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Q:1 - Explain giving reason with example as to which one is most
important applied or basic research?
Ans:-
Business Research
Business research is a field of practical study in which a company obtains data and analyzes it in order to
better manage the company. Executives and managers who use business research methods are able to
better understand their company, the position it holds in the market and how to improve that position.
Definition:
“Business research can be defined as an organized, systematic, data-based, critical,
objective, inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding
answers or solutions to it.”
TypesofBusi
nessResear
ch
Research can be undertaken for two different purposes. One is to solve a current problem faced by
the manager in the work setting, demanding a timely solution. The other is to generate a body of
knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved. This
is called basic fundamental or research.

Applied Research:
Research done with the intention of applying the result of findings to solve specific problems currently
being experienced in an organization is called applied research.
Characteristics of Applied Research:




Applied research is solution specific and addresses practical question.
It involves collection and theory analysis of data to examine the usefulness of theory in solving
practical educational problems.
It can be explanatory but usually descriptive.
It involves precise measurement of characteristics and describes relationship b/t variables of a
studies phenomenon.
Examples:
A particular product may not be selling well and the manager might want to find the reason for this
in order to take corrective action is called applied research.
Other Examples:



Improve agriculture crop production.
Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation.
To diagnose the very low use of a certain collection in a library.

Basic Research:
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Research done chiefly to make a contribution to existing knowledge is called basic, fundamental or pure
research.
Explanation:
The findings of basic research contribute to the building of knowledge in various functional
areas of business; they teach us something we did not know before. Such knowledge, once generated, is
usually later applied in organizational settings for problem solving.
Example:
A university, professor may be interested in investigating the factors that contribute to absenteeism as a
matter of mere academic interest. After gathering information on topic from several institutions and
analyzing the data, the professor may identify factors, such as inflexible work hours, inadequate training
of employees and low moral as primarily influencing absenteeism later on basic research is applied by
many managers.
Characteristics of Basic Research:







It is based on the belief “knowledge for the sake of knowledge”.
It means collection and analysis of data to develop or enhance theory.
It leads to advancement of knowledge.
It takes place in sterile environment.
It is carries out for understanding theoretical relationship between variables.
It is explanatory in nature.
Its application may or may not have any bearing on any application in the immediate future or even
after a long time.

Basic research lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows.
Other Examples:



How did the universe being?
What are protons, neutrons and elections composed of?
How do slime moulds reproduce?
I
mpor
t
anceofAppl
i
edResear
ch
1.
Develop New Products and Ideas
Applied research as the name suggest is conducted to develop new products, ideas, and goods to
help the community at large.
2.
Solve Current Problems
An applied research can be conducted to solve a problem or study, a situation, phenomenon or
idea as in the social science and psychology.
3.
Scope
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The scope of applied research is for the present and not for some time in the future, but its aims
can be varied.
4.
Conduct on any level
Applied research can be conducted on any level, like by govt organization, agencies, institutions,
and even on a personal level too.
5.
Types of Applied Research




It has various types as follows.
Explanatory
Exploratory
Descriptive
Confirmatory
6.
Bring New Ideas
In the individuals, applied research is conducted to bring new ideas about product and test
efficiency of some of the products.
7.
Daily Based
Applied research is conducted on a daily basis in the industries. In marketing, surveys and
observations are conducted to benefit the business.
I
mpor
t
anceofBasi
cResear
ch
1.
Comprehensive
Basic research is mostly very comprehensive and is conducted to get a deep picture of a field of
study, or a phenomenon or a theory.
2.
Develop New Theories
It helps in developing new theories in science and, therefore it is time consuming.
3.
Future Impact
The purpose of the basic research is not to impact the society in present, but in the future. It has
more benefit.
4.
Base of Knowledge
From basic research and other institutions can get benefits because it increases the knowledge
base for further studies.
5.
New Techniques
Some basic researches are conducted to find out new techniques, procedures and tools to
conduct the research itself.
Which one is most important Basic or Applied Research
Both of them are important and, I think that the basic research is a way to achieve the
applied research and applied research gives further cues for basic research. Many facts
have emerged after many basic researches. As both are important, there is need to
allocate funding for both type of researches and both are in priority in their own ways.
Quote:
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(“Research is What I’m Doing
When I Don’t Know
What I’m Doing.”)
Q#2: DISCUSS THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
INTERVIEWS AND QUESTIONAIRE?
Ans: INTRODUCTION
For making comprehensive research on any topic, after making “research design” that
is combination of making problem statement and development of research proposal. The next step is
data collection. It can be collected by following three ways Interviewing, Observing people,
Questionnaire.


Interviewing: it is a useful data collection method, especially during stage of exploratory research. In
interviews different interviewers are come and tested by panel. Interviews may be face to face, online or
on telephone.
Questionnaires: Questionnaires are designed to collect large number of quantitative data.
Questionnaires are basically set of questions on a study which is descriptive or exploratory.
DEFINITIONS
According to Roger Bougie;
“A verbal conversation between people with the objective of collecting relevant information for the purpose of
research”
According to UMA Sakaran;
“A research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering
information”
According to Marriam;
“Interview is a conversation where questions are asked and answers are given”
QUESTIONAIRE’S ADVANTAGES
1.
PRACTICAL
Questionnaire takes place in practical form. Researcher distributes questionnaires to different sectors.
The data collected would be more practical.
2.
LARGE NUMBER OF INFORMATION
As questions of different specific types are arranged, so respondents fill these questionnaires. Large
number of information gets from different sources.
3.
QUICKLY RASULT GATHERED
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As questionnaires helpful in gathering of quickly information, that informative data use easily and quickly
result creation.
4.
RELIABLE RESULT
The questionnaires results are more reliable. As people of different sectors and psyche answer all the
questions, the researcher uses their reliable data for further process.
5.
QUANTIFIED RESULT
The questionnaire data is more reliable and quantified. As answers are in quantitative form, so these will
easy to measure changes and results.
6.
SCIENTIFICALLY ANALYZED
The data collected form questionnaires can easily scientifically analyze. Different questions are answered
by different psyche respondents. All the results are quantified easily and scientifically analyzed for
reports.
7.
USED FOR COMPARISON
The quantified result can be easily analyzed in scientifically ways. So it will use in making comparison,
such as data will analyzed according to research topic.
8.
USED TO MEASURE CHANGE
The quantified and scientifically analyzed data will easily be used to measure changes in realistic way. The
results will way according to required data or not.
9.
HELPFUL IN CREATION OF NEW THEORIES
When data collection in questionnaires the respondents response will be used in creation of new
theories. New theories will further utilized in future researches.
QUESTIONNAIRE’S DISADVANTAGES
1.
INADEQUATE TO UNDERSTAND
The questionnaires sometime become inadequate to understand. As respondents may answer in other
perspective and questionnaires made in another, therefore clashes create.
2.
LACKS OF VALIDITY
Questionnaires are less reliable and valid, because while answering questionnaires the respondents do
not take it serious, that may answer it without logic and results become invalid.
3.
DIFFICULT TO CHECK RESPONDENTS TRUTHFULNESS
As questionnaires come in front of researchers after solutions given by respondents, the researcher
cannot check the truthfulness and validity of answers; they are not present when results are measured.
4.
DIFFERENCE OF CONTEXT
There will be difference in the context of researchers and respondents. As both parties psyches is
different, so it will create problems in data collection.
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5.
OMISSION OF SOME FACTS
While answering respondents may neglect some facts. Researchers may also omit to add some basic facts
and figures that will help the respondents in correct answering.
6.
CHANGES OF EMOTIONS, BEHAVIOR
As we know that some questionnaires are personally administered and some are mail or electronically
send, so a wide area covers and people from different areas have different perceptions, emotions and
behavior that will affect result.
7.
BIASNESS IN EXPLANATION
In questionnaire the type and nature of business or topic must be explained. This help the respondents in
answering, otherwise finding will be confused.
8.
TAKE TIME AND EFFORTS
Who process the questionnaire making, distributing questionnaires, collecting again and results
evaluation will be time consuming. More efforts are needed for it.
INTERVIEW’S ADVANTAGES
1.
ACCURATE INFORMATION
Interviews provide more accurate information either they are structured or unstructured, because face to
face questioning or answering will be more effective.
2.
KEEP FOCUS
Interviews remain the focus on main topic. The interviewers also focused and provide facts and
information more accurately.
3.
CAPTURE EMOTIONS AND BEHAVIOR
As in interviews both parties present at same time, so panel can easily capture the behavior and
emotions regarding certain issue.
4.
PLANNED SEQUENCE OF QUESTIONS
In interviews there is a sequence of questions, so both parties handle all matters and data can be
collected easily in desired way, then the result will be more accurate.
5.
RESPONSE IN CASUAL MANNER
The interviews will answers each and every question in a very casual way, so panel of interviews can
easily gather data according to their desire.
6.
VISUAL AIDS
As in interviews both parties present at same time, so visual aids help in more critical data evaluation.
From different perspectives and ways data will collected and then analyzed.
7.
IDENTIFICATION IN SOLVING WAYS
The panel asks the interviews difference ways for solving a problem. In this way they can identify
different solution ways and use them.
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8.
FACE-TO-FACE DISCUSSION
In interviews, there is a face to face discussion between both parties, so they can ask what is related to
their data collection topic easily.
INTERVIEW DISADVANTAGED
1.
HIGH COST
Interviews consume high cost. The research data gathering stage becomes more costly for firms. As
different experts hire and full set-up needed for interviews, so in this way, it will require more cost.
2.
QUALITY OF DATA BY INTERVIEWER
A quality based data is gathered by interviewers. But if they are not ready to give answer in the
respective manner in which panel require then quality data cannot be collected.
3.
REFUSE TO CO-OPERATE
In interviews, there will be many times when interviewers may require to co-operate, so in this case they
require data cannot be get for research.
4.
VAGUE IDEA
The interviewers way provide vague ideas. These vague ideas will not satisfy the end result. The basic
motive of conducting interview for data gathering cannot be attaining.
5.
LIMIT SAMPLE SIZE
As few people are invited data and attracted to interviews, so in this way samples are limited. The
broader ideas and view cannot be collected in this limited sample.
6.
TIME CONSUMING PROCESS
In conducting of interviews experts required and interviewers are invited. Different requirements and
arrangement are further needed to make.
7.
REQUIRE MORE ENERGY
The more time consuming process required more energy. Gathering of data consumes more people
through this way. Financial resources also consumed more.
8.
COMPLICATED METHOD
Interview method may be complicated. As it takes more time, the member of panel may ask questions in
different way and interviews may show reluctance.
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Q:#3 What do you understand by term ‘’Questionnaire’’. Explain
different types of questionnaire. Encompassing benefits of each
type..?
Ans: QUESTIONNAIRE:
‘’ A paper form, yet to be filled by the respondents’’
A questionnaire is a research instruments consisting of a series of question and other prompts for the
purpose to gather information from the respondents. Although they are often design for statistical
analysis of the responses; this is not always the case.
PAPER
FORM
(Having question)
1. Filled by the respondents used to collect factual information consist of series of
question.
BENEFITS OF QUESTIONNAIRE:

For the feedback can be positive or negative depending on the question you asked.

Measurement of individual or group variables like their attitudes, opinion and traits, habits of
person.

These questionnaires provide you the correct description of something that you required as willing
to have e.g.: sex, age, occupation, income, political affiliation, religious affiliation etc.


Questionnaire is generally designed to collect large number of quantitative data.
That questionnaire helps you to know where the organization, factory or company is going wrong
and where they went right.
DATA COLLECTION METHOD:
Data can be collected through different questionnaire so that this questionnaire could help you to
provide authentic and solid reasons to charge your directive action towards your organization and your
management. The questionnaire provides you the opportunity to charge your working pattern through
following data collection method.
1.
Personally administered questionnaire.
2.
Mail questionnaire.
3.
Electronic questionnaire.
PERSONALLY ADMINISTERED QUESTIONNAIRE:
This questionnaire can be established for the rapport and motive respondents so that doubts can be
certified in a less expensive manner and achieve almost 100% response rate ensured. It is also known as
face to face administered questionnaire.
MAIL QUESTIONNAIRE:
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Anonymity is mail questionnaire is high whereas can reach wide geographical regions, token gifts
can be enclosed to seek compliance. However respondent can take more time to respond at convenience
can be administered electronically; if desired
ELECTROINC QUESTIONNAIRE:
Electronic questionnaire can easily administered, can reach globally, very in expensive, fast response
at their convenience like the mail questionnaires.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES AND THEIR FORMS OF QUESTION
1.
Open and close ended questionnaire.
2.
Positively and negative worded questionnaire.
OPEN ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE:
An open ended questionnaire one which is phased in such a manners as to encourage a
meaningful answer using the subject ‘’ knowledge or feeling’’ they are rather objective in nature and
provide ab opportunity for a person to come up with an answer that is pertinent to him or her such
questionnaire implicitly ask for response in the person’s own and is not limiting.
‘’Open ended questions allow respondents to answer them in any way they choose’’
EXAMPLE


Open ended question is asking the respondents to state things that are interesting and challenging in
the job.
What are you planning to buy from the super market today?
ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS OF OPEN ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE:
1.
They permit an unlimited number of possible answers.
2.
Respondents can answer in detail and can quality and clarify respondents.
3.
Unanticipated finding can be discovered.
4.
They permit adequate answer to complex issue.
5.
They permit creativity, self-expression and richness of detail.
6.
They reveal a respondents logic thinking process and frame their preferences.
DIS-ADVANTAGES OF OPEN ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE:
1.
Different respondents give degree of detail in answer.
2.
Responses may be irrelevant or buried in unless detail.
3.
Comparison and statistical analysis become difficult.
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4.
Coding respondents are difficult articulate and highly literate respondents having an advantage.
5.
Question may be too general for respondents who lose direction.
6.
Respondents can be intimated by question.
7.
Answer take up a lot of space in the questionnaire.
8.
A greater amount of respondents time, thought and effort is necessary.
CLOSE ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE:
Closed end question invite a short focused answer. Answer to closed question can often (but not
always) be either right or wrong closed question are usually easy to answer as the choice of answer
limited. They are high effectively used early in conversion to encourage participation and can be very
useful in fact finding scenario such as research.
‘’closed questionnaire are used to force a brief, often one word answer.’’
EXAMPLE

Do you smoke? Did you feed he cat? Would you like a cup of tea? (Answer shall be yes or no)

Closed question can require that a choice is made from a list of possible opinions e.g: Would you like
beef, chicken or the vegetarian option? Did you travel by train or car today?

Closed question can be asked in identify a certain piece of information again with the limited set of
answer e.g: what is your name? What time does the super market open? Where did you go to the
university?
ADVANTAGES OF CLOSE ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE:
1.
It is easier and quicker for respondents to answer.
2.
The answer of different respondents is easier to compare.
3.
Answer are easier to code and statistically analysis.
4.
Respondents are more likely to answer about sensitive topics.
5.
There are fewer irrelevant or confused questions.
6.
Replication is easy.
7.
If comparing the answer of several people, than the answer of closed questions are much easier to
compare and rate. If the question is closed enough (e.g.: multiple choice) than it is even possible to
perform a statistical analysis of the answer.
DIS- ADVANTAGES OF CLOSE ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE:
1.
Respondents with no opinion or no knowledge can answer anyway.
2.
Misinterpretation of question can go unnoticed.
3.
Clerical mistakes or making the wrong respondents possible.
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4.
They force respondents to give simplistic responses to compare issue.
5.
They force people to make choice they would not make in the real world.
6.
It is confusing if many response choices are offered.
7.
Respondents can be frustrated because their desired answer is not a choice or unable to adequately
express the opinion.
POSITIVELY WORDED QUESTION:
Positively worded questionnaire means having good thoughts, ideas, feelings; It means that positive
intention to know how what to do and how to do?
e.g; When will you come to have your party? ‘’Party’’ itself is a positive occasion and when it is used that
‘’when will you come to have it’’ it sounds positive.
ADVANTAGES OF POSITIVE WORDED QUESTION:
1.
Respondents can freely response towards the question.
2.
Answer will surely be accepted if several people agree the same.
3.
Positive worded question involves the positive question. E.g; Do you like this chocolates and how
much you like it?

1
4.
Positive worded question are scaled question.
5.
2
3
4
5
Due to positive questionnaire degree of agreeableness and disagreeableness is measured on 5 point
scale. With 1 being low and 5 means high.
DIS-ADVANTAGES OF POSITIVE WORDED QUESTION:
1.
2.
Sequence of positive questions can bore the respondents.
The respondents sometimes not show any interest to fill the positive questions. So they just tick the
only number abruptly come in their mind.
NEGATIVE WORDED QUESTION:
Negative worded questionnaire means having misleading, uncertain or un-satisfactory effects. It
means that negative intention the word ‘’not and only’’ is mostly used their word should avoided in
negatively worded question because they tend to confuse respondents.
EXAMPLE:


Coming to work is not great fun is better way instead saying not coming to work is greater fun than
coming to work.
It is better to say the rich need to help than to say only the rich do not need help.
ADVANTAGES OF NEGATIVE WORDED QUESTION:
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1.
Respondents are highly active to respond the negative worded question.
2.
Good questionnaire include both type of positive and negative worded question.
DIS-ADVANTAGES OF NEGATIVE WORDED QUESTION:
1.
The use of double negative and exercise use of the word not and only should be avoided in
negatively worded questions. Because they tend to confuse respondents.
FORMS OF QUESTION
DOUBLE-BARRED QUESTION:
A question that lends itself to different responses to its sub parts is called double barred questions.
Such question should be avoided so that respondents may not get confused. Separately asked instead of
one question; sometimes it is good to ask such question to create link and get the good response of the
asked question.
EXAMPLE

Do you think there is a good market for the product and that it will sell well?
AMBIGUOUS QUESTION:
Even questions that are not double barreled might be ambiguous worded and the respondents may
not be sure what exactly they mean. E.g.; to what extend would you say you are happy the result is mixed
and confusing. So they do not accurately provide the correct answer to question.
RE-CALL DEPENDENT QUESTION:
Some question might require respondents to call experience form the part that are lazy in their
memory. Answer to such questions might have bias e.g.; if an employee has had 3o years’ service in an in
a particular organization is asked to state when he first started working in a particular department for
how way in his responses. A better source for obtaining that information would be the personal records.
LEADING QUESTION:
Question should not be phased in such a way they lead the respondents to give the responses that
the researches involved like them to give e.g. to what extent do you agree that employees should be
given higher pay rise.
LOADED QUESTION:
Another type of bias question occur when they are phased in an emotionally charged manner e.g. to
what extent do you think I am responsible for your life if I broke relation withyou.
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY:
Question should not be worded such that they elicit socially desirable response e.g. Do you think the
older people should be loved off and should continue to keep the elderly on their payroll of the company.
CRUX
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Question is an important tool for getting information as it is the best way to collect data
by keeping in mind the right question at the right time. The questionnaire is reducing any
systematic bias in the response and provides the clear sand smooth answer in response of
these questionnaires. This is helpful for the further research because research is always
based on questionnaires.
Q:#4Explain the following content of Research design? Data Collection
methods, Unit of Analysis & Purpose of study, with the research strategies?
Ans:Contents of Research Design
Meaning of research design need for and importance of research design developing an appropriate
research design
Meaning:
Arrangement of Conditions overall framework of the project specific master plan or model blue print
guides the investigators.
According to Cook:
“Research design is the arrangement of conditions for the Collection & analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine Relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.
According to Suchman:
“Research design is not a highly specific plan to be followed without deviation but rather series of guide post to
keep one Headed in highest direction”.
Simple Definition of Research Design
“A research design is a blue print for the collection, Measurement and analysis of data based on the research
Question of the study.”
Task of defining the research problem is the preparation of the research project, popularly known as the
research design.
Decision Regarding:
What, Where, When, How much by what means concerning an inquiry or research
study constitute a research design.
Research Design have following Parts




Sampling Design
Observational Design
Statistical Design
Operational Design
Sampling Design:
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Which deals with the methods of selecting to be observed for the study?
Observational Design:
Which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be created?
Statistical Design:
Which concern the question of the how the information and data gathered to be analyzed?
Operational Design:
This deals with techniques by which the procedures satisfied in sampling.
Features of Good Research Design
A Research Design appropriate for a particular research problem usually involves the following Features:





The Mean of obtaining information
The Availability and skills of the researcher and his staff.
The Objective of the problem to be studied.
The Nature of the problem to be Studied.
The Availability of time and money for the research work.
Developing Research Design
The Choice of appropriate design largely depends on the objectives of the research and how much is
known about the problem and its objectives.
There are total three traditional kinds of research design such as;
DHE x ey p s lc o tri hpa etti o sv ri es y o r c a s u a l
In case of Exploratory research:
Main Objective: Major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights
In Such Studies:




The sample size is small.
Data requirement are vague.
The objective is general rather than specific.
Non-probability sampling designs are used.
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In case of Descriptive Research:
Main Objective: Descriptive characteristic of individual or group.
In Such Studies:



Data collected may relate to the respondents under study.
Research has specific objective.
Findings are definite.
In case of Hypothesis OR Causal Research:
Main Objective: Describing characteristic of individual or group.
In Such Studies:



Data collected may relate to the respondents under study.
Research has specific objectives.
Finding are definite.
In case of Hypothesis Testing:
Main Objective: Research test the hypothesis of causal relationship between variables.
In such Studies: Control the influence of one variable on other dependent variable.
Research Strategies
Research Strategies are of following types.
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It involves studying relationship among variables within a single group, and frequently suggest the
possibility of causal and effect.
3)
Survey Research:
It involves describing the characteristics of a group by means of such instrument as interview schedules,
questionnaires and tests.
4)
Ethnographic Research:
In concentrated on documenting or portraying the everyday experience of people using observation and
interviews, it involves how well, how much, how efficiently, knowledge; attitudes or opinion in the like
exists.
5)
Case study:
It is a detailed analysis of one or a few individual.
6)
Historical Research OR Ground Theory:
It involves studying some aspect of the past.
7)
Action Research:
It is a type of research by practitioner’s design to help to improve their practice.
Data Collection Method
Data collection methods are integral part of research design there are several data collection methods.
Each with its advantages or disadvantages. Problem research with the use of appropriate methods
greatly enhance the value of the research.
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Primary Data:
Primary data are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time and thus happen to
be original in character are known as primary data. There are several methods of collecting primary data
particularly in survey’s and descriptive research. In descriptive research, we obtain primary data. We
obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in
one form or another or through personal interviews.
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There are several Primary data collection methods:





Interviews
Observations
Questionnaires
Physical measurement
Unobtrusive
1)
Observation:
Observation method is a method under which data from the field is collected with the help of
observation by the observer or by personally going to the field. Observation may be defined as
systematic viewing, coupled with consideration of seen phenomena. (P.V Young)
2)
Interviews:
This method of collecting data involves presentation or oral-verbal stimuli and reply in term of oral-verbal
responses. Interview methods this oral verbal communication where interviewers ask question (which
are aimed to get information required for study) to respondents.
3)
Questionnaire:
Questionnaire methods questionnaire is sent to the person with request to answer the questions and
return the questionnaire. Questions are printed in definite order, mailed to sample who are expected to
read that questions understand the questions and write the answer in provided space.
Secondary Data:
Secondary data are those which have been collected by someone else and which have already been
passed through the statistical process are known as secondary data. These are already available i.e, they
refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
Secondary data may either be published or unpublished data research must be very careful in using
secondary data, because the data available may be sometimes unsuitable.
Sources of secondary data:






Publication of central, state, local government.
Technical and trade Journals.
Books, Magazine, New papers.
Report & Publications of industry, bank, stock exchange.
Report by research scholars, universities economists.
Public records.
Unit of Analysis:
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One of the most important ideas in a research project is the unit of analysis. The unit of analysis is the
major entity you are analyzing in year study for instant any of the following could be a unit of analysis in a
study.
Why is it called Unit of Analysis?
It is called Unit of analysis and not something else (like the unit of sampling), because it is the analysis
you do in your study that determine what the unit is eg, if you are comparing the children in two
classrooms on achievement test scores, the unit is the individual child because you have a score for each
child. On the other hand if you are comparing classes on classroom climate your unit of analysis is the
group in the classroom because you have a classroom climate for the class a whole and not for each
individual student for different units of analysis.
1)
2)
If you decide to base an analysis on students score, the individual is unit.
The data that goes into the analysis is the average itself.
The unit of analysis is actually a group.
Purpose of Research Design:

To provide answer to research questions: Research design helpful for providing answer to research
questions.

To Control Variance: Monitoring on the standard performance of the company with the actual
performance of the company is control variance.
Q#5 Define Research? Discuss the relationship between manager
and research. Also differentiate between an applied and basic
research?
Ans:-
INTRODUCTION
Research, a somehow intimidating term for some is simply the process of finding solutions to a
problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors. Managers in organization
constantly engage themselves in studying and analyzing issues and hence are involved in some form of
research activity as they make decision at the workplace. Business research can be described as a
systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting,
which needs a solution. It comprises series of steps that are designed and executed with the goal of
finding answers to the issues that are concern to the manager in the work environment.
DEFINITIONS:
 According to business dictionary:
“Research is a systematic investigation process employed to increase or revise current knowledge
by discovering new facts.”
 According to encyclopedia:
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“Research comprises of creativity and work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase
the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humans, culture and society and the use of this stock of
knowledge to devise new applicants.”
 According to Adolph Matz:
“Research is a careful and organized study or gathering of information about a specific topic.”
RELATI
ONSHI
PBETWEEN MANAGER AND RESEARCHER:
During the career, it often become necessary for manager to deal with consultant, in such cases the manager
must not only interact effectively with the research team, but must also explicitly delineate the roles for
researchers and the management
1. Effective interaction:
In order to keep the relationship strong between managers and researchers, there should be an effective
interaction between the managers, employees and researchers, so that the organization purpose can be
achieved.
2. Inform about rules and regulations:
The researcher must be informed about the rules and regulations of the organization, so that there would be less
chance of faults and mistakes.
3. Disclosure of information:
Most possible information should be disclosed, in order to avoid conflicts and clashes between managers and
researcher and researchers would be able to work actively.
4. Effective communication with researcher:
The manager for the sake of building strong relation with research should have to communicate with them and
should discuss all the problems appropriately.
5. Congruence in system management and researcher:
The whole organization system as well as the management should be known to research, to keep an eye on the
upcoming situations.
6. Recommendation by researchers:
Researchers give recommendations according to their analysis and perceptions, the managers should consider
their suggestion and should make sure to implement them.
7. Avoidance of clashes in ideologies:
Managers and researches should not have clashes in ideologies. The work should be done in an orderly manner
to avoid conflicts.
8. Straightforwardly exchange information:
The information should be exchanged straightforwardly and in forthright manner because it helps to increase the
rapport and trust level between two parties.
9. Easy approach to management:
The researchers team should have easy approaches to the management, so that they easy approach to the
management, so that they don`t face any problem in doing work.
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10.Explicitly of expectations:
The parties should make the role and expectation explicit, this will be reducing the chance of loss and purpose of
research will be accomplished.
11.Access to employees:
The researchers should have easy access to the employees as well because it is mandatory to know the
perspectives of lower level staff.
12.Philosophies and value system must be clear:
All the values, norms, rules, and regulations should be clear to all the parties, it will help in enhancing the
relationship.
13.Maintenance of trust:
Trust and integrity is very important in order to keep the researches team work honestly and actively towards
the organization goal.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN APPLIED AND BASIC RESEARCH:
Research can be undertaken foe two different purposes, one is to solve a current problems faced by the
managers in the work setting, demanding a timely solution. The other is to generate a body of knowledge by
trying to compare how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved.
APPLI
ED RESEARCH
Definition:
T he type of research that is use to answer a specific
question that has direct applicants to the world.
BASI
C RESEARCH
The type of research that is driven purely by
curiosity and a desire to expand our knowledge.
Comprehensive:
Applied research is not as most as comprehend than
the basic.
Basic research is very much detailed and
comprehensive.
Applications:
Applied research is not much detailed so it is applied
in small organization.
Mostly basic research is applied in the large
organization as it is effective in bigger perspective.
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Knowledge:
Applied research is only concerned with solving the
current and recent problems of organizations.
Basic research is vastly concerned with the body of
knowledge to solve problems.
Immediate use:
The recorded or collected by the applied research is
immediately used by the research team.
The body of knowledge being collected by basic
researched is not applied immediately in the
organization.
Practical use:
Applied research is done for immediate problems
faced by the organization appropriately and
practically used.
Basic research is not done for immediate and
practically usage.
Methodical:
Applied research is not methodical as compared to
the other types of researches.
Basic research is very much methodical as it is very
comprehensive.
Critical:
All types of researches are complicated butt applied
is less critical.
Basic research is critical and very detailed research.
Q:-6What is Business Research, what are advantages of External and Internal
Researcher?
Introduction
The word Research is combination of two word RE and SEARCH which means search again and again.
History
Search is not started in 21 st century. But from ancient times man had been searching different things and ways
of living. And it is not confined only one aspect of life. But it is much broader. And include all sphere of life. In
past and now as well we are searching for new ways of business.
Types
1. Basic Research
2. Applied Research
Definitions
According to Dictionary
“A place of finding solutions to a problem after through study and analysis of situational factors.”
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According to ROGER
“Business research is an organized, systematic, Data-based, inquiry into a specific problem withthe
purpose of finding answer to it”
Example:
Apple Incorporation is now searching for a software framework for apps that let medical researchers
gather robust and meaningful data.
Internal Researcher
Expert who first analyzes the new skills needed and than design and delivers a training program.
Same organization has their own consulting or research department which might be called the management
services Department.
Definition
Internal consultant begin with relationship and than must work to gain credibility for their consulting
competency.
Multiple roles of Internal Researcher
1. EXPERT


Traditional model
Relies on knowledge and expertise of solve the clients problem
2. PROCESS



Relies more on the intuition awareness of the consultant
Help the client to understand what is happening, identify solutions and transfer skill to the client.
Advantages
1- Easily Accepted by Employee
The internal researchers have better chance of being reality accepted by the employee of the organization
where research need to be done.
2- Require Less Time
The internal team of researchers would require much less than to understand the structure the
philosophy and climate and work system of the organization.
3- Easy Implementation
They would be available for implementing their recommendations after the research findings are accepted.
4- Less Costly
The internal team might cost considerable as compare the external team. They understand the system due
to their continue involvement with various units.
5- Available To Evaluate Effectiveness
Internal consultant or researchers evaluate the effectiveness of the change and to consider further
changes if and when necessary.
Disadvantages of internal Researchers
1. Less Fresh Ideas
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They might have less fresh ideas and perspectives that might be needed to correct the problem. This
is definitely a handicap for situations.
2. Misrepresentation
There is scope for certain powerful groups in the organization to influence or misrepresent certain facts.
3. Not Perceived As Experts
There is possibility that the internal researchers are not perceived as expert by the management and
hence their recommendations do not get the consideration and attention they deserve.
4. Less Objective
Certain organizational biases of the internal research team might make the findings less objective and less
scientific.
5. Dominate Interests
In internal research certain vested interests could dominate especially in securing a sizable portion of
the available scant resources.
External Researcher
According to Wikipedia
“Some external to organization who con be contracted to conduct the evaluation, sometime develop
evaluation design and sometimes implement design outlined in term of reference.”
Advantages
1- Wealth Of Experience
External researcher has multiple types of experience of different problems. He can easily
understand and interpret problems.
2- Problem Understanding
He can easily understand situation and problems. As may solved that same problem before in
another organization.
3- Free From Pressure
External researcher is free from pressure of organizations employee. He will free from biasness.
4- Trained
External researcher is more trained and qualified. He has attained abundance of training outside.
5- Qualified Experience And Up-To-Date
External researcher is more qualified and has more up-to-date knowledge and experience.
Disadvantages
1-
High Cost
External researcher may very high for organization. As he charge fees for different steps and levels in research.
2-
Time Consuming
External researcher may take time for understanding business terms and policies. He may take time in getting
all ideas.
3-
Existing Researcher Morale Suffer
Hiring of external researcher may affect the morale of internal researchers. They may feel defected.
4-
Budget Impact
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Hiring of external researcher also effect the budget of business due to its higher cost.
6. Lack of Continuity
The external researcher is not for continuous period. So this may affect the implementation of research
findings.
Conclusion
In the last we may concluded that internal research is useful in those organization
in which has small business unit. But external research is useful for those
organization in which has big business unit.
Q:7# Discuss the significance of a comprehensive literature review.
(A/16)
Ans:
INTRODUCTION:
“Literature review is basically gathering of all part resources, data, files & information
that are relevant research topic”.
In first step of research, we find the real problem and covert the broad problem into
specific and narrow form. After this the past work related to research topic is collected. This is done in
order to gets more clear and broader view about further analysis for report preparation of research
findings. Literature review to be concise, generally analysis of published and unpublished data from
sources.
Definitions:
According to Roger:
“Critical analysis of a segment of a published body of Knowledge through summary,
classification, and Comparison of prior research studies, reviews of Literature, and theoretical articles”.
According to Wikipedia:
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“Test of a scholarly paper, which includes the current Knowledge including substantive
findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic”.
According to Shields, Rangarajan:
“A literature review focused on research question, trying to identify, appraise, select and
synthesize. All high-quality research evidence and argument relevant to question”.
Li
t
er
at
ur
eRevi
ew Types
Main types of literature reviews are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Evaluative
Exploratory
Instrumental
Systematic
Literature Review Process






Start at a more general level before narrowing down to your specific research question & objective.
Provide a brief overview of key ideas.
Summarize, compare and contrast the work of the key writers.
Narrow down to highlight the work most relevant to your research.
Provide a detailed account of the finding of this work.
Highlight those issues where your research will provide fresh insights.
Process:
“Assessment+evaluation+explanation+Digest/consoliation+comparison
+categorization+classification”.
Example:
A victims of sexual harassment suffer a range of consequences, from lowered self-esteem
& loss of self-confidence to withdrawal from social interaction, changed career goals, and depression, (in
1982 Adam, kottke, Benson 1982, Weiner 1990). As Adam, Kottke, and all noted that 13% of women
students said they avoided taking a class or working with certain professor because of risk of harassment.
Si
gni
ficanceofLi
t
er
at
ur
eRevi
ew
1.
Good Knowledge of Inquiry:
A comprehensive and detailed inquiry can be conducted in specific problem. That will help
Generation of quite valid results of findings that will applicable on more broader areas.
2.
Common Methodology:
The common methodology can be used for relevant problems. As detailed investigation
conducted and not only one company but internationally multi-national companies avail benefits from it.
3.
Helps to Narrow a Problem:
Critical literature review helps in availing a narrow problem. As broad problem area
conversion into a narrow one is difficult. So it can be done with help of literature review.
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4.
Generation of Further Studies:
It helps in generation of further studies. As if there are any deficiencies in past studies. That
can be removed from further studies and research.
5.
Communication of Long Study:
A long study can be commenced with the help of literature review. As when past cases
studied, more point’s raised, so that kept in mind for further studies and it leads to log studies.
6.
Discovering Important Variables:
The disseverments of more important variables help in more comprehensive findings. And
these findings implemented in company problem solving, which may leads to enhanced productivity and
prosperity.
7.
Establishment of Context:
Literature review creates a huge points and context for findings. So that these findings lead
to solve a problem of research topic and company finds a solution.
8.
Rationalizing the Significance of Problem:
Rationalized and significant areas arise, and company look into all pros and cons of problems,
so all aspects kept in mind regarding implementation.
9.
Enhancement of Subject Techniques:
The use of different techniques becomes possible, as techniques from all over the world
available on a specific issue, so research becomes more significant and comprehensive. The different
techniques create more broad views.
10.
Understanding Structure:
The whole structure of all facts and areas of problem creation can be properly
understandable by a comprehensive literature review. This is because, in past different facts had already
raised, work had done on them.
11.
Scholarly View:
By having a literature review, we can get different scholars views. Their experiences, skills
and knowledge also help us in many ways. It will be beneficial for report making.
12.
Identification of used Tactics:
By having reviews of past related to our topic, we come to know that how many tactics
have been used, what kind of new are available? How could properly we justify? And the most
importantly, which one best is for own topic clearance.
13.
Recognition of Developed Facts:
By having different expert’s reviews, we can avail some developed facts of developed
countries. And thus, we can apply in it our own company to boost up our business.
14.
Synthesizing New Perspective:
Literature review helps us in creation and analyzing new perspective relevant to the topic. This will
help us in as;
 New skills for adoption,
 Enhanced knowledge attainment.
15.
Motivation for Future Research:
Literature review provides motivation and positive energy for future research, past noted
help in finding solution and future research can be more comprehensive with the help of these reviews.
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16.
Enables to Become Expert:
Literature review helps to become expert in research field, more critical factors raised and
researcher get familiar with different issues and help in getting point of importance.
17.
Familiar with Relevant Knowledge:
Literature review helps in getting familiar with relevant knowledge of research problem. As if
there is a problem of turnover of employees, then from different multi-national companies’ research
helps as well.
18.
Detailed Investigation:
Researcher can conduct detailed investigation with the help of literature review, because in
inductive get more detailed knowledge for research.
19.
Enable more Critical Thinking:
It enables the researcher to think in more critical and analyzed way. He can indicate different
areas that should high for further details.
20.
Enable to use Relevant Terminology:
Critical literature review helps in using different terminology for creating broader option for finding.
Such as;
 Questionnaire
 Survey
 Interviews
 Hypotheses
 Analyzed interpretation
21.
Provide Relevant Definition of Problem:
By having different sources, we can avail theoretical data, methods, and issues related to our
problem. We can get more views about our findings that are help in taking further actions.
22.
Provide Data Sources and Journals:
By creating a comprehensive literature review a company can avail different journals, data
sources. It can better avail all relevant analyzed past researches.
23.
Broader Investigation:
Literature Review plays a significant role in getting a broader overview of a specific problem.
It will help research to attain more information and knowledge.
24.
Published & Un-published Support:
Literature review can be available from published sources like;
 Case study
 Periodicals & un-published
 Handwritten reports of different companies enable researcher to have a vivid and specific
identification of problem.
Conclusion
To conclude, we can say that a comprehensive literature review helps us
to create more doors for new points. We can look at a specific problem
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from all over the world point of view from different resources, like;
Journals, websites, articles, international resources.
Q#8Problem definition stage is perhaps more critical in the research
process than problem solution stage comment on the statement?
Ans: INTRODUCTION
A ‘’problem’’ doesn’t necessarily mean that something is seriously wrong that needs to be
rectified immediately. A problem could also indicate an interest in an issue where finding the right
answers might help to improve an existing situation. Thus it is fruitful to define a problem as any
situation where a gap exists between the actual and desired ideal states. A research problem is a
definite or clear expression about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon a difficulty to
be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory or within existing
practice.#
DEFINITIONS:

According to Creswell J.W:
‘’A research problem can be defined as a gap or uncertainty in the decision makers existing
boy of knowledge which inhibits efficient decision making. The gap could be academic and theoretical
(basic) or real time and action oriented’’

According to Wikipedia:
‘’Problem definition is a broad statement of the general marketing research problem and
identification of its specific components’’
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
According to Scott Armstrong:
‘’A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive,
confused and bard.’’
THE IMPORTANC OF THE PROBLEM DEFINITION STAGE
According to ALBERT EINSTEIN:
‘’The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its situation’’
If a problem is well defined than it means that the research is essentially half solved and how the
problem is framed determines the kind of solution obtained. Often a considerable research and analysis
of historical data or secondary information is important and has to be undertaken to help define in very
clear and practice terms what the problems or opportunity is. The research problem derives the stages of
the research.
PROBLEM DEFINITION IS MOST CRITICAL IN THE RESERCH PROCESS
THAN SOLUTION:
7 steps in Research process:
1.
Define research problems
2.
Review of literature
3.
Formulate hypotheses
4.
Preparing the research design
5.
Data collection
6.
Data analysis
7.
Interpretation & report writing
FIRST STEP:
The problem definition stage is probably the most important stage because it involves several
interrelated steps.
THE PROCESSOFPROBLEM DEFI
NI
TI
ON
1.
Ascertain the decision makers objective:
Researcher must attempt to satisfy decision maker’s objective. Managerial goal should be expressed in
measurable terms and the dangerous part of the many marketing problems is not visible.
2.
Understand background of the problem:
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The background of the problem should be properly understood by the managers or researchers. There
should be informal gathering of background information to familiarize researchers.
3.
Identify the problem not symptoms:
Symptoms can be confusing, because certain occurrence that appears to be the problem may be only
symptoms of deeper problems. It should be observed properly and problem should be identified.
4.
Determine unit of analysis:
There are different units of analysis like individuals, household or organization. The units should be
varying according to the nature of problem faced by the managers in the organization.
5.
Determine relevant variables:
Variables are anything that varies in values like categorical continues dependent, independent etc. After
considering all variables, the exact suited one should be selected.
6.
State research questions and objectives:
Written statement of the research questions and research objectives that clarifies any ambiguity about
what the research hopes to accomplish should be stated so, that research process can be made easy.
PROBLEM DEFINITION IS CRITICAL
1.
Critical first step in research process:
The first step in research process is ‘’problem definition’’, It is most important and critical step of
research.
2.
Can be a problem or an opportunity:
First problem, which could be faced in a finding the problem is its identification.
3.
If problem definition is not correct. Research will be wasted regardless of how well
research is conducted.
The problem if felt should be defined correctly because otherwise, when the whole process is
completed, is wasted.
4.
Often requires some preliminary research to help define problem:
There is need of preliminary research requires for the actual definition of problem.
Example: OPTICAL PRESCRIPTION SPECTACLE MAKERS
 OPSM is the leading provider of eye care/wear in Australia and New Zealand.
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 The company has over 300 stores in Australia and NZ.
 In recent times the company has notice a decline in sales.
 What are some possible background issues that may have affected sales?
 How and why the problems come to notice?
 What are the symptoms?
 Often requires some preliminary research, particularly secondly data.
PROBLEM SOLUATION STAGE:
The problem solving stage or process can be divided in different ways and the stages have been various
labels. To be a successful problems solver one needs to understand what the stages involve and follow
them methodically whenever the problem encounters.
STEPS:

Recognizing and defining the stage or problem.

Finding possible solutions.

Choosing the best solutions.

Implementing the solutions.
1.
Recognizing and defining the stage or problem:
Obviously and before any can be taken to solve a problem, we need to recognize that a
problem exists. There are specific techniques can be used to help recognizing problems.
2.
Finding possible solutions:
Analyzing the problems involves identifying and collecting the relevant information and
representing it in a meaningful way. Workable solutions are developed by combining and modifying ideas
and a range of creative techniques.
3.
Choosing the best solutions:
This step involves identifying all the features of an ideal solution, including the constraint it
has to meet, eliminating solutions, which do not meet the constraint etc.
4.
Implementing the solutions:
It involves, planning and preparing to implement the solutions taking the appropriate action
and monitoring its effects, reviewing the ultimate success of the action.
COMPLEXITY IN PROBLEM DEFINITION:
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As the research process is totally depend on the problems, and the main objective of the research is to
find out the problem/opportunities and to get the solution or developments for the same. That’s why the
‘’problem solving stage’’ is most critical and complex in order to complete fruit full research process.
MAIN ISSUES:

Problem should be specific.

It should consider the external and internal constraint.
conclusion:
To conclude we can say that ‘’in a research process’’, problem definition stage is
critical than the ‘’problem solution stage’’, the problem is critical because if it is not
correctly observed than the solution will be wrong and will not correctly solved.
Q#9. What is the difference between reliability and validity what are
different types of reliability?
Ans:
INTRODUCTION
Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects
according to a specified set of rules, and it is important to be standardized and applied in a consistent
manner.
So measurement is:
“An Evaluation of the quality or incidence of a given variable obtained by using a research
instrument.”
Numbers allow us to perform statistical analysis on the resulting data and to test the hypothesis that we
have developed. They facilitate the communication of our research result.
Definitions: Reliability
“The extent to which the same research technique applied again to the same object
(subject) will give you the same result.”
(Wikipedia)
“The measure of how stable, dependable trustworthy and consistent a test is in measuring
the same thing each time.”
(Creswell)
Validity
“The degree to which a research study measures what it intends to measure.”
(Wikipedia)
“Validity is a test or instrument that is accurately measuring what it’s supposed to.”
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(Investopedia)
Di
ffer
enceBet
weenRel
i
abi
l
i
t
yAndVal
i
di
t
y
Reliability
1. Definition
The extent to which the same research
technique applied again to the same
Object will give you the same object willgive
you the same result.
Validity
The degree to which a research study measures what
it intends to measures.
2. Production
Reliability contains the production of consistent and
Validity consist of the
replicable outcomes.
Production of outcomes that Meat objectives
3. Variables
In reliability, the limited number of objective
variable use.
In validity, the broad numbers of diverse
variable are used.
4. Judgement
It involves the minimization of judgement.
It involves the integration of judgement.
5. Substantiation
In this, the substantiation is based past data.
In this, the substantiation based on future events.
6. Instruments
It requires the consistency of an instruments or The validity requires the accuracy of an
measurement. It also helps to assess the
instruments or measurement.
“goodness” of measure.
7. Determination
The reliability of a measure easy to
determination.
In validity, more analysis require formeasurement.
8. Biasness
In reliability, there must be the possibility of
avoidance of biasness.
theIn validity, there must be the acknowledgement of the
reality of biasness.
9. Measurement
Reliability is the measure of the consistency of a It is measure using a coefficient, Typically two scores
metrics or a method.
from two assessments or measure is calculated to
determine a number between “o” and “1”.
10. Process
In reliability the measurement is the ongoing
process.
In validity, the measurement process requires
empirical evidence.
11. Types
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




Test-rates reliability
Parallel-form reliability
Inter-term consistency reliability
Split-half reliability
Inter-rats reliability





Face validity
Content validity
Predictive validity
Concurrent validity
Construct validity
12. Testing
Reliability will tell you how trustworthy a score on Validity will tell you how good a test is for a particular
that test will be.
situation.
13. Relationship
Reliability has a necessary but not sufficient
relationship with validity.
A test cannot be valid unless the measurement
resulting from it is reliable.
14. Investigation
Validity is concerned with identifying the factors that
Reliability is concerned with answering the
question? How much variance in test scores is dueproduce the reliable variance in the test
scores.
to measurement error?
15. Performance
In reliability, the performance is more
consistent.
In validity It focuses on how story outcome of the
program was?
TypesofRel
i
abi
l
i
t
y
1. Inter-Ratter Reliability
When multiple people are giving assessments of some kind or are the subjects of some test,
then similar people should lead to the same resulting scores. Two major ways in which inter-ratter
reliability is used are:
Testing how similar people categorize items?
How similarly people score items?
This is the best way of assessing reliability when you are using observation, as observer bias very
easily creeps in.
Inter-ratter reliability is also knows as inter-observer reliability or inter-coder reliability.
2. Test-Retest Reliability
Assessment or test of a person should give the same results whenever you apply the test. Testretest reliability evaluates reliability across time. Generally speaking, the longer the delay between
tests the greater the likely variation.
Better results test will gives less retest variation with longer delay.
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Of course the problem with test-retest is that people may have learned and that the second test is
likely to give different results.
3. Parallel-Forms Reliability
One problem with questions or assessments knows what questions are the best ones to ask. A
way of discovering this is do two tests i parallel using different questions.
Parallel-forms reliability evaluates different questions and question set that seek to assess the same
construct. Parallel-forms evaluation may be done in combination with other methods. Such as splithalf, which divide items that measure the same construct into two tests and apply them to the
same group of people?
4. Internal Consistency Reliability
When asking questions in research, the purpose is to assess the response against a given
construct or idea. Different questions that test the same construct should give consistent results.
Internal consistency reliability evaluates individual questions in comparison with one another for
their ability to give consistently appropriate results.
5. Split-Half Reliability
In split-half reliability, we random divide all items that purport to measure the same construct
into two sets.
We administer the entire instrument to a sample of people and calculate the total score of each
randomly divided half, the split reliability estimates.
Crux
In the above discussion it will be concluded here, a test can’t be valid if it is
unreliable.
The reliability is the consistency or precision in measurements. While the validity
is the degree to which an instrument measures that which is supposed to be
measured.
Q:#10 What is meant by research design? Discuss types of
investigation, researcher’s interferences and time horizon?
Ans:
INTRODUCTION
Research is the study of the materials sources and data in order to get conclusions.
Getting the research design right is the first step towards organized research, which is the most likely to
be good research. The research design provides the structure of the research and links all of the elements
of the research together. It provides the researcher the opportunity to carefully consider the research
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and to plan the way in which they will approach the research. A research design is the framework or
guide used for the Planning, implementation, & analysis of study.
Definitions
Research
“Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase or
understanding of a topic or issue”.
Design
“Design is a roadmap or a strategic approach for someone toachieve unique expectations”.
Research Design
“The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent & logical way, ensuring you will effectively address the
research problem”.
TypesofResear
chDesi
gn
There are four main types or different research design that has been explained below:
1)
Sampling Design:
Sampling design is the first type of the research design. It deals with the methods of selecting
items to be observed for the study. In business research, companies often generate samples for
customers.
2)
Observational Design:
The second type of design is observational design. It relates to the conditions under which
observations are to be created. It is a type of non-experimental research. In this type of design researcher
observe ongoing behavior.
3)
Statistical Design:
The statistical design is third type of design. It concerns with a question of the of “How the
information and data gathered are to be analyzed”?
4)
Operational Design:
Operational design is a discipline that deals with the application of advanced analytical
methods to helps to make better decision. It deals with techniques by which the procedures satisfied in
sampling.
TypesofI
nvest
i
gat
i
on
Investigation is a type of research often brought about by some unwanted situation. The systematic study
about a problem is called investigation. There are three types of investigation which are explained
below:
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1.
Descriptive Investigation:
A descriptive investigation involves collecting qualitative and quantitative data to draw
conclusions about a natural or ma-made system. A descriptive investigation includes a question but no
hypothesis. Observations are recorded but no comparison is made and no variables are manipulated.
2.
Comparative Investigation:
Comparative investigation involves collecting data on different organisms/objects/features or
collecting data under different conditions to make a comparison. In comparative investigations,
investigator looks for patterns or trends by comparing similarities and differences over the time and
under the various circumstances.
3.
Experimental Investigation:
Experimental investigation involves a process in which a “Fair test” is designed and variables
are actively manipulated, controlled and measures in an efforts to gather evidences to support or refute
a causal relationship. Experimental investigation have a control group which does not receive any
treatment.
Research Interferences
The extend of interferences by the researcher has a direct bearing on whether the study
undertaken in correlation or causal. A correlation study is conducted in a natural environment with
minimal interferences by the researcher. In Causal study, the researcher tries to manipulate certain
variables so as to study effects of such manipulation on the dependant variable of interest.
Degree of Research Interference
The researcher interference has three degrees. Let’s elaborate them with one example.
1.
Minimal Interference:
A Hospital administrator wants to examine the relationship between the perceived emotional
support and stress experienced by working staff. In other words, she wants to do a causal or correlation
study. The researcher will collect data from the nurses to indicate how much emotional support they get
in hospital and to what extend the experience stress. By correlating to variables, the answer is found.
2.
Moderate Interference:
To test the cause and effect relationship, the researcher will measure the stress currently
experienced by the nurses in three wards in the hospital and then deliberately manipulate the extend of
emotional support given to the three groups of nurses in three wards for perhaps a week, and measure
the amount of stress at the end of that period.
3.
Excessive Interferences:
The Extend of researcher interference would depend on whether the study is correlation or
causal and also the importance of establishing causal relationship beyond one doubt. For Example:
During the particular experimental week, the nurses in one or more wards may not have experienced
high level of stress because there was no serious illness or death in the wards. Hence, the emotional
support received might not be related to the level of stress experienced.
4.
Time Horizon:
A time Horizon also known as a planning horizon is a fixed point of time in the future at
which point certain processes will be evaluate or assumed to end. A time horizon is the length of the
time over which on investment is made or held before it is liquidated. It is necessary in an accounting,
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finance or risk management regime to assign such a fixed horizon time so that alteration can be evaluate
for performance over the same period of time.
TypesofTi
meHor
i
zon
There are two main types of Time Horizon!
5.
Cross-sectional Studies:
Cross sectional studies are observational studies. Cross sectional studies make comparison at
a single point in time. The definition feature of a cross-sectional study is that it can compare different
population groups at a single point in time. The benefit of cross-sectional studies is that it allows
researcher to compare many different variables at the same time such as age, gender, income, and
educational level etc.
6.
Longitudinal Study:
A longitudinal study, like a cross-sectional one, is observational. So, once again, researchers
do not interfere with their subjects. However, in a longitudinal study, researcher conducts several
observation of the some subject over a period of time, sometimes testing many years. The benefit of a
longitudinal study is those researchers are able to defect development or changes in the characteristics
of target population of both the group and the individual level.
Q#11. What are the main steps followed in a
research process?
Ans:
The Research Process
Research is a systematic process based on the scientific method that facilitates the
identification of relationships and determination of difference in order to answer a particular question. It
is beneficial for one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research. We can use the
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knowledge of research methodology as it is helpful in various fields such as government or business
administration, community development and social work where persons are increasingly called upon to
evaluate and use research results for action. When we know research is done then one may have the
satisfaction of acquiring a new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world.
Definitions:
“Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue.”
(BY JHON W.Creswell)
“Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions, and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.”
(Clifford Woody)
Example:
Buying a car involves the research process. The process involving collection of data to decide
between a new car and used car, makes, models, and amenities; to consider budget limitations delaer
locations, prices and so on.
Data are collected and analyzed to answer the question.
 What type of car best meets my needs and budget, and where is the best place to buy it?
This is the research process.
Research Process OR Steps
The process of gathering information for the purpose of initiating, modifying or terminating a
particular investment or a group of investments, the process is an expression of the basic scientific
method using the following steps:
Research Process
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SSte
tepp.3
.1
.2
.4
SSte
tepp.7
.5
.6

Step.1 (Statement of Problem)
The first step in research is “Pinpointing the topic of interest.”Researches usually start
out with a vague idea of some problem and then slowly try to refine this idea into a concise
statement. They review studies relevant to this topic to further illuminate the problem and refine
research question.
A strong problem statement is one supported by a thorough review of relevant study results and a
strong rational or justification for performing the study like how will this study advance the field of
interest.
Example:
To what extent has the new advertising compaign Bun successfully in creating the high
quality customer-centred corporate image that it was intended to produce?
How has the new packaging affected the sales of the product?

Step.2 (Formulate Hypothesis)
Hypothesis and research questions are precise statements or questions of the research
problems. A hypothesis is a prediction of what is expected to occur, or a relationship expected
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between concepts of interest. The hypothesis is typically tested with some form of experiment. Not
all studies test hypothesis. Some ask more general questions about the problem of interest. The
focus can be largely descriptive. Formulate hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw
out and test its logical or empirical consequences. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to
the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
“The role of the hypothesis is to guide the research by delimiting the area of research
and to keep him on the right track.”
Example:
A new teaching method is developed that is believed to be better than the current method.
 Alternative Hypothesis:
The new teaching method is better.
 Null Hypothesis:
The new method is no better than the old method.

Step.3 (Review o Literature)
A thorough search of literature is an important component of the research process. The
review involves the collection and summary of prior study that is relevant to the hypothesis or
research question. This process assesses what is already known about the problem and refines
research questions for extending knowledge in this field. The important focus should be the
determination of what the study will add to what is already known. The review can also provide
ideas of what methods and instruments can be used to collect the data.
In other words, once the problem is defined a brief summary of it should be written down. It is
compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. Degree to write a synopsis of topic and
submit it to necessary committee or the research board for approval.
“Systematic identification and location of documents concerning information related to the
research problem.”
Purpose of a Literature Review
 Knowledge of current literature and your own reading.
 Attain a good knowledge of the field of inquiry; facts, scholars etc.
 Proposed research is really needed.
 Helps to narrow a problem
 Generation of hypothesis TQs or questions for further studies.
 Commence a long-term study of interest.
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
Step.4 (Measurements)
Measurement is an important component of research. Individuals vary in their
interpretations of particular terms or concepts.
For Example;height =60 could means 60 inches, or 60 centimetres. Hence key terms in the
problem statement should be defined clearly. To follow the example of height the research should
indicate that height is measured in centimetres. This process of definition is called
operationalization:
The concept in the researcher’s head can be observed, measured, and understood by others.

Step.5 (Sample Selection)
If the study involves human subjects, then “sample” means a group of people from
which data will be collected. If the study is analyzing secondary data collected by another
investigator, then sample refers to the data sets. Usually the sample is a group of people
representing a target population, and the population is the larger group to whom the results are to
be generalized. Types of research bias or systematic errors can be avoided with precise definitions of
target population and rigorous sampling strategies.
Advantages:
 Easy to conduct.
 High probability of achieving a representative sample.
 Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures.
Example:
Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members of the population can be found:
 Neighbourhoods
 School districts
 School
 Classrooms

Step.6 (Data Analysis)
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories. This stage mainly includes:
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 Coding
 Editing
 Tabulation
This step in the process involves the use of statistical techniques to summarize and interpret
relevant research results. The main objective of data analysis is to answer the research questions or
test the hypothesis. Based on analysis results, conclusions are drawn and interpreted in the context
of previous studies. The analysis of data can of two types:
TypesofDat
aAnal
ysi
s

Quantitative Analysis:
Measurements use scale which equal intervals.
Examples include:
Mass (g), Length (cm), Volume (mc), Temperature (C o or k)

Qualitative Analysis:
Non-standard scales with unequal intervals or discrete categories
Examples include:
Gender, Choice, Colour, Scales.

Step.7 (Interpretation & Report Writing)
Interpretation:
Interpretation is the process of making in the sense of numerical data that has been
collected, analyzed and presented. Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the
collected facts after an analytical or experimental study. The task of interpretation has two major
aspects:
Data interpretation is part of daily life for most of people.
Technique of Interpretation:
 Explanation
 Extraneous Information
 Guidance
 Relevant Factors
Precautions in Interpretation:
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 Data are appropriate
 Good homogeneity
 Proper Analysis
 Avoid Errors
Report Writing:
Latin word “Portare” means “to carry”. Re+Port = to carry information again.
Document giving summarised and interpretative information of research done and about procedure
used by the individual or group.
Different steps in writing Report:

Logical analysis of subject matter

Preparation of the final outline

Preparation of the rough draft

Rewriting and polishing

Preparation of the final bibliography

Writing the final draft
Researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report includes:
 The preliminary pages,
 The main text and
 The end matter.
Interpretation and report writing is the research for broader, meaning of research finding.
Summing UP
Good quality research requires a research to follow scientific
approach. Research must follow scientific steps of this process, and
must carefully select among different research designs, and specific
research questions and the overall objectives of the study.
Q:#12 Define a survey? Discuss the different types of data collection
through a survey method?
Ans: INTRODUCTION
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There are various methods of data collection in business research is one of them. Surveys are
a good way of gathering a large amount of data, providing a broad perspective. Survey in research human
subjects, is a list of questions aimed at extracting specific data from a particular group of people. Survey
maybe conducted by phone, mail, via internet or sometimes face-to-face.
Definition:
(Survey):
“Survey an instrument to collect data that describe one or more characteristics of a specific
population.”
(Survey Research):
“Survey research involves collecting data to that hypothesis or to answer questions about
people’s opinion on some topic or issue.”
“Survey research involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals
through their responses to questions.”
Examples:
 Make a survey report to get information you need to make better decision about your
production & services.
 Make a survey report to check that how much satisfied your customer about your product.
TypesofDat
aCol
l
ect
i
onThr
oughSur
veyMet
hod
There are various types of surveys you can choose from. Basically the types of surveys are broadly
categorized into two:
(A) According to Instrumentation
(B) According to span of time
The types of surveys according to instrumentation include the two:
 Questionnaire
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 Interview
On the other hand the types of surveys according to span of time used to conduct the survey are
comprised of:
 Cross-sectional
 Longitudinal Surveys
(A)
According to Instrumentation
In survey research the instruments that are utilized can be either a questionnaire or an interview (either
structured or unstructured).
1. Questionnaires
Typically, a questionnaire is a paper-and-pencil instrument that is administered to the
respondents. The actual questions found in questionnaires are closed-ended questions, which are
followed by response options. However, there are questionnaires that ask open-ended questions to
explore the answers of the respondents.
Definition:
“A set of printed or written questions with a choice of answers, devised for the purposes of
a survey or statistical study.”
Types of Questionnaire
1.
Closed-Ended Questions
Closed-ended questions limit the answers of the respondents to response options provided
on the questionnaire.
2.
Open-Ended Questions
In open-ended questions, there are no predefined options or categories included. The
participants should supply their own answers.
3.
Matrix Questions
Matrix questions are also closed-ended questions, but are arranged one under the other,
such that the questions from a matrix or a table with identical response options placed on top.
4.
Contingency Questions
Questions that need to be answered only when the respondent provides a particular
response to a question prior to them are called contingency questions.
Advant
agesofQuest
i
onnai
r
e
 Ideal for asking closed-ended questions.
 Effective for market and consumer research.
Di
sadvant
agesofQuest
i
onnai
r
e
 Limit the researcher understands the respondent’s answer.
 Require budget for reproduction of survey questionnaire.
2. Interviews
Between the two broad types of surveys interviews are more personal and probing.
Questionnaires do not provide the freedom to ask follow-up questions to explore the answers of the
respondents, but interviews do.
Definition:
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“Interview is the verbal conversation between two people with the objective of collecting
relevant information for the purpose of research.”
Types of Interviews
There are the three fundamental types of research interviews:
1.
Structured Interviews
The questions are asked in a set standardized order and the interviewer will not deviate from
the interview schedule or probe beyond the answers received (so they are not flexible) informal
interviews.
2.
Unstructured interviews
These are sometimes referred to as discovery interviews & more like a guided conversation
than a strict structured interview. They are sometimes called informal interviews.
Group Interviews
3.
This refers to interviews where a dozen or so many respondents to make sure the group
interact with each other and not drift off topic.
Advant
agesofI
nt
er
vi
ew






Easy correction of speech
Development of Relationship
Time Saving
Increase knowledge
Less costly Selection of Suitable Candidate
Flexible & Sufficient info
Di
sadvant
agesofI
nt
er
vi
ew







(B)
Incomplete process
No Record
Lack of attention
Disappointed
Time Consuming
Biases of interviewer
Not suitable for the personal matters
According to the Span of Time
The span of time needed to complete the survey brings us to the two different types of
surveys:
1.
Cross-Sectional
Collecting information from respondent at a single period in time uses, sometimes it used to
identify relationship between two variables. Cross-sectional question usually use to ask about a particular
at one point in time.
Definition:
“Cross-sectional research design is one in which researcher collects data at particular point
of time (one period of data collection)”
Example:
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An example of cross-sectional survey about the relationship of peer pressure is cigarette
smoking among teen-agers.
Char
act
er
i
st
i
csofCr
ossSect
i
onal





Snapshot of different samples at one or more points in time.
Large scale and representative sampling.
Macro level analysis.
Enables different groups to be compared.
Can be retrospective and/or prospective.
Advant
agesofCr
ossSect
i
onal






Comparatively quick to conduct.
Comparatively cheap to administer.
Limited control effects as subjects only participate once.
Charts aggregated patterns.
Data can be used for various types of research.
Not costly to perform and does not require a lot of time.
Di
sadvant
agesofCr
ossSect
i
onal





2.
Do not permit analysis of casual relationships.
Does not help determine cause and effect.
The timing of the snapshot is not guaranteed to be representative.
Unable to chart changing social processes over time.
Omission of a single variable can undermine the results significantly.
Longitudinal Survey
When the researcher attempts to gather information over a period of time or from one point
to another he is doing longitudinal survey.
Definition:
“An observational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects
repeatedly over a period of time.”
Char
act
er
i
st
i
csofLongi
t
udi
nal
 Single sample over extended period of time.
 Enables the same individuals to be compared over time.
 Micro-level analysis.
Advant
agesofLongi
t
udi
nal






They can show clear variable patterns over time.
They allow for clear focus and validity.
They can provide useful data.
They have more power than cross-sectional studies.
They are perfect for doing research on developmental trends.
They are flexible.
Di
sadvant
agesofLongi
t
udi
nal
 They drop-out from a panel study.
 They require enormous amounts of time.
 They would gather data that is not reliable.
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 They require a large sample size.
 They can be costly compared to cross-sectional studies.
Summing UP
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q:13 Explain the concept of theoretical framework. Further
discusses different type of variables with the help of examples?
INTRODUCTION
Ans:
A theoretical framework is the foundation of hypothetic deductive research as it is the basis
of the hypothesis that you will develop.
It represent your beliefs on how certain phenomena (or variables or concepts) are related to each other
and an explanation of why you beliefs that these variables are associated with each others.
If you want to successfully predict what outcomes may arise, having a goal theoretical framework will
help lead you in the right direction.
Definitions:
“A theoretical framework guides your research determining what things you will measure
and what satisfied relationships you will look for.” (wikipedia)
“A group of related ideas that provide guidance to a research project or business endeavour.”
(creswell)
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Identify the concept
Explore the relationship B/T variables
Define variable
Develop relational statement propositions
Operationalize variables
Purpose of Theoretical Framework:
 To test theories
 To make research findings meaningful and generalizable
 To establish orderly connections between observations and facts
 To predict and control situations
 To stimulate research.
From the theoretical framework, then testable hypotheses can be developed to examine whether your
theory is valid or not. It is essential to understand what a variable means and what the different types
of variables are.

Variables
A variable is anything that can take on differing on varying values. The values can differ at
various times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different objects or person. E.g.:
Production units, absenteeism and motivation.
Variables are called what they are because it is assumed that the cases will vary in their scores on these
attributes.
“If the variable is Age, we obviously recognize that people can be different ages.”
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Mo
d
e
ra ti
n
aV
g riab
le s
M deiati ngVa riable s
Typ efOs Vrai baels
Inde pned ntVa riable s
Jo
b
S
a
ti
sf
a
c
ti
o
n
Jo b F re e d o m
S a la r y
Dep nde taVri ables
1.
Dependent Variables:
The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. It is the
main variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable factor.
“The variables that depends on other functions or factors that are measured. These
variables are expected to change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent
variable or variables.”
It is possible to have more than one dependent variable in a study. For example; there is always a tussle
between quality and volume of output, low-cost production and customer satisfaction.
Example:
In education the dependent variable is the achievement or learning and the independent is the method
of teaching.
Example:
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
EMPLOYEE COMPETENCIES
NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS
STRONG ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
2.
Independent Variable:
Independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or
negative way. That is when the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present
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and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, these is an increase or decrease in the
dependent variable.
Conditions:




The independent and the dependent variable should convey.
The independent variable should precede the dependent variable.
No other factors should be a possible cause of the change in dependent variable.
A logical information/explanation is needed.
Example:
The successful new product development has an influence on the stock market price of the
company. That is, the more successful the new product turns out to be, the higher will be the stock
market price of that firm.
New Product Success in independent variable and Stock Market price in Dependent variable.
3.
Moderating Variable:
Moderating variable is a variable, the presence of which modifies the original relationship
between the independent and the dependent variables.
That has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship.
Example:
The diversity of the workforce (different ethnic origins races) contributes more to organizational
effectiveness and skills to the workplace. Managers must know how to encourage and coordinate the
talents of the various groups to make things work. The managerial expertise then because the
moderating variable.
Workforce Diversity (Independent variable)Organizational Effectiveness (Dependent Variable)
Managerial Expertise (Moderating Variable)
4.
Mediating Variable:
A mediating variable (or intervening variable) is one that surface between the times the
independent variable start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is
felt on it. It is a variable whose existence is inferred but it cannot be measured.
Example:
The independent variable (workforce diversity) influences the dependent variable (organizational
effectiveness), the mediating variable that surfaces as a function of the diversity in the workforce is
“Creative synergy”. This creative synergy resulted from a multiethnic, multiracial and multinational.
It helps us to understand and conceptualize how workforce diversity brings about organizational
effectiveness.
Independent VariableIntervening VariableDependent Variable
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Example:
Higher education typically leads t the higher income.
Higher Education ---------Independent Variable
Higher Income-------------Dependent Variable
Better Occupation---------Intervening Variable
Conclusion
To be concluding the theoretical framework is a group of
related ideas that provides guidance to a research projects.
Framework describe as the abstract, logical structure of
meaning that guide the development of the study.
Theories are purposely created & formulated, never discovered
it.
Q#14 Define hypotheses, Explain the different types of hypothesis
with example. A/12
Ans:
INTRODUCTION:
A hypothesis helps to translate the research problem and objective into a clear explanation
or prediction of the expected results or outcomes of the research study.
A hypothesis is a formal tentative statement of the expected relationship between two or more
variables.
DEFINITIONS:
According to Kelinger, 1956:

‘’ A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables.’’
According to Creswell, 1994:

‘’ Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an
independent and dependent variable.’’
General definition:

‘’ Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between two variables. It
implies that there is a systemic relationship between an independent and dependent variable.
EXPLANATION:
A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative yet testable, which predicts what you
expect to find in your empirical data. Hypothesis can be defined as logically conjectured relationship
between two or more variable expressed in the form of testable statements. By testing the hypothesis
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and confirming the conjectured relationship. It is expected that solutions can be found to correct the
problem encountered.
EXAMPLE:

Health education program influence the number of people who smoke.

Newspaper effects people voting pattern.

Attendance at lectures influences exam marks.
TYPESOFHYPOTHESI
S
There are following types of hypothesis. They are discussing below one by one.
1.
Directional hypothesis
2.
Non-directional hypothesis
3.
Null hypothesis
8.
Associative hypothesis
4.
Alternative hypothesis
9.
Statistical hypothesis
5.
Simple hypothesis
6.
7.
Complex hypothesis
Casual hypothesis
DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS:
‘’ Directional hypothesis states the nature of the relationship between two or more variables such as
positive, negative or no relationship .’’
The directional to express of the relationship between variables, the
directional term are used to state the hypothesis such as positive, negative, less, more, increased,
decreased, great, higher or lower etc.
These are directional hypothesis because the direction of the relationship between the variables
(positive/negative) in indicated, as in the first example below, or nature of the difference between two
groups on a variable is postulate, as in the second example.
EXAMPLE

The greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employees.

Women are more motivated than men.
NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS:
‘’ It reflects the relationship between two or more variable, but is does not specify the anticipated directional
and nature of relationship such as positive or negative.’’
Non-directional hypothesis are those that do postulate a relationship on difference, but offer an
indication of the direction of those relationship or differences. In other words, though it may be
conjectured that there is a significant relationship between two variables.
EXAMPLE
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
There is a relationship between age and job satisfaction.

There is a difference between the work ethic value of American and Asian employees.
NULL HYPOTHESIS (H0)
‘’ It states the existence of no relationship between the independent and dependent variable. ’’
Null hypothesis is contrary to the positive statement of a working hypothesis. According to null
hypothesis there is no relationship between dependent and independent variable. It is donated by ‘HO’.
The null hypothesis may states that correlation between two variables is equal to zero. The null
hypothesis statement expressed in terms of there being no relationship between two variables.
Example

There is no relationship between smoking and the incidence to coronary artery disease.
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS (H1)
‘’ The statement expressing a relationship between two variable or indicating
difference between groups.’’
Firstly many hypothesis are selected than select one which more workable and most efficient. It isdenote
by (H1) alternative hypothesis is contrary to null hypothesis.
EXAMPLE


There is a relationship between health and smoke.
A researcher has been observing the water quality over the year. Here, the null hypothesis may be
no change in water quality in first half as compared to second half. Against this alternative hypothesis
may be the quality is poor in second half in the observation.
SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS
‘’ It is a statement which reflects the relationship between two variables .’’
Simple hypothesis is that one in which there exists relationship between two variables are is
called independent variable or cause and other is dependent variable or effect.
EXAMPLE

Smoking leads to cancer.

The higher ratio of unemployment leads to crime.
COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS
‘’ It is a statement reflect the relationship between more than two variables.’’
Complex hypothesis is that in which as relationship among variables exists. In this type of dependent as
well independent variables are more than two.
EXAMPLE
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
Smoking and other drugs leads to cancer and chest infection etc.

The higher ratio of unemployment poverty, illiteracy lead to crimes like dacoit, robbery etc.
CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS
‘’The causal hypothesis reflects the measurement of dependent variable to examine the effect
of dependent variable, which is manipulated by the researchers. ’’
It predicts the cause-and-effect relationship between two or more dependent and independent variable
in experimental or interventional setting. Independent variable is manipulated by research to examine
the effect on the dependent variable.
EXAMPLE

Prevalence of pin site infection is lower in patients who receive pin site care with hygrogram
peroxide as compared to patient who receive the pin site care with beta dine solution.
ASSOCIATIVE HYPOTHESIS
‘’ It reflects a relationship between variables that occurs or exists in natural setting without
manipulation .’’
This hypothesis is used in correlation research studies. The associative hypothesis relationship between
two variables, when one variable change, the other changes.
EXAMPLE

Communication skills of health care providers and cost of care related to the satisfaction of patients.

An increase in variables X is associated with an increase in variable Y in a specific population. An
increase in variable X is associated with a decrease in variable Y in a specified population.
STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS
‘’ A hypothesis is proposed for the statistical relationship between the two data set .’’
A statistical hypothesis, some called confirmatory data analysis, is a hypothesis that is testable on the
basic of observing a process that is modeled vice a set of random variables. A hypothesis is proposed for
statistical relationship between the two data sets, and this is compared as alternative to an idealized null
hypothesis that proposed no relationship between two data sets.
EMPIRICAL HYPOTHESIS
Working hypothesis is that one which is applied to a field. During the formulation it is an
assumption only but when it is pat to a test become empirical hypothesis.
CRUXThe hypothesis is relationship between two variables. So, this relationship proves it is true or
wrong. That’s why relationship should be free from basic data or any kind of material which effects
relationship.
Q#15 What is variable? Explain four main types of variables in
research?
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Ans: INTRODUCTION:
Variable is central idea in research. ‘’Variable is a concept that varies’’. The variable is defined as anything
that varies or changes in values. The values can differ at various times for the same object or person, or
at the same time for different objects or persons. Variable can be discrete (e.g; male/female) or
continuous (e.g. the age of an individual).
DEFINITIONS:



‘’ A concept that can take on different quantities values is called variables’’
‘’ A variable, as the name implies, is something that varies e.g. Weight, height, anxiety levels,
income, body temperature and so on.’’
‘’ Variable is a property that takes on different values’’.
EXAMPLE:

Production units, absenteeism and motivation.
FOUR TYPESOFVARI
ABLES:
1. Independent variable (Workforce diversity)
2. Dependent variable (organizational effectiveness)
3. Moderating variable (Managerial variable)
4. Mediating/intervening variable (creative synergy)
1.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE:
Independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative
way. When independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present. In other words, with
each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent
variable.

The condition that is intentionally changed by the investigator in an experiment.

There can be only one independent variable in an experiment.
EXAMPLE:

Success of the new product OR modifying existing method of instruction.
2.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE:
‘’ The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. Through the
analysis of the dependent variable is possible to find answers or solution to the problem’’.
The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its
variability, or predict it.
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
Variable that affected by the independent variable.

It responds to the independent variable.

Variation in dependent variable is depends on the variation in the independent variable.
EXAMPLE:

If the independent variable is the use or non-use of a new language teaching procedure, then
dependent variable might be student’s scores on a test/or stock market price.
MODERATING VARIABLE:
3.
‘’ The presence of the third variable (the moderating variable) modifies the original relationship
between the dependent and independent variables.’’
The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable
dependent variable relationship. In other words, the variable that moderates the relationships is known
as moderating variable.
EXAMPLE:

Work force diversity (independent variable)

Organizational effectiveness (dependent variable)

Managerial expertise ( Moderating variable)
4.
MEDIATING VARIABLE:
‘’ Mediating variable refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that
link the independent & dependent variable’’.
The intervening variable acts as a dependent variable with respect to independent and acts as an
independent variable towards the dependent variable.
EXAMPLE:

If the use of a particular teaching technique is the independent variable and mastery of objectives is
dependent variable, then language learning process used by subjects are inter vining variables.
OTHER TYPESOFVARI
ABLES
1.
1.
Extraneous variables
2.
Control variables
Extraneous variables:
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It is also called the confounding variable. Extraneous variable are those factors in the
research environment which may have an effect on the dependent variable, but which are notcontrolled.
Extraneous variable are dang euros. They may damage a study’s validity making it possible to know
whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderate variable or some extraneous factor.
If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variable must at leave b taken into consideration when
interpreting results. The un-desired variable are called extraneous variable.
EXAMPLE:

2.
If you want to measure the relationship between students working hours and exam performance.
Student intelligence plays as a one of the extraneous variable in this study.
CONTROL VARIABLE:
Language learning and teaching are very complex processes. It is not possible to consider
every variable in a single study. Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particulars study must
be held constant, neutralizes/ balanced or eliminated. So they will not have a biasing effect on the other
variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control variable.
EXAMPLE:

Battery, wire, type of nail etc.
Relationship among variables
The relationship between variable can be understand by this diagram.

Control variable 
Extraneous variable

Independent
variable
Intervening
variable
Moderator
variable
Dependent
variable
It is very important to understand relationship between variables to draw the right conclusion from a
satisfied analysis. The relationship between variables determines how the right conclusions are reached.
Without an understanding of this, you can fall into many pitfalls and infer wrong results from your data.
CRUX
At the end, we can conclude that, variables are measurable characteristics that vary.
It may change from group to group, person to person, or even within one person
overtime.
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Q#16: Define broad problem area. Also explain how to develop a
sound problem statement explain with the help of suitable example?
THE BROAD BROBLEM AREA
Ans:
INTRODUCTION:
The managers have to be alert and responsive to what is going on, both within their organization and in its
environment, in order to take effective decisions and develop effective courses of action. The origin of most stems
from the desire to get a grip on issues, concerns and conflicts within the company or in it environment. In other
words ……… research typically begins with a problem.
A problem could also indicate an interest in an issue where finding the existing situation.
WHAT IS PROBLEM
A matter or situation regarded as unwelcome or harmful and needing to be dealt with and overcome.
OR
A problem is an obstacle which makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal, object, purpose.
DEFINITION
“If there is change in current conditions with our desire than it will be a problem.”
“It refers to situations, condition or issue that is yet unresolved.”
EXAMPLE OF PROBLEM:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Staff turnover is higher than anticipated.
The current employees for management positions are imperfect.
Minority group members in organization are not advancing in their careers.
The newly installed information system is not being used by the managers for whom it was primary
designed.
5.
6.
The introduction of flexible work hours has created more problems than it has solved.
Young workers in the organization show low level of commitment to the organization.
INFORMATION GATHER FOR PROBLEM:
Information gather (sources of information) are articles, textbooks, conference, proceeding and internet.
Nature of information:
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Background information on the organization and its environment (that is the contextual factors.) the body of
knowledge available to you or what is already known and written down. (Literature)
Types of data:


Primary data
Secondary data
1. Primary data:
The term refers to information that the researcher gathers first hand through instruments such as surveys,
interviews, focus groups, or observation.
2. Secondary data:
The data that already exist and they don’t have to be collected by the researchers.
DEFINING THE PROBLEM STATMEMT
After gathering preliminary information, the researcher is in a position to narrow down the problem from its
original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. It is critical that the problem statement is
unambiguous, specific and focused and that the problem is addressed from a specific academic perspective.
WHAT IS STATEMENT?




A statement is a sentence.
A sentence is complete idea.
There is a subject and a predicate.
The meaning is completely clearly to the reader.
EXAMPLE OF PROBLEM STATEMENT:
CAA airlines carry out charter and regular flights to medium haul destination –such as the Mediterranean. North
African and the red sea-and to long-haul destinations such as the Caribbean. Despite an intensive maintenance
program, these planes have a lot of technical issues. This means that more delays will inevitably occur. Prior
research has claimed that services wait can be controlled by two techniques:
1. operation manager
2. management perception
For CAA airlines it is very difficult to obtain “zero defects”. Hence, this project will focus on managing the
perceptions of wait experience. Because CAA airlines cannot control actual delays. The purpose of this study is
twofold:
 Identify the factors that influence passengers waiting experience.
 To investigate the possible impact waiting on customer satisfaction and service evaluation.
RESEARCH QUESTION:
 What are the factors that affect the perceived waiting experience of airline passengers and to what extent do these
factors affect the perception of waiting times?
 What are the affective consequences of waiting and how does affect mediate the relationship between waiting and
service evaluations?
 How do situational variables influence customer reactions to the waiting experience?
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Drawing from prior research in the area of waiting, services evaluations and mood theory, hypotheses are
generated regarding the relationship among a delay, the waiting experience, affect and service evaluation. The
hypothesized relationships are tested in field sitting involving delayed CAA airlines passengers.
BUSINESS PROBLEM TRANSLATED INTO PROBLEM
STATEMENT:
Problem:
Frequent and long delays may translate into much frustration among airline passengers, to switching behavior and
to negative word-of-mouth communication. These feelings and behavior eventually have negative effects on the
performance and profitability of the firm.
PROLEM STATEMENT
Research objectives
Research question
1) The purpose of this study is twofold.
1) What are the factors that affect the perceived
waiting experience of airline passengers and to what
extent do these factors affect the
perception of waiting times?
2) To identify the factors that influences the passengers’ 2) What are the effective consequences of waiting
waiting experience.
and how does affect mediate the relationship
but service evaluations.
3) To investigate the possible impact of waiting
3) How do situational variables influence
on customer satisfactions and service
customer reaction?
evolutions.
FACTORS OF PROBLEM STATEMENT:
There are two factors of problem statement;
1) Research Objectives:
Research has a purpose focused. Where as the purpose is to extend knowledge of business and management.i.g
increase the commitment of employees that turn lower turnover and absenteeism etc?
Example of research objectives:
 To find out what motivates consumers to buy a product online.
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



2)
To study the effect of leadership style on employees job satisfaction.
To determine the optional price for a product.
To investigate the influence of the in store shopping environment on impulse buying.
To understand the causes of employees absence.
Research questions:
The research question specifies what you want to learn about the topic. They guide and structure the process of
collection and analyzing information to help you to attain the purpose of your study.
Example of research questions:
 To what extent do the structure of the organization and type of information system installed account for the
variance in the perceived effectiveness of managerial decision making?
 How has the new packing affected the sales of the product?
 Has the new advertising message result in enhanced recall?
 How do price and quality rate on consumer’s evaluation of product?
 Does expansion of international operations result in an enhancement of the image and value?
CURX:
A problem statement must be relevant if it is meaningful. It must be feasible. So, that
statement will remove your problem after defining it.
Q#17 What is a research report, Discuss the integral part of a
research report.
Ans:
INTRODUCTION:
Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is a
good source of preservation of research work for the future reference. Mostly, research work is
presented in a written form. The practical utility of research study depends leaving on the way it is
presented to those who are expected to act on the basis of research findings.
Definition:
“Research report is a research document that contains basic expects of the research
project”
General Definition:
“Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of research
work in a written form.”
Definition:
“A written document or oral presentation based on a written document that communication the
purpose, Scope, objectives, hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally,
recommendations of a research project to others.”
Example of use of a Research Report
A marketing research report summarizing the supply and demand statistics for a new product.
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Integral parts of the Report/
Contents of the research report
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
The title and the title page
The executive Summary or abstract
Table of contents
Preface
The Authorization letter
The introductory Section
The body of the Report
The Final part of the Report
Acknowledgements
References
Appendix
1-The title and the title page:
Title indicates what the study is all about. The title of your research report permits
potential research to obtain a first idea of your study and to decide whether they want to read your
report in its entirety. The good title also grabs attention and entices people to read the research report.
In addition to title of the project, the title [age will also indicate further relevant information.
Example:
“Title”
“A study of portfolio management and risk management in investment firms”
Sponsor’s Name
Name of Researcher(s)
Affiliations
Date of report
2-The Executive Summary or Abstract:
The executive summary or abstract is a brief account of the entire research study. The
executive summary is probably the first part of your research report that is read by the sponsors of your
study. They will use it to get an initial idea about of your study, Executive summary stating important
information on problem statement





Sample design
Data collection methods
Analysis Result
Conclusions/Findings and recommendations
Suggestions.
3-Table of Contents:
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The table of contents usually lists the important heading and subheading in the report with
page reference. For the reader, the table of contents serves as a guide through the research report. A
separate list of tables and figures should also be listed in the table of contents.
Page
12349-
Page
Proposal 1
5- Result of data analysis
Letter of Authorization
2
6- Conclusions
Introduction
3-6
7- Recommendations
Preliminary data
6-10
8- Acknowledgement
Reference
42-45
10- Appendices
16-28
29-35
36-38
39-41
46
List of Tables, Figures and other materials:
If the research report contents charts, figures, maps, tables, photographs, or other types
of material, each series of these should be listed in an appropriate list on the page or pages immediately
following the table of contents.
4-Preface:
The preface is used primarily to mention matters of background necessary for an
understanding text. Items such as the following many also be mentioned were unless they are more
extensively considered in the body of research report: Why the report has been written, research for
selection of subject, difficulties encountered along the way etc.
5-The Authorization letter:
A copy of letter of authorization from the sponsor of the study approving
the investigation and detailing its scope is sometime attached at the beginning of the
research report. Also state the blessings of sponsor organization for the goods of study.
6-The introductory Section:
The layout of the first chapter is more or less standard. This computer contain, in the
following order.
123-
Introduction
Reason for the research and the purpose of research
Problem statement and the research questions.
4-
The scope of the study
567-
Research method
Managerial relevance
Structure and division of chapter in the research report.
7- The Body of the Report:
This is the main section of the report. There needs to be several sections with each having a subtitle. The
various sections include review of literature, materials and methods and results. A discussion section can
also be included at the end of the body to go over by finding and their significance. It also includes:
Interviews
Surveys
Hypothesis
Sample Design
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Theories Applied
Nature and type of study
8- The final part of the Report:
The aim of this part is to interpret the result of the research with regard to the research questions. This is
a very important aspect of the research report. This include the following aspects:





The main Findings
The Implication of these finding
Recommendation for implementations
Cost benefits analysis
Limitations of the study.
9-Acknowledgements:
A list of people and organizations who have helped you in the compilation of report
and other related work. A word of thanks to sponsor, guide if any, surveyors, liaisons etc.
10-References:
List of references and citations used. This is a list giving the fuel details of all
resources to which you have made reference within your text.
Foot notes:
If any foot note may be either shown separately at the end of the report at the bottom of the page
where it occurs.
E.g.


Annual report- RBI- 2011 Page 236
Section 2.b, BR ACT, 1956
11-Appendix:
List of material used organizational chart.
Materials like clippings used to substantiate the report.
Questionnaire used.
If there are several appendices, they should be referred to as appendix A, B, C…. or 1, 2, 3 etc and so on.
Q#18: Define Sampling? Discuss the types of probability sampling
design?
Ans: INTRODUCTION
The word sampling is derived from “sample” which means “a subset of population”.
Sampling is basically a statistical tool that is used after data collection. In order to get conclusion about
something on general basis from whole part, Sampling unit, is basically element or set of elements that is
available fro selection more stage of sampling process.
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REASONS FOR SAMPLING




For time saving
For cost saving
For gaining sample for result
For removing difficulty in huge investigation
DEFINITIONS
According to Business Dictionary
“The act or process of selecting sample for testing, analyzing etc”
According to Marriam
“The act, process or technique of selecting a representative part of population for purpose of
determining parameters of whole population”
According to Roger Bougie
“A process of selecting a number of units for a study in such a way that the units represent the larger
group from which they are selected”
PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGN
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random
selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must set up some process or procedure that
assures the different units in your population have equal probability of being chosen.
EXAMPLE
A satisfaction survey was conducted for a computer retailer, in New Zealand. The purpose was to
improve internal operations. For this, customer feedback was attained from customer representative sample from
every tenth person in computer retailer shop. For this questionnaire were distributed. Telephone calls and emails
were planned for gaining more responses.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING


Unstricted Sampling ( Random sampling)
Restricted sampling (Complex probability sampling)
Probability sampling design can be either restricted or Unstricted. It can either take random samples or more
complex samples. As in restricted more comprehensive information collected as compare to restrict. As we are
interested in taking some elements from whole population, in order to get a probable generalized conclusion.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGN





Simple random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Cluster sampling
Area sampling
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

Double sampling
Multistage sampling
1)
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
“All elements in population are considered and each element ahs an equal chance of being chosen as
the subject”
Explanation
In simple random sampling, randomly each element is selected for sampling purpose. The each element has equal
importance for choosing a subject.
Advantages



Findings will be highly generalized.
Less time consuming
Cost is less required
Disadvantages


Not as much efficient as the stratified sampling
Comprehensive data cannot be collected.
2)
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
“Systematic sampling design involves drawing every nth element in the population starting with a
randomly chosen element 1 and n”
Explanation
In systematic sampling a particular number in population is chosen. This number is starting from a random point in
the sampling frame. A sampling is done in a systematic manner.
Advantages



Easy to use in gathering responses.
A frame of sample is available.
Focusing on representatives of population, help to remove difficulty in reponses.
Disadvantages


Importance is given only to representatives.
Biasness can be created in sampling.
3)
STARTIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
“Population is first divided into meaningful segments, thereafter subjects are drawn in proportion to their
original numbers in the population”
Explanation
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In stratified random sampling, the whole population is divided into meaningful segments. After this subjects are
drawn in proportion to their origin.
Advantages



More efficient among other sampling design.
All groups are adequately sampled.
Easily comparisons among groups are made.
Disadvantages


More time consuming
Frame is needed to make for every sample.
4)
CLUSTER SAMPLING
“Groups that have heterogeneous members are first identified, then some are chosen at random, all members in
each of randomly chosen groups are studied”
Explanation
Groups or chunks of elements are identified; in cluster more heterogeneity and homogeneity groups are made. It is
reverse of what we find in stratified sampling.
Advantages



Cost of data collection is very time.
Convenient in gathering responses.
Randomly heterogeneous groups made and help to clarify objectives.
Disadvantages



Biasness in results will be created.
Only generalized data collected.
Least reliable in probability sampling.
5)
AREA SAMPLING
“Cluster sampling within a particular area or locality conducted. Some specific areas are selected for
sampling”
Explanation
Area sampling is a specific type of cluster sampling. In area sampling, specific cities from geographically locations
are selected and sampling is based on it.
Advantages



Useful for making decisions relating to particular area.
Cost effective among all sampling.
It covers many grounds in geographical region.
Disadvantages



Time taking in data collection.
Only specific areas are selected.
No comprehensive results can be collected.
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6)
DOUBLE SAMPLING
“The same sample or a subset of the sample is studied twice”
Explanation
This type of sampling is conducted when further data is needed for any specific objective. In this the preliminary
data collected are useful and subsets are used for more details.
Advantages



More insights into any problematic area.
Detailed information is collected.
Studies are more comprehensive.
Disadvantages


Respondent may not happy responding again.
Biased subset can be chosen.
7)
MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
“Multistage sampling in which simple systematic and stratified samplings are combined in stages”
Explanation
In multistage sampling as compare to the single stage sampling, different stages are made. As in first stage primary
sets are made in second stage subset are made then third stage work on sets and subsets is done and find stage,
we sample every member in units.
Advantages



It is used in useful ways for sampling needs.
More desired results and data can be collected.
All sampling techniques are used in this type.
Disadvantages


It is complex type of sampling.
Variations may be created in different stages findings.
Q19# Differentiate between exploratory, descriptive and explanatory
studies?
Ans: INTRODUCTION
A research design is a blue print for collection, measurement and analysis of data based on
the research questions of the study.
Studies may be exploratory, descriptive or casual in nature. The nature of study depends on
the stages to which knowledge about the research topic has advanced.
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DEFINATIONS
Exploratory study
“An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand or
no information is available on how similar problems or research issue have been solved in past.”
DESCRIPTIVE
“The describe study is often designed to collect data that describes the characteristics of persons
events or situations.”
EXPLANTORY / CASUAL
“Explanatory study is the research which is interested in delineating one or more factors that are
causing the problems.”
DIFFICULT
 Exploratory study is difficult because no information is available on issues in past.
 Descriptive study is not difficult as compared to exploratory because data is available for
research.
 It can be difficult to reach appropriate conclusion on the basis of casual research finding due to
impact of factors in social environment.
OBJECTIVES
 An important objective of descriptive research is described characteristics and functions.
 The main objectives of exploratory are discovery of ideas and thoughts.
 The primary objective of exploratory study is to obtain information about the link between the
cause and results of evidence.
OVERALL DESIGN
 Overall design of descriptive is rigid for research.
 Exploratory study has flexible overall design for research.
RESEAECH PROCESS
 Descriptive study has the structured research process for research.
 Exploratory study has the un structured research process for research.
 Explanatory study has the highly structured research process for research.
SAMPLING
 As opposed to descriptive research used the probability sampling design.
 Non probability sampling design is used in exploratory study.
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 Explanatory research could be done through using group and probability sampling. The primary
good is to understand the nature of relationship between independent and independent
variable.
STATISTICAL DESIGN
 When it comes to statistical design descriptive study has the pre planned design for analysis.
 In exploratory study statistical design has no pre planned design for analysis.
 The statistical design for explanatory study has pre planned design for analysis.
KEY RESEARCH STATEMENT
 In the descriptive study research question is key research statement.
 In exploratory study also use research question is key research statement.
 In casual or explanatory study research is used as key research statement.
EXAMPLE
 What product features are the most important to our customer?
 What kind of new product are fast food consumers interested in?
 Which of two adverting campaigns will be more effective?
CRUX
These research studies play a significant role in success of researcher while he focusing
all above mentioned studies during research.

Interval & Ratio Scales?
INTRODUCTION
The degree of sophistication to which scales are fine-tuned & information on the variables can be
obtained in greater detail when we employ an interval & ratio scale rather than using other scales.
Definitions
 Scale:
“A scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ
from one another on the variable of interest to our study.”
 Interval Scale:
“An interval scale allows us to perform certain arithmetical operations on the data
collected from the respondents.”
Example:
My job offers me a
chance to test myself &
my abilities.
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
1
2
Neither
agree nordisagree
3
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Agree
Strongly
Agree
4
5
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Uses of Interval Scale:
1. Responses to various item:
Interval scale is used when responses to various items that measure a variable can be tapped
on a five point.
2. Scientific Measure:
In interval scale issued to distance record between values by scientific measures.
Advantages
1. Preference:
Interval scale is the preference that how much good things or bad things exist according to
the respondent in research.
2. Order:
Interval scale also directly order that which variable is good & which one is bad according to
the respondent on scale.
3. Distance:
Interval scale measure the distance between any two points on the scale. This helps us to
compute the means & standard deviation of the respondents on variable.
Disadvantages
1. No Zero Origin:
Interval scale has no unique zero origin, so scoring ‘o’ may not mean the participant doesn’t
measure it on scale.
2. No Calculate Ratio:
Interval scale does not calculate the ratio of the weights of two individuals due to no unique
zero origin in interval scale.
3. No Absolute baseline:
In the interval scales that do not contain scientific measurement there is no baseline to the
scale.

Ratio Scale
“The ratio scale mot only measures the magnitude of the difference between two points on the
scale, but also taps the proportions in the difference.”
Example:
Boys-20 and girls-30, then the ratio will be 1:5 Weights, lengths & times etc are also ratio
scale examples.
Used of Ratio Scale
Exact Number:
Ratio scales are used in the business research when exact number on objectives factors is called for
as the following question:
How many other organizations did you work for before joining this system?
Advantages:
1.
Overcomes arbitrary origin
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Ratio scale overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of interval scale as it has
absolute zero point.
2.
Unique Zero Origin
Ratio scale is most powerful because it has a unique zero origin & subsumes all the
properties of the other three scale.
3.
Calculation of Ratio
It has an absolute zero origin calibrated on it which allows us to calculate the ratio of the
weights of two individuals.
4.
Statistical Test
We obtain progressively increase precision in quantity the data, & greater flexibility in using
more powerful statistical test.
5.
Proportion
The ratio scale indicates not only the management of the difference but also their proportion
as compared to interval scale.
6.
Measure of Central Tendency
The most significant merit of ratio can be measure through either the arithmetic or the
geometric mean.
7.
Measure of Dispersion
In ratio scale measuring of dispersion can be measured through either standard deviation or
variance or coefficient of variation.
Crux
Ratio scale is more powerful as compare to interval scale, because it overcomes all
the disadvantages of last three scales.
Disadvantages:
1.
Ratio are subjective
In ratio subjective no two human will give two exact judgements even while presented with
the same information personal sense of judgement must be introduce in ratio scale, when ratio are
subjective.
2.
Analysis
In ratio scale analysis can’t be used in isolation. It combines other information from other
source.
3.
Ratio are not definite
In ratio scale ratio is not definite, because it just a guide. This may be wrong investment
decision.
4.
Manipulation
When the ratios are subjective it can be manipulated due to certain accounting,
inappropriate accounting policies.
5.
Outdated Information
In ratio scale there is use of outdated information for research object by the research.
(Primary source of data used).
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Q#20- Define Variable? Moderating & Mediating variables, Explain
with Examples?
Ans:
INTRODUCTION
All frameworks are based on the identification of key concepts & the relationship among
those concepts. Variables signify a more concrete level & are narrow in their definitions. Framework can
be derived from related concepts or existing theories.
Variable According to Nancy Burns
“Variables are the levels of abstraction that are measured manipulated or
controlled in a study.”
Types of Variable
There are four types of variables as following:
V a r
ia b
le
T y p
Ie n s d e
p e n d
e n t
V a r ia
b le
M e d
i a ti n
M go d
eV ra a r tii
a nb gl e
V a r i
a b le
1.
D e p
e n d
e n t
V a r i
a b le
Moderating
“Moderating variable is a variable, the presence of which modifies the original relationship
between the independent & the dependent variables.”
Explanation:
It is factor that is measured, manipulated or selected by the experiment to discover whether
it modifies the relationship of the independent variable to an observed phenomenon. The term
moderate variable describe a special type of independent variable, a secondary independent variable
selected to determine if the effects the relationship between independent & its dependent variable.
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Example:
IWMOD
e r
n
odan
n redi
kpaeot
FeE
naV
eranbti
g r en
o ff r
ti a d
l n gl v
c
etEV
g
p
a
e
e a
z
n ti
a
e
i
r
e
xs a
l
c
i
e
a
n
s
DVrp
rvb
i
iti
ae a i
e l a
rbse
s e
l
i
(E-2) It has a strong contingent effect on the independent- dependent variable relationship.
Example:
It has been that there is relationship between availability of reference manuals that manufacturing
companies have success t, & to project rejects. That is, when workers follow the procedures laid down
the manual, they are able to manufacture the products which are flawless.
Availability of Reference Manual
#No of Rejects
Interest & Inclination
2.
Mediating
“A mediating or intervening variable is one that surface between the time the independent
variables start operating to influence the dependent variable & the time their impact is felt on it. ”
Explanation:
An intervening variable is the factor that theoretically effects observed phenomena but
cannot be seen, measured, or manipulated, its effect must be inferred from the effects of the
independent & moderate variable on the observed phenomena.
Example:
Higher Education typically leads to higher income.
Higher education = (Independent Variable)
Higher income = (Dependent Variable)
Better occupation= (Intervening Variable)
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It is casually affected by education & itself affects income.
Time
t1
t2
(Independent Variable)
t3
(Intervening Variable)
(Dependent Variable)
Diagram Among Iv, Dv, Mv,MEv
Work force
Creative
Organizational
Diversity
Synergy
Effectiveness
t1
t2
(Iv)
Managerial
t3
(MEV)
(DV)
Expertise
Conclusion:
Whether a variable is an independent or dependent a mediating or moderating variable should be
determine by a careful reading of the dynamics operating in given situation.

Criterion Variable:
Introduction:
The terms conceptual framework & theoretical framework are sometimes used interchangeable but
they have different meanings. Variable effected by the independent variable, it responds to the
independent variable.
Variable
“Any characteristics which is subject to change & can have more than one value such as age,
intelligence, motivation & gender etc.”
Example:
 Production units
 Absenteeism
 Motivation
Criterion Variable:
“Criterion or dependent variable is something that be effected by the change in the independent
variable.
 What is observed
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 What is measured
 The data collected during the investigation.”
“The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher’s goals
to understanding & describe the dependent variable or to explain or predict it.”
Explanation:
The dependent variable is a response output. The dependent variable is the factor that is observed &
measured to determine the effect of the independent variable. It is factor that appears, disappears or
varies as the researcher introduces, removes or varies the independent variables.
Example:
The time it to put the puzzle together,
 The time was observed & measured by scientist.
Example:
The higher the temperature of water, the faster an egg will boil.
Dependent Variable
IV = Temperature of water
DV = Time to clock an egg
CV = Type of egg
Advantages
1.
Manipulated
Dependent variable are not controlled or manipulated in any way, but instead are simply
measured or registered.
2.
Predicted
These vary in relation to the independent variables, & while results can be predicted, the
data is always measured.
3.
Isolate Reason
There can be any number of dependent variables, but usually there is one to isolate reason
for variation in dependent variable.
4.
Factors
The factors or conditions that will change as a result of the independent variables, the factors
that you measure or observe as data.
Disadvantage
1.
Expensive
Criterion variable requires fairly extensive & expensive time & effort, because in criterion
variable researcher uses the primary data for research.
2.
Not Generalized
The results find out through the criterion variable cannot be generalized beyond the specific
course or program.
3.
Performance Measure
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In criterion variable specific program or topics cannot be used to measure the performance
of large groups.
Conclusion
Variable is anything that can take on varying values. The values can differ at
various times for the some object or person, or at the same time for the different
objects or persons.
Q#21: Short notes?
INTER-RATER RELIABILITY
INTRODUCTION
Research reliability is the degree to which research method produces stable & consistent
result. A specific measure is considered to be reliable if its application on the same object of
measurement number of times produces the same results.
DEFINITION
“Reliability refers to whether or not you get the same answers by using an instrument to measure
something more than once”
Inter rater reliability
“Assessing inter rater reliability, whereby data is independently coded and the coding compared for
agreements, is a recognized process in a quantative research”(by D Armstrong-1997)
Explanation
Inter-rater reliability as the name indicated relates to the measure of sets of results obtained by different
assessors using same methods. Benefits and importance of assessing inter-rater reliability can be
explained by referring to subjectivity of assessments.
Example
Levels of employee motivation at ABC Company can be assessed using observation method by two
different assessors, & inter-rater reliability relates to the extent of difference between two assessments.
Inter-rater reliability
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C
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1
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i
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o
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t
MEASURES
There are some measures which are used to collect the authentic information through which same
results can be obtained repeatedly.
1)
Interview Construction Procedures
Having a good result of inter-rater reliability interview construction procedures used to allow the
project’s manners to state with confidence they can be confident in the information they have collected.
2)
Statistical Measure
Statistical measures are used to measure inter-rater reliability in order to provide a logistical proof that
the similar answers collected are more than simple chance.
Inter-rater reliability (Equivalence)
Inter-rate reliability used when a single event is measured simultaneously and independently by two or
more trained observers.
R= Number of Agreements/ number of agreements + number of disagreements
Ways to Improve Inter-rater reliability
a)


b)



c)


d)


Improved Standardization
Do question focus respondent’s answer?
Will single sentence or other response limitations help?
Instructions in Elements
Instruction in elements of standardization
Is complete explication possible?
If not, need “conceptual matches”
Experience with Instruments
Really no substitute
Have to worry about “drift” and “generational reinterpretation”
Uses of Instruments
Use of instrument to the intended population.
Different population can have different response tendencies.
INTER ITEM CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY
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DEFINITION
“Inter item consistency reliability is a measure of reliability used to evaluated the degree to which
different test items that probe the same construct product similar results”
Explanation
Internal consistency reliability is applied to assess the extent of differences within the test items that
explore the same construct produce similar results.
Example
English test is divided into vocabulary, spelling, punctuation and grammar. Inter item consistency test
provides a measure that each of these particular aptitude is measured correctly and reliably.
Inter item consistency can be presented in two following main formats.
1.
Average Inter-Item Correlation
Average inter item correlation is a specific form of internal consistency that is obtained by applying the
same construct on each item of the test.
2.
Split Half Reliability
Split half reliability as another type of inter-item consistency reliability involves all items of the test to be
“spitted in half”.
INTER ITEM CONSISTENCY
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Example
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A questionnaire to measure extroversion could be divided into odd and even questions. The results from
both halves are statistically analyzed.
1)
Kuder-Richardson Test
The Kuder-Richardson test for internal consistency reliability is a more advanced and slightly more
complex, version of the split halves test.

Strength
The Kuder-Richardson test also generates a correlation of between zero and one, with a more accurate
result than the split halves test.

Weakness
The weakness of this approach, as with split halves test, is that the answer for each question must be a
simple right or wrong zero or one.
2)
Cronbach’s Alpha Test
The Cronbach’s alpha test not only averages the correlation between every possible combination of split
halves, but it allows multi-level responses.
STRENGTH

More Accuracy
The test takes into account both the size of the sample and number of potential responses which have
more accuracy results with multiple levels.

Clever Methodology
Cronbach’s clever methodology makes calculation much simpler than crunching through every possible
permutation.
RATING & RANKING SCALE
the specific scaling techniques commonly used in business research can be classified into rating scale and
the ranking scale. In rating scale each object is scaled independently of other objects under study.
Ranking makes comparisons between or among objects and elicit the preferred choice and ranking
among them.
DIFFERENTIATE B/W RANKING & RATING SCALE
RATING SCALE
RANKING SCALE
1) Definition
Rating scales have several response categories
and are used to elicit response with regard to
the object, events or person studied.
2) Types of Questions
Rating questions look at how respondent feel
about individual item, measure positive or
negative response.
3) Preferences
Ranking scales make comparisons between or
among the objects, events or persons and the
preferred choice & ranking among them.
Ranking questions compare individual
elements to each other of preference y
selecting numerical value.
In ranking scale useful way used to
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In rating scale there is no useful way to
respondents to tell you that choice between
preferred items.
4) Understanding
Rating scale is commonly used and easily
understandable.
5) Unique Value
Each item in rating question has not a unique
value.
6) Customer’s Value
Provide insight into what customer’s value
about your product and services.
7) Statistical
In rating scale the data statistical meaning you
can use into calculate average.
8) Direct Compare
In rating scale you do not ask to compare
items directly to one another.
9) Common Scale
Rating questions ask to compare difficult items
using common scale.
10) Distribution
In rating scale often have a narrow distribution
of rating which typically fall into an upper
brand.
11) Personal Variation
In rating scale respondents accept great
personal variation in response style.
12) Confused Respondent
In rating respondent can not confuse because
numeric rating scale used with 1 being the
lowest rating are being used else in question.
13) Examples
How would you rate shopping experience
based on the availability of products;
 Very dissatisfaction
 Dissatisfaction
 Neutral
 Satisfied
 Very satisfied
respondents to tell you that choice between
preferred items.
Ranking scale is commonly used and more
easily understandable as compared to rating
scale.
Each item in ranking scale question has a
unique value.
In ranking scale it doesn’t provide insight into
what customer’s value about your product and
services.
In ranking scale the data not statistical
meaning you can’t use into calculate average.
In ranking scale you can ask to compare items
directly to one another.
In ranking ask compare difficult items using
different scale.
In ranking scale wide distribution of ranks
which typically fall into lower to upper brand.
In ranking scale the respondents do not accept
the personal variation in response style.
Ranking can confuse the respondents because
if numeric rating scales with 1 being the
lowest rating are being used else in question.
The rank to following in order of preferences
 Football
 Cricket
 boxing
Q:22 (a).Define unit of analysis? Who all can constitute the unit of
analysis of a research?
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(b).What is meant by unit of analysis? Discuss its research scenario`s
by example?
Ans:INTRODUCTION:
UNIT OF ANALYSIS
The unit of analysis is the entity (person, city, country, university, agency, department etc.)
we want to describe and analyze each research, the researcher has to choose his/her unit of analysis. In
other words you have to decide whom we are drawing inference and generalizing.
INFERENCE:
Inference is a conclusion on the basis of evidence and reasoning.
GENERALIZATION:
Generalization is a statement about a group of people based on only few people.
Unit of analysis is a conceptual tool for guiding investigator to engage in meaningful and systematic
observation and analysis .Unit of analysis guides methodological decision for investigator as a human
instrument (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) to take responsibility identifying what constitutes a meaningful and
relevant data.
CHARACTERISTIC OF UNIT OF ANALYSIS
These are the characteristics of unit of analysis
1. The unit on which data are collected.
2. The what or whom that is being studied.
3. The unit on which a conclusion is to be made.
4. The unit of analysis may be disaggregated or aggregated.
5. The unit of analysis may be different from the unit of observation.
The unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data
analysis. It is necessary to decide on the unit of analysis even as we formulate the research questions
,since the data collection method ,sample size and even the variables included in the frame work may
sometimes be determined or guided by the level at which data are aggregated for analysis.
Research scenarios
Let’s examine some research scenarios that would call for different unit of analysis and their
variables:




Individual (income,age,sex,attitude)
Groups
Division (size, number of organization level,sex composition
Industry
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
Countries
1) Individual as unit of analysis:
The chief financial officer of a manufacturing company wants to know how many of the
staff would be interest in attending 3 day seminar on making on appropriate investment decision for this
purpose data will have to be collected from each individual staff members and the units of analysis is
the individual.
2) Dyads as the unit of analysis:
Having read about the benefits of mentoring , a human research manager want to first
identify the numbers of employees in three departments of the organization who are in mentoring
relationships and then find out what the jointly perceived benefit(i-e by the both the mentor and the
one mentored) of such a relationship are identified, their joint perceptions can be obtained by treating
each pair as one unit hence if the manager wants data from a sample of 10 pairs, he will have to deal
with 20 individuals, a pair of time. The information obtained from each pair will be a data point for
subsequent analysis. Thus, the units of analysis here is the dyads.
3) Group as the units of analysis:
A manager wants to see the pattern of usage of the newly installed information system (is) by
the production, sales and operation personnel. These three groups of personnel are involved and
information on the number of times this is used by each member in each of the three group, as well as
other relevant issues, will be collected and analyzed. The final result will indicate the mean usage of the
system per day or month for each group. Here, the unit of analysis is the group.
4) Division as the unit of analysis:
Proctor and gamble wants to see which of its various divisions (soap, paper, oil, etc.) have
made profit of over 12% during the current year, here the profit of each of the division will be examined
and the information aggregated across the various geographical units of the division. Hence the units of
analysis will be the division, at which level the data will be aggregated.
5) Industry as the unit of analysis:
An employment survey specialist wants to see the proportion of the workforce employed by
the healthcare, utilities, and transportation and manufacturing industries. In this case, the researcher has
to aggregate the data relating to each of the subunits comprised in each of the industries and report the
proportion of the workforce employed at the industry level. The health careindustry(i-e includes
hospitals, nursing homes, mobile, units, small and large clinics and other healthcare providing facilities.
The data from these subunits will have to be aggregated to see how many employees are employed by
the healthcare industry. This will need to be done for each of the other industries.
6) Countries as the unit of analysis:
The chief financial officer (CFO) of a multinational corporation wants to know the profits
made during the past five years by each of subsidiaries in England, Germany, France, and Spain. It is
possible that there are many regional offices of their subsidiaries in each of these countries. The profits
of the various regional center for each country have to be aggregated and the profit for each country for
the past five year provided to the CFO. In other words, the data will now have to be aggregated at the
country level. As can be easily seen, the data collection and sampling process become more cumbersome
at the lower level (individual and dyads ). It is obvious that unit of analysis has to be clearly identified
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as dictated by the research questions sampling plan decision will also be governed by the unit of
analysis e.g.
If compare two culture for instance those of India and the united. Where my unit of analysis is the
country. However ,if my unit of analysis is individual (as when studying the buying pattern of customer
in southern part of the united states) may perhaps limit the collection of data to a representative
sample of a hundred individual in the region and conduct my study at a low cost.
CRUX:
It is now even easier to see why the unit of analysis should be given serious consideration even as the
research question is being formulated and the research design planned.
Q:23 what is hallmarks scientific research or characteristics?
Ans: SCNTIFIC RESEARCH
Scientific research helps researchers to state their finding with accuracy and confidence. This helps
various other organizations to apply those solutions when they encounter similar problems.

Scientific investigation tends to more objectives and subjective, and helps to research most highlight critical
factors.
HALLMARKS SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Process that is organized, system, data, based critical and objectives.
Its purpose is finding solution to a specific problem. Hallmarks main characteristic of scientific research are as
follows:
Objectivit
y
Generalizabili
ty
Precision and
confidentas
Parsimo
ny
Reliability
Hallmarks of scientific
research
Testability
Rigor
Purposive
ness
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EXAMPLE
Lets us consider the case of a manager who is interested in investigating how employee’s commitment to the
organization can be increased. We shall examine how the eight hallmarks of scientific apply to this investigation so
that it may be considered “SCIENTIFIC”.
1) Purposive-ness
The manager has started the research with a definite aim or purpose. They focus is an increasing the
commitment of employees to the organization as this will be beneficial in many ways as lower turnover and less
absenteeism. It contains following steps:





It has start with a definite aim or purpose.
The focus is on increasing employees’ commitment.
Increase employees commitment will translate into fewer turnovers, less absenteeism and increased.
Performance levels (how he can increases commitment of employees which reduce turnover?
Thus it has a purpose focus.
Example
The start work with a specific aim of research for the higher commitment by investigating the
research by manager for employees.
2) Rigor:
A good theoretical base and a sound methodological design add rigor to a purposive study.





Rigor connotes carefulness during research.
It also refers to degree of exactitude in research investigation.
Chosen sample should be true representative of whole organization.
Method should be appropriate
Research process should be free from personal and emotional biases.
Example:
In case of our example let us say the manager of an organization asks 10 to 12 of it’s employees to indicate what
would increasers their level of commitment to it . if solely on the basis of their responses, the manager reaches
several conclusions on how employees commitment can be increase the whole approach to the investigation is
unscientific. It lacks rigor for the following reasons:


Conclusions are incorrect.
The manner of framing and addressing the question could have introduced bias or incorrectness in the
responses.

There are many other influence on organization commitment and could not verbalized.
3) Testability:
It is a property that applies to an empirical hypothesis, involves two components testability. The logical property
that is variously described as contingency, defeasibility. Which means that counter examples to the hypothesis are
logically possible.
HYPOTHESIS…. As a tentative, yet testable, statement which predicts what you expect to find in your empirical
data. Hypotheses are derived from theory. Which based on logical beliefs?
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A scientific hypothesis must be testable. Not all hypotheses can be tested. Non –testable hypothesis are often
vague statements.
Example:
If after talking to a random selection of employees of organization and study pf previous research
done in the area of organization commitment, the manager research certain hypothesis on employees
commitment can be enhanced and tested the hypothesis. The research shows that higher participation in decision
making leads to higher commitment. Testability thus become anther hallmark of scientific research.
4) Reliability:
This study should produce the same results if repeated exactly. Replication is made possible by a
detailed description of the design details of the study, such as the sampling method and the data collection
methods were used. It makes the report again and again same by different methods.
Example
Let us suppose that the manager/ research, based on the result of study, concludes that
participation in decision making is one of most important factors that influence commitment of employees to
the organization . we will place our faith in these findings and gets same results emerge all time. That means
replication demonstrates our hypnosis have not been supported but are reflective of true state of affairs in the
population.
5) Precision and confidence:
In management research, we seldom have the luxury of being able to draw “definitive” conclusions
on the basis of data analysis. This is because we are unable to study universe of items, events or population we
are interested in and have to base our findings on a sample that we draw from universe. Measurement errors and
other problems are also bound to introduce an element of bias or error in our finds.
PRECISION…… refers to the closeness of findings to “reality” based on a sample. In other words, precision reflects
the degree of accuracy or exactitude of the results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in universe.
COFIDENCE….. refers to the probability that our estimations are correct. That is , it not merely enough to be
precision but it is also important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results will be true and
5% of being wrong.
6) Objectivity:
The conclusion drawn through the results of data analysis should be objective; that is they should be
based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or emotional values.



The conclusions draws from information should be objective.
Findings based on the facts.
Results will be more objective and scientific.
“Objectivity is another hallmarks of investigation.”
7) Generalizability:
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Generalizability refers to the scope of the research findings in one organizational setting to other
settings. Obviously, the wider the range of applicability of the solutions generated by research, the more useful the
research is to the user.
For wider generalizability, the research sampling design has to be logically developed and a number of other
details in data-collection methods need to be meticulously followed. However, more elaborate sampling design
increase generalizability of result and research.
8) Parsimony
Simplicity in explaining the phenomena or problems that occur, and in generating solutions for
problems is always preferred to complex research framework that consider on unmanageable number of factors.
Economy is research models to achieve when we can build into our research framework a lesser number of
variables that explain that variance for more efficiently than a complex set of variables that only marginally add to
variance explained. It contains following:




Simplicity
Understanding
Economy in research a lesser number of variables
The variance and efficiently complex\
CONCLUSION
Hallmarks research contains all 8 characteristics of any one is missing
than the research will be unscientific and wrong.
Q-24-; Write in detail the seven steps process in the Hypothetic–
Deductive method?
Ans: INTRODUCTION:
Managers frequently face issues that call for critical decision making. Managerial decisions based
on the results of “good” research tend to be effective.
Scientific Research focuses on solving problems and pursues step-by-step logical, organized and rigorous
method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions from them. Further
more, Scientific investigation tends to be more Objective them subjective.
Scientific research applies both to basic and applied research.
Definitions:
According to “Creswell”
“The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new
knowledge or correcting and integration previous knowledge. “
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According to “Martyn Shuttleworth”
“Scientific research is systematic way of gathering data, A harnessing of curiosity. This
research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and properties of
the world. “
Hypot
het
i
c–Deduct
i
veMet
hod:
Hypothetic–Deductive method popularized by the Australian philosopher
Karl Popper is a typical version of the scientific method.
It is one of the mainstays of scientific research often regarded as the only “true”
Sci
ent
i
ficr
esear
chmet
hod:
“A method in which a hypothetical model based on observations is proposed and is then tested by the
deduction of consequences from the model. “
Example:
You are testing the theory of gravity the hypothesis that you are investigating is, that whenever
a heavy item is dropped, it will fall to the ground when dropped. Your experiment with several heavy items
and find that each item one is dropped it fall to the ground.

From the network of association of variables various testable hypotheses can be generated.

Educated guesses

Hypothesis Development from: Deductive Reasoning : Inductive Reasoning.
Sevenst
epspr
ocessi
nt
hehypot
het
i
c–Deduct
i
veMet
hod:
1-
Identify a Broad Problem Area:
2-
Define the Problem Statement:
3-
Develop Hypotheses:
4-
Determine Measure:
5-
Data Collection:
6-
Data Analysis:
7-
Interpretation of Data:
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1-
Identify a Broad Problem Area:
A drop in sales, frequent production interruption, incorrect accounting results, low yielding
investment, disinterestedness of employees in their work, customer switching, and the like, could attract the
attention of the manager and catalyze the research project.
2-
Define the Problem Statement:
Scientific research starts with a definite aim or purpose. To find solution for identified problems,
a problem statement that includes the general objective and research questions of the research should be
developed.
Gathering initial information about the factors that are possibly related to the problem will help us to narrow
the broad problem area and to define the problem statement.
3-
Develop Hypotheses:
In this step, variable are examined to ascertain their contribution or influence in explaining why
the problem occur and how it can be solved.
The network of association identified among the variables is then Theoretically woven, together with
justification as to why they might influence the problem. We might hypothesize specific factor such as
overpricing, competition, inconvenience, and employees affect customer switching.
“Two Requirements”

Hypothesis must be testable.

Hypothesis must also be falsifiable.
A hypothesis does not prove that hypothesis. It remains provisional untill it is disproved.
H1: If a sufficient number of items are stocked on shelves customer dissatisfaction would be considerably
reduced.
4-
Determine Measure:
Unless the variables in the theoretical framework are measured in some way, we will not be able
to test our hypotheses. To test the hypothesis that unresponsive employees affect customer switching, we
need to Operationalize unresponsiveness and customer switching.
5-
Data Collection:
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After we have determined how to measure our variables , Data with respect to each variable in
the hypothesis need to be obtained. These data then form the basis for data analysis. There are two types of
data:
Qualitative Data:
It refers to information gathered through interviews and observations. These data usually for
objects that cannot be physically measured like feelings and attitudes.
Quantitative Data:
It refers to information gathered about objects that can be physically measured. The research could obtain
these data through the company records, govt. statistics or any formal records.
6-
Data Analysis:
In this data analysis step, the data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypothesis
that were generated have been Supported. If unresponsiveness of employees affects customer switching,
we might want to do a correlation analysis through appropriate statistical analysis to determine the
relationship between these variables.
7-
Interpretation of Data:
Now we must decide whether our hypotheses are supported or not by interpreting the meaning
of the results of the data analysis.
If it was found from the data analysis that increased responsiveness of employees was negatively related to
customer switching, then we deduce that if customer retention is to be increased, our employees have to be
trained to be more responsive.
Based on these deductions, we are able to make recommendations on how the “Customer
switching”problem may be solved ¡ we have to train our employees to be more flexible and communicative.
CRUX
In the above discussion it will be concluded here, there are seven-steps involved in identifying end
resolving a problematic issue. To make sure that the seven steps of the Hypothetico-Deductive method are
property understood.
Example.
If the customer satisfaction is to be increased, the shelves have to be better stocked.

What do you know?
Claim +Evidence +Reasoning = Explanation
Why does your evidence support your claim?
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Q No 25:Write in detail about Nominal, Ordinal interval and Ratio
Scaling?
Ans: INTRODUCTION:
Measurement means gathering data in the form of numbers; to be able to assign numbers to
the attributes of objects we need a scale. Scaling involves the creation of a continuum on which our
objects are located. It is the assignment of objects to numbers or semantics according to a rule. In
scaling, the objects are text statements, usually statements of attitude, opinion or feelings. In case of
measurement of all these elements researcher should be clear about;
a)
b)
c)
What is to be measured?
Who is to be measured?
The choices available in data collection techniques.
Definition of Scale

A scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from
one another on the variables of interest to our study.
Types of Scale
o m i O r d i I n t e r v R a ti
nc a l e S nc a l e S c a l e S c o a l
1)
Nominal Scale
Definition


A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or group.
A Discrete classification of data, in which data are neither measured nor ordered but subjects are
merely allocated to distinct categories.
A nominal scale is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects. Nominal scale categories
individuals or objects into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups. The information that can
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be gathered from nominal scaling is the calculation of percentage (a frequency). Nominal scale gives
some basic categories, gross information.
Example:
1)
Your Gender
2) Your Department
Male
Production
Female
Sales
Accounting
Personnel
Research & development
Others
Features of Nominal Scale




No favoritism
No preferences
Only concerned with categorizing the objects
No intrinsic value.
Nominal Strength (Merits)
1)
Increase Reliability: The foremost advantage of nominal scale is that, it is reliable than any other
scale.
2)
Easy to Generate: The scale is easy to generate from closed questions, it is not complex than any
other scale.
3)
Quick Collection: Large amounts of questions can be collected quickly, through the procedure in
nominal scale.
Nominal Weakness
4)
Measure of central tendency: it only uses the “mode” as a measure of spread, doesn’t use median or
arithmetic mean.
5)
No Liner Scale: In nominal scale, without linear scale participants may be unable to express degree
of responses.
2)
Ordinal scale
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Definition

An ordinal scale is a scale which not only categories the variables in such a way as to denote
differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in same meaningful way.

A scale on which data is shown simply in order to magnitude, since there is no standard of
measurement of differences.
An variable for which the categories are to be ordered according to some preference, the ordinal scale
would be used. The preferences would be ranked from best to worst, first to last and numbered 1,2,3..
and so on. The ordinal scale the researcher to determine the percentage of respondent who consider
interaction with others as most important, those who consider using a number of different skills as most
important, & so on. Such knowledge might help in designing jobs that are seen as most enriched by the
majority of the employees.
Example
Apps
Ranking
Whatsapp
1
Viber
2
Hike
3
Line
4
Wechat
5
Ordinal Strength
1)
2)
It indicate relative values on a liner scale instead of just totals. .
More informative than the nominal data.
Ordinal Weakness
3)
Gaps between the values aren’t equal so a mean cannot be used to assess central tendency.
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3)
Interval Scale
Definition

An interval scale allows us to perform certain arithmetical operations on data collected from the
respondents.

An interval scale has measurement where the difference between values is meaningful. In other
words, the differences between points on the scale are measurable and exactly equal.
The interval scale and only groups individuals according to certain categories and taps the order of these
groups, it also measures the magnitude of differences in the preferences among the individuals.
Example:
Strongly
Neither agree nor
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
disagree
My Job offers me a chance to test myself and my
abilities
Interval Strength
1)
More information that ordinal and nominal as the points are directly comparably because they are
all of equal value.
2)
Scientific measures used to record the distance between values are highly reliable.
Internal Weakness
3)
4)
The interval scale that do not certain scientific measurements there is no absolute baseline to the
scale so scoring O may not mean the participant doesn’t demonstrate the variable but that the scale
doesn’t measure it.
Ratio Scale
Definition

A ratio scale is an interval scale in which distances are stated with respect to a rational zero rather
than with respect to, For example, the mean.
The ratio scale over covers the disadvantages of the arbitrary origin point of the interval scale, in that it
has as absolute zero point, which is a meaningful measurement point. Thus, the ratio scale not only
measures the magnitude of the differences between points on the scale but also taps the proportions in
the differences.
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Example
Boys—20 AND Girls—30
Then the ratio will be 1:1.5
Use of Ratio Scale
Ratio scale are usually used in business research when exact numbers on objectives (as opposed to
subjective) factor are called for, in different questions.
1)
2)
3)
a)
How many other organizations did you work for before joining this system?
How many retail outlet do you operate?
Please indicate the number of children you have in each of the following categories.
Below 3 years age b) Between 3 and 6 c) 12 years and over.
The responses to the questions could range from O to any reasonable figure.
Q:26: Define sampling? Discuss the types of non-sampling design with
their respective advantages and Disadvantages?
Ans: INTRODUCTION
In the research methodology, practical formulation of the research is very much important
and should be alone very carefully with props concentration. So now sampling can be defined as the
method as the technique consisting of selection for the study of the so correct part as the position as the
sample, with a view to draw conductions as the solution about the universe as the population.
Define of Sampling:
“Sampling is the process of selecting units leg people organization) from a population of inserts so that lay
studying the sample. We may fairly generalize our results back to the population May which they were chosen”
OR
According to Mildred past on:
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Sampling method is the process as the method of drawing a definite number of the individuals cases as the
desecrations from a particular universe, selecting part of a total group for investigation.”
Example:
You ask 100 randomly chosen people at a football match what their main job is your sample is the 100,
and the population is all the people at that match.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGN:
Non- probability sampling design, the elements of the population, do not have any known chance of
being selected in the sample.
Type of non-probability sampling design:





Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling
Snowball sampling
Judgmental sampling
Quota sampling
1.
Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques. With convenience
sampling the samples are researcher. Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit this
technique is considered easiest, cheapest and least time consuming. This sampling design ensues
convenience in respect of availability source list and accessibility of units.
Advantages of convenience sampling:

Ease of availability:
The major advantages of the convenience sampling is the convenience with which it can carried out.
Subject for a study are easily available within the proximity of the researcher.

Save money:
It is very fast effective option when founding is not available for a study, you can collect data using this
sampling technique.

Useful in a pilot study:
This sampling technique help to gain initial primary data about a topic you can understand whether the
topic discuss a more detailed research as not.
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
Save time
With the convenience sampling technique the survey can be conducted in a short span of time this
happen because don’t conduct an exhaustive research of the entire population.
DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

Possibility of being biased :
The data collected by this method may represent the views of specific group and not the entire
population. Some groups are over represented and some groups are underrepresented.

Highly possibility of a sampling errors
Since your selection its self is biased inaccuracies are bound to creep in this is known as a sampling
errors.

Result cannot be Generalized
For the reason stated above, you cannot generalize the conclusions draum from this research and say
that this is what applies to all the people.
Purposive sampling:
It is a non-probability sample that is selected based on characteristics of population and dyective of the
study, where the researcher choose a sample based on their knowledge about the population and the
study itself. The study participants are chosen, based on the study’s purpose. Purposive sampling is also
known as judgmental. Selective and subjective sampling.
ADVANTAGES OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

Economical:
It is less costly and less time consuming.

Avoid Irrelevant items
It preuerts unnecessary and irrelevant items entering into sample per chance.

Intensive Study:
It ensures intensive study of the selected items.

Accurate Result
It gives better results if the investigator is unbiased and has the capacity of knew observation and sound
judgment.
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DISADVANTAGES

Personal bias:
There is enough scope for bias or prejudices of the investigate to play and influence the selection.

No equal chance:
There is no equal chance for all the items of the unused being induced in the sample.

No degree of Accuracy:
There is no possibility of having any idea about the accuracy achieved in the investigation conducted by
this method.

Un suitable for large samples:
This method is not suitable for the large samples where the size of both the universe and the sample is
considerably large.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING:
Snowball Sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size. In this type of sampling the
researcher asks the initial subject to identify another potential subject who also meet of the researcher.
The downside of using a snowball sample is that it is hardly representative of the population.
Advantages of Snowball sampling:

Discus Characteristics
Snowball sampling may the help you discover characteristics about a population that you went aware
existed.

Promote studies:
It allows for studies to take place where otherwise it might be impossible to conduct because of a lack of
participants.
DISADVANTAGES:

Impossible to determine sampling errors
It is usually impossible to determine the sampling error or make inferences about populations based on
the obtained sample.
JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING:
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Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of sampling, subjects
are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind. With judgmental sampling, the
researcher believes that some subjects are fit for the research compared to other individuals. This is the
reason they are purposively chosen as selects.
ADVANTAGES:



Eliminate cost and Time
It eliminates cost and time in preparing the sample.
Positive aspect of stratification:
This method enables the researcher to include the positive aspects of stratification in the sample.
Risky:
Complete reliance on intuition and hunch is risky in judgment sampling.
IMPOSSIBLE TO FIND SAMPLING ERRORS
Quota sampling is a non-random sampling method, it is impossible to find the sampling errors.
DEGREE OF GENERALIZABILITY:
Degree of generalizability is questionable.
CRUX
Non-probability sampling relies on the assumption that the characteristics are evenly distributed the
population, which make the sampler believe that any sample so selected would represent the whole
population and the results drawn would be accurate.
Q:27- What is the difference between null and alternative and research
hypotheses given example of each?
Ans:
What is hypothesis?
Hypotheses can be defined as tentative, yet testable, statement, which predicates what you
expect to find in your empirical data. Hypotheses are derived from the theory om which your conceptual
model is based and are often relational in nature.
DEFINITION:
“A research hypothesis is the statement created by researchers when they speculate upon the outcome
of a research or experiment".
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Example:
A hypothesis is an educated guess or proposition that attempts to explain a set of fact or natural
phenomenon. It is used mostly in the field of science, where the scientific method is used to test.
NULL & ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
NULL:
The null hypotheses stats that a population parameter is equal to a null. The null hypotheses is often
an initial claim that researcher specify using pervious research or knowledge.
Null hypotheses :( Ho)
.The assumption you`re beginning with.
.The opposite of what you`re testing.
Null hypotheses:
Means insignificant or no relationship between two variables.
Alternative:
The alternative hypotheses is be true or hope to prove true.
" A research hypotheses is the statement created by researchers when they speculate upon the
outcome of a research or experiment".
Example:
A hypothesis is an educated guess or proposition that attempts to explain a set of fact or natural
phenomenon. It is used mostly in the field of science, where the scientific method is used to test.
NULL & ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
NULL:
The null hypotheses stats that a population parameters is equal to a null. The null hypotheses is often
an initial claim that researcher specify using perviousresearch or knowledge.
Null hypotheses:(Ho)
.The assumption you`re beginning with.
.The opposite of what you`re testing.
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Null hypotheses:
Means insignificant or no relationship between two variables.
Alternative:
The alternative hypotheses is be true or hope to prove true.
Alternative hypotheses (H1):
The claim you`re testing.
SS
Alternative hypotheses:
Means rejection of null hypotheses.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NULL AND ALTERNATIVE
Null
Meaning
Represents
What is it?
Acceptance
Testing
Observations
A Null hypothesis is a statement, in An alternative hypothesis is
which there is no relationship betweenstatement in which there is
two variables.
some statistical significance
between two measured phenomenon.
No observed effect.
Some observed effect.
It is what the researcher tries It is what the researcher tries
to disprove.
to prove.
No changes opinions or action. Changes in opinions or action.
Indirect and implicit
Direct and explicit.
Result of chance.
Result of real effect.
Denoted by
Mathematical formulation
Prove
Scientific process
Alternative
H-Zero
H-One
Equal sign.
Unequal sign.
The null hypotheses is a
The alternative hypotheses is
hypotheses which the
a hypotheses which the
researcher
researcher tries to prove.
tries to disprove reject or nullify
Scientific process ends wit
either accepting or rejecting
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Scientific process end with
either accepting or rejecting
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Groups
Relationship of variables
Example
the null hypothesis suggest
that alternative hypothesis
needs revision and further
research is needed to find
outthe exact reason of the
phenomenon under study.
No difference between the
mean scores of the groups.
No relationship exists between
the variables being studied.
A study looking at deep vein
thrombosis (DVT) &risk of
pulmonary embolism(BOE).The
null hypothesis would be
Having DVT does not increase
one`s risk for developing a PE.
hypothesis .Accepting the
alternative hypothesis prove
that the researcher
reasoning i ture.
Difference between the mean
score of groups.
A relationship exists between
the variables being studied.
The alternative hypothesis is…..
Having DVT increase the risk of
developing P.E.
Q:28-: What are the Primary and secondary source of data collection?
Explain their advantages and Disadvantage?
Ans:
Introduction of Data Collection
Data can be defined as the quantitative or qualitative values of a variable. Data is plural of
datum” which literally is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting data. Data are the
basic inputs to any decision making process in business. Data is the basic unit in statics studies. Statistical
information like census. Population variables, health statistics and road accident are all developed from
data. Data can be numbers, images, words, figures, facts, or ideas.
Data Sources
I.
II.
1.
Primary Data
Secondary Data
Primary Data
“It is refer to information obtained first-hand by the researcher on the variables
Of interest for the specific purpose of study.”
Primary data are fresh of new information collected for the first time by a researcher himself for a
particular purpose. It is a unique, first-hand and qualitative information not published before. One it is
used up for any require purpose, it’s original character is lost, and it turns into Secondary data.
Example:
Imagine, you are visiting an unexplored cave to investigate and later recording its minute details to
publish, is an example of Primary data.
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Primary Data included:
Primary data collected by the researcher themselves, i-e,









Interview
Life history
Action Research
Observation
Congituelinal studies
Photo-graphs
Case studies
Questionnaires
Newspaper
ADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA
1)
Reliability:.
The primary data give more reliable, accurate and adequate information, which is suitable to the
objective and purpose of an investigation.
2)
Free from Errors
Primary data is free from errors that may arise from copying of figures from publications
3)
Greater Control:
It enables the researcher to have a higher level of control over how the information is collected. Primary
source usually shows data in greater detail for specific project.
4)
Change the course of Study:
The researcher can change the course of study whenever needed, and chose platforms for observation
well-suited for projects.
5)
Gives Original Quality
Primary research gives original quality research and does not carry bias or opinions of third parties.
6)
Specific Goals:
Researcher is oriented for specific goals and purpose, cutting out possibility of wasting.
DISANVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA
1.
High cost:
Collecting data using primary research is a costly and primary research may ask for huger expense than
secondary research.
2.
Time consuming:
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Because of exhaustive nature of the exercise the time recover to do research accurately is very long as
compared to secondary data which can be collected in much lesser time duration.
3.
In accurate feed backs
In case the research involves taking feed back from the targeted audience there are high chances that
feed back given is not correct feed back by there basic nature, nature are usually biased or given just for
the sake of it.
4.
More number of resources Required
Leaving aside cost and time, after resources like human recourse and martial two are needed in larger
quantity to do surveys and data collection.
5.
Out of Date
By the time the research is complete it may be out of date and low response rate has to expected.
6.
Not Always Feasible:
Some research projects while potentially offering information that could prove quite valuable may not
always feasible.
2.
Secondary data:
Secondary data are those which are ready existence and collected for some other purpose
then the answering of the question in hand”
secondary data on the other hand are information are ready collected by others or somebody else and
later used by a research to answer their question in hand it is a ready mate quantitative information
obtain costly from different published source like companies reports is statics published by government
such data are cheaper and more quickly obtainable then primary data and also may be available when
primary data can not be obtain at all.
Example:
Assume you are preparing a brief report on your counties population for which you take reference of the
census published by government is an example of secondary data collection.
Secondary data included
Secondary data sources included









Documents
Diaries
Government Reports
Letters
Autobiographies
Web information
Books
Previous research
News paper
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Advantage of Secondary Data
o
Time and cost Effective
Generally the secondary data can be collected very easily where researches have to fine the source of
data that and then collect it at all the time and cost recover to collect this tope of data is very lesser.
o
Ease of access
In order to access goods secondary data the researcher visit libraries or the place where the secondary
data can be found easily. Internet has also made the secondary data very much easier to access for
researcher.
o
Longitudinal Analysis
It can do longitudinal Analysis where the studies conducted spanning over or larger period of time.
Research data can help the researcher to compare their own data with longitudinal study which has
already be conducted in that particular area of study.
o
Sampling
While using the secondary research data the researcher can use the random sampling resolving in the
larger sampling size which may not be possible in a primary data collection .
o
Readily available
It is readily available and hence convenient and much quicker to obtain then primary data help to.
o
Understanding the problem
It help to improve the understanding of the problem. Researcher are able to make out what
are the gaps and deficiencies and what additional information needs to be collected.
DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA
o
Lake of qualities Research
Government and other official institution are often a guaranty a of data but it is not always
case for this reason qualities issues must be very verity as outlined in this research.
o
Biasness
The secondary data is usually collected by someone else then the one who uses it hence
generally the secondary data is biased in the favor of one who collected it and might not necessarily
meet with the requirements of an other.
o
Lake of availability
It is an also disadvantage of secondary data where the secondary data might not be available
and accessible easily. Some time it can be the case that researcher may not be able to fiend the exactly
relevant and appropriate secondary available data.
o
Not Specific to one’s needs
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In many forms of the secondary research data it is not specific to the needs of a researcher.
therefore the Researcher can not only really on the on the secondary research data and it is not of much
used to him.
o
Time log issues
Information which is collected from secondary sources such as books and historical surveys
might not sync with the time and it can changed drastically. Hence this can emerge as another
disadvantage of the secondary research data where the time lag issue rises and as a result it can be
highly risky for the business or a project.
o
Limited to verbal Behavior
By definition documents provide information only about respondents verbal behavior and
provide no direct information on the responds none verbal behavior either that of the documents others
of other character in the documents.
Summing up
We can conclude that any data remains data whether termed as a primary or Secondary. The
distinction between primary and secondary is one of the Degrees. Data primary in the hand of one party
may be secondary in the hands of others. The type of data whether primary depends upon research
which you are going to do.
Q#29- What is a Research Proposal? Discuss in detail the content
of Research Proposal?
Ans: INTRODUCTION:
Before any research study is undertaken, there should be an agreement between the person who
authorizes the study and the research as to the problem to be investigated, the methodology to be used, the
during of the study and its cost. This is usually accomplished through a Research Proposal, which the research
submits and gets approved by the sponsor, who issues a letter of authorization to proceed with the study.
Definition:
“A written document outlining new research perameters for investigating a topic. “
Graretter&Forzano, 2011
“ A research proposal is a written report presenting the plan and underlying rationale of a future study. “
Mai
nPur
poseofResear
chPr
oposal
:
The main purpose of Research Proposal is to show that the problem you propose to
investigate is significant enough to warrant the investigation, the method you plan to use is suitable
and feasible, and the results are likely to prove fruitful and will make an original contribution. In
short, What you are answering is will it work?
The purpose of proposal is to ensure that.
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
The candidate have done sufficient preliminary research reading in the area of their interest.

That they have thought about the issues involved and are able to provide more than a broad
description of the topic which they are planning to research.
Cont
entofResear
chPr
oposal
The research proposal drawn up by the investigator is the result of a planned, organized, and
careful effort, and basically content the following.
1-
Working title:

Personal data such as name, academic title, your position at your own university, date of birth,
nationality, your contact information, institutional contact.

Working title of your planned dissertation or research report. The title should be brief, it should
be accurate descriptive and comprehensive, clearly indicating the subject of the investigation.
2-
Background of the study:
The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information for
the research reported in the paper. It’s purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so that
readers can understand how it is related to other research.
3-
The problem statement:
“The problem statement describes the content for the study and it also identifies the general analysis
approuch” ( wiersmal, 1995)
A problem statement is a clear description of the issue, it includes a vision, issue statement, and the
method used to solve the problem.
A.
The purpose of the study:
This describes the goals and objectives that are the targets and desired outcomes of work done to
find answers to the problem or issue under investigation. The purpose often starts with a single goal
statement that explains what the study intends to accomplish.
Example:
To find a solution to the recruiting problem of 40% employee turnover within the first three years of
their recruitment, and more specifically to.
Draw up a profile of employees who quit.
Assess if there are any special needs of the new recruits that require to be met.
B.
Research questions:
Questions and hypotheses are testable explanations that are proposed before the methodology of a
project is conducted, but after the research has had an opportunity to develop background. A
research question proposes a relationship between two or more variables.
Example:
How can small to medium sized firms increase the organizational commitment of their employees?
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4-
The significant of the study:
To write a scope of study, outline the limitations of the research, the specific data used for the
research and theories used to interpret the data. A scope of study is a very important component of
research, since it explains why certain data is excluded from the research.
Example:
The research analyzes the problem of high turnover of employees within small to medium sized
firms.
5-
The Relevence of study:
The cost of employee turnover to firm has been estimated up to 150% of the employees
remuneration package. The result of this study provide managers with means to decrease the costs
of employee turnover.
6-
Literature Review:
The literature review develops broad ideas of what is already known in a field, and what questions
are still unanswered.
It serves several important functions.

Ensures that you are reinventing the “wheel”.

Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.

Your ability to evaluate relevant literature information.

Understanding of research issues related to your research question.

Convinces the reader that the research will make significant and

Enough contribution to the literature.
7-
Research Objectives:
The objectives of a research project summaries what is to be achieved by the study. Objectives
should be closely related to the statement of the problem. The objective can be general or specific.
8-
The Research Design:
Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing some examples from your review
of the literature. The objective here is to convince the the reader that your overall research design
and methods of anyalsis with address the problem.
A) Typeofst
udy:
Exploratory Research: Exploratory research is research conducted for a problem that has not been
studies more clearly, established priorities, develops operational definitions and improve the final
research design. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data-collection
method and selection of subjects.
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Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being
studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristicsoccured.
Causal Research:
Like descriptive research, Causal research is quantities in nature as well as preplannedand structured
in design. For this reason it is also considered conclusion research.
B-Dat
aCol
l
ect
i
onMet
hod:
The main methods for collecting qualitative data are.
1-
Individual interviews
2-
Focus groups
3-
Observations
4-
Action research
C. TheSampl
i
ngDesi
gn:
A sample design is made up of two elements. Sampling method and estimator,
Sampling Design: Rules and procedures by which some elements of the population are included in
the sample. Estimator is the process for calculating sample statistics is called estimator.
D-Dat
aAnal
ysi
s:
Analysis of data is a process of inspection, cleaning, transformation, and modeling data
with the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decisionmaking.
Time Frame:
Time Frame of the study, including information on when the written report will be
handed over to the sponsors. Be generous when working out time frames and check them with a
more experienced researches. You should include time to prepare the final research product as well.
Budget:
The budget detailing the costs with reference to specific items of expenditure. You list of
budget item and the calculations you have done to arrive at a dollar figure for each item should be
summarized.
Limitations:
Limitations are influences that the researcher can not control. These limitations lays
oristrictions on your methodology and conclusions. Any limitations that might influence the results
should be mentioned.
Selection Bibliography:
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List academic works mentioned in your research outline as well as other important works
to which you will refer during your research.
Q-30-; Explain the concept of Sampling. What are its various types and
discuss in which circumstances each of the type can be used? (A/16)
Ans:Introduction:
Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g, people, and organization) from a population of
interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from
which they were chosen.
It is when the research chooses persons or site which provides specific knowledge about the topic of the
study.
Definitions:
(Wikipedia)
“The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that individual represents
the larger group from which they were selected.”
(Investopedia)
“Method or technique consisting of selection for the study of the so called part or the portion or the
sample, with a view to draw conclusions or the solutions about the universe or population.”
(Mildred parton)
“Sampling method is the process or the method of drawing a definite number of the individuals, Causes or the
observations from a particular universe, selecting part of a total group for investigation.”
Char
act
er
i
st
i
csoft
heSampl
i
ngt
echni
que:

Much cheaper.

Save time.

Much reliable.

Very suitable for carrying out different surveys.

Scientific in nature.
TypesOfSampl
i
ng:
There are two types of Sampling.
1-
Probability Sampling:

Simple random sampling.

Stratified random sampling.
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
Cluster sampling.
2-
Non-probability:

Convenience sampling.

Purposive sampling.

Quota sampling.
In psychological research and other types of social research, experiments, typically rely on a few different
sampling method.
Probability Sampling:means that every individual in a population stands and equal chance of being
selected. Because probability sampling involves random selection, it assures that different subsets of the
population have an equal chance of being represented in the sample.
This make probability sample more presentative, and researchers are better able to generalize their results
to the group as a whole.
There are a few different types probability sampling:
Simple Random Sampling:
The simple type of probability sampling. Researches take every individual in a population and
randomly select their sample, often using some type of computer program or random number generator.
Advantages:

Easy to conduct.

High probability of achieving a representative sample.

Meets assumptions of May statistical procedures.
Disadvantages:

Identification of all numbers of the population can be difficult.

Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult.
Stratified Random sampling:
It involves separating the population into subgroups and then taking a simple random sample from each of a
research might divide the population up into subgroups based on race, gender or age and then take a
random simple sample of each of these groups.
It provides greater statistics accuracy than ensure that certain groups are accurately represented in the
sample.
Advantages:
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
More accurate sample.

Representation of subgroups in the sample.
Disadvantages:

Identification of all members of the population can be different.
Cluster Sampling:
The process of randomly selecting intact group, not individuals, within the defined population sharing
similar characteristics. Cluster are locations within which an intact group of member of the population can
be found.
Example:
Neighborhoods
, School districts
,School classrooms
Advantages:

Very useful where population are large and spread over a large geographic region.

Convenient and expedient.
Disadvantages:

Representation is likely to become an issue.
Non-probability Sampling:
It involves selecting participant using methods that do not give every individual in a population
an equal chance of being chosen. One problem with this type of sample is that volunteers might be different
on certain variables than non-volunteers. This might make it difficult to generalize the results to the entire
population. There are also a couple of different types of non-probability sampling.
Convenience Sampling:
It involves using participants in a study because they are convenient and available. If you have
every volunteer for a psychology study conducted through your university's psychology department, then
you have participated in a study that relied on a convenience sample.
It is also called “accidental “or “haphazard” sampling.
Disadvantages:

Difficulty in determining how much of the effect ( dependent variable ) results from the cause
(independent variable ).
PurposiveSampling:
The process where by the researcher selects a sample based on experience or knowledge of the
group to be sampled. Called “judgement “ Sampling.
E.g:- marketers might be interested in learning how their products are perceived by women between the age
of 18 – 35 so, research firm hire to conduct telephone interviews.
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Disadvantages:

Potential for inaccuracy in the researcher’s criteria and resulting sample selections.
Quota Sampling:
The process whereby the researcher gather data from individuals possessing identified
characteristics and quotas. While the resulting sample may not actually be representative of the actual
proportions that exist in the population, having a quota ensure that these smaller subgroups are
represented.
Disadvantages:

People who are less accessible (more difficult to confact, more reluctant to participate ) are under –
represented.
CRUX
In the above discussion, It will be concluded here, a sample is a subset of a population
selected for measurement, observations or questioning, to provide statistical information
about the population.
Q.No.31)Define Validity? Discuss the types of validity?
Ans: INTRODUCTION:
The word validity is derived from the Latin word VALIDU, meaning strong. The validity of a
measurement tool is considered to be the degree to which the tools measures what it claims to measure,
in this case, the validity is an equivalent to accuracy. The concept of validity was formulated by Kelly
(1927).
Definitions



Validity refers to the accuracy of an instrument/measurement.
Validity is the ability of an instrument to measure what it is designed to measure.
Validity is the extent to which a test measures what is claim to measure. It is vital for a test to be
valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.
Example: A test of intelligence should measure intelligence and not something else (such as memory).
Why Validity
Validity is done mainly to answer the following questions.
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
Is the research investigation providing answers to the research question for which it was
undertaken?

If so, is it providing these answers using appropriate methods and procedures?
Importance of Validity
Validity is important because it can help to determine what types of test to use, and helps to
make sure researchers are using methods that are not only ethical, and cost-effective, but also a method
that truly measures the idea o construct in question.
Types of Validity
a c e C o n t e n t C r it e r io n C o n s t r u c
a lid it v a lid it y V a lid it y t V a lid it y
1)
2)
3)
4)
Predictive Validity
Concurrent Validity
Discriminant
Convergent
Beside these for main and sub types of validity there are some other types of validity exists which are;
1)
2)
3)
4)
a)
External Validity
Internal Validity
Population Validity
Ecological Validity
Face Validity:
It is the extent to which the measurement method appears “On its Face” to measure the construct of
interest.
Example: People might have negative reactions to an intelligence test that did not appear to them to be
measuring their intelligence.
Explanation: Face validity is determined by a review of the items and not through the use of statistical
analyses. It is clearly of some value to have the test to be valid, face validity alone is insufficient for
establishing that the test in measuring what it claims to measure.
b)
Content Validity:
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It is the extent to which the measurement method covers the entire range of relevant behaviors,
thoughts, and feelings that define the construct being measured.
Explanation: content validity refers to the connections between the test items and the subject related
tasks. The test should evaluate only the content related to the field of study in a manner sufficiently
representative, relevant, and comprehensive.
Example: A course exam has good content validity if it covers all the material that students are supposed
to learn and poor content validity if it does not.
c)
Criterion Validity:
It is the extent to which people’s scores are correlated with other variables or criteria that reflects the
same construct.
Explanation: The Criterion-related validity is also known as instrumental validity. In criterion-related
validity, you check the performance of your operationalization against some criteria. In criterion-related
validity, we usually make prediction about how the operationalization will perform based on our theory
of the construct.
Example:


An IQ test should correlate positively with school performance.
An occupational aptitude test should correlate positively with work performance.
Other Types of Criterion Validity
a)
Predictive Validity:When the criterion is something that will happen or be assessed in the future,
this is called predictive validity. In predictive validity, we assess the operationalization’s ability to predict
something it should theoretically be able to predict.
Example: We might theorize that a measure of math ability should be able to predict how well a person
will do in an engineering-based profession.
b)
Concurrent Validity:When the criterion is something that is happening or being assessed at the
same time as the construct of interest, it is called concurrent validity. In concurrent validity, we assess the
operationalization’s ability to distinguish between groups that it should theoretically be able to
distinguish between.
Example: If we want to assess the concurrent validity of a new measure of empowerment, we might give
the measure to both migrant farm workers and to the farm owner’s, theorizing that our measure should
show that the farm owners are higher in empowerment.
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c)
Discriminant validity:It is the extent to which people’s scores are not correlated with other
variables that reflect distinct constructs.
Example: Imagine, that a researcher with a new measure of self-esteem claims that self-esteem is
independent of mood, a person with high self-esteem can be in either a good mood or a bad mood (and
a person with low self-esteem can too).
d)
Convergent Validity:The degree to which an operation is similar to other operations it should
theoretically e similar to.
Example: If we want to show the convergent validity of test of arithmetic skills, we might correlate the
score on our test with scores on other tests that purpose to measue basic math ability , where high
correlation would be evidence of convergent validity.
d)
Construct Validity:
Refers to how well a performance on a particular set of task can be explained by some psychological
construct or traits.


Theoretical Construct:It is described by determining the components of such psychological task.
Critical Construct:Critical construct includes predicators, conclusions. Assumptions, inference,
interpretation and relevance of evidence. Construct validity defines how well a test or experiment
measures up to its claims.
Example: A test designed to measure depression must only measure that particular construct, not closely
related ideas such as anxiety or stress.
Other Types of Validity
1)
External Validity:
It is the extent to which the results of a research study can be generalized to different situations, different
groups of people, different settings, different conditions etc.
2)
Internal Validity:
It is basically the extent to which a study is free from flaws and that any differences in a measurement are
due to an independent variable and nothing else.
3)
Population Validity:
It refers to the extent to which findings can be generalized to other populations of people.
4)
Ecological Validity:
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It refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalized beyond the present situation.
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