1. Stylistics as a subject, its aims and objectives. Expressive means and stylistic devices
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics, concerned with the study of style in texts, esp. literary works; a linguistic
approach to literary understanding; a method of textual interpretation in which primary role belongs to language.
There’re 4 types of S.:
-descriptive S. (studies stable and invariant stylistic meanings);
-functional S. (studies classes of texts used in particular situations of communication);
-S. of individual speech (studies styles of concrete texts/groups of texts by the same author);
-contrastive (comparative) S.
Aims of S. (acc.to Galperin):
-to study the special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance. These special language
means are called stylistic devices and expressive means;
-to study the types of texts which are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication. They are called
functional styles of language.
Expressive means are those phonetic, morphological and syntactical forms which exist in language as a system for
the purpose of logical and\or emotional intensification of the utterance. Expressive means can be found at every
level of the language:
a) Phonetic: pitch, melody, stress, pausation, intonation, etc. They are very effective in intensifying an utterance
emotionally/logically.
b) Word-building means: suffixes -y, -ie, -let;
c) Lexical: interjections, words which have both referential and emotive meanings, phraseological units, etc.
d) Syntactical: emphatic constructions.
Stylistic device (SD) is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic
property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative
model. SDs are spontaneous, they’re created for a particular situation.
Branches:
1. Stylistics of language and Stylistics of speech. Difference – in material. Stylistics of language –
permanent stylistic properties. Stylistics of speech – stylistic properties which appear in the context.
2. Literary and Linguistic Stylistics. Common objects and points of research. Both – literary context, poetic
speech, etc. Linguistic Stylistics – functional styles and linguistic nature of different means.
3. Comparative Stylistics – more than one language.
4. Decoding Stylistics – a new branch of Stylistics based on the idea that each act of speech has a centre, the
speaker encodes the message, the receiver – decodes it. Aim – to minimize the losses of info in the process
of decoding.
5. Functional Stylistics – studies functional style.
6. Stylistic Phonetics – pronunciation, etc.
7. Stylistic Lexicology – structure of words, etc.
8. Stylistic Grammar – studies morphemes and Syntax.
2. Two types of stylistic information. The semantic structure of a word. Denotation and connotations. Types
of connotations
1) functional styles - the relations between the interlocutors. In some situations these relations may be unrestrained,
friendly, easy-going or intimate- informal style of speech. In other situations the relations between the interlocutors
may be restrained , strictly official, deliberately polite - formal style, which is generally characteristic of written
language. The formal style is used in the genres of official or business documents, of scientific or publicist works.
2) emotional character of speech. In this respect we can distinguish:
1) an emotionally coloured style of speech (solemn, passionate, sarcastic, derogatory, rude, endearing)
2) a deliberately unemotional, or "cold" style of speech (such as scientific, official or business speech, where the
speaker tends to make his speech impersonal and avoid any emotional or evaluating elements)
3) a neutral style of speech (neither emotionally coloured nor deliberately devoid of emotion)
Semantic structure of a word (acc.to Galperin):
1)Logical meaning (denotative)
2)Nominal meaning (ability of the word to nominate an object, proper nouns only!)
3)Emotive meaning (feelings, emotions of the speaker towards the object/person/etc)
There’re two types of meaning:
1)Denotative (object/person/phenomenon that is named):
a)General; b)Personal; 2)Connotative (has some additional meaning)
Denotation is the literal (dictionary) meaning of a word.
Connotation is additional meaning of a word. Connotations can be contextual.
Arnold singles out 4 types of connotations:
1)Emotive (directly expresses emotion/awakes them. Has an additional meaning) E.g. dearie
2)Evaluative (positive/negative connotation) E.g. smart - sneaky
3)Expressive (has an ability to create an image, which intensifies the idea; can be overused) E.g. amateur - dummy
4)Stylistic (gives the stylistic colouring of the word and shows that the word is supposed to be used in a particular
sphere) E.g. official, familiar, slang, etc
3. Stylistic stratification of English vocabulary.
In accordance with the division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of the word
stock of the English language as being divided into 3 main layers:
the literary layer; - the neutral layer; - the colloquial layer.
The literary layer of words consists of groups which have no local or dialect character. The literary vocabulary
consists of the following groups of words:
1. common literary (are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech);
2. terms and learned words (to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with);
3. poetic words (aim at producing an elevated effect, to evoke emotive meanings);
4. archaic words (1 obsolescent- words becomes rarely used, gradually passing out of general use, 2 obsolete- have
already gone completely out of use but are still recognized; 3 archaic proper- no longer recognizable in Modern
English;
5. barbarisms and foreign words (words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into English);
6. literary coinages including nonce-words (neologisms).
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed
in all styles and in all spheres of human activity.
Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language.
Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy.
The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a
definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates. The colloquial vocabulary falls
into the following groups:
1. common colloquial words;
2. slang (language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech;)
3. jargonisms (to preserve secrecy within some social group);
4. professional words (words used in a definite profession);
5. dialect words;
6. vulgar words (expressions of an abusive character to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger);
7. colloquial coinages.
4. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices: alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia
Phonetic expressive means are those phonetic forms which exist in language as a system for the purpose of logical
and\or emotional intensification of the utterance. These are pitch, melody, stress, pausation, intonation, etc. They
are very effective in intensifying an utterance emotionally/logically.
Stylistic device (SD) is a conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/or semantic
property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalized status and thus becoming a generative
model.
Alliteration is the repetition of the same similar sounds, as a rule, consonant sounds, in close succession,
particularly at the beginning of successive words. E.g. A big bully beats a baby boy.
Alliteration is often used in:
-idioms E.g. willy-nilly
-tongue twisters E.g. She sells seashells by the sea shore
-poetry E.g. ‘Oh, my love is like a red, red rose’ (Robert Burns)
-titles E.g. Swan Song
Assonance is the repetition of the same or similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables. E.g. wear and tear.
Functions of alliteration and assonance:
-make rhythm;
-enhance a musical effect on a text
-enhance the pleasure of reading a literary piece;
-help writers to develop a particular mood in the text that corresponds with its subject matter.
Onomatopoeia (sound imitation) is a combination of speech sound, which aims at imitating sounds produced:
-in nature E.g. wind, thunder
-by people E.g. singing, laughter
-by things E.g. machines, tools
-by animals
Onomatopoeia in different languages differs a lot in pronunciation. Onomatopoeia can be:
1.Direct
Words that imitate natural sounds E.g. bang, cuckoo
2.Indirect (echo writing)
A combination of sounds, the aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance, echo of its sense. Usually it
demands some mention of what produces the sound. E.g. And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple
curtain.
5. Versification: rhyme; rhythm, meter.
Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words. Rhyming words are generally
placed at a regular distance from each other. In verses they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding
rhymes.
Classification of rhymes:
I. Acc. to the position of stress
1.Male rhyme (the stress falls on the last syllable in the rhymed lines)
2.Female rhyme (the stress falls on the last but one syllable)
II. 1.Full (exact, or perfect) rhyme
Presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant in a stressed syllable. E.g. double-trouble.
The stressed vowels and all following consonants and vowels are identical, but the consonants preceding the
rhyming vowels are different. E.g. chain-drain
2.Incomplete (half-rhyme) rhyme
They are not exact repetitions but are close enough to resonate. E.g. sane – maintain
a)Vowel rhymes
The vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be different. E.g. fleshfresh
b)Consonant rhymes
Show concordance in consonants and disparity in vowels. E.g. worth-forth
c)Eye-rhymes
The letters are identical, but the sounds aren’t. E.g. love-prove
III.Acc. to the position in the verse
1.Paired: rhyming pattern aabb
2.Alternate (cross): rhyming pattern abab
3.Enclosing (frame): rhyming pattern abba
IV.Mixed
1)Compound rhyme (polysyllabic) – one word rhymes with a combination of words; or two or even three words
rhyme with corresponding two or three words. E.g. bottom – forgot them – shot him
2)Broken rhyme (split rhyme) – a form of rhyme produced by dividing a word at the line break of a poem to make
a rhyme with the end word of another line.
3)Internal rhyme
4)Blank verse (белый стих) – there’s no rhyming, but the rhythm and meter are to some extend preserved; that’s
the verse of Shakespeare’s tragedies.
Rhythm – a regular succession of stressed and unstressed syllables. Two systems of versification:
1)Syllabic: the important feature is the same number of syllables in different lines, whether stressed or instressed.
2)Tonic: the important feature is the same number of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Meter is any form of periodicity in verse, its kind is determined by the character and number of syllables of which
it consists.
6. Graphic stylistic devices. A graphon. Types and functions of graphons. The morphemic level of stylistic
analysis.
Graphic SDs include the emphatic use of:
-punctuation;
-change of type (italics, bold, CAPITALIZATION, s p a c i n g o u t, mmmmultiplication, hy-phe-na-tion);
spelling changes.
Graphic SDs serve to convey emotions that in oral speech are expressed by means of intonation, stress and so on.
It’s impossible to name all the graphic SDs.
A graphon is one of many graphic SDs, an intentional violation of the graphical shape/form of a word/phrase to
reflect its authentic pronunciation, to recreate the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere
of the communication act. It’s graphic fixation of phonetic peculiarities of a character’s pronunciation. E.g. Zis
man?
Functions of graphons:
-to help the author to imitate careless or ill-educated speech;
-to show the physical defects of speakers E.g. stutter, lisp
-to make our speech laconic and economical E.g. 4U (=for you)
-to show intoxication, tender/old age, local/foreign accent.
7. Stylistic devices based on interaction between dictionary and contextual meanings. Metaphor. The
structure and functions of a metaphor. Types of metaphors. Personification.
Tropes and figures of speech are SDs based on imagery which is realized through the interrelation of different
components of denotational and connotational meaning of words and word combinations.
SDs based on interaction between dictionary and contextual meanings are:
-metaphor; -allegory; -personification; -metonymy; -synecdoche; -irony.
The relationship between dictionary and contextual logical meanings can be based on:
-the principles of identification or affinity (metaphor);
-the principle of proximity, substitution or symbolism (metonymy);
-the principle of opposition (irony).
Metaphor is a)a SD based on identification of two objects; b)transference of meaning based on resemblance; c)a
covert comparison. Metaphors can compare objects, phenomena, actions or qualities. Metaphors can be expressed
by all notional parts of speech and act in a sentence as any of its members.
The structure of a metaphor:
1.Tenor (direct thought=the thing/object/person denoted);
2.Vehicle (object with which the tenor is compared/object whose attributes are borrowed);
+ 3. Common ground (basis for comparison)
Types of metaphors:
I.Acc. to the length of a metaphor
1.Simple (has one tenor and one vehicle; it usually consists of one short phrase or even a word);
2.Prolonged/sustained/extended (a metaphor that goes several lines or the entire length of a work) E.g. I think a
very dance of blossoms in blue skies
II.Acc. to the degree of originality
1.Genuine (fresh, original) E.g. She was free in her prison of passion (O. Wilde)
2.Dead (trite) – commonly used in speech, sometimes they are fixed in dictionaries, they are predictable and their
metaphorical motivation is obvious) E.g. head of the department
Personification – a metaphor that involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects. E.g. Mother Nature.
Personification gives human qualities to something that isn’t human.
Allegory – a form of extended metaphor in which objects, persons and actions are made to represent something
outside the story itself. It’s a system of related comparison. The meaning in an allegory tends to be fixed.
8. Simile. The difference between a metaphor and a simile. Simile and logical comparison
A simile is a lexico-syntactical SD; a direct comparison creating a vivid image, because the object with which we
compare is well-known as the example of quality in question. E.g. cool as a cucumber. A simile compares two
entirely different objects that belong to different classes and have nothing in common apart from one feature. E.g.
Girls like moths are caught by glare.
The difference between a metaphor and a simile is that a metaphor is a covert comparison, while a simile is a
direct comparison.
Three types of similes:
-extended simile (there’re additional sentences, supplementing the original simile). E.g. Hulga could have had a
brilliant life ahead of her, with a PhD in philosophy in her pocket and thoughts way beyond the grasp of good
country people. She was, however, much like a blank sheet of expensive paper all crumpled up. She would not let
others write their beliefs on her, nor permit anything pleasant to be written on that pale sheet that would’ve yielded
her some joy. Instead, Hulga chose to crumple herself into a paper-ball, leaving the people around her with no
other option, but to throw her directly into the waste bin. Her depreciation was a result of her own selfcondemnation. No doubt, Hulga had crumpled and trashed her own life.
-trite simile (a simile, when often repeated, becomes trite and adds to the stock of language phraseology) E.g. as
busy as a bee;
-disguised simile (the link is expressed with notional verbs, such as ‘seem’, ‘resemble’, ‘appear’, etc; the
realization of the comparison is somewhat suspended, and the likeness between the objects seem less evident. The
term was brought in use by Kucharenko) E.g. She seemed nothing more than a doll.
Logical (ordinary) comparison compares objects belonging to the same class and establishes the degree of
sameness of difference. E.g. I’m as smart as my sister.
9. Stylistic devices based on interaction between dictionary and contextual meanings: metonymy;
synecdoche, irony
Interaction of primary dictionary and contextual meanings is based on proximity, substitution or symbolism. SDs
based on interaction between dictionary and contextual meanings are: metonymy; synecdoche, irony and sarcasm.
Metonymy is a transference of meaning which is based on contiguity (nearness) of notions, not on likeness. The
name of the object is substituted for another word, closely connected/associated with it. Metonymy relations are
based on:
-the name of a concrete thing instead of an abstract notion E.g. We have a lot of good heads in our uni (=intelligent
people);
-the name of a characteristic features of an object instead of an object E.g. ???;
-the name of a container instead of the contents E.g. The room roared with laughter;
-the name of an instrument instead of an action/doer of the action E.g. The violin is unwell today;
-material instead of the thing made of it E.g. All glass is in the cupboard.
Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which part of something is used to represent the whole or vice versa. It’s
considered to be a special case of metonymy. E.g. All hands on deck.
Irony is a SD in which the contextual meaning is opposite to its dictionary meaning. E.g. She turned with a sweet
smile of an alligator. Because the actual intent is expressed in words that have the opposite meaning, the ability to
recognize irony might be a sign of intelligence and sophistication. Types of irony:
1)Verbal irony is based on simultaneous realization of two opposite meanings: the dictionary/direct meaning of
words and their contextual/covert meaning. The essence of irony is in foregrounding the evaluative meaning. The
context is arranged so that the qualifying word reverses the direction of evaluation and the word positively charged
is understood as a negative qualification.
2)Situational irony occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what
actually happens instead
3)Dramatic irony is based on the fact that the audience knows more about the situations, the causes of conflicts,
and their resolutions before the leading characters or actors.
10. Stylistic devices based on interaction between primary and derivative meanings: pun, zeugma,
semantically false chain, decomposition of a set phrase
Pun is a SD based on interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or a phrase; a play on words in which a
humorous effect is produced by using a word that suggests two or more meanings or by exploiting similar sounding
words having different meanings. Play on words can be based on polysemy or homonymy.
Zeugma is a figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb, applies to more than one noun, blending together
grammatically and logically different ideas; the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic
relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal and on the other
hand transferred. E.g. He took his hat and his leave.
Semantically false chain is a variety of zeugma consisting of a number of homogeneous members, semantically
disconnected, but attached to the same verb; it’s based on the effect of defeated expectancy and produces a
humorous effect.
Decomposition of a set phrase is based on the interplay between the literal meaning and the phraseological
(=figurative) meaning of an idiom. E.g. She’s eating her heart out.
11. Quantitative tropes (tropes based upon intensification of a feature): hyperbole, meiosis, litotes.
Quantitative tropes, or tropes based upon intensification of a feature are:
1. Hyperbole – a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential to the object/phenomenon. E.g. He
was so tall that I was not sure he had a face. (O. Henry) Hyperbole may lose its quality as a SD through frequent
repetition. Hyperbole is intended to be understood as an exaggeration. Vinogradov states that hyperbole is the law
of art which brings the existing phenomena of life to the point of max clarity and conciseness. Hyperbole is a
device that sharpens the reader’s ability to make a logical assessment of the utterance.
2. Meiosis – a SD using understatement to express the dramatic effect. E.g. It was a tiny insignificant tumour on
my brain, nothing much.
3. Litotes – a SD consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions. The negation + noun/adj serves to establish
a positive feature in a person/thing. E.g. It’s not a bad thing. =It’s a good thing.
12. Expressive means based on interaction between logical and emotive meanings: interjections, oxymoron.
Epithet. Structural and sematic classification of epithets.
Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly. They may be said to exist in language as
conventional symbol of human emotions. Interjections can be divided into:
-primary (are generally devoid of any logical meaning) E.g. Alas! Hush!
-derivative (may retain a modicum of logical meaning, though it is always suppressed by the volume of emotive
meaning) E.g. good God! Heavens!
Interjections always attach a definite modal nuance to the utterance, and it’s almost impossible to define exactly the
nuance attached but for the context. Interjections bear features that mark them as bookish, neutral or colloquial.
E.g. Ah, bah, oh – neutral; alas, egad (=by God) – bookish; gosh, why – colloquial.
Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adj+a noun/an adv+an adj) in which the meanings of the two
words clash, being opposite in sense. E.g. hot snow. If the primary meaning of the qualifying word
changes/weakens, the stylistic effect of oxymoron is lost. Once there were oxymoronic combinations where words
lost their primary logical meaning and now are used with emotive meaning only. E.g. awfully sorry.
SDs based on interaction between logical and emotive meanings are oxymoron and epithet. Oxymoron is a
combination of two words (mostly an adj+a noun/an adv+an adj) in which the meanings of the two words clash,
being opposite in sense. E.g. hot snow.
Epithet is a SD emphasizing some quality of a person, thing, idea or phenomenon. It’s subjective and evaluative.
E.g. wild wind.
Classification of epithets:
I. Structural classification
a) Compositional structure:
1. Simple epithets E.g. true love
2. Compound epithets E.g. cloud-shaped giant
3. Phrase epithets (are always placed before the noun they refer to) E.g. Freddie was standing in front of the
fireplace with a ‘well-what’s-the-story-what-are-we-going-to-do-about-it’ air that made him a focal point.
4. Sentence epithets
5. Reversed epithets (noun + of noun) E.g. the hell of a job. These epithets are metaphorical
b) Distributional structure:
1. String of epithets (gives a many-sided depiction of the object) E.g. a plump, rose-cheeked, wholesome applefaced young woman (Dickens)
2. Transferred epithet (ordinary logical attribute generally describing the state of a human being, but made to refer
to an inanimate object) E.g. sleepless pillow
II. Semantic classification
1. Associated with the following noun (point to the feature which is essential to the objects they describe; it refers
the mind to some actual quality of the object described) E.g. dark forest
2. Not associated with the following noun (characterize the object by adding an unexpected feature) E.g. voiceless
sands
13. Stylistic devices based on interaction between logical and nominative meanings: antonomasia. Types of
antonomasia. Allusion as a stylistic device.
SD based on interaction between logical and nominative meanings is antonomasia. Antonomasia is the interplay
between the logical and nominative meanings of a word. Both meanings must be realized in the word
simultaneously. Antonomasia is intended to point out the leading, most characteristic feature of a person/event, at
the same time pinning this leading trait as a proper name to the person/event concerned. It categorizes the person
and simultaneously indicates both the general and the particular. In Russian literature this device is quite often
employed to characterize literary heroes. E.g. Молчалин, Собакевич
Types of antonomasia:
1)Genuine antonomasia E.g. Society is now one polished horde, Form’d of two mighty tribes, the Bores and Bored.
2)Telling (or token) names E.g. Miss Blue-Eyes
Allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact
of everyday life made in the course of speaking/writing. The use of allusion presupposes knowledge of the fact,
thing or person alluded to on the part of the reader/listener. As a rule, no indication of the source is given. An
allusion is only a mention of a word/phrase which may be regarded as the key-word of the utterance. The primary
meaning of allusion serves as a vessel into which new meaning is added. Most allusions are made to facts with
which the general reader should be familiar. But sometimes allusions are made to things and facts which need
commentary before they are understood.
14. Periphrasis. Types and functions of periphrases. Euphemism
Periphrasis is a lexico-syntactical SD which denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and
plainer form of expression. Periphrasis aims at pointing to one of the seemingly insignificant or barely noticeable
features/properties of the given object, and it intensifies this property by naming the object by the property. It
decipherable only in context.
Types of periphrases:
1.Dictionary (or traditional) E.g. my better half (my wife)
2.Stylistic (must efficiently and intentionally introduce a dichotomy, the division of one into two) E.g. The hoarse,
dull drum would sleep,
And Man be happy yet. (Byron)
‘The hoarse, dull drum’=war.
a)Logical (is based on one of the inherent properties or perhaps a passing feature of the object described) E.g. an
instruments of destruction=pistols (Dickens)
b)Figurative (is based either on metonymy or on metaphor, the key-word of the collocation being the word used
figuratively) E.g. tie the knot=marry
3.Cicrumlocution E.g. But an addition to the little party now made its appearance (=another person came in)
4.Genuine poetic (depicts the effect without mentioning the cause, gives particulars when having in view the
general)
5.Hackneyed (often found in newspaper language) E.g. tie the knot=marry
Functions of periphrases:
-to convey a purely individual perception of the described object;
-to make the utterance sound solemn in order to arise a lofty feeling in the reader;
-to add an element of insult, sarcasm, irony or humour;
-to name and describe the object, expressing the author’s attitude ironically, humorously and metaphorically.
Euphemism is a word/phrase used to replace an unpleasant word/expression by a conventionally more acceptable
one. Euphemisms are synonyms which aim at producing a deliberately mild effect. E.g. to die=to pass away, to join
the majority, to kick the bucket, etc.
Types of euphemisms:
-religious;
-moral;
-political (understatement used to mislead public opinion and to express smth unpleasant in a more delicate way);
-medical;
-parliamentary.
15. The stylistic significance of sentence length. Stylistic devices based on economy of language elements.
One-member sentences. Elliptical sentences.
The length and structure of sentences can certainly be a stylistic marker. Short and simple sentences are usually a
feature of informal style. Long and complex sentences are common for scientific, official style and artistic prose.
SD based on economy of language elements are ellipsis, paralepsis (emphasizing the point by seemingly avoiding
it), one-member sentences and asyndeton (no conjunctions). One-member sentences merely state the existence of
an object/phenomenon, are usually used in exposition, description or in telegraphic style, they appeal to the
reader’s imagination; they can be highly emotionally charged. One-member sentences are used to present the
background of the action, to heighten the emotional tension of the narration and to single out the character’s or the
author’s attitude towards what’s happening.
Ellipsis is an intentional omission of one or more words. E.g. A poor girl…no parents, no anyone. It’s an
incomplete sentence in which either the subject or the predicate or both are missing. Ellipsis is typical of colloq.
speech (represented speech, inner monologue, dialogue), but when it’s used in the author’s speech, it acquires a
stylistic function: it expresses sincerity and cordiality as if the author were telling his story in confidence. E.g. The
ride did Ma good. Rested her. In colloq. style omission makes the utterance more compact. E.g. Where’s he? –
There. In literary descriptions it may give the construction an additional expressive/emotional coloring. E.g. No
pain, no gain.
16. Syntactical stylistic devices based on economy of language elements. Aposiopesis. Figures of silence
Syntactical SDs based on economy of language elements are ellipsis, aposiopesis and asyndeton. Ellipsis is an
intentional omission of one or more words. E.g. A poor girl…no parents, no anyone. It’s an incomplete sentence in
which either the subject or the predicate or both are missing. Ellipsis is typical of colloq. speech (represented
speech, inner monologue, dialogue), but when it’s used in the author’s speech, it acquires a stylistic function: it
expresses sincerity and cordiality as if the author were telling his story in confidence. E.g. The ride did Ma good.
Rested her. In colloq. style omission makes the utterance more compact. E.g. Where’s he? – There. In literary
descriptions it may give the construction an additional expressive/emotional coloring. E.g. No pain, no gain.
Aposiopesis is a break in the narrative. It’s intentional abstention from continuing the utterance to the end, a
sudden stop in the narration/dialogue. Types of aposiopesis:
-emotive E.g. If you touch her, I’ll…
-audience-respecting E.g. I was shocked when he attempted to – well, let us just say he was far from gentle…
-emphatic (it avoids the use of full utterance to present the idea as greater and really inexpressible) E.g. I’ll do such
things…
Aposiopesis can also show an interruption by smb else. Functions of aposiopesis:
-to create dramatic/comic effect;
-to express ideas, too overwhelming to finish;
-to make the dialogues seem sincere and realistic.
The most effective use of aposiopesis is seen when the readers successfully figure out the missing thoughts that the
writer has left unfinished.
Paralepsis is the rhetorical strategy of emphasizing a point by ‘seeming’ to pass over it; a rhetorical device when
the speaker/writer invokes a subject by denying that it should be invoked.
Paraleptical strike-through: a new mode of type that has become a standard device in opinion journalism. E.g. I
think it’s going to destroy our whole lives change our lives a bit.
17. Syntactical stylistic devices based on redundancy of language elements. Repetition. Types of lexical
repetition: anaphora, epiphora, anadiplosis, catch reprtition, framing repetition. Tautology and pleonasm.
Syntactical tautology.
SSDs based on redundancy of language elements are repetition, parallelism, polysyndeton and chiasmus.
Repetition is recurrence of the same word, word combination or phrase two or more times.
Types of lexical repetition:
-anaphora (the use of the same elements – a word/phrase – at the beginning of several sentences) A…a...a...a... E.g.
Mother is everything for me. Mother is the best I have, mother is always there for me.
-epiphora (the use of the same element at the end of several sentences) …a…a…a…a E.g. I need my mother. The
best thing I have is my mother.
-anadiplosis/catch repetition (the same word is repeated at the end of one and at the beginning of the following
word group) A…b, b…a E.g. E.g. The land of my fathers. My fathers can have it.
-chain repetition (a string of several successive anadiplosis) A…b, b…c, c…d, etc. E.g. You lose a pen, no pen –
you can’t write, can’t write – won’t work, won’t work – no money, no money – death.
-framing (the opening word is repeated at the end of a sense group/ a sentence) A…a. E.g. No wonder his father
wanted to know what Bosinney meant, no wonder.
Tautology is an unnecessary repetition, usually in close proximity, of the same word/phrase/idea/argument, etc; the
saying of the same things in different words.
It’s generally considered to be a fault of style. E.g. They arrived one after the other in succession.
Pleonasm is a rhetorical repetition that is grammatically superfluous. It’s the use of more words than necessary to
make a point. It may serve as a rhetorical strategy to emphasize an idea/image. When used unintentionally, it’s
considered to be a stylistic fault. E.g. a true fact.
The lines of distinction are blurry at times because both pleonasm and tautology refer to redundancy. So, tautology
is using a series of words that mean the same thing. E.g. a tiny small cramp. Pleonasm is using too many words to
introduce or transit an idea, and tautology is repeating yourself.
Syntactical tautology (prolepsis) is recurrence of the noun subject in the form of the corresponding personal
pronoun. The aim is to communicate emphasis of the theme, to make it more prominent. It’s often used in English
folklore and in literature to represent the speech of an uneducated person. E.g. Ms Fenster, she took it.
18. Syntactical stylistic devices based on redundancy of language elements. Parallelism. Types and functions.
Chiasmus. Antithesis. Climax. Anticlimax
SSDs based on redundancy of language elements are repetition, parallelism, polysyndeton and chiasmus.
Parallelism is the use of components in sentences that are grammatically similar/identical in structure, sound,
meaning or meter. This technique adds symmetry, effectiveness and balance to the written piece. Parallelism
examples are also found in ordinary conversations. E.g. Like father, like son.
Types of parallelism:
-partial (the repetition of some parts of successive sentences/clauses) E.g. If we are friends, we support each other;
if enemies, we hate each other.
-complete (it maintains the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences) E.g. I told him
you were sick, I told him you were asleep.
Functions of parallelism:
-parallelism is often combined with other SDs and is used to back them up, such as lexical repetition, alliteration,
etc (belles-lettres, publicist, scientific styles);
-to intensify the communicative and expressive significance of the utterance (emotive prose);
-to unite semantically different elements into complex syntactical unities, creating a true-to-life description of the
event;
-to stress the main idea of the utterance, to make the reader accept the author’s point of view (oratory, publicist
style);
-to elucidate the scientific phenomenon and impose upon the reader the author’s point of view (scientific prose).
Chiasmus is repetition of the same structure but with the opposite order of elements, it’s a reversed version of
syntactical parallelism. E.g. The sea is but another sky,
The sky a sea as well. (Longfellow)
Its main function is to attach a new additional content to the utterance, fixing the addressee’s attention on the fact,
making it prominent. Chiasmus is effective because it helps to foreground the second part of the utterance. It can
only appear when there’re two or more coordinated parts.
Antithesis is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting
effect. Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the contrasted phrases/clauses, that is the
structures of phrases/clauses are similar in order to draw the attention of the listeners/readers. Some famous
antithetical statements have become part of our everyday speech and are frequently used in arguments and
discussions. E.g. Man proposes, God disposes.
Climax is a lexical/syntactical repetition of elements of the sentences which is combined with gradual increase in
the degree of some quality/quantity, or in the emotional coloring of the sentence. Each next word/word
combination/clause/sentence is logically more important/emotionally stronger. E.g. I’m sorry, I’m very sorry, I’m
awfully sorry.
Types of climax:
-logical E.g. Like a well, like a vault, like a tomb, the prison had no knowledge of the brightness outside;
-emotional E.g. It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable gem of a city;
-quantitative climax E.g. They looked at hundreds of houses; they climbed thousands of stairs; they inspected
innumerable kitchens.
Anticlimax is the reverse of climax. In this case the final element is obviously weaker in degree, or lower in status
than the previous. Climax is suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought that defeats expectations of
the reader/listener and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasized idea. The sudden reversal usually
brings forth a humorous/ironic effect. Many paradoxes are based on anticlimax. E.g. But we didn't sail into the
world of golden sunset: we went slap into that old punt where the gentlemen were fishing.
19. Stylistic devices based on distribution (arrangement) of language elements. Inversion. Detachment.
Attachment. Suspense.
SDs based on distribution of language elements are inversion, detachment, attachment and suspense.
Inversion is an unusual word order chosen for greater expressiveness. Inversion deals with the displacement of the
predicate/secondary members of the sentence and their shift towards the front, opening position in the sentence.
Stylistic inversion is broader than the notion of inversion in grammar where it usually relates to the position of the
predicate and the subject. In stylistics we observe other patterns of inversion as well. Any change in the structure of
the English sentence, with a fixed word order S+P+O ,can acquire a stylistic function and produce a stylistic effect.
E.g. In a hole in the ground there lived a hobbit.
Types of inversion:
I. Acc. to the change of the structural meaning of the sentence
1.Grammatical inversion (changes the structural meaning of the sentence)
2.Stylistic inversion (doesn’t change the structural meaning of the sentence. Its purpose is to attach logical
stress/additional emotional coloring to the surface meaning of the sentence. The inversion here is accompanied by a
specific intonation pattern.)
II. Acc. to the position of the predicate
1.Complete E.g. On goes the river.
2.Partial (usually when an adv modifier, object or a predicative begins the sentence and only a part of the predicate
comes before the subject) E.g. Awfully cold it was.
Detachment is a SD based on singling out a secondary member of the sentence with the help of
punctuation/intonation. One of the secondary parts of the sentence (adv modifier, attribute) is placed so that it
seems formally independent from the word it logically refers to. E.g. The Moon was rising, gold behind the trees.
Such parts are called detached and marked off by brackets, dashes or commas or even by full stops or exclamation
marks. E.g. She was crazy about you. In the beginning. If the detached member is isolated from the rest of the
sentence by a full stop, the foregrounding is much more vivid. Detached parts seem formally independent of the
words they refer to, but their semantic connection with such words is clearly perceived by the reader. Detached
parts may be different in length (from a word to an extended group of words) and they are always secondary parts
of the sentence. A variant of a detached construction is parenthesis. It’s a qualifying, explanatory or opposite
word, phrase, clause, sentence or other sequence, which interrupts a syntactic construction without otherwise
affecting it. Parenthetical expressions explain/clarify the sentence. E.g. They hadn’t seen – no one could see – her
distress, not even her grandfather. They are marked phonetically and are relatively independent of the sentence they
are inserted in. The syntactic isolation is shown in writing by graphical means – dashes, brackets, commas. In
literature parenthetic segments perform a number of stylistic functions, such as:
-the creation of a second plane, or background to the narrative;
-the creation of a mingling of ‘voices’ of different speech parts (=polyphony);
-focusing on the information in parenthesis.
A parenthesis adds a nuance of meaning/a tingle of emotional coloring. E.g. I know (if only I could forget!) that
you killed her.
Sometimes it can provide an explanation/afterthought. Dan (Mary’s brother) fought there.
Attachment is a SD based on the separation of the second part of the utterance from the first one by a full stop,
though their semantic and grammatical ties remain very strong. The second part appears as an after-thought and is
often connected with the beginning of the utterance with the help of a conjunction which brings the latter into the
foregrounded opening position. E.g. Prison is where he belongs. Has always belonged.
This device emerges because of the influence of colloquial speech on literary language. When they penetrate into
literary speech, such constructions are employed by writers for creating different effects, reflecting the spontaneity
and easy of colloquial speech. Mainly can be found in various representations of the voice of the personage –
dialogue, reported speech, entrusted narrative.
Suspense is a compositional device which consists in a deliberate postponement of the completion of the sentence.
It’s typical of oratory style, it helps to hold up the listeners’ interest. Suspense is often realized through:
-the separation of predicate from subject/predicative by the deliberate introduction between them of a phrase,
clause or sentence (often parenthetic);
-different kinds of semantic repetition, parallelism, etc;
20. Stylistic devices based on transposition of syntactical structures. Rhetorical questions. Questions in the
narrative. Stylistic use of conjunctions. Asyndeton. Polysyndeton.
SDs based on transposition of syntactical structures are rhetorical questions and questions in the narrative
A rhetorical question is transposition of an interrogative sentence in place of a declarative/exclamatory sentence
with a stylistic function. It’s used to stress a point. A rhetorical question expects no answer, it’s asked in order to
make a statement, emphasize a point or to draw the audience’s attention. E.g. Who doesn’t know Pushkin?
Rhetorical questions seem a basic need of daily language. E.g. Why not? Are you kidding me?
However, they are meaningful in publicist style. By asking a rhetorical question, the speaker:
-invites the audience to agree with him E.g. Given how hard you work, don’t you deserve some rest?
-engages the audience to think E.g. Setting goals is easy, achieving them isn’t. How are you sabotaging yourself?
-emphasizes a point/stirs emotion E.g. How many more will it take before we act?
In literature rhetorical questions can be a very powerful persuasive or thought-provoking tool. They can be
humorous, obvious or reflective. E.g. If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (Shelly)
Question in the narrative is asked and answered by one and the same person, usually the author. Unlike rhetorical
questions it doesn’t contain statements. It’s very often used in oratory, which is explained by one of the leading
features of oratorical style – to induce the desired reaction to the content of the speech. It can produce an
impression of an intimate talk between the reader and the writer. E.g. Scrooge knew he was dead? – Of, course, he
did.
Stylistic use of conjunctions includes two types:
1) Asyndeton (No conjunctions)
SD used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases and in the sentence, yet
maintain the grammatical accuracy; it’s deliberate omission of conjunctions.
Functions:
-to indicate tense, energetic organized activity;
-to show a succession of actions following each other. E.g. They dove, splashed, floated, splashed, swam, snorted.
Generally, asyndeton makes the narration more dynamic. It helps to speed up the words. It may help to draw a
picture of fast movement or bustling activity. It also helps in attracting the readers to collaborate with the writers,
since it suggests that phrases and sentences are incomplete and the readers would have to do some word to deduce
meanings. Different kinds of logical connectors can be omitted. E.g. ‘’There’s no use in talking to him, he’s
perfectly idiotic,’’ said Alice desperately. (reason - ‘because’)
2) Polysyndeton (many conjunctions)
SD opposite to asyndeton: a repeated use of connectors (conjunctions, prepositions) before several parts of the
sentence. It’s a SD in which several coordinating conjunctions are used un succession in order to achieve an artistic
effect, it increases the emotional impact of the text. E.g. We have money and men and supplies and time and stores
and everything we need to complete this project.
Functions:
-to join words, phrases and clauses and to bring continuity in a sentence;
-to bring rhythm to the text with the repetition of conjunctions in quick succession;
-to lay emphasis to the ideas the conjunctions connect;
-to slow the narration down.
21. The text as a main linguistic unit. Literary texts. Interpretation. Text elements: the title, the plot.
The text is a number of logically and grammatically coherent sentences, which are able to convey particularly
organized and directed information; a linguistically meaningful primary language unit; a basis for any linguistic
analysis, and smaller units (like sentences) only constitute it.
Three types of text models:
-fixed/rigid (the form and contents are inflexible and fixed) E.g. constitution, agreements, etc;
-usual (has a certain permanent compositional scheme of components) E.g. review, thesis, etc;
-free/flexible (not subject to a strict modelling) E.g. literary fiction, publicist texts.
Literary texts are fictional. A fictional text is an imaginable picture of reality and an artistic model of the outside
world. The literary text is a mixture of reality and fiction, it brings about an interaction between the given and
imagined. Every literary text is a result of the author’s perception, apprehension and expression of the reality. A
literary work influences the reader emotionally and rationally.
Text interpretation is an open-ended reading, potentially unlimited elucidation of a text. Our perception is
selection – we perceive only part of the signals contained in a literary text. Text interpretation is a very creative and
subjective matter. The reader has almost unrestricted freedom in interpretation. But all interpretations are based on
the text.
The title plays an important role in the text analysis. Its main pragmatic aim is to draw attention of the reader, to
establish the contact and to direct the reader’s expectations. The title plays an important role in the concept
realization as it reflects the text’s main idea. Functions of the title:
-informative f. (names the text, defines its theme, refers to the genre);
-prospective f. (forms the reader’s intention whether to read or not, sometimes contains all the ideas of the text);
-retrospective f. (it may be difficult to predict the story content by the title, as it may be metaphorical, allusive, etc)
The plot is a narrative that is carefully organized and sequenced, it refers to the manner in which the author
arranges the events in the story. Plot focuses on why events happen and the connections between them. Plot events
don’t have to happen in chronological order: they may move backwards or forwards in time. The plot of a story is
made up of the problem, important events and the resolution. Typically, a short story plot follows this pattern:
1)Exposition (the scene is set and the characters are introduced);
2)Complication (an initial incident/conflict is introduced and we wonder what will happen/how the situation will be
resolved);
3)Rising action (tension increases as the initial incident/conflict gets worse);
4)Climax (the moment of greatest tension when the most important events of the story occur);
5)Falling action (the tension decreases as issues are resolved and explained);
6)Resolution (the reader gains understanding of the central conflict and its outcome; often the character(s) learns
something new or finds new ways to carry on).
22. The setting, the conflict, the characters. Flat and round characters. The Protagonist and the
antagonist(s). The theme, the tone and the message in a literary text.
The setting is the time and the place when and where the story takes place. It may be set anywhere, it may include
reference to a busy social environment (the social world, culture, attitudes and broader community. The particular
time and physical location of the story form the setting. Some settings are relatively unimportant, they simply serve
as a decorative background helping the reader to visualize the action and add authenticity. Other settings are closely
linked to the meaning of the work, they create the mood or shape the destinies of the characters. Functions of
setting:
-to reflect the prevailing mood or to reinforce the emotions of the characters;
-to shape the character’s identity (characters who are the direct product of the environment/who rebel against their
restrictive setting);
-to reveal the character (the manner in which the character perceives the setting may tell readers more about the
character than the setting itself);
-to reinforce theme (it may symbolically represent the main idea of a work).
The conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two opposing forces, usually a protagonist and
an antagonist. There’re internal (within the character) and external (with the outside forces) conflicts.
The characters are people in a literary piece. The characters can be:
1. Acc. to the quantity of personality traits
-flat (have one personality trait);
-round (have varied and different personality traits).
2. Acc. to the development in the literary piece
-static (remain the same throughout the story);
-dynamic (change attitude in the course of the story, gain new understanding/insight);
3. Acc. to being stereotypical
-stock, or stereotyped (flat characters that are ‘typical’ and often repeated);
-original.
The protagonist is the leading character or one of the major characters in a literary work.
The antagonist is a character in a story who is presented as the chief foe of the protagonist.
The theme is the central idea integrated through a literary work; a unifying general idea about life that the story
reveals. A literary work can have more than 1 theme. Most themes are not directly stated but implied. The theme is
something that the reader has to rarely stated in the story. The theme is what the author is trying to say about life.
Themes are conveyed through:
-character’s thoughts and ideas;
-character’s actions;
-details and images;
-motifs (=recurring elements).
The tone is an author’s attitude towards a particular written subject. The tone can be described in many ways. The
author’s attitude is expressed through the words and details he or she selects. The tone can be witty, dreary, warm,
etc. The author can write with any tone.
The message (author’s intended meaning) is what the author wants readers to understand, even if the words
appear to be saying something different. For example, a sarcastic tone can change the meaning completely. The
message is an underlying thread invisibly unifying all the separated episodes and loosely connected elements of the
narrative. The message depends on the writer’s outlook, and the reader may either share it or not.
23. The author’s narrative and the entrusted narrative. Rhetorical modes (narration, description,
argumentation)
The author’s narrative explicitly expresses the views and emotions of the author. In the author’s narrative
there’re:
-the unfolding of the plot;
-characteristics of personages;
-description of time and place of action;
-information about the author’s preferences and objections, beliefs and contradictions.
The author’s narrative helps to shape the author’s image. It is usually carried out in the 3rd person, but sometimes
the author chooses to address the reader directly and uses the 1st person.
Entrusted narrative occurs when the writer entrusts some fictious character with the task of story-telling. It helps
to create the effect of authenticity of the events described. The structure of the entrusted narrative is more
complicated. It can be carried out in the 1st person sg, when the narrator proceeds with his story openly and
explicitly, from his own name. The narrator can be the protagonist or a secondary character in the story. Entrusted
narrative can also be anonymous: the manner of presentation, the perspective of description suggest that the story is
told from behind a mask or persona, who is not the author himself/herself.
Rhetorical modes are:
-narration (simply telling a story. A writer employs narrative because his/her purpose is to relate events, either real
or imagined in a chronological order. It’s the most dynamic compositional form);
-description (the purpose is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person/place/event/action, so that the reader
can picture them. Description always relies on sensory details, that is words/phrases that appeal to the reader’s
senses. It’s used to set the scene or to evoke a mood. It’s static.) It’s manifested in:
*landscapes *portraits
-argumentation (it offers causes and effects of the personage’s behaviour, his/her/the author’s considerations about
moral, ethical, ideological and other issues. It’s static compositional form).
As a rule, all compositional forms aren’t used in a ‘pure’ uninterrupted way. Instead, they intermingle even within
the boundaries of a paragraph.
24. The author’s speech and the characters’ speech. Forms of inner and outer speech in a literary work. The
stream of consciousness. Free indirect discourse.
The author’s narrative (speech) explicitly expresses the views and emotions of the author. In the author’s
narrative there’re:
-the unfolding of the plot;
-characteristics of personages;
-description of time and place of action;
-information about the author’s preferences and objections, beliefs and contradictions.
The author’s narrative helps to shape the author’s image. It is usually carried out in the 3rd person, but sometimes
the author chooses to address the reader directly and uses the 1st person.
The character’s speech serves to develop the plot. It provides characterization of the speaker and shows his/her
social position. Character’s speech can follow the author’s speech, precede or interrupt it, but it always forms an
independent sentence.
Forms of inner speech:
-interior speech;
-stream of conscience;
-unuttered free indirect discourse.
Forms of outer speech:
-dialogue;
-monologue;
-uttered free indirect discourse.
The stream of conscience is a literary practice of reproducing the unedited, continuous sequence of thoughts that
run through a person’s head, most usually without punctuation or literary interference. It’s intended to render not
the rational thought but the flow of myriad impressions – visual, auditory, physical, associative and subliminal.
Free indirect discourse is the representation of the character’s utterance or inner speech by a second person,
usually the author. It conveys the actual words/thoughts of a character not directly, but within the author’s speech,
retaining the peculiarities of the speaker’s manner of expression. It’s a peculiar blend of the viewpoints and
language spheres of both the author and the character. The narrator’s plane and the character’s plane co-exist,
which results in the increase in emotiveness and expressiveness of the narration. It’s usually formally unmarked
(there’re no quotation marks); the tenses of the verbs are changed from the present to the past, the personal
pronouns are changed from the 1st to the 3rd person; vocabulary and syntax preserve their peculiarities: use of
parenthesis, interjections, intensifiers, contracted forms, ellipsis, exclamatory sentences and questions, colloquial
words and character’s favourite words.
25. Functional styles. Definition. The classifications of functional styles. The problem of colloquial and
belles-lettres styles.
The notion of style has to do with how we use the language under specific circumstances for a specific purpose. FS
are the registers of speech used in some socially identifiable spheres of life.
Galperin: FS of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication.
Arnold: FS is a subsystem of language which possesses specific lexical, syntactical, sometimes phonetic features
characteristic of a particular sphere of communication.
The classifications of FS:
1)Lomonosov:
*lofty style;
*medium style;
*low style.
2)Vinogradov:
*colloquial (function – communication);
*official + scientific (function – informing);
*publicist + belles-lettres (function – producing an emotional impact);
3)Galperin:
*belles-lettres:
-the language of poetry;
-emotive prose;
-drama.
*publicist style:
-oratory + speeches;
-essay;
-articles in magazines and newspapers.
*newspaper style:
-brief news items;
-headlines;
-editorial;
-advertisements and announcements (classified (job ads) and unclassified (ads)).
*scientific prose;
*official documents:
-business documents;
-legal documents;
-diplomatic documents;
-military documents.
4)Arnold:
*formal (poetic diction; scientific, publicist and oratory style; official documentation);
*informal (literary colloq., familiar colloq.; low colloq.);
*neutral (unmarked member of stylistic opposition, can be used in any situation, serves as a background for
stylistically marked elements).
The problem of colloq. style:
-informal speech of everyday conversation;
-the problem of classification – should it be regarded as a FS? Arnold, Skrebnev disagree. Skrebnev divides styles
into bookish and colloquial. Bookish – styles of a highly polished nature that reflects the norm of the national
literary language. Colloquial – the type of speech which is used in a situation that allows certain deviations from
the rigid pattern of literary speech. So, the term ‘style’ is applicable both to the written and oral varieties of the
language. The terms ‘colloquial’ and ‘bookish’ don’t exactly correspond to the oral and written forms of speech.
The problem of belles-lettres style:
Many scholars (Vinogradov, Arnold, Skrebnev) refuse to recognise the existence of belles-lettres stye. Arnold says
that literary norm, which is stylistically neutral, is used in fiction in combination with elements of different FSs.
The clash of different styles results in achieving the aesthetic effect. Skrebnev says that the diversity of what is met
within books of fiction turns the notion of belles-lettres style into something very vague, possessing no features of
its own.
26. The colloquial styles. Oral versus written communication. Style forming features.
The colloquial style is a peculiar subsystem of the English language. On the one hand, its major field of
application is found in the spoken variety of language; on the other hand, elements of this style penetrate the
written varieties. When written, the colloquial style's function is to render the specificity of everyday conversation.
Underlying many of its specific features are the following factors:
1) the spontaneous character of communication;
2) the private character of communication;
3) face-to-faceness.
4 tendencies of colloq. style:
-prefabrication (formulae, cliches);
-redundancy:
*time-fillers E.g. you know, let me see;
*the pleonastic use of pronouns E.g. Well, John, he is late.
*senseless repetition of words and phrases E.g. I’m a good runner, I am.
-creativity (we make our speech in process, no prep.);
-compression:
*shortened forms and clipped forms E.g. fridge, he’s
*words of broad semantics E.g. thing, one
*ellipsis
*simplicity of syntax.
Style forming features:
1)Used in every-day speech;
2)Main function – phatic (communication);
3)Friendly, intimate, informal type of relations between the member of communication;
4)Unprepared speech;
5)Wide range of every-day affairs;
6)Prevailing form of speech – oral;
7)Form of expression – dialogue;
8)Has evaluation, emotiveness, expressiveness;
9)Use of lowered words, slang.
27. The official style. Substyles. Style forming features.
The style of official documents is one more style within the boundaries of standard literary English. It is not
homogeneous. It is represented by the following substyles (variants):
a) The language style of business documents;
b) The language style of diplomatic documents;
c) The language style of legal documents;
d) The language style of military documents.
The aim of the official style is to achieve agreement between two contracting parties: the state and the citizens;
society and its members; two or more enterprises or business partners; two or more governments (international
treaties; pacts); a person in authority and a subordinate, etc.; a board of directors and employees.
Style forming features:
1)Used in law, business, politics, relationships between people and authority;
2)Main function – voluntative (establishes the terms of agreement);
3)Formal relations between the member of communication;
4)Prepared speech;
5)Used in law, diplomacy;
6)Prevailing form of speech – written;
7)Form of expression – monologue;
8)No evaluation, emotiveness, expressiveness;
9)Use of cliches, passive voice.
28. The publicist and newspaper styles.
Publicist style is used in such spheres of life as politics and social life.
Its main function is voluntative, it influences views, its function is to persuade to do something.
The type of relations between the members of communication is formal.
The speech is prepared, it includes any questions of public concern and it’s written.
The form of expression is monologue.
There’re evaluation, expressiveness and emotiveness.
Peculiarities:
-use of pronouns;
-use of words (‘I recommend’) that express opinion;
-coherent structure of the sentences, with many linkers;
-use of emotional words;
-use of contractions;
-a lot of figurative language.
It includes oratory and speeches, essays and articles in magazines and newspapers.
Newspaper style is used in social life: political, criminal and matters of public concern.
Its main function is giving information.
The type of relations between the members of communication is formal.
The speech is prepared, it includes questions of political and social matters and it’s written.
The form of expression is monologue.
There’s no evaluation, expressiveness and emotiveness.
It includes brief news items; headlines; the editorial; advertisements and announcements:
-classified (job advertisements);
-unclassified (advertisement in general).
29. The scientific style, its linguistic peculiarities
Scientific style is used in such spheres of life as science, research, education.
Its main function is communicative, it gives information.
The type of relations between the members of communication is formal.
The speech is prepared, its topical range includes many topics, it’s written.
The form of expression is monologue.
There’re no evaluation, expressiveness and emotiveness.
Use of terms, learnt words, figurative language.
Present Simple tense
Complete sentences
3 types of scientific style:
*publicist;
*academic (for teaching);
*proper.
It’s used in articles, reports, thesis, text books and lectures. Features are:
-title;
-an abstract from the text;
-key words;
-references;
-footnotes;
-quotations;
-N+N constructions;
-impassive, impersonal (no connotations) language;
-logical sequence;
-use of linkers.
30. Stylistics of the author and stylistics of the reader. Encoding and decoding.
Stylistics divides into traditional and decoding stylistics.
Traditional (stylistics of the author): analysis is from the point of view treats the work of art as a
result/consequence of creative activity. This kind of analysis is based on the thorough knowledge of the history of
literature. The analysis begins at the level of ideas, goes out to the study of the compositional structure and the
system of images. Then follows the analysis of lexical and grammatical expression of the images – SDs and means.
And finally, we pay attention to phonetic/sound form of the text and its graphical representation.
Decoding (stylistics of the reader): the readers usually follow the reversed way. They transform the graphical
presentation into words, then into the system of images, feelings, thoughts of the author, and at last the reader can
grasp the main idea of the author. More attention is paid to the text, and less to the author. The source of the
information and impressions is the text itself. Decoding stylistics studies expressive means at the phonetic,
graphical, lexical and syntactical levels as a part of the general pattern in relatively lengthy segments of the text,
from a paragraph to the level of the whole work. The underlying idea is that stylistic analysis can only be valid
when it takes into account the overall concept and aesthetic system of the author reflected in his writing.
Chain of communication (acc. to Shannon):
social reality of the writer->writer(encoder)->literary work->reader(decoder)->social reality of the reader
The task of the reader is to decode the information contained in the work of literature.
The difficulties of decoding:
-Readers and authors may be separated by:
*time;
*social conventions;
*religious and political views;
*national traditions.
-They differ intellectually, emotionally and aesthetically;
-Some works of literature are so sophisticated, that they require of the reader a wide educational thesaurus and
knowledge of history, philosophy and mythology.
31. Foregrounding. Functions of foregrounding. Convergence.
Foregrounding is one of the fundamental concepts of decoding stylistics. It means a specific role that some
language items play in a certain context when the reader’s attention can’t but be drawn to the item. In a literary
text, such items become stylistically marked features that build up its stylistic function.
Functions of foregrounding (acc.to Arnold):
-it helps to decode the text;
-it forms an aesthetic context;
-it makes the text more expressive. Expressiveness is a feature of a text which renders the meaning with increased
intensiveness and results in logical/emotional enhancement of meaning.
Convergence is one of the types of foregrounding. Convergence is a combination/accumulation of SDs promoting
the same idea/emotion/motive. The use of more than 1 type of expressive means in close succession is a powerful
technique to support the idea that carries paramount importance in the author’s view. Such redundancy ensures the
delivery of the message to the reader. E.g. Doomsday is near; die all, die merrily. (Shakespeare)
32. Types of foregrounding: coupling, defeated expectancy, semi-marked structures, semantic fields.
Foregrounding is one of the fundamental concepts of decoding stylistics. It means a specific role that some
language items play in a certain context when the reader’s attention can’t but be drawn to the item. In a literary
text, such items become stylistically marked features that build up its stylistic function.
Coupling is the emergence of similar elements in similar positions communicating unity and cohesion of the whole
structure. Coupling makes remembering easier. E.g. I kissed thee ere I killed thee. (Shakespeare). Types of
couplings:
1)Phonetic:
-alliteration;
-assonance;
-paronomasia;
-rhyme;
-rhythm;
-meter.
2)Structural:
-parallelism;
-syntactical repetition (anadiplosis, anaphora, epiphora, chiasmus);
3)Semantic:
-use of synonyms and antonyms (contextual and direct);
-root repetition;
-sustained metaphor;
-semantic fields;
-recurrence of images;
-connotations;
-symbols.
Couplings can be found in:
-proverbs E.g. Like father, like son;
-familiar quotations/catch words E.g. United we stand, divided we fall;
-humorous sayings E.g. Heads – I win, tails – you lose.
Defeated expectancy. Predictability or unpredictability of a certain element of a text is stylistically relevant. The
normal arrangement of the text both in form and content is based on its predictability, which means that the
appearance of any element in the text is prepared by the preceding arrangement and choice of elements. The linear
organization of the text mentally prepares the reader for the consequential and logical development of ideas and
unfolding of the events. Devices based on defeated expectancy:
-pun;
-zeugma;
-oxymoron;
-irony;
-anti-climax;
-paradox. Paradox is a statement which contradicts itself. It may seem almost absurd. Although it may seem to be
at odds with ordinary experience, it usually turns out to have a coherent meaning, and it reveals a truth that is
normally hidden. E.g. The more you know, the more you don’t know.
Semi-marked structure is a variety of defeated expectancy associated with the deviation from the grammatical
and lexical norm. E.g. He tried his best to spoil her birthday.
Semantic fields identify lexical elements in text segments and the whole work that provide its thematic and
compositional coherence. To reveal this kind of coherence, consider:
-repetition;
-synonyms and antonyms;
-morphological derivation;
-common semes in the denotative and connotative meanings of different words.