LiNGUA Vol. x, No. y, Month Year • ISSN 1693-4725 • e-ISSN 2442-3823
COMPLEX PREDICATES IN NOVEL: STORIES FOR RAINY DAYS
Rizky Ainun Maftuhah1, Mulyadi2
[1] ainunmaftuhah0609@gmail.com, [2] mulyadi@usu.ac.id
[1], [2] Universitas
Sumatera Utara
Medan, Indonesia
Abstract: The complicated predicates in the book Stories for Rainy Days are examined in this study.
This study uses the X-Bar Theory to examine the intricate predicate in the book Stories for Rainy
Days. This study employed a qualitative methodology. The distribution method, which is a
component of language itself and is the determining tool, was the methodology used in this study.
Based on data from the book Stories for Rainy Days, there are four different categories of complex
English predicates: (1) vtransitive + vtransitive; (2) vintransitive + vintransitive. Vintransitive plus
Vtransitive, (4) In Stories for Rainy Days, the study of the X-bar theory of complicated predicate
construction in English is created from verbs that happen when two or more verbs are attached side
by side and both of them act as a single predicate.
Keywords: Complex predicate, Stories for Rainy Days, X-Bar theory
INTRODUCTION
Novel is one of the media that can grab
people’s attraction to read a story. Basically
novel could be enjoyed not only for adults but
also for all ages. That why novel has been
becoming a literature that still shows its
existence until now. The art of the language
used in novel could make the ones who read it
getting lost in the story. Sometimes it
influences our emotion while reading it. Stories
of Rainy Days by Naela Ali is one of the
interesting novel which talks about love, hope,
and dream.
The thing that the researcher concerned
about from this novel is the structure of verbs
which can be found in this novel. The
researcher found many sentences which
consist of more than one predicates in a
sentence. Eventhough it has two predicates in
one sentence but they collaborate to create one
meaning in that sentence. The researcher is
interested in focusing this research to analyse
sentences which consist of more than one
predicates.
For example : ‘I wanted to stay in love with that
man.’
According to the novel’s quote above, can
be seen that it has two verbs, which are
devided into ‘wanted’ as transitive verb and
‘stay’ as intransitive verb. Both predicates
above are forming a single clause, called
complex predicate.
Butt (1993:3) states that a complex
predicate will be formed if there are two or
more elements forming a relationship between
the subject and the object. Each predicate
element adds an argument to the predicate
mono-clause. Besides, Complex predicates are
defined as multi-core predicates, namely
predicates composed of more than one
grammatical element (either morpheme or
word), each of which contributes to providing
information related to one core (Alsina 1997:
10). Furthermore, Hinrichs (1998) also said
that a complex predicate is a construction in
which the core joins arguments derived from
other predicates. In this case, there are two
verbs that form the predicate. The two verbs
are interrelated and cannot be separated.
LiNGUA Vol. x, No. y, Month Year • ISSN 1693-4725 • e-ISSN 2442-3823
Research on complex predicates has been
carried out by many experts, such as Butt
(1993) with the title "The Structure of Complex
Predicates in Urdu." This research has
examined two different types of complex
predicates in Urdu and proposed a theory of
the formation of complex predicates that
allows unification of the diversity of Urdu
linguistic units. In particular, the evidence from
permissiveness suggests that complex
predicate states do not have to be coded
structurally. In addition, the evidence for
coordination, negation, and randomization
shows that each of the two constructions
allows for two different realizations of phrase
structures. In addition, Toledo (2008), with the
title "The Family of Complex Predicates in
Q'Anjob'Al (Maya); Their Syntax and Meaning,"
In this study, it was revealed that V1V2 was the
cause and complement of a single event.
However, the complex predicate is all directly
related to the situational aspect. Specifically,
this study reveals that the V1V2 results form a
single event. Next is Krauße (2021) with the
title "Towards a Theory of Complex Predicates
in Australian and Oceanic Languages." This
research compares three terms, namely,
complex predicate, coverb, and serial verb.
Krauße argues that the three terms have
different phonemes
Based on the previous studies above, the
researcher found the gap with this research.
None of them using X-Bar theory to analyze
complex predicate syntactically. Also, the data
of the previous studies above is based on
spoken language, none of them using literature
or any kinds of books. The last one is on the
object of research. This research is focusing on
complex predicate in English based on novel.
Complex predicates have the following
characteristics: (1) consisting of predictive
predicate order as one unity; (2) being formed
from two or more core verbs; (3) forming a
single clause and side by side; and (4) having
the same aspects and negation (Subiyanto,
2010). There are two types of complex
predicates in Lithuanian, according to Nolan
(2017): (1) the predicate of a noun complex
consisting of (V + NP) and (2) the predicate of
a complex verb consisting of (V + Vinf).
2 | Article’s Short Title (Cambria Italic 9)
Based on the previous research described
above, it can be concluded that a complex
predicate is made up of two predicate elements
that will have a single meaning. In contrast to
the previous studies described above, this
research uses a syntactical study to examine
the construction of complex predicates in novel
stories for rainy days. Complex predicates are
important to study because they are a
challenge for writers to analyze grammatical
phenomena such as argument structure, event
structure, and disturbances between grammar
levels (Toledo: 2008). As in other complex
predicate studies, problems with predicates
are the main focus of analysis. The researcher
is interested in examining the complex
predicates in this novel because of the many
figurative words used and the combination of
two verbs into a single meaning. And this novel
is quite popular because there are illustrations
in the form of pictures in it, which make this
novel quite eye-catching. Another difference
between this study and previous research is in
the theory used. In this study, researchers will
use the X-bar theory put forward by Noam
Chomsky in analyzing the findings obtained.
This theory was initially applied at the
level of phrases (with the symbol X’’) and
intermediate
categories
(intermediate
categories), namely categories that are larger
than words but smaller than phrases (symbol
X’). Noam Chomsky suggests that phrases have
the same structure and must be studied
explicitly. In X-bar theory, all phrases are
dominated by a lexical core, namely the
terminal node that dominates the word
(Haegemen, 1992), and the X-bar theory itself
can be represented through a tree diagram,
also called the syntactic level. At this level, a
lexical category, such as a noun, verb, or
adjective, can be symbolized by X, which is
formed by complements, adverbs, and
specifiers. X-bar theory on sentence structure
is dominated by inflectional phrases (FI) as the
maximum phrases that can be aligned with the
inner S standard transformation grammar
(Chomsky, 1965:128). A higher level than FI is
a complementary phrase (complementarizer
phrase), which can be aligned with the S'
projection. These terms, according to
Haegeman (1992) and Radford (1988), refer to
clause and sentence structure rules, similar to
the rules in the x-bar theory. Complex
LiNGUA Vol. x, No. y, Month Year • ISSN 1693-4725 • e-ISSN 2442-3823
predicates can be analyzed using the x-bar
theory, which is depicted using a tree diagram.
Sells (1985) suggests that the idea in X-bar
theory is that in the internal structure of
different phrases in a language, the same
pattern is found in each element. This theory is
in line with the research that will be conducted
by the researcher, namely, analyzing the
pattern of the formation of Complex English
Predicates in the novel Stories for Rainy Days.
METHOD
This study will use a qualitative approach
with interactive methods (Miles et al., 2014) in
the study of the X-bar theory. Moleong (2007:
6) interprets qualitative research as research
that aims to understand the phenomena
experienced by research subjects. Moleong's
opinion is in line with Bogdan and Taylor's
(1975), where they imply that qualitative
research also includes the methodology used
for research procedures that produce
descriptive data. Descriptive data is data
written
using
words
in
detail.
As for what is meant by the descriptive method,
it is a method that solves problems or answers
the problems faced by collecting data,
classifying them, ranking errors, explaining
errors, estimating or predicting areas where
errors are located, correcting errors, and if
possible, eliminating errors through the
preparation of appropriate materials, good
handbooks,
and
appropriate
teaching
techniques
(Tarigan,
1990).
Meanwhile,
according
to
Whitney
(Andymontero, 2016: 6), the descriptive
method is a search for facts with the right
interpretation. Descriptive research studies
the problems in society as well as the
procedures that apply in society in certain
situations, including the relationship between
activities, attitudes, and views, as well as
ongoing processes and the influence of a
phenomenon. Descriptive research is a
research method that seeks to describe the
object or subject under study in accordance
with what it is.
The method must describe the research
approach, subjects of the study, the research
procedure, the materials and instruments
utilized in the study, and the data collection
and analysis processes in a concise manner.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The dominant category that serves as a
predicate (P) in a clause is the verb. Because it
is always present in a clause and serves to
control the appearance of other syntactic
functions, the P function occupies a position or
role that is greater than that of other syntactic
functions. According to Kridalaksana (2008:
19) there are two categories of verbs called
transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. Those
verbs that need the function O are known as
transitive verbs. Verbs that do not require the
letter O are known as intransitive verbs
(Kridalaksdana, 1985:54).
The complex predicates in the novel
Stories for Rainy Days can be classified into
four types based on the data obtained: (1)
transitive verbs + transitive verbs, (2)
intransitive verbs + intransitive verbs , (3)
transitive verbs + intransitive verbs, and (4)
intransitive verbs + transitive verbs.
TYPE 1 (transitive verbs + transitive verbs)
1. You cannot always get what you want
2. I could not take it anymore
TYPE 2 (intransitive verbs +
verbs)
1. He arrived to come here
2. She goes dancing.
intransitive
TYPE 3 (transitive verbs + intransitive verbs)
1. I could not promise anything
TYPE 4 (intransitive verbs + transitive verbs)
1. I went to buy a hairbrush.
From some of the aforementioned data,
numerous steps have been taken, including
data collecting and data analysis. The findings
of the data analysis are then presented in the
form of data in a tree diagram using the X-bar
theory.
TYPE 1 (transitive verbs + transitive verbs)
This type of complex predicate is formed
from a predicate followed by an object plus a
predicate followed by an object. In sentence 1,
the subject "you" is followed by two predicates,
namely "can" and "get," which are mutually
exclusive side by side, and at the end of the
sentence by the object "what you want." While
in sentence 1 Subject I is followed by the
Author’s Name | 3
LiNGUA Vol. x, No. y, Month Year • ISSN 1693-4725 • e-ISSN 2442-3823
predicate could and take followed by it object
(which is a pronoun)
1) You can not always get what you want.
F1
Spes
3) He arrived to come here
I’
I
’
FV
V’
V
V FN
You cannot always get what you
want
2) I could not take it anymore
He
went
to come
here
4) She goes dancing
F1
Spes
I’
I
’
FV
V’
V
V FN
I could not take it anymore
TYPE 2 (intransitive verbs +
intransitive verbs)
This type of predicate is formed by
combining a predicate that is not followed
by an object with a predicate that is not
followed by an object but is followed by a
predicate, complement, or description. In
sentence 3, the subject, he, is followed by
the predicates went and to come, but they
are not followed by the object and are
followed by the adverb ‘here’. In sentence
4, the subject is only followed by two
predicates, namely, goes and dancing, and
is not followed by objects, other
predicates, complements, or adverbs.
4 | Article’s Short Title (Cambria Italic 9)
She
goes
dancing
TYPE 3 (transitive verbs + intransitive
verbs)
5) I could not promise anything
Predicates that are followed by objects and
those that are not are combined to generate
complex predicates of this type. Both apparent
or inferred items and organized objects The
predicates "could not" and "promised" are
placed after the subject "I" in clause 3(a), which
is then followed by the object "anything."
LiNGUA Vol. x, No. y, Month Year • ISSN 1693-4725 • e-ISSN 2442-3823
V
I could not promise anything
TYPE 4 (intransitive verbs + transitive
verbs)
This complex predicate is formed from a
predicate that is not followed by an object,
followed by a predicate, followed by a subject. In
sentence 4, subject I is followed by the predicate
went, which is not followed by the object, but in
the predicate to buy, it is followed by the
hairbrush object.
6) I went to buy a hairbrush
CONCLUSION
The English complex predicate in the
book Stories for Rainy Days has four types,
namely (1) Vtransitive + Vtransitive, (2)
Vintrasitive + Vintransitive, (3) V + transitive +
Vintransitive, and (4) Vintransitive +
Vtransitive, as shown by the results of the data
analysis and presentation of the data in the
form of a tree diagram above. In "Stories for
Rainy Days," the X-bar theory of complex
predicate construction in English is made up of
verbs that take place when two or more verbs
are attached side by side and both function as a
single predicate. A construct with two or more
elements is said to as having a single core to
which each of these pieces contributes
information.
REFERENCE
Abeillé, A. & D. Godard (2002). The Syntactic Structure of French Auxiliaries. Language 78(3):
404- 452.
Abeillé, A.; D. Godard & I. A. Sag (1998). Two Kinds of Composition in French Complex
Predicates. In Hinrichs, Erhard; Kathol, Andreas; Nakazawa, Tsuneko: Complex
Predicates in Nonderivational Syntax (pp. 1-41). San Diego, London: Academic Press.
Adger, D. (2003). Core Syntax: A Minimalist Approach. Oxford, New York: Oxford University
Press. ——— (2007). Three domains of finiteness: a Minimalist perspective. In Nikolaeva,
Irina: Finiteness: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations (pp. 23-58). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Aikhenvald, A. Y. (2006a). Serial Verb Constructions in Tariana. In Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.;
Dixon, Robert M. W.: Serial Verb Constructions: A Cross-linguistic Typology (pp. 178201). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Aikhenvald, A. Y., P. C. Muysken & J. Birchall (eds.) (2011). Multi-verb Constructions: A view from
the Americas. Leiden, Boston: Brill.
Author’s Name | 5
LiNGUA Vol. x, No. y, Month Year • ISSN 1693-4725 • e-ISSN 2442-3823
Alsina, A. (1997). A Theory of Complex Predicates: Causatives in Bantu and Romance. In Alsina,
Alex; Bresnan, Joan; Sells, Peter: Complex Predicates (pp. 203-246). Stanford: CSLI
Publications.
Alsina, A., J. Bresnan & P. Sells (eds.) (1997). Complex Predicates. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Altakhaineh, A. R. M. & A. Zibin (2018). Verb + verb compound and serial verb construction in
Jordanian Arabic (JA) and English. Lingua 201: 45-56.
Amberber, M. (2010). The structure of the light verb construction in Amharic. Dalam Amberber,
Mengistu; Baker, Brett; Harvey, Mark: Complex Predicates: Cross-linguistic Perspectives
on Event Structure (pp. 291-318). Cambridge: New York; Cambridge University Press.
Amberber, M.; B. Baker & M. Harvey (2007). Complex predication and the coverb construction.
In Siegel, Jeff; Lynch, John; Eades, Diana: Language Description, History and Development:
Linguistic indulgence in memory of Terry Crowley (pp. 209-219).
Amsterdam,
Philadelphia:
John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Baker, B. & M. Harvey (2010). Complex predicate formation. In Amberber, Mengistu; Baker, Brett;
Harvey, Mark: Complex Predicates: Cross-linguistic Perspectives on Event Structure (pp. 13- 47).
Cambridge: New York; Cambridge University Press
Barth, D. & G. D. S. Anderson (2015). Directional Constructions in Matukar Panau. Oceanic
Linguistics 54(1): 206-239.
Bogdan dan Taylor. 1975. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: Remadja Karya
Dixon, R. M. W. (ed.) (1976). Grammatical Categories in Australian Languages. Canberra:
Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
Dione, C. B. (2013). Valency Change and Complex Predicates in Wolof: An LFG Account. In Butt,
Miriam; King, Tracy Holloway: Proceedings of the LFG13 Conference. Stanford:
CSLI
Publications
Harvey, M. & D. Krauße (2019). Wagiman Language Corpus 1980-2016: Collected and
transcribed by Mark Harvey & Stephen Wilson. Unpublished manuscript.
Harvey, M. & R. Mailhammer (2018). Reconstructing remote relationships. Diachronica 34(4):
470- 515.
Hamidi. 2008. Metode Penelitian Kualitatif. Malang: Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang Press.
Krauße, D. (2021). Toward a Theory of Complex Predicates in Australian and Oceanic Languages
Kathol, Andreas. 1998. Constituency and linearization of verbal complexes. In Erhard W.
Hinrichs, Andreas Kathol & Tsuneko Nakazawa (eds.), Complex predicates in
nonderivational syntax (Syntax and Semantics 30), 221–270. San Diego, CA: Academic
Press. DOI: 10.1163/9780585492223_007
Latifah, Mulyadi. (2020). Predikat kompleks dalam bahasa angkola mandailing. Jurnal Litera,
19(1), 22-26
Mulyadi. (2010). Frasa Preposisi Bahasa Indonesia: Analisis X-Bar. Jurnal Kajian Sastra, 34(1),
1-12. http:// ejournal.undip.ac.id/index.php/ kajiansastra/editor/ submission/2671.
Miles, M.B., Huberman, M., Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook
(edisi 3).
Thirdedition. Sage: London.
Moloeng, Lexy J. 2007. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif. Edisi Revisi. Bandung : PT Remaja
Rosdakarya
Maryadi, dkk. 2010. Pedoman Penulisan Skripsi FKIP. Surakarta: Universitas
Sugiyono. 2005. Memahami Penelitian Kualitatif. Bandung: CV. Alfabeta.
_______. 2011. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan Pendekatan Kuantitatif, Kualitatif dan R&D.
Bandung: Alfabeta.
_______. 2012. Motode Penelitian Kombinasi (Mixed Methods).Bandung: Alfabeta.
Tarigan, Henry Guntur. 1990. Menulis sebagai Suatu Keterampilan Berbahasa. Bandung:
Angkasa.
6 | Article’s Short Title (Cambria Italic 9)