wall. Trunk Rotation Stretch (Figure 6.11-9) This is an excellent stretch for the trunk, the outer thigh and hip, and the lower back. Directions: Sit with the right leg straight, left leg bent and crossed over the right knee, and left hand on the floor next to the left hip. Turn Figure 6.11-10 Pelvic Tilt Strength and Conditioning Flexibility | 317 Figure 6.11-11 Supine Trunk Twist Supine Trunk Twist (Figure 6.11-11) This excellent exercise develops spine and hip flexibility. It also is helpful for people with existing chronic back pain. Directions: Lie on one side with the top knee bent, lower leg straight, lower arm extended out in front on the floor, and upper arm at the side. Push down with the upper knee while twisting the trunk backward. Try to place the shoulders and upper body flat on the floor, turning the head as well. Return to the starting position and then repeat on the other side. Shoulder and Upper Torso Stretches The shoulder is the most mobile joint in the body, so there are many shoulder stretches. This chapter only presents two: one for the muscles of the shoulder and upper back and one for the shoulder and chest. Across-the-Body Shoulder Stretch (Figure 6.11-12) This exercise stretches the shoulder and upper back. It can be done with a partner to increase the stretch. Directions: From a standing position, cross the left arm in front of the body and grasp it with the right hand. Stretch the arm, shoulders, and back by gently pulling the arm as close to the body as possible. Repeat the stretch with the right arm. Figure 6.11-12 Across-theBody Shoulder Stretch Chest Stretch (Figure 6.11-13) This exercise stretches chest and shoulder muscles. Directions: Stand to the side of a wall or post approximately 2–3 feet away. Place one arm on the wall at shoulder level and walk forward until the stretch is felt in the chest and shoulder muscles. Hold the stretch and then repeat using the other side of the body. Figure 6.11-13 Chest Stretch Additional Stretching Exercises There are countless stretching exercises. Individuals with tennis elbow or shin splint injuries may require special exercises to help rehabilitate those parts of the body. Consult a physical therapist, athletic trainer, or exercise physiologist for stretching exercises to meet special needs. International Sports Sciences Association 318 | Unit 6.11 Summary People initially have excellent flexibility as children but gradually lose it during growth and aging if they remain physically inactive or play sports that do not work the muscles through full ranges of motion. The goal should be to achieve normal flexibility in the major joints. Balanced flexibility (not too much or too little) provides joint stability and facilitates smooth, economical movement patterns. The effective and safe stretching program is one that stresses the muscle enough to slightly elongate and stretch the elastic fibers without causing injury. The nervous system controls muscle length through feedback from highly sensitive nerve structures called proprioceptors. These include stretch receptors, Golgi tendon organs (GTOs), and pacinian corpuscles. Five types of Strength and Conditioning stretching include static, ballistic, passive, functional, and PNF. Flexibility has wide-ranging benefits for wellness and sports performance. Three important stretching principles include: Stretch statically, holding the stretch for 10–30 seconds, resting for 30–60 seconds, and then repeating the stretch. Stretch following exercise rather than before. Athletes may practice functional ROM exercises before practice or competition but should avoid static stretching until after exercise. To prevent mainly back pain, stretch the muscles around knees and hips and develop endurance and stiffness in muscles that support the spine. SECTION SEVEN Assessment UNIT 7.1 Assessment: Tests and Measurement Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 321 Unit Outline 1. 7. a. Designing the Testing Program 2. Choosing the Correct Tests 3. Interpreting the Results 8. Tests of Power a. Grip strength 5. Measuring Strength-Endurance a. c. e. 9. Push-ups Trunk flexor endurance test, c. Side bridge test, d. Front plank test 6-mile bicycle test d. 12-minute swim test 10. Agility Tests: a. b. Back extensor endurance test, c. Rockport test b. Cooper 12-minute run d. Sit-ups a. Power Quadrathlon Endurance Fitness and Maximal Oxygen Consumption a. YMCA bench press test 6. Assessing Core Fitness: Standing Long Jump d. Margaria-Kalamen Stair Climbing Power Test b. Pull-ups c. Wingate Test b. Vertical Jump One-Repetition maximum tests (1-RM): bench press, squat, deadlift, overhead press, power snatch, power clean b. One-repetition maximum standards c. Isokinetic b. Strain gauges 4. Measuring Strength a. Other Strength Tests Three-cone test b. 20-yard shuttle run 11. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand the limitations of maximum strength tests for predicting athletic performance. • Select the appropriate fitness tests for athletes’ skill, motivation, and fitness levels. • How to establish valid testing programs that consider safety and injury prevention. • Understanding the importance of testing programs for elite sports and techniques for modifying them for grade school, high school, and college athletes. • Understand basic principles of test administration. • Understand basic principles of test interpretation. • Understand and demonstrate the administration of 1RM strength tests. • Understand and demonstrate the administration of muscle endurance tests. • Know appropriate methods for assessing core fitness and understand the limitations and dangers of sit-up testing. International Sports Sciences Association 322 | Unit 7.1 • Understand and demonstrate the ability to administer tests of power including the Wingate test, Margaria-Kalaman test, and Power Quadrathlon test. National Football League (NFL) Combine test: Series of physical and mental tests administered by the NFL in February to help evaluate potential professional football players. • Understand the principle of administering field tests of cardiovascular endurance, such as the Rockport Walking Test, Cooper 12-Minute Run, Six-mile Bicycle Test, and 12-Minute Swim Test, in place of laboratory-based stress tests. Athletic fitness testing provides a useful marker to gauge the effectiveness of specific training programs. A critical but surprisingly difficult consideration is to select the right test for athletes in specific sports. The highly touted National Football League (NFL) combine test, for example, can make or break an athlete’s chance of making a professional team. It may be difficult to accept, but research has shown consistently that performances on these tests are poor predictors of performance on the playing field! This is true for most of the popular sports—football, basketball, baseball, lacrosse, soccer, and even golf. In addition, the strong relationship between performances on the tests shows that they largely measure the same qualities. Nevertheless, coaches and team owners expect superior performance in the combine, which explains why performance on these tests has improved greatly during the last decade. Personal trainers should assess athletes’ fitness for comparison to establish norms to assess readiness for competition, identify weaknesses, and assess progress. Hundreds of fitness tests exist to assess endurance, strength, flexibility, power, speed, agility, and skill. Select the most appropriate tests that provide information about the athlete’s status and progress. This section discusses basic fitness tests for athletes. Face validity: Extent that a test appears to measure desirable traits it purports to measure. Strength and Conditioning A major theme throughout this course is that motor skills (and tests) are highly specific. This means players who perform well on endurance, sprint, and strength tests will not necessarily perform well in their sports. Choose tests that have good face validity—the tasks in the test should closely reflect the requirements of the sport. For example, a 15-minute endurance test on the track does not measure the physical requirements to successfully throw a discus with good form, shoot free throws with precision, spike a volleyball, perform a backflip, or swing a golf club with a draw or fade. Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 323 Advanced athletes may require more sophisticated testing. Increasing strength, power, and endurance helps skilled athletes more than novices. Athletes who work hard to improve skill also benefit from improved fitness, and these athletes benefit most from fitness testing. Systematically improving on a particular fitness test also serves as a measure of an athlete’s dedication to the sport. Establishing testing protocols requires consideration of safety and injury prevention. Maximum strength or speed tests may increase injury risk. Allow athletes to warm up adequately so they are physically prepared to take the tests. Maximum intensity tests are not dangerous if athletes are physically prepared and apply good technique. Designing the Testing Program Every good exercise training program for athletes begins with a basic assessment of physical fitness for the sport. The purpose of training for competitions is to stress the body so it adapts and improves its function. Training is highly specific to the sport—training for swimming has little transfer to football, weight lifting, or running. Similarly, running has virtually no transfer effect to weight lifting, and without engaging in football skills training, essentially no transfer to football. You cannot gauge the effectiveness of a training program unless you administer valid fitness assessment tests. You may believe your program will help your clients make it to the pros or perform better on the playing field. The only way you can tell for sure is to measure their performances. In some sports, choosing the correct tests is relatively easy because they have already been selected by professional and college teams. For example, standard tests for the NFL include height, weight, bench press (maximum reps at 225 pounds), 40-yard dash, vertical jump, 20-yard short shuttle run, standing long jump, and three-cone test. Each position requires additional tests of fitness and skill. Testing for kickers should differ from testing for offensive and defensive linemen, and testing linebackers for their established skills should differ from quarterbacks and defensive backs with still different skill requirements. Valid fitness assessment tests: Accurately measuring critical fitness components. A good practice when training athletes is to compare the fitness of your athletes with those they will compete against. High school International Sports Sciences Association 324 | Unit 7.1 Table 7.1-1 Average Performances on NFL Combine Tests by Position Position Height (in) Weight (lbs) 40-yard Dash (sec) Bench Press, 225 lbs (reps) Vertical Jump (in) Standing Long Jump (in) 20-yard Shuttle Run (sec) 3-Cone Drill (sec) Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* C 75.2 1.1 301 8 5.23 0.16 26.9 5.8 28.8 3.8 101.3 5.8 4.62 0.16 7.72 0.27 CB 71.3 1.7 193 9 4.48 0.1 14.5 4.2 36.4 2.8 121.3 5.4 4.16 0.16 6.97 0.22 DE 76 1.4 268 13 4.84 0.14 24 5.8 33.1 3.4 113.7 6 4.43 0.19 7.38 0.29 DT 75.1 1.4 306 14 5.08 0.14 27.8 5.4 29.6 2.8 104.9 5.5 4.64 0.19 7.7 0.26 FS 73 1.3 205 9 4.56 0.08 16.4 3.9 35.8 2.9 120.4 5.5 4.19 0.15 7.02 0.21 ILB 73.7 1.2 242 8 4.76 0.13 23.2 4.1 33.5 3.1 114.2 5.2 4.3 0.15 7.2 0.24 OG 76.1 1.1 314 13 5.32 0.19 25.2 5.8 28 3.2 99.8 6.7 4.77 0.22 7.95 0.36 OLB 74.1 1.4 240 9 4.67 0.12 22.9 4.8 34.7 3.4 117 6.1 4.27 0.15 7.13 0.23 OT 77.7 1.2 316 14 5.25 0.18 24.6 4.9 28.3 2.9 102 5.9 4.75 0.18 7.86 0.33 QB 75 1.5 222 11 4.84 0.19 31.3 3.4 109.6 6.7 4.33 0.19 7.18 0.27 RB 71.1 1.9 216 13 4.55 0.12 19.9 4.4 34.8 2.6 116.8 5.4 4.27 0.16 7.08 0.22 SS 72.5 1.6 211 9 4.58 0.11 17.1 4.8 35.7 2.7 118.7 4.9 4.19 0.16 7.02 0.26 TE 76.5 1.4 255 9 4.78 0.15 20.5 4.4 32.9 3.5 113.5 5.8 4.35 0.16 7.2 0.25 WR 73 2.6 203 15 4.49 0.09 15.5 4.2 35.5 3.2 119.7 5.1 4.26 0.14 6.93 0.20 Positions: (C)Center (CB) Cornerback (DE) Defensive end (DT) Defensive tackle (FS) Free safety (ILB) Inside linebacker (OG) Offensive guard (OLB) Outside linebacker (OT) Offensive tackle (QB) Quarterback (RB) Running back (SS) Strong safety (TE) Tight end (WR) Wide receiver SD = Standard Deviation athletes cannot match the fitness levels of college or pro players, but they can meet or exceed fitness standards of athletes at their level. Table 7.1-1 shows average performances on nfl combine tests by position. The NFL Combine Test is discussed in further detail in Section 8.2. You should modify these tests if you work with an athlete at a different level. In working with college athletes, for example, you might use 135 pounds for the bench press instead of 225 pounds (45 pounds—an Olympic bar—for women). These basic tests are appropriate for power athletes in rugby, Australian-rules football, soccer, throwing (discus, shot put, hammer), softball and baseball. Strength and Conditioning Order of Testing The order that the tests are administered in can also influence the results. Ideally, do not conduct physically exhausting tests on the same day. This is not always possible, so a common order might be jumps, speed/agility, aerobic capacity, and flexibility. Choosing the Correct Tests Early in my career, I helped develop physical fitness tests for a large metropolitan police force. A group of people had filed suit against the Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 325 city, claiming the current tests did not reflect the physical requirements of police work. We began to analyze the program by comparing police officers’ performance on standard fitness tests—pull-ups, push-ups, sit-and-reach, 50yard dash, 1.5 mile run—with simulated police performance tasks—climbing a 6-foot fence (typical fence height in an urban neighborhood), chasing a suspect through a parking lot, and lifting a suspect. Surprisingly, none of the traditional fitness tests predicted performance with any degree of certainty on the simulated police performance tasks. The police department and cadets who took the standard fitness tests were astonished—they had expected those who performed the best on the standard tests would also perform “best” on the police fitness simulation tests. The major conclusion was clear and unambiguous—using standard fitness tests to predict success in police work does not work. The standard tests were replaced with more appropriate tests that mimicked police requirements for fitness and performance. Personal trainers easily can select the wrong tests for their clients. For example, testing a discus thrower on the two-mile run is a waste of time because they only have to move quickly across an 8-foot circle to throw the discus. Twomile run time has nothing to do with the skills (and movement patterns) required to throw the discus. Better choices might be tests of power such as the standing long jump or Wingate test or one-repetition maximum strength tests because they better reflect the particular requirements of the sport. Another miscue even made by expert scientists is to test theoretical measures of fitness such as maximal oxygen consumption, instead of performance in athletic events. For example, maximal oxygen consumption is an important predictive measure for 10,000-meter runners. However, that lab test is not contested in the Olympics and would be essentially useless to predict gymnastic ability or to screen for success in diving. In the case of endurance running, more useful tests would be measures of peak running velocity and fatigability because these indices would better predict the challenges of the event. Interpreting Test Results For athletes, use the first test session in a series as a starting value. Retest them periodically to measure the effectiveness of the training program and to measure progress in essential physical fitness components. Monthly testing is an excellent motivational tool to help athletes stay focused with their programs. The exception occurs when your client tries to achieve specific marks for an athletic tryout (e.g., NFL combine). In this case, you must train for the test. For example, most NFL teams will not even look at an athlete if he fails to achieve minimum performance standards on the 40-yard dash. You can improve an athlete’s prospects by concentrating on movement techniques (particularly the first few explosive movements in the start) and improving upper and lower body power for short sprints. Basic fitness is highly related to playing level. Most male discus throwers who throw over 200 feet can bench press at least 400 pounds and power clean more than 325 pounds. Although some exceptions exist, if your athlete wants to compete at the elite level, he needs to have the prerequisite fitness. As an example, International Sports Sciences Association 326 | Unit 7.1 for one NFL team (New York Jets in the 1980s), 310 players were invited to the training facility in an open tryout toward the end of preseason. The former college and some former NFL players were given a chance to “make the practice team roster” before the final team roster was selected based on one simple test: the 40-yard dash. After a warm-up of their choosing, they had one chance to excel in the dash. Only two players were invited back the next day for further testing (they both had dash times identical to defensive backs already on the team.) Based on further performance testing, neither player was given another opportunity to play in the NFL. This meant that players in other positions (no kickers were invited to the open tryout) did not “cut the mustard” in the dash. They simply did not have the prerequisite speed the team was looking for. Making it into the NFL is an extremely selective process. Pro teams consider many factors, but the athlete must test well on the combine tests to have a fighting chance. Fitness is a great equalizer for women athletes. A woman who can do 15 pull-ups, bench press more than 200 pounds, and squat 300 pounds has a tremendous physical advantage over a competitor who cannot do just a few pull-ups and can barely squat the bar at 75% of her body weight. Superior fitness may also decrease the risk of injury in women athletes. Women have a higher risk than men do of sustaining some types of serious injuries, mainly anterior cruciate ligament sprains and tears. Developing high levels of fitness may help protect joint integrity. The bottom line is that fitness testing informs athletes about their training status and about where they stand relative to their peers. Strength and Conditioning Measuring Strength Strength—ability to exert force—is the basis of power. Power, as defined by sports coaches, is ability to exert force rapidly, the most critical fitness component in most sports from volleyball to speed ice-skating to tumbling. Peak strength predicts ability to throw objects (discus, shot put), sprint (50 to 200 meters), and jump (long jump, high jump, vertical jump). Surprisingly, basic bench press and deadlift strength tests can better predict power performance than 40-yard dash and vertical jump power tests can. In addition, the relationship between strength and performance is stronger in elite athletes than in novices. Relative strength (the strength to body weight ratio) is also an important consideration in assessing strength. The 1-RM strength standards are expressed in body weight categories. A change in strength (i.e., improvement in bench press or squat) poorly predicts changes in performance. Nonetheless, changes in explosive strength (i.e., sprint speed and vertical jump) are decent in the short term at predicting changes in sports performance. The above may seem confusing but provides critical information. Athletes must develop basic strength throughout their athletic careers but concentrate on explosive power to create short-term gains in performance. The personal trainer should test basic strength as a benchmark of overall potential, status, and power to determine the athlete’s preparation for the competitive season. Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 327 Types of Strength Tests There are three basic types of strength tests—isometric, weight lifting, and isokinetic. Of these, weight-lifting tests are the most practical and applicable to sports. Use these tests as benchmarks of change and improvement and as a basis to compare them with other athletes at the same ability level. Unfortunately, few standardized norms exist for weight-lifting tests for most sports activities. One-Repetition Maximum Tests (1-RM) These tests involve measuring the maximum amount of weight an athlete can lift once (1-repetition maximum or 1-RM). Popular lifts include bench press, squat, deadlift, overhead press, power snatch, and power clean. Do not test more than two or three lifts during a single session. Isokinetic: Muscle contracts and shortens at a constant speed. One-repetition maximum (1-RM): Maximum weight that can be lifted for one repetition. Instructions: As in weight lifting and powerlifting competitions, each athlete should make three attempts at each lift. Table 7.1-2 will help determine the athlete’s 1-RM performance based on training weights. Begin with a specific warm-up—typically five reps using a light weight they can lift easily. For example, a person with a projected 1-RM of 300 lb for bench press might warm up with 135 pounds for 5 reps and 225 pounds for one to two reps before attempting 1-RM. Typically, the first attempt is one they know they can get. The second is equal to the athlete’s personal best, and the third exceeds his or her personal best. Equipment for 1-RM tests: Bench: Use a good quality bench designed for bench pressing. Most competitive benches are 17.5 inches high, which allows average-sized people to place their feet flat on the floor with knees bent at an acute angle of slightly less than 90 degrees. The bench should be wide enough to support the scapulae (shoulder blades) but not so wide that it restricts arm movements. Most competition benches are 12.5 inches wide. Use a bench with firm foam that rebounds when compressed. Barbell: Ideally, use bars specifically designed for powerlifting and weight lifting (Olympic lifting). Powerlifting bars are stiffer International Sports Sciences Association Table 7.1-2: Predicting 1-RM from multiple lifts Weights are in kg. 1 kg = 2.2lb. Table generated using the Brzycki equation: 1-RM= Weight / ( 1.0278 - ( 0.0278 x Number repetitions )) Repetitions Weight (kg) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 30 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 39 40 42 43 35 35 36 37 38 39 41 42 43 45 47 48 50 40 40 41 42 44 45 46 48 50 51 53 55 58 45 45 46 48 49 51 52 54 56 58 60 62 65 50 50 51 53 55 56 58 60 62 64 67 69 72 55 55 57 58 60 62 64 66 68 71 73 76 79 60 60 62 64 65 68 70 72 74 77 80 83 86 65 65 67 69 71 73 75 78 81 84 87 90 94 70 70 72 74 76 79 81 84 87 90 93 97 101 108 75 75 77 79 82 84 87 90 93 96 100 104 80 80 82 85 87 90 93 96 99 103 107 111 115 85 85 87 90 93 96 99 102 106 109 113 118 122 90 90 93 95 98 101 105 108 112 116 120 125 130 95 95 98 101 104 107 110 114 118 122 127 132 137 100 100 103 106 109 113 116 120 124 129 133 139 144 105 105 108 111 115 118 122 126 130 135 140 145 151 110 110 113 116 120 124 128 132 137 141 147 152 158 115 115 118 122 125 129 134 138 143 148 153 159 166 120 120 123 127 131 135 139 144 149 154 160 166 173 125 125 129 132 136 141 145 150 155 161 167 173 180 130 130 134 138 142 146 151 156 161 167 173 180 187 135 135 139 143 147 152 157 162 168 174 180 187 194 140 140 144 148 153 158 163 168 174 180 187 194 202 145 145 149 154 158 163 168 174 180 186 193 201 209 150 150 154 159 164 169 174 180 186 193 200 208 216 155 155 159 164 169 174 180 186 192 199 207 215 223 160 160 165 169 175 180 186 192 199 206 213 222 230 165 165 170 175 180 186 192 198 205 212 220 229 238 170 170 175 180 185 191 197 204 211 219 227 235 245 252 175 175 180 185 191 197 203 210 217 225 233 242 180 180 185 191 196 203 209 216 223 231 240 249 259 185 185 190 196 202 208 215 222 230 238 247 256 266 190 190 195 201 207 214 221 228 236 244 253 263 274 195 195 201 206 213 219 226 234 242 251 260 270 281 200 200 206 212 218 225 232 240 248 257 267 277 288 205 205 211 217 224 231 238 246 255 264 273 284 295 210 210 216 222 229 236 244 252 261 270 280 291 303 215 215 221 228 235 242 250 258 267 276 287 298 310 220 220 226 233 240 248 256 264 273 283 293 305 317 225 225 231 238 245 253 261 270 279 289 300 312 324 230 230 237 244 251 259 267 276 286 296 307 319 331 235 235 242 249 256 264 273 282 292 302 313 325 339 240 240 247 254 262 270 279 288 298 309 320 332 346 245 245 252 259 267 276 285 294 304 315 327 339 353 250 250 257 265 273 281 290 300 310 322 333 346 360 255 255 262 270 278 287 296 306 317 328 340 353 367 260 260 267 275 284 293 302 312 323 334 347 360 375 265 265 273 281 289 298 308 318 329 341 353 367 382 270 270 278 286 295 304 314 324 335 347 360 374 389 275 275 283 291 300 309 319 330 341 354 367 381 396 Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 329 than Olympic lifting bars are, the sleeves do not spin as freely, the knurling tends to be deeper, and they typically use English units (45-pound bar). The men’s Olympic bar weighs 20 kilograms (44 pounds) and is 26 to 29 millimeters thick (1.1 inch); the women’s bar weighs 15 kilograms (33 pounds) and is 25 millimeters thick (0.98 inches). Olympic bars are flexible, which provides a “whip” during the second pull of the clean and snatch. They also have freely rotating sleeves. Many programs only have a few generic bars, so make the best with what you have. Plates: Use rubber-coated plates (i.e., bumper plates) for cleans, snatches, and overhead press so they are protected if athletes drop the weight on the platform during a failed lift. Standard iron plates are acceptable for the bench press, squat, and deadlift. Bumper plates: Weight plates covered in rubber. Racks and platform: The best situation is to have a platform and power rack combination. Use sturdy racks for the bench press and squat. Power racks have rack stops that are changed easily for different size athletes. The platform should provide good footing during dynamic lifts and a solid base to support heavy weights. Belts, chalk, constrictive clothing, and wraps: Athletes may use lifting belts to stabilize their core during the lifts and chalk to promote their grip. They may not use bench shirts or straps to improve lifting performance. They can wear wrist, elbow, and knee wraps to support their joints. One-Repetition Maximum Standards Table 7.1-3 contains standards for the major lifts developed by Coach Mark Rippetoe (http://startingstrength.com/files/standards.pdf). These standards are not norms. They are based on reasonable performance levels for athletes at different levels of development. The most important use of 1-RM tests is to gauge lifting progress. Bench Press 1-RM Test Instructions: Place the bar on the rack at an appropriate height and load the bar. With the back resting on the bench, the athlete takes the loaded bar at arm’s length with hands spaced no more than 81 centimeters (32 inches) apart. One or two spotters can help move the bar over the chest, but the athlete must remain in full control of the International Sports Sciences Association 330 | Unit 7.1 Table 7.1-3: 1-RM standards Bench Press: Adult Men Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V 114 84 107 130 179 222 123 91 116 142 194 242 132 98 125 153 208 260 148 109 140 172 234 291 165 119 152 187 255 319 181 128 164 201 275 343 198 135 173 213 289 362 220 142 183 225 306 381 242 149 190 232 316 395 275 153 196 239 325 407 319 156 199 244 333 416 320+ 159 204 248 340 425 Bench Press: Adult Women Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V 97 49 63 73 94 116 105 53 68 79 102 124 114 57 73 85 109 133 123 60 77 90 116 142 132 64 82 95 122 150 148 70 90 105 135 165 165 76 97 113 146 183 181 81 104 122 158 192 198 88 112 130 167 205 199+ 92 118 137 177 217 Bench Press One-Repetition Maximum Standards (in pounds) for Males and Females. These are performance standards, not norms. The exercise is performed with the technique used in Starting Strength: Basic Barbell Training, 3rd ed. No bouncing of the bar off the chest is allowed. The shoulders, hips and feet must remain in contact with the bench and floor respectively at all times during the test Strength and Conditioning bar before beginning the lift. The athlete lowers the bar to the chest, pauses, and then presses the bar back to the starting position until the elbows are locked. Spotters can assist the athlete in placing the bar back on the rack but may not touch the bar during the lift. During the lift, the athlete’s rear must remain in contact with the bench, the feet must remain in contact with the ground, and the bar must be pressed evenly. See Section 6.3 for a detailed description of the bench press. Squat 1-RM Test Instruction: Place the bar on the support racks at an appropriate height and load the bar. The lifter removes the bar from the rack, stands erect with the weight resting on his or her shoulders, and grasps the bar. At the command “squat,” the lifter squats down until the top surface of the thigh at the hip joint is lower than the top of knees is (i.e., below parallel). The lifter then drives back to the starting position with knees locked. Spotters help the lifter place the bar back on the rack but are not allowed to assist with the lift. See Section 6.4 for a detailed description of the squat. Deadlift 1-RM Test Instructions: Place the loaded bar on the platform. The athlete squats down and grasps the loaded bar and then pulls the weights off the floor and assumes an erect position. The knees must be locked and the shoulders back, with the athlete firmly gripping the bar. On the command “down,” the athlete returns the bar to the floor under control. See Section 6.4 for a detailed description of the deadlift. Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 331 Table 7.1-3: 1-RM standards Table 7.1-3: 1-RM standards Squat: Adult Men Deadlift: Adult Men Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V 114 78 144 174 240 320 114 97 179 204 299 387 123 84 155 190 259 346 123 105 194 222 320 414 132 91 168 205 278 369 132 113 209 239 342 438 148 101 188 230 313 410 148 126 234 269 380 482 165 110 204 250 342 445 165 137 254 293 411 518 181 119 220 269 367 479 181 148 274 315 438 548 198 125 232 285 387 504 198 156 289 333 457 567 220 132 244 301 409 532 220 164 305 351 479 586 242 137 255 311 423 551 242 172 318 363 490 596 275 141 261 319 435 567 275 176 326 373 499 602 319 144 267 326 445 580 319 180 333 381 506 608 320+ 147 272 332 454 593 320+ 183 340 388 512 617 Squat: Adult Women Deadlift: Adult Women Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V 97 46 84 98 129 163 97 57 105 122 175 232 105 49 91 106 140 174 105 61 114 132 189 242 114 53 98 114 150 187 114 66 122 142 200 253 123 56 103 121 160 199 123 70 129 151 211 263 132 59 110 127 168 211 132 74 137 159 220 273 148 65 121 141 185 232 148 81 151 176 241 295 165 70 130 151 200 256 165 88 162 189 258 319 181 75 139 164 215 268 181 94 174 204 273 329 198 81 150 174 229 288 198 101 187 217 284 349 199+ 85 158 184 242 303 199+ 107 197 229 297 364 Squat One-Repetition Maximum Standards (in pounds) for Males and Females. These are performance standards, not norms. The exercise is performed using a full range of motion described in Starting Strength: Basic Barbell Training, 3rd ed.. A full squat is one where the apex of the inguinal fold (at the superior anterior surface of the upper thigh) is below the superior surface of the patella. Deadlift One-Repetition Maximum Standards (in pounds) for Males and Females. These are performance standards, not norms. The exercise is performed using the technique used as described in Starting Strength: Basic Barbell Training, 3rd ed. Starting Strength International Sports Sciences Association 332 | Unit 7.1 Standing Press 1-RM Test Instructions: Place the loaded bar on support racks placed slightly below chest level. Athletes may also clean the weight to the press position. The athlete grasps the bar with both hands and then removes it from the rack, holding the weight at chest level (rack position). At the command “press,” the athlete presses the bar overhead until the elbows lock out. On the command “down,” the athlete returns the bar to the rack position under control and then returns the bar to the support racks. The athlete must press the weight evenly without assistance from lower body muscles or spotters. Power Snatch 1-RM Test Instructions: Place the loaded bar on the platform. The athlete squats down, grasps the bar with palms downward, and then pulls the weight overhead in a single movement with both arms extended fully while either splitting or bending the legs. The athlete then places the feet in the same line and remains motionless with arms fully extended until the test administrator signals to return the weight to the platform. Athletes are not allowed to press the weight or extend the arms unevenly or incompletely at the finish of the lift. This test also may be administered starting from a hang position. See Section 6.5 for a detailed description of the snatch. Strength and Conditioning Table 7.1-3: 1-RM standards Press: Adult Men Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V 114 53 72 90 107 129 123 57 78 98 116 141 132 61 84 105 125 151 148 69 94 119 140 169 165 75 102 129 153 186 181 81 110 138 164 218 198 85 116 146 173 234 220 89 122 155 183 255 242 93 127 159 189 264 275 96 131 164 194 272 319 98 133 167 199 278 320+ 100 136 171 203 284 Press: Adult Women Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V 97 31 42 50 66 85 105 33 46 53 71 91 114 36 49 58 76 97 123 38 52 61 81 104 132 40 55 65 85 110 148 44 60 72 94 121 165 48 65 77 102 134 181 51 70 83 110 140 198 55 75 88 117 151 199+ 58 79 93 123 159 Press One-Repetition Maximum Standards (in pounds) for Males and Females. These are performance standards, not norms. This exercise is performed with the technique described in Starting Strength: Basic Barbell Training, 3rd ed. Any knee extension renders an attempt invalid. Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 333 Power Clean 1-RM Test Instructions: Place the loaded bar on the platform. The athlete squats down and grasps the loaded bar, pulls the weights off the floor, and catches the bar at the upper chest level (the “rack”). The knees must be locked and spine erect at the rack while firmly gripping the bar. This test also may be administered starting from a hang position. See Section 6.5 for a detailed description of the clean. Grip Strength Test Grip strength is easy to administer, and performance norms are readily available. Purchase a good quality grip dynamometer from most athletic supply companies. Instructions: Adjust the dynamometer to the athlete’s hand. Use the dominant hand and record the best of three attempts (in kilograms). Test Standardization: Standardize the way you administer the test so that the method is the same during repeated measurements during the season and the following seasons. • The athletes should be sitting with their forearm on a table to eliminate upper body movement. • If you allow athletes to stand during the test, do not allow them to move their body into the squeeze. They should not be allowed to move their arm up to the sky as they contract. • Standardize the arm position during the test. They should either hold the arm straight out in front of the chest or place the hand down at the side. Table 7.1-3: 1-RM standards Power Clean: Adult Men Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V 114 56 103 125 173 207 123 60 112 137 186 224 132 65 121 148 200 239 148 73 135 166 225 266 165 79 147 180 246 288 181 85 158 194 264 310 198 90 167 205 279 327 220 95 176 217 294 345 242 99 183 224 305 357 275 102 188 230 313 367 319 104 192 235 320 376 320+ 106 196 239 327 384 Power Clean: Adult Women Bodyweight Cat I Cat II Cat III Cat IV Cat V 97 33 61 70 93 117 105 35 66 76 101 125 114 38 70 82 108 135 123 40 74 87 115 143 132 43 79 92 121 152 148 47 87 101 133 167 165 50 93 109 144 184 181 54 100 118 155 193 198 58 108 125 165 207 199+ 61 114 132 174 218 Power Clean One-Repetition Maximum Standards (in pounds) for Males and Females. These are performance standards, not norms. The exercise uses the technique described in Starting Strength: Basic Barbell Training, 3rd ed. International Sports Sciences Association 334 | Unit 7.1 Table 7.1-4: Grip strength norms (kg) Table 7.1-5: Push-up norms Excellent Good Average Fair Poor Age Male >56s 51-56 45-50 39-44 <39 Men Female >36 31-36 25-30 19-24 <19 • They are allowed to “pre-tense” before making a max contraction. • They should be allowed to warm up. • They should be allowed to scream during the squeeze. Table 7.1-4 shows grip strength norms for young adults. Measuring Strength-Endurance Most common strength tests—push-ups, pull-ups, and max rep bench press—are really measures of strength-endurance because they measure sustainability of a submaximal load. These tests predict peak strength and have three advantages over 1-RM tests: 1. They are safe; 2. They are easier to administer; and 3. Well-established norms are available. Push-ups This easily administered test serves as a basic screening tool. Women have much less upper body strength than men do. Push-ups are more difficult for larger athletes who have greater upper body mass. Most women should do modified push-ups; well-trained women should do standard push-ups. Strength and Conditioning Excellent Good Average Fair Poor 20–29 >54 45–54 35–44 20–34 <20 30–39 >44 35–44 25–34 15–24 <15 40–49 >39 30–39 20–29 12–19 <12 50–59 >34 25–34 15–24 8–14 <8 60+ >29 20–29 10–19 5–9 <5 20–29 >48 34–38 17–33 6–16 <6 30–39 >39 25–39 12–24 4–11 <4 40–49 >34 20–34 8–19 3–7 <3 50–59 >29 15–29 6–14 2–5 <2 60+ >19 5–19 3–4 1–2 <1 Women Source: Sports Coach Instructions: Start in the push-up position with your body supported by your hands and feet. For modified push-ups: start in the modified push-up position with your body supported by your hands and knees. For both positions, your arms and back should be straight and your fingers pointed forward. Hand placement should be slightly wider than shoulder width apart. Lower until the upper arms are parallel with the ground with your back straight and then return to the starting position. Your score is the number of completed standard or modified push-ups. Table 7.1-5 presents norms for push-ups. Pull-ups The pull-up test measures upper body strength-endurance. It also serves as an excellent exercise to build shoulder strength and upper back strength. The objective is to measure Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 335 Table 7.1-6: Pull-up norms Young Men % 15 16 17+ 100 29 26 26 95 14 15 17 90 12 12 15 85 11 11 13 80 10 10 12 75 10 10 11 70 9 9 10 65 8 8 10 60 7 8 10 55 7 7 9 50 6 7 8 45 5 7 7 40 5 6 7 35 4 5 6 30 4 5 5 25 3 4 5 20 2 4 4 15 2 3 3 10 1 2 2 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Young Women % 15 16 17+ 100 14 10 21 95 3 4 4 90 2 2 2 85 2 1 1 80 1 1 1 75 1 1 1 70 1 1 1 65 0 0 1 60 0 0 0 55 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 45 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 35 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Source: President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports upper body strength/endurance assessed by the maximum number of pull-ups completed. Instructions: The athlete hangs from a horizontal bar at a height they can hang from with arms fully extended and feet free from the floor using either an overhand grip (palms facing away from the body) or underhand grip (palms facing toward the body). Small athletes may be lifted to the starting position. The athlete flexes the arms at the elbows, raising the body until the chin clears the bar (not just touching it) and then lowers down to a full-hang starting position. The object is to perform as many correct pullups in a smooth rather than jerky motion. Kicking or bending the legs is not permitted, and the body must not swing during the movement or swing up with momentum into the next pullup. Table 7.1-6 presents norms for pull-ups. Maximum Repetition Tests The bench press is the most popular lift because it is easy to administer and considered a measure of strength by most athletes. The NFL uses the number of reps completed on the bench with 225 pounds as one of its basic fitness test items (see Table 7.1-1 for minimum NFL bench press standards). These standards are unrealistic for many younger athletes because most individuals cannot bench press 225 pounds for 1 repetition, let alone 20. The solution—modify the test and use less weight. Instructions: Determine a realistic starting weight for your athlete. Elite power athletes can use 225 pounds; other athletes should use less. A good starting weight for high school football players is 100 pounds. Female power athletes International Sports Sciences Association 336 | Unit 7.1 should use 65 pounds. The athlete should lie down on the bench and grasp the bar. On the lifter’s signal, spotters help raise the bar to the starting position. The athlete completes as many repetitions of the bench press as possible without “cheating.” Do not count the rep if the athlete fails to touch his or her chest with the bar or does not fully extend the arms. YMCA Bench Press Test The YMCA developed the max rep bench press test that requires the athlete to bench press a light weight to a cadence established by a metronome. This test is valuable because the YMCA has norms for this test, but unfortunately the test is not really usable to assess strength because it involves too many repetitions with a relatively light starting weight. Instructions: In addition to weights, bench, and spotter, use a metronome set at a cadence of 60 beats a minute. Free metronome telephone apps are available for smartphones. The athlete should lie down on the bench and grasp the bar. Turn on the metronome. On the lifter’s signal, spotters help raise the bar to the starting position. The athlete completes as many bench press repetitions as possible without cheating, keeping pace with the metronome (30 reps per minute—two beats per rep). The athlete’s score is the number of completed reps. Table 7.1-7: YMCA bench press test Age Very Poor Poor Below Average Average Above Average Good Excellent 18-25 < 13 13-19 20-23 24-28 29-33 34-43 > 43 26-35 < 12 12-16 17-20 21-25 26-29 30-40 > 40 36-45 <9 9-13 14-17 18-21 22-25 26-35 > 35 46-55 <5 5-8 9-11 12-15 16-20 21-27 >27 56-65 <2 2-4 5-8 9-11 12-16 17-23 > 23 Over 65 <2 2-3 4-6 7-9 10-11 12-19 > 19 18-25 <9 9-15 16-19 20-24 25-29 30-41 > 41 26-35 <9 9-13 14-17 18-23 24-28 29-39 > 39 36-45 <6 6-11 12-15 16-20 21-25 26-32 > 32 46-55 <2 2-6 7-9 10-13 14-19 20-28 > 28 56-65 <2 2-4 5-7 8-11 12-10 17-23 > 23 Over 65 <1 1-2 3-4 5-7 8-11 12-17 > 17 Men Women Source: Adapted from norms in the YMCA Fitness Testing and Assessment Manual. Fourth edition, 2000. YMCA of the USA 101 N. Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60606. Strength and Conditioning Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 337 Table 7.1-8: Sit-up norms for young adults Male Excellent Above Average Average Below Average Poor >30 26-30 20-25 17-19 <16 Female >25 21-25 15-20 9-4 <8 Male >26 25-26 23-24 21-22 <21 Female >23 21-23 19-20 17-18 <17 Source: Sports Coach Sit-ups Most exercise experts recommend curl-ups rather than sit-ups to strengthen abdominal muscles. Sit-ups require good abdominal strength, and well-established norms exist for this test. However, I do not recommend using this basic test because of the potential to injure the spine. See “Assessing Core Fitness” for more appropriate abdominal fitness tests. Instructions: Lie flat on a mat with knees bent to about a 90-degree angle with arms folded across the chest. A partner should grasp the lower legs just above the ankles. Raise the shoulders and trunk to 90-degrees and then return to the floor. Record the number of situps completed in 30 seconds. Table 7.1-8 presents norms for young adults and high school athletes. Assessing Core Fitness For more than 100 years, traditional core training included sit-ups, back extensions, and twists. However, isometric core exercises provide a better alternative to develop core strength and stiffness. There are seven reasons athletes should train core stiffness: 1. Strengthens muscles 2. Improves muscular endurance Core stiffness: Stabilizing the spine by isometrically contracting the core muscles. 3. Reduces low back pain 4. Boosts sports performance 5. Transfers strength and speed to limbs 6. Increases spine’s load-bearing capacity 7. Protects internal organs during most “all-out” sports movements International Sports Sciences Association 338 | Unit 7.1 Four endurance tests measure core stiffness and evaluate muscular endurance of major spine-stabilizing muscles; the tests include trunk flexor endurance, back extensor endurance, side bridge endurance, and front plank endurance. Trunk Flexor Endurance Test (also called V-sit–Flexor Endurance Test) be ready to support your weight as the torso begins to move back. The final score is the total contraction holding time—from when the support is removed until any part of the back touches the support or the athlete requests to discontinue the test. Encourage normal breathing throughout the test. 3. Record time in seconds. (http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/hhp/ fahey7e/labs/fahey_lab_05_03.pdf) Back Extensor Endurance Test (also called Biering-Sorensen extension test) Equipment (http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/hhp/ fahey7e/labs/fahey_lab_05_03.pdf) • Stopwatch or clock with a second hand • Exercise mat or padded exercise table • Two helpers • Stopwatch or clock with a second hand • Hard wooden wedge angled at 55 degrees from the floor or padded bench with a backrest (optional) • Extension bench with padded ankle and hip support or any padded bench • Partner Preparation • Warm up for two to three minutes with low-intensity walking or easy jogging. Instructions 1. To start, assume a sit-up posture with your back supported at a 55-degree angle from the floor; for support use a wedge, padded bench, or spotter. Your knees and hips should both be flexed at 90 degrees with arms folded across your chest with hands placed on opposite shoulders. Toes and foot arch should be secured under a strap or secured by a partner. 2. The goal is to hold the isometric contraction starting position as long as possible after pulling the support away. To begin the test, the helper should pull the wedge or other support back about 10 centimeters or 4 inches. The helper should keep track of the time; if a spotter acts as the support, he or she should Strength and Conditioning Equipment Preparation Warm up for two to three minutes with low-intensity walking or easy jogging. Instructions 1. Lie face down on the test bench with your upper body extending out over the end of the bench and your pelvis, hips, and knees flat on the bench. Fold your arms across your chest with your hands placed on the opposite shoulders. Your legs and hips should be secured under padded straps or held by a partner. 2. The goal is to hold your upper body as long as possible in a straight horizontal line with your lower body. Keep your neck straight and neutral; do not raise your head and do not arch your back. Breathe normally. Your partner should keep track of time and watch your form. Your final score is the total time you can Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 339 make sure you maintain the correct position. Your final score is the total time you are able to hold the side bridge with correct form— from the time you lift your hips until your hips return to the mat. Table 7.1-9: Core Fitness Criteria Ratio of Comparison Criteria for Good Relationship Between Muscles Flexion : Extension Ratio less than 1.0 Right-side bridge : Left-side bridge Scores should be no greater than 0.05 from a balanced score of 1.0 Right-side bridge : Extension Ratio less than 0.75 Left-side bridge : Extension Ratio less than 0.75 hold the horizontal position—from the time you assume the position until your upper body drops from the horizontal position. 3. Record your time in seconds. Side Bridge Test Equipment • Stopwatch or clock with a second hand • Exercise mat • Partner Preparation • Warm up for two to three minutes with low-intensity walking or easy jogging. Practice assuming the side bridge position described below. Instructions 1. Lie on the mat on your side with your legs extended. Place your top foot in front of your lower foot for support. Lift your hips off the mat so you support yourself on one elbow and your feet. Your body should maintain a straight line. Breathe normally (do not hold your breath.) 2. Hold the position as long as possible. Your partner should keep track of the time and 3. Rest for five minutes and then repeat the test on the other side. Record your time in seconds. Front Plank Test Equipment • Stopwatch or clock with a second hand • Exercise mat • Partner Preparation • Warm up for two to three minutes with low-intensity walking or easy jogging. • Practice assuming the front plank position described below. Instructions 1. Assume a front plank position by lying on your front and then lifting your hips, supporting your weight on your forearms and toes and keeping the torso rigid. Your body should maintain a straight line; keep your hands together and elbows directly under your shoulders. Breathe normally (do not hold your breath.) 2. Hold the position as long as possible. Your partner should keep track of the time and make sure that you maintain the correct position. Your final score is the total time you can hold the front plank with correct form— from the time you lift your hips until your hips return to the mat. 3. Record time in seconds. International Sports Sciences Association 340 | Unit 7.1 Other Strength Tests Isokinetic Strength Tests Isokinetic dynamometer: Instrument that measures muscle strength isokinetically (constant speed). Isokinetic strength tests require an isokinetic dynamometer. Cybex and Biodex are two manufacturers (www.cybexintl.com and www. biodex.com). Their equipment can test strength in most of the body’s major joint movements. These machines and associated computerized equipment are expensive but excellent for physical therapy assessment and rehabilitation; they are less useful in a gym or general commercial fitness center in assessing an athlete’s performance capacity. Such equipment assesses isolated movements, whereas sports require many joint and muscle groups working in concert. One advantage of isokinetic tests is that they measure strength at different speeds of movement, often duplicating movement speeds in many sports activities. The Ariel Computerized Exercise System (www.sportscience.org) includes the capacity to accurately measure isokinetic, isotonic, and isometric strength using traditional exercises that include bench press and seated press (and back and abs). Unfortunately, few personal trainers have access to this computerized exercise device. Strain gauge: Device that measure isometric force in specific movements. Strain gauges You can assess the isometric strength of various joints by measuring tension on cables attached to an athlete’s arms or legs. This technique, developed before 1950, is difficult to administer and interpret. Tests of Power Power is work (force × distance) divided by time. An operational definition for sport is power refers to the ability to exert force rapidly. In most sports, power is more important than strength. However, strength is the basis of power; do not make the mistake of ignoring basic strength in your clients’ training programs. Strength and Conditioning Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 341 Wingate Test (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oMj7Kr0mRtU; https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=TCfgA3SurnM) The Wingate test is a well-established procedure for measuring power output on a cycle ergometer. It is most applicable to cycling, but it gives a good indication of lower body power output capacity. The test requires a calibrated cycle ergometer that allows a constant frictional resistance on the flywheel and a way to count pedal revolutions (you can do this by observation or with a mechanical counter attached to the flywheel and pedal crank.) Cycle ergometer: Calibrated stationary bike to measure power output during cycling exercise. Instructions: Use a mechanically braked bicycle ergometer. Monark (Sweden; http://monarkexercise.se/?lang=en) and Tunturi (Finland; www.tunturi.com) make excellent ergometers. The athlete should warm up for two to three minutes of light cycling on the ergometer before taking the test. The test begins with the athlete’s pedaling as fast as possible without any resistance on the flywheel. As soon as possible, apply a predetermined resistance to the flywheel and have the athlete continue to pedal at 100% effort for 30 seconds. Count the flywheel revolutions (rpms) in 5-second intervals using an electrical or mechanical counter. You also can record rpms visually. How to determine flywheel resistance: Set the flywheel resistance at 0.075 kg (75 g) per kg body mass. For an 80-kg person, the flywheel resistance would equal 6 kg (80 kg * 0.075). For advanced athletes, use a flywheel resistance of 0.1 kg per kg body mass. Calculating Peak Power Output (PP): Calculate peak power output for the first 5-seconds of the test. This reflects the capacity of the immediate energy system (ATP and CP) discussed in section 4.1 of the course. The highest power output, observed during the first five seconds of exercise, indicates the energy generating capacity of the immediate International Sports Sciences Association 342 | Unit 7.1 energy system (intramuscular high-energy phosphates ATP and PC). Calculate peak power output in five seconds as follows: Power = Work ÷ Time (Eq. 7.1-1) 1. 2. 2. Calculate force by multiplying rpms in 5 seconds by kilograms of resistance on the bike, times the distance the flywheel travels for 1 rpm (6 meters for the Monark). Divide force by time in minutes (5 sec = 0.0833 min) to obtain power output during the first 5 seconds. Table 7.1-10a will help assess the athlete’s power output capacity. Calculate relative peak power output (RPP) with equation 4.1-2. Norms for RPP appear in Table 7.1-10b. RPP = PP / Body mass (kg) (Eq. 7.1-2) 4. Power Fatigue (PF) PF provides percentage decline in power output and is calculated as follows: PF = highest 5-sec PP - lowest 5-sec PP highest 5-sec PP x 100 Peak power for active young adults from Wingate test Percentile Men (watts) Women (watts) 90 822 560 80 777 527 70 757 505 60 721 480 50 689 449 40 671 432 30 656 399 20 618 376 10 570 353 Norms for relative peak power for active young adults Percentile Men (watts) Women (watts) 90 10.89 9.02 80 10.39 8.83 70 10.20 8.53 60 9.80 8.14 50 9.22 7.65 40 8.92 6.96 30 8.53 6.86 20 8.24 6.57 10 7.06 5.98 Source: Data from Maud and Schultz, 1989 (Eq. 7.1-3) Vertical Jump Test (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=85EtdsmFCoY) The vertical jump test is a favorite among coaches and personal trainers for measuring explosive leg power. This is a standard fitness test in the NFL Combine. There are many ways to administer this test (e.g., arms extended during the jump; arm swing before jumping). If your athlete is preparing for a specific test (i.e., NFL Combine), practice the technique he or she requires at camp. Strength and Conditioning Table 7.1-10: Wingate test, peak power Instructions: Ideally, use a commercially available vertical jump device (Vertek; cost approximately $600) available from various athletic suppliers on the Internet. You also can construct a similar device for under $50 using standard PVC piping and shims purchased from home improvement stores. If the Vertek or homemade device is unavailable, tack a measuring tape on the wall high and low enough to measure the athlete’s standing reach and jump reach. The athlete applies chalk to the end of his or her fingertips and stands sideways to the wall. Keeping both feet on the ground, the athlete reaches as Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 343 Table 7.1-11: Vertical Jump Percentile ranks of British world-class athletes and norms for high school athletes Percentile Females Males 91 - 100 76.20 - 81.30 cm 86.35 - 91.45 cm 81 - 90 71.11 - 76.19 cm 81.30 - 86.34 cm 71 - 80 66.05 - 71.10 cm 76.20 - 81.29 cm 61 - 70 60.95 - 66.04 cm 71.10 - 76.19 cm 51 - 60 55.90 - 60.94 cm 66.05 - 71.09 cm 41 - 50 50.80 - 55.89 cm 60.95 - 66.04 cm 31 - 40 45.71 - 50.79 cm 55.90 - 60.94 cm 21 - 30 40.65 - 45.70 cm 50.80 - 55.89 cm 11 - 20 35.55 - 40.64 cm 45.70 - 50.79 cm 1 - 10 30.50 - 35.54 cm 40.65 - 45.69 cm Norms for vertical jump in 15-16 year old athletes excellent test Standing that the well-equipped Table 7.1-12: long jump personal trainer consider purchasing is ft) (A) Normsmight for standing long jump in adults (1 it m (cost = 3.28084 approximately $500 to $600). Percentile Females Males Instructions: Connect2.94 two switch mats3.40 (or- pho91 - 100 - 3.15 m 3.75 m tocell81setup) to an automatic electronic timing - 90 2.80 - 2.93 m 3.10 - 3.39 m device71and on- the and2.95 ninth - 80 place them 2.65 2.79 third m - 3.09 m 2.50 - 2.64The m athlete 2.80 - 2.94 m steps 61 of-a70standard staircase. starts 51 from - 60 the staircase 2.35 -and 2.49 m 2.65 - 2.79 20 feet runs as quickly tom 41 - 50 2.20 leaps - 2.34 m - 2.64 m the base of the steps and up to the2.50 third, - 40 ninth steps2.05 - 2.19as m possible. 2.35 - 2.49 m sixth,31and as fast Re21 - 30 1.90 - 2.04 m 2.20 - 2.34 m cord the time from foot contact with the third 11 - 20 1.75 - 1.89m step until contact by the same foot with2.05 the- 2.19 m 1 - 10 1.60 - 1.74 m 1.90 - 2.04 m ninth step. The athlete should try to accelerate (B) Norms for standing long jump in 15-16 year old athletes (m) through the ninth step. Perform three trials and Gender Excellent Above Average Below Poor record the lowest time. Average Average Gender Excellent Above Average Average Below Average Poor Male >26 in 22-25 in 19-21 in 15-18 in <15 in Male >2.01 2.00–1.86 1.85–1.76 1.75–1.65 <1.65 Female >24 in 20-23 in 16-19 in 13-15 in <13 in Female >1.66 1.65–1.56 1.55–1.46 1.45–1.35 <1.35 Source: Adapted from Sports Coach high as possible with one hand and makes a chalk mark on the wall. This becomes the baseline measurement. With feet still in a static position, the athlete flexes at the knees to about 90 degrees, thrusting the arms up, trying to jump as high as possible with an explosive movement and making another chalk mark at the highest point in the jump. The athlete’s score is the best of three trials. Table 7.1-11 shows percentile ranks of British world-class athletes and norms for high school athletes. Administer this test often. Standing Long Jump (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=cg_NASdYh-8) The athletes place their feet over the edge of the long jump pit or use a gym floor. The athlete starts in a static position, feet together, shoulder Source: Adapted from Sports Coach width apart. Crouch down, lean forward, swing the arms backward, and then drive the arms forward and jump horizontally as far as possible, landing with both feet into the jumping area. Measure from the edge of the take-off point to the nearest point of surface contact. Norms for young adults appear in Table 7.1-12. Margaria-Kalamen Stair Climbing Power Test (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=4UnOfQirBEw) This test is an excellent measure of power. The one drawback is that it requires relatively expensive equipment—switch mats (electrical contact system) or photocells connected to an electronic timing device and displayed on a smartphone or computer). This is such an International Sports Sciences Association 344 | Unit 7.1 Use the following equation to calculate power on the Margaria-Kalamen test: P = W × d/t (Eq. 7.1-4) Table 7.1-13: 40-yard dash Norms for men and women over the age of 13 years, US Ski Team Percentile Women, 40-yd dash Men, 40-yd dash Where P = leg power (kilogram meters/second), W = body weight (kg), d = the vertical distance between the third and ninth steps (m), and t = time elapsed (s). 100 5.30 4.80 90 5.40 4.90 80 5.50 5.00 70 5.60 5.10 60 5.70 5.20 Speed Tests 50 5.80 5.30 40 5.90 5.40 30 6.00 5.50 20 6.10 5.70 10 6.20 5.90 Sprint Tests: 10- and 40-yard (or meter) dashes (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=4bxJU4WeG3A) Short sprint tests are important evaluation tools for football, basketball, soccer, volleyball, and track and field. These tests are so important that some coaches use them as screening tools to weed out athletes who do not possess basic speed and power. Do these tests regularly, but make sure athletes are conditioned, or they may become injured. Professional and college football coaches think highly of the 40-yard dash test even though few plays involve running that distance in a game. Different aspects of the sprint may be evaluated: stance, start, first step, acceleration, maximal velocity, and finish. Athletes can improve their sprint time if they work on each aspect of the sprint, particularly the start. Split times are also measured electronically at 10 and 20 yards to measure acceleration. This test is critical—a poor time cannot be compensated for by success in other events. Strength and Conditioning Source: US Ski Team Instructions: The athlete may not use starting blocks but can assume any starting position (NFL uses three-point stance). Rolling starts are not allowed. Start the test with the verbal command “Ready, Set, Go.” Start the clock on the athlete’s first movement, and remind him or her to run through the finish line. Evaluation: Table 7.1-1 shows the minimum performance in the 40-yard dash by position in the NFL. Table 7.1-13 shows the US Ski Team norms for men and women over the age of 13. Power Quadrathlon British track and field coach Max Jones originally developed the power quadrathlon to measure power in throwers, but the test is useful for any power athlete. Use it to assess fitness and gauge progress in the training program. The quadrathlon includes the standing long jump, three jumps, 30-meter sprint, and overhead shot throw (see Table 7.1-14). Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 345 Standing Long Jump Overhead Shot Put Throw Place the feet over the edge of the long jump pit or use a gym floor. The athlete starts in a static position, feet together, shoulder width apart. Crouch down, lean forward, swing the arms backward and then jump horizontally as far as possible, landing with both feet into the jumping area. Measure from the edge of the take-off point to the nearest point of surface contact. Use the appropriate weight for the athlete’s age and gender—girls and women use an 8-pound shot, high school boys use a 12-pound shot, and college men use a 16-pound shot. The athlete stands on top of the shot toe-board, facing away from the landing area, with feet a comfortable distance apart. The shot is held cupped in both hands. The athlete crouches, lowering the shot between the legs, and then drives explosively upward to throw the shot back over the head. The athlete must land feet first and remain upright, or the throw is scored a foul. The measurement is taken from the inside of the toe board to the nearest point of surface contact. Three Jumps (bunny hops) Do this test on a track, football field, or gym floor. Start with the feet comfortably apart with the toes just behind the take-off mark. The athlete takes three continuous two-footed jumps. Measure the distance covered. The start must be from a static position, and the feet must remain parallel on each jump phase. Athletes may wear spikes. 30-Meter Sprint The athlete begins in a crouched position on the track. Give the command “ready, set, go.” On “go,” the athlete sprints from a stationary set position as fast as possible through the finish line. Stand at the finish line and time the run from the moment the runner contacts the ground on the first stride to the moment the runner’s torso crosses the line. Spike shoes are allowed. Scoring Use the power quadrathlon scoring table, which facilitates competition among athletes or gauge progress in a single athlete. This test represents a good measure of general power and should be administered about once monthly during the offseason. Do the test during the season if there is some question about training status. Calculate points using the following equations or use Table 7.1-14. Quadrathlon Scoring Equations Standing Long Jump Points = -36.14048 + (D*37.268536) + (D*D*-0.128057) Three Bunny Hop Jumps Points = -36.36996 + (D*12.478922) + (D*D*-0.007423) 30-Meter Sprint Points = 209.70039 + (T*-36.94427) + (T*T*0.165766) Overhead Shot Points = -22.32216 + (D*5.8318756) + (D*D*-0.000334) Note: D is distance in meters, and T is time in seconds International Sports Sciences Association 346 | Unit 7.1 Table 7.1-14: Power quadrathlon scoring Table 7.1-14: Power quadrathlon scoring Points¯ 3 Jumps SLJ 30m OH Shot Points¯ 3 Jumps SLJ 30m OH Shot 1 3.00 1.00 5.80 4.00 40 6.15 2.06 4.69 10.69 2 3.08 1.02 5.77 4.17 41 6.23 2.09 4.67 10.86 3 3.16 1.05 5.74 4.34 42 6.31 2.11 4.64 11.04 4 3.24 1.08 5.71 4.51 43 6.39 2.14 4.61 11.21 5 3.32 1.10 5.68 4.68 44 6.47 2.17 4.58 11.38 6 3.40 1.13 5.66 4.85 45 6.55 2.20 4.55 11.55 7 3.48 1.16 5.63 5.03 46 6.63 2.22 4.52 11.72 8 3.56 1.19 5.60 5.20 47 6.71 2.25 4.50 11.89 9 3.64 1.21 5.57 5.37 48 6.79 2.28 4.47 12.07 10 3.72 1.24 5.54 5.54 49 6.87 2.30 4.44 12.24 11 3.80 1.27 5.51 5.71 50 6.95 2.33 4.41 12.41 12 3.88 1.30 5.49 5.83 51 7.04 2.36 4.38 12.58 13 3.96 1.32 5.46 6.06 52 7.12 2.39 4.35 12.75 14 4.05 1.35 5.43 6.23 53 7.20 2.41 4.33 12.92 15 4.13 1.38 5.40 6.40 54 7.28 2.44 4.30 13.10 16 4.21 1.40 5.37 6.57 55 7.36 2.47 4.27 13.27 17 4.29 1.43 5.34 6.74 56 7.44 2.50 4.24 13.44 18 4.37 1.46 5.32 6.91 57 7.52 2.52 4.21 13.61 19 4.45 1.49 5.29 7.09 58 7.60 2.55 4.18 13.78 20 4.53 1.51 5.26 7.26 59 7.63 2.58 4.16 13.95 21 4.61 1.54 5.23 7.43 60 7.76 2.60 4.13 14.13 22 4.69 1.57 5.20 7.60 61 7.84 2.63 4.10 14.30 23 4.77 1.60 5.17 7.77 62 7.92 2.66 4.07 14.47 24 4.85 1.62 5.15 7.94 63 8.01 2.69 4.04 14.64 25 4.93 1.65 5.12 8.12 64 8.09 2.71 4.02 14.81 26 5.02 1.68 5.09 8.29 65 8.17 2.74 3.99 14.98 27 5.10 1.70 5.06 8.46 66 8.25 2.77 3.96 15.16 28 5.18 1.73 5.03 8.63 67 8.33 2.80 3.93 15.33 29 5.26 1.76 5.01 8.80 68 8.41 2.82 3.90 15.50 30 5.34 1.79 4.98 8.97 69 8.49 2.85 3.87 15.67 31 5.42 1.81 4.95 9.15 70 8.57 2.88 3.85 15.84 32 5.50 1.84 4.92 9.32 71 8.65 2.90 3.82 16.02 33 5.58 1.87 4.89 9.49 72 8.73 2.93 3.79 16.19 34 5.66 1.90 4.86 9.66 73 8.81 2.96 3.76 16.36 35 5.74 1.92 4.84 9.83 74 8.89 2.99 3.73 16.53 36 5.82 1.95 4.81 10.01 75 8.97 3.01 3.70 16.70 37 5.90 1.98 4.78 10.13 76 9.06 3.04 3.68 16.87 38 5.98 2.00 4.75 10.35 77 9.14 3.07 3.65 17.05 39 6.07 2.03 4.72 10.52 78 9.22 3.10 3.62 17.22 Strength and Conditioning Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 347 Table 7.1-14: Power quadrathlon scoring Points¯ 3 Jumps SLJ 30m OH Shot Table 7.1-15: Performance rating for alpine skiers in the 400-meter run 79 9.30 3.12 3.59 17.39 US Ski Team norms for men and women over age 13 80 9.38 3.15 3.56 17.56 81 9.46 3.18 3.53 17.73 82 9.54 3.20 3.51 83 9.62 3.23 84 9.70 85 Percentile Men, 400m dash Women, 400m dash 17.90 100 56 69 3.48 18.03 90 58 71 3.26 3.45 18.25 80 60 73 9.78 3.29 3.42 18.42 70 61 74 86 9.86 3.31 3.39 18.59 60 62 75 87 9.94 3.34 3.36 18.76 50 63 76 64 78 88 10.03 3.37 3.34 18.93 40 89 10.11 3.40 3.31 19.11 30 65 80 90 10.19 3.42 3.28 19.28 20 67 82 91 10.27 3.45 3.25 19.45 10 71 85 92 10.35 3.48 3.22 19.62 93 10.43 3.50 3.20 19.79 94 10.51 3.53 3.18 19.96 95 10.59 3.56 3.15 20.14 96 10.67 3.59 3.12 20.31 97 10.75 3.61 3.09 20.48 98 10.83 3.64 3.06 20.65 99 10.91 3.67 3.03 20.82 100 11.00 3.70 3.01 21.00 Additional Points 3 Jumps: 1 point extra for each 8 cm above 11.00 30m: 1 point for each 0.03 below 3.01 SLJ: 1 point for each 3 cm above 3.70 OH Shot: 1 point for each 7 cm above 21.00 Speed-Endurance 300- to 400-meter sprints (330– 440 yards) These runs require a high degree of fitness and are excellent for off-season fitness evaluation. For most power sports, the tests are not specific but can serve as a good measure of base fitness. Source: US Ski Team Instructions: Use a 400-meter track or an accurately measured course on grass. Instruct the athletes to run as fast as they can for the distance. Athletes can prepare for these tests by practicing 100- to 800-meter interval training. Evaluation: Use the base score and improvement as a basis to evaluate performance in these tests. Table 7.1-15 shows performance ratings for alpine skiers in the 440-yard run. Endurance Fitness and Maximal Oxygen Consumption An important measure of endurance capacity is maximal oxygen consumption (symbolized • • as VO2max by scientists). VO2max measures ability to deliver and use oxygen. It also measures capacity to exercise at high intensities. • Scientists measure VO2max in sophisticated International Sports Sciences Association 348 | Unit 7.1 Table 7.1-16: Maximal oxygen consumption norms • (VO2max ml/kg/min) Age Very Poor Poor Fair Good Excellent Superior 13-19 <25.0 25.0 – 30.9 31.0 – 34.9 35.0 – 38.9 39.0 – 41.9 >41.9 20-29 <23.6 23.6 – 28.9 29.0 – 32.9 33.0 – 36.9 37.0 – 41.0 >41.0 13-19 <35.0 35.0 – 38.3 38.4 – 45.1 45.2 – 50.9 51.0 – 55.9 >55.9 20-29 <33.0 33.0 – 36.4 36.5 – 42.4 42.5 – 46.4 46.5 – 52.4 >52.4 Girls Boys Source: Sports Coach exercise physiology laboratories using expensive treadmills, gas analyzers, and computers. The exercise intensity increases periodically during the test. Each minute, the test administrator measures and records oxygen uptake, heart rate, breathing rate, and body temperature until the test subject fatigues and voluntarily terminates the test. The highest level of oxygen consumption during the test is referred to as the maximal oxygen consumption. Norms for • VO2max appear in Table 7.1-16 (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=A2z0l9B6aGE). During the test, the heart’s electrical activity also is measured (electrocardiogram or ECG). This helps the physician assess heart function during exercise. Physicians will sometimes perform an exercise electrocardiogram to assess heart health or to determine the advisability of beginning an exercise program. Cardiac problems are rare in athletes, but they do occur. Do not dismiss possible health problems in athletes just because they appear extremely fit. Field Tests for Measuring Endurance Simple field tests can estimate fitness for walking, running, swimming, and biking. If your client is starting an exercise program, use the walking test. Experienced, fit athletes should take one of the other more rigorous field tests. Choose the test that most closely fits the client’s favorite exercise mode. This is important: performance on the running field test will tell you little about fitness for swimming and vice versa. Most athletes do not require medical clearance before taking maximum fitness tests. They should consult their physician if they have previously experienced any of these five characteristics during rest or during mild, moderate, or intense physical activity: 1. Heart palpitations (rapid or irregular heartbeat at rest) 2. Chest pain 3. Experience dizzy spells at rest or during and following physical activity 4. Documented high blood pressure 5. Physician-assessed bone or joint maladies Strength and Conditioning Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 349 1-Mile Rockport Walking Test (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Ia1CqNX2Ifk) The Rockport Walking Test estimates maximal oxygen consumption. Take this test on a 400-meter track. Walk one mile (four laps) as quickly as possible without jogging, trotting, or running. This test requires little equipment and can be taken by large groups of people simultaneously; it is reasonably accurate in adults and a good starting place to assess endurance fitness. The test is not that useful for highly fit athletes. Instructions: You need five variables to esti• mate VO2max. Record the following and enter the values into Equation 7.1-5: • Body weight (lb) • Age in years • Gender factor • female: 0 • male: 1 This is a good fitness test for a person beginning an exercise program. The best place to take this test is on a 400-meter track. If you do not have access to one, accurately mark off a course on smooth, flat ground using your car odometer or a GPS device using a smartphone and walking or running app. Begin with warm-up exercises that include simple stretches and walking in place. Walk a mile as fast as you can and time the walk using a stopwatch to the nearest second. This is a walking test, so you must always keep one foot in contact with the ground. If both feet leave the ground at any time during the walk, the athlete is running, and the test becomes invalid. Cooper 12-Minute Run (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=vi9-ScUdWa8) • Time to complete the one-mile walk (in minutes including a decimal) • Heart rate (beats per minute) • measured for 10 seconds immediately after completing the walk • multiply the answer by 6 to express the one-minute heart rate. • Evaluation: Compare the calculated VO2max with the values listed in Table 7.1-16. This is a popular field test of physical fitness. Take this test if clients are healthy, already participating in an exercise program, and play a sport involving running (e.g., jogging, tennis, basketball, field hockey, lacrosse, volleyball). Administer this test on a 400-meter running track (use a unit conversion app on your phone to convert to and from meters.) You will need a stopwatch or clock with a second hand. Warm up for 2 to 3 minutes with easy jogging and stretching. The object of the test is to run as far as possible in 12 minutes; record the distance • VO2max (ml/kg/min) = 132.853 – 0.0769 (body weight) – 0.3877(age) + 6.3150(gender) – 3.2649(walking time) – 0.1565(heart rate) (Eq. 7.1-5) International Sports Sciences Association 350 | Unit 7.1 Table 7.1-17: Cooper 12-minute run norms Age Excellent Above Average Average Below Average Poor Male 13-14 >2700m 2400-2700m 2200-2399m 2100-2199m <2100m Females 13-14 >2000m 1900-2000m 1600-1899m 1500-1599m <1500m Males 15-16 >2800m 2500-2800m 2300-2499m 2200-2299m <2200m Females 15-16 >2100m 2000-2100m 1700-1999m 1600-1699m <1600m Males 17-20 >3000m 2700-3000m 2500-2699m 2300-2499m <2300m Females 17-20 >2300m 2100-2300m 1800-2099m 1700-1799m <1700m Male 20-29 >2800m 2400-2800m 2200-2399m 1600-2199m <1600m Females 20-29 >2700m 2200-2700m 1800-2199m 1500-1799m <1500m Males 30-39 >2700m 2300-2700m 1900-2299m 1500-1999m <1500m Females 30-39 >2500m 2000-2500m 1700-1999m 1400-1699m <1400m Males 40-49 >2500m 2100-2500m 1700-2099m 1400-1699m <1400m Females 40-49 >2300m 1900-2300m 1500-1899m 1200-1499m <1200m Males >50 >2400m 2000-2400m 1600-1999m 1300-1599m <1300m Females >50 >2200m 1700-2200m 1400-1699m 1100-1399m <1100m Source: Modified from Sports Coach you traveled in meters using a decimal figure. Check the athlete’s fitness rating on the 12-minute run chart (Table 7.1-17). 6-Mile Bicycle Test The six-mile bicycle test is appropriate if you have been riding a bike three to four times a week for at least three to four weeks. Take this test on the bicycle you plan to use in your exercise program. The type of bicycle you use (e.g., 10 speed, mountain bike, 3 speed, cruiser) will affect performance on this test. Regardless of which bicycle you use, the test can approximate your cycling fitness and is useful for identifying your starting level. Find a flat course where you can ride six miles without interference from automobiles, other bicycles, or pedestrians. Although a bike track is preferred, it is unavailable to most people. A road with a bike lane or a park that does not allow cars is a good place to take the test. Before taking the test, warm up by riding the bike at a relatively slow pace for 4 to 10 minutes. Ride the six-mile course as fast as possible. Assess fitness status by comparing the time with the norms in Table 7.1-18. Table 7.1-18: Six-mile bicycle test norms Males and Females, 16-29 years of age Excellent Above Average Average Below Average Poor Male <14:00 14:01-16:00 16:01-18:00 18:01-20:00 >20:00 Female <14:30 14:31-16:30 16:31-18:30 18:31-20:30 >20:30 Strength and Conditioning Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 351 Table 7.1-19: 12-minute swim test norms Age (years) Excellent Above Average Average Below Average Poor Boys (13-19) Above 800 700-799 600-699 500-599 Below 500 Men (20-29) Above 700 600-699 500-599 400-499 Below 400 Girls (13-19) Above 700 600-699 500-599 400-499 Below 400 Women (20-29) Above 600 500-599 400-499 300-399 Below 300 12-Minute Swim Test (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Yk95MNsGCGs) Use this test if the athlete plans to swim as part of the exercise program. You will need a swimming pool and stopwatch. Before taking the test, have the athlete warm up by swimming two laps. The object of the test is to swim as far as possible in 12 minutes. It is best to swim at a steady pace. Check the fitness rating in Table 7.1-19. off the line in football or a sprint run or to run the bases in softball or baseball faster by teaching them good technique. Likewise, practicing agility tests produces tremendous improvement. There are countless sports specific agility tests. Choose one that closely mimics the requirements of the athlete’s sport. Two agility tests used by college and professional football coaches include the 3-cone test and shuttle run test. 3-Cone Test Agility Tests (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=rLtvdHEwnus) Agility—ability to change directions quickly— is sport specific. You can train athletes to get The 3-cone test is included in the NFL combine, but its administration may seem somewhat Figure 7.1-1 3-Cone Test International Sports Sciences Association 352 | Unit 7.1 complicated. If your athlete has to take this test as part of a fitness evaluation, he or she should practice it frequently. Instructions: Place two cones 5 yards apart from each other and another cone 5 yards apart perpendicular to the second cone (Figure 7.1-1). Begin the 3-cone test at the first cone, sprint to the second cone, touch the line next to it and then return to the starting cone and touch the line next to the cone. After touching the starting line, sprint around the second cone and circle the third cone. Once you have circled the third cone, sprint around the second cone and return to the starting line. The course is 30 yards, not counting any wide turns. Put your right hand down when making right turns and your left hand down when making left turns to lower your center of gravity. Strength and Conditioning 20-Yard Shuttle Run (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=2uH6QVDOsZU) The shuttle run is a standard test to screen athletes for professional football. The object of the test is to perform the shuttle run as fast as possible. A few NFL teams think of this event as more important than the 40-yard dash because they believe it better measures the lateral movement critical to the game of football. Practice and good technique are important. Instructions: Mark two parallel lines 20 yards apart. The athlete runs the test two times—once to the left and once to the right. The average of the two runs serves as the score. The athlete starts from behind one of the lines. On the signal “Ready, Go,” the athlete sprints to the other line, touches it, and then sprints back to the start. Repeat the test going the other direction. Assessment: Tests and Measurement | 353 Summary Athletic fitness testing is an important way to gauge a training program’s effectiveness. A critical but surprisingly difficult consideration is choosing the right test for athletes in specific sports. Personal trainers should always assess athletes’ fitness in comparison to established norms or standards to assess readiness for competition, identify weaknesses, and assess progress. Select the most appropriate tests that provide information about the athlete’s status and progress. Consider safety and injury prevention when testing. Make sure athletes use warm-up prior to testing and are physically prepared to take the tests. Maximum intensity tests are not dangerous if athletes have prepared in the weeks prior to testing and use good technique. A sound practice when training athletes is to compare their fitness with those they will compete against. If the goal is to compete at the elite level, athletes must perform at high levels in basic fitness components as discussed in this chapter. Personal trainers can easily choose the wrong tests for their clients. Select tests that measure critical fitness traits in the sport. Strength testing is important for high-power athletes. The relationship between strength and performance is stronger in elite athletes than in novices. One-repetition maximum (1-RM) tests using basic lifts provide an excellent strategy to gauge strength and training progress. The strength and conditioning coach also can gain insight about basic strength fitness using pushups, pull-ups, and static core endurance tests. Good measures of power include the Wingate test, vertical jump, standing long jump, and power quadrathlon. Speed and agility tests are useful to assess ability and fitness for power sports requiring speed, acceleration, and agility. Cardiorespiratory endurance is important for health and performance. Two field tests (Cooper 12-minute run and Rockport walking test) reasonably assess maximal oxygen consumption, an important measure of cardiovascular capacity. Fitness tests will never replace performance on the playing field. Movements are highly specific. Even tests that use the same muscles and similar movements as the sport does will never replace performance in the sport itself. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 7.2 Obesity and Measuring Body Composition Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 355 Unit Outline 1. Overweight versus Obesity b. Surface Anthropometry 2. Obesity and Health i. How to Measure Skinfolds 3. Obesity and Exercise Performance ii. 4. Measuring Body Composition Nine Rules to Follow for Taking Skinfolds iii. Anatomical Locations of Measurements a. Application of Body Composition Measurements iv. Usefulness of Skinfold Scores v. b. Why Assess Body Composition? c. Height-for-Weight Tables vi. Sum of Skinfold Method d. Body Mass Index e. vii. Equations to Predict Body Fat from Skinfolds Validity of Height-Weight Tables and BMI for Measuring Body Composition viii. Generalized Skinfold Equations 5. Body Composition Measurement Techniques a. ix. Girth Equations Based on Girth Measurements Archimedes’ Principle and Hydrostatic Weighing i. How to Compute Body Density ii. How to Compute Percent Body Fat from Body Density iii. How to Compute Fat-Free Body Weight Practical Approach to Skinfold Measurement c. Bioelectrical Impedance d. Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA or DEXA) 6. Summary iv. How to Compute Goal Body Weight Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to do the following: • Understand how body composition affects the health and performance of athletes. • Understand the difference between overweight and obesity in athletes. • Identify the nine components of the “obese syndrome.” • Understand the link between obesity and health. • Understand the link between obesity and exercise performance and the consequences of taking drastic action to modify body composition. • Understand and demonstrate a basic knowledge of body composition measurement techniques that are appropriate in the laboratory and on the playing field. • Understand the reasons for measuring body composition in athletes. • Understand the value and limitations of height-weight tables and body mass index. International Sports Sciences Association 356 | Unit 7.2 • Understand the use of Archimedes principle for assessing body density and body composition. • Understand and demonstrate the calculation of percent fat and fat-free weight. • Understand and demonstrate the nine rules to follow for taking skinfolds, including a knowledge of the usefulness of skinfold scores. • Understand the role of diet and exercise for attaining a healthy body composition. Obesity: BMI greater than 30 kg/m2. Excessive accumulation of fat in the body. Body composition affects the health and performance of athletes. Obesity substantially increases the risk of heart disease, some types of cancer, and diabetes. The United States is in the midst of an obesity epidemic (as is most of the Western world for that matter), with more than two-thirds of the population either overweight or obese. Beginning in 1960, the average American man’s weight has increased from 166 to 191 pounds, and the average American woman’s weight has increased from 140 to 164 pounds. The prevalence of obesity (excess body fat) has increased from about 13% of “normal for age and sex) in 1960 to nearly 36% today. That translates to about one in three Americans being currently obese! And even more depressing is that about 68% of adult Americans are now overweight. Even more alarming are the obesity statistics for children. For preschoolers born in 2001, nearly one in five or more than half a million American four-year-old children are obese with an alarmingly high one-in-three rate among Native American children. Obesity is also more prevalent among Hispanic and black children, but the disparity becomes most startling among American Indians whose obesity doubles that of non-Latino whites. The alarming statistics are that 13% of Asian children, 16% of non-Latino whites, 21% of blacks, 22% of Latinos, and 31% of Native Americans are obese. Overweight Versus Obesity The difference between obesity and overweight comes down to this: Obesity is excess accumulation of body fat packed into the body’s billions of fat cells (some obese people have in excess of 350 billion fat cells; those at normal levels of body fat have approximately 30–50 Strength and Conditioning Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 357 billion.) Overweight refers to additional body weight above a standard for age- and gender-adjusted height and weight. Thus, someone can be overweight according to the height-for-weight standards but not be obese because of a large lean body mass as evident in many “large” but athletic professional football players and field athletes (shot, discus, javelin, hammer). In addition, obesity refers to the over-fat condition that accompanies a constellation of disease comorbidities that include one or all of the following nine components referred to as the “obese syndrome.” 1. Glucose intolerance 2. Insulin resistance 3. Dyslipidemia 4. Type II diabetes 5. Hypertension 6. Elevated plasma leptin concentrations 7. Increased visceral adipose tissue 8. Increased risk of coronary heart disease 9. is important to motivate clients and gauge the training program’s success. Obesity and Health The obesity epidemic has had severe consequences in the United States. Obesity increases the risk of premature death by 100% and can reduce life expectancy from 10 to 20 years. Obesity and overweight increase the risk of the metabolic syndrome—a group of symptoms that include insulin resistance, hypertension (high blood pressure), dyslipidemia (abnormal blood fats), abdominal fat deposition, and inflammation. Unfortunately, two-thirds of Americans suffer from the metabolic syndrome, which dramatically increases risk of heart attack, stroke, and diabetes (Figure 7.2-1). Other health problems associated with obesity and overweight include impaired immune function, gallbladder and kidney diseases, skin problems, sleep and breathing disorders, erectile dysfunction, depression, pregnancy complications, back pain, arthritis, and other bone and joint Presence of certain cancers Personal trainers can promote healthy body composition and health by increasing the amount of daily physical activity (and thus, decreasing the amount of physical inactivity), initiating formal exercise and activity programs, and improving the nutritional quality of the foods that clients consume. Measuring body composition Figure 7.2-1 Health problems related to obesity and eating disorders. International Sports Sciences Association 358 | Unit 7.2 disorders. Obesity also impairs movement capacity, self-image, and emotional well-being. National Weight Control Registry: Database of more than 10,000 patients who successfully lost at least 30 pounds of weight and maintained the weight loss for at least a year. Insulin resistance: Insulin receptors fail to respond to normal insulin levels. Mediterranean diet: A diet, typical of Mediterranean countries, high in olive oil, legumes, unrefined cereals, fruits, vegetables, fish, wine, and dairy foods. Only about 5% of people who lose a significant amount of weight keep it off for more than one year. Despite these depressing statistics, some people lose weight and manage to keep it off. The National Weight Control Registry keeps track of people who successfully lost more than 30 pounds and kept it off for one year or more. These people share one characteristic in common—they burn an extra 3,000 calories weekly, which means they exercise about one hour daily. In addition, successful weight losers additionally restricted calories moderately. Obesity rates have climbed steadily mainly during the past 50 years, so it is almost impossible that genes account for the spiraling obesity epidemic. Genes take hundreds and even thousands of generations to change. More likely, changes in lifestyle account for the rapid increase in abdominal fat and insulin resistance in the United States and other Western countries. The most likely culprits for the fat-insulin resistance epidemic are lack of exercise and overeating. Another likely factor is the ready availability of tasty fat- and calorie-rich foods currently served in increasingly larger “supersized” portions. If individuals carry excess fat around their midsections, chances are they have problems with insulin metabolism. The goal should be to increase insulin sensitivity and prevent large increases in blood sugar and insulin. Here are five recommendations to tell your clients about how to fight excess fat accumulation and insulin resistance. 1. Exercise every day. The goal is not to become an Olympian. Try to accumulate a total of at least 45–90 minutes of additional physical activity daily (yes, that’s seven days a week, every week!). Go for a 45-minute walk and finish the 45 minutes by becoming more physically active during the rest of the day—for example, take the stairs, park farther from work, and walk the rest of the way. Track your progress with a smartphone (and GPS tracker) or any one of the many wrist and body-worn activity-sensing devices with and without Bluetooth (examples: Apple Watch, Adidas, Basis, Fitbit, Garmin, Jawbone, Mio, Misfit, Nike, Polar). Individuals derive more benefits if they engage in a more intense, formal exercise program that involves heart rate, calorie count, and distance monitoring for Strength and Conditioning Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 359 running, cycling, stair climbing, group exercise, or swimming. 2. Lift weights two to three times weekly. Resistance training increases muscle size, boosting the number of tissue insulin receptors. Resistance training provides an additive effect on insulin metabolism—benefits derive from aerobic metabolic training and even more so from weighted muscular strength workouts. 3. Lose weight. Studies show that losing 10 to 15 pounds improves insulin resistance, which then makes it easier to lose abdominal fat. 4. Follow the Mediterranean diet. Eating a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet—the recommended diet for people trying to prevent heart disease—may promote insulin resistance and abdominal obesity in those predisposed to such problems. Diets high in carbohydrates—particularly refined sugars— raise blood sugar quickly and trigger insulin release. This favors fat storage in the abdominal region. Instead, eat a Mediterranean-type diet—one high in fish, fresh fruits and vegetables, lean meats, olive oil, and other monoand polyunsaturated fats and whole grains. This diet reduces LDL cholesterol (“bad” form) and maintains blood sugar levels on an even keel. The diet does not affect insulin resistance but maintains daylong insulin and blood sugar levels at lower levels for extended durations. 5. Consult a physician. If you suspect you may have a serious problem with insulin resistance and abdominal obesity (especially high blood pressure), your physician can initiate drug treatments to control out-of-desirable range blood fats and higher-than-normal blood pressure (diastolic pressure exceeds 90 mm Hg). In clients ages 35 and up, the previously established norms for blood pressure, which “allowed” progressive increases in blood pressure with aging, may require revision to norms established for younger people. The “creeping” blood pressure allowances with aging may be detrimental to health (higher than normal heart attacks and strokes), so it is important for clients to consult with their physicians to establish the “best” blood pressure desirable range for them. Trainers should encourage their older clients to be on the lookout for creeping high blood pressure. You can help clients do something positive about excess abdominal fat and insulin resistance. Get them to exercise daily for up to 60 minutes or more and to minimize refined sugar and high-calorie foods. Eliminating one high-calorie dense food—cheese—can eliminate hundreds of fat calories weekly from the daily diet. Yes, that means pizza and any type of specialty food combined with cheese. This is not easy for anyone to undertake but a sacrifice that your clients will appreciate as they begin to shed excess fat pounds. Explain to them that it is far better to cut out high-fat cheeses (and other highly dense fat foods) in the diet for a few months than to continue to carry around excess abdominal fat and incur the associated health risks. There are, of course, other high-fat foods one could eliminate such as salad dressings, buttered popcorn, hot fudge, and chocolate candies. Even switching from whole milk to fat-free milk saves hundreds of calories weekly, and replacing butter and bacon bits in baked potatoes with yogurt helps. International Sports Sciences Association 360 | Unit 7.2 Obesity and Exercise Performance Hydrostatic weighing: Body composition technique that uses water displacement to measure body volume and body composition. BodPod: Body composition technique that uses air displacement to measure body volume and body composition. Excess fat decreases exercise performance but, surprisingly, this is difficult to demonstrate. Fatter people typically do not perform as well as others do in most sports, as they are usually less fit. Is the apparent relationship between body fat and performance due to lower fitness or higher body fat? Among running backs in the NFL, there is no relationship between weight or height and either running speed or yards gained per carry. In college linemen, in contrast, there is a small negative relationship between body fat and sprint speed. Other studies have found a relatively strong relationship between the ratio of fat to strength and running and jumping performance. This makes sense because for a given level of force, it is easier to push less mass. Excess body fat has a negative effect on exercise performance because it takes more force to move the increased fat mass. Strength and conditioning coaches should take care when attempting to change body composition. It simply makes no sense to try to get athletes to rapidly shed excess weight in a short period (it is mostly water weight, and the desired goal is to reduce fat.) Weight loss is often accompanied by loss of some muscle mass, which can decrease power output capacity. Measuring Body Composition Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA): for measuring bone density and body composition. Skinfolds: Skin plus underlying layer of subcutaneous fat. Bioelectrical impedance: Body composition technique that estimates body water by the impedance of the body to an electric charge. Anthropometry: Measurement of the size, weight, and proportions of the human body. Strength and Conditioning Body composition is assessed by indirect and doubly indirect methods. Indirect methods include hydrostatic weighing, BodPod, and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Doubly indirect methods such as skinfolds, bioelectrical impedance, and anthropometry predict the results of indirect methods (i.e., hydrostatic weighing). The accuracy of any technique varies with three factors: 1. Subject population 2. Validity of basic assumptions 3. Experience of the test administrator Most personal trainers will use doubly indirect body composition measuring techniques because they are simple and inexpensive. Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 361 Application of Body Composition Measurements Use great care when applying body composition data in sport or wellness management. Under certain circumstances, the so-called gold standards of body composition, hydrostatic weighing and DXA, can render high or low values in some individuals. Doubly indirect measures, which are based primarily on underwater weighing techniques and DXA, are often subject to even greater errors of measurement. Misuse of body composition data can exacerbate common problems in young people with eating disorders and those attempting to make weight (in dehydrated conditions) in weight-class sports. People who advise athletes must use common sense when interpreting body composition data. Better yet, advisers should use valid and reliable methods for all assessments. Why Assess Body Composition? Strength and conditioning coaches should assess body composition for at least five important reasons. Doing so: 1. Provides individuals with a starting point upon which to base current and future decisions about weight loss and weight gain; 2. Provides realistic goals about how to best achieve an “ideal” balance between the body’s fat and nonfat compartments; 3. Relates to general health status, and as such, plays an important role in the health and fitness goals of all individuals; 4. Monitors changes in the body’s fat and lean components during exercise regimens of different durations and intensities and in rehabilitation programs using different modalities and treatment practices; 5. Affects physical performance. Height-for-Weight Tables The earliest attempts to categorize life expectancy relied on heightfor-weight tables from insurance company statistics to determine insurance rates, and later, the extent of overweight based on age and frame size. Height-for-weight tables evolved in the early 1900s when Height-for-weight tables: Norms for height appropriate weights developed by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company. International Sports Sciences Association 362 | Unit 7.2 insurance companies tried to determine “ideal” weights for men and women pegged to risk of dying; unfortunately, the tables did not provide valid information about the body composition, an important consideration in trying to link disease state and risk of death to insurance rates and fees. From the tables, someone could weigh more than the average weight-for-height ideal yet still be “under fat” in total body fat content. The “extra” weight could simply be additional muscle mass. Table 7.2-1: Metropolitan Height-for-Weight Table Small Frame Medium Frame Large Frame 5’2” 128 – 134 131 – 141 138 – 150 5’3” 130 – 136 133 – 143 140 – 153 5’4” 132 – 138 135 – 145 142 – 156 5’5” 134 – 140 137 – 148 144 – 160 5’6” 136 – 142 139 – 151 146 – 164 5’7” 138 – 145 142 – 154 149 – 168 Table 7.2-1 presents the still popular height-forweight tables for men and women published in 1983 by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company based on individuals selected for life insurance (www.metlife.com). 5’8” 140 – 148 145 – 157 152 – 172 5’9” 142 – 151 148 – 160 155 – 176 5’10” 144 – 154 151 – 163 158 – 180 5’11” 146 – 157 154 – 166 161 – 184 6’0” 149 – 160 157 – 170 164 – 188 Frame Size. Note that Table 7.2-1 has columns for small, medium, and large frame size. Researchers cannot agree about what constitutes an acceptable definition for frame size. Even at the extremes of the body weight range, there is no hard and fast rule for determining large, medium, or small frame size. In fact, what is a large or small frame size? If you cannot come up with an explanation, you are not alone. This dilemma offers an additional reason that height-for-weight tables that include frame size should not serve as decision-makers about weight loss or weight gain, especially for welltrained athletes. 6’1” 152 – 164 160 – 174 168 – 192 6’2” 155 – 168 164 – 178 172 – 197 6’3” 158 – 172 167 – 182 176 – 202 6’4” 162 – 176 171 – 187 181 – 207 4’10” 102 – 111 109 – 121 118 – 131 4’11” 103 – 113 111 – 123 120 – 134 5’0” 104 – 115 113 – 126 122 – 137 5’1” 106 – 118 115 – 129 125 – 140 5’2” 108 – 121 118 – 132 128 – 143 5’3” 111 – 124 121 – 135 131 – 147 5’4” 114 – 127 124 – 138 134 – 151 5’5” 117 – 130 127 – 141 137 – 155 5’6” 120 – 133 130 – 144 140 – 159 5’7” 123 – 136 133 – 147 143 – 163 5’8” 126 – 139 136 – 150 146 – 167 5’9” 129 – 142 139 – 153 149 – 170 5’10” 132 – 145 142 – 156 152 – 173 5’11” 135 – 148 145 – 159 155 – 176 6’0” 138 – 151 148 – 162 158 – 179 Strength and Conditioning Height Men Women Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 363 Body Mass Index Body mass index (BMI) relates body mass (in kilograms) to height (in meters) squared (BMI = weight/ height2). It is based on the concept that weight should be proportional to height. It is a rough measure of body composition if you do not have access to a more sophisticated method such as underwater weighing, DXA, or BodPod. BMI is popular among epidemiologists for identifying groups in the population that are overweight or obese. BMI suffers from many of the same problems as weight-for-height tables do. Body mass index (BMI): Weight (in kilograms) divided by the square of height (in meters). To calculate BMI, follow this four-step procedure: Step 1 Multiply body weight (lb) by 0.454 to convert weight to kg Step 2 Multiply height (in) by 0.0254 to convert height to meters (m) Step 3 Multiply Step 2 answer by itself to obtain square meters (m2) Step 4 Divide Step 1 (mass) by Step 3 (height 2) BMI measurement is fairly accurate for people without an unusual amount of muscle mass and who are not extremely short. The method BMI Sample Calculation Step One: Calculate height in inches. 1 foot = 12 inches START HERE ➩ (# of feet x 12) + of inches Example: Female client is 5’6’’ tall, 125 lbs. 5 x 12 = 60: 60 + 6 = 66 inches Step Two: Calculate BMI, applying height inches to the equation below. Start by multiplying height in inches times height in inches. Weight (lbs) ______________________ x 704.5 = BMI START HERE ➩ Height (in) x Height (in) Example: Female client is 66” tall, 125 lbs. 125 = _______ 125 = .029 ________ 66 x 66 4356 0.029 x 704.5 = 20.4 International Sports Sciences Association 364 | Unit 7.2 Table 7.2-2: Classification of Overweight and Obesity by BMI Classification BMI Waist Men < 40 in; Women < 35 in Waist Men > 40 in; Women > 35 in Underweight Less than 18.5 Normal 18.5-24.9 Overweight 25.0-29.9 Increased High Obese 30.0-34.9 High Very high Very obese 35.0-39.9 Very high Very high Extremely obese More than 40.0 Extremely high Extremely high is frequently inaccurate for physically active people, particularly resistance-trained athletes. Well-trained football, basketball, and field events athletes, for example, are typically rated as obese or drastically overweight according to body mass index criteria advocated by health experts. All these athletes have a much lower fat percentage than the majority of people in the population do. If your client is fit and physically active, do not use BMI to determine body composition. Use anthropometric methods or laboratory techniques such as air displacement (i.e., BodPod) or hydrostatic weighing. Assess body composition in your clients. At the very least, determine BMI and use Table 7.2-2 to relate BMI to obesity classifications and relative disease risk. (Table 7.2-2 also relates disease risk to waist size.) Validity of Height-Weight Tables and BMI for Measuring Body Composition Standard height-for-weight tables and BMI reveal little about body composition. Studies of athletes show that those classified as overweight from height-for-weight tables and Strength and Conditioning BMI are not necessarily over fat. BMI relates more highly to body fat content and health risk than to body mass and stature. As with height-for-weight tables, BMI does not consider the body’s proportional composition (i.e., muscle, fat, and bone components). Personal trainers should NOT use BMI—not to mention height-for-weight tables—as a primary means to assess body composition. Instead, use one of several indirect techniques to partition the body into its fat and nonfat compartments. Body Composition Measurement Techniques (http://nutrition.uvm.edu/bodycomp/) The most accurate method of measuring body composition is the direct method involving chemical analysis of a human cadaver. That method has obvious limitations for the living athlete! Scientists have developed indirect methods—hydrostatic weighing, air displacement, and surface anthropometry (skinfolds and girths)—to predict the results of direct measurement. Other popular indirect techniques include bioelectrical impedance, Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 365 near-infrared interactance (NIR), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and dual-photon absorptiometry (DPA). The direct methods provide the theoretical validity for the indirect procedures; personal trainers rely on the indirect techniques to assess the fat and lean components of living people. Archimedes’ Principle and Hydrostatic Weighing (http://nutrition.uvm.edu/bodycomp/uww/) The Greek mathematician Archimedes (287–212 BC) discovered that an object’s loss of weight in water equals the weight of the volume of water it displaces. This ancient discovery translates into a practical solution—submerge a person underwater to determine his or her body volume. Stated somewhat differently, the volume of a submerged object equals the volume of water the object displaces. By measuring a person’s body volume, we can calculate his or her body density by dividing the individual’s body mass measured on a scale (i.e., body weight) by the body volume measured during water immersion (body density = body mass ÷ body volume). From body density, a simple equation converts the density value to an estimate of percentage body fat (and from this, the absolute weight of fat, fat-free body mass, and the lean-to-fat ratio). The air displacement method used in the BodPod also uses Archimedes’ principle to measure body density. In that method, the body displaces air instead of water. How to Compute Body Density: According to Archimedes’ principle, if an object weighs 75 kg in air and 3 kg when submerged in water, the loss of weight in water of 72 kg equals the weight of the displaced water. Because the density of water at any temperature is known, the volume of water displaced can easily be computed. In the example, 72 kg of water is equal to 72 liters or 72,000 cubic centimeters (1 g of water = 1 cc in volume.) If the water temperature were 4ºC, there would be no correction factor. Other water temperatures require a correction factor determined from chemistry tables. The density of the person, computed as weight ÷ volume, would be 75,000 g ÷ 72,000 cc, or 1.0416 g/cc. Once we measure the individual’s body density accurately, the next stage is to convert the density value to percentage of body fat. Density tests, such as underwater Near-infrared interactance (NIR): Based on infrared light absorbance to predict body fat. Computed tomography (CT): Special X-ray technique that uses a computer to assimilate multiple X-ray images into a two-dimensional crosssectional image. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Imaging technique to examine internal body structures, particularly soft tissues. Archimedes’ Principle: Any body completely or partially submerged in a fluid (gas or liquid) at rest is acted upon by an upward or buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. International Sports Sciences Association 366 | Unit 7.2 weighing and BodPod, should be administered with the subject fasted and the bladder and rectum emptied. How to Compute Percent Body Fat from Body Density: The body’s fat percentage can be determined from a simple equation that incorporates the value for body density. The equation, devised by UC Berkeley physicist William Siri and known as the Siri equation, incorporates two constants (495 and 450) and body density (mass/volume) as follows: Percent body fat (Siri) = 495 ÷ density – 450 (Eq. 7.2-1) In the previous example in which body weight = 75 kg and body volume = 72 liters, the density of 1.0416 g/cc when converted to percent fat in the Siri equation (495 ÷ 1.0416 - 450) equals 25.2%. This value means that for the 125 pounds of body weight, 25.2% consists of fat. How to Compute the Weight of Fat: The weight of the body’s fat content is computed by multiplying percent fat by body weight. For the 125-pound person with 25.2% body fat, the weight of the fat mass equals 18.92 kg or 41.7 pounds (1 kg = 2.205 pounds). Fat weight = (percent fat ÷ 100) x body weight (Eq. 7.2-2) Fat weight = 0.2523 × 75 kg = 18.92 kg We can subdivide the total fat weight for this person into two important components—essential fat and storage fat. For the reference female with 12% essential fat, this would amount to 9.0 kg of essential fat (0.12 × 75 kg) and a remainder of 9.9 kg storage fat (0.132 ×75 kg); for a male with 3% essential fat and 22.2% storage fat (based on the above percent fat of 25.2,) the Strength and Conditioning corresponding values would equal 2.3 kg for essential fat and 26.5 kg for storage fat. Each of these components, essential and storage fat, plays a different but important role in the body. All of us are familiar with storage fat, as we can pinch excess fat around the abdomen or inside of the thighs (or other areas on the body where you easily can pinch the fat away from the underlying tissues, as in the triceps area with the arm relaxed and hanging to the side.) Essential fat, in contrast, consists of fat in the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys, intestines, muscles, and lipid-rich tissues of the central nervous system and bone marrow. Normal physiologic functioning requires this fat, as it mainly serves to protect these vital organs from trauma. Some athletes possess very low levels of body fat. For example, world-class male marathoners have extremely little storage fat, as their total body fat percentage measured using the most valid techniques averages from a low of 1% to a high of about 8% of their typical body weight of approximately 130 pounds. These low fat levels reflect an adaptation to long-term training for distance running and reduced energy intake relative to energy output from intense training. A relatively low body fat reduces the energy cost of weight-bearing physical activity; it also provides an effective gradient to dissipate metabolic heat generated during prolonged exercise sessions. Without tremendous adaptations to quickly and efficiently get rid of the heat buildup during the run, highly trained endurance athletes would not be able to continue the run, and they probably would collapse from the undue heat stress buildup. Top-level marathoners must adhere to careful dietary practices to maintain sufficient body weight to support the typical 80–120 miles a Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 367 week of arduous training. World-class female marathoners typically weigh under 100 pounds and seldom reduce below 12% body fat, of which about 5% to 7% consists of essential fat. How to Compute Fat-Free Body Weight: Fat-free body weight is calculated by subtracting the weight of fat from body weight. In the example, the value for fat-free body weight of 56.1 kg includes the weight of muscle plus bone devoid of fat for the 125-pound female with 25.2% body fat. Fat-free body weight = Body weight – fat weight (Eq. 7.2-3) Fat-free body weight = 75 kg – 18.92 kg = 56.1 kg How to Compute Goal Body Weight: Goal body weight is computed as FFM ÷ (1.00 - %fat desired), and is based on a target that uses a desired (and healthy) percentage of body fat. For practical purposes, I recommend a “desirable body weight range” rather than a single goal weight. This should range within ±2 pounds of the computed “goal body weight.” For example, if goal body weight equals 135 pounds, the person should strive for a weight between 133 and 137 pounds. Goal Body Weight: FFM divided by (1.00 – Desired % fat). Example Suppose a 23-year-old, 120-kg (265-lb) large man currently with 24% body fat wants to know how much fat weight to lose to attain a body fat composition of 15% (average value for young men). The following computations provide this information: Step 1. Compute fat mass body mass, kg × decimal %body fat = 28.8 kg Step 2. Compute FFM body mass, kg — fat mass, kg from step 1 = 91.2 kg Step 3. Compute goal body weight FFM ÷ (1.00 — %fat desired) = 107.3 kg Step 4. Compute desirable fat loss present body weight, kg — goal weight, kg = 12.7 kg International Sports Sciences Association 368 | Unit 7.2 Use the previous example for Steps 1–4 to compute desirable fat loss for any individual using his or her body composition-derived individual data. Surface Anthropometry Girth: Distance (circumference) around a trunk or limb segment. When laboratory facilities are unavailable to use densitometry, DXA, or BodPod, alternative but simple procedures can assess body composition. Two of these procedures, measurement of subcutaneous skinfold fat and girths or circumferences, require relatively inexpensive equipment. Skinfolds The rationale for taking skinfolds relies on the fact that about onehalf of the body’s total fat stores lie directly beneath the skin, and this fat volume relates closely to the body’s total fat content. In the late 1920s, researchers used a special pincer-type caliper to measure subcutaneous fat on the trunk and extremities with relative accuracy. The calipers of that era are similar to the ones used today—put the calipers around a “pinched” area of fat and measure its thickness—simple and direct, provided the technique is standardized. How to Measure Skinfolds To measure a skinfold thickness, grasp a fold of skin and subcutaneous fat with your thumb and forefinger, pulling it away from the body’s natural contour. The caliper’s pincer arms at their point of skin contact exert constant tension. Read the thickness of the skin’s double layer and subcutaneous tissues directly from the caliper dial, and record the measurement in millimeters. The most common anatomic sites for taking skinfolds include the triceps and subscapular; the suprailiac, abdominal, and upper thigh sites; and also chest, mid-axillary, and medial calf. Take all measurements on the right side of the body with the subject standing. Take a minimum of two or three measurements at each site, using the average as the skinfold score for that particular site. For example, if you measure the triceps skinfold three times and obtain these three readings (10.0, 12.5, and 11.0), the average is 11.2. Do not use the low score (10.0) or high score (12.5) to represent the triceps Strength and Conditioning Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 369 measurement—always compute the average and use that score. Reliability of skinfold measurement is high in the hands of an experienced tester (hundreds of subjects measured over several weeks at all of the anatomic sites). This means the resulting skinfold score represents a good estimate of a “true” score, and the tester (and person being measured) can feel confident that the score represents the thickness of fat at that anatomic site. Nine Rules to Follow for Taking Skinfolds 1. Precisely locate and mark anatomical landmarks for each site. 8. If possible, enroll in a course that deals with body composition assessment; some continuing education providers offer courses that award certifications of completion in body composition assessment procedures. 9. Repeat future skinfold measurements under the same conditions for each subsequent test. Anatomic Locations of Measurement The following figures show the anatomic location of the eight most frequently measured skinfold sites. These are the eight sites and a description of their anatomic location: • 2. Take a minimum of two measurements at each site and use the average as the skinfold score. Triceps: vertical fold measured at the midline of the upper arm halfway between the tip of the shoulder and the tip of the elbow. • 3. Take duplicate or triplicate measurements in rotational order rather than consecutive readings at each site to avoid a compression of the skin plus subcutaneous fat. Subscapular: measure the fold located along an oblique line just below the bottom tip of the scapula. • Chest: diagonal fold between the anterior axillary fold and the nipple, taken one inch from the anterior axillary fold. • Midaxillary: measure the fold in a horizontal line at the midaxillary line level with the bottom of the sternum. • Abdomen: measure the fold vertically so that the caliper tips fall one inch to the right of the umbilicus. • Suprailiac: slightly oblique fold measured just above the hipbone. The fold is lifted to follow the natural diagonal line at this point. • Thigh: vertical fold measured at the midline of the thigh—two-thirds if the distance from the kneecap to the hip on the anterior surface. • Calf: vertical fold at the medial aspect of the maximal girth with the knee and hip flexed to 90 degrees (foot on low stool). 4. Do not take measurements for at least 15 minutes after the individual stops physical activity; the shift in body fluid to the skin spuriously increases the reading. 5. Practice on at least 50 males and females who vary in body size from “thin” to “obese,” including athletes in different sports. As part of that practice, make multiple measurements at the different skinfold sites to gain experience before using the scores as “real” skinfold values. 6. Obtain training from previously skilled technicians in how to take skinfolds; this allows you to compare your results against the results of an “expert.” 7. Take measurements on dry, lotion-free skin. International Sports Sciences Association 1. Triceps: Measure at the bottom of the inside (long head) of the triceps. Pull the skinfold in a vertical direction. 2. Subscapular: Locate the middle of the scapula (shoulder blade) and measure about one inch from the spine. Pull the skinfold in a vertical direction. 3. Chest: Measure about one inch below the collar bone and two to three inches out from the inside edge of the pectoral muscle. Be sure to stay on the pectoralis and avoid breast tissue if you are measuring a female. Pull the skinfold in a vertical direction. 4. Mid-axillary: Measure the fold in a horizontal line at a level with the bottom of the sternum. Pull the skinfold in a vertical direction. 5. Abdomen: Measure about one inch to the left of and one inch down from the navel (belly button). Pull the skinfold in a vertical direction. 6. Suprailiac: Measure about halfway between the navel and the top of the hipbone. This should be at or near the area where the oblique and abdominals meet. Pull the skinfold in a horizontal direction. 7. Thigh: Measure in the middle of the quadriceps. If the area is too tight, you may need to go up one to two inches. Pull the skinfold in a vertical direction. 8. Calf: Measure the middle of the inside head. Pull the skinfold in a vertical direction. Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 371 Usefulness of Skinfold Scores Allied health and fitness professionals should use skinfolds in one of two ways: • • Sum the trunk and extremity scores to indicate the relative degree of fatness among individuals. The sum of skinfolds also can reflect changes in fatness, for example, “before” and “after” a physical training regimen with or without dietary intervention. Changes in individual skinfold values, including the total score, can then be evaluated on an absolute or percentage basis. Insert the skinfold values into a mathematical equation to predict body density or percent body fat (discussed in the next section). Practical Approach to Skinfold Measurement Take skinfolds at the eight anatomic sites. Note that the triceps, thigh, and calf sites represent the extremity region, and scapula, chest, mid-axillary, iliac, and abdomen represent the trunk region. Take the measurements once at each site and then repeat the measurements within a few minutes without knowledge of the first round of measurements. Repeat the above sequence one additional time so a total of three sets of measurements are available. At the end of the data collection procedure, you will have made three repeat measurements at each of eight sites. Remember, compute an average of the three scores for each site and use that score as discussed below in the sum of skinfold method or the skinfold prediction equation method. regions to determine total fat thickness in those regions. As clients alter their body composition with either exercise training or dietary regimens, or both, you will have a nice comparison among the skinfold sites in the “before” and “after” conditions. Tracking body composition changes gives the client “real-world” data to chart their progress. Providing objective feedback on body composition changes is a sure-fire way to improve client compliance with training programs. Equations to Predict Body Fat from Skinfolds The second way to use skinfolds uses mathematical equations designed to predict body density or percent body fat without needing to undergo hydrostatic weighing or a common criterion measurement technique such as DXA and BodPod. To be valid, the equation to predict body fat for the endurance runner should have been developed from research using the body fat percentage of endurance runners determined by a criterion method such as hydrostatic weighing. When the “correct” equation is used, the predicted fatness value for an individual usually falls within ±3%–5% of body fat calculated from body density. This is a remarkable degree of accuracy as long as you use one of the valid prediction equations. As you might imagine, there are far more different groups of individuals of both genders and ages than could ever be covered by the available number of published prediction equations. Generalized Skinfold Equations Sum of Skinfold Method Use the sum of skinfolds at extremity and trunk To circumvent the problem of trying to find the most appropriate prediction equation for an International Sports Sciences Association 372 | Unit 7.2 individual or group of individuals of a particular gender, age, and athlete category (i.e., speed skaters, gymnasts, mountain climbers, sprint swimmers, soccer players), researchers have developed generalized body fat prediction equations. These equations are not as accurate as the specific prediction equations are, with an error factor about 2% body fat units higher than for the specific body fat prediction equations. Girth Equations Based on Girth Measurements Taking girth measurements does not require as much practice to achieve proficiency compared with taking skinfolds. Use a cloth anthropometric tape (available at www.chponline.com/ store/cart.php) or cloth sewing tape (www. amazon.com) calibrated in millimeters (mm) or nearest 1/8th inch to measure the girths. A cloth tape or linen is best because metal tapes easily compress the skin. To avoid skin compression, apply the tape lightly to the skin surface so the tape remains somewhat taut but not tight. Take duplicate measurements at each site and use the average as the girth score. Girths are easy to take, reliability of measurement is excellent, and a tester can become proficient with a few hours of practice. Predicting Percentage Body Fat from Girths for Overly Fat Men and Women Use the following equations to predict percent body fat in obese (>30%BF) women (ages 20 to 60) and obese (>20% BF) men (ages 24 to 68). I recommend you enter both equations into a spreadsheet (such as Microsoft Excel) so you Strength and Conditioning can do the calculations by just entering the values for both abdominal girths, for height, and for weight. Women Percent body fat = 0.11077(ABDO) - 0.17666 (HT) + 0.14354 (BW) + 51.03301 Men Percent body fat = 0.31457(ABDO) -0.10969(BW) + 10.8336 For both equations, ABDO = the average of waist girth (taken horizontally at the level of the natural waist—narrowest part of the torso, as seen from the anterior), and abdomen girth (taken horizontally at the level of the greatest anterior extension of the abdomen, usually, but not always, at the level of the umbilicus). Duplicate measurements are taken and averaged. BW = body weight in kilograms; HT = stature in centimeters. Examples Overly Fat Woman Waist girth = 115 (cm) Abdomen girth = 121 (cm) HT = 165.1 (cm) BW = 97.5 (kg) 0.11077(ABDO) – 0.17666 (HT) +0.14354 (BW) + 51.03301 = Percent body fat 13.07 – 29.17 + 13.995 + 51.03301 = 48.93 Obesity and Measuring Body Composition | 373 Overly Fat Man Waist girth = 131 (cm) Abdomen girth = 136 (cm) BW = 135.6 (kg) 0.31457(ABDO)41.995 —0.10969(BW) — 14.873 + 10.8336 + 10.8336 = Percent body fat = 37.96 Bioelectrical Impedance (BIA) (http://nutrition.uvm.edu/bodycomp/bia/) BIA predicts body composition by estimating body water content. Body water can estimate lean body mass because most body water is located in lean tissues. The technique works by sending a small electrical charge through the body and measuring the body’s resistance to it. Equations predict total body water from whole-body electrical resistance. As with other indirect measurements, BIA attempts to predict the results of the underwater weighing test, DXA, or BodPod. The BIA test is rapid and easy to administer. Another major disadvantage, unfortunately, is that BIA can be grossly inaccurate when applied to most people who are not close to the average body composition for their age and gender. In addition, dehydration and overhydration will affect the results. Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA or DEXA) (http://nutrition.uvm.edu/bodycomp/dexa/) DXA is not a practical test for personal trainers, but you should know about this technique because it is rapidly becoming one of the standard body composition techniques for researchers and practitioners. Clinically, DXA is widely used to assess the risk and progression of osteoporosis, a progressively worsening condition with aging (and physical activity mostly in women.) Researchers quickly found that the DEXA scan of the technique could also be used femur to measure bone density. to assess the composition of Technique is also used to estimate soft tissues. DXA works by body fat and aiming X-rays at the body fat-free weight. Source: Courtesy Hologic, Inc. at two different energies. A difference in absorption of the X-ray beam at these two energies calculates the bone mineral content and soft tissue composition in the scanned region. DXA scanning uses a small dose of radiation, so the method is simple and safe for subjects ranging from children to the elderly. DXA has been suggested as a replacement to densitometry (hydrostatic weighing) as the gold standard of body composition. It relies on fewer assumptions about human tissue characteristics. Most importantly, comparisons of the method with autopsy in animals have demonstrated good validity. The accuracy of DXA is excellent but varies with different body regions and with the software used to conduct the analysis. The method works best in young, healthy subjects but is less accurate in osteoporotic and obese subjects. DXA machines cost in the tens of thousands of dollars and are typically found in hospitals and rehabilitation centers and university research labs in addition to medical and public health research centers. International Sports Sciences Association 374 | Unit 7.2 Summary Body composition affects the health and performance of athletes. Obesity increases heart disease risk, some types of cancer, and diabetes. The United States, along with the rest of the Western world, is in the midst of an unfortunate obesity epidemic, with more than 68% of adult Americans now overweight or obese. That is a stunning number that shows no sign of abating. Excess body fat has a negative effect on performance because it takes more force to move the increased fat mass. Strength and conditioning coaches should take care when attempting to change body composition. Weight loss is often accompanied by loss of muscle mass, which can decrease power output capacity. Body composition is assessed by indirect and doubly indirect methods. Indirect methods include hydrostatic weighing, BodPod, and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Doubly indirect methods include bioelectrical Strength and Conditioning impedance and anthropometric techniques— they predict the results of the indirect methods. The accuracy of any technique varies with the subject population, validity of basic assumptions, and experience of the test administrator. Personal trainers should assess their clients’ body composition for five reasons. Doing so (1) provides individuals with a starting point upon which to base current and future decisions about weight loss and weight gain, (2) provides realistic goals about how to best achieve an “ideal” balance between the body’s fat and nonfat compartments, (3) relates to general health status and as such plays an important role in the health and fitness goals of all individuals, (4) monitors changes in the body’s fat and lean components during exercise regimens of different durations and intensities and rehabilitation programs using different modalities and treatment practices, and (5) body composition affects performance. SECTION EIGHT Program Design for Sports UNIT 8.1 Designing Training Programs for Recreational Athletes Designing Training Programs for Recreational Athletes | 377 Unit Outline 1. Designing the Program 5. Skill Development 2. General Fitness for Health 6. Endurance Fitness 3. Higher Levels of General Fitness 7. Summary 4. Fitness Programs for Power Sports Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand that planning an effective exercise-training program is as much art as science, but an important principle is to develop a structured program and stick with it. Consistency is the key. • Understand that a key to developing fitness in recreationally active athletes is to determine goals and motivations. • Understand that the average person should meet the recommendations of the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) of 150 minutes per week of moderate-intensity physical activity, 75 minutes of vigorous intensity exercise, or a combination of both. Planning an effective exercise-training program is as much art as science. Consider the athlete’s goals, strengths and weaknesses, likes and dislikes, and motivation. Equipment and facilities are important; athletes will not be able to swim if they do not have ready access to a pool or perform Olympic weight lifts without access to free weights. When designing a program, consider what is possible and which exercises the athlete • Understand that clients interested in attaining higher levels of general fitness should engage in some type of high intensity aerobic exercise three to five times a week, resistive exercise two to four times a week, and flexibility exercises five to seven times weekly. • Understand the benefits and risks of exercise. • Understand that clients who play sports must place increased emphasis on skill development. Mastering skills takes thousands of practice hours. Skill must always take precedence over conditioning. • Understand that recreational-level endurance athletes should practice over-distance training to develop endurance capacity, interval training to develop speed and pace, and resistance training to develop strength and power. will actually do. A scientifically sophisticated training program is worthless if the athlete cannot easily get to the gym or will not cooperate. Everything works! Athletes will make gains on almost any training program. Some programs will produce better results than others will, but the important idea is to develop a program and stick with it. Plan a realistic, carefully thought International Sports Sciences Association 378 | Unit 8.1 out program that avoids dangerous exercises and do it consistently. Assess fitness regularly using the tests described in Section 7.1. Fitness assessment reveals the athlete’s starting level and helps judge program progress. The best programs remain consistent and hold athletes accountable. Assessment is critical to this process. Athletes and their coaches (and personal trainers) thrive when they achieve success, even when measured in fractions of a second, a few additional inches in a throw, or a few yards consistently added to a golf drive. Assessment is a powerful motivator and positive reinforcer, and it should be implemented right from the start and continued regularly. There is no single “correct” training program. Athletes should become students of sport. Encourage them to learn all they can about training from coaches, clinics, sports scientists, reliable Internet sites, the personal trainer (you), and sports and fitness magazines. Plan a program, try it, evaluate it and then modify it. Soon you will create a program that works best for your client. In addition, strength and power training is supposed to improve performance on the playing field and should not become an end in itself. Begin conservatively. When your athlete can complete a minimal program, add more difficult exercises or train more intensely. Consistency is the key. Follow the basic principles of training discussed in prior units (with emphasis on training specificity and practice), and your athletes will likely attain their goals with minimum downtime from nagging injuries. Strength and Conditioning Designing the Program First, determine the athlete’s goals. If the goal is simply to improve health, then the training program can be relatively simple. If the athlete desires to become a better skier, football player, golfer, gymnast, rugby player, swimmer, bodybuilder, dancer, or discus thrower, then the program becomes more complicated. It is extremely important to strike a reasonable balance between skill and fitness development, the two important components required to improve overall sports performance. Throughout this unit, you will find generalized training programs for general fitness (Table 8.1-1), alpine skiing (Table 8.1-2), bodybuilding (Table 8.1-3), and recreational distance running (Table 8.1-4). General Fitness for Health Beginners or recreational exercisers should meet the recommendations of the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) of 150 minutes per week of moderate-intensity physical activity, 75 minutes of vigorous intensity exercise, or a combination of both (see Unit 4.2). The duration of each workout should last a minimum of 30 minutes. Guidelines from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) recommend 60 minutes or more of moderate-intensity physical activity for people who desire to lose weight or maintain lost weight. The activity does not have to be performed continuously. The individual can combine 15 minutes of walking to and from Designing Training Programs for Recreational Athletes | 379 work or school with walking up stairs (instead of taking the elevator) with a more physically demanding household chore such as mowing the lawn with a pushcart mower instead of a riding mower. Clients should supplement such basic “aerobic-type” exercises with resistance and flexibility exercises. People also gain health benefits from being more physically active throughout the day in addition to meeting the basic exercise recommendations. Encourage people to stand instead of sit, take stairs instead of relying on the elevator, and park farther from the store when shopping. Higher Levels of General Fitness Clients interested in attaining higher levels of general fitness should engage in some type of high intensity aerobic exercise three to five times a week, resistive exercise two to four times a week, and flexibility exercises five to seven times weekly. If your client wants to increase running speed and also increase the power in crucial muscular movements, you must include interval training and power and plyometric exercises in the program. Clients can perform their exercise routines at home, in a health or fitness facility, or at the local track, park, or pool. Devise a detailed plan for the clients and make sure they clearly understand what is expected of them during workouts. Insist that clients keep track of their workouts (detailed diary or record progress using any number of smartphone apps). Record keeping plays an important part in the evaluation process because successes (and failures) are quantified; as such, it is much easier to implement changes in a program when the athlete (and you) knows what adjustments actually must be implemented. Athletes should select aerobic exercises they enjoy—walking, running, swimming, aerobics classes, cross-country skiing, cycling, and sports—tennis, golf (without an electric cart), volleyball, skating, soccer, or basketball. They should remain engaged in the aerobic activity for at least 20 minutes. If they cannot complete 20 minutes at first, have them build up to that level gradually. This can take weeks and sometimes months. Ramping up too quickly is a sure-fire recipe for injury! Table 8.1-1: Sample Exercise Program to Develop Higher Levels of General Fitness General Fitness Components: Monday Jog 2-3 miles in park, stretching after jog (5 to 10 exercises) Tuesday Weight training (3 sets of 10 repetitions): bench press, cleans, lat pulls or pullups, arm curls, crunches or sit-ups, squats or leg press, leg curls; stretching Wednesday 2 miles interval training on track: stride or sprint the straight-a-ways (100 meters), jog or walk the turns; plyometrics (3 to 6 exercises); stretching Thursday Rest Friday Weight training (3 sets of 10 repetitions): squats or leg press, leg curls, cleans, bench press, lat pulls or pull-ups, arm curls, crunches or sit-ups; stretching Saturday Jog 2 to 3 miles in park, stretching after jog (5 to 10 exercises) Sunday Rest • running • interval training • weight training • plyometrics • stretching • rest International Sports Sciences Association 380 | Unit 8.1 Clients can perform resistance exercises on the same day as aerobic activities. Serious weight trainers often undertake resistance and aerobic training on separate days. For example, an athlete might run on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday and lift weights on Tuesdays and Thursdays. Many athletes choose to rest on Saturday and Sunday or just devote this time to basic skill rehearsal and “light” exercise and flexibility work. High-intensity interval training builds aerobic and anaerobic fitness rapidly and may be a better way for power to develop endurance without interfering with power development. Intense weight training can stiffen blood vessels, which can lead to high blood pressure and heart damage in individuals predisposed to high blood pressure and with prior cardiac problems. Even a single bout of bench presses with maximum weight can raise systolic blood pressure to over 300 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure approaching 200 mmHg! Physician clearance for beginning a resistance training program is a must. Recent studies reported that doing aerobics following weight training on the same workout day protects blood vessels. This might be an important consideration for lifelong health. Perform flexibility exercises at the end of the workout when muscles are warm and less susceptible to soft tissue injuries. Athletes must maintain consistency with the stretching program (or any other part of the program). Flexibility can be maintained by devoting 10 minutes daily to stretching. Strength and Conditioning Fitness Programs for Power Sports No single training program applies to all sports. This unit of the course presents examples that can serve as templates for any program. In general, during the offseason, develop skill and general strength, endurance, and flexibility fitness. As the season nears, place increasing emphasis on developing and perfecting skills with added emphasis on enhancing power and speed. Skill Development for Athletes Skill development is critical for playing all sports. Increased skill enhances enjoyment and improves workout quality. A tennis player who cannot serve with power and precision, or move quickly laterally to deliver a solid forehand or backhand, will not perform well in a match, no matter how fit he or she is (or is not). Athletes achieve best results by systematically integrating skill development with fitness training. Some coaches substitute physical conditioning for skill development. This is an enormous mistake. The athletes must continually practice the specific skills required in their sports. There are no shortcuts to this aspect of performance. Mastering skills takes thousands of practice hours, with emphasis on “perfect” practice. Practicing with poor form or lack of attention to movement details will indeed perfect poor movement skills! Three hundred hours of poor practice, for example, reinforces those neural impulse patterns to muscles; hence, the newly acquired or now “grooved” movement patterns Designing Training Programs for Recreational Athletes | 381 Table 8.1-2: Sample Exercise Program to Develop Higher Levels of General Fitness May–August Monday Jog 2 to 3 miles in park, stretching after jog (5 to 10 exercises) General Fitness Components: Tuesday Weight training (3 sets of 10 repetitions): bench press, cleans, lat pulls or pull-ups, arm curls, crunches or sit-ups, squats or leg press, leg curls; stretching Wednesday 2 miles interval training on track: stride or sprint the straight-a-ways (100 meters), jog or walk the turns; plyometrics (3 to 6 exercises); stretching • plyometrics Thursday Rest • stretching Friday Weight training (3 sets of 10 repetitions): squats or leg press, leg curls, cleans, bench press, lat pulls or pull-ups, arm curls, crunches or sit-ups; stretching Saturday Jog 2 to 3 miles in park, stretching after jog (5 to 10 exercises) Sunday Rest Monday Monday: Weight training (3 sets of 10 repetitions): Squats or leg press, leg curls, cleans, bench press, lat pulls or pull-ups, arm curls, crunches or sit-ups; Jog 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill, Stretching Tuesday 2 miles interval training on track: stride or sprint the straight-a-ways (100 meters), jog or walk the turns; plyometrics (squat jumps, 360° squat jumps, ice skaters, standing long-jumps, skiers, ski box jumps, lung jumps); stretching Wednesday Weight training (3 sets of 10 repetitions): Bench press, cleans, lat pulls or pull-ups, arm curls, crunches or sit-ups, squats or leg press, leg curls; Stretching Jog 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill, stretching after jog (5 to 10 exercises) Thursday Rest Friday Weight training (3 sets of 10 repetitions): Squats or leg press, leg curls, cleans, bench press, lat pulls or pull-ups, arm curls, crunches or sit-ups; Jogging 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill; Stretching Saturday Plyometrics, Stadium stairs, cycling (bicycle or stationary bike) 40 to 60 minutes Sunday Rest January–April Monday Rest Specialized Fitness Components: Tuesday 2 miles interval training on track: stride or sprint the straight-a-ways (100 meters), jog or walk the turns; plyometrics (squat jumps, 360° squat jumps, ice skaters, standing long-jumps, skiers, ski box jumps, lung jumps); stretching Wednesday Weight training (3 sets of 10 repetitions): Squats or leg press, leg curls, cleans, bench press, lat pulls or pull-ups, arm curls, crunches or sit-ups; Jogging 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill; Stretching Thursday 2-mile jog; plyometrics (squat jumps, 360° squat jumps, ice skaters, standing long-jumps, skiers, ski box jumps, lung jumps); stretching Friday Rest Saturday Skiing Sunday Skiing • running • interval training • weight training • rest September–December Specialized Fitness Components: • skiing • running • interval training • weight training • plyometrics • stretching • rest • skiing • running • interval training • weight training • plyometrics • stretching • rest International Sports Sciences Association 382 | Unit 8.1 Table 8.1-3: Sample Bodybuilding Program Monday Wednesday Friday Weight Training (use challenging weight for each set) • Bench press 5 X 10 • Seated behind the neck press 4 X 10 • Incline press 4 X 10 • Lateral raises (dumbbells) 4 X 10 • Front raises 4 X 10 • Upright rowing 4 X 10 • Pull-ups 3 X 10 • Triceps extensions (lat machine) 3 X 10 • Dumbbell curls 4 X 10 • Triceps extensions on bench 3 X 10 • Preacher curls 3 X 10 • Squats 5 X 10 • Calf raises 5 X 15 • Sit-ups or crunches 5 X 25 • Aerobic exercise: 30-60 minutes (e.g., stairclimber, treadmill, stationary bike) • Stretching (6-10 exercises) Tuesday Aerobic exercise: 30 minutes Thursday Stretching Saturday Sunday Rest translate to poorly developed movement skill patterns. Proper skill training must always take precedence over conditioning. The client should devote at least 30% time and effort to developing specific movement skills year-round. This is important for both competitive and recreational athletes. For seasonal sports, devote at least two Strength and Conditioning days a week during the off-season to perfecting movement patterns (skills). Repeating mistakes in practice reinforces mistakes and poor or inefficient movement patterns. The primary objective of practice is to develop good technique. Athletes will make mistakes. Part of learning good technique is to be aware of movement errors and then try to correct them. Most of this process is self-discovery: Athletes make mistakes, they observe more skilled athletes doing the movements correctly, or they receive feedback from a coach or trainer and then attempt to correct the movement. Making mistakes is a critical part of the learning process. Athletes must “groove” good technique through quality practice, correcting mistakes, and engaging in more quality practice. This process is tedious and difficult but essential for peak performance. Do not allow clients to use bad weather as an excuse to postpone workouts. When it rains, the tennis player can hit balls against a wall in the gym, the golfer can work on the timing of the swing at an indoor range or an in-home net-hitting cage, and the discus thrower can work on turns in the garage. During the season, the athlete should increase the amount of time devoted to practicing skills— at least four days a week. Do not allow the athlete to substitute fitness for skill development. The golfer who perfects a poor swing will continue to strike the ball poorly, even if he or she can run fast or has a great bench press or squat. When combining sports and fitness, the athlete needs to enhance core strength and endurance during the off-season. As the season nears, Designing Training Programs for Recreational Athletes | 383 place greater emphasis on power, speed, and plyometric training. During the season, the athlete must maintain high levels of general and specific muscular strength and endurance fitness. Not too many years ago, professional football players concentrated on strength development only during the off-season or during the spring conditioning season. Now, maintaining strength during the season is an essential element of nearly every program. Table 8.1-4: Sample Exercise Program for a Recreational Distance Runner Monday 6 mile run Stretching Tuesday 3 mile run Weight training: • squats or leg presses (3X15) • leg curls (3X15) • sit-ups (3X25) • bench presses (3X10) • pull-ups (3X10) Endurance Fitness Endurance sports are extremely popular throughout the world. Popular endurance events such as the Bay-to-Breakers “fun” run in San Francisco, the New York City Marathon, the Ironman triathlon in Hawaii, and the Western States 100 attract thousands of contestants. Lesser-known competitions in running, cycling, swimming, triathlon, kayaking, snowshoeing, and cross-country skiing also are popular. Only a handful of contestants will ever be Olympic hopefuls, but millions of ordinary people love the challenge of endurance competitions and display high levels of fitness. Children, young adults, and older adults above age 30 to 100 years also are attracted to endurance sports and competitive activities. Endurance athletes should practice over-distance training to develop endurance capacity, interval training to develop speed and pace, and resistance training to develop strength and power. During the off-season (time of year with few competitions), emphasize over-distance • up-right rowing (3X15) Stretching Wednesday Rest Thursday Interval training: 6-10 X 400 meters Stretching Friday 3 mile run Weight training: • squats or leg presses (3X15) • leg curls (3X15) • sit-ups (3X25) • bench presses (3X10) • pull-ups (3X10) • up-right rowing (3X15) Stretching Saturday 6 mile run Stretching Sunday Rest training. As the season nears, include additional interval training workouts. Lift weights all year long. During the competitive season, strive only to maintain strength by lifting weights once or twice weekly. International Sports Sciences Association 384 | Unit 8.1 Summary Planning an effective exercise training program is as much art as science. Consider the athlete’s goals, strengths and weaknesses, likes and dislikes, and motivation. Everything works! Athletes will make gains from nearly any training program. Although some programs produce better results than others do, the important idea is to develop a program and stick with it. Plan a realistic program that avoids dangerous exercises and do it consistently. exercises. Clients interested in attaining higher levels of general fitness should engage in some type of high intensity aerobic exercise three to five times a week, resistive exercise two to four times a week, and flexibility exercises five to seven times weekly. Assess fitness regularly using the tests described in Unit 7.1. Fitness assessment reveals the starting level and helps judge progress in the program. Clients who play sports must place increased emphasis on skill development. Mastering skills takes thousands of practice hours. Skill must always take precedence over conditioning. The client should devote considerable time and effort to developing specific movement skills year-round. This is important for both competitive and recreational athletes. Beginners or recreational exercisers should meet the recommendations of the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) of either 150 minutes per week of moderate-intensity physical activity, 75 minutes of vigorous intensity exercise, or a combination of both (see Unit 4.2). Clients should supplement aerobic exercises with resistance and flexibility Endurance athletes should practice over-distance training to develop endurance capacity, interval training to develop speed and pace, and resistance training to develop strength and power. During the off-season (time of year with few competitions), emphasize over-distance training. As the season nears, include additional interval training workouts. Lift weights year- round. Strength and Conditioning UNIT 8.2 Football 386 | Unit 8.2 Unit Outline 1. Football and Endurance 9. 2. Strength Training Essential Elements of the Football Training Program a. 3. Flexibility Strength b. Power 4. Plyometrics and Sprint Training c. 5. Agility Agility d. Speed 6. Body Composition e. Endurance 7. f. Skill Fitness Testing 8. Training for Football 10. Summary Learning Objectives • Understand that football players need flexibility but an excessive flexibility may lead to increased injury risk. • Understand that fitness for football depends on well-developed anaerobic energy systems but aerobic fitness helps athletes recover faster from repeated bouts of high intensity exercise. Understand that plyometric and speed exercises best develop fitness for football when training time is limited. • Understand that football players should emphasize high intensity exercise but that lower intensity exercise can help athletes increase fitness gradually. Understand and administer NFL Combine tests. While these tests are only moderately correlated to success in football, they can be an important source of revenue for the strength coach. • Understand that strength training is vital for football players but that lifting strength is best developed over years of training. Understand how to design training football training programs and work them into athletes’ normal training regimens. • Understand that essential elements of football conditioning programs include strength, power, agility, speed, and endurance. Exercises should be as specific as possible to football. After completing this unit, you will be able to: • • • • Understand that the conditioning program for football should prepare athletes for the physical demands of the sport. American football, a full contact sport dominated by highly skilled and superbly conditioned athletes, combines superior breakaway speed and multiple agility skills with brute strength and power. The sport requires finely tuned motor Strength and Conditioning skills and well-developed fitness components to perform at maximal physiologic limits. Football involves brief periods of intense activity followed by short rest intervals. The game Football | 387 consists of four 15-minute quarters divided into two 30-minute halves at the collegiate and professional levels. Play is discontinuous—players are seldom on the field for more than 10 plays at a time. A typical play lasts no more than 10 seconds (typically 4–6 seconds) followed by approximately 30–45 seconds of recovery. During each play, players execute specific skills at maximal or near-maximal levels depending on the nature of the play and their positions. During a competition, the body engages all of its physiological energy systems. This explosive sport consists of brief exercise bouts requiring immediate surges of energy. To meet the cell’s initial energy requirements, the body depends on intracellular high-energy phosphagen stores (adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, and creatine phosphate, or CP). This immediate energy system literally powers the game as an “anaerobic sport.” In line with the specificity of training concept, approximately 90% of a player’s metabolic training should concentrate on developing and enhancing the immediate and anaerobic energy metabolic pathways. The other main energy system, the aerobic energy system, must not be neglected during the training process. Endurance (aerobic) training increases the immediate energy stores and related enzymatic activity. The greater the degree of aerobic fitness, the more effectively the immediate pathway can be restored between plays. Exercise training that improves the maximal oxygen consumption also enhances anaerobic capacity. Except during off-season conditioning, players must develop aerobic capacity through high-speed interval training. Wind sprints develop aerobic capacity while also increasing high-speed exercise capacity. Tempo runs are excellent for building base fitness for sprinters. Tempo runs are repeated low-intensity sprints at speeds between 65% and 70%. A 100-meter tempo run for an 11-second 100-meter sprinter is between 15 and 17 seconds. Aerobic fitness training also improves lactate clearance—recall that lactate is a byproduct of anaerobic metabolism. Increased aerobic capacity facilitates lactate removal from the exercising tissues. This is important because lactate accumulation corresponds with muscle fatigue. During a competition, lactate concentration reaches a critical point referred to as “the onset of blood lactate,” or OBLA, where Onset of blood lactate (OBLA): Point during exercise when blood lactic acid increases significantly. Hydrogen ions (acid) interfere with energy reactions and precipitate fatigue. International Sports Sciences Association 388 | Unit 8.2 lactate production rate exceeds lactate clearance rate. The accumulation of associated hydrogen ions during this metabolic process that releases hydrogen ions (i.e., increased acidity) heralds exhaustion. The good news—increasing lactate removal rate via aerobic training indirectly increases a football player’s anaerobic capacity. Football and Endurance • The typical maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) value for a college football player (NCAA Division 1A) is about 51 milliliters of oxygen consumed by the metabolically active tissues per kilogram of body weight per minute. Aerobic capacity varies with position. Ath• letes in high-skill positions tend to have higher VO2max values than other positions such as linemen do. This may be attributed to a difference in player body composition among the various positions. Large body size offensive and defensive linemen are “fatter” than quarterbacks, tight ends, and defensive backs are. Although athletes can do some distance running during the off-season, they should develop most of their endurance through interval training and repeat wind sprints. Intense training is more specific to football. A period of long-slow distance running (LSD training) is OK during the off-season to prepare tissues and associated thousands of miles of blood vessels (mainly the small capillaries) for more intense training. Slower movements should only be used for training during preparatory periods. After that, emphasis should be on the fitness requirements dictated by the sport. Strength Training Electromyography (EMG): Measure of a muscle’s electrical activity to determine which muscles “turn on” and “turn off” during exercise. Strength and Conditioning Football players require functional strength and quickness, both of which are improved by targeted resistance training. Force generation is not determined solely by muscle size. Neural activation plays a critical role in producing explosive power. Purposeful resistance training enhances neural adaptations that promote muscle fiber efficiency. Four adaptations include the following: 1. Increased motor unit recruitment (greater muscle activation in muscle as measured by electromyography, EMG) Football | 389 2. Improved synchronization among motor units 3. Recruitment of larger, more powerful motor units 4. Decreased natural inhibition to achieving maximal effort These four adaptations result from high-intensity resistance training, plyometrics, and speed exercises that primarily recruit and activate type II motor units (fast-twitch fibers). Strength training also can minimize injuries, primarily ligament trauma to the knees. An effective training program strengthens soft tissues that support joints. Resistance training generally increases the thickness, weight, and strength of ligaments and tendons; such increases reduce overall injury risk. Weight training also improves the integrity of the point of muscular attachment, the most common site of tearing and separation. Connective tissue within and surrounding the muscle is also strengthened through resistance training. This enhances the muscle’s elastic properties, protecting it from potentially dangerous overloads that can precipitate tearing. Connective tissue: Supporting tissue. Football players often include the Olympic lifts in workouts because this mode of training develops dynamic strength on the field. They are complete body exercises that emphasize the body’s total energy systems. The power clean, power snatch, and squat are explosive movements that produce the desired adaptations football requires. Unlike many other popular lifts, these exercises more closely resemble movement patterns required in the sport. Remember that a basic principle for all power sports is to train movements rather than muscles. Many types of training build whole-body power, including pushing or pulling sleds or cars, farmer carries, tire exercises, large rock training, and medicine ball exercises. Players should also perform basic bench presses, incline presses, deadlifts, back squats, and overhead squats and should build muscles in problem areas such as the neck and shoulder rotator cuff. Linemen, in particular, can have their shoulders forcefully externally rotated during play, which can precipitate rotator cuff muscles injuries. Resistance exercises can minimize injuries to this anatomic region. As in all sports, be sure to use a balanced training program International Sports Sciences Association 390 | Unit 8.2 that builds the prime movers and their antagonists. For example, if the athlete does bench presses and deltoid raises, include rowing and lat exercises to balance the shoulders. Flexibility Flexibility, in addition to strength training, is another less time-consuming method critical to injury prevention. This is important because complete range of motion exercise prevents joint and muscle injury when players encounter contorting, extreme positions. However, an excessive range of motion known as laxity may lead to increased injury risk. As athletes attain an acceptable level of flexibility, they should maintain what they have and train more specifically for football. Plyometrics and Sprint Training The ideal training program should use specific training methods to prepare players for the explosive movements and speed that football requires. Plyometric exercises best prepare the athletes for the rigors of the playing field and should be part of every player’s program. The goal of plyometrics is to train the muscles to achieve maximum force quickly. This is accomplished through a variety of exercises that uses the individual’s mass and force of gravity to provide resistance. Typical plyometric exercises are described in Unit 6.9—they include bounding, jumping, and squatting. Athletes should concentrate on achieving maximum height and distance during these exercises while spending the least amount of time on the ground. The Strength and Conditioning mechanics are quite simple. Energy stored in the muscles called elastic energy quickly converts to kinetic force or explosive power. Sprint training is sport-specific plyometrics that builds power in motor skills central to the sport. A major goal of sprint training is to improve running power, speed, and endurance. Sprint training should include agility drills to perfect making rapid changes in direction. Speed and plyometric exercises enhance muscular hypertrophy, improve neural firing, and increase muscle fuel stores. As the season nears, emphasize plyometric and speed training exercises and technique— particularly in speed and agility tests. Research demonstrates that plyometric and speed training produce better short-term adaptations than do any other modes of exercise. Perform these exercises at full speed. It is better from the muscle’s metabolic standpoint and contraction capacity to do one set of each exercise at maximum intensity than 20 sets at half speed. Agility Agility refers to the ability to change directions quickly. Players should practice the basic footwork involved in rapid movements on the field. The footwork involved in faking out tacklers, bump and run, and pulling moves from the line should be practiced and perfected. General agility drills also contribute to overall fitness—even though players do not develop “general agility.” Athletes should practice sprinting straight ahead, backward, side to side, and in zigzag patterns. Shuttle runs and cone drills are excellent means to develop a variety of Football | 391 movement patterns to incorporate into play. In this regard, the principle of specificity of training is so important—create drills to mimic the skills required in the game and then practice them perfectly so they become “hard wired” for execution when required. Body Composition Body composition varies according to the position in both professional and college football. Linemen typically have 20% body fat or more, whereas defensive backs often have less than 10%. These differences reflect the requirements of the position. The average lineman in the NFL weighs 347 pounds, whereas the average for NCAA Division I player weights slightly more than 300 pounds. Several schools field offensive lines averaging 330 pounds. Size inflation is also occurring in high school. The average Associated Press all-state offensive lineman weighs more than 275 pounds—nearly 100 pounds more than in 1940. Since 2013, Parade Magazine’s High School All-American offensive and defensive linemen actually have outweighed top Collegiate Bowl offensive and defensive linemen. Furthermore, top collegiate offensive and defensive line players often equal or exceed the height and weight as that of the same position players on recent Super Bowl teams! Most football players have a muscular body build. Muscular athletes are better at performing skills that require explosive power and speed. However, there is a trend toward extremely high body weights in linemen playing at the college and pro levels. It is not unusual anymore for linemen to weigh 350 pounds or more. Successful linemen weighing this much are also relatively fast, which gives them a tremendous advantage in a collision. Unfortunately, these athletes may be at increased risk of heart disease and stroke if they fail to reduce their weight when their football days are over. Encourage athletes to increase body weight by gaining muscle rather than fat. Excessively fat football players may experience difficulty losing weight when their careers end—unfortunately, often they continue to consume large quantities of food, but their physical activity levels markedly decrease. Fitness Testing A typical testing program for any level entails using the tests of the NFL Combine: 40-yard dash, vertical jump (jump-reach test), shuttle run, standing long jump, and 3-cone test. These tests were described in Unit 7.1. Modify these tests if you are working with high school, community college, or younger college athletes. For example, use 135 pounds instead of 225 pounds for the bench press when working with less experienced athletes. Table 8.2-1 shows performance scores from the 2015 NFL Combine. The validity of these tests for football is debatable. Although the tests are good measures of fitness, the results correlate poorly with performance on the playing field and playing longevity of NFL athletes. Test players regularly during the year. Testing helps motivate players to maintain their fitness and helps the personal trainer or coach evaluate the training program’s success. Keep accurate records and statistics about changes in performance. Each level is different. Successful players tend to score higher on general tests of football fitness. Develop norms appropriate for International Sports Sciences Association 392 | Unit 8.2 Table 8.2-1 Average Performances on NFL Combine Tests by Position Position Height (in) Weight (lbs) 40-yard Dash (sec) Bench Press, 225 lbs (reps) Vertical Jump (in) Standing Long Jump (in) 20-yard Shuttle Run (sec) 3-Cone Drill (sec) Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* Mean SD* C 75.2 1.1 301 8 5.23 0.16 26.9 5.8 28.8 3.8 101.3 5.8 4.62 0.16 7.72 0.27 CB 71.3 1.7 193 9 4.48 0.1 14.5 4.2 36.4 2.8 121.3 5.4 4.16 0.16 6.97 0.22 DE 76 1.4 268 13 4.84 0.14 24 5.8 33.1 3.4 113.7 6 4.43 0.19 7.38 0.29 DT 75.1 1.4 306 14 5.08 0.14 27.8 5.4 29.6 2.8 104.9 5.5 4.64 0.19 7.7 0.26 FS 73 1.3 205 9 4.56 0.08 16.4 3.9 35.8 2.9 120.4 5.5 4.19 0.15 7.02 0.21 ILB 73.7 1.2 242 8 4.76 0.13 23.2 4.1 33.5 3.1 114.2 5.2 4.3 0.15 7.2 0.24 OG 76.1 1.1 314 13 5.32 0.19 25.2 5.8 28 3.2 99.8 6.7 4.77 0.22 7.95 0.36 OLB 74.1 1.4 240 9 4.67 0.12 22.9 4.8 34.7 3.4 117 6.1 4.27 0.15 7.13 0.23 OT 77.7 1.2 316 14 5.25 0.18 24.6 4.9 28.3 2.9 102 5.9 4.75 0.18 7.86 0.33 QB 75 1.5 222 11 4.84 0.19 31.3 3.4 109.6 6.7 4.33 0.19 7.18 0.27 RB 71.1 1.9 216 13 4.55 0.12 19.9 4.4 34.8 2.6 116.8 5.4 4.27 0.16 7.08 0.22 SS 72.5 1.6 211 9 4.58 0.11 17.1 4.8 35.7 2.7 118.7 4.9 4.19 0.16 7.02 0.26 TE 76.5 1.4 255 9 4.78 0.15 20.5 4.4 32.9 3.5 113.5 5.8 4.35 0.16 7.2 0.25 WR 73 2.6 203 15 4.49 0.09 15.5 4.2 35.5 3.2 119.7 5.1 4.26 0.14 6.93 0.20 Positions: (C)Center (CB) Cornerback (DE) Defensive end (DT) Defensive tackle (FS) Free safety (ILB) Inside linebacker (OG) Offensive guard (OLB) Outside linebacker (OT) Offensive tackle (QB) Quarterback (RB) Running back (SS) Strong safety (TE) Tight end (WR) Wide receiver SD = Standard Deviation the athlete’s level and compare a player’s performance with teammates, past players, and the player’s prior performance. Training for Football Players should ideally follow a long-term training program from when they first started playing the sport. The goal should be to continually increase strength throughout the career and get ready for each season with sprints and plyometrics. Weight training—because it changes performance and power slowly—is a long-term training method. Speed and plyometric exercises are more important for shortterm preparation. Strength and Conditioning Essential Elements of the Football Training Program There is no “correct” training program for football. Each program should address the sport’s essential fitness elements. Periodize the workouts—vary training volume and intensity from one session to the next and during different times of the year. Start by building base fitness and progress toward greater speed and power as the season nears. Table 8.2-2 presents a sample program for football players. Strength: Limit strength serves as the foundation for successful football players. Emphasize Football | 393 Table 8.2-2: Sample Exercise Program for Football December–April 2-week cycles Monday Weight training: Bench press (5 sets of 5 reps), Cleans (5 X 5), support exercises (neck, arms, lats, abdomen, hamstrings, calves); jog 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Tuesday Football skills, 2-miles interval training on track: stride or sprint the straight-a-ways (100 meters), jog or walk the turns; plyometrics (choose six exercises); stretching Wednesday Weight training: Squats (5 X 5), Snatch (5 X 3), support exercises; jog 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Thursday Rest Friday Weight training: Bench press (5 sets of 5 reps), Cleans (5 X 5), support exercises; jog 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Saturday Football skills, speed exercises, plyometrics, stadium stairs Sunday Rest December–April 2-week cycles Monday Weight training: Squats (5 X 5) Bench press (5 X 5), support exercises; jog 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Week Two Tuesday Football skills; Speed exercises (e.g., 100 meter sprints, high knee exercise, harness sprints, etc.); plyometrics (choose 6 exercises); stretching Wednesday Weight training: Cleans (5 X 3), Jerks off the rack (5 X 3), support exercises); jog 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Thursday Rest Friday Weight training: Squats (5 X 5), Bench press (5 sets of 5 reps), support exercises); jog 20-30 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Saturday Football skills, Speed exercises, Plyometrics Week One Sunday Rest Monday Football skills; Weight training: Bench press (5 sets of 2 reps), Cleans (5 X 2), support exercises (neck, arms, lats, abdomen, hamstrings, calves); 20 min. jogging on treadmill or track; stretching Tuesday Football skills; speed exercises (e.g. repeat 20 to 40 meter sprints, zigzag sprinting, high knee sprinting, etc.; plyometrics (choose six exercises); stretching Wednesday Weight training: Squats (5 X 2), Snatch (5 X 3), support exercises); jog 20 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Thursday Rest Friday Football skills; Weight training: Bench press (5 sets of 2 reps), Cleans (5 X 2), support exercises; jog 20 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Saturday Football skills; speed exercises (e.g. repeat 20 to 40 meter sprints, zigzag sprinting, high knee sprinting, etc.; plyometrics (choose six exercises); stretching Sunday Rest May–August 2-week cycles Monday Football skills; Weight training: Squats (5 X 2) Bench press (5 X2), support exercises); jog 20 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Week Two Tuesday Football skills; Speed exercises (e.g., 20-60 meter sprints, high knee exercise, harness sprints, etc.); plyometrics (choose 6 exercises); stretching Wednesday Weight training: Cleans (5 X 3), Jerks off the rack (5 X 3), support exercises); jog 20 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Thursday Rest Friday Football skills; Weight training: squats (5 X 3), Bench press (5 sets of 3 reps), support exercises;); jog 20 to 30 minutes on treadmill or track; stretching Saturday Football skills; speed exercises (e.g. repeat 20-40 meter sprints, zigzag sprinting, backward sprinting, high knee sprinting, etc.; plyometrics (choose six exercises); stretching Sunday Rest May–August 2-week cycles Week One International Sports Sciences Association 394 | Unit 8.2 presses (bench, military press, inclines), pulls (cleans, snatch, deadlift, high pull), and squats (squats and step-ups). Perform strength exercises for potential problem areas such as the neck, low back, and shoulder rotator cuff muscles. Develop strong abdominal muscles using the core stiffening exercises described in Unit 5.2. Power: Olympic lifts are excellent power builders. They take time to learn and are most effective when practiced over two or more seasons. Do not waste time on these lifts to condition an inexperienced player in a short time. Power development from Olympic lifts takes a long time to transfer to the playing field. Plyometrics and speed exercises transfer quickly. Do these—in fact—emphasize these exercises in the months leading up to the season. Agility: All players need to change directions quickly on the playing field. Do specific agility drills—cone drills and shuttle runs—regularly. Measure improvements in performance. Speed: Speed reflects leg power developed in the weight room and from plyometrics and speed Strength and Conditioning exercises. Athletes should build speed gradually to prevent hamstring and quadriceps injuries. Begin by running slowly, but quickly pick up the pace. Emphasize short quick sprints less than 20 yards. Alternate by running straight ahead, sideways, and backward. In addition, use power-building speed techniques—running stadium stairs, downhill sprinting, harness sprinting, parachutes, sleds, and bungee cords. Endurance: Build endurance by doing repeat intervals—beginning with sprinting the straightaways and walking the turns on a 400-meter track to running 200-meter intervals on the track. After the player has developed good fitness, drop the distances to less than 40 yards and do repeat wind sprints. The important goal is to condition the body for the way the game is played on the field. Skill: Do not neglect basic football skills. The best and fastest way to become more powerful on the playing field is to improve football skills. Practice them until they become second nature and from a neurological standpoint, “hardwired.” Football | 395 Summary Football requires sport-specific training to meet the game’s physical demands. These training methods should develop the immediate and anaerobic pathways—the primary energy reserves recruited during a 60-minute game. Training should also concentrate on developing explosive power and quickness, critical characteristics of successful football players. Typical training methods include high-intensity resistance training, plyometrics, and sprint training. As is true with any other sport, an athlete’s success on the gridiron seems to rest on the athlete’s natural physical characteristics. A muscular body type with a high percentage of fat-free body mass, coupled with muscle tissue containing an above-average concentration of type II muscle fibers, adds up to produce the typical modern-day football player. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 8.3 Designing Training Programs for Basketball Designing Training Programs for Basketball | 397 Unit Outline 1. Physical Demands of Basketball 3. Physical Conditioning for Basketball a. 2. Fitness Testing for Basketball a. b. Importance of Strength Strength c. b. Explosive Power c. d. Lateral Movement Flexibility f. Test Evaluation Speed and Power for Basketball d. Off-Season Conditioning Endurance e. Parts of the Season e. Preseason Conditioning f. In-Season 4. Summary Learning Objectives straight ahead running, so players need to develop fitness while shuffling, sprinting laterally and backwards, and rapid movements involving basketball skills. After completing this unit, you will be able to: • • Understand the physical demands of basketball and that the metabolic demands of the sport are similar to soccer, lacrosse, team handball, field hockey, and rugby. Understand that there is little or no transfer between conditioning athletes for straightahead running and side-to-side running. Only a small portion of a basketball game involves Basketball, a high-skill sport, demands strength, power, speed, agility, and endurance. The metabolic demands are similar to other start-and-stop-and-go sports—soccer, lacrosse, team handball, field hockey, and rugby. Play involves periods of intense exercise followed by periods of lower intensities. Elite basketball players spend 75% of playing time with a heart rate that exceeds 85% of maximum, thus requiring high levels of endurance. Players should be capable of repeated sprints, have the agility to change directions rapidly without losing • Understand and demonstrate basketball fitness and skills test such as the NBA Combine Test. • Understand and design exercise programs for basketball that integrate well with team activities and do not impair skill development or game performance. momentum, and have the endurance to sustain high-level continuous exercise. The uneven nature of the game makes peak conditioning a prerequisite to good play. The physical nature of the sport requires the development of power, speed, and agility a necessity. Skill remains the hallmark of any serious basketball player. Athletes should never substitute aerobic conditioning, weight training, or plyometrics for basic skill enhancement developed through dedicated practice sessions. High levels International Sports Sciences Association 398 | Unit 8.3 of fitness allow athletes to move to the next level of play. Athletes who dominate on the court are extremely fast, agile, and powerful. The personal trainer must help athletes develop this type of fitness to make them outstanding athletes and basketball players. Physical Demands of Basketball During a game, intensity level varies from complete rest to all-out high-intensity exercise. A breakdown of movements in basketball includes these nine components: 1. Standing or walking or crouched in a stationary defensive stance 2. Jogging forward, sideward, backward 3. Running forward, backward 4. Sprinting 5. Slow shuffle—generally sideway or backward movements at low intensities 6. Medium intensity shuffle 7. High-intensity shuffle 8. Jumping and rebounding 9. Shooting Studies by Scottish researchers showed that players exercise at high intensity for about 1.7 seconds once every 21 seconds during game play (Figure 8.3-1, 2). Only a small percentage of time is devoted to high-intensity activity; the remainder engages in lower intensity exercise. Thirty-one percent of game time involves shuffling movements, 20% of which were high-intensity. Shuffling represents the most prominent type of high-energy movement. Consequently, this Strength and Conditioning Figure 8.3-1 Percent of time spent at different percentages of maximum heart rate. McInnes, et al. 1996. aspect should become a crucial part of preparing athletes for competition. Research reveals little or no transfer between conditioning athletes for straight-ahead running and side-to-side running. The important take-home message for personal trainers (and basketball coaches) supports the specificity concept—develop specific conditioning for high-speed shuffling. Centers spend the most time standing still, whereas forwards spend the most time walking, and all three positions require similar amounts of running. Forwards travel the greatest distance in a game (about two-thirds of a mile more than guards and centers do), whereas guards and centers travel similar distances. Forwards run farther than the other positions do because of the nature of their position on the court. They tend to play close to the basket at both ends of the court, whereas guards move mainly between the free throw lines. Guards and forwards participate in fast breaks, whereas centers may remain at the defensive end of the court. Designing Training Programs for Basketball | 399 Even though centers stand still, they still fight for position using high-energy outputs on both offense and defense. The offensive center spends time in a crouched or semi-crouched position, leaning and pushing against the defensive player, trying to keep the defensive player behind and off balance. The defensive center is trying to get one arm and leg in front of the offensive center to prevent a successful entry pass from a guard or forward. This stationary “fighting” for position occurs close to the basket but can occur anywhere on the court. In addition, it is true that forwards spend most of their time walking. However, the purpose of the walk is to get into proper position to enable a quick movement toward the guard with the ball, which then allows them to receive an unobstructed pass. Fitness Testing for Basketball Skills tests are critical for basketball players but beyond the scope of this course. The personal trainer helps prepare the athlete for the physical aspects of the game, whereas the coach is responsible for developing skills and performance fundamentals (among other things). Detailed activity analysis of basketball in skilled players shows the importance of lateral movement—fast and slow shuffling. The personal trainer must help athletes develop this type of fitness. Shuffling is not the same as sprinting straight ahead; specific workout drills must become a routine part of the training program. Figure 8.3-2 Percent of time during a basketball game devoted to different intensity activities. Live time refers to periods when the clock is running. Source: McInnes, et al. 1996. Fitness Testing for Basketball: NBA Combine Test Like the NFL, the NBA has a similar combine test (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=PjymRymL2us). College and high school teams commonly administer modifications of the test. Although the tests are poorly correlated with basketball performance, coaches may use the results as a screening tool, so it is important that athletes perform well on them. The combine also tests spot-up shooting (uncontested spot-up jump shots from a variety of distances), on-the-move shooting (uncontested jump shots from 15–18 feet while on the move), and off-the-dribble shooting International Sports Sciences Association 400 | Unit 8.3 (uncontested jump shots from 15-18 feet off the dribble). Results of recent NBA Combines are found at the following link: (http://www. topendsports.com/sport/basketball/testingdraft-results-2015.htm). Fitness Component Test Strength • 185-pound bench press for reps Power • Vertical Jump • Running vertical jump Speed Agility • Three-fourth court sprint • Lane agility test • Reactive shuttle test Body size • Height • Weight • Wingspan • Body composition Description of the Tests: The 185-pound bench press: The test measures maximum repetitions using 185 pounds on a standard Olympic barbell. Warm-up includes 10 push-ups, 60 seconds rest, five reps at 135 pounds, 90 seconds rest, and then bench pressing as many reps as possible with 185 pounds. A complete successful lift is counted from the starting position of the arms fully extended with the weight directly above the chest, to the weight just touching the chest, and then returned to the starting position. The athlete is not allowed to bounce the bar from the chest. The test ends when the athlete is unable to complete a repetition. Vertical jump: This test measures the athlete’s maximum jump height from a standing position in three attempts. (https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=Olfumu-uK2s) The test Strength and Conditioning can be administered using a Vertec, vertical jump mat (measures time of the jump), or wall. Measure the standing height of the athlete with arm fully extended upward. The vertical jump is the difference between standing height and the jumping height. For the Vertec, the vertical jump is the highest vane reached. For the wall method, the athlete holds a piece of chalk, which is used to measure standing height and vertical jump distance. Running vertical jump (Max Touch or Max Vert): This tests measures the maximum height jumped in three trials and does not consider standing height. Set a variety of markers 15 feet from the Vertec (to allow different approach positions). The athlete starts 15 feet from the Vetec, runs, and then jumps as high as possible using either one or two feet. The running vertical jump is the highest vane reached. Three-fourth Court Sprint: This test measures maximum sprint speed for 75 feet or 22.86 meters, which is three-fourths the length of a basketball court. After a warm-up, the athlete begins with a two-point stance behind the starting line. If hand timed, the test begins with the first movement. Accuracy is better using timing gates. The score is the better of two trials. Lane Agility Test: Set up cones as shown in the figure: at the middle and both ends of the foul line and at corresponding points on the baseline. Begin with a two-point stance on the end of foul line, sprint to the baseline, side shuffle along to the baseline to the cone, backpedal to the foul line, side shuffle to the start line and touch the floor, change direction and side shuffle to the opposite cone on the foul line, sprint Designing Training Programs for Basketball | 401 to baseline, side shuffle to the opposite cone, and then backpedal to the starting position. bicycle ergometer at a preset resistance based on body mass). Reactive Shuttle Run: A starting mark is placed on the center of the free-throw line and cones placed at either ends of the key. The player straddles the middle line, runs to one side, and places his or her foot on or over the sideline of the key. The player then runs 16 yards back to the opposite line and then turns and sprints back to the start line. The power quadrathlon—described in Unit 7.1, serves as an excellent test to assess power in basketball players. The test measures jumping power, straight-ahead sprint speed, and total body extension strength. The test does not measure shuffling speed, so create such a test to measure this capacity. Strength Strength is the basis of power, so tests should include 1-RM bench press, overhead press, squat, power clean, snatch, or deadlift. If you are concerned about injury, have the player perform rep tests at lower weights. For example, modify the NFL bench press test by determining the number of reps an athlete could do with 95 or 135 lb on the bar; women should use 45 or 65 lb. Basketball players are tall, so they are often more susceptible to back injuries when deadlifting or performing pulling exercises. They might benefit from deadlifting with a trap bar or performing cleans and snatches from a hang. Pull-ups are an excellent predictor of strength-endurance that transfers to sports activities. If your athletes cannot perform a pullup, have them perform the bent arm hang test. Explosive Power The vertical jump is the obvious choice for a task-specific test applicable to basketball. Also, include standing long jump, standing triple jump, and Wingate test (all-out test on a Endurance Basketball players perform at a high percentage of maximal oxygen consumption during most of the game, which illustrates the aerobic requirement of the sport. Players often perform at high intensities for up to 10 seconds during each minute of play. Endurance testing should predict maximal oxygen consumption and the endurance required for short-term intense exercise. Measure endurance capacity with the 1.5-mile run or the Cooper 12-minute run. Measure capacity for high-intensity exercise with sprinting 150- to 400-meter runs or 300-yard shuttle run. Lateral movement The 20-yard shuttle run is well established for testing lateral movements in basketball. Personal trainers also should develop more specific shuffling tests—10-meter side-to-side shuffle test—to predict fitness, endurance, and power for this critically important test. For example, the test might measure the capacity to do four 10-meter (or yard) shuffles—first to the left and then to the right and vice versa. Many high schools and colleges do modifications of the NBA combine tests, so it is a good idea to practice the lane agility test and the reactive shuttle run. International Sports Sciences Association 402 | Unit 8.3 Flexibility Strange as it may seem, scientists have not yet established the relationship between flexibility and injury rate or flexibility’s relationship to basketball performance. This means that athletes with superior (or poor) flexibility are no more or less prone to injury. It also means that superior (or poor) flexibility cannot predict athletic performance in basketball. It is just as likely that a high-performance basketball player with outstanding shooting and dribbling skills could have subpar flexibility! Even good back flexibility may be unrelated to aspects of shoulder or hip flexibility. Flexibility is highly specific, and many types of “flexibilities” exist. Therefore, testing this fitness characteristic remains at the discretion of the personal trainer. Athletes can still perform the basic sit-andreach test. Nevertheless, no study has demonstrated that performance on this test relates to back pain or basketball performance. Flexibility testing is not a prime requirement, and this aspect should dovetail with your experience and basic testing philosophy. Test Evaluation Surprisingly, few established norms or testing procedures exist for basketball. Fitness tests are well entrenched in football at the high school, college, and professional levels. Fitness is a crucial element in performance in basketball. Test regularly—particularly in the off-season and early season. Tests inform whether the athlete is making appropriate progress in the training program. Compare one test score with another. Eventually, develop your own norms and establish which tests best predict excellence on the court. Strength and Conditioning Physical Conditioning for Basketball Basketball is a high-skill sport. Never substitute conditioning—weight training, sprinting, and plyometrics—for skill development. In fact, whenever possible, be sure to incorporate skill and fitness development in the same program and workout exercises. As with all sports, great athletes perfect their skills and conditioning prowess in the off-season. Athletes cannot expect to reach high levels of performance by relying on the training done during the competitive season. Athletes must train all year for their sport. In fact, the best athletes have carefully planned training schedules that span their entire competitive careers. Parts of the Season The five periods of the basketball season are similar for players at all levels: 1. Competitive season 2. Tournaments and playoffs 3. Postseason 4. Off-season 5. Preseason The personal trainer will work with athletes primarily during the postseason to preseason periods. Therefore, the following discussion deals chiefly with these time intervals. Importance of Strength Raw strength—measured by the ability to bench press, squat, or deadlift for one repetition— highly relates to power output in sprinting and Designing Training Programs for Basketball | 403 jumping movements. Remember, short-term changes in weight-lifting strength do not transfer immediately to increased power while playing basketball. Build strength systematically and regularly throughout the basketball career. Athletes should lift weights continually during their basketball careers. During the off-season, they should use load cycles to build base strength (refer to Unit 6.1). During the early and competitive season, change emphasis to less volume and higher intensities. This increases peak strength and allows more time and energy for playing basketball. As the competitive season nears, put greater emphasis on plyometrics and low-volume, high-intensity weight training. This transfers best to increased power on the court. Build strength through large muscle presses, pulls, and squats. Presses include bench press, incline press, jerks, and military press. Pulls include cleans, snatches, and high pulls. Squats include squats, step-ups, leg presses, and lunges. In most cases, avoid exercises, such as knee extensions, that isolate muscle groups. Such targeted body part exercises are appropriate for bodybuilders and for rehabilitation but less beneficial to power athletes. Develop strong core muscles using the core stiffening exercises described in Unit 5.2. Exercises for basketball players should activate large muscle groups as units. Table 8.3-1 shows an example of an off-season basketball program. Speed and Power for Basketball Speed and power while shuffling are more important than straight-ahead sprint speed is. Include drills and exercises that build fitness for this critical skill. Include 10- to 20-meter shuttle runs, shuffle drills, and plyometrics that build lateral power such as ice-skaters and the skier exercise. Jumping and leaping represent vital skills, so include plyometrics that build jumping and leaping power with stationary or box jumps, bunny hops, and hurdle or cone jumps. Do not neglect straight-ahead speed. Work on sprint speed through sprinting and speed drills—high-knee fast arms, stadium stair running, hill running, harness running, and pushing and pulling sleds. Incorporate basketball skills into speed preparation by adapting specific basketball drills that include sideline touch and jump shots. This drill occurs as follows: The player shoots a jump shot from the right side of the free throw line, sprints to the left sideline, sprints to the left side of the free-throw line and shoots another jump shot, and then sprints to the right sideline, returning to the right part of the free-throw line to shoot a third jump shot. Continue this sequence until the athlete makes a predetermined number of shots (15 shots, for example). The number of skill drills is limited only by your imagination. Mix and match drills to hold the athlete’s interest. Always track and evaluate athletes’ progress. Athletes love feedback, especially as it relates to their own progress and development. Off-Season Conditioning Emphasize skill through basic fitness development. In weight training, build strength using periodized load cycles—two-week micro-cycles that emphasize high-volume, moderate intensity lifts. Build good endurance fitness through playing basketball, running, and sprinting. Do plyometrics, but do not overdo these exercises during this time of year. International Sports Sciences Association 404 | Unit 8.3 Table 8.3-1: Sample Off-Season Program for Basketball, Monday through Saturday Day Activity Intensity Activity Intensity Monday Basketball Drills, practice games Basketball Drills, practice games Weight training Weight training: Presses: 5 sets x 5 reps Heavy Squats: 5 sets x 8 reps Light Pulls: 5 sets x 5 sets Moderate Presses: 5 sets x 5 reps Moderate Other lifts Thursday Friday Week One Wednesday Basketball Drills, practice games, conditioning Basketball Drills, practice games, conditioning Plyometrics and speed drills (select 5 exercises) Low-moderate volume, high intensity Plyometrics and speed drills (select 5 exercises) Low-moderate volume, high intensity Jogging and easy intervals 2-3 miles, moderate Jogging and easy intervals 2-3 miles, moderate Basketball Drills, practice games Basketball Drills, practice games Weight Training Weight training: Squats: 5 sets x 8 reps Pulls: 5 sets x 2 reps Pulls: 5 sets x 3 reps Heavy Other lifts Light Basketball Drills, practice games, conditioning Plyometrics and speed drills (select 5 exercises) Week Two Tuesday Other lifts Heavy Other lifts Basketball Drills, practice games, conditioning Low-moderate volume, high intensity Plyometrics and speed drills (select 5 exercises) Low-moderate volume, high intensity Jogging and easy intervals 2-3 miles, moderate Jogging and easy intervals 2-3 miles, moderate Basketball Drills, practice games Basketball Drills, practice games, Weight training: Weight training: Presses: 3 sets x 10 reps Light Squats: 5 sets x 8 reps Moderate Pulls: 5 sets x 5 reps Moderate Presses: 3 sets x 10 reps Light Other lifts Other lifts Saturday Rest or recreational activities Rest or recreational activities Sunday Rest or recreational activities Rest or recreational activities The core weight training exercises are presses (e.g., bench press, incline press, military press), pulls (e.g., power clean, squat clean, power snatch, split snatch, high pull), and squats (e.g., squats, step-ups, lunges, leg press, ram rack). Other lifts include rotator cuff exercises, crunches, pull-ups, biceps curls, leg curls, etc. After the first two weeks, add more weight on heavy and moderate days. Interval training might include striding the straights and walking the turns on a 400-m track or running repeat 200 to 400 meter strides on a track. Basketball may include informal pick-up games or structured practices aimed at developing skills. Table 8.3-2 presents an example of a two-week micro-cycle. Repeat these cycles during the entire off-season period, progressively increasing Strength and Conditioning the intensity of each two-week cycle. To prevent overtraining, athletes must rest for one full week periodically during the off-season. Designing Training Programs for Basketball | 405 Table 8.3-2: Sample Pre-Season Program for Basketball, Monday through Saturday Day Activity Intensity Activity Intensity Monday Basketball Practice: coach Basketball Practice: coach Weight training: Weight training: Presses: 5 sets x 2 reps Heavy Squats: 3 sets x 8 reps Light Pulls: 5 sets x 3 reps Moderate Presses: 5 sets x 3 reps Moderate Other lifts Tuesday Wednesday Other lifts Basketball Practice: coach Basketball Practice: coach Plyometrics and speed drills (select 8 exercises) Moderate volume, high intensity Plyometrics and speed drills (select 8 exercises) Moderate volume, high intensity Intervals Intense Intervals Intense Basketball Practice: coach Basketball Practice: coach Friday Weight training: Squats: 5 sets x 2-3 reps Heavy Pulls: 5 sets x 3 reps Light Week Two Thursday Week One Weight Training Other lifts Basketball Practice: coach Plyometrics and speed drills (select 8 exercises) Pulls: 5 sets x 2 reps Heavy Other lifts Basketball Practice: coach Moderate volume, high intensity Plyometrics and speed drills (select 8 exercises) Low-moderate volume, high intensity Intervals Intense Intervals Intense Basketball Practice: coach Basketball Practice: coach Weight training: Weight training: Presses: 4 sets x 5 reps Light Squats: 5 sets x 3 reps Moderate Pulls: 5 sets x 3 reps Moderate Presses: 4 sets x 5 reps Moderate Other lifts Other lifts Saturday Rest, recreational activities, or practice with coach Rest, recreational activities, or practice with coach Sunday Rest, recreational activities, or practice with coach Rest, recreational activities, or practice with coach Again, the core weight training exercises are presses (e.g., bench press, incline press, military press), pulls (e.g., power clean, squat clean, power snatch, split snatch, high pull), and squats (e.g., squats, step-ups, lunges, leg press, ram rack). On heavy days, stress maximum lifts doing 1 to 3 reps per set. As during the off-season, other lifts include rotator cuff exercises, crunches, pull-ups, biceps curls, leg curls, etc. After the first two weeks, add more weight on heavy and moderate days. Continue doing plyometrics and speed exercises. Cut down on jogging and pick up the pace when running. Stress intervals (including gym drills) over long-slow jogs. Preseason Conditioning During this period, athletes should prosper from a vigorous and consistent base-fitness conditioning period. Athletes should not need to develop any more base fitness—if they have prepared properly. The goal of this period is to increase peak fitness that will carry over and build during the competitive season. Emphasize low-volume, high-intensity weight-lifting exercises (as always, emphasizing presses, pulls, and squats.) Instead of performing sets of five or six International Sports Sciences Association 406 | Unit 8.3 repetitions, the athletes should switch to sets of one to three repetitions per set. Athletes should perform all lifts explosively with perfect form. Plyometrics, speed exercises, and endurance training follow a similar philosophy—emphasize quality over quantity. Develop and maintain endurance and speed through intense intervals and baseline-to-baseline drills. It is more advantageous to perform fewer repetitions at high speed than more repetitions at submaximal effort. The cardinal principle during the peak cycle is to avoid the temptation to accomplish excessive volume. Instead, stress quality over quantity. Avoid the temptation of excessive load and conditioning work during this period. Some is OK, but too much prevents the athlete from achieving high levels of power, explosiveness, and skill. The major goal during this critical period is to enhance peak fitness and maintain base fitness, power, and explosiveness. In-Season The personal trainer does not dictate the in-season training program—the coach does. The primary goal of in-season conditioning is to maintain or even improve basketball fitness. The important concept to remember is that basketball players should strive to improve at basketball. It is desirable for players to improve performance in the snatch, bench press, and vertical jump tests. If the athlete does not also improve in basketball, the enhanced weight-lifting performance accounts for little more than enhanced weight-lifting performance. The basic principle is to train for the sport and maintain fitness developed during the off-season. Basketball, like any sport, is highly specific, so practice improves court play and fitness. Athletes must continue to practice weight training, plyometrics, and speed exercises throughout the season. Stress intensity over volume. If athletes perform just a few of the exercises at maximum intensity, they will maintain base fitness and improve peak fitness. Summary Basketball, a high-skill sport, demands strength, power, speed, agility, and endurance. Elite basketball players spend 75% of playing time with a heart rate that exceeds 85% of maximum, so basketball requires high levels of endurance. Players should be capable of repeated sprints and have the agility to change directions rapidly without losing momentum and the endurance for sustained play. Skill remains the hallmark of any serious basketball player. Athletes should never substitute Strength and Conditioning aerobic conditioning, weight training, or plyometrics for basic skill development. The personal trainer should administer physical fitness tests regularly. The tests should measure strength, power, agility, speed, and endurance. As is true in all sports, great athletes develop their skills and athletic prowess during the off-season. Develop base fitness during the off-season and concentrate on peak fitness during the weeks before the season begins. Continue to emphasize the development of basketball skills all year long. UNIT 8.4 Baseball and Softball 408 | Unit 8.4 Unit Outline 1. Baseball and Softball Skills f. a. g. Flexibility Hitting h. Test Evaluations b. Throwing c. Running and Catching 3. Physical Conditioning for Baseball a. 2. Fitness Testing for Baseball a. c. e. Endurance Off-Season Conditioning d. Preseason Conditioning Strength d. Explosive Power Importance of Strength b. Speed and Power for Baseball and Softball Positions, Physical Characteristics, and Body Composition b. Speed c. Lateral Movements e. In-Season Conditioning 4. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • • • Understand that baseball is a high skill sport and that skill development always takes precedence of physical conditioning. Understand that baseball skills such as hitting and throwing involve summating forces from one joint to the next. These are extremely technical skills that require careful coaching and thousands of practice hours. Understand that developing core stiffness is important for performance and avoiding injury. Baseball remains the national pastime and can be financially lucrative for players at the highest levels. In 2016, the minimum salary for a big league ball player was $507,500, with the average salary being about $4 million! More important than big money, the game’s aura draws millions of kids to baseball. Softball is a popular sport in its own right. Millions of adult men Strength and Conditioning • Understand that baseball is a competition-intense sport, so building strength and power during the off season is essential. • Understand that baseball players can train during the season, but not so much that it interferes with their skills on the playing field. • Understand that baseball is an explosive sport, so plyometrics and speed exercises are particularly important for these athletes. • Understand that baseball requires speed, agility, and power. The training program should reflect these physical demands. and women play the sport competitively. In fact, it is the most popular competitive sport for post high school adults. Softball is also among the most popular competitive sports for schoolage women. The Amateur Softball Association (www.asasoftball.com) registers about 230,000 teams consisting of about three million players (including 83,000 youth girls’ fast-pitch teams Baseball and Softball | 409 with 1.2 million participants). These sports are fertile grounds for the personal trainer. This unit of the course will not teach you how to make athletes more skillful baseball and softball players. Rather, it will teach techniques to make players stronger, faster, and more powerful. If they have the skills, improved fitness will make these players better and reduce injury risk. Baseball and softball skills are extremely complex neuromuscular tasks that require spatial awareness, precise timing and coordination, and carefully synchronized dynamic muscle actions. The high-skilled player generates tremendous power. Hitting and throwing motions occur so rapidly, it becomes difficult to appreciate the complexity of the movements with the naked eye. High-speed video and measurement of electrical activity in muscles allow researchers to identify muscles and their proper sequences required involved in baseball skills. This is important because it helps develop better training techniques that prevent injury and improve performance. Baseball and Softball Skills Tim Robbins’ character in the movie Bull Durham summed up the skills required in baseball when he said, “Baseball is a very simple game—you throw the ball, you catch the ball, you hit the ball; sometimes you win, sometimes you lose, and sometimes it rains.” The personal trainer should understand the mechanics of baseball and softball skills and techniques to develop strength, power, and speed in the muscles. Hitting Hitting a baseball or softball is much like throwing a discus or hitting a golf ball. The smooth, powerful swing of the best hitters in baseball is the product of rotational velocity and torque. Creating more rotational velocity allows the player to generate greater bat speed much earlier in the swing. Some coaches think of hitting as a linear movement. They emphasize concepts such as forward weight transfer during the swing, extension of the hands, and snapping the hips on contact. Although these practices sometimes help the player generate rotational velocity, they misrepresent the nature of the swing and can decrease a player’s effectiveness. For example, a right-handed major league player almost immediately begins to explosively inwardly rotate the right hip milliseconds before the arms fully engage. If the hips “slide” during this phase, even slightly before the rotation, the swing cannot proceed with the requisite power. In fact, the immediate explosive inward hip rotation is a required skill component that distinguishes a player who makes the pros from one who does not! Next time you watch a baseball game, focus on the right hip (for the righthander and the left hip of the left-hander) and see how explosively the hip begins to immediately rotate inward as a first movement during the swing. It is difficult to teach this movement during the swing, and those who “have it” typically perform at a higher level than do those who struggle with perfecting this movement. Developing physical fitness for hitting involves improving rotational velocity during the swing. This involves developing core strength and stiffness and power in the legs and trunk, including International Sports Sciences Association 410 | Unit 8.4 strong shoulders and arms to complete the rotation. Develop strong core muscles using the core stiffening exercises described in Unit 5.2. Throwing Throwing places extreme stresses on the throwing arm and shoulder, even though the entire body is involved in the pitch. When throwing, the body can be viewed as a series of links, so that in a right-handed player, the links extend from the left foot, the knees, the hips, across the trunk, and to the right hand. The thrower links segments to generate tremendous propulsive force at the throwing hand. As discussed in Unit 5.1, when a ball is pitched or thrown, a sequential link must be created between joints that scientists call the kinetic chain. Every joint movement depends on other joints in the body to stabilize or assist in the throwing movements. The key to these linked movements is the core (midsection)—the abdominal muscles, deep side stabilizing muscles, and spinal extensor muscles. Build these core muscles, and you will develop a strong, stiff midsection that contributes to whole-body power and throwing velocity and accuracy. Throwing requires a delicate balance between the shoulder joint’s mobility and stability. Shoulder joint mobility is critical in throwing—particularly external shoulder rotation. The large muscles around the shoulder and smaller rotator cuff muscles restrain and protect the shoulder joint during the throwing motion. Baseball and softball players often sustain chronic or permanent shoulder injuries because of the high forces generated in the upper body with the repetitive nature of throwing. Throwing moves the Strength and Conditioning shoulder joint through a large range of motion that places increased demands on static and dynamic restraints. Selective muscle weakness, or a lack of timing and coordination, often causes overuse injuries or even acute trauma. Running and Catching Running techniques were described in Unit 6.10 and included a description for maximizing speed during base running. The principles are the same for any type of running—push forcibly against the ground by developing maximum hip extension. Driving the arms facilitates good extension and force development during sprinting. Running on the balls of the feet—using the cut-foot technique—helps generate more power in running. Catching, a highly specific skill, is best developed through proper practice and a great deal of it. Improving fitness—speed, power, and agility—help athletes get to the ball faster to enhance their skills. Obviously, even the most skilled player cannot catch the ball if he or she is too slow to reach it. Fitness Testing for Baseball Skills tests are critical for baseball and softball players but beyond this course’s scope. The personal trainer helps prepare the athlete for the physical aspects of the game, and the coach is responsible for enhancing skills and performance fundamentals. Detailed activity analysis of baseball in skilled players shows the importance of rotational Baseball and Softball | 411 movements and shoulder strength and stability. The personal trainer must help athletes develop this type of fitness. Positions, Physical Characteristics, and Body Composition Baseball and softball players vary in height, weight, lean body weight, and body structure. Pitchers are taller than infielders are, and pitchers have a more linear and less muscular build than outfielders do. Among infielders, first basemen tend to be taller than second basemen and third basemen, whereas shortstops tend to be taller than second basemen. First basemen and catchers are typically heavier than second basemen. Second basemen tend to have less lean body mass than other infield groups do. In terms of performance, the ideal body composition favors those with a high lean-to-fat ratio. Measure body composition of players using techniques described in Unit 7.2. Speed Straight ahead speed is critical in baseball and softball. Test it with the sprints: 60-yard dash, 40-yard dash, 10-yard dash, and 20-yard dash. Top division I prospects are expected to run the 60-yard dash in 6.5 to 6.8 seconds. Other tests of baseball speed include home to first, home to second, and first to third. Strength Strength is the basis of power, so tests should include 1-RM bench press, squat, leg press, or deadlift. If there is a concern about injury, have players perform rep tests at lower weights. For example, modify the NFL bench press test by determining the number of reps an athlete could do with 95 or 135 pounds on the bar; women should use 45 or 65 pounds. Many coaches avoid testing baseball and softball players in the overhead military press, bench press, and incline press. Although overhead lifts should not be discouraged in baseball players, do them with extreme caution (and always with supervision) to guard against injury to the rotator cuff muscles. Pull-ups are an excellent predictor of strength-endurance that transfers to sports activities. If you work an athlete who cannot perform a pull-up, substitute the bent-arm hang test. Test core fitness with the static tests described in Unit 7.1. Core stiffness is vital for baseball and softball players because it strengthens muscles, improves muscular endurance, reduces low back pain, and helps boost sports performance. Greater core stiffness transfers strength and speed to the limbs when throwing, hitting, catching, and sprinting; it also increases the load bearing capacity of the spine and protects the internal organs during jarring sports movements. Explosive Power The vertical jump is the obvious choice for a task applicable to baseball and softball. In addition, include the standing long jump, standing triple jump, and Wingate test. The power quadrathlon—described in Unit 7.1, serves as an excellent test to assess power in baseball and softball players. It measures International Sports Sciences Association 412 | Unit 8.4 jumping power, straight-ahead sprint speed, and total-body extension strength. The test does not measure shuffling speed, so you should devise tests to measure this capacity. Endurance Baseball and softball players work at a low percentage of maximal oxygen consumption during most of the game, which illustrates the anaerobic nature of the game. Players must also work at very high intensities for several seconds during specific plays. Endurance testing should predict maximal oxygen consumption and power and endurance required for brief intense exercise. Many coaches and personal trainers measure endurance capacity with the 1.5-mile run or Cooper 12-minute run. Although general endurance is important for anyone, it does not reflect the fitness required to play the game. These tests are good for measuring endurance fitness during the off-season. As the season nears, you should measure capacity for high-intensity exercise with 100- to 400-meter runs (sprints) or a 300-yard shuttle run. Another good but simple measure is the time it takes to run around the bases once and on another test twice! You also can time the players running once as fast as possible around the bases, have them rest at home plate for 30 seconds, and then have them run all out again. Compute the difference between the two runs; a player with a lower score is in “better” condition than a player who has a larger score difference is. Create your own norms; players will then know that this type of “endurance” is important and will structure their conditioning to include allout repeat speed intervals. Strength and Conditioning Lateral Movements The first movement in base running is lateral. The 20-yard shuttle run tests lateral movements in baseball. Timing base running during a game is a practical way to assess applied base running speed. Flexibility Scientists have not yet established the relationship between flexibility and injury rate or its relationship to baseball or softball performance. This means that athletes with superior (or poor) flexibility are no more or less prone to injury. It also means that superior (or poor) flexibility cannot predict athletic performance in baseball or softball. It is just as likely that a high-performance player with outstanding hitting and throwing skills can have subpar flexibility! Even good back flexibility may be unrelated to aspects of shoulder or hip flexibility. Flexibility is highly specific, and many types of “flexibilities” exist. Therefore, testing this particular fitness characteristic remains at the personal trainer’s discretion. Athletes can still perform the basic sit-and-reach test. Nevertheless, no study has demonstrated that performance on this test relates to back pain or baseball or softball performance. Flexibility testing is not a prime requirement, and this aspect should dovetail with your experience and basic testing philosophy. Test Evaluations Surprisingly, there are few established norms or testing procedures for baseball and softball. Table 8.4-1 shows performance norms for young male baseball players. Fitness is a principal element in baseball performance. Test regularly, Baseball and Softball | 413 Table 8.4-1: Youth Baseball Norms; Higher Performance Research Study Age 9 Age 10 Age 11 International Sports Sciences Association 414 | Unit 8.4 Table 8.4-1: Youth Baseball Norms; Higher Performance Research Study, continued Age 12 Age 13 Strength and Conditioning Baseball and Softball | 415 Table 8.4-1: Youth Baseball Norms; Higher Performance Research Study, continued Age 14 Age 15 416 | Unit 8.4 Table 8.4-1: Youth Baseball Norms; Higher Performance Research Study, continued Age 16 Age 17 Strength and Conditioning Baseball and Softball | 417 Table 8.4-1: Youth Baseball Norms; Higher Performance Research Study, continued Age 18 Developed by Dr. Frank Spaniol, Human Performance Lab, Georgia Southwestern State University. particularly in the off- and early seasons. Tests confirm whether the athlete is making progress in the training program. Compare one test score with another. Develop your own norms and establish which tests best predict excellence on field performance. Physical Conditioning for Baseball Baseball is a high-skill sport. Never substitute conditioning—weight training, sprinting, and plyometrics—for skill development. In fact, whenever possible, incorporate skill and fitness development in the same program and exercises. As is true with all sports, great athletes develop their skills and athletic prowess during the off-season. One cannot expect to achieve high levels of performance by relying on the training obtained during the competitive season. Athletes must train all year long for their sport. In fact, the best athletes have a carefully planned training schedule that spans their entire competitive careers. The five periods of the baseball and softball season are similar for players at all levels: 1. Competitive season 2. Tournaments and playoffs 3. Postseason 4. Off-season 5. Preseason International Sports Sciences Association 418 | Unit 8.4 The personal trainer will work with athletes primarily during the postseason to preseason periods. Therefore, the following discussion deals mainly with these time intervals. Importance of Strength Raw strength measured by the bench press, squat, clean, snatch, press, or deadlift for one repetition relates highly to power output in sprinting, hitting, and throwing velocity. Short-term changes in weight-lifting strength do not transfer immediately to increased power playing baseball or softball. Build strength systematically and continuously throughout the athlete’s career. Always emphasize specific baseball and softball power over strength. Athletes should lift weights continually during their athletic careers. During the off-season, athletes should use load cycles to build base strength (refer to Unit 6.1). During the early and competitive season, change the emphasis to less volume and higher intensities. This will increase peak strength and allow more time and energy for playing the sport. As the competitive season nears, place greater emphasis on plyometrics and on low-volume, high-intensity weight training. This transfers best to increased power on the field. Exercises that build the core are critical for baseball players. Twenty-nine muscles attach to the core, so a stable midsection is vital to all motions and postures. Core muscles stabilize the spine and help transfer force between the lower and upper body when throwing or hitting. When an athlete hits or throws a ball, most of the force transfers from the legs, across the core, to the arms. Strong core muscles make Strength and Conditioning movements more forceful to allow athletes to throw hard, fast, and accurately and to smash the ball with inherent power. Strong core muscles preserve a healthy spine to reduce chances of back pain. Tables 8.4-2 and 8.4-3 show sample offseason and preseason baseball or softball programs. Build strength through large muscle presses, pulls, and squats. Presses include bench press, incline press, jerks, and military press. Pulls include cleans, snatches, and high pulls. Squats include squats (back, front, overhead), step-ups, leg presses, and lunges. Except for shoulder rotator cuff exercises, consider avoiding exercises that isolate muscle groups except when rehabilitating injuries. These sport-specific exercises are more appropriate for bodybuilders but less beneficial to power athletes. Baseball and softball players should do exercises that activate large muscle groups as units. Baseball and softball players have a high incidence of arm injuries, so these players should emphasize exercises for the rotator cuff—even if they do not have arm problems. Speed and Power for Baseball and Softball Leg and trunk power are crucial in baseball players. Develop sprint speed and ability to transfer weight from the back leg to the front by performing weight-training exercises and plyometrics. Good exercises include back squats, overhead squats, lunges, lunge exercises (lunge + curl; lunge + overhead press), step-ups, core stiffening exercises along with medicine ball throws such as side toss, chop throws, and keg tosses. Jumping plyometrics that produce forward propulsion are best for baseball. Examples Baseball and Softball | 419 Table 8.4-1: Sample Off-Season Program for Baseball or Softball, Monday through Saturday Day Activity Intensity Activity Intensity Monday Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games Weight training: Thursday Friday Week One Wednesday Heavy Squats: 5 sets X 8 reps Pulls: 5 sets X 5 reps Moderate Presses: 5 sets X 5 reps Light Rotator cuff exercises Rotator cuff exercises Moderate Trunk exercises Trunk exercises Other lifts Other lifts Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games, conditioning Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games, conditioning Plyometrics and speed drills (choose 5 exercises) Low-moderate volume, high intensity Plyometrics and speed drills (choose 5 exercises)) Low-moderate volume, high intensity Jogging and easy intervals 2-3 miles, moderate Jogging and easy intervals 2-3 miles, moderate Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games Weight Training Weight training: Squats: 5 sets X 8 reps Pulls: 5 sets X 2 reps Pulls: 5 sets X 3 reps Heavy Rotator cuff exercises Rotator cuff exercises Light Trunk exercises Trunk exercises Other lifts Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games, conditioning Plyometrics and speed drills (choose 5 exercises) Week Two Tuesday Weight training: Presses: 5 sets X 5 reps Heavy Other lifts Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games, conditioning Low-moderate volume, high intensity Plyometrics and speed drills (choose 5 exercises) Low-moderate volume, high intensity Jogging and easy intervals 2-3 miles, moderate Jogging and easy intervals 2-3 miles, moderate Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games Baseball or Softball Drills, practice games Weight training: Weight training: Presses: 3 sets X 10 reps Squats: 5 sets X 8 reps Pulls: 5 sets X 5 reps Light Presses: 3 sets X 10 reps Moderate Rotator cuff exercises Moderate Rotator cuff exercises Light Trunk exercises Trunk exercises Other lifts Other lifts Saturday Rest or recreational activities Rest or recreational activities Sunday Rest or recreational activities Rest or recreational activities The core weight training exercises include presses (e.g., bench press, incline press, military press), pulls (e.g., power clean, squat clean, power snatch, split snatch, high pull), and squats (e.g., squats, step-ups, lunges, leg press, ram rack). Athletes— particularly pitchers with rotator cuff problems should avoid overhead lifts such as the military press and jerk. Other lifts include rotator cuff exercises, crunches, pull-ups, biceps curls, leg curls, etc. After the first two weeks, add more weight on heavy and moderate days. Interval training might include striding the straights and walking the turns on a 400-m track or running repeat 200 to 400 meter strides on a track. Baseball may include informal pick-up games or structured practices aimed at developing skills. International Sports Sciences Association 420 | Unit 8.4 Table 8.4-1: Sample Preseason Program for Baseball or Softball, Monday through Saturday Day Activity Intensity Activity Intensity Monday Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Thursday Friday Week One Wednesday Weight training: Presses: 5 sets X 2 reps Squats: 3 sets X 8 reps Pulls: 5 sets X 3 reps Heavy Presses: 5 sets X 3 reps Light Rotator cuff exercises Moderate Rotator cuff exercises Moderate Trunk exercises Trunk exercises Other lifts Other lifts Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Plyometrics and speed drills (Select 8 exercises) Moderate volume, high intensity Plyometrics and speed drills (Select 8 exercises) Moderate volume, high intensity Intervals Intense Intervals Intense Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Weight Training Weight training: Squats: 5 sets X 2-3 reps Pulls: 5 sets X 2 reps Pulls: 5 sets X 3 reps Heavy Rotator cuff exercises Rotator cuff exercises Light Trunk exercises Trunk exercises Other lifts Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Plyometrics and speed drills (Choose 8 exercises) Week Two Tuesday Weight training: Heavy Other lifts Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Moderate volume, high intensity Plyometrics and speed drills (Select 8 exercises) Low-moderate volume, high intensity Intervals Intense Intervals Intense Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Baseball or Softball Practice: coach Weight training: Weight training: Presses: 4 sets X 5 reps Squats: 5 sets X 3 reps Pulls: 5 sets X 3 reps Light Presses: 4 sets X 5 reps Moderate Rotator cuff exercises Moderate Rotator cuff exercises Moderate Trunk exercises Trunk exercises Other lifts Other lifts Saturday Rest, recreational activities, or practice with coach Rest, recreational activities, or practice with coach Sunday Rest, recreational activities, or practice with coach Rest, recreational activities, or practice with coach Again, the core weight training exercises include presses (e.g., bench press, incline press, and military press), pulls (e.g., power clean, squat clean, power snatch, split snatch, high pull), and squats (e.g., squats, step-ups, lunges, leg press, ram rack). Athletes—particularly pitchers—with rotator cuff problems should avoid overhead lifts such as the military press and jerk. On heavy days, stress maximum lifts doing 1 to 3 reps per set. As during the off-season, other lifts include rotator cuff exercises, crunches, pull-ups, biceps curls, and leg curls. After the first two weeks, add more weight on heavy and moderate days. Continue doing plyometrics and speed exercises. Reduce jogging and increase the pace when running. Stress intervals (including gym drills) over long-slow jogs. Strength and Conditioning Baseball and Softball | 421 include standing triple jump; bunny hops; high-knees, fast-arms; bounding; and harness exercises. Jumping is also a critical skill, so include plyometrics that build jumping power—stationary jumps, box jumps, bunny hops, and cone jumps. Do not neglect straight-ahead speed. Work on sprint speed through sprinting and stadium stair running and hill running as speed drills. Finally, work on upper body power through medicine ball throws, pull-ups, and static core exercises. Incorporate baseball and softball skills into speed preparation with sport-specific baseball drills that include the ball relay. This drill develops fitness and base running skills. It is a relay race around the bases with the ball replacing a baton. Start by separating the team into two groups: One group starts at second base and the other at home plate. Each player runs the bases and passes the ball to the next player on the team. The team that finishes first wins. Baseball and softball have well-known drills that develop athletic skills and fitness simultaneously. Off-Season Conditioning Emphasize skill and basic fitness. In resistance training, build strength using periodized load cycles—two-week micro-cycles that emphasize high-volume, moderate-intensity lifts. Build good endurance fitness through playing baseball or softball, running, and sprinting. Include plyometrics, but do not overdo these exercises during this time of year. The following is an example of a two-week micro-cycle. Repeat these cycles during the entire off-season period—progressively increasing the intensity of each two-week cycle. To prevent overtraining, athletes should rest for one week periodically during the off-season. Preseason Conditioning Six to eight weeks before competition, athletes should be well prepared from a vigorous and consistent base-fitness conditioning period. During this critical period, athletes should not need to develop any more base fitness, providing they have prepared properly. The goal of this period is to increase peak fitness that carries over and builds during the competitive season. Athletes should emphasize low-volume, high-intensity weight-lifting exercises (as always, emphasizing presses, pulls, and squats). Rather than performing sets of five or six repetitions, only do sets of one to three repetitions for each set and do them explosively. Plyometrics, speed exercises, and endurance training follow a similar philosophy—emphasize quality over quantity. Develop and maintain endurance and speed through intense intervals and between base drills. Perform fewer repetitions at high speed rather than more repetitions at submaximal effort. The cardinal principle during the peak cycle is to avoid the temptation to undertake excessive volume training. Stress quality over quantity. In-Season Conditioning The personal trainer does not dictate the in-season training program—the coach does. However, the basic goal of the in-season conditioning program is to maintain or even improve fitness for baseball. The important point for trainers and coaches to remember is that baseball players should strive to become better skilled at baseball. International Sports Sciences Association 422 | Unit 8.4 It may seem desirable for players to improve performance in the snatch, bench press, and vertical jump test. But unless the athlete improves in baseball or softball skills, improvements in these aforementioned skills really mean little to subsequent on-field performance. The basic principle is to train for the sport and maintain the fitness developed during the off-season. Baseball and softball, like any sport, requires highly specific and precise, coordinated movements. The important concept is to play the sport, improving fitness through repetitive, purposeful practice. Athletes should continue to practice weight training, plyometrics, and speed exercises throughout the season. Stress intensity over volume. If athletes perform just a few of the exercises at maximum intensity, the athletes will maintain base fitness and may improve peak fitness. Summary Baseball is the national pastime and can be financially lucrative for players at the highest levels. Baseball and softball skills are extremely complex neuromuscular tasks that require spatial awareness, precise timing, and coordinated dynamic muscle actions. The personal trainer should understand the mechanics of baseball and softball skills along with techniques to develop strength, power, and speed in the muscles. Fitness and conditioning should maximize ability to hit, throw, catch, and run while minimizing injury risk. When throwing or pitching a ball or hitting, players must create a sequential link between joints that scientists call the kinetic chain. Every joint movement depends on other joints in the body to stabilize or assist in the throwing movements. The key to these linked movements is the core (midsection)—the abdominal muscles, deep side stabilizing muscles, and spinal extensor muscles. Build these core muscles to develop a strong, stiff midsection that contributes to whole-body power and throwing velocity and accuracy. Strength and Conditioning Strength coaches should assess a client’s fitness through strength, power, endurance, speed, agility, body composition, and flexibility testing. Baseball is a high-skill sport. Never substitute conditioning—weight training, sprinting, and plyometrics—for skill development. As with all sports, great athletes develop during the off-season. Raw strength measured by the bench press, squat, clean, snatch, press, or deadlift for one repetition relates highly to power output in sprinting, hitting, and throwing velocity. Short-term changes in weight-lifting strength do not transfer immediately to increased power. Athletes should lift weights continually during their athletic careers. During the off-season, they should incorporate load cycles to build base strength. During the early and competitive season, change the emphasis to less volume and higher intensities. When hitting or throwing a ball, most of the force transfers from the legs, across the core, to the arms. Strong core muscles enable more forceful movements so athletes can throw hard, fast, and accurately and can smash the ball with power. UNIT 8.5 Swimming 424 | Unit 8.5 Unit Outline 1. Physiology of Swimming a. 4. Injuries in Swimming a. Maximal Oxygen Consumption b. Shoulder Injuries 2. Testing Swimmers c. 3. Training a. Importance of Core Stability Knee Injuries d. Other Injuries Endurance Training e. b. Sprint Training Overuse Injuries 5. Weight Training and Plyometrics for Swimmers 6. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • • • Recognize that swimming is an extremely popular sport for recreational and competitive swimmers. Recognize that stroke mechanics are critical in swimming but that the strength coach can help the swimmer move up to the next level by increasing muscle power. Recognize that maximal oxygen consumption is important in swimmers but that this test is highly specific and is best measured in a swimming flume or during tethered swimming. Swimming is a popular recreational and competitive sport; the latter is an official aquatic sport begun in the first modern 1896 summer Olympic Games in Athens. More than 120 million swimmers currently reside in the United States—approximately 165,000 of these are competitive age-group swimmers (ages 5–18) and more than 28,600 competitors are 19 years and older. Although swim coaches specialize in developing stroke mechanics and swimming Strength and Conditioning • Understand and demonstrate how to perform and interpret physical performance tests in swimmers. • Understand that overuse injuries are common in swimming and know basic principles for preventing them. • Understand the importance of developing core stability in competitive swimmers. • Understand the importance of plyometrics for competitive swimmers. endurance, the personal trainer can help the swimmer move up to the next level by increasing muscle power for the sport. As a recreational sport, swimming increases upper and lower body strength and promotes cardiovascular fitness. Swimming also is an excellent modality to rehabilitate various upper and lower body injuries and, during recovery, from back, knee, and shoulder surgery. The competitive swimmer must be extremely Swimming | 425 dedicated because even small differences in stroke and breathing mechanics or attitude can determine race outcome. United States Swimming (www.usaswimming.org) represents the national governing body for competitive swimming in the United States. It is the sanctioning organization for all competitive events, both at the age-group and elite national levels, with more than 400,000 members as of 2016. United States Masters Swimming (www.usms.org), with more than 60,000 members, is the national governing body for aquatic athletes above age 19 who compete in organized events. Physiology of Swimming United States Swimming: National governing body for competitive swimming in the United States (www. usaswimming.org). United States Masters Swimming: National governing body for aquatic athletes above age 19 who compete in organized events (www.usms.org). All swimming events require the capacity for high-intensity exercise and endurance. Sprints represent primarily anaerobic events, whereas distance competitions require a greater aerobic contribution to energy transfer. The speed and distance of the swim determines whether energy supply comes principally from aerobic or anaerobic metabolic pathways. Aerobic pathways supply only a small fraction of the energy required for sprinting because of the body’s rapid and high demand for energy in these events. Table 8.5-1 displays the NCAA swimming records for men and women. During sprint intervals of 25 yards or meters, glycolytic (anaerobic) metabolism supplies the predominant source of the body’s energy needs. Aerobic energy sources become increasingly more important as swim distance increases. During submaximal exercise (i.e., “easy” swimming), the rate of lactate clearance matches production as lactate is removed easily from the muscles that produce it. At medium swimming speeds, lactate production rate exceeds clearance, and lactate accumulates. Acidosis does not occur, because minimum lactate accumulates in the muscles. In contrast, at maximum swimming speed, considerable lactate builds up because of the rapid breakdown of muscle glycogen and decrease in blood flow to the liver, resulting in acidosis and feelings of overall fatigue. When this occurs, swimmers must reduce swimming speed to the point where lactate accumulation does not increase further. Without this “slow-down” adaptation, the swimmer would soon be forced to stop swimming. Proper swim training increases the speed of aerobic metabolism by increasing the rate of lactate removal and decreasing the rate of lactate production. When these mechanisms are improved or “trained,” athletes International Sports Sciences Association 426 | Unit 8.5 Table 8.5-1a: NCAA Swimming Records - Men Table 8.5-1b: NCAA Swimming Records - Women 50-yard Freestyle 19.39—Andrey Seryy, Wayne St. (MI), 3-10-2011 (led off 200-yard freestyle relay). 50-yard Freestyle 21.27—Lara Jackson, Arizona, 3-192009 (first leg of 200-yard freestyle relay final). 100-yard Freestyle 42.61—Andrey Seryy, Wayne St. (MI), 3-17-2012. 100-yard Freestyle 46.09—Simone Manuel, Stanford, 3-21-2015. 200-yard Freestyle 1:34.20—Dion Dresens, Queens (NC), 2-12-2016. 200-yard Freestyle 1:39.10—Missy Franklin, California, 3-20-2015. 500-yard Freestyle 4:20.26—Victor Polyakov, West Chester, 11-22-2013. 500-yard Freestyle 4:30.37—Leah Smith, Virginia, 3-19-2015 1,000-yard Freestyle 8:57.06—Mitch Snyder, Drury, 3-11-2009. 1,000-yard Freestyle 9:20.15—Leah Smith, Virginia, 2-20-2016. 1,650-yard Freestyle 15:00.51—Mitch Snyder, Drury, 3-14-2009 1,650-yard Freestyle 15:23.30—Leah Smith, Virginia, 2-20-2016. 100-yard Backstroke 46.48—Krzysztof Jankiewicz, Lindenwood, 12-13-2015. 100-yard Backstroke 49.97—Natalie Coughlin, California, 3-23-2002. 200-yard Backstroke 1:40.74—Matt Josa, Queens (NC), 3-15-2014. 200-yard Backstroke 1:47.84—Elizabeth Pelton, California, 3-23-2013 100-yard Breaststroke 51.63—Anton Lovanov, Nova Southeastern, 3-13-2015. 100-yard Breaststroke 57.23—Breeja Larson, Texas A&M, 3-21-2014. 200-yard Breaststroke 1:51.71—Anton Lovanov, Nova Southeastern, 3-14-2015. 200-yard Breaststroke 2:04.06—Emma Reaney, Notre Dame, 3-22-2014 100-yard Butterfly 44.89—Matt Josa, Queens (NC), 3-12-2015. 100-yard Butterfly 49.81—Kelsi Worrell, Louisville, 3-20-2015 200-yard Butterfly 1:42.96—Matt Josa, Queens (NC), 3-14-2015. 200-yard Butterfly 1:49.92—Elaine Breeden, Stanford, 2-28-2009. 200-yard Individual Medley 1:41.94—Matt Josa, Queens (NC), 3-11-2015. 200-yard Individual Medley 1:51.77—Caitlin Leverenz, California, 3-15-2012. 400-yard Individual Medley 3:43.84—Nicholas Arakelian, Queens (NC), 3-12-2015. 400-yard Individual Medley 3:56.54—Katinka Hosszu, University of Southern California, 3-17-2012. 200-yard Freestyle Relay 1:18.82—Tampa (Martin Hammer, Runar Borgen, Jordan Augier, Jeremy Parker), 12-21-2015. One-Meter Diving (1982-2000) 495.85—Megan Neyer, Florida, 1983. 400-yard Freestyle Relay 2:54.37—Drury (Daniel Rzadkowski, Samuel Olson, Albert Lloyd, Nick McCarthy), 3-15-2014. One-Meter Diving (since 2001) 361.55—Cassidy Krug, Stanford, 3-2007 800-yard Freestyle Relay 6:26.29—Queens (NC) (Matthew Josa, Nicholas Arakelian, Ben Taylor, Hayden Kosater), 3-13-2015. Three-Meter Diving (1982-2005) 657.30—Yulia Pakhalina, Houston, 2003 Three-Meter Diving (since 2006) 437.75—Christina Loukas, Indiana, 3-20-2009. 200-yard Medley Relay 1:26.02—Wayne St. (Juan David Molina Perez, Piotr Jachowicz, Soren Holm, Till Barthel), 3-13-2014. 200-yard Freestyle Relay 1:26.20—Arizona (Lara Jackson, Lindsey Kelly, Justine Schluntz, Taylor Baughman), 3-19-2009 400-yard Medley Relay 3:08.07—Queens (NC) (John Suther, Niclas Eriksson, Matthew Josa, Ben Taylor), 3-12-2015. 400-yard Freestyle Relay 3:08.54—Stanford (Lia Neal, Janet Hu, Lindsay Engel, Simone Manuel), 3-21-2015. One-Meter Diving 618.70—Dario DiFazio, Oakland, 1994 Three-Meter Diving 619.95—Heath Calhoun, Clarion, 3-15-2014 800-yard Freestyle Relay 6:50.18—California (Cierra Runge, Elizabeth Pelton, Caroline Piehl, Missy Franklin), 2-25-2015. 200-yard Medley Relay 1:34.15—Stanford (Ally Howe, Sarah Haase, Janet Hu, Lia Neal), 2-24-2016. 400-yard Medley Relay 3:26.25—Stanford (Ally Howe, Sarah Haase, Janet Hu, Lia Neal), 2-26-2016 Strength and Conditioning Swimming | 427 can swim faster and longer while simultaneously minimizing both local (muscular) and general (total body) fatigue. Maximal Oxygen Consumption The ability of the tissues to consume oxygen increases slightly by training; however, heredity primarily determines the extent of this increase. Some talented female swimmers have maximal • oxygen consumption values of VO2max over 4 liters per minute and males more than 5 liters per minute at maximum rates. This translates to over 60 ml of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body mass per minute for most swimmers. In world• class male endurance swimmers, VO2max often exceeds 70 ml per kg! The average fit college • student has a VO2max of about 42 ml per kg. • The improvement in VO2max is achieved within six to eight weeks of training. Swimmers can • increase the percentage of VO2max available— without acidosis occurring—for longer durations. For untrained people, the highest per• centage of VO2max that forestalls fatigue occurs between 50% and 70% percent of maximum. With training, this increases to between 75% and 90% of maximum. This adaptive increase to training enables the swimmer to power the swim at a greater overall muscular intensity and for a greater length of swimming time. Testing Swimmers As stressed throughout this course, sports skills are highly specific, so measures of fitness on land have limited applicability to performance in water. Basic strength is important for superior performance, thus use tests that measure total body fitness. Strength tests: Examples include number of reps at a standard weight, pull-ups, push-ups, dips, and lat pulls. Some swim benches have accurate force indicators. These may be valuable testing devices—if they are reliable. Swimming tests: Test for 50, 100, 150, and 200 meters. Many test scenarios are possible with a specialized swim flume (swim treadmill that directs water flow at different speeds at the swimmer, which the swimmer has to overcome to remain in a relatively stable position within the flume) or tethered swimming (swimming while held relatively stationary by a flexible restraining device with a weight attached to provide resistance to swimming movements). Power: Jumping tests include vertical jump and standing long jump to assess starting power off the blocks and push off from the wall during turns. Core stability: Tests of core stability include side bridge or front plank endurance tests to assess vital core fitness. Training Quantity, quality, and frequency of exercise during training determine the degree of training adaptation. Competitive swimmers mostly use interval training to increase swimming speed and endurance. During intermittent training, the energy requirements exceed the swimmer’s aerobic capacity (i.e., greater than • 100% VO2max). Swimmers should employ endurance training to improve aerobic metabolism along with sprint training to improve anaerobic metabolism and power. Sprint and endurance training International Sports Sciences Association 428 | Unit 8.5 each play important but different roles in competitive races. Sprint training improves the ability to complete the first 25–50 yards or meters fast and finish the last 25–50 yards or meters fast. Endurance training helps maintain a faster average pace in the middle of the race without becoming unduly fatigued. As swim distance increases, endurance training becomes more important because sprint training is required in the first 25–50 yards or meters and last 25–50 yards or meters. Peak power output is critical at any distance because the object of a swimming race is to complete the distance as fast as possible. Endurance Training Endurance training improves aerobic capacity and helps cells mobilize fuels and process metabolic acids efficiently. These adaptations allow the athlete to swim faster and longer. Endurance training is important for all swimmers in events 100 yards or meters or longer. Endurance trained swimmers move at a faster pace the first three-quarters of the race and still have sufficient energy to sprint at the end. As with all forms of exercise, swim training is highly specific. Athletes will not improve endurance for swimming via running or cycling training. Sprint Training Sprint training increases sprinting speed so swimmers can accelerate faster at the start of the race. It also improves acid buffering and acid clearance capacity to maintain speed as the race progresses. To increase swimming speed, the best distances are between 75 and 200 yards or meters with resting intervals five minutes or longer. Endurance training is best to improve buffering and clearance capacity with swimmers’ sprinting—not pacing—the final 30–50 yards or meters of the swim. Injuries in Swimming Glenohumeral joint: Ball-and-socket joint formed between the humerus and scapula. Strength and Conditioning Not unexpectedly, swim training subjects the shoulders (in front crawl and butterfly) and knees (in breaststroke) to overuse injuries. The average competitive swimmer in 2014–2015 swam approximately between 60,000 and 80,000 meters weekly. Contrast this typical average training volume of 25,000–35,000 meters weekly in the early 1970s! Each shoulder thus performs 30,000 rotations weekly, which places tremendous stress on shoulder girdle muscles and glenohumeral joint. As such, muscle strength in the shoulder girdle area and Swimming | 429 core stability become essential components to minimize swimming injuries. Training innovations in swimming have revolutionized the sport. They include timed interval training with a pace clock, increased workout volume, regular resistance training, flexibility exercises, and a carefully planned nutrition program. Despite these advances—while improving performance—these innovations have contributed to an alarming increase in overuse injuries. The personal trainer can help by strengthening vulnerable joints and tissues subjected to overuse swimming injuries. Most orthopedic injuries in competitive swimmers can be career threatening. Many competitive swimmers practice twice daily, five to seven days a week, and often average between 8,000 and 20,000 yards or meters daily. Importance of Core Stability High stroke repetitions and propulsive forces generated through the shoulders and arms place extraordinary stresses on the upper body. Poor core stiffness provides an inadequate platform for upper body movements, which adds increased stress on upper extremity muscles and joints. Core stiffness enhances arm speed and strength during the stroke. Consider the latissimus dorsi muscle, which is the most important upper body muscle for swimmers. It is responsible for shoulder extension and adduction. It originates on the spinous processes of the vertebrae (from 7th thoracic to 5th lumbar) and inserts on the humerus. When the muscle contracts, it attempts to shorten. A stiff core provides a stable platform for the lat muscles to pull the arm during the stroke. One hundred percent of lat muscle shortening is directed to stroke action. Poor core stiffness, in contrast, causes the torso to bend during the stroke, which decreases muscle force that could have been applied to the stroke. The core is largely rigid during all swimming strokes (butterfly, back, breast, crawl), so core muscles should primarily be trained statically. For more than 100 years, traditional core training included conventional sit-ups, back extensions, and twists. Isometric core exercise is a better way to develop core strength and stiffness for swimmers. Core stiffness is vital for athletes for four reasons: 1. Strengthens muscles 2. Improves muscular endurance 3. Minimizes low back pain 4. Boosts overall sports performance Greater core stiffness transfers strength and speed to the limbs for a more powerful stroke. A landmark study by Canadian researcher Stuart McGill from McMaster University in Canada demonstrated that isometric core exercises resulted in greater core stiffness than did whole body dynamic exercises that activate core muscles. Isometric core exercises include planks, bird dogs, side bridges, torsional buttress, Pallof presses, stir the pot, carry, inverted row, and cable woodchopping (see Unit 5.2). Shoulder Injuries Shoulder pain represents the most common orthopedic problem in competitive swimming. Shoulder pain relates to years of swimming the primary strokes (freestyle, butterfly, backstroke) and mechanics and intensity of swimming. Sprint swimmers, who place greater force per International Sports Sciences Association 430 | Unit 8.5 stroke across their shoulders, usually experience more shoulder problems than do long-distance swimmers. Anterior subluxation: Humeral head slips out of the glenoid cavity as a result of weakness in the rotator cuff or a blow to the shoulder area. Rotator cuff impingement: Occurs when the tendons of the rotator cuff muscles become irritated and inflamed as they pass through the subacromial space on the scapula. Coracoacromial arch: Protective arch formed by the smooth inferior aspect of the acromion and coracoid process of the scapula with the coracoacromial ligament spanning between them. The shoulder is subject to extremely large ranges of motion and repetitive movement, which promotes microtrauma to the muscular, capsular, and ligamentous tissues. Microtrauma promotes shoulder instability that leads to a cycle of more pain. By continually externally rotating and abducting the shoulder, the anterior subluxation causes rotator cuff impingement against the coracoacromial arch, both of which cause chronic pain. The personal trainer can help swimmers minimize shoulder problems by strengthening the four rotator cuff muscles (teres minor, infraspinatus, supraspinatus, subscapularis). Each muscle attaches (inserts) at the scapula, and each of its tendons attaches to the humerus. Together, these tendons and muscles form a “cuff” surrounding the humerus (hence the name rotator cuff). Helpful exercises include deltoid raises (front, side, back), empty can (deltoid raises at 45-degree angles in front with forearms pronated as much as possible—like emptying a soda can), and dumbbell shoulder internal and external rotation. Building general strength in all upper body muscles also helps both balance the upper body musculature and minimize shoulder-related pain. Knee Injuries Knee pain and injury are common in breaststrokers from limited outward rotation at the knee joint. To achieve a good breaststroker’s kick, the swimmer must rotate the lower leg out at the knee. Breaststroker’s knee, characterized by pain and tenderness in the medial aspect of the knee joint, results from incorrect mechanics of the breaststroke whip kick. The three most commonly cited causes of knee pain include medial collateral ligament stress syndrome, patellofemoral syndrome, and medial synovitis (synovial membrane inflammation). The personal trainer can help the swimmer prevent knee pain by strengthening the major muscles in the lower body—particularly hip extensors, adductors, and abductors. Most workout facilities have hip abduction-adduction machines and suspension ropes and pulleys that are excellent for swimmers. Increasing leg and hip strength also improves critical swimming power. Strength and Conditioning Swimming | 431 Other Injuries Strain to the common elbow extensor tendon is relatively widespread. It usually is caused by improper stroke mechanics, a technique called “dropping the elbow.” Breaststrokers often report low back pain, usually in conjunction with tight hamstrings. The stroke tends to increase lumbar lordosis, which increases the stress on one of the five lumbar nerve roots (the nerve roots run through the bony canal, and at each level, a pair of nerve roots exits from the spine.) Lumbar lordosis: Increased inward curving of the lumbar (lower) spine. Overuse Injuries Most injuries in swimming occur from overuse. The key is to try to minimize injuries before they occur. Personal trainers play a significant role in minimizing such injuries, particularly in athletes who train year round. Overuse Injuries: Injuries sustained from repeated movement (i.e., repetitive strain injury). Warm-up—consisting of mild stretching and low-intensity swimming—is important in helping minimize serious overuse injuries. A typical warm-up involves swimming 1,000–1,500 yards before attempting the intense portion of a workout. Conditioning also is critical. This would include strengthening the shoulder rotator cuff muscles and muscles that stabilize the spine. The intensity of swim workouts should be increased gradually until the athlete can tolerate more intense workouts. Weight Training and Plyometrics for Swimmers The personal trainer will likely not participate in the athlete’s swim training program but can instead direct the weight-training and plyometric program. Unlike what occurs in other power sports, the swimmer does not work from the basic athletic position (knees bent, feet shoulder width apart, arms forward, head slightly forward)—except when exploding out of the blocks or pushing off the wall during turns. Swim athletes benefit from standard weight-training exercises, static core exercises, and plyometric exercises to increase leg power. Basic athletic position: Knees bent, feet shoulder width apart, arms forward, head slightly forward. This is important during the start in swimming. International Sports Sciences Association 432 | Unit 8.5 Strength transfer from the weight room to the pool presents a challenge in swimming. Upper body power is the main factor that dictates success in the sport, whereas shoulder extension strength is critical to success in swimming. Coaches have developed specific training methods using swim benches and elastic bands to develop swimming power. Intensity of workouts is the core component to building swimming strength. The athlete should use good form on each repetition and maintain the weight lifted under control. Target the muscles used in swimming. Optimal weight training exercises for swimming build the large muscle groups of the body. Concentrate on building muscles used in the sport, especially the four rotator cuff muscles. All swimmers should religiously perform a combination of these 11 exercises to reduce the risk of injury and boost performance: 1. Front squats and back squats 2. Lat pulls 3. Pull-ups 4. Dips 5. Rotator cuff exercises 6. Push-ups and bench presses 7. Rowing 8. Cable pulls 9. Swim bench exercises 10. Shoulder extension with rubber tubing 11. Static core muscle exercises: planks, bird dogs, side-bridges, torsional buttress, Pallof presses, stir the pot exercise, carry exercises, inverted row, and cable woodchopping Strength and Conditioning Athletes spend so much time and energy in the water all year long that they should be sure not to overemphasize resistance training. Adhere to basic programs of three sets of 10 reps for 8–10 basic exercises. Stress core stiffness exercises. There is a relationship between strength and swim performance, so it is advisable for swimmers to eventually do four to six sets of 1–6 repetitions working at 85%–98% of 1-RM for some training cycles. Periodization of training is particularly important because it develops strength during the off-season and builds peak strength during the competitive season. Emphasize the importance of year-round consistency. Introduce plyometrics into the program. This will help the athlete develop more power during starts and turns and make the athletes more “elastic” during their strokes. Do basic floor jumps (calf jumps, squat jumps, pike jumps). Athletes should graduate to more advanced plyometric medicine ball exercises, box jumps, cone jumps, and multiple floor jumps (standing long jump, standing triple jump, bunny hops). Swimming | 433 Summary Swimming is a popular recreational and competitive sport. The competitive swimmer must be extremely dedicated because even small differences in stroke and breathing mechanics or attitude often determine race outcome. Sprints are largely anaerobic events, whereas distance events rely more on aerobic power. However, all swimming events require the capacity for high-intensity exercise and endurance. Quantity, quality, and frequency of exercise during training determine the degree of adaptation to training. Competitive swimmers mainly use interval training to increase swimming speed and endurance. Sprint training increases sprinting speed for faster acceleration at the start of the race. To increase swimming speed, the best distances are between 75 and 200 yards or meters with resting intervals five minutes or longer. Many competitive swimmers practice twice daily, five to seven days a week, and often average between 8,000 and 20,000 yards or meters per day (depending on the season). Swimmers (and their coaches) should be acutely aware that this volume of swim training could lead to chronic shoulder (rotator cuff), knee, and lower back injuries. Building strength and endurance in upper body muscles, particularly the rotator cuff complex of muscles and tendons, and increasing core stiffness, are critical for success and injury prevention. The personal trainer will probably not participate in the athlete’s swim training program but may direct the resistance training and plyometric programs. Intensity is the key to building swimming strength. The athlete should focus on each repetition using good form and keeping the weight under control. Adhere to the specificity concept of training by concentrating workouts on muscles primarily used in swimming. Good resistance training exercises for swimming accomplishes three goals: (1) builds the body’s large muscle groups, (2) targets muscles used in the sport, (3) strengthens rotator cuff muscles and tendons, and (4) stiffens core muscles. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 8.6 Soccer Soccer | 435 Unit Outline 1. Physiology of Soccer a. 3. Training for Soccer a. Physical Characteristics Endurance and High-Speed Exercise Capacity b. Cardiovascular Characteristics and Demands b. Speed and Agility c. c. Capacity for High-Intensity Exercise 2. Testing Soccer Players Strength 4. Fitness and Soccer 5. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand that soccer is the most popular sport in the world. • Understand that strength coaches will work mostly with athletes during the off season. • Understand, as stressed throughout the course, that fitness and conditioning never should be substituted for targeted skill development. Soccer is a major sport everywhere in the world except the United States. There are more than 60 million registered soccer players worldwide with another 60 million unregistered players. Things are changing in the United States. With the incredible success of US women in international elite soccer and the improving fortunes of US men in World Cup play, soccer may soon achieve major sports status in the United States, too. The personal trainer will typically work with soccer players during the off-season. Soccer • Understand the physical demands of soccer and how to help athletes prepare for them. • Recognize that strength coaches should emphasize soccer-specific high intensity exercise when designing exercise programs for soccer players. • Understand how to design and implement a physical fitness testing program for athletes. • Understand the value of plyometrics and speed exercises for soccer players. requires great speed, agility, and power, so players will benefit from weight training, plyometrics and speed exercises, high-intensity interval training, and endurance training. As with all sports, specialized sport-specific skills are central to success. As stressed throughout the course, fitness and conditioning never should be substituted for targeted skill development. Soccer is particularly popular with pre-high school children. Personal trainers who work with kids should be thoroughly familiar with International Sports Sciences Association 436 | Unit 8.6 the physiology of growth and the principles of motor development—how children learn basic sports skills. ISSA offers an outstanding certification course in youth fitness (www. youthfitness.com). Enroll in this course because it will provide you with the necessary skills and techniques to enhance your personal training business in a burgeoning market with children and young athletes. Physiology of Soccer Soccer is a high-intensity intermittent sport played for 90 minutes in which players run at variable speeds and execute technical skills randomly. The game involves constant speed changes and accelerations and decelerations, including tackling, blocking, darting and dashing with changes in direction, jumping, kicking, and shooting for goals. Physical Characteristics Most elite soccer players are between ages 18 and 34. Some players, particularly goalkeepers, participate until their late 30s. In some countries, younger players between 14 and 18 years of age compete nationally and internationally. Height, weight, and body composition range widely in men and women’s soccer. Goalkeepers and central defenders are usually taller than the rest of the team is. Although there are some individual differences, men’s and women’s teams are not very different from each other in stature. Elite male and female players have a fairly muscular body build. Body fat percentage in male elite soccer players varies between approximately 6%–20% and 14%–23% in female elite players. Strength and Conditioning Cardiovascular Characteristics and Demands Elite college and professional players typically cover about six miles during the 90-minute game. They walk 25%, jog 37%, sprint 11%, back run 6%, and stride 20% of the total distance. Soccer players sprint about 10–40 yards at a time for a total of 800–1,000 yards during a game. Elite soccer players expend about 3,500 kcal during competition and for several hours post-game as their metabolisms return to resting conditions. The intensity requirements of soccer are unpredictable. For example, athletes may be required to perform two sprints that could be separated by very short or very long periods. The timing of the sprints could drastically affect the metabolic demands of a match. The intermittent high-intensity stop-and-go pattern of activity during the match requires a high function of the aerobic and anaerobic energy delivery pathways. The high number of accelerations and decelerations demands that the muscles’ energy-delivery pathways also accelerate and decelerate their rates of energy provision. Soccer requires a high degree of aerobic fitness. However, there is a low relationship between • the average maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) of a team and the team’s winning percentage. Success in the sport depends on technical ability and game tactics, including high levels of fitness. The high-energy output demand during soccer places increased reliance on muscle oxygen use and a steady stream of nutrients. Consequently, players need a well-developed cardiorespiratory system—in which muscles extract a high volume of oxygen from the bloodstream Soccer | 437 and make the best use of an efficient oxygen transport system throughout the body’s millions of miles of blood vessels. • The average VO2max for elite male players averages about 60 ml per kg body mass per minute (ml/kg/min), with some as high as 76 ml/kg/ min. Women average about 8 ml/kg/min less • than men do. Midfielders have higher VO2max than other players do because they cover longer distances in the game. Maximum ventilations (how much air is breathed in and out of the lungs each minute) of 150 liters and maximum heart rates of 185 beats a minute are typical for elite players. In women, maximum heart rates average about 5 beats a min higher, whereas ventilation values average about 30 liters a minute lower compared with those of men. During a game with elite players, heart rate is consistently above 150 beats per minute (more than nearly triple the typical resting value of 47 beats a min, with rates above 85% of maximum for up to two-thirds of the game). Consequently, the world’s top soccer players perform at above • 80% of VO2max for most of the game. Bottom line—athletes require a large aerobic capacity to meet these needs. They should develop aerobic capacity mainly through interval training rather than through LSD running “long-slowdistance.” Soccer is a fast sport; consequently, to adhere to the specificity principle, this aspect of fitness must be developed accordingly. Capacity for High-Intensity Exercise Measures of high-intensity exercise on the Wingate test (see Unit 7.1) show that elite soccer players produce about 10% more power than does the average physical education major. Their vertical jump or strength capacities are not exceptional compared with sprinters, jumpers, or American football players. To sum up, elite soccer players are fit and fast but not exceptionally so. Soccer players are less flexible than most other athletes. This may be an advantage because less flexibility gives them more elasticity, which increases their capacity for explosive muscle movements due to an enhanced stretch-shortening cycle. Tighter muscles recoil faster and more explosively when stretched. This can be of help when soccer players run and attempt to score. Several studies on elite soccer players have shown that less flexible athletes have higher injury rates—particularly in hamstring muscles. This relationship has not been shown consistently in other athletes. Furthermore, asymmetries in strength between dominant leg and non-dominant leg could lead to many lower body injuries. Testing Soccer Players Analyzing the physical requirements of soccer shows that players should be tested for endurance, capacity for intense exercise, power, speed, agility, and strength. Repeat such tests often to rate fitness status, gauge improvement, and compare performance with other athletes. The tests you use as a personal trainer will be similar to the ones you use for all power athletes: Endurance: Use one of the running field tests to estimate maximal oxygen consumption—either the 1.5-mile run or the Cooper 12-minute run (see Unit 7.1). International Sports Sciences Association 438 | Unit 8.6 High-intensity exercise capacity: 200-meter sprint, 400-meter sprint, and 300-yard shuttle run. Power output: Wingate test or Margaria-Kalamen power tests (see Unit 7.1). Explosive power test: Vertical jump, standing long jump, and standing triple jump. The power quadrathlon (see Unit 7.1) is an excellent test. Strength and strength-endurance: Reps at submaximal weight for the bench press and squat are “better” than 1-RM tests are. Wall-sits for time are a good test to assess muscle strength endurance. Additionally, measure sit-ups and pull-ups. Speed: 20- and 40-yard dashes. Agility: Shuttle run and soccer-specific ball handling and shooting tests. Training for Soccer As with other sports discussed in this course, it is assumed that the coach will handle the technical aspects of the athlete’s development. You will help the athlete during the off-season— crucial time well spent that can make a good athlete a great one. Endurance and High-Speed Exercise Capacity Some over-distance training is appropriate during the off-season. Soccer players typically • play at 85% of VO2max for the game and often move continuously at variable speeds. Athletes should run two to five miles at relatively high Strength and Conditioning speeds about three days a week. As the season gets closer, reduce the distance and increase the speed of the run. Emphasize high-speed interval training within two months of the season. Examples of an interval program appropriate for soccer players might include eight reps of 200 meters performed at 95% effort with a 200-meter walk in between intervals. Or do six reps of 400 meters at 90% effort with five-minute walking rest between runs. Speed and Agility Athletes should work on running straight ahead, side-to-side, and backward in repeated intervals using each sprinting technique and emphasizing good sprinting mechanics. Add sprint overload techniques—high-knee fastarms, harness running, downhill sprinting, and speed ladders. Working on sprint starts also improves acceleration. Whenever possible, build fitness while working on soccer skills. Instead of running cone agility drills, do the same drill dribbling a soccer ball. Have a ball waiting at the end of a 40-yard dash and let the player take a shot on goal. Strength As with other power athletes, emphasize presses, pulls, and squats in the training program. Good core strength is critical, so work on static and dynamic strength, endurance, and core muscle power. Soccer players should train two to three times weekly with weights. Initially, they should do three sets of 10 reps for 8 to 10 exercises. Table 8.8-1 shows an example of a simple beginning soccer weight-training program. Soccer | 439 Table 8.6-1: Beginning Weight Training Program for Soccer To be done 2 to 3 times per week. Exercise Sets Repetitions Bench Press 3 10 Power Cleans 3 10 Squats 3 10 Crunches 3 25 Back Extensions 3 10 Lat-pulls 3 10 Hamstring curls 3 10 Knee extensions 3 10 Calf raises 3 10 Plyometrics These exercises are essential for the soccer player. Players who can react faster and more explosively on the playing field should demonstrate an obvious advantage on the playing field. They should start with the easiest, low-impact plyometric calf jumps, squat jumps, and more advanced varieties of squat jumps (e.g., spins and mule kick; refer to Unit 6.9). As players progress in fitness and explosive power, they should graduate to box and hurdle jumps. Elite soccer players should be able to jump more than eight 36-inch-high hurdles with only one jump between each. Begin with cones and progress upward. Rope skipping provides an excellent exercise mode for soccer players. Encourage athletes to build jump rope skills using various footwork patterns, double spins, and crossovers. Speed of movement should be emphasized. This helps develop and enhance “fast” foot mechanics, essential in executing quick forward, side, and backward changes in direction. Fitness and Soccer Soccer is a conservative sport, perhaps even more than baseball and basketball. Track and field athletes have incorporated plyometrics, periodization of training, and Olympic lifts for almost 50 years. Some of these training methods are only starting to be popular with soccer players. As a personal trainer, you can give soccer players an incredible advantage over the competition by having them use the most modern methods of training and conditioning to enhance their soccer skills and fitness. International Sports Sciences Association 440 | Unit 8.6 Summary Soccer is the most popular sport in the world and rapidly becoming more popular in the United States. Soccer requires great speed, agility, and power, so players benefit from weight training, plyometrics, speed exercises, and endurance training. Soccer is a high-intensity intermittent sport played for 90 minutes in which players run at variable speeds and execute technical skills randomly. Elite male and female players are mostly muscular in body build and rate relatively low in either thinness or fatness. Body fat percentage varies from about 6%–20% in elite male soccer players and 14%–23% in elite female players. Strength and Conditioning Soccer requires a high degree of aerobic fitness. However, there is a low relationship between the average maximal oxygen uptake of a team and the team’s winning percentage. Success in the sport depends on technical ability and game tactics but also superior fitness. Analyzing the physical requirements of soccer reveals that players should be tested for endurance, capacity for intense exercise, power, speed, agility, and strength. The personal trainer can help athletes increase endurance, speed, power, strength, agility, and flexibility to enhance their soccer skills and fitness. UNIT 8.7 Track and Field 442 | Unit 8.7 Unit Outline 1. Training Throwers 5. Weight Training and Plyometrics for Runners a. 6. Progression of Training Methods during the Last Century General Training Strategies for Throwers b. Fitness Tests for Throwers 2. Training Sprinters 3. Training Jumpers and Vaulters a. Jumping and Vaulting Injuries 4. Training Middle-Distance and Distance Runners 7. Over-Distance Training (Long-Slow Distance or LSD Training) 8. Interval Training 9. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand that track and field involves many different discrete events that require different training programs for specific events. • Understand that for all events, it’s important to establish a long-term base strength program and produce peak power output capacity for the coming season. • Understand how to administer and interpret physical fitness tests for athletes competing in various events. In the first inaugural modern Olympics in Athens, Greece, in 1896, Robert Garrett, a Princeton graduate, became one of the nation’s best collegiate shot-putters and the last to survive from the original 13 US participants. The son of a wealthy Baltimore banking and railroad entrepreneur, the young Garrett, an accomplished athlete, won the gold medal in the discus event with a throw of 29.13 meters (95.6 feet). Strength and Conditioning • Understand how to set up specific training programs for thrower, jumpers, sprinters, vaulters, and middle distance runners, and endurance runners. • Understand that all track and field events are high intensity, so athletes should train accordingly. He learned the event only three weeks before traveling to the games! In 1982, Jürgen Schult from East Germany threw the discus 74.08 meters—nearly 45 meters farther than Garrett had. Performance in the 100 meters has been equally astounding. In the same inaugural 1896 Olympic competition, Thomas Birke from the United States won the gold medal in the 100-meter dash in 12.0 seconds (he ran the preliminary Track and Field | 443 heat even faster in 11.8 seconds.) This sprinter from the Boston University School of Law also won the 400-meter dash in 54.2 seconds. He deserves distinction as the first Olympic champion in both 100- and 400-meter competitions. He also was one of the organizers of the first 1897 Boston Marathon based on the success of the marathon held in the 1896 Olympics. In 2009, Usain Bolt from Jamaica set the current world record in the 100 meters in an astounding 9.58 seconds—more than 20% faster than Burke had run. These modern performances were the result of scientifically designed training programs, expert coaching, years of hard work, precise development of technique, and sophisticated diet and supplement regimens. Every event in track and field has a similar history. The sport is incredibly complex. Each event involves its own sophisticated technique and equally rigorous but complicated training methods. Personal trainers should have thorough knowledge of every event. As occurs in other sports, the track and field coach is responsible for technique development. The personal trainer is responsible primarily for off-season and early season preparation and may assist with in-season conditioning. All events share three common goals: 1. To establish a long-term base strength program 2. To develop peak power output capacity for the coming season 3. To teach high-performance sports nutrition techniques Training Throwers The throws include the discus, shot put, hammer, javelin, and weight throw. The technique for each event is incredibly complex. Your first job as personal trainer is to stress the importance of technique development. Strength, power, and speed are critical for each event. Even the strongest athletes will not throw far with poor technique. Studies of elite throwers show they are strong, fast, and powerful. However, their lifting performances are considerably less than are those of elite-level Olympic and powerlifters. Elite throwers are slightly older than are elite athletes in most Olympic sports, which shows the importance of technique for success—it takes a long time to develop elite performance levels. These studies reaffirm the importance of the principle of specificity. Although great strength and speed are common characteristics of elite throwers, they do not discriminate between performance levels. Basic strength—as measured by bench press, deadlift, squat, clean, and snatch—is important for performance; you should advise athletes to emphasize technique development in their year-long training programs. Basic strength is important for success in the throws. However, this does not mean that athletes should not incorporate “explosive” training techniques in their programs. Strength relates to performance in many sports, but explosive training appears to cause the greatest transfer to speed-strength—in the short run. Table 8.7-1 shows the characteristics of elite discus throwers. Discus throwers tend to be lighter International Sports Sciences Association 444 | Unit 8.7 Table 8.7-1: Physical and Performance Characteristics of Elite Discus Throwers Characteristic Mean SD Age (yr) 27.3 5.7 Height (cm) 191.1 4.1 Weight (kg) 112.1 6.5 Discus (m) 63.7 3.4 Discus, standing (m) 53.0 3.1 Discus, camp (m) 57.9 4.2 Bench press (kg) 187.9 16.8 Dead lift (kg) 260.7 33.6 Squats (kg) 246.5 45.6 Push press (kg) 133.4 27.0 Clean (kg) 150.7 23.7 Clean and Jerk (kg) 143.0 19.8 Snatch (kg) 107.6 11.1 Incline press (kg) 145.7 23.7 45.72-m dash (50 yd.; sec) 5.98 0.13 Standing Long Jump (m) 2.86 0.14 and less strong than shot-putters are but taller and stronger than javelin throwers. General Training Strategies for Throwers Throwers should work on technique all year long. Technique work should include drills and full throws. Like all motor movements, throws are task specific; athletes should always practice a few complete throws during workouts—not just drills and partial movements. Training is similar for each throwing event. Athletes should emphasize presses, pulls, and squats and practice plyometric and speed exercises. Javelin throwers should include exercises that increase running speed, prevent rotator cuff Strength and Conditioning injuries (internal and external rotation, raises, empty can exercise) and that build lat muscles (pull-ups and pull overs). Shot-putters should include incline presses, Neider presses, and behind the neck push presses in their program. Hammer throwers should emphasize pulling exercises (cleans, snatches, deadlift) and place less emphasis on bench presses and flys. All throwers are susceptible to low back injuries, so they should incorporate specific exercises to stabilize the spine (static core exercises—Pallof presses, side bridges, bird-dog exercise). The rotational Pallof press is particularly effective for helping throwers cope with rotational stresses. Base strength—measured by 1-RM lifts in the bench press, squat, snatch, clean, and deadlift— strongly relate to performance in all throwing events. Interestingly, improving strength has very little transfer to throwing distance—in the short term. Therefore, athletes should develop base strength consistently during their careers, particularly during the off-season. Athletes should perform lifts that develop base strength with cleans, jerks, snatches, deadlifts, and kettlebell swings and snatches that develop strength and power from the basic athletic position. Plyometric and speed exercises—provided they are specific and targeted to the throwing event—transfer better than weight lifting to throwing distance does in the short run. Throwers should emphasize plyometric and speed exercises during the early and competitive season. As the big meets approach, throwers should do less volume work and increase peak work (high intensity, low volume). This increases peak strength rapidly and gives the thrower more energy to practice the skill. Track and Field | 445 Week Four Week Three Week Two Week One Table 8.7-2: Load Weight Training Cycle to Develop Base Strength in an Elite Discus Thrower Monday Wednesday Friday Power clean 2x4, 100 kg Snatch high pull 3x8, 90 kg Power clean 1x5, 135 kg; : 1x5, 142.5 kg Squat 2x8, 170 kg; 2x6, 185 kg Squat 1x3, 200 kg Hack squat 3x10, 100 kg Good morning 3x10, 90 kg Bench press 3x8, 145 kg Squats 3x10, 130 kg Behind neck press 3x5, 95 kg Dumbbell bench press 4x8, 45 kg Behind neck press 2x4, 95 kg Snatch high pull 1x4, 120 kg; 1x4, 135 kg; 1x4, 150 kg Squat 2x10, 100 kg Bench press 6x6, 175 kg Good morning 4x10, 90 kg Hack squat 3x10, 100 kg Squat 4x6, 165 kg Squats 3x10, 148 kg Bench press 1x4, 150 kg; 1x4, 155 kg; 1x4, 160 kg Dumbbell bench press 4x8, 45 kg Power clean 1x4, 120 kg Snatch high pull 3x8, 90 kg Snatch high pull 3x8, 90 kg Squat 4x4, 150 kg Squat 2x8, 190 kg; 2x6, 200 kg Squat 1x4, 210 kg Bench press 1x3, 185 kg Behind neck press 3x3, 100 kg Bench press 1x6, 165 kg Dumbbell flies 4x8, 22.5 kg Dumbbell bench press 4x8, 45 kg Power clean 1x5, 140 kg; 1x5 150 kg; 1x5, 155 kg Snatch high pull 1x4, 125 kg; 1x4, 140 kg; 1x4, 160 kg Good morning 4x10, 90 kg Squat 3x10, 155 kg Bench press 1x10, 145 kg; 1x4, 155 kg Behind neck press 3x5, 85 kg Bench press 6x6, 190 kg Squat 1x6, 145 kg Good morning 4x10, 100 kg Dumbbell bench press : 4x10, 50 kg The sets and reps are listed for each exercise. For example, 2x4 100 kg means 2 sets of 4 repetitions using a 100 kilogram weight. Table 8.7-2 describes a load weight-training cycle to develop base strength in an elite discus thrower. Throwers should emphasize technique. A big squat does not help if the athlete is so stiff that he or she cannot move efficiently. Many athletes forget this basic principle and substitute hard work in the weight room for technique work on the playing field. Throwers should periodize their weight workouts. Tables 8.7-2, 3 show loads and peak cycles for a remarkably strong world-class thrower preparing for the Olympics. If you want to use similar workouts, be sure to scale back resistance accordingly. Fitness Tests for Throwers To throw far, throwers require a combination of strength, power, and strength-endurance. Fitness testing is critical to assess potential, identify weaknesses, and judge progress. Test athletes regularly throughout the season. The following eight tests are particularly useful for throwers: 1. Power quadrathlon (refer to Unit 7.1) 2. 1-RM tests: Bench press (discus, shot, javelin), incline (discus, shot, javelin), clean (all), snatch (all), squat (all), deadlift (all), jerk off the rack (shot put) 3. Reps at a specific weight (bench press) 4. Pull-ups (javelin and discus) International Sports Sciences Association 446 | Unit 8.7 Week One Table 8.7-3: Peak Weight Training Cycle in Preparation for Major Competitions Monday Wednesday Variable Power snatch 1x2, 100kg; 1x1, 110kg; 1x1, 120kg; 1x1, 125kg; 1x1, 130kg Power snatch 1x1 90 kg Sunday competition Squat 1x5, 160kg; 1x5, 170kg; 180kg; 1x3, 200kg Bench press 1x5, 190 kg Dumbbell Flys3x10 12.5 kg Biceps curls 3x10 57 Week Two Power snatch 1x3, 90 kg Bench press 1x3, 175 kg; 1x3, 190 kg Squat 1x2, 200 kg; 1x2, 220 kg; 1x2, 240 kg; 1x2, 255 kg Week Three Squat 1x5, 170 kg Power snatch 1x1, 90 kg Bench press 1x3, 185 kg; 1x2, 197.5 kg; 1x2, 212.5 kg; 1x2, 220 kg Dumbbell Flys 3x10, 12.5 kg Week Four Flys 1x10, 22.5kg Squat 1x2, 200 kg; 1x2, 225 kg; 1x2, 250 kg Bench press 1x2,175 kg; 1x2, 190 kg; 1x1, 202.5 kg; 1x1, 215 kg Incline dumbbells 4x6, 45 kg Power snatch 1x1, 130 kg; 1x1, 140 kg; 1x1, 142.5 kg; 1x1, 145.5 kg Friday or Saturday competition National Championships Biceps curls 3x10, 57.5 kg No competition The sets and reps are listed for each exercise. For example 2x4 100 kg means 2 sets of 4 repetitions using a 100 kilogram weight 5. Vertical jump 6. Standing long jump 7. Standing triple jump 8. 40-yard dash Training Sprinters For the most part, sprinters are born and not made. Although anyone can increase sprint speed by learning proper mechanics, only the biologically elite can reach the high velocities necessary to attain the high speeds required for world-class competitions. As expected, personal trainers will work with athletes at many levels Strength and Conditioning from beginner to advanced. You can improve speed in all athletes and make them better than they now are. Speed development was discussed in Unit 6.10 and will not be reviewed here. This Unit will discuss program development and training strategies for sprinters. The ability to perform sprint exercise depends on the contractile and metabolic properties of the motor unit and their control by the nervous system. Fast-twitch fibers make up more than 65% of the muscle fibers in sprinters. Nevertheless, considerable individual variability exists, suggesting that having a high percentage of fast fibers is not necessarily Track and Field | 447 required for success. For example, elite female pentathletes have between 20% and 74% fasttwitch fibers. In general, it is better to have more fast-twitch fibers if you want to be a good sprinter (or any power athlete for that matter). Physiologically, sprint training improves the hundreds of enzymes involved with anaerobic and oxidative metabolism—the glycolytic and oxidative enzymes located in the interior of cells. Although these fitness changes are important, you will have a greater effect on the sprinter’s performance if you follow 10 principles for training sprint athletes. 1. Design a yearlong, periodized weight-training program that develops strength in the body’s largest muscle groups. As with all power athletes, the main exercises include presses, pulls, squats, and squat variations. Build base strength in power athletes that includes squats and bench presses and power strength in the clean, snatches, and jerks. 2. Build a stiff core using exercises described in Unit 5.2. Core stiffness is vital for sprinters and other track and field athletes for four reasons: strengthens muscles, improves muscular endurance, reduces low back pain, and helps boost sports performance. Greater core stiffness transfers strength and speed to the limbs when throwing, sprinting, and jumping; it also increases the spine’s load-bearing capacity and protects internal organs during jarring and potentially traumatic sports movements. 3. Include vigorous exercises to improve speed and power. These include sprint overload exercises (downhill sprinting, harness running, parachute running, stadium stairs, hill sprints), high knee-fast arms, bounding, and short sprints. 4. Develop endurance through interval training. 5. Emphasize plyometrics. These transfer well to the track and should be a central part of any sprinter’s all-round training program. 6. Work on starts. Sprint races of 100 meters or less are largely won in the starting blocks. The athlete should work on these religiously and do exercises that develop power for leaving the blocks quickly. 7. Do not neglect the other aspects of sprinting: acceleration, relaxing the upper body and arms while sprinting, and finishing. 8. Develop good running technique: This involves full hip extension, full range of motion with the arms, and a cut foot to maximize the push against the ground. Use a video camera to judge progress and discover (and correct) limiting factors. 9. Develop power, power, and more power. Overload muscles at high speed and peak power output. Muscles are trained the way you load them in practice. If you want muscles to fire all out in competition, you must train muscles to fire all out in practice. 10. Over-distance training may be appropriate for some sprinters during the off-season. Training Jumpers and Vaulters Track contests include three jumps: long jump, triple jump, and high jump. Training for each event is similar. Vaulters and jumpers should train like other power athletes do. They need to build base strength during the off-season and concentrate on speed and power as the competitive season nears. Vaulters, in addition to developing leg power and speed, should also build upper body strength. They should International Sports Sciences Association 448 | Unit 8.7 Table 8.7-4: Performance Characteristics of Gold and Silver Medal Winners at the 1991 World Championships Table 8.7-5: Preseason Conditioning Training Schedule for Jumpers and Vaulters Monday Ten minute warm-up run Athlete Jump Distance Average Run Speed Take-off Angle Static stretching Powell 8.95m 10.86 m/s 24.6˚ High knees repeaters Lewis 8.91m 11.24 m/s 20.3˚ High knees skipping Strides Runway work emphasize shoulders and lats through pull-ups, pullovers, rowing, and dips. All jumpers and vaulters should develop powerful core muscles using techniques discussed in Unit 5.2. Bob Beamon’s jump of 8.90 meters (29’ 2.5”) at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics is considered one of the greatest athletic feats of all time and become the standard for all long jumpers. At the Tokyo World Championships in 1991, Carl Lewis finally broke Beamon’s 23-year-old record (8.91 meters) only to have his new record broken a few moments later by American rival Mike Powell (8.95 meters). Table 8.7-4 shows the performance characteristics of Powell and Lewis in the long jump at the 1991 World Championships. Powell ran faster and had a greater takeoff angle, which might be attributed to his greater power output capacity. The objective of off-season training should be to increase endurance through distance running (two to three miles, three to five days a week) and to increase strength and power through resistance training and plyometrics. Building endurance prepares the athlete for intense interval training as the season approaches. Resistance training increases strength and power that significantly enhance the approach and takeoff phases of the jumps and vault. Off-season endurance training can include jogging, Strength and Conditioning Short approach take-off and landing drill Track intervals Warm down Upper body plyometrics for vaulters Tuesday Same as Monday except replace short approach take-offs and track intervals with plyometrics and resistance training. Wednesday Same as Monday Thursday Same as Tuesday Friday Same as Monday and Wednesday. Two to three jumps or vaults at full speed. hill runs, and bleacher or stair training. Resistance training should consist of strengthening the major muscle groups with an emphasis on explosive lifts—cleans, snatches, and squats, step-ups, and lunges. Table 8.7-5 shows a preseason conditioning training schedule for jumpers and vaulters. Approximately 8–10 weeks before the season begins, track workouts should become progressively more intense. Interval distances become shorter, and running velocity increases. To peak for a particular meet, the athlete should Track and Field | 449 begin to taper no later than 6 weeks from the competition. During peaking, shorter interval training runs should be done (40–100 meters) with an emphasis on plyometric work two days a week until one week from competition. At this point, minimize or stop plyometrics altogether. Short intervals should be continued to maintain speed. In accord with the specificity principle, athletes should practice much of their speed work on the runway to mimic and develop movements specific to athletes’ events. Speed work includes track workouts and runway work and should be performed four to five days weekly. Plyometrics and bounding include single-leg and alternate-leg bounding, step/ bench exercises, and hurdle hops. The athlete should do these one to two days each week followed on each day by a moderate to light interval workout. Resistance training should be practiced two to three days a week to maintain strength gained in the off-season. down knee extension. Due to hamstring weakness and greater quadriceps strength, the hamstring cannot generate adequate resistive force to slow knee extension—precipitating an injury. To minimize injury, strengthen both hamstring and gluteal muscles with weights (squats, lunges, cleans, snatches), improve technique, and increase flexibility—particularly in the hamstrings, quads, hip flexors, and shoulders. Two other common injuries are heel bruise and plantar fascia sprains. Both result from hard foot plants (contact) during the takeoff phase. Heel bruise is treated with repeated ice applications, rest, and heel padding. Plantar fascia sprain occurs from collapse of the ligaments in the arch of the foot. Treatment includes rest, anti-inflammatory therapy, and night splints (hold foot at 90-degree angle). Jumping and Vaulting Injuries Training MiddleDistance and Distance Runners Hamstring strains are common because jumpers and vaulters rely so strongly on speed. Hamstring pulls typically occur during hip extension, so all track and field athletes should strengthen glutes and hamstrings through exercises that emphasize the hip hinge. Some researchers have hypothesized that hamstring injuries relate to quadriceps-to-hamstring strength-ratio imbalances. Many sprinters, jumpers, and vaulters have exceptionally strong quadriceps but comparatively weaker hamstrings: as such, a lower than normal quadriceps-to-hamstring ratio. During running, the hamstring is employed eccentrically to slow The physiology of distance and middle- distance running was discussed in Units 4.1 and 4.2. These races require a balance between endurance capacity and raw power output. New studies show the importance of power for all running races—regardless of distance. The best predictor of 10K running time is the maximum velocity attained while running on a high-speed treadmill. Finnish research demonstrated that 5K runners placed on a speed and plyometric training program decreased their times more than did training for endurance running alone. More than 100 laboratory studies have shown the value of high-intensity interval training International Sports Sciences Association 450 | Unit 8.7 (HIIT) for building aerobic capacity and endurance in athletes, recreational exercises, older adults, and selected patient populations. Body composition is another performance factor of interest to the personal trainer. Success in running requires a specific body type and fat percentage—just as does success in the throwing events. The personal trainer should periodically assess body composition to document changes in lean body mass and the lean-to-fat ratio. Weight Training and Plyometrics for Runners Many resistance training experts tell runners to engage in high-rep weight-training programs. Research would indicate that this position is not correct. Train intensely, but do it the same way that sprinters and throwers do. Runners put in so much distance in their workouts that they will not gain weight or become too bulky. They will develop more peak power that increases speed that wins races. They develop all the endurance they need when performing over-distance training and intervals. When undertaking weight training, do large muscle exercises centered around the core lifts for developing power—presses, pulls, and squats. Include five types of exercises: 1. Presses: bench press, inclines, military press, push press, dumbbell bench or inclines 2. Pulls: cleans, snatches, high pulls, and deadlifts 3. Squats: squats, lunges, and step-ups 4. Static core exercises (see Unit 5.2) 5. Back exercises: lat pulls, pull-ups, rowing Strength and Conditioning Begin with three sets of 10 repetitions of 8–10 exercises, two to three days a week. Do plyometric and speed exercises two to three days each week. Do not neglect whole-body power when preparing for distance running. Power, a critical element for success, produces excellent results. Combine these with the tried and true training methods for running—combined over-distance and interval training regimens. Progression of Training Methods during the Last Century Middle- and long-distance training methods have varied greatly since the late 1800s. During the early days of the modern Olympic movement, runners walked more than they ran. From 1900 to 1930, runners increased their training distance. The legendary Clarence DeMar (www.distancerunning.com/ inductees/2000/demar.html) ran as much as 100 miles a week, but he was an exception. Runners, including the “Flying Finn” Paavo Nurmi, surely one of the greatest distance runners of all time (www.runnersworld.com/elite-runners/ paavo-nurmi-the-mystery-of-the-flying-finn; www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ nu/paavo-nurmi-1.html), centered their workouts on long walks to build an endurance base but seldom ran fast. Interval training gained prominence in the 1940s and 1950s, but most athletes emphasized volume over intensity, with some athletes covering more than 100 miles weekly in their interval training workout. Sir Roger Bannister popularized low-volume, high-intensity Track and Field | 451 intervals. He established a new world record in the mile on May 6, 1954, at a track meet in Oxford, England, and was first to break the 4-minute mile barrier in 3:59.4. His training method was unique for the time, running only two to three miles a day under the constraints of being a medical student. A typical workout was to run 10 × 440 yards in 68 seconds and then progressively run the intervals faster until he could complete each 440 in less than 60 seconds. Training with back-to-back intervals proved to be the critical ingredient for the then “unthinkable” world record. As a frame of comparison, running a 4-minute mile translates to running 15 miles an hour or slightly under 15 seconds for 100 meters. For track enthusiasts, American Jim Ryun was the first high school runner to break the sub-four-minute mile, (3:59.0 as a high school junior followed in 1965 by a new American record of 3:55.3 as a senior). He later won a silver medal in the 1,500 meters at the Mexico City 1968 Summer Olympics. The late 1960s and 1970s ushered in the rise of the “long, slow distance” philosophy of distance running popularized by Australian coaches Arthur Lydiard (www.runbayou.com/ ArthurLydiard.pdf) and Percy Cerutty (www. racingpast.ca/john_contents.php?id=93). The main training philosophy was to build a base through high-volume runs at relatively slow speeds followed by increased emphasis on interval training during racing season. Some runners ran as much as 150 miles a week. Interval training became central to training in the 1980s and 90s. Middle-distance runners Sebastian Coe and Steve Ovett practiced monster interval training workouts—60 × 400 meters in 60 seconds each. This led to a rash of overuse injuries and overtraining. Gradually, training methods progressed to a balance between over-distance and interval training. Over-Distance Training (Long-Slow Distance Training or LSD Training) Over-distance training involves exercising for sustained periods. Serious endurance runners typically train between three and six days weekly. Training more frequently usually produces overuse injuries. Training less frequently also can lead to injury and is less effective for building high levels of endurance. Over-distance training increases the number of mitochondria in cells, which in turn increases the cell’s metabolic capacity. This helps burn fats more efficiently, consume more oxygen, and protect cells from chemical damage from free radicals. These molecules can be thought of as chemicals produced during normal metabolism analogous to “biological rust.” They have been linked to fatigue, overtraining, and suppressed immunity in distance runners. Serious distance runners typically run between 50 and120 miles a week. Interval Training Athletes should practice interval training (HIIT) to increase pace and speed during endurance running. This mode of training builds aerobic capacity quickly. However, because of its high intensity, it is uncomfortable and increases injury risk. International Sports Sciences Association 452 | Unit 8.7 Interval training involves performing repeated exercises at set distances or times. This training mode helps the body move at faster speeds by training the nervous system to react more quickly, increasing the heart’s ability to pump and thus distribute blood throughout the body, and helps cells cope with tremendously increased metabolism, often 25–30 times or more above resting metabolism. The athlete should use HIIT techniques for almost any type of exercise and even motor skill development. For example, a middle-distance runner might perform repeated bouts of 400-meter runs at 90%–100% of maximum effort. The boxer might hit the punching bag for 15, one-minute intervals with one-minute rests between exercise bouts. The swimmer might swim 100 meters at 90% effort for 15 repetitions with three-minute rests between repeats. The four components of interval training include 1. Distance 2. Repetitions 3. Intensity 4. Rest Strength and Conditioning Distance refers to either the distance or time of the exercise interval. Repetition refers to the number of times the exercise is repeated. Intensity is the speed of the exercise, and rest relates to the delay between exercises. Each component of interval training relates to the others. In general, more intense exercise requires fewer repetitions but more rest. For example, a runner performing 400-meter runs at 100% of maximum intensity (speed) might only manage four to six repetitions with long rest intervals (three to five minutes). An athlete working at only 75% of maximum intensity might manage from 8 to 15 repetitions with shorter rest intervals (e.g., 1 minute). Do not practice interval training more than three days a week. This type of exercise is extremely taxing and easily can lead to injury. Teach the athletes to let their bodies tell them how many days they can tolerate without compromising subsequent workouts. If an individual becomes overly tired training three days weekly, cut back to only one to two days. Likewise, if athletes feel good, they should try to increase intensity or volume and observe what happens. The best advice—begin slowly and progress conservatively. Track and Field | 453 Summary Track and field is an incredibly complex sport. Each event involves its own intricate technique and equally complicated training methods. Personal trainers should have thorough knowledge of every event. The personal trainer is responsible primarily for off-season and early season preparation and may assist with in-season conditioning. Strength, power, and speed are critical for the throwing events. Even the strongest athletes will not throw far with poor technique. Training is similar for each throwing event. Athletes should emphasize presses, pulls, and squats in their training programs, and practice plyometric and speed exercises. Javelin throwers should include exercises that increase running speed, prevent rotator cuff injuries (examples include internal and external rotation, raises, empty can exercise), and build the lat muscles (pull-ups and pullovers). Shot-putters should include incline presses and behind-the-neck push presses in their program. Hammer throwers should emphasize cleans and snatches and place less emphasis on bench presses and flys. All throwers are susceptible to low back injuries, so they should perform specific targeted exercises to stabilize the spine (crunches, side bridges, bird-dog exercise). For the most part, sprinters are born and not made. Design a yearlong, periodized resistance-training program that develops strength in the body’s largest muscle groups. Build base strength that includes squats and bench presses and build power strength in cleans, snatches, and jerks. Vaulters and jumpers should train as other power athletes do. They should build base strength during the off-season and concentrate on speed and power as the competitive season nears. Vaulters, in addition to developing leg power and speed, should also build upper body strength. They should emphasize shoulders and lats with pull-ups, pullovers, rowing, and dips. Distance and middle-distance races require a balance between endurance capacity and power output. These athletes should train with weights and plyometrics intensely the way sprinters and throwers do. Runners often include so much distance in their workouts that they do not gain weight or become overly muscular. They develop more peak power to give them speed that wins races. They develop all the endurance they need when doing over-distance training and intervals. International Sports Sciences Association UNIT 8.8 Bodybuilding Bodybuilding | 455 Unit Outline 1. Supersets How Muscle Tissue Changes with Training c. a. d. Unilateral training Protein synthesis b. Muscle tension e. Assisted reps c. f. Paused reps Hormones d. Amino acids and nutritional status g. Eccentric training or negatives e. h. Drop sets Anabolic-catabolic cycles 2. Maximizing Muscle Tension to Promote Muscle Growth a. The Training Goal: Lift One More Pound or Do One More Rep b. Factors Determining Muscle Adaptations 3. Effective Techniques for Increasing Muscle Mass and Strength a. Failure training b. High set weight training i. High-speed (“explosive”) weight training j. Isolated power rack movements k. Hanging weight from a belt 4. Total Muscle Fiber Training Techniques 5. How Often Should Bodybuilders Use High Tension Training Techniques? 6. Program Design 7. Summary Learning Objectives After completing this unit, you will be able to: • Understand that bodybuilding involves building muscle size and symmetry but that increasing strength enhances muscle-building capacity. • Understand factors that promote muscle hypertrophy including muscle tension, hormones, amino acids and nutritional status, and anabolic-catabolic cycles The average personal trainer’s clientele includes bodybuilders and power athletes. Keep in mind that most power athletes (and • Understand techniques for maximizing muscle tension including failure training, high set programs, supersets, unilateral training, assisted reps, paused reps, drop sets, power rack training, and eccentric training. • Understand how bodybuilders can use principles of motor unit recruitment to maximize gains in muscle size and strength. • Understand and demonstrate the ability to design effective training techniques for bodybuilders. bodybuilders) want to look good on the beach, so both groups often include bodybuilding exercises in their workout routines—but International Sports Sciences Association 456 | Unit 8.8 oftentimes too many of them. Likewise, a person interested in building a championship body—or a fit, attractive one—should concentrate on building symmetrical muscles covered by as little fat as possible over the muscle. Serious bodybuilders should not emphasize the clean and jerk and snatch power exercises. The majority of personal trainers care much more about getting their clients large and cut than about understanding the science behind it. That is understandable because most personal trainers are former high school and college athletes—people of action who want to be where the action occurs, not standing on the sidelines. However, acting without thinking is a mistake. From a science standpoint, the physiology of muscle growth is intricate and somewhat complicated. At the cellular level, it can seem like one million miles away from what athletes do in the weight room. But if you do not understand the basics of how to increase muscle size, you can make mistakes that will lose contests or make your clients perform poorly on the playing field. Almost any training program will produce results—but not necessarily the expected results. Athletes are bombarded with countless exercise choices. Choose poorly, and you spin your wheels rather than making consistent progress toward fulfilling your client’s goals. For example, when trying to increase muscle size, should you lift heavy weights for five reps or go to failure using lighter weights? Should you train explosively or do each rep slowly and strictly? You can find the answers to these questions when you know the basics of how muscles respond to different modes of exercise. Strength and Conditioning How Muscle Tissue Changes with Training Muscle represents the body’s largest protein-based tissue. Muscle proteins are constantly constructed and degraded to amino acids, the essential building blocks of proteins. Muscle destruction appears wasteful, but it serves the important function of tissue quality control, eliminating or repairing damaged tissues and allowing the muscles to operate at peak levels. In addition, amino acids released during protein breakdown work to fuel and help maintain desirable levels of circulating blood sugar. Muscle tension, stretch, and injury initiate signals to muscle cell genes responsible for triggering muscle growth. This muscle hypertrophy signal is separate (intrinsic) in each muscle—only the exercised muscle gets bigger, not all the muscles of the limb or the whole body. Scientists believe that sensitive muscle cell tension receptors convert mechanical force into a chemical signal that causes the genes to generate new protein. Genes are located in the nuclei—the cell’s brain centers. Most of the body’s trillions of cells have only one nucleus. In contrast, muscle cells have multiple nuclei, making it easy to add new protein to muscle cells so the muscle increases in size or hypertrophies. The DNA codes inside the nuclei tell the cell how to properly position the sequence of amino acids to make new proteins. Part of muscle cell growth involves the formation of satellite cells—muscle cells that consist of only a single nucleus. Muscle growth factors can cause the satellite cells to combine with Bodybuilding | 457 muscle cells that were stressed or damaged during training for purposes of assisting in cell repair and adaptation. Protein synthesis: As muscles continue to receive increased demands placed upon them as occurs with progressively lifting heavier weights, the activity of the cells’ protein-making machinery increases. A special chemical messenger leucine activates protein-making genes to increase muscle size. Like most chemical signals in the body, signalers regulating muscle protein synthesis are balanced—some cause muscle growth, whereas others prevent growth or trigger atrophy (decrease or breakdown in muscle size). Activation pathways differ in muscles following weight training and endurance cycling. High-intensity muscle contractions as occur during bodybuilding or weightlifting promote muscle strength and growth. In contrast, although low intensity, prolonged distance running or cycling builds muscle cell mitochondria (“energy centers”) and promotes optimal muscle endurance. Genes: Sequence of nucleotides found in the chromosomes that contain coded instructions for protein synthesis. Satellite cells: Small cells found in muscle containing one nucleus that can be integrated into muscle cells to form additional contractile tissue or additional muscle cell nuclei. Leucine: Essential amino acid used as a building block of proteins. It is also a signaling chemical that activates the mammalian target of rapamycin kinase (mTOR) that regulates muscle cell growth. AMP-activated protein kinase system (AMPK): Cellular metabolic pathway that regulates cell uptake of glucose, breakdown of fatty acids, formation of the glucose transporter GLUT4, and formation of mitochondria (powerhouses of the cell). Running or cycling activates the AMP-activated protein kinase system (AMPK). This system serves four important functions: 1. Regulates uptake of blood sugar 2. Promotes fat use for energy 3. Synthesizes glucose transporter Glut-4 4. Produces new mitochondria Endurance exercise depresses the mammalian rapamycin kinase pathway (mTOR), which is linked to muscle hypertrophy. The reverse action occurs following weight training. A controversial research finding is that endurance and strength training (concurrent training) practiced in close proximity (e.g., weight training followed closely by an endurance workout) interferes with the adaptation to both modes of exercise. In other words, one system of training competes with and actually cancels out the beneficial effects of the other training system workouts. A chemical called transforming growth factor (TGF) turns muscle tension during resistance exercise into chemical signals to increase muscle growth. An anti-growth factor—myostatin—prevents muscle cell growth and promotes muscle breakdown or atrophy. Mammalian target of rapamycin kinase (mTOR): Protein that regulates cell growth and protein synthesis. Transforming growth factor (TGF): Protein that controls cell growth and proliferation. Myostatin: Muscle protein that limits cell growth and helps maintain a balance between hypertrophy and increased energy cost of maintaining more muscle mass. International Sports Sciences Association 458 | Unit 8.8 Several companies tout bodybuilding supplements that supposedly inhibit myostatin. Myostatin has many effects in muscle beyond simply inhibiting hypertrophy. These include controlling muscle growth rates and defining basic muscle traits. Bodybuilders should not consume myostatin-blocking supplements. No human studies on these products have been conducted to date. Researchers do not even know whether the products inhibit myostatin. Even if they do so, it is not clear whether blocking myostatin is desirable or even healthy for athletes. Nevertheless, muscle signalers may serve as suitable metabolic targets for important bodybuilding supplements of the future. In the meantime, the best advice is to wait until the supplements are scientifically tested before you purchase them. Simply put, do not believe the hype promoted on supplement and bodybuilding websites. Check out published research (not opinions or testimonials) on PubMed (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed) by entering the term “myostatin human skeletal muscle” in the search bar and look for relevant studies. As of October 23, 2015, there were 575 studies published on this topic from 1997 to 2015. The nucleus acts as the control center for protein production in muscle cells. Specialized cell structures called ribosomes construct proteins from amino acids. The ribosomes receive messages from the protein-making genes in the nucleus to arrange the amino acids into a particular sequence to form a specific protein. For the body’s thousands of enzymes, each one each possesses a unique structural configuration to perform a very specific function. The cells also manufacture enzymes (themselves proteins that tremendously accelerate the rates of chemical reactions). Enzymes play crucial roles in cell function and physical performance. Messenger RNA: Chemicals that transfer genetic information from DNA in genes to ribosomes. Ribosomes: Cell structure that links amino acids together to form proteins. It takes about six to eight weeks of training before measurable changes occur in muscle size. Do not be fooled by this—your muscle cells react within hours following a weight lifting session. The nucleus produces messenger RNA (mRNA) that lines up the amino acids in the ribosomes to create new muscle proteins. Three of these changes include the following: 1. Increases in RNA (important cellular chemical messenger) 2. Enhanced amino acid transport (more amino acids translates to more protein) 3. Changes in the protein makeup of the muscle cells themselves Strength and Conditioning Bodybuilding | 459 Four important factors influence protein production in muscle: 1. Muscle tension 2. Hormones 3. Amino acid concentration 4. Nutritional status Muscle tension: Muscle tension is the most important factor that increases the rate of muscle protein development. Muscle tension speeds the movement of amino acids into the muscle, triggering chemical growth factors that instruct the cell nucleus to build new muscle tissue. Faster movement of amino acids into the muscle translates to a greater protein synthesis rate in the muscle. Optimal muscle growth depends on two factors: 1. Triggering the cell’s tension receptors 2. Increasing the rate of amino acid entry into the cell Any training program designed to stimulate muscle growth should attempt to maximize muscle tension intensity and duration Hormones: These four important hormones affect muscle protein synthesis: 1. Testosterone 2. Growth hormone 3. Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) 4. Insulin Each hormone influences muscle cell nuclei and their messengers to speed muscle protein production. Insulin also speeds the movement of amino acids into the muscle cell. Amino acids primarily enter muscle cells by the sodium pump mechanism. Insulin speeds the action of the sodium pump, thus increasing the rate of amino acid transport into the cell. This is critical for muscle growth—greater amino acid transport into the muscle cell translates to a greater rate of muscle hypertrophy. Other hormones cause protein breakdown. The most important of these are the corticosteroids produced by the adrenal glands (relatively small hormone-secreting glands that lie on top of each kidney). Cortisol, a corticosteroid hormone, is produced during times of stress. This hormone increases almost immediately following a hard workout or during periods of overtraining. With overtraining, the blood levels of these hormones rises but testosterone levels fall. This creates a catabolic state—where gains in muscle size are simply impossible despite the best efforts of the people trying to maintain their workout regimen. Amino acids and nutritional status: Optimal amino acid transport requires an adequate concentration of amino acids in the blood and muscles. Typically this is not of concern because most athletes consume adequate protein in their daily diet to amply supply the muscles with sufficient amino acids. Nevertheless, during intense training, extensive soft tissue injury, overtraining (fatigue state where previous max or endurance lifts cannot be completed), or amino acid concentration may be inadequate. Many recent studies report that consuming at least 25 grams of protein (almost one ounce—28.4 g = 1 ounce) and three grams of leucine post-training promotes muscle protein synthesis. Energy intake also is important. If the athlete does not consume enough calories, the body degrades or breaks down its structural proteins to continue the body’s thousands of energy requiring reactions to maintain normal physiologic function. International Sports Sciences Association 460 | Unit 8.8 Protein turnover: Balance between protein synthesis and protein breakdown. Anabolic-catabolic cycles: As any bodybuilder or weightlifter can tell you, training does not lead to continual gains in muscle size. Invariably, muscle size increases for a while and then levels off and sometimes regresses. One reason for this is protein turnover—the constant buildup and breakdown of structural proteins. Muscles tend to grow in an optimal training environment (i.e., good muscle tension during training and ideal concentrations of anabolic hormones and amino acids) to produce an anabolic or growing phase. If training and nutritional considerations are suboptimal, fewer training gains occur. The goal of the training program should be to remain anabolic and avoid catabolic periods. This can be accomplished by optimizing tension in the workout by using cycles. Intense workouts increase muscle size. To train intensely, everybody requires adequate rest. If the athletes over do it every time they go into the weight room, they never will recover enough to train hard. The quality of the training stimulus provides the key to maximizing muscle protein synthesis. This is the take-home message: design the program to emphasize intense workouts. Maximizing Muscle Tension to Promote Muscle Growth Tension builds muscle size—the more the better. The only way you can help clients develop cannon ball arms, boa constrictor back muscles, washboard abs, or tree trunk legs is if they push muscles to the max and then push them some more. Choose exercises that isolate and stress muscles, and then turn up the workout intensity. It may seem counterintuitive, but tension causes small muscle injuries that the body repairs by laying down new proteins. Tension draws amino acids—the raw ingredients that make new protein—into the muscles for growth. High-intensity workouts also shift anabolic hormones (growth hormone, insulin, testosterone) into overdrive and trigger muscles to construct new protein. Muscle grows best by combining high-tension workouts with adequate protein, adequate calories, adequate rest, and some muscle-building, non-drug supplements. Bodybuilding magazines are filled with articles on overtraining. Strength and Conditioning Bodybuilding | 461 They link excessive exercise with injury, illness, and stalled progress. Some bodybuilders train too hard, but they are in the minority. Do not kid yourself—if your clients do not have the bodies they want, it is probably because they do not train hard enough. Ask yourself the following five questions: 1. Do they usually do their scheduled workout— even when they are too busy, too tired, or have better things to do? 2. Do they focus when they train? Do they spend excessive time speaking on their cell phones and socializing? 3. Do they complete all the reps in their planned program? 4. Do they work out to maximum intensity? 5. Do you use proven overload techniques to help clients improve? If you answered no to any of these questions, then your clients are not training hard enough and unfortunately likely will not develop the bodies they seek. The Training Goal: Lift One More Pound or Do One More Rep Muscles grow when you overload them because muscles generally resist stress. When you work muscles to their max during a bodybuilding workout, the muscle lays down new proteins because larger muscles are more difficult to stress. Muscles adapt to stress quickly. If you do the same workout every time you go to the gym, your muscles have little further need to construct new tissue. The crucial point is this—muscles only grow when continually stressed. Adaptation to stress in muscles takes time. One should not expect to go from a sedentary couch potato to Mr. or Ms. Olympia overnight. Rather, it takes a series of adaptations: Stress the muscles, and they get larger; stress them more, and they become even larger, and so on. The athlete’s goal is to make a series of small gains. For every workout, emphasize that athletes should try to lift just one more pound or do one more rep than they did previously. Muscles make gains when continually coaxed to accomplish somewhat more than before. Consistency is the key in such endeavors. Effective Techniques for Increasing Muscle Mass and Strength In the 1950s and 1960s, pioneering scientists Thomas Delorme and Pat O’Shea developed the concept of progressive overload—gradual increases in training stress increase strength, power, and endurance. Progressive overload represents a fundamental principle for achieving success in fitness training, weightlifting, high-intensity training, and physical rehabilitation. Overload training methods promote muscle mass and strength. These include failure training, high set training, supersets, unilateral training, whole-body training, assisted reps, paused reps, eccentric training (negatives), drop sets, high-speed weight training, total muscle fiber training techniques, power rack training, and added weight training. Failure training: Failure training typically involves performing as many reps as possible. This technique maximizes recruitment International Sports Sciences Association 462 | Unit 8.8 of fast- and slow-twitch muscle fibers and provides an excellent way to promote hypertrophy. Failure training increases muscle mass and strength slightly better than traditional weight training techniques do. Use the heaviest weight you can when training to failure while still completing the required reps with good form. Heavy load exercise recruits more motor units than does light load exercise. Motor units are trained in direct proportion to their recruitment or activation. Remember that a motor unit consists of a single motor nerve connected to muscle fibers. The brain “turns on” motor units to contract muscles—the more motor units it activates, the greater the force produced. Motor unit activation, as measured by peak EMG amplitude, is greatest when training at 90% of one-repetition maximum (1-RM) to failure compared with training at 70% or 50% of 1-RM to failure. Heavier loads maximize strength and hypertrophy. This is important information to continually reinforce to bodybuilders and power athletes. Failure training, however, also delays recovery. In power sports requiring movement skills, failure training could interfere with sports practice. In addition, excessive training to failure as used in “boot camp” training methods increases the risk of rhabdomyolysis—muscle cell destruction that can cause kidney failure and death. The basic idea is to train hard, but not so hard that it destroys muscle cells. High set weight training: Among novice weight trainers, most studies show that one set is as effective as are multiple sets to increase strength and power. However, this concept is highly controversial. Critics contend that Strength and Conditioning most of these studies were poorly controlled and did not pay close enough attention to the intensity of the training programs. In contrast, recent properly controlled studies lasting three to six months determined that five sets per weight-training exercise was superior to three or one set for building muscle mass and strength. These studies tracked the test subjects meticulously to ensure they complied with the assigned workouts. Supersets: Supersets involve working a muscle group and then immediately working an antagonistic muscle group—giving the first exercised muscle group a rest (see Table 8.8-1). Muscle growth depends on high muscle tension and the length of time the tension is applied. During superset workouts, you put target muscles—such as the biceps—under intense stress and then hit the Table 8.8-1: Sample Arm Workout Using Supersets Perform this arm workout two times weekly. Superset triceps exercises with biceps exercises. Rest 30 seconds between exercises. • Skull crushers (with E-Z bar) (3 sets of 12 repetitions) • Seated alternate incline dumbbell curls (3 × 12) • Seated one-arm dumbbell triceps extensions (3 × 12) • Concentrated Curls (3 x 12) • Lying Two-Arm French Press with Dumbbells (3 × 12) • Two-Arm Preacher Curls with Straight Bar (3 × 12) • Dips between Benches (3 × 12) • One Arm Preacher Curls (3 × 12) • Triceps Push Downs (3 × 12) • Standing Two-Arm Overhead Biceps Cable Curls (3 × 12) Forearm Superset • Seated Wrist Curls (5 × 12) • Standing Reverse Curls (5 × 12) Bodybuilding | 463 triceps, and after a short rest, you hit the biceps again. Unlike other methods that involve training one muscle group at a time, you stress a muscle group and let it rest while you stress another muscle group. This allows the athlete to exhaust several groups during a workout. Supersets: Exercising a particular muscle group and then immediately exercising an antagonistic muscle group—allowing the first muscle group to rest Supersets decrease the rest time between sets. Some experts have criticized this technique because it cuts down on the amount of weight lifted during each set. An opposing view is that this technique increases the overall muscle tension to promote growth. Supersets satisfy the most important stimuli for building muscle—high levels of muscle tension applied for a long time. At the end of this intense workout, you have stressed your arms to the max. The hard work not only builds muscles but also burns considerable calories during and following the workout. Increased caloric consumption helps control body composition (mainly to resist increases in body fat). Unilateral Training: You can stress muscles more unilaterally (working one side of the body at a time) than bilaterally (working both sides of the body at the same time—e.g., simultaneous bicep curls). Unilateral training helps isolate muscles better than training both sides of the body simultaneously does. This type of training “awakens” muscles to make them adapt faster. Unilateral training increases muscle blood flow better than bilateral training does, which promotes growth. Unilateral training improves muscle symmetry—making muscles look more balanced. Unilateral training works core muscles because they stabilize the torso when handling uneven loads. Unilateral training: Exercises using only one limb at a time as opposed to traditional training exercises using both limbs simultaneously. Unilateral training creates more muscle involvement because of bilateral deficit. This means that the total weight the athlete can lift with each limb working independently exceeds that of two limbs working together. An example is the biceps curl. Adding up the weight lifted with each arm is greater than the total weight lifted with both arms. In addition, unilateral training increases the strength of the inactive side—a little known fact of neurophysiology called cross education. If you perform biceps curls with your right arm, your left arm benefits from a small training effect—in reality, without doing anything. Granted, the gains are minimal, but they exist. Combining unilateral and bilateral training provides the necessary stressors to promote muscle hypertrophy. International Sports Sciences Association 464 | Unit 8.8 Whole-body training: Workouts that target the body’s major muscles in a single workout as opposed to split routines that work isolated muscle groups (e.g., lower body, arms, chest, and shoulders). Whole-body training vs. split routines: Most serious bodybuilders practice split routines that target each workout to a specific body part. For example, chest and triceps on Monday; back and biceps on Tuesday; shoulders on Thursday; legs on Friday; and rest on Wednesday, Saturday, and Sunday. Each workout exhaustively targets specific muscle groups, but they are only targeted once weekly. Split routines allow athletes to train more intensely while performing the same training volume. They may promote muscle growth, enhance neuromuscular performance, and prevent overtraining. University of Oklahoma researchers, in a 2010 study of 10 nationally ranked weightlifters, reported no difference in weightlifting performance, isometric knee-extension strength, muscle size, or vertical jump in athletes who used single or split routines three times a week for three weeks. However, the split training group showed greater muscle activation rates assessed by electromyography (EMG). Three weeks is not long enough to judge a training program’s effectiveness. The EMG finding may mean that the athletes were better prepared to exert maximum force during workouts. Split routines may allow greater training intensity with less overtraining risk, but more research is required to determine whether these programs are truly effective. This pioneering study was important because it examined training responses in elite athletes. Unfortunately, muscle groups become deconditioned when they are only trained once a week. Several recent studies reported that whole-body workouts practiced three days a week were superior to split workouts emphasizing specific muscle groups only one time weekly. The idea behind split routines allows athletes to train specific muscle groups more intensely with the same training volume. Some bodybuilders believe this form of training may promote muscle growth, enhance neuromuscular performance, and prevent overtraining. Training muscle groups more frequently produces more hypertrophy. These studies used college students who were relatively untrained, so it is difficult to determine whether the results apply to elite bodybuilders. Moreover, training the large muscles in the chest and shoulders also builds the arms, so they are developed during non-arm days. Strength and Conditioning Bodybuilding | 465 Three factors affect muscle performance and the gains made in a training program: 1. Muscle structure 2. Neural activation 3. Mechanical factors Structural changes include alterations to the proteins that cause contraction, the addition of new blood vessels that surround muscle cells, and increased connective tissues that supports the contracting proteins. Neural changes include increased use of more fibers during movement and improved coordination between and within muscles. Mechanical factors include alterations in a reflex that controls stretch and contraction and the influence of muscle length on its performance. Each factor can exhibit a different effect on different athletes. Bodybuilders, for example, should concentrate on altering muscle structure. Olympic lifts and plyometrics, exercise modes that develop power, are not central to the goals of bodybuilding. This contrasts with the main goal—to develop large symmetrical muscles covered by a minimum fat layer. Some of your clients, including throwers, football players, or golfers, will make the mistake of including too many bodybuilding exercises. These athletes place greater emphasis on building big arm and chest muscles than concentrating on developing skill and power for their sport. When you work with power athletes, build strength and help them learn to “turn on” their muscles rapidly and with power. Perform large muscle exercises accompanied by techniques that build skill, speed, and power. The message to bodybuilders and power athletes is to focus on their main objectives. Assisted reps: Having a spotter help you with those last few difficult reps is one of the easiest ways to accomplish a high-tension workout. You can apply this technique with any exercise. As the exercise becomes more difficult, have the spotter give you just enough assistance to finish the set. Do not give up during a difficult set. If you continue to push hard, you will need surprisingly little help from your spotter. The name “magic fingers” applies because Assisted reps, “magic fingers”: Spotter gives assistance during maximal reps. Magic fingers refers to assistance of one or two fingers during a bench press that “magically” helps the lifter. International Sports Sciences Association 466 | Unit 8.8 the weight goes up with minimal assistance from the spotter; often, only a finger on the bar will make it move. Assisted reps help produce maximum muscle tension and optimize the workout. Paused reps: Pausing during the unloaded part of an exercise (e.g., lockout during a bench or squat), which allows for some recovery of the ATP-CP system to increase the total workload of a set. Paused Reps: The athletes can do more reps in their workouts if they pause regularly in the middle of sets. Pause in the unloaded part of the motion—the lockout position when doing the bench, incline, or dips and with the machine unloaded during the pecdeck exercise. Intense muscle contractions require energy from the high-energy compounds adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP). The maximum capacity of ATP and CP lasts approximately three seconds. These energy resources deplete rapidly during intense weight training, which is the primary reason those last few reps of an exercise are so difficult. Pausing for 5–15 seconds in the middle of a set allows muscles to recover rapidly by replenishing the muscle’s ATP and CP stores and to consequently perform more reps and work harder. Muscles grow in response to tension and amount of time they remain under tension. Negatives: Exercises that emphasize the eccentric component of an exercise— lengthening contractions. Eccentric Training or Negatives: Muscles create more tension contracting eccentrically (lowering the weight) than contracting concentrically (pushing or pulling the weight). Bodybuilders call eccentric exercises negatives. Negatives or eccentric muscle actions create more muscle tension than any other mode of resistance exercise does. Furthermore, fast eccentric contractions create more muscle tension than do slow eccentric contractions. During conventional bench press or squat lifts, athletes can lower more weight than they can push during the lift. The individual creates more muscle tension contracting the muscles eccentrically (lowering the weight) than contracting them concentrically (pushing the weight). Negatives can be performed for almost any exercise. There are two basic ways to apply this technique: Use more weight than normal. Lower the weight under control and then have a spotter help raise the weight to the starting position. Use a normal weight, but lower the weight slowly into the pushing position. For example, when doing dumbbell bench negatives, lower Strength and Conditioning Bodybuilding | 467 the dumbbells to the chest slowly and then push them back to the starting position rapidly. Use experienced spotters when performing negatives. Use heavy weights when doing negatives, particularly during squats or bench presses. There is nothing more disturbing (and potentially dangerous to cause serious injury) than getting a weight stuck on your chest because of an inexperienced person as the spotter. The power rack is a great place to perform squat or bench press negatives. Start by placing the bar on the “J” hooks (weight holders) and adjust the pins so they are located just below the lowest part of your squat or bench press. To get the right pin setting, try squatting or benching with just the bar without weight plates and have a training partner help you insert the pins in the right position. Following a warm-up, place weights on the bar equal to 100% of your max. Lower the weight to the newly placed pins just above chest or desired squat level. Have spotters help return the bar to the “J” hooks. Next, increase the weight (now greater than 100% of max) and again lower the bar to the pins. Using the power rack for negatives will safely create an incredible amount of muscle tension and overload that will build muscle size and strength rapidly. Do not overdo this technique because doing so is

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