O X
F O
R
D
I B
P
R
E
P A
R
E
D
GEO GR A PH Y
I B
D I P L O M A
Garrett Nagle
Anthony Gillett
P R O G R A M M E
O X
F O
R
D
I B
P
R
E
P A
R
E
D
GEO GR A PH Y
I B
D I P L O M A
P R O G R A M M E
Garrett Nagle
Anthony Gillett
1
Acknowledgements
The
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Clarendon
Street,
Oxford,
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Kingdom
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to
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subsequent
C ontents
Introduction
iv
Option A : Freshwater
A.1
Drainage basin hydrology and geomorphology
2
A.2
Flooding and ood mitigation
6
A.3
Water scarcity and water quality
A.4
Water management futures
12
Question practice
14
Unit 1: Changing population
1.1
Population and economic development patterns
112
1.2
Changing populations and places
116
1.3
Challenges and oppor tunities
119
Question practice
122
9
Unit 2: Global climate—vulnerability and
resilience
Option B: Oceans and coastal margins
B.1
B.2
Ocean–atmosphere interactions
Interactions between oceans and coastal places
2.1
The causes of global climate change
126
2.2
The consequences of global climate change
129
2.3
Responding to global climate change
132
Question practice
134
20
23
B.3
Managing coastal margins
25
B.4
Ocean management futures
28
Question practice
30
Unit 3: Global resource consumption
and security
Option C: Extreme environments
C.1
The characteristics of extreme environments
35
C.2
Physical processes and landscapes
38
3.1
Global trends in consumption
3.2
Impacts of changing trends in
3.3
C.3
Managing extreme environments
41
C.4
Extreme environments’ futures
45
Question practice
47
138
resource consumption
142
Resource stewardship
146
Question practice
148
Unit 4: Power, places and networks (HL only)
Option D: Geophysical hazards
4.1
D.1
Geophysical systems
51
D.2
Geophysical hazard risks
55
D.3
Hazard risk and vulnerability
57
D.4
Future resilience and adaptation
60
Question practice
63
Global interactions and global power
4.2
Global networks and ows
4.3
Human and physical inuences on
152
157
global interactions
161
Question practice
164
Unit 5: Human development and diversity
(HL only)
Option E: Leisure, tourism and sport
E.1
E.2
Changing leisure patterns
Tourism and spor t at the local and national scale
5.1
Development oppor tunities
5.2
Changing identities and cultures
168
173
5.3
Local responses to global interactions
176
Question practice
179
66
69
E.3
Tourism and spor t at the international scale
72
E.4
Managing tourism and spor t for the future
75
Question practice
78
Unit 6: Global risks and resilience (HL only)
Option F: Food and health
6.1
Geopolitical and economic risks
183
Environmental risks
188
Local and global resilience
192
Question practice
19 6
F.1
Measuring food and health
82
6.2
F.2
Food systems and spread of diseases
85
6.3
F.3
Stakeholders in food and health
88
F.4
Future health and food security and sustainability
91
Question practice
93
Internal assessment
200
Practice exam papers
204
Index
213
Option G: Urban environments
G.1
The variety of urban environments
97
G.2
Changing urban systems
99
G.3
Urban environmental and social stresses
101
G.4
Building sustainable urban systems for the future
104
Question practice
10 6
Answers to questions and exam papers in this book can be found
on your free suppor t website. Access the suppor t website here:
w w w.ox f or dsecondar y.com / ib-pr epar ed-suppor t
iii
I N T R O D U CT I O N
This
book
syllabus
provides
in
coverage
Geography
and
of
the
offers
IB
diploma
support
Over view of the book structure
to
The
students
preparing
for
their
examinations.
book
cover
book
will
help
you
revise
the
study
material,
essential
terms
and
concepts,
divided
the
strengthen
geographic
assessment,
and
examinations.
questions
topics
answers
marks
and
and
are
book
throughout
knowledge,
practices
improve
The
exam-style
may
be
scored
approach
with
continually
tips
by
your
packed
against
illustrated
to
to
exam
warn
is
that
common
questions,
errors.
The
largest
themes
best
of
the
section
and
the
to
end
of
check
this
your
confidence
studies.
papers
set
of
IB
diploma
assessment
student
and
geographic
you
will
explain
why
missed.
IB-style
themes
book
monitor
Answers
are
provide
knowledge
and
given
to
examination
all
further
and
the
online
papers
2019)
study
and
boost
progress
of
and
your
your
units
The
internal
of
examination
at
the
and
explains
report
The
higher
level
must
complete
the
internal
At
take
papers
1
and
2
as
part
of
data,
in
a
and
Paper
paper
1
2
examines
examines
the
the
final
this
their
Paper3
and
examines
The
internal
combined,
three
and
as
is
taken
by
HL
students
perspectives.
assessment
marks
table
HL,
from
you
structure
syllabus
all
(for
geographic
first
inquiries
understandings. At
from
the
will
the
SL,
geographic
geographic
study
three
options
that
to
select
draw
a
will
conclusions
the
2
to
and
3,
nature
out
collect
present
the
and
and
your
marking
grade.
IB-style
and
the
carry
topic,
satisfy
highest
contains
papers1,
to
outlines
have
suitable
format
achieve
section
section
you
practice
written
exclusively
book.
These
to
test
papers
will
yourself
give
before
you
the
an
actual
at
the
same
time
provide
additional
exam
practice
for
the
material
featured
in
all
of
the
below,
to
and
units.
only
,
geographic
the
and
geographic
the
geographic
more
in
covers
options
1–3
the
follows
geographic
core
external
shown
practice
external
options
perspectives.
and
suitable
and
problems
themes
of
assessment
and
assessment.
book,
assessment
how
opportunity
and
set
(HL)
for
students
perspectives,
1–6.
examination
(SL)
the
geography
two
fieldwork
process
DP Geography assessment
level
of
knowledge
units
and
criteria
standard
and
complete
at
www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib-prepared-support
All
a
opportunities
skills,
questions
themes
and
perspectives,
perspectives.
A complete
that
papers.
All
example
which
sections
IB
your
demonstrate
annotated
or
to
exam-style
test
several
your
examination
essay-writing
into
learn
internal
the
is
The
The
answers
and
examination
and
solutions
to
all
text
questions
are
give
papers
are
given
online
at
your
www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib-prepared-support
overall
7
DP
Geography
grade,
from
1
(lowest)
to
(highest).
Assessment over view
SL
Assessment
Description
marks
Internal
Fieldwork with a written repor t
Geographic themes
—
25
weight
25%
marks
25
weight
20%
Two options (SL)
Paper 1
Structured and extended answer questions
HL
Units or options tested
40
35%
60
35%
50
40%
50
25%
—
—
28
20%
Three options (HL)
Geographic perspecti ves—global change
Paper 2
Units 1–3 (Core)
Structured, visual and extended answer questions
Paper 3
Geographic perspecti ves—global interactions
(HL only)
Extended answer questions
Units 4–6
iv
and
Key concepts
institutions,
world
The
“Geography
concepts”
model
key
concepts—place,
process,
power,
the
two
scale
interaction.
and
spatial
temporal
(near,
“organizing”
(short-term,
far)
Scale
long-term)
ability
has
and
both
be
occur.
Key
climate
identified
at
a
local
villages)
(for
to
(countries,
according
or
the
to
their
example,
countries,
national
regions).
disparities
(for
example,
variety
of
in
households,
or
cultural
wealth
high
or
can
or
be
income
physical
level
diversity
,
are
the
hurricanes).
livelihoods,
alternative
possibilities
of
the
include
security
,
outcomes
human
acidification
farmland,
need
low
The
concept
this
book,
the
endowment
countries,
The
impact
Power
and
of
the
population
that
impact
may
on
oceans,
growth
and
the
for
food,
water
and
space.
farms,
compared
resource
core-periphery).
in
natural
scales,
international
Places
power
the
development.
change,
increased
from
to
unequal
Possibilities
spatial
perspectives.
can
the
in
concepts—
degradation
Places
processes
and
cause
possibility—and
example,
in
contains
has
four
(for
and
in
link
geography
this
feature,
allows
you
appearing
to
syllabus
connect
to
the
throughout
the
four
material
key
of
concepts
model.
income
characteristics
of
Command terms
a
place
may
migrants’
places
be
are
or
and
perceived
spatial
considered
goods
Processes
real
views)
can
people,
be
and
(for
example,
interactions
(for
example,
between
flows
of
itself
ideas).
human
or
physical
mechanisms
Command
that
and
the
that
you
such
as
transport
and
trade.
They
varying
spatial
scales
and
timescales.
may
have
negative
impacts
on
the
environment,
sustainable
Power
at
a
is
the
different
good
(such
as
ability
scales.
example
concentrated
in
of
circular
to
a
Annotate
some
flow
influence
Unfair
be
have
Power
the
terms
exam
Before
expected.
terms
question
question,
It
correctly
.
is
crucial
will
not
be
defined
in
The
any
papers;
therefore,
it
is
part
important
their
meaning
and
their
to
importance
in
of
the
exam.
you
answer
•
Underline
•
Look
•
Match
its
a
question
command
you
should:
terms.
impacts
is
are
may
be
governments
Denition
exam
the
more
arrangements
divide.
the
people
may
individuals,
depth
these
in
approach
Some
processes).
and
trading
power
wealthy
Term
Analyse
whereas
the
words
to
operate
advance
and
and
interpret
understand
processes
the
how
of
of
on
are
you
detail
command
change,
terms
tell
at
the
your
command
mark
weighting
answer
to
the
of
that
depth
question.
required
for
the
term.
Sample question
What you should cover
Break down in order to bring
Analyse the challenges
Describe and explain the social, economic
out the essential elements or
associated with
and environmental issues associated with
structure.
transboundary pollution.
transboundary pollution.
Add brief notes to a diagram or
Annotate the diagram to
Identify each of the types of radiation and add
graph.
show shor t-wave radiation
a clear label to show each one.
and long-wave radiation.
Classify
Arrange or order by class or
Classify the following types
Decide whether each type of migration is likely
category.
of migration into forced- and
to be under taken voluntarily or whether it is
voluntary-migrations.
forced.
Give an account of the similarities
Compare the impor tance
You need to pick out the similarities—the
between two (or more) items or
of wind and water in the
impacts on erosion, transpor t and deposition,
situations, referring to both (all)
development of landform
and the development of landforms.
of them throughout.
features in hot, arid areas.
Compare
Give an account of similarities
Compare and contrast the
For the both groups of countries, you should:
and
and dierences between two
ecological footprints that
•
contrast
(or more) items or situations.
occur in HICs and LICs.
Compare
•
Dene
Give the precise meaning of a
Dene the term “tourism”.
describe and explain the similarities
(compare) in ecological footprints
describe and explain the dierences (contrast)
State a precise meaning of the term—there
word, phrase, concept or physical
may be one or two marks be allocated to
quantity.
this question. Look at the mark weighting to
determine the detail required.
Continued on next page
v
INTRODUCTION
Term
Describe
Denition
Give a detailed account.
Sample question
What you should cover
Describe two predicted
Look at the mark weighting to determine the
trends shown on the graph.
detail required. You should adapt or manipulate
the data provided to achieve full marks.
Determine
Discuss
Obtain the only possible answer.
Determine the month when
Calculators are not allowed in the exam, and
the temperature range was
you may need to work out the value by eye or
greatest.
by using a ruler.
Construct a considered and
“Population growth is the
Describe and explain dierent threats to
balanced review that includes
greatest threat to the ear th’s
the world’s resources. You may decide
a range of arguments, factors
resources”. Discuss this
that population growth is not a threat but
or hypotheses.
statement.
a necessity to discover and develop more
Opinions or
conclusions should be presented
resources. Evaluate each view by drawing on
clearly and suppor ted by
case study evidence. Arrive at a conclusion that
appropriate evidence.
addresses dierent viewpoints but favours one
more than the other.
Distinguish
Draw
Make clear the dierences
Distinguish between
Your answer should be more than two separate
between two or more concepts or
population distribution and
descriptions and it is essential that you
items.
density.
emphasize the dierences between them.
Represent by means of a
Draw a labelled diagram
You should make sure that your diagrams are
labelled, accurate diagram or
to show the impact of
very distinct by drawing in black ink or pencil.
graph, using a pencil. A ruler
urbanization on a ood
Labels can be brief.
(straight edge) should be used
hydrograph.
for straight lines.
Estimate
Evaluate
Examine
Obtain an approximate value.
Estimate the size of the lake
You will have to use both the scale on the map
in square 6327.
and your ruler to obtain an approximate value.
Make an appraisal by weighing
Evaluate the strategies to
Your evaluation is not just an opinion, but must
up the strengths and limitations.
achieve sustainable urban
provide evidence such as examples, case
development.
studies or facts to suppor t it.
Consider an argument
Examine how inequalities
This means explaining thoroughly. It requires
or concept in a way that
between countries lead to
you to demonstrate in-depth understanding of
uncovers the assumptions and
dierent global ows.
both inequalities and global ows.
Give a detailed account including
Explain the causes and
You will need to briey describe before you
reasons or causes.
consequences of famine.
explain. You should explain a number of social,
interrelationships of the issue.
Explain
economic, political and environmental factors
for both causes and consequences.
Identify
Justify
Provide an answer from a number
Identify the direction of the
Only a brief answer (sometimes one word) is
of possibilities.
most frequent wind.
required here.
Give valid reasons or evidence to
Methods of climate
You would need to explain the advantages and
suppor t an answer or conclusion.
mitigation are shown in
disadvantages of each methods as well as
gure 1. Select two methods
outlining the disadvantages of the methods not
and suggest why they have
chosen.
the greatest potential to
reduce carbon emissions.
Justify your answer.
Label
Outline
State
Add labels to a diagram.
Label features A , B and C
Each label is likely to be just one or two words.
shown in the diagram.
Do not describe or explain the feature.
Outline two ways in which a
This command carries few marks, so your
glacier erodes its load.
answer should consist only of brief statements.
Give a specic name, value
State the landform shown in
Only brief answers (sometimes one word) are
or other brief answer without
the photo.
required here.
Propose a solution, hypothesis or
Suggest reasons for the high
This term is used when there are several
other possible answer.
level of infectious diseases
possible answers and you may have to give
in LICs.
reasons or a judgement.
Give a brief account or summary.
explanation or calculation.
Suggest
To what
Consider the merits or otherwise
To what extent are physical
Your answer should consider physical factors
ex tent
of an argument or concept.
factors the main cause of
along with human factors (social, economic
Opinions and conclusion
water shor tages?
and political) and the ways in which they are
should be presented clearly
and suppor ted with empirical
evidence and sound arguments.
vi
interrelated.
Many
the
exam
extended
evaluate
include
and
These
extract
terms
answer
questions
an
such
such
example
command
use
present
terms
commands
an
questions
as
as
describe
questions
a
indicating
how
and
illustrate
in
you
describe
will
explain,
the
should
but
way
in
also
and
respond,
of
a
will
level
extent.
change
of
following
not
the
only
discuss,
what
the
but
to
but
questions
higher
to
which
Each
explain,
you
answer
evaluate
response.
and
expect
Extended
discuss,
change
as
(essays)
argument.
examine,
produces
such
is
complete
answer.
Describe a population policy.
China introduced the one child policy in 1979. This was an anti-natalist policy which
imposed nancial penalties on couples having a second child and incentives for
those upholding the law. The purpose of this policy was to curb high bir th rates in an
attempt to improve access to food and other resources, to reduce unemployment
and to raise the national standard of living.
The policy reduced the bir th rate from 33 per thousand in 1970 to 17 per thousand
in 1979. In many rural areas, a preference for boys has led to a gender imbalance of
117:100 boys to girls. Fer tility rates in many areas are well below replacement level.
2010 the rate was around 1.4, well below the replacement level of 2.1.
As a result of
the one child policy, China now has an ageing population. The policy was abolished
in 2015.
Explain t wo impacts of the population policy.
China’s one child policy was introduced in 1979 because rapid population growth
was beginning to threaten economic progress. The policy was successful in
reducing fer tility rates and thus improving the livelihoods of families and reducing
the economic burden on the state.
Enforcement in urban areas has been most marked and one child families have
become typical. Traditionally, there is a preference for sons in Chinese culture,
but a one child policy would inevitably lead to gender imbalance in the population
because most families wanted a son to carry on traditions. Another consequence
of the policy was an ageing population resulting from a fall in the fer tility rate and
greater life expectancy leading to an ever-increasing elderly population.
Evaluate the success or failure of a named population policy.
There are several adverse consequences of the policy. The preference for boys
has created a gender imbalance. In the early days the policy was accused of
contravening human rights. This is related to the abor tion of female fetuses or
female infanticide or abandonment. Both practices were practiced more so in rural
than urban areas. The gender balance has created a shor tage of child-bearing
women now aged 20–40, which is socially undesirable and likely to reduce fer tility
rates still fur ther. All this has negative economic implications. It will mean a future
reduction in the labour force, lower revenue from taxation and the burden of an
ageing society.
vii
INTRODUCTION
Support
Exam guidance and strategies
about
Manage
your
time
effectively:
Every
year,
marks
through
time
mismanagement.
the
answers
real
world,
with
and
in
evidence:
longer
Geography
responses
is
there
students
must
lose
your
be
plenty
of
factual
support,
examples
and
The
statistics.
most
first
question
sure
that
each
the
common
at
you
exam.
the
are
question
allowed
tendency
Note
before
that
that
the
to
expense
aware
and
is
of
five
of
the
you
start
spend
the
each
on
the
Use
Make
allocation
rigidly
minutes’
of
long
others.
time
stick
too
to
reading
it
few
for
during
time
that
the
is
current
unique
are
and
floods.
Read
the
instructions
carefully:
Y
our
revision
thorough
and
no
sub-topic
should
be
example,
in
paper
2
you
will
need
units
of
the
core,
but
the
to
questions
cover
cover
will
all
sub-topics
yourself
with
the
within
human
changed.
these
instructions
at
of
core
most
exam
papers
as
these
give
you
the
1993.
documented
case
study
causes,
One
But
there
events
are
are
are
of
a
studies
example
examples
consequences
Generally
,
geographic
the
relevant.
is
more
local
undesirable
and
responses
the
events
examples
occurring
and
case
since
Occasionally
,
older
case
2000
studies,
units.
top
as
the
Chernobyl
disaster
of
1986,
are
the
best
of
examples
your
exams.
There
case
not
such
Familiarize
in
in
studies:
all
are
necessarily
floods
better
Outdated
studies
three
used
case
documented
omitted.
have
For
and
well
should
because
be
very
frequently
Mississippi
recent
exam.
examples
and
to
use,
in
this
case
for
a
nuclear
power
instructions
disaster.
about
timings
and
your
choice
of
question.
Use
Do
not
generalize:
Geographers
are
keen
correct
terms
classification
and
putting
phenomena
terminology:
into
shows
can
sometimes
be
misleading
such
as
“China
is
a
developing
in
several
respects.
First,
China
is
too
large
size
and
population
to
classify
in
For
levels
of
development
vary
this
years
greatly
and
urban
areas.
Third,
the
rate
of
is
likely
to
make
any
a
few
years.
The
classification
solution
is
to
the
are
example
such
as
smaller
of
the
global
economic
choose
a
can
sometimes
country
at
in
tourism
into
the
truth.
“Mumbai
is
a
poor
city”
elite
of
there.
used
in
affluence
Generic
exams
and
the
reflect
badly
on
such
the
the
to
of
as
a
very
“e.g.
candidate.
The
•
Read the instructions on the cover of your exam paper
•
of
rate
young
high
be
described
for
as
on
For
the
example,
relative
if
you
advantages
a
development
and
you
strategy
in
discussed
a
less
the
issue
to
a
more
inevitably
lose
developed
marks.
country
,
you
Ignoring
is
also
common
and
is
highly
likely
to
marks.
following
sitting
table
your
summarizes
key
information
exam:
Don’t
•
Pad your answer with irrelevant content just to make it look
better. Examiners are impressed by quality, not quantity.
•
Underline the command terms in the questions and focus on
Leave the examiner to draw conclusions if you
cannot decide.
these as you work through each question.
•
Write a brief plan for essays, to give your answer a
•
Bend the question to t your rehearsed answer.
Spend too long on your best question at the expense
of others.
Observe the mark weighting of the sub-par ts of
•
structured questions.
•
Give sucient attention to the par ts of the question
requiring evaluation, discussion or analysis.
•
could
carefully:
country
respect
when
logical structure.
•
lot
rich
Africa”
allowed and the number of questions you should answer.
•
a
the
to remind you of the exam regulations, such as the time
•
future”,
comment
Do
•
to
birth
distortion
disguises
existence
expressions
due
the
scale.
lose
pockets
keep
momentum”.
as
commands
of
to
the
development
result
growing
more
would
Simplification
“a
obsolete
with
bottom
on
likely
question
asked
developed
reliable
clumsy
where
economic
of
within
situation
way
.
were
change
a
between
Read
rural
example,
keeps
who
“population
Second,
geographical
in
some
physical
of
avoids
country”
people
fails
use
and
and
population
statements
understanding
boxes.
description.
Generalization
Good
on
Invent case studies; these will be checked by examiners.
Use lists or bullet points—these are not suitable for
detailed analyses.
•
Make your own abbreviations; for example, U for Urban and
Complete the correct number of questions.
R for Rural. However, you can use accepted ones but make
Make sure that all your answers are legible, correctly
sure you write the term out in full the rst time you use it—
numbered and in numerical order.
for example tropical rainforest (TRF) and infant mor tality
rate (IMR).
viii
Key features of the book
Each
chapter
starts
with
geographic
“You
covers
should
inquiries
Geography
Chapters
typically
and
be
a
Geographic
able
to
knowledge
show”
and
theme
or
perspective,
checklists.
understandings
These
of
the
and
outline
IB
the
diploma
syllabus.
contain
the
features
outlined
on
this
page:
Key definitions are discussed at
Test yourself
a level sufficient for answering
Test yourself boxes contain exam-style questions relating to the main text,
typical examination questions.
where you can test your knowledge and understanding. The number of marks
Most definitions are given in a
typically awarded to these questions is also given.
grey side box like this one, and
explained in the text.
Content link
Assessment tips give advice to help you optimize your exam technique,
Content links provide a reference
warning against common errors and showing how to approach par ticular
to relevant material within another
questions and command terms.
par t of this book that relates to the
text in question. Note that there are
Question
practice
and
sample
student
answer
sections
occur
at
the
countless possibilities for linking
end
of
each
chapter.
This
section
includes
typical
IB-style
questions
content in the syllabus.
relating
these
to
the
chapter
material,
with
advice
on
how
best
to
approach
questions.
Concept link
A sample
the
student
correct
answers
points
are
student’s
response
to
these
highlighted
highlighted
response
is
in
in
red.
given
in
questions
green,
and
Positive
the
green
or
is
then
incorrect
negative
and
given,
red
or
with
Concept links connect the material
incomplete
feedback
pull-out
on
of the geography syllabus to the
the
four key concepts in the “geography
boxes.
concepts” model: places,
An
example
of
a
question
practice
section
and
an
accompanying
processes, power and possibilities.
student
B
answer
OPTION
B:
OCE ANS
AND
is
shown
C O A S TA L
gas
M A R GIN S
reserves
(266
below.
trillion
are
QuE STION
estimated
cubic
feet).
to
The
total
around
countries
are
7,500cubic
competing
in
their
claims
to
T
he
develop
these
resources
and
to
control
sections
of
PRACTICE
kilometres
the
South
China
low
pressure
area
has
to
be
far
enough
away
from
the
Sea.
▲
Valid
equator
that
the
Corio lis
force
(the
force
caused
by
the
second
factor
ro tation
QuESTION PRACTICE
of
the
Earth)
creates
ro tation
in
the
rising
air
mass
–
if
it
is
▲
Development
The following graph shows the distribution of hurricanes.
too
close
to
hurricane
the
equator
would
no t
there
is
insufcient
ro tation
and
▲
Valid
Marks 4/4
point—oceans
competing
c)
point
a
develo p.
and
nations
Some parts of oceans, such as the South China Sea in the
▲
Valid
point—competition
over
Pacic, may become sources of geopolitical conict between
Tropic
resources
of
Cancer
nations (e.g. China, Brunei, the Philippines, Vietnam and
Equator
Indonesia) because they contain valuable resources such as oil,
Tropic
▲
A second
conict
gas and sheries. T
here can also be conict over shipping channels
of
Capricorn
e.g. the Straits of Malacca between Singapore and Indonesia.
Average
annual
▲
Development
point
frequency
0.1–0.9
Average
tracks
Marks 4/4
Essays
a) Describe
the distribution of hurricanes as shown on the map.
[2]
Either: Examine
b) Explain t wo
factors needed for the formation of hurricanes.
c) Using examples,
explain t wo
[2+2]
reasons why oceans may become a source of geopolitical conict.
the advantages and disadvantages of dierent types of
coastal management schemes.
[2+2]
▲
Simple
T
here
are
many
types
of
coastal
management
introduction
schemes.
Essays
T
hey
Either: Examine
the advantages and disadvantages of dierent types of coastal management schemes.
are
generally
examine
to
reduce
erosion
and
prevent
▲
Good—distinction
ooding.
Or: Using a located example,
designed
[10]
how conicting pressures in a coastal area have been managed.
Coastal
management
schemes
vary
in
terms
of
their
major
types
of
coastal
between
management
[10]
effectiveness
and
their
cost.
How do I approach these qestions?
▲
First
Coastal
management
schemes
are
often
divided
into
example
hard
a) This question asks for a description. You should use the information on the map, for example, lines
engineering
of latitude, compass bearing, major concentrations and some smaller ones.
and
soft
engineering
schemes.
Hard
engineering
▲
Good
schemes
b) You are asked to explain two factors. Each explanation is worth two marks, so some detail/development is
are
those
that
physically
alter
the
landscape,
point—advantages
of
whereas
sea
walls
needed for the award of the second mark.
soft
engineering
schemes
try
to
work
with
nature.
One
of
the
▲
Good
c) Similarly, here you are asked to explain two reasons. Each explanation is wor th two marks, so some
simplest
types
of
hard
engineering
schemes
is
a
sea
wall.
point—outlines
a
T
his
disadvantage
detail/development is needed for the award of the second mark .
is
a
large-scale
wall
designed
to
reect
wave
energy.
Modern
Essays
▲
Good
sea
walls
are
often
cur ved
to
redirect
the
waves
away
from
point—develops
the
For these essays, the command term is examine. This means that you should discuss the underlying assumptions
disadvantage
beach.
and interrelationships of the issues presented in the question. Good answers will relate these essay questions to
Traditional
sea
walls
were
often
straigh t
and
vertical
the 4Ps (places, processes, power and possibilities) or other geographical concepts. Remember to refer to specic
and
led
to
the
scouring
of
the
bed,
and
undermining
of
the
▲
Good
point—located
example
examples, and some critical thinking and evaluation should be present in your answer.
walls’
foundations.T
hey
are
relatively
expensive
and
last
▲
Clear
S AMPLE STuDENT ANS WER
about
thirty
years.
Chesil
Beach,
in
Southern
England,
account
of
sea
walls
with
has
support
cur ved
▲
Valid
points
highlighted
a)
T
he
distribution
of
hurricanes
is
mainly
in
tropical
sea
from
the
equator
,
and
mostly
on
the
western
side
of
are
some
exceptions
such
as
on
the
NE
side
of
Australia
the
west
coast
of
central
of
hard
the
village
engineering
are
of
Chiswell.
gabions.
T
hese
are
wire
type
of
management
boxes
are
lled
with
rocks.
T
he
wire
boxes
prevent
the
rocks
from
▲
Description
and
being
off
form
oceans.
which
T
here
pro tecting
▲
Second
Another
away
walls
areas,
washed
away
or
used
for
abrasion,
and
the
rocks
reduce
the
America.
▲
Function
energy
of
the
cheaper
than
wave
as
it
passes
between
different
rocks.
T
hey
are
Marks 2/2
b)
Sea
temperatures
must
be
over
27°C.
(Warm
water
gives
off
T
he
gabions
sea
on
walls
top
of
and,
Chesil
from
a
Beach
distance,
(gabion
can
look
attractive.
mattresses)
▲
Advantage
protect
▲
Located
▲
Valid
large
quantities
of
heat
when
it
is
condensed
-
this
is
the
heat
Chiswell
from
large
shingle
being
ung
in
storm
conditions.
▲
Second
which
▲
Development
drives
the
supporting
with
example
31
of
this
method,
hurricane.)
point
30
All
example
factor
the
book
questions
by
the
in
these
authors
to
sections
reflect
have
the
new
been
IB
written
specifically
geography
syllabus
for
and
examinations.
ix
A
A systems
F R E S H WAT E R
approach
Geography
course,
is
a
and
characteristic
the
of
Freshwater
the
unit
Yo sold e ale to sow:
is
✔
no
exception.
A drainage
basin
is
a
system,
how
physical
systems
it
has
inputs,
landscapes
becomes
careful
processes
and
give
scarcer
and
rise
to
outputs
that
flooding.
due
to
human
management
of
this
and
As
at
local,
national
natural
precious
and
✔
how
well
as
examining
freshwater
make
also
resource
international
you
places,
through
connect
power
A . 1
depletion,
studied.
connections
progress
that
is
to
other
this
the
and
key
the
of
the
you
be
able
course
should
concepts
drainage
basin
of
and
ood
human
risk
for
factors
different
exacerbate
and
places;
is
the
varying
power
of
different
factors
in
relation
scales.
pollution
should
parts
unit,
with
and
You
inuence
landforms;
physical
mitigate
factors,
to
As
and
shape
water
✔
needed
processes
since
water
management
issues;
of
✔
to
as
the
future
possibilities
intervention
you
in
for
drainage
management
basins.
ensure
processes,
possibilities.
D R A I N A G E
A N D
B A S I N
H Y D R O L O G Y
G E O M O R P H O L O G Y
Yo sold e ale to sow ow pyscal processes
• Draae as – an area of
flece draae as systes ad ladfors:
land that is drained by a river
and its tributaries.
✔
The
of
drainage
varying
basin
type
as
and
an
open
intensity),
system
with
outputs
inputs
(precipitation
(evaporation
and
• Watersed – the border of a
transpiration),
ows
(inltration,
throughow,
overland
ow
and
drainage basin that separates
base
ow)
and
stores
(including
vegetation,
soil,
aquifers
and
the
one drainage basin from another.
cryosphere);
• Ope syste – when energy
can enter and leave a system,
✔
River
discharge
characteristics
such as a drainage basin.
✔
• Evapotrasprato – the
River
and
processes
total amount of evaporation
spatial
and
from land and from vegetation
channel
and
of
its
relationship
hydraulic
erosion,
temporal
and
stream
ow,
channel
radius;
transportation
factors
characteristics
to
inuencing
and
their
deposition,
operation,
and
including
seasonality;
(transpiration).
✔
•
Load – the
transpor ted
bed
load
material
material
by
the
consists
that
processes
saltation.
is
of
as
formation
oodplains,
of
typical
meanders,
river
levees
landforms,
and
including
waterfalls,
deltas.
The
larger
transpor ted
such
The
river.
The
traction
suspended
via
and
load
This unit includes a wide range of terminology. Terms such as
is
transpor ted
via
processes
“eutrophication” and “salinization” are often not spelled correctly or
such
as
suspension
and
are used out of context. Take time to practise spelling these terms,
solution.
since appropriate use and spelling of terms will increase your mark for
• Cryospere – water in solid
knowledge and understanding in your essay responses.
form (e.g. snow, ice).
2
A .1
DR A in A gE
bA Sin
h Y D R O LO g Y
AnD
gE O m O R P h O LO g Y
Te draae as as a ope syste wt pts,
Cocept lk
otpts, flows ad stores
PROCESSES: This section outlines
A drainage
the
system
basin
to
is
join
an
open
other
system
systems
since
such
as
matter
a
can
marine
enter
and
leave
system.
a range of natural processes
which create an open system.
The dynamic nature of these
After
a
period
of
rainfall,
the
water
is
then
stored
and
transferred.
processes not only shapes
Some
of
the
transfers
take
place
on
the
surface,
such
as
overland
flow
landscapes, but it also creates
(also
known
as
surface
run-off)
which
occurs
when
there
is
limited
the unique characteristics of
infiltration
due
to
impermeable
rock,
for
example.
Infiltration
occurs
places which can be at a range
when
water
moves
underground
from
the
surface.
A permeable
rock
of different scales, from the Nile
type
will
allow
water
to
pass
through
it,
and
the
movement
as
it
basin to a basin at a local scale.
percolates
reservoirs,
downwards
ponds,
where
water
taking
place
is
in
soil,
held.
a
via
gravity
vegetation
Clearly
,
drainage
there
basin
is
classified
and
are
that
ice
a
are
as
all
number
affect
the
throughflow.
examples
of
of
Lakes,
stores
physical processes
movement
of
water.
Test yorself
A .1 Dsts between an open and a closed system.
[2]
A .2 Aalyse how a drainage basin functions.
[3]
Make sure that you do not
include “opposites” or “mirrors”
in your answer. This is when you
A .3 Expla how rock type and vegetation can affect the flow of water in a
state the opposite compared to
drainage basin.
[2+2]
the previous par t of your answer.
A .4 Study the map (figure A .1.1).
You will only get a mark for one
Fre A .1.1.
River Seine drainage basin
side of the “mirror ”, so do not
expect double marks.
When asked to describe a map,
it is impor tant that you utilize
0
150
km
your car tographic knowledge by
including distances, compass
directions, grid references
Descre the physical characteristics of the River Seine and its
drainage basin.
[3]
and relief.
3
A
OPTION
A:
F R E S H WAT E R
Rver dscare ad ts relatosp to strea flow,
cael caracterstcs ad ydralc rads
The
in
discharge
the
river.
It
theoretically
the
velocity
and
deeper
resulting
the
volume
measured
increases
by
the
a
or
of
in
water
cubic
larger
ability
will
be
able
hydraulic
for
water
that
It
is
area
to
or
move
flowing
per
a
a
point
other
a
given
point
(cumecs)
by
in
greater
in
at
second
calculated
at
hold
radius,
to
is
metres
downstream.
cross-sectional
channels
in
efficiency
is
is
and
multiplying
the
river.
volume
words,
a
Wider
of
water
higher
downstream.
Rver processes of eroso, traspor tato ad
deposto, ad spatal ad teporal factors
flec ter operato
There
and
the
are
four
attrition.
river
processes
Once
either
suspended
as
load
of
erosion:
material
the
has
hydraulic
been
eroded,
bed
load
(material
(material
held
in
on
action,
it
the
suspension
is
corrasion,
then
riverbed)
by
the
corrosion
transported
flow
or
as
of
the
down
the
water)
or
Test yorself
as
A .5 Expla how a river ’s
the
dissolved
material
may
load
be
(soluble
carried
on
material
the
dissolved
surface,
such
as
in
the
leaves
water).
and
Some
branches.
discharge is related to channel
There
size and shape.
are
four
processes
for
transportation:
traction,
saltation,
[2+2]
suspension
and
solution.
A .6 Descre and expla the
When
material
is
no
longer
being
transported
by
a
river,
it
is
deposited.
relationship between a river ’s
For
deposition
to
occur,
there
must
be
a
reduction
in
the
river ’s
velocity
discharge and suspended
in
load.
that
the
material
can
no
longer
be
carried.
[2+2]
A .7 Expla how temporal factors
The
in
will affect a river ’s ability to
transpor t material.
order
[2+2]
seasonal
processes
times
of
nature
of
the
year.
intermittent
of
some
erosion,
For
periods
rivers
example,
of
can
transportation
the
mean
and
ephemeral
year
when
an
increase
deposition
rivers
there
is
a
only
rainy
at
or
a
decrease
different
contain
flow
at
season.
Te forato of typcal rver ladfors
Waterfalls
rock.
this
is
the
left
pool
is
One
a
are
of
more
below.
support
The
landform
when
layers
resistant
without
Fre A .1.2.
4
formed
the
is
rock
is
flows
more
continues,
via
over
easily
undercut.
underneath
process
created
water
eroded
two
than
different
the
Eventually
and
it
and
a
will
The Goðafoss waterfall in Iceland
the
collapse
gorge
erosion.
is
types
other,
and
undercut
into
formed.
the
of
due
to
rock
plunge
A waterfall
A .1
Processes
the
of
erosion,
formation
inside
and
When
the
possible
that
the
which
and
lateral
the
shows
number
the
River.
of
A floodplain
When
in
the
Layer
a
upon
flood
is
a
formed
on
course),
layer
the
the
of
a
larger,
Floodplains
There
each
that
are
is
of
the
of
one
of
are
Material
outside
a
two
sinuous
of
meander
is
the
an
lake.
the
river
longest
and
required
it
eroded
See
gE O m O R P h O LO g Y
for
on
the
image
is
in
order
figure
tributaries
the
AnD
meander.
increases,
are
oxbow
all
deposited
meanders
then
via
deposition
flat
of
and
land
is
coarser
erosion
different
created
the
the
amount
of
is
via
deposited
channel.
material
on
creating
Levees
is
of
once
as
the
the
silt
created
of
shows
with
depositional
transportation
are
adjacent
river
water
or
A.1.3
the
a
to
a
river.
(normally
subsides.
alluvium
during
deposited
decreases
are
material
side
such
are
material
levees
of
the
deposited
energy
and
at
material
floodplain.
as
processes
River,
material
channel,
the
bends
very
deposition
h Y D R O LO g Y
lakes.
floods
develops
when
occurs
“bendiness”
Juruá
and
meanders.
bA Sin
Oxbow lakes on the Juruá
is
river
lower
further
It
of
straightens,
oxbow
Fre A .1.3.
or
outside
meander
Amazon
erosion
sinuosity
that
transportation
evolution
DR A in A gE
times
closer
distance
to
from
landforms
needed
to
of
the
river
the
although
supply
the
deposited.
types
of
deltas:
arcuate,
bird’s
foot
and
cuspate,
and
deposition.
Test yorself
A .8 (a) State two landforms found in a drainage basin that are formed
A clear annotated diagram is
solely via processes of erosion.
[2]
an appropriate approach to
() Expla how the landforms you identified in par t (a) are formed.
[2+2]
answering this question.
5
A
OPTION
A . 2
A:
F R E S H WAT E R
F L O O D I N G
A N D
F L O O D
M I T I G AT I O N
Yo sold e ale to sow ow pyscal ad
• hydrorap – a graph that
a factors exacerate ad tate flood
shows how a river or stream’s
rsk for dfferet places:
discharge changes over time and
its relationship with the amount
✔
Hydrograph
of precipitation that falls during a
and
rainfall event.
natural
characteristics
inuences
on
(lag
time,
peak
hydrographs,
discharge,
including
base
geology
ow)
and
seasonality;
• Atecedet ostre – the
✔
How
urbanization,
deforestation
and
channel
modications
affect
amount of moisture stored
ood
risk
within
a
drainage
basin,
including
its
distribution,
underground after a previous
frequency
and
magnitude;
period of precipitation.
✔
Attempts
at
ood
prediction,
including
changes
in
weather
• Peak dscare – the greatest
forecasting
and
uncertainty
in
climate
modelling;
amount of discharge flowing in a
river after a rainfall event.
✔
Flood
mitigation,
afforestation,
including
channel
structural
modication
measures
and
levee
(dams,
strengthening)
and
• Peak rafall – the time at which
planning
(personal
insurance
and
ood
preparation,
and
ood
there is the highest amount of
warning
technology);
rainfall into a drainage basin for a
✔
given storm.
Two
contrasting
drainage
detailed
examples
of
ood
mitigation
of
basins.
• Afforestato – the process of
planting trees in an area where
there were previously none.
• Reforestato – replanting trees
hydrorap caracterstcs ad atral fleces
o ydroraps
in an area that was previously
A hydrograph
shows
data
for
two
variables
on
the
same
chart,
e.g.
deforested.
a
river ’s
discharge
receives.
and
Cocept lk
lag
is
this
The
is
amount
via
time—the
an
and
the
of
overland
time
important
amount
rainfall
flow,
between
period.
of
rainfall
influences
throughflow
peak
A short
rainfall
lag
time
that
the
and
to
a
a
drainage
amount
discharge,
groundwater
river ’s
means
of
that
peak
a
basin
flow.
The
discharge—
river
may
reach
PL ACES: The relationship between
its
bank
full
discharge,
channel
can
hold,
which
is
the
maximum
amount
of
discharge
a
the human and natural worlds is
and
flood
an
area
quickly
.
Increasing
the
lag
time
and
never more present than when
reducing
the
discharge
can
reduce
the
risk
of
flooding.
The
monitoring
a place experiences a natural
of
hydrographs
as
well
can
enable
predictions
to
be
made
regarding
flooding
disaster such as a flood, which
as
measuring
the
effectiveness
of
flood
mitigation
strategies.
can devastate places. The power
of a place, based on experience
and/or the economic ability to
Test yorself
put in place defences to mitigate
A .9 Dscss how physical factors can influence a hydrograph.
[3+3]
the effects of flooding, is able to
ensure that the relationship does
not bring negative consequences.
If you are asked to discuss the factors that influence a hydrograph in
an extended response, it is impor tant that you evaluate the impact,
since this is normally necessary to reach the highest mark bands. For
example, human activities can decrease the discharge and increase
the lag time via afforestation, whilst urbanization and building on a
floodplain will increase discharge and reduce the lag time.
6
A .2
F LO O D in g
AnD
F LO O D
m i T i g AT i O n
A .10 Sest how hydrographs can be used to forecast and manage
flooding.
[2+2]
When discussing hydrographs in your answer, it is appropriate to
include an annotated hydrograph showing the different responses
from a river when there are natural differences between two drainage
basins or there is change annually in a par ticular basin.
how razato, deforestato ad cael
odfcatos affect flood rsk wt a draae as,
cld ts dstrto, freecy ad atde
Human
that
factors
there
are
increasing
reach
a
erosion
flow
due
to
hold
The
the
the
more
events
versa.
range
the
the
tend
In
of
risk
and
mean
the
time
Fre A .2.1.
thus
taken
Urbanization means an increase in
impermeable surfaces and a reduction in infiltration
to
river.
interception
increasing
capacity
of
will
surfaces,
the
being
flooding
and
exposes
amount
of
soil
overland
reached.
area
since
of
a
the
channel
channel
can
volume.
on
influence
or
cross-sectional
risk
frequency
depend
the
reduces
soil
urbanization
flow
stream
whilst
Increasing
reduces
as
impermeable
overland
nearby
Deforestation
to
such
more
and
magnitude
natural
movement
to
have
summary
,
human
of
and
a
and
of
large
the
of
a
flood
human
water.
that
Infrequent
magnitude
characteristics
physical
will
factors
factors
and
of
flood
vice
places
will
via
a
influence
flooding.
Attepts at flood predcto
Weather
during
and
a
forecasting
period
residents
Extreme
rainfall
track
in
of
a
weather
and
these
can
low
predict
pressure
drainage
events
debris
events
the
reaching
days,
and
basin
such
a
as
timing
this
about
data
the
cyclones
river.
possibly
a
and
the
will
will
increase
before
of
forewarn
impending
Meteorologists
week,
amount
are
they
risk
the
rainfall
authorities
of
flooding.
amount
able
to
arrive
of
detect
in
an
and
area.
Flood tato
There
are
classified
a
variety
as
“hard”
the
structural
the
landscape.
control
hold
the
more
works
or
This
of
water
“soft”
and
no
strategy
.
lining
straightening
and
to
hold
becoming
more
more
or
building
nearby
concrete
Other
a
and
levees
be
with
to
as
dam
Soft
of
is
to
in
when
alter
order
to
that
will
are
created.
type
of
flood
deepening,
will
hydraulic
be
engineering
this
widening,
its
can
channels
structures
(channelization)
increase
which
form
examples
such
they
engineering
concrete
artificial
would
channel
a
and
infrastructure.
or
strategies
discharge
Hard
materials
construct
reforestation
mitigation
river
artificial
protect
so
strategies,
engineering.
involve
river,
and
mitigation
uses
may
a
nature,
Afforestation
flood
measure
flow
with
of
also
enable
radius,
a
thus
efficient.
7
A
OPTION
A:
F R E S H WAT E R
Two cotrast detaled exaples of flood tato
of draae ass
The
following
although
was
still
Case
both
case
studies
places
significant
study:
Flood
Fre A .2.2.
had
(Pakistan
flood
economic
and
damage
mitigation
Queensland)
management
in
and
show
strategies
the
loss
of
in
that
place,
there
life.
Pakistan
The Indus river system
H
i
m
a
l
a
Hindu
y
a
Kush
s
I
n
Kabul
K
ab
d
u
s
ul
s
u
Islamabad
d
n
I
h
J
e
lu
m
b
a
n
e
h
Beas
C
i
v
a
R
Sutlej
T
rimmu
Dam
j
l
t
e
u
S
s
New
u
Delhi
d
n
I
River
Capital
city
Watershed
0
300
Arabian
km
sea
Pakistan
has
from
Himalayas
In
the
regular
September
rising
above
Around
people
about
2.5
killed
dams
neighbouring
from
these
on
controlled
the
urban
Case
In
January
to
higher
flooded
was
8
Flood
2011
than
Tasha.
large
to
stop
for
on
rivers
suggested
the
that
major
200
a
snowmelt
in
in
such
the
A$10
as
in
Brisbane
flood
a
La
the
and
place,
being
35
such
in
release
of
367
Warnings
of
as
on
the
in
further
spending
to
west
order
allow
bank
to
of
protect
flooded.
Australia
year
and
topped
people
Australia
also
their
cost
from
banks
of
the
due
Tropical
and
disaster
died.
Wivenhoe
(and
floodwaters
had
Queensland,
the
in
flooding
this. After
economic
flooded
affected;
upstream
T
rimmu,
were
as
started
flooded.
destroyed.
authorities
such
Niña
The
been
amount
denied
Burnett
state.
billion
the
Queensland,
major
the
further
at
Sutlej
they
people.
and
villages
rainfall
of
dam
were
and
and
have
that
discharge
government
a
to
homes
embankments
was
was
rainfall,
Ravi
rainfall,
many
embankments,
the
Rivers
management
built
built
from
portions
Chenab,
reported
late
mitigation
there
monsoon
monsoon
125,000
too
and
normal
heavy
Jhelum,
to
some
meant
approximately
Flood
was
This
over
Pakistani
of
to
were
been
and
upstream
study:
Cyclone
The
breaches
areas.
due
increased
barrages
Chenab
rivers
came
had
due
deforestation.
people
India
dams
downstream.
millions
the
and
flooding
Additional
and
banks
million
were
the
2014,
their
floods
also
to
Dam
secure
which
water
A .3
supplies).
behind
Residents
the
dam
eventually
due
to
in
argue
spite
released,
rainfall
widespread
that
of
the
insufficient
forecasts
Brisbane
amounts,
so
the
of
heavy
River
level
water
by
released
rainfall.
already
rose
was
10
had
When
a
high
metres
W AT E R
SC AR CiTY
AnD
W AT E R
q u A Li T Y
from
water
was
discharge
causing
damage.
Cotet lk
Test yorself
Flood mitigation in cities is
A .11 Using evidence from figure A .2.2, otle the potential difficulties
explored in option G.4.
for the Pakistani government in relation to mitigating flooding.
[3]
A .12 Evalate the success of flood mitigation strategies in Pakistan
from 2010 onwards.
A . 3
[4]
W AT E R
S C A R C I T Y
A N D
W AT E R
Q U A L I T Y
Yo sold e ale to sow te vary power of dfferet
• Pyscal water scarcty –
factors  relato to water aaeet sses:
where water resource
✔
Physical
these
and
economic
including
between
water
the
water
causes
quantity
scarcity
,
and
and
and
impacts
water
of
the
factors
droughts;
that
the
control
distinction
development is approaching or
has exceeded unsustainable
levels; it relates water
quality;
availability to water demand and
✔
Environmental
consequences
of
agricultural
activities
on
water
implies that arid areas are not
quality
,
to
include
pollution
(eutrophication)
and
irrigation
necessarily water scarce.
(salinization);
• Ecooc water scarcty –
✔
Detailed
examples
to
illustrate
the
role
of
different
stakeholders;
where water is available locally
✔
Growing
human
economic
pressures
growth
and
on
lakes
population
and
aquifers,
but not accessible due to human,
including
institutional or financial capital
migration;
reasons.
✔
Internationally
shared
water
resources
as
a
source
of
conict;
• Drot – a prolonged period
✔
Case
study
of
one
internationally
shared
water
resource
and
of abnormally low rainfall.
the
role
of
different
stakeholders
in
attempting
to
nd
a
Drought is a broad category
resolution.
and can be subdivided into
hydrological, meteorological and
agricultural drought.
Pyscal ad ecooc water scarcty—water
• Etropcato – a process
alty ad atty
that affects freshwater whereby
3
Water
per
stress
person
is
when
per
year,
annual
water
whereas
supplies
water
scarcity
drop
is
to
less
when
a
than
1,700
person
m
has
dense algal and plant growth
occurs due to increased
3
access
be
to
less
natural
than
and
significant
1,000
human,
period
and
m
for
the
annually
.
example
The
a
causes
lack
unsustainable
of
of
water
rainfall
in
consumption
scarcity
an
of
area
can
for
water
a
concentration of chemical
nutrients.
by
• Salzato – a process in
agriculture.
which the salt content of surface
A decrease
factors.
rivers
has
water.
source
and
water
led
to
from
due
to
be
disposal
caused
of
present
commercial
systems
the
can
being
contamination
caused
are
the
fibres
Chemicals
of
quality
example,
sanitation
have
year
For
in
(see
may
deaths
diseases
of
in
as
the
a
in
number
the
food
agricultural
pollute
such
plastic
following
millions,
by
page),
clean
and
more
cholera,
world’s
chain
are
and/or groundwater increases
oceans
as overland flow or throughflow
in
3
drinking
inadequate
million
and
and
significant
Waterborne
than
malaria
and
different
another
while
water.
of
sewage
transfers crystallized salts left
behind after irrigated water has
evaporated.
diseases
deaths
a
diarrhoea.
Cotet lk
Water security is examined fur ther
in unit 3.2.
9
A
OPTION
A:
F R E S H WAT E R
Evroetal coseeces of arcltral
actvtes o water alty
Agriculture
irrigation
pesticides
Algae
Cotet lk
The environmental impact of
can
grow
reduces
under
can
and
the
the
have
the
a
pollute
on
negative
application
the
of
of
on
rivers
oxygen
on
chemicals
freshwater
surface
amount
impact
of
the
freshwater.
The
in
of
the
surface
due
to
available
form
and
of
and
underground.
eutrophication
for
use
fertilizer
vegetation
which
and
creatures
water.
global agribusiness is explored
A reduction
in
oxygen
results
in
a
reduction
of
life
in
a
lake
or
fur ther in unit 6.2.
river.
A number
resolve
this
the
different
problem,
environmental
Cocept lk
of
including
groups,
Environment
groups
farmers
residents
Agency
in
and
the
and
organizations
(subsistence
government
are
or
trying
to
commercial),
departments
such
as
UK.
POWER: As water becomes more
Case
study:
The
role
of
different
stakeholders
in
North
Carolina,
USA
scarce due to the effects of global
climate change, population growth
Jordan
and increased consumerism,
off
the oppor tunity to access water
stakeholders
can be decided by the power of
which
a place. The places upstream in
and
a drainage basin have the upper
industry
Lake
into
has
the
suffers
tributaries
are
the
eutrophication
feed
involved
power
national
and
from
that
to
into
in
this
provide
government
agriculture.
the
issue,
are
is
for
able
some
to
nutrient
A number
such
funding
which
Here
due
lake.
of
as
the
the
to
rich
state
in
run-
different
government
clean-up
put
the
of
of
place
the
rules
lake
for
stakeholders:
hand in controlling the amount of
•
300,000
•
The
people
who
rely
on
the
lake
for
drinking
water
water to reach places fur ther along
the course of a river. In addition,
Environmental
legislation
the quality of the water can
from
the
Protection
Clean
Agency
Water
(EPA),
which
enforces
Act
decrease due to agricultural and
•
The
state
government
of
North
Carolina,
which
provides
funding
for
industrial processes, which can
cleaning
the
lake
also negatively affect places.
•
•
The
Army
Clean
Corp
Jordan
volunteers
to
of
Lake
help
•
30
animal-feeding
•
12
wastewater
Fre A .3.1.
engineers
is
an
clean
who
maintain
environmental
the
the
lake
and
organization
that
lake
operations
treatment
facilities.
Distribution of water scarcity
Key
Little
or
Physical
no
water
water
Approaching
Economic
No
10
data
scarcity
scarcity
physical
water
water
scarcity
dam
scarcity
organizes
A .3
W AT E R
SC AR CiTY
AnD
W AT E R
q u A Li T Y
Test yorself
A .13 Dsts between physical and economic water scarcity.
[2]
For shor t-response questions,
try to avoid writing a long list of
A .14 Study figure A.3.1, which shows the distribution for different
country names when you are
types of water scarcity.
asked to describe data shown
Descre the pattern of economic water scarcity.
[3]
on a map. As a geographer, you
A .15 Exae how agriculture can have a negative impact on
should be skilled at identifying
freshwater.
[2+2+2]
general patterns and anomalies.
You will only receive 1 mark at
most for a 3-mark question if you
grow a pressres o lakes ad afers, cld
provide a list. A 3-mark question
ecooc rowt ad poplato rato
will require three distinct
Aquifers
subject
to
(rocks
to
that
evaporation,
population
increase
Economic
growth
industrial
processes
In
addition,
incomes
diet
to
can
the
they
of
a
may
quantities
risk
and
as
greater
of
water)
from
in
an
of
increase
and
of
an
due
to
A useful strategy would be to
comment on the pattern, the
extremes and any anomalies.
input.
disposable
A person’s
food,
increased
in
due
growth.
increases
as
patterns when describing a map.
not
depletion
water
middle-class.
consumption
are
economic
consumption
result
production
of
significant
also
amounts
country’s
increased
agricultural
at
pressure
growth
with
are
migration
requiring
growth
change,
increased
but
via
significant
create
economic
and
may
contain
which
stress
on
leads
water
Be aware that the syllabus
sources.
specifically requires you to
Groundwater
is
an
important
source
of
freshwater
around
the
connect a human reason (such
world.
Aquifers
can
be
either
unconfined
(they
can
be
recharged
via
as irrigation) with salinization.
percolation)
or
impermeable
place
confined
rock).
artificially
For
since
(the
water
confined
is
enclosed
aquifers,
percolation
is
not
the
between
recharge
layers
has
to
of
take
possible.
iteratoally sared water resorces as a
sorce of coflct
The
political
basins
or
more
same
borders
never
a
their
shared
Case
Over
that
the
share
Africa’s
signed
of
the
water,
as
the
and
decades
waters
the
DRC
basin
1929
Sudan)
and
takes
falls
an
and
full
of
all
the
a
River
have
Egypt
access
been
a
has
to
a
in
water
in
different
Egypt,
in
the
borders
which
the
to
that
the
to
water
stakeholders
the
Ethiopia,
interest
plans
two
on
is
important
as
increase.
between
long-established
any
rely
order
increasingly
Uganda,
Burundi,
from
drainage
resource
tension
1959,
may
populations
country’s
water
veto
and
vested
each
the
of
straddle
underground,
needed
by
Nile.
basins
countries
becomes
place
Rwanda,
watersheds
and/or
often
shared
amended
to
those
surface
are
This
has
within
ability
building
there
of
of
the
drainage
consumption
Sudan,
landmass).
in
the
sustainable.
South
and
drainage
on
and
Many
Agreements
Internationally
the
Sudan,
fit.
residents
development
recent
Eritrea
The
equitably
study:
countries
source,
needs.
environmentally
economic
of
perfect
countries.
freshwater
fulfill
is
are
Nile
(it
it
its
restrict
the
countries
Republic
Kenya,
(and
only
water
of
Tanzania,
since
covers
historic
gives
Nile,
11
the
10%
of
agreement
the
Republic
source
of
upstream,
such
dam.
11
A
OPTION
A:
F R E S H WAT E R
In
it
order
to
to
other
generate
countries,
Renaissance
join
to
was
form
that
president
Despite
Sudan
for countries that have to share a
source of freshwater.
this
Part
of
take
place
[2+2]
access
the
W AT E R
River
past
to
Nile)
agreement
not
the
be
between
such
as
three
At
2015,
an
the
25%
point,
Egypt,
of
from
each
rainfall
the
to
the
This
of
the
agreement.
ensure
would
that
each
independent
issues
country
.
a
in
Egyptian
Republic
assessment
and
especially
and
Nile
Egypt
former
Principles
dam
due
Blue
2011.
reduction
a
export
Ethiopian
and
in
to
Ethiopia.
detrimentally
.
countries,
reduced
a
and
Grand
White
began
independent
of
country
the
(the
one
against
published
information
the
build
Nile
Declaration
that
the
expected
receive.
impact
been
it
March
a
for
construction
action
affected
never
accurate
considered,
was
evaluate
has
in
signed
to
Blue
since
military
friction,
power
decided
the
and
normally
Ethiopia
to
on
concerned
would
would
remains
basin
A . 4
it
assessment
A .16 Sest possible challenges
the
Ethiopia
(GERD)
proposed
and
country
Test yorself
Dam
immediately
water
hydroelectric
around
getting
Therefore,
when
growing
other
tension
issues
population
in
are
Nile
countries.
M A N A G E M E N T
F U T U R E S
Yo sold e ale to sow exaples of ftre possltes
• iterated draae as
for aaeet ter veto  draae ass:
aaeet (iDbm) – a
comprehensive approach to
✔
The
importance
of
strengthening
the planning and management
to
of a drainage basin involving a
contexts,
including
variety of different stakeholders
access
clean,
improve
to
water
management
sustainable
safe
and
participation
in
different
water
affordable
use
of
local
economic
and
communities
development
efciency
,
and
ensuring
water;
in order that there is a balance
✔
Increased
dam
building
for
multipurpose
water
schemes,
and
their
between economic development
costs
and
benets;
and environmental impact.
✔
Case
study
of
contemporary
dam
building
expansion
in
one
• Wetlads – areas of marsh,
major
drainage
basin;
fen, peatland or water, whether
natural or ar tificial, permanent
✔
The
or temporary, with water that is
growing
(IDBM)
importance
plans,
and
the
of
costs
integrated
and
drainage
benets
they
basin
management
bring;
static or flowing, fresh, brackish
✔
Growing
pressures
on
major
wetlands
and
efforts
to
protect
them,
or salt.
such
✔
as
the
Case
Ramsar
study
of
Convention;
the
future
possibilities
for
one
wetland
area.
Strete par tcpato of local cotes to
Cocept lk
prove sstaale water se
POSSibiLiTiES: Possibilities from
managing freshwater within a
drainage basin can bring benefits
and problems at a variety of
scales. The implementation of
IDBM aims to bring benefits to all
stakeholders in a basin, whether
they live in different countries or
have different priorities.
The
sustainable
already
improve
for
such
no
is
the
as
drip
water
is
another
supplies.
one
order
of
water
in
gardens
irrigation
wasted
benefit
rural
to
of
an
their
how
in
growing
can
secure
alternative
supplies
Israeli
crops.
source.
in
water
to
without
water
ensure
local
(SEWA)
repair
has
also
methods,
hand
that
people
safeguarding
Association
to
level
can
recycling
communities,
trained
clean
by
irrigation
Empowering
involvement
are
international
communities
efficient
Women’s
women
and
Local
water
more
community
areas
national
pioneered
when
of
of
a
chapter.
using
Self-Employed
example
miles
or
at
this
management
The
that
several
use
discussed
residential
just
12
been
in
water
India
pumps
having
to
is
in
walk
A .4
W AT E R
m A n A gE m E n T
FuTuRE S
icreased da ld for ltprpose
water scees
Multipurpose
and
an
area
significant
than
the
between
amounts
carbon
used
to
the
Case
the
which
in
Pretoria
within
South
of
Africa
200
with
phase.
of
in
create
Katse
and
3,000
received
for
costs
and
17
were
and
no
date
flooded
in
jobs
in
Phase
from
cleaner
that
were
the
and
water
20,000
to
2,
fully
The
first
be
third
hectares
the
as
jobs
did
part
of
created
not
and
Mahole
US$500
were
were
Mahole
by
Phase
in
require
to
dams.
in
2004.
The
The
2.
during
2016.
displaced
relocated
Katse
Dam
million
electricity
which
people
The Katse Dam in Lesotho
South
to
the
2025
over
of
Fre A .4.1.
a
households
then
16,000
sale
is
with
the
4,857
3,400
by
education.
a
Once
is
for
behind
completed
and
engineering
second
1998
significantly
transferred
given
necessary
money
enclosed
dams
Lesotho
and
The
dams
has
construction.
the
for
amounts
generate
is
basin.
significant
of
large
Johannesburg,
Lesotho
water
siltation
potential
Gauteng
dams
five
from
a
and
country
have
of
as
the
approximately
be
million
much
The
is
Lesotho
more
such
drainage
opened
will
(LHWP)
the
to
the
expansion—
Project
to
and
be
temperature
from
required.
health
(LHWP)
whole
phases
with
building
Lesotho.
will
as
emissions
can
in
the
releases
instead
such
tunnels
released
concrete
used
they
evaporation
dams
of
fewer
and
flooding
generate
difference
Project
and
metres
1,
dam
Lesotho
the
2004
be
has
reservoir
of
country
,
Water
tunnels
were
was
Dam
US$71
also
a
(cities
This
the
that
against
also
However,
water
while
in
can
The
the
amount
Water
river
reservoirs
benefits
with
in
Phase
Dam
Polihali
The
year.
three
land
the
of
2025,
For
arable
of
for
and
cubic
completed
finished
the
from
LHWP
km
every
project
was
the
fish,
pipelines,
power
Orange
million
through
for
could
Africa
fuels.
and
water
V
ereeniging)
water
the
of
water
and
completed,
2,000
dam
to
Highlands
hydroelectric
surplus
due
manner
construction
aspects
network
divert
region
of
Highlands
Lesotho
complex
problems
The
a
protection
They
environment.
Contemporary
Lesotho
The
a
many
in
fossil
downstream
amount
dioxide
of
provide
fishing.
energy
natural
energy
.
study:
of
can
and
burning
water
build
improve
the
causes
reduce
generating
of
to
the
reservoir
schemes
recreation
continual
detrimental
can
dam
for
Phase
water
South
1,
sales
Africa
treatment.
during
Phase
1,
Test yorself
more
villages
compensation
involving
of
12
was
will
be
provided
construction
malpractice
during
relocated
to
the
people,
companies
Phase
during
Phase
and
during
2.
Inadequate
bribery
Phase
1
was
with
uncovered
allegations
A .17 Sest reasons why
the benefits gained from the
construction of large dams may
2.
outweigh any costs.
[3+3]
A .18 Briefly otle what is
Te row por tace of terated draae
meant by the term IDBM.
[2]
as aaeet (iDbm) plas, ad te costs
A .19 Descre an IDBM using
ad eefts tey r
an example that you have
As
you
have
populations,
already
seen
economic
a
number
of
development
times
and
in
this
global
chapter,
climate
growing
change
studied.
[3]
bring
A .20 Sest how an IDBM can
challenges
when
trying
to
please
different
stakeholders
economically
bring both costs and benefits to
and
socially
,
while
also
aiming
to
achieve
environmental
sustainability
.
different stakeholders.
IDBM
tries
different
to
achieve
stakeholders
all
of
and
these
with
different
the
mutual
cooperation
[3+3]
of
countries.
13
A
OPTION
Fre A .4.2.
A:
F R E S H WAT E R
Wetlands in a
grow pressres o ajor wetlads ad effor ts to
periglacial environment
protect te, sc as te Rasar Coveto
The
in
Ramsar
Ramsar
Convention—the
in
Iran
governments
UN
in
in
order
Environment
world’s
Case
land
study:
1971.
Convention
is
a
can
future
treaty
protect
Programme
surface
The
to
It
be
the
on
that
unique
(UNEP)
classified
possibilities
Wetlands—was
was
signed
ecology
estimates
as
for
by
of
that
a
signed
number
wetlands.
about
6%
of
The
of
the
wetlands.
one
wetland
area—the
Iraqi
Marshes
The
Iraqi
area
is
unique
been
to
the
of
via
by
culture
of
UN
2006,
In
by
the
of
the
2017
Several
has
the
Test yorself
A .21 Defe the term “wetlands”.
from
from
is
thus
once
dams
the
birds
outside
positive
and
now
are
restore
to
a
in
water
the
2003,
decreased,
the
marshes
UNESCO
make
to
the
build
a
and
the
is
has
to
the
from
1980s
the
Marsh Arabs
the
wetlands
and
the
had
unique
in
2003
and
by
World
area
Heritage
thanks
to
site,
further
the
but
Iraqi
The graph below shows the number of oods per decade for a river.
50
40
sdoofl
30
fo
rebmuN
20
10
0
s0002
s0991
s0891
s0791
s0691
s0591
s0491
s0391
s0291
s0191
s0091
Source of data: International Baccalaureate Organization (2016)
from
more.
the
rise
of
fishing
and
Domestic
wetlands
pelicans.
there
series
Decade
once
and
However,
ISIS
has
buffalo
tourism
watching
the
meant
situation
that
few
visited.
potentially
decimate
living
touring
and
have
a
present
quESTiOn PRACTiCE
14
as
eagles
Iraq
Iraq
of
forced
By
life
marshes
war
The
that
rejuvenated.
returned
groups
as
possibilities,
Tigris
again
in
Hussein
Iraq.
way
government.
with
conflict
draining
of
a
their
the
Iran–Iraq
people.
revenue
been
had
birds
such
By
in
decades,
draining
the
1990.
water
devastated.
to
had
families
native
in
south-east
the
recent
during
perished,
designated
Iraqi
In
the
on
Hussein
200,000
was
in
live
upstream,
over
families
planning
Euphrates
wetlands.
was
East.
Kuwait
programme
increasing,
are
Turkey
of
who
disloyal
nearby
marshes
some
sectarian
There
A .22 Otle the value of
area
while
been
tourists
a
wetlands
Saddam
being
Livestock
the
of
Middle
to
Marsh Arabs
migratory
with
of
the
due
for
thousand
herding,
area
displacing
began
initiatives
of
series
90%.
50%
2016,
and
a
area,
shrunk
The
part
an
Marsh Arabs,
difficult
invasion
the
are
the
the Arabs
marshes
out
to
this
made
punish
and
Marshes
home
of
are
dams
40–50%
some
that
of
wetlands.
negative
will
their
issues
starve
normal
the
too.
rivers
waters
and
quE STiOn
PRACTiCE
a) Descre the changes in ood frequency shown on the graph.
[2]
) Otle one ood prediction strategy.
[2]
c) Sest one physical reason and one human reason why the risk of a river ooding can change
over time.
[3 + 3]
Essays
Eter: Exae the role of river deposition in the formation of oodplain landforms.
[10]
Or: Evalate the costs and benets of river ooding.
[10]
How do I approach these questions?
a) This 2-mark question will require two distinct points and the inclusion of data. Try to categorize changes
that have taken place over time and write one sentence for each time period. Consider the general trend,
periods of signicant increase or decrease and any anomaly that is not par t of the general trend. Do not
forget to include data in your answer.
) A brief account or summary is required for this question; it is wor th 2 marks so two or three sentences will be
sucient.
c) For each factor (one natural and one ar ticial) it will be necessary to clearly state the factor, and then
explain in detail how it links to increased or reduced ooding. It would also be appropriate to try and include
an example for each of the factors.
First essay choice:
The command term is “examine”, and because of this you will need to ensure that the relationships between the
river processes and the formation of landforms on a oodplain are discussed. Consider how some landforms are a
product of deposition and other landforms require other uvial processes. Try to ensure that your paragraphs have
a focus, and be prepared to draw an annotated sketch that explains how processes help to form dierent landforms
on the oodplain.
Second essay choice:
“Evaluate” is the command term for the alternative essay response, and therefore you will need to ensure that
you oer a measured response, with both costs and benets detailed in your answer. In order to provide context
and to substantiate the positive and negative eects, you will need to include relevant case studies with detail.
Conceptual connections are possible: you can outline how ooding can be benecial to a place in terms of how the
land around a river is used.
S AmPLE STuDEnT AnS WER
a)
T
he
general
2000s
large
is
a
is
from
decrease
11
largest
of
increasing.
jump
about
trend
oods
increase
in
frequency
Between
about
between
ood
9
oods
1920s
the
from
1900s
to
and
1930s.
11
the
1930s
to
and
the
30
from
1930s
oods
1900s
1920s
approximately
Between
oods
from
15
approx.
and
in
is
to
the
quite
oods.
15
1940s.
is
increase
a
valid
point
a
T
here
oods
1940s
▲ General
to
the
Relatively
▲ Signicant
increase
a
valid
point
staying
in
the
same
between
1940s
to
1960s
but
a
small
decrease
1950s.
This is a comprehensive answer that includes plenty of data and
achieves full marks. Given the time constraints in an exam, it would be
more appropriate to include less content since two sentences would
have been sucient.
Increasing number of oods = 1 mark
Flood-rich period 1940s–1960s = 1 mark
marks 2/2
15
A
OPTION
A:
F R E S H WAT E R
b)
Weather
way
that
forecasting
authorities
and
are
tracking
able
to
weather
predict
systems
is
one
oods.
This answer includes a valid strategy, but it requires development in
order to link the strategy to ood prediction. For example, the monitoring
of any future increases in precipitation can aid authorities in making
predictions for potential ooding when also considering river levels and
soil moisture. The answer only states or identies a strategy rather than
providing an outline.
mark 1/2
c)
▲ Increased
T
he
amount
discharge
▼ Lacking
of
precipitation
received
in
an
area
can
affect
the
precipitation
development/
T
he
of
human
a
river
as
additional
interferences
such
as
water
ood
will
fall
in
the
management,
channel.
for
explanation/examples
example
because
channelization,
places
further
can
create
downstream
negative
that
have
effects.
not
T
his
is
implemented
▲ Channelization
channelization
ood
as
the
size
will
of
see
the
an
increase
channel
in
cannot
discharge
cope
with
resulting
the
excess
in
water
.
Increased precipitation, but quite simplistic development = 1 mark
Channelization = 1 mark
Explanation is present via a reduction in capacity for places downstream
to cope with an increase in discharge = 1 mark
This answer requires more depth. For the physical reason, precipitation
could be fur ther developed by explaining that additional volume will
be added to the river via overland ow and throughow. In addition,
antecedent moisture could be present from a previous rainfall event,
which would fur ther increase overland ow and the risk of ooding. An
example would ensure that 3 marks for the physical factor would be
credited. The human par t of the answer is better since there is more
explanation, and an example of where channelization has caused
ooding would provide the third mark for this par t of the answer.
marks 3/6
Essay
Eter: Exae the role of river deposition in the formation of oodplain
landforms.
Floodplain
further
landforms
down
or
are
upstream
caused
a
by
different
landform
river
is.
l
Youthfu
old-age
m
id
a
g
e
time
16
processes
the
quE STiOn
Due
to
discharge,
playing
a
major
and
role,
velocity
the
upstream
landforms
and
may
be
gradient
different
PRACTiCE
also
due
to
▲ Processes
erosion
taking
place
such
as
hydraulic
action,
abrasion
and
attrition.
Eroding
the
large
rocks
and
turning
to
matter
that
can
be
▲ Landform
transported
to
form
as
downstream
the
velocity
and
of
the
the
formation
rivers
gets
of
slower
larger
the
levees
centre
of
begin
▼ This
the
and
river
will
be
the
fastest
as
it
will
be
the
largest
wetted
it
less
friction
hence
deposition
on
the
sides
of
a
very
long
sentence
be
broken
down
achieve
greater
clarity
in
perimeter
order
leaving
is
should
the
river
to
as
▲ Deposition—link to the question
less
velocity
therefore
it
and
is
matter
cannot
be
transported
the
the
inner
too
heavy
▲ Processes
river
like
it’s
deposited.
levees
Just
as
formation
side
of
the
of
river
oxbow
on
banks
lakes
making
it
the
velocity
deposit
on
is
the
higher
▲ Landform
on
outer
.
▼ This
is
is
higher
meander,
inner
ion
deposit
incorrect;
on
the
and
the
outer
will
velocity
side
deposit
of
the
on
the
side.
meande
r
Rivers
lower
have
different
courses
present
as
the
and
stages
these
such
sections
inuence
of
as
will
erosion
the
upper
,
have
and
the
middle
different
deposition
and
the
landforms
will
differ
.
Some sentences are very long, and the essay would benet from being
more structured with clear, focused paragraphs. Some appropriate
terminology has been included although more could have been included
such as ‘slip-o slopes’ for the inside of a ‘meander ’. The drawings do
not add much value to the response since they lack annotations and
a limited amount of content is provided in the response. Floodplains
and deltas could have been discussed, as well as providing a clearer
explanation of the formation of a meander.
marks 4/10
17
A
OPTION
A:
F R E S H WAT E R
Or: Evalate the costs and benets of river ooding.
River
▲ Appropriate
terminology
ooding
basins
due
to
monsoonal
from
the
example
with
detail
in
order
ooding.
country
main
▲ Relevant
due
to
terminology
(as
to
–
the
avoid
An
the
more.
living
oods
rivers
T
he
within
of
annually
snowmelt
T
hese
agricultural
annual
such
oods
is
of
basis
this
consistency
effects
is
to
a
lead
productivity.
and
T
his
can
even
benet
where
of
its
–
with
soil
30%
causes
of
three
ooding
heavy
fertility
oodplain),
also
be
adequately
paired
the
spring,
means
Meghna
improved
over
in
these
combination
spring
to
deposited
of
can
and
most
ooding
Bangladesh,
Ganges
the
in
snowmelt
oodplains
due
in
as
effects
this
Brahmaputra,
rains.
an
detrimental
sediment/alluvium
benets
on
relative
example
Himalayan
monsoonal
▲ Appropriate
However
,
occur
conditions
and
communities
prepare
to
climatic
rains,
detrimental.
that
tends
the
which
country’s
▲ Benet
aquifers
is
to
highly
be
restored,
important
increasing
in
a
highly
the
groundwater
densely
populated
supply.
T
his
country
like
▲ Benet
Bangladesh,
▲ Application
to
example
oods.
the
to
example
even
and
the
poverty,
help
to
pollution
As
18
can
in
be
water
the
at
risk
of
of
water
sewage
cannot
natural
ush
well-being
aforementioned
▲ Benet
be
scarcity
treatment
always
ltration
be
without
plants
extracted
system
of
its
of
benet
away
local
of
these
pollutants,
ecosystems
eradicating
as
the
as
aquifers
the
country’s
high
rivers.
seen,
the
effects
of
these
annual
oods
can
to
from
increasing
well
these
due
important.
also
overall
may
inexistence
therefore
more
Floods
the
to
country’s
river
,
▲ Application
Due
which
be
the
is
quE STiOn
▲ Case
highly
that
benecial,
doesn’ t
primarily
have
on
especially
very
for
a
develo ped
agriculture.
nation
urban
However
,
like
vo latility
of
and
relies
global
▼ This
climate
on
an
increasing
scale
due
to
climate
change
means
not
nal
aligned
paragraph,
that
these
oods
are
no t
entirely
predictable,
and
can
Normal
negative
oods
destroy
can
as
the
Bangladesh
of
unexpected
synchronized
intense
destroy
settlements,
however
can
be
ood
effects
were
well
as
T
his
led
a
their
kill
livestock
2017
,
to
the
poverty,
Here
it
can
be
the
seen
the
of
at
Intense
can
be
the
oods,
the
means
It
in
same
to
ood’s
for
time
modern
over
were
a
was
due
due
as
high
foothill
to
snowmelt.
people
by
consequences
consistent
large-scale
6
▲ Appropriate
terminology
the
million
Bangladesh’s
were
ooding
terminology
as
rainfall.
devastated
and
▲ Appropriate
T
he
deforestation
and
example
by
abnormally
antecedent
history
100
caused
to
consolidated
negative
despite
potential
rivers
consistent
killed
effects
that
three
case
consequences
such
devastating
Himalayan
due
ood
Its
particular
the
by
table
nation.
affected.
however
benecial,
rains
largest
delta
were
T
his
discharges
water
the
▲ Structure
and
unpredictability
mitigated.
of
consolidated
high
low-lying
people
nature.
monsoon
of
discusses
ooding
▲ Relevant
their
is
rest
consequences.
infrastructure,
consequences
the
which
▲ Negative
their
sentence
with
have
benets
devastating
knowledge
Bangladesh
se ttlements
the
study
PRACTiCE
immense.
being
unexpected
ood
▲ Negative
can
impacts,
case
study
detail
arise
In
and
be
highly
conclusion,
consequences
benets
delta
disagree
always
ooding
communities.
oods
be
of
I
which
damaging.
with
outweigh
that
However
,
enough
statement
benets,
maintain
communities
devastating
the
to
the
climatic
aren’ t
make
given
volatility
for
,
benets
the
that
sur vival
prepared
the
that
of
it
is
these
can
which
of
negative
often
river/
lead
can
ooding
the
to
large
often
appear
▲ Effective
new
meagre
in
summary
information
with
included,
no
aligned
comparison.
with
the
rest
of
the
essay
Detailed explanation of the problems and benets with an evaluation.
marks 10/10
19
OCEANS
B
Covering
oceans
more
are
of
AND
MARGINS
than
great
70%
of
the
importance
Earth’s
to
surface,
humans
in
Yo shold be able to show:
a
✔
number
of
ways.
This
optional
theme
provides
how
physical
processes
to
the
the
of
to
the
the
physical
oceans
with
atmosphere–ocean
important
role
that
characteristics
particular
linkage,
oceans
concentrating
play
in
✔
how
coastal
interactions
on
ocean
link
the
Earth’s
systems;
places
with
are
shaped
by
their
oceans;
influencing
the
varying
power
of
different
stakeholders
in
conditions.
relation
✔
B . 1
and
and
reference
✔
climatic
processes
an
atmospheric
introduction
C O A STA L
to
coastal
margin
future
possibilities
global
commons.
O C E A N – AT M O S P H E R E
for
management;
managing
the
oceans
as
a
I N T E R A C T I O N S
Yo shold be able to show how physical processes link
• ENSO (El Niño Sothern
the Ear th's atmospheric and ocean systems:
Oscillation) – a reversal of the
normal atmospheric circulation
✔
in the southern Pacific Ocean.
• La Niña – an intensification of
✔
normal atmospheric processes
The
operation
and
energy
ocean
Atmosphere–oceanic
Southern
in the southern Pacific Ocean.
of
transfers,
Oscillation
environmental
✔
Detailed
and
currents,
and
the
including
importance
interactions
(ENSO)
examples
of
the
La
Niña
distribution,
oceanic
associated
and
economic
their
of
with
cycles
nutrient
conveyor
El
belts;
Niño
and
their
climatic,
effects;
geographic
impacts
of
El
Niño
and
impacts
of
hurricanes
LaNiña;
✔
The
formation,
coastal
✔
Case
and
✔
The
study
)
including
of
one
and
physical
storm
hurricane
on
surges;
and
its
impacts
on
coastal
places
people;
changing
(CO
distribution
margins,
and
the
role
of
oceans
impacts
of
as
a
ocean
store
and
source
acidication
on
of
carbon
coral
dioxide
reefs.
2
The operation of ocean crrents
Surface
ocean
blowing
The
effect
current
currents
steadily
is
of
ocean
cold
or
are
across
caused
the
currents
warm.
by
the
influence
of
prevailing
winds
sea.
on
W
arm
temperatures
currents
depends
from
on
equatorial
whether
regions
the
raise
the
Test yorself
temperatures
of
polar
areas
(with
help
from
prevailing
westerly
winds).
B.1 Identify (a) one warm ocean
Ocean
currents
are
important
as
they
transfer
heat,
oxygen
and
current and (b) one cold current
nutrients
in the Nor th Atlantic Ocean.
around
the
world.
[2]
B.2 Otline the impact of ocean
Nutrient
and
energy
transfers
currents on the climate of places
Many
at coastal margins.
eastern
currents
the
move
surface.
California
20
oceans
experience
upwelling
currents,
where
the
ocean
[4]
cold
Such
and
water,
rich
upwelling
south-west
in
nutrients,
currents
Africa.
are
from
found
the
off
ocean
the
floor
coast
of
to
Peru,
B .1
The
importance
of
oceanic
conveyor
O C E A N – AT M O S P H E R E
INTERACTIONS
belts
Concept link
In
addition
to
the
transfer
of
energy
by
wind
and
ocean
currents,
there
PROCESSES: The processes that
is
also
a
transfer
of
energy
by
deep
sea
currents.
Oceanic
convection
exist within the hydrosphere
occurs
from
polar
regions
where
cold
salty
water
sinks
into
the
depths
and atmosphere, and between
and
makes
its
way
towards
the
equator.
The
densest
water
is
found
both systems, enable the
in
the
at
a
Antarctic
area.
This
cold
dense
water
sweeps
round
Antarctica
distribution of energy. These
depth
of
about
4
km.
It
then
spreads
into
the
deep
basins
of
the
natural processes are impor tant
Atlantic,
the
Pacific
and
the
Indian
Ocean.
Surface
currents
bring
warm
at a variety of scales, such as the
water
to
the
North
Atlantic
from
the
Indian
and
Pacific
Oceans.
These
economic impact on a country’s
waters
give
up
their
heat
to
cold
winds
which
blow
from
Canada
agricultural industry in the South
across
the
North
Atlantic.
This
water
then
sinks
and
starts
the
reverse
Pacific during a La Niña year, for
convection
of
the
deep
ocean
current.
example. Human input can alter
Temperature,
salinity
water
of
masses
ocean
water
water
is
less
dense.
denser
different
(denser
very
sinks).
water
slips
affect
densities
whereas
large
mass
pressure
water
dense,
When
water
and
a
are
masses
the
density
important
A cold,
warm,
under
the
highly
less
less
the
layering
deep
surface
different
dense
seawater.
saline,
saline,
with
in
of
Large
of
mass
water
densities
the
meet,
as the increased frequency of
cyclones due to the warming of
of
mass
some of these processes, such
is
the atmosphere and oceans.
the
mass.
Atmosphere–oceanic interactions associated
with ENSO and La Niña cycles
El
Niño
El
Niño—the
occurs
conditions
at
in
the
“Christ
intervals
Pacic
Ocean
Child”—is
between
two
a
warming
and
ten
of
years,
the
eastern
and
lasts
Pacific
for
up
that
to
two
years.
During
El
Niño
temperatures
western
over
The
10
Low
the
and
area
children
to
to
eastern
(SSTs)
El
into
of
Niño
food.
Pacific
the
over
east
28°C
develops
event
Some
people
in
in
East
its
Africa
The
spread
40
(ENSO)
rise
as
extend
the
episodes,
warm
Pacific.
over
to
areas
driest
and
heavy
easily
led
million
urban
experienced
malnutrition.
virus
Oscillation
The
water
sea
much
from
the
surface
further
eastern
water
across
Pacific;
high
the
pressure
west.
million
The
the
flows
pressure
2015–16
water
in
Pacific
temperatures
Pacific.
Southern
100
in
(there
in
was
in
for
35
more
Africa
stagnant
short
and
were
Up
needed
America
being
areas
years.
Africa
South
people
rural
southern
year
southern
rains
million
people
to
affected.
one
million
treatment
enabled
water
of
nearly
the
for
for
Zika
mosquitoes
breed).
La
La
Niña
Niña
across
is
the
an
conditions
off
the
whereby
coast
extends
intermittent
equatorial
of
beyond
the
in
the
patterns
in
Canada.
over
northern
strong
South
patterns
cold
Pacific
easterly
America
Pacific
Sahel
and
into
and
in
has
India,
Generally
,
Australia,
current
Ocean.
It
an
winds
the
there
flows
push
linked
with
are
and
from
the
intensification
western
been
and
Indonesia
that
is
cold
with
Its
water
impact
unusual
rainfall
temperature
wetter-than-normal
the
normal
upwelling
Pacific.
unusual
east
of
Philippines.
conditions
Test yorself
Wetter
B.3 Compare the climate
conditions
are
also
experienced
in
northern
Brazil
and
south-eastern
conditions in the southern
Africa.
The
summer
monsoon
tends
to
be
stronger
over
north-west
Pacific region associated with
India.
Drier
conditions
are
experienced
along
the
west
coast
of
El Niño events with those of
SouthAmerica.
La Niña.
[2+2]
21
B
OPTION
B:
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
The formation, distribtion and physical impacts
of hrricanes on coastal marins
Hurricanes
winds
and
24
•
hours),
Sea
the
•
move
they
to
form,
quantities
heat
be
bring
other
as
heavy
rainfall,
hazards
well
as
such
large
strong
as
flooding
totals
(up
to
and
500
mm
flooding.
from
number
must
of
cause
heat
a
that
rainfall,
causes
excess
temperatures
of
over
when
low
latitudes
conditions
27°C.
it
is
(Warm
to
higher
are
latitudes.
needed:
water
gives
condensed—this
heat
off
drives
hurricane.)
The
so
waves;
invariably
hurricanes
large
hazards
High-intensity
Hurricanes
For
intense
high
mudslides.
in
are
low
that
Earth)
the
pressure
the
area
Coriolis
creates
equator,
rotation
there
has
force
is
to
be
far
(the
force
the
rising
in
insufficient
enough
caused
air
away
by
mass.
rotation
the
If
and
it
a
from
the
rotation
is
too
equator
of
close
hurricane
the
to
will
not
develop.
•
There
must
altitude)
Case
In
study:
Haiti,
refugee
In
Test yorself
the
be
to
over
USA,
100
Sandy
Sandy,
were
flooded
affected
Florida
Damage
shear
(the
hurricane
deaths
were
from
Wisconsin.
wind
the
Hurricane
camps
seaboard
low
allow
to
was
gradient
maintain
of
its
wind
velocity
with
structure.
2012
attributed
and
24
to
crops
states,
Maine
to
Sandy
.
washed
including
and
west
particularly
the
across
severe
in
Tents
across
the
away
.
entire
to
eastern
Michigan
New
Jersey
and
and
New
B.4 Briefly explain the main
York.
At
least
131
people
in
eight
states
were
killed.
The
New
York
hazards associated with
Stock
hurricanes.
Exchange
was
closed
for
two
days,
the
first
weather
closure
since
[4]
1985
and
the
first
two-day
weather
closure
since
1888.
Seven
subway
B.5 Sest why Haiti
tunnels
under
the
East
river
were
flooded.
Battery
Park
in
Manhattan
experienced a relatively high
had
a
storm
surge
of
14
feet.
Over
100,000
homes
on
Long
Island
were
number of deaths despite
damaged
or
destroyed.
not being in the direct path of
Hurricane Sandy.
[2]
The chanin role of oceans as a store and sorce
of carbon dioxide (CO
), and the impacts of ocean
2
acidification on coral reefs
The
oceans
are
the
largest
reservoir
of
carbon
in
the
carbon
cycle—they
Test yorself
contain
approximately
38,000
trillion
kg
of
carbon.
The
oceans
are
also
B.6 Analyse the impor tance of
a
major
source
of
carbon.
For
example,
photosynthesis
by
plankton
the ocean as a source and a store
creates
organic
compounds
from
CO
.
Some
of
this
passes
through
2
of carbon.
[2+2]
the
B.7 (a) Describe how the ocean
food
chain
and
sinks
to
the
seabed
where
it
is
decomposed
into
sediments.
is becoming more
Acidication
acidic.
(b) Explain how more acidic
oceans are damaging to
marine life.
[3]
Atmospheric
dissolved.
the
It
water ’s
and
22
of
oceans
[2]
carbon
reacts
pH
organisms
dioxide
with
level
with
sea
and
is
taken
water
making
shells.
to
it
in
by
the
produce
more
ocean
and
carbonic
acidic.
This
becomes
acid,
affects
lowering
coral
reefs
B.2
B . 2
I N T E R A C T I O N S
A N D
C O A S TA L
INTERACTIONS
BE T WEEN
B E T W E E N
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
PL A C E S
O C E A N S
P L A C E S
Yo shold be able to show how coastal places are shaped
• Estatic chanes – worldwide
by their interactions with oceans:
changes in sea level caused
✔
Physical
inuences
sediment
wave
✔
supply
,
processes
on
coastal
lithology
,
(littoral
The
characteristics
and
deposition,
and
beaches;
and
landscapes,
vegetation,
drift,
including
subaerial
hydraulic
formation
of
wave-cut
including
action
coastal
waves,
processes
and
and
cliffs,
of
erosion
stacks,
by the growth and decay of ice
caps, thereby locking up and
later releasing water from ice.
abrasion);
landforms
platforms,
tides,
spits
• Isostatic chanes – localized
changes in the relative level of
the land and sea, caused by the
depression of the Ear th’s crust,
✔
Advancing
and
retreating
coastlines,
including
the
role
of
isostatic
such as due to the weight of an
and
eustatic
processes,
and
the
associated
landforms
(relict
cliff,
ice sheet. Following deglaciation,
raised
beach,
fjord);
the crust beneath the weight
✔
The
role
of
coastal
processes,
wind
and
vegetation
in
sand
dune
begins to rise again, and relative
sea level therefore falls.
development.
• Ad vancin coasts – coastlines
that are growing/getting larger
Physical inflences on coastal landscapes
either due to deposition or a fall
in sea level.
Waves
• Sbaerial – processes that
Constructive
waves
tend
to
occur
when
wave
frequency
is
low
occur on the Ear th’s surface.
(6–8/minute).
Swash
moved
beach.
up
the
Destructive
create
waves
waves
stronger
of
than
are
high
the
is
stronger
the
result
frequency
swash,
than
of
backwash,
locally
is
sediment
generated
(12–14/minute).
material
so
eroded
As
from
winds,
the
the
is
which
backwash
is
beach.
Tides
Tides
are
regular
gravitational
•
tides
are
•
during
movements
pull
of
greatest
the
in
in
Moon
bays
the
and
and
sea’s
Sun
along
surface,
on
the
caused
oceans.
funnel-shaped
In
by
the
general:
coastlines
Oceans and their coastal
low
pressure
systems,
water
levels
are
raised
10cm
for
every
margins are open systems as
decrease
of
10mb.
they receive energy and matter
from external sources. However,
Sediment
supply
for convenience, geographers
Sediment
transport
is
generally
categorized
into
two
modes:
use the concept of a sediment
cell (or littoral cell) in which
•
Bedload—grains
transported
by
bedload
are
moved
with
inputs and outputs are balanced
continuous
contact
(traction
or
dragging)
or
by
discontinuous
within a single bay or region, and
contact
(saltation)
with
the
seafloor.
each sediment cell is
•
Suspended
load—grains
are
carried
by
turbulent
flow
and
generally
self-contained.
are
held
Subaerial
up
and
Subaerial,
or
weathering,
by
the
wave
water.
processes
cliff-face,
solution
processes
include
weathering,
salt
slaking
weathering,
and
biological
freeze-thaw
weathering.
Content link
Some of these mass movements
are discussed in more detail in
Mass
movements
are
also
important
in
coastal
areas,
especially
option D.1.
slumping
and
rock
falls.
23
B
OPTION
B:
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
Wave
M A R GIN S
erosion
Test yorself
The
processes
of
erosion
are
abrasion,
attrition,
solution
(corrosion)
and
B.8 Distinish between
hydraulic
action.
constructive and destructive
waves.
[2+2]
Littoral
drift
B.9 Describe what is meant by a
Littoral
littoral cell system.
(longshore)
drift
leads
to
a
gradual
movement
of
sediment
[2]
along
the
B.10 Explain the impor tance of
wind,
the tidal range.
the
[3]
shore,
whereas
steepest
as
the
the
swash
moves
backwash
moves
in
the
direction
straight
down
of
the
the
prevailing
beach,
following
gradient.
B.11 Analyse the changes
that occur as a result of wave
refraction.
The characteristics and formation of coastal landforms
[3]
of erosion and deposition
Erosional
Cliff
profiles
factors.
is
landforms
to
One
say
(cracks
are
major
bedding
along
Wave-cut
about
are
and
Cliff-
replaced
subjected
Wave
factor
to
by
a
lines
are
are
and
and
the
depend
influence
strata
of
of
on
of
a
number
lithology
sedimentary
of
controlling
(rock
rocks)
type),
and
that
jointing
weakness).
most
frequently
typically
less
lengthening
concentrates
rather
wave
500
in
and
the
with
that
angle
marine
on
wide
means
lower
than
energy
high-energy
metres
evolution
platform
processes
found
than
shore-platform
subaerial
refraction
is
(horizontal
platforms
1°.
variable
vertical
environments
of
very
an
steep
cliffs
angle
cliffs
that
are
forces.
flanks
of
headlands.
Test yorself
If
B.12 Otline the difference
are
widened
between a stack and a stump.
[2]
if
the
[3]
arch
the
lines
crack).
caves
Further
B.13 Analyse the formation of
wave-cut platforms.
there
to
on
of
Geos
either
erosion
and
collapse,
stack
A beach
exposed
is
may
side
be
of
these
a
an
may
eroded
a
of
be
and
headland
weathering
leaving
produces
Depositional
weakness,
the
eroded
to
form
a
enlarged
to
form
caves,
merge,
arch
upstanding
an
may
stack.
arch
cause
The
is
geo
(a
and
formed.
the
roof
eventual
of
the
erosion
of
stump.
landforms
a
feature
coasts
or
of
coastal
sand
on
deposition,
sheltered
consisting
of
pebbles
on
coasts.
Spits
These
•
localized
abundant
depositional
material
is
features
available,
will
develop
particularly
where:
shingle
and
sand
Test yorself
•
deposition
is
increased
by
the
presence
of
vegetation
(reducing
wave
B.14 Describe the formation of
velocity
spits.
energy).
[3]
B.15 Briefly explain the formation
of caves and arches.
and
[2+2]
Spits
are
common
Swapkopmund,
that
form
spits
along
indented
Namibia.
are
always
The
coastlines,
long,
joined
at
narrow
one
end
for
example,
ridges
to
the
of
near
sand
and
shingle
mainland.
Ad vancin and retreatin coastlines
Sea
levels
sheets.
change
as
Eustatic
in
in
conjunction
change
level
of
sequence
fall,
of
refers
the
adjustment
Temperatures
levels
24
the
isostatic
A simple
1.
change
or
to
land
a
the
global
relative
to
growth
change
the
and
in
level
decay
sea
of
level.
the
sea
of
ice
The
is
known
isostasy
.
sea-level
decrease,
eustatically
.
with
change
glaciers
can
and
ice
be
described:
sheets
advance
and
sea
B.3
2.
Ice
thickness
increases
3.
Temperatures
and
the
land
is
lowered
M A N A gINg
C O A S TA L
M A R gIN S
isostatically
.
Concept link
rise,
ice
melts
and
sea
levels
rise
eustatically
.
PL ACES: Similar to other par ts of
4.
Continued
melting
releases
pressure
on
the
land
and
the
the planet, coastal margins are
land
dynamic places that can feature
risesisostatically
.
a range of different landforms
Features
of
emerged
coastlines
include:
that are subject to processes of
•
raised
beaches,
•
coastal
•
relict
such
as
along
the
west
coast
of
Malta
erosion and deposition, both in
their formation but also in their
plains
evolution. Thus places have
cliffs,
such
as
those
along
the
Fall
Line
in
eastern
USA
quite unique characteristics. For
•
raised
Rio
mudflats,
la
Plata,
for
example,
the
mudflats
on
the
south
coast
of
the
example, coastlines with striking
and impressive cliff and dune
Argentina.
formations. Spatial change on
Submerged
coastlines
include:
these margins relies on global
•
rias,
such
valleys
as
the
caused
Georges
by
rising
River,
sea
Sydney
,
levels
or
Australia—drowned
due
to
a
sinking
of
the
river
processes; a cliff may be eroded
due to an increase in storm surges
land
in oceans as global temperatures
•
fjords,
•
fjards
such
as
the
Oslo
Fjord—glacial
troughs
drowned
by
the
sea
and acidification increase.
or
Maine,
“drowned
glacial
lowlands”,
for
example,
Somes
Sound,
USA.
Test yorself
The role of coastal processes, wind and veetation
B.16 Describe the processes that
form (a) fjords and (b) relict
in sand dne development
cliffs.
Sand
dunes
onshore
Strong
low
form
winds,
winds
tide.
a
where
large
tidal
transport
V
egetation
there
a
is
reliable
range
large
causes
a
a
and
supply
of
vegetation
volume
of
reduction
sand
in
sand,
to
trap
onshore,
wind
the
sand.
especially
velocity
,
[2+2]
strong
at
especially
in
Test yorself
the
lowest
few
centimetres
above
the
ground,
and
this
reduces
energy
B.17 Analyse the formation of
and
increases
The
greater
the
deposition
of
sand.
sand dunes.
deposition,
B . 3
the
amount
and
more
of
vegetation,
rapid
sand
the
dune
M A N A G I N G
greater
the
development
amount
[3]
of
occurs.
C O A S TA L
M A R G I N S
Yo shold be able to show the varyin power of different
• Exclsive economic zone
stakeholders in relation to coastal marin manaement:
(EEZ) – an area in which a
✔
Coastal
erosion
and
ooding
cliff-line
stabilization
✔
coastal
and
management
managed
strategies,
including
coastal nation has sovereign
rights over all the economic
retreat;
resources of the sea, seabed
One
management
case
study
focused
on
the
decision-
and subsoil, extending up to 200
making
process
and
perspectives
of
different
actors;
nautical miles from the coast
✔
Conicting
land
uses
land-use
(tourism,
pressures
industry
on
and
coastlines,
housing)
including
and
commercial
(one nautical mile is c.1.85 km).
conservation
• Soverein – having
measures;
independent authority over a
✔
One
case
coastal
✔
✔
of
coral
stakeholder
Detailed
Sovereignty
coastal
to
illustrate
the
roles
of,
and
outcomes
for,
territory.
stakeholders;
Management
different
✔
study
reefs
examples
rights
margins
of
and
and
mangrove
perspectives
of
both
nations
swamps,
their
ecosystems
in
exclusive
on
relation
economic
to
use
and
and
including
value;
their
territorial
zones
issues;
limits
along
(EEZs).
25
B
OPTION
B:
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Coastal erosion and floodin manaement strateies,
Concept link
incldin cliff-line stabilization and manaed retreat
POWER: The value of coastal
margins should not be
Coastal
hard
engineering
management
strategies
understated, and different
Cliff-base
management
strategies
include:
stakeholders view this value
through different lenses. For
•
example, commercial developers
Sea
walls,
reflect
are interested in tourism
which
wave
density
.
are
energy
.
However,
large-scale
They
they
are
are
concrete
easily
curved
made
and
walls
good
designed
in
areas
of
to
high
expensive.
revenue, while ecologists see
•
Gabions,
which
are
made
from
rocks
contained
in
wire
cages
and
coastlines as areas containing
absorb
wave
energy
.
They
are
cheaper
than
sea
walls
and
revetments
unique ecosystems that suppor t
but
only
work
on
a
small
scale.
biodiversity and protect against
environmental degradation. The
Cliff-face
management
includes:
value of places can often lead to
•
Cliff
drainage,
Cliff
grading,
which
removes
water
from
rocks
in
the
cliff.
conflict and friction due to the
contrasting motivations of par ties
•
the
who have a vested interest. These
cliff
which
refers
to
the
lowering
of
the
cliff
angle
to
make
safer.
conflicts can exist at a local scale,
Coastal
but they have also taken place
soft
engineering
management
strategies
at an international scale in the
Soft
engineering
management
strategies
include:
past and present and could quite
•
Beach
nourishment,
which
uses
sand
pumped
from
elsewhere
to
possibly take place in the future
replace
the
eroded
sand.
as countries seek to establish
their territory in oceans.
•
Managed
retreat,
which
allows
the
coastline
to
be
eroded
in
certain
places.
Test yorself
Case
B.18 Describe the advantages
By
of (a) gabions and (b) cliff
regrading.
1950s
walls
sand.
Coastal
stakeholders may hold different
Due
Corps
of
viewpoints regarding coastal
[6]
of
sand.
there
and
to
replenished
B.19 Otline why some
management schemes.
the
sea
[2+2]
study:
was
the
had
left
protected.
Engineers
built
0.25
sand
a
Miami
Miami
to
the
new
the
beach,
cubic
from
Beach,
and
with
USA
USA,
of
vast
as
and
18
1980s
million
are
needed
groynes,
amounts
recreation,
1970s
metres
the
Beach,
removal
tourism
During
million
eroded
of
at
of
led
importance
and
the
little
dredging
Around
replenish
management
of
the
beach
the
US
cubic
each
was
Army
metres
year
to
beach.
Conflictin land-se pressres on coastlines
There
are
a
number
commercial
measures.
to
and
species
tourist
amount
Case
of
Tourism
Resorts
is
from
26
of
gets
as
the
is
Red
that
reefs
has
of
and
water
natural
industry
houses,
cause
loss
of
of
including
and
conservation
can
habitats
groundwater
pollution.
habitats
lead
industries,
In
and
tables,
contrast,
and
to
limit
most
the
cause.
reefs
in
and
However,
people
which
can
coastlines
housing)
and
lowering
developments
industry
the
causes
problem,
It
preserve
new
Sea
onto
building
intrusion,
Hurghada
blown
a
example,
to
on
and
developments
aquifers
that
visitors.
landfill
sewage
in
want
growth
attractions
which
on
a
such
numbers
the
The
pressures
industry
infrastructure).
damage
study:
(for
visual
intrusion
conservationists
conflicting
(tourism,
housing
changes
diversity
,
saltwater
of
use
Tourism,
land-use
hotels
land
and
occurred.
the
part
Sharm-el-Sheikh
some
want
to
reefs.
major
even
northern
tourist
visit.
have
Construction
disruption
it
the
has
Red
to
also
impact
dust,
new
Disposal
treated,
large
may
creates
creates
reefs.
been
Sea.
attracted
developments
Construction
where
of
algal
land
of
growth
B.3
Marine
parks
Mohamed
but
this
Marine
has
including
have
been
Park
angered
tourism
discharges),
created
at
in
area
(for
Sharm-el-Sheikh)
fishermen.
There
developments
illegal
the
fishing
and
are
to
example,
aid
many
C O A S TA L
M A R gIN S
Ras
conservation,
threats
(sedimentation,
mass
reef
M A N A gINg
to
habitat
the
reefs,
degradation,
tourism.
Manaement of coral reefs and manrove swamps
Coral
on
reefs
account
nearly
25%
a
of
The
the
value
Coral
in
of
are
tourism
Global
coral
coral
major
breed,
reefs
animals,
grow,
biological
tourists
sea-level
as
are
and
with
and
sea
rise,
well
all
change
lifetime
Increasing
fish
Coral
and
of
sea”
contain
and
spawn
the
about
and
evade
reefs.
habitat,
our
plants
“rainforests
an
economic
interest
people
and
in
importance.
coral
involved
in
reefs,
the
industrialists.
reefs
climate
in
of
conservationists
households
reefs
the
biodiversity
.
stakeholders
warming,
Global
sea
as
reefs
of
sector,
to
rich
fishermen,
coastal
and
coral
are
described
species
many
including
Threats
their
world’s
reefs
There
the
of
often
million
predators
•
are
as
overfishing,
pollution
endangering
will
for
cause
several
surface
destruction
from
coral
industry
,
of
farms
reefs.
irreparable
damage
to
coral
reasons:
temperatures
will
cause
more
coral
bleaching.
•
The
abundance
some
•
species
Increasing
ocean
corals
other
and
growth,
Coral
To
reefs:
avoid
•
•
more
act
of
Mangroves
dyes,
fish
reefs
are
of
reduce
calcification
resulting
eventual
in
in
slower
death.
Fire B.3.1.
A coral reef in Antigua
strategies
and
gases
activities
are
of
support
people
in
the
tropics,
it
is
are
reduced
(sedimentation,
overfishing,
blasting
coastal
tropical
provide
as
both
as
well
as
as
forests
zones
Marine
Protected
Areas
(MPAs)
to
with
protection
trees
and
tropical
many
fuelwood,
food
such
commercially
and
of
of
shrubs
areas.
that
grow
Mangroves
in
the
cover
coastline.
humans
such
swamps
provide
designated
biodiversity
.
salt-tolerant
the
poisons,
mangrove
and
Threats
and
products
species,
trees
greenhouse
swamps:
25%
include
will
and
damage
human
estuaries
about
reduced
limited
Mangroves
tidal
be
that:
reservoirs
Mangrove
will
organisms,
management
coral
as
acidification
Possible
damaging
species
extinct.
calcifying
permanent
is
coral
become
skeletons
emissions
coral)
many
weaker
recommended
•
of
may
from
as
beds
tropical
and
as
services.
timber,
shellfish
farmed
sea-grass
ecological
charcoal,
and
nurseries.
and
materials,
crustaceans.
farmed
storms,
These
thatching
for
In
act
Many
subsistence,
addition,
as
use
mangrove
sediment
traps.
27
B
OPTION
B:
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
Owing
M A R GIN S
to
the
large
range
of
benefits
that
mangroves
provide,
many
Test yorself
stakeholders
farmers,
B.20 Analyse the conditions
are
interested
conservationists,
in
mangrove
local
swamps,
residents
and
including
fishermen,
politicians.
necessary for the growth of
coral.
[4]
Mangrove
swamps:
Management
B.21 Using examples, analyse
Possible
strategies
management
strategies
include:
the variety of pressures that
affect coral reefs.
•
restoration
•
managed
•
generic
and
afforestation
[4]
realignment—allowing
mangroves
to
migrate
inland
B.22 Sest the ecological
services provided by mangrove
swamps.
protection
of
mangrove
ecosystems.
[3]
Sovereinty rihts of nations in relation to territorial
limits alon coastal marins and exclsive economic
zones (EEZs)
Test yorself
Coastal
states
are
free
to
exploit,
develop
and
manage
all
resources
B.23 Distinish between
found
in
the
waters,
on
the
ocean
floor
area
extending
200
nautical
territorial waters and exclusive
miles
economic zones.
from
over
which
exclusive
over the use of EEZs.
has
[4]
a
country
economic
exclusive
example,
O C E A N
shore.
Territorial
waters
are
the
waters
(sea/ocean)
[2]
B.24 Explain why conflicts arise
B . 4
their
rights
fish,
has
zone
for
energy
full
is
the
sovereignty
the
exploitation
resources
M A N A G E M E N T
rights.
sub-surface
and
of
area
In
contrast,
over
marine
which
the
a
resources,
country
for
metals.
F U T U R E S
Yo shold be able to show examples of ftre possibilities
• Abiotic resorces – non-living
for manain the oceans as a lobal commons:
resources such as oil and gas.
✔
Causes
and
consequences
of
increasing
demand
for
the
abiotic
• Biotic resorces – living
resources
of
oceans,
Trends
biotic
including
minerals,
oil
and
gas;
resources such as fish and
vegetation.
✔
of
• geopolitical – the influence
areas
of geographic factors (location,
in
alternatives
and
resource
to
use
(sh
overshing,
and
mammals)
including
and
aquaculture,
the
viability
conservation
quotas;
resources) over politics and power.
✔
Strengths
including
and
weaknesses
local
and
plastic
The
strategic
and
of
global
initiatives
strategies
to
for
manage
ocean
radioactive
pollution,
materials,
oil
waste;
Concept link
✔
insecurity
,
POSSIBILITIES: With growing
islands,
pressures placed on ocean
value
of
including
canals
and
oceans
the
and
sources
contested
transit
choke
of
international
ownership
and
conict/
control
of
points;
environments, there is an increased
✔
One
contemporary
geopolitical
case
study
focusing
on
a
need to ensure that initiatives
contested
ocean
area.
are implemented and managed
to achieve sustainability. The
Sustainable Development Goals
Cases and conseqences of increasin demand for the
contains targets that represent
abiotic resorces of oceans
positive possibilities from strategies
applied throughout the world.
As
However, the management of oceans
of
is a complex matter; the resulting
non-renewable
the
world’s
living
rise,
population
the
demand
resources
grows,
for
raw
such
as
its
economies
materials
oil
and
develop
increases,
and
standards
especially
for
gas.
possibilities can also be negative,
The
Arctic
and
oil
could
hold
a
quarter
of
the
world’s
undiscovered
gas
especially when trying to cope with
reserves.
This
amounts
to
90
billion
barrels
of
oil
and
vast
growing consumerism and increasing
amounts
of
natural
gas.
Nearly
85%
of
these
deposits
are
believed
geopolitical tension, and thus power
to
be
offshore.
Canada,
Denmark,
Norway
,
Russia
and
the
USA are
and scale cannot be ignored.
racing
28
to
establish
the
limits
of
their
territory
,
stretching
far
beyond
B.4
their
land
borders.
They
are
competing
to
gain
better
access
to
OCE AN
M A N A gE M E N T
FuTuRE S
the
Test yorself
Arctic’s
resource
base.
B.25 Define the term “abiotic
resource”.
[1]
Trends in biotic resorce se (fish and mammals)
B.26 Identify two abiotic
and the viability of alternatives to overfishin
resources found in the Arctic.
World
fisheries
of
in
and
aquaculture
contributed
almost
171
million
[1]
tonnes
B.27 Sest why the Arctic
fish
2016,
valued
at
over
US$362
billion.
The
world’s
supply
of
is impor tant for abiotic
fish
as
food
has
rate
of
3.2%
grown
dramatically
since
1961,
with
an
average
growth
resources.
the
world’s
per
year
compared
with
a
growth
rate
of
1.6%
per
year
[2]
for
B.28 Explain why development
population.
of abiotic resources in the
Overshing
Arctic may be damaging to the
environment.
Nearly
stocks
from
70%
in
the
of
the
EU
the
world’s
North
Sea
regularly
stocks
are
fish
less
in
are
than
other
in
need
10%
parts
of
of
of
management.
1970
the
levels.
[3]
Cod
Fishing
boats
world.
Aquaculture
Aquaculture
2000
and
W
orld
world
aquaculture
Quotas
In
involves
2016,
the
and
raising
production
conservation
past,
quotas,
the
real
problem
too
few
fish
fish
in
grew
2016
by
,
was
on
usually
average,
estimated
for
food.
5.8%per
at
80
Between
year.
million
tonnes.
areas
bans
of
commercially
,
aquaculture
the
and
conservation
fishing
industry:
areas
too
have
many
failed
to
fishermen
address
chasing
When describing data, remember
and
too
many
young
fish.
For
fisheries
to
be
protected,
the
to refer to the maximum,
number
of
boats
and
fishermen
need
to
be
reduced.
minimum, trend and anomalies.
Strenths and weaknesses of initiatives to manae
ocean polltion
Test yorself
The
strengths
increased
civil
are
oceanic
patch
including
number
of
also
derives
manage
more
such
the
size
many
of
from
the
plastic
of
and
the
areas
are
under
land
50%
fishing
the
include
work
However,
to
example,
which
in
pollution
Greenpeace.
(for
important—just
ocean
legislation,
as
pollutants
pollutants,
is
to
awareness,
organizations,
weaknesses,
pollution
initiatives
public
society
increasing
of
of
be
managed,
plastic)
based.
of
the
B.29 Analyse the reasons
of
why two different seas/oceans
there
and
have developed as pollution
the
the
hotspots.
origin
Marine-based
great
Pacific
[2+2]
B.30 Describe how the physical
garbage
nets.
geography of oceans is related
to oceanic pollution.
[2]
The strateic vale of oceans and sorces of international
conflict/insecrity
A number
of
importance
transit
the
or
choke
presence
the
Case
oceans
of
point),
of
Countries
strategic
routes
control
biotic
importance
study:
have
shipping
of
and
canals
borders
for
example,
(for
transport
the
in
South
(for
(for
the
This
the
may
Straits
example,
resources
conict
on
importance.
islands
abiotic
Geopolitical
with
of
(for
the
South
China
Sea
to
the
a
Islands),
the Arctic
the
China
due
Malacca,
Falkland
example,
example,
be
of
Panama
Ocean),
Canal).
Sea
include
China,
Taiwan,
Test yorself
the
Philippines,
Malaysia,
Brunei,
Indonesia,
Singapore
and
Vietnam.
B.31 Sest reasons why there
The
South
second
(10
China
Sea
most-used
million
Malacca.
has
sea
barrels)
of
Moreover,
a
lane
very
in
crude
the
important
the
oil
region
a
world.
day
has
strategic
Over
are
1.6
shipped
proven
oil
and
value.
million
is
the
cubic
through
gas
It
the
Straits
reserves.
is competition among countries
metres
of
for rights over the South China
Sea.
[2]
Natural
29
B
OPTION
B:
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
gas
M A R GIN S
reserves
(266
trillion
develop
are
estimated
cubic
these
feet).
to
The
resources
total
around
countries
and
to
are
control
7,500cubic
competing
sections
of
kilometres
in
the
their
South
claims
China
to
Sea.
QuESTION PRACTICE
The following graph shows the distribution of hurricanes.
Tropic
of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic
of
Capricorn
Average
annual
frequency
0.1–0.9
Average
tracks
a) Describe the distribution of hurricanes as shown on the map.
[2]
b) Explain t wo factors needed for the formation of hurricanes.
[2+2]
c) Using examples, explain t wo reasons why oceans may become a source of geopolitical conict.
[2+2]
Essays
Either: Examine the advantages and disadvantages of dierent types of coastal management schemes.
[10]
Or: Using a located example, examine how conicting pressures in a coastal area have been managed.
[10]
How do I approach these qestions?
a) This question asks for a description. You should use the information on the map, for example, lines
of latitude, compass bearing, major concentrations and some smaller ones.
b) You are asked to explain two factors. Each explanation is worth two marks, so some detail/development is
needed for the award of the second mark.
c) Similarly, here you are asked to explain two reasons. Each explanation is wor th two marks, so some
detail/development is needed for the award of the second mark .
Essays
For these essays, the command term is examine. This means that you should discuss the underlying assumptions
and interrelationships of the issues presented in the question. Good answers will relate these essay questions to
the 4Ps (places, processes, power and possibilities) or other geographical concepts. Remember to refer to specic
examples, and some critical thinking and evaluation should be present in your answer.
S AMPLE STuDENT ANS WER
▲ Valid
points
highlighted
a)
T
he
away
T
here
off
distribution
from
are
the
the
some
west
of
hurricanes
equator
,
and
exceptions
coast
of
mainly
mostly
such
central
is
as
on
on
the
the
in
tropical
western
NE
side
of
side
areas,
of
oceans.
Australia
and
America.
Marks 2/2
b)
▲ Valid
Sea
large
quantities
which
▲ Development
30
temperatures
must
be
over
27°C.
(Warm
water
gives
off
factor
point
drives
the
of
heat
when
hurricane.)
it
is
condensed
-
this
is
the
heat
QuE STION
T
he
low
pressure
area
has
to
be
far
enough
away
from
the
▲ Valid
equator
of
the
that
the
Earth)
Corio lis
creates
force
ro tation
(the
in
force
the
caused
rising
air
by
the
mass
–
second
factor
ro tation
if
it
is
▲ Development
too
close
to
hurricane
the
equator
would
no t
there
is
insufcient
ro tation
and
point
a
develo p.
▲ Valid
Marks 4/4
point—oceans
competing
c)
PRACTICE
and
nations
Some parts of oceans, such as the South China Sea in the
▲ Valid
point—competition
over
Pacic, may become sources of geopolitical conict between
resources
nations (e.g. China, Brunei, the Philippines, Vietnam and
Indonesia) because they contain valuable resources such as oil,
▲ A second
conict
gas and sheries. T
here can also be conict over shipping channels
e.g. the Straits of Malacca between Singapore and Indonesia.
▲ Development
point
Marks 4/4
Essays
Either: Examine the advantages and disadvantages of dierent types of
coastal management schemes.
▲ Simple
T
here
T
hey
are
many
are
types
generally
of
coastal
designed
to
management
reduce
erosion
introduction
schemes.
and
prevent
▲ Good—distinction
ooding.
Coastal
effectiveness
management
and
their
schemes
vary
in
terms
of
their
major
types
management
engineering
and
soft
schemes
are
often
engineering
divided
schemes.
into
are
those
Hard
engineering
example
that
physically
alter
the
landscape,
schemes
try
to
work
with
nature.
types
of
hard
engineering
schemes
is
a
One
sea
point—advantages
of
whereas
of
walls
the
▲ Good
simplest
management
engineering
sea
soft
between
hard
▲ Good
schemes
coastal
cost.
▲ First
Coastal
of
wall.
point—outlines
a
T
his
disadvantage
is
a
large-scale
wall
designed
to
reect
wave
energy.
Modern
▲ Good
sea
walls
are
often
cur ved
to
redirect
the
waves
away
from
point—develops
the
disadvantage
beach.
and
Traditional
led
walls’
to
the
sea
walls
scouring
of
foundations.T
hey
were
the
are
often
bed,
and
relatively
straigh t
and
vertical
undermining
expensive
and
of
the
▲ Good
thirty
years.
Chesil
Beach,
in
Southern
example
last
▲ Clear
about
point—located
England,
account
of
sea
walls
with
has
support
cur ved
sea
walls
pro tecting
the
village
of
Chiswell.
▲ Second
Another
which
being
form
are
of
lled
washed
hard
with
away
engineering
rocks.
or
T
he
used
for
are
wire
gabions.
boxes
abrasion,
T
hese
prevent
and
the
the
are
wire
rocks
rocks
type
of
management
boxes
from
reduce
▲ Description
the
▲ Function
energy
of
cheaper
than
T
he
the
gabions
wave
sea
on
as
it
walls
top
of
passes
and,
Chesil
between
from
a
Beach
different
distance,
(gabion
rocks.
can
look
T
hey
are
attractive.
mattresses)
▲ Advantage
protect
▲ Located
Chiswell
from
large
shingle
being
ung
in
storm
example
conditions.
▲ Second
method,
supporting
with
example
31
B
OPTION
▲ Third
B:
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
Groynes
method
the
▲ Advantages
M A R GIN S
are
wooden/concrete
shoreline
to
trap
sediment
barriers
being
placed
carried
at
right
away
angles
by
to
longshore
and
drift.
T
hey
can
be
successful
at
keeping
sediment
in
an
area
but
disadvantages
may
lead
lead
to
erosion
following
the
further
down -drift.
construction
down
T
his
of
the
occurred
groynes
at
coast,
at
and
Barton -
Bournemouth
Boscombe.
Another
more
methods
form
include
removes
▲ Advantage
of
cliff
of
cliff
cliff
excess
regrading
cliff
.
but
T
his
especially
the
advantage
coastal
management
is
cliff-face
strategies.
drainage
water
that
is
and
cliff
regrading.
contained
within
the
Cliff
drainage
rocks
forming
drainage
the
▲ Advantages
of
identied
T
hese
▼ Clear
star vation
examples
and
▲ Two
sediment
increased
on -Sea
▲ Located
to
cliff
,
can
help
slumping.
and
also
reduce
Cliff
makes
the
risk
of
regrading
slumping
mass
movement,
reduces
less
the
slope
angle
of
likely.
no
“Soft
engineering
schemes”
refers
to
methods
that
work
with
support
nature.
▼ Duplication
said
in
of
what's
been
sand
T
his
or
includes
shingle
to
beach
restore
a
nourishment,
beach.
Miami
which
Beach
is
adding
in
Florida
has
introduction
been
▲ First
type
of
soft
engineering
is
only
in
▲ Good
restored
a
regularly.
short-term
southern
It
looks
solution.
England,
there
is
attractive
In
some
but
areas,
managed
is
expensive
such
retreat,
as
in
at
and
Barton
which
some
example
parts
At
of
the
Barton,
coastline
houses
are
and
sacriced
businesses
whereas
are
others
protected
are
but
protected.
the
camping
▲ Second type of soft engineering
and
caravan
back,
further
but
is
site
is
allowed
away
from
to
the
be
eroded
shoreline.
–
mobile
T
his
is
homes
quite
are
moved
unpopular
,
▲ Advantages and disadvantages
of
managed
retreat
it
cost-effective
Coastal
▼ Interesting
points
have
been
allows
schemes
nature
are
to
costly.
takes
Also,
its
the
course.
nature
of
the
here—
threat
could
management
and
further
is
changing
with
global
climate
change
and
rising
sea
developed
levels
have
(and
in
worked
more
some
years
powerful
in
cases
ago
sinking
may
certain
well
land).
become
Schemes
obsolete
as
that
seas
may
become
locations.
Valid account. Support generally present. The idea of cost could have been
developed, and related to LICs.
Marks 8/10
Or: Using a located example, examine how conicting pressures in a coastal area
have been managed.
▲ Clear location
Studland
example
users
▼ Largely
and
a
on
coastal
the
the
south
area
coast
where
environment
are
the
of
Britain,
needs
of
carefully
is
an
different
managed.
excellent
recreational
Studland
scene-setting/
background
information
Beach
is
beaches
leading
32
of
Beach,
still
and
to
wild
a
and
largely
succession
heathland,
of
unspoilt.
sand
woodland,
dune
marsh
It
is
has
ridges
and
a
broad
and
sandy
slacks
large
fresh-water
QuE STION
▼ Introduces
lake.
Because
of
the
rich
and
varied
plant
and
animal
life,
the
Focus
is
on
recreation
area
was
declared
a
National
Nature
Reser ve
in
National
beach,
and
T
rust
the
try
to
numbers
run
of
Studland
visitors
are
Beach
parking
responsible
spaces
it
has
provision
of
500
T
here
cars.
was
built
cafe
and
an
in
available.
increased
overow
is
also
1990
at
a
the
car
as
controlled
point.
that
litter
Knoll
the
a
Car
T
here
for
can
car
take
collection.
Park
price
are
311
T
rust
and
▼ Good
a
by
Visitor
huts
the
owned,
front
but
the
of
T
rust
T
here
are
several
T
here
are
many
Beach.
T
here
the
beach
manages
problems
are
and
for
the
38
the
the
majority
for
weekly
staff
problems
in
conicts
between
to
of
and
deal
of
a
▲ Some
management
▲ Clear
evidence—management
coastal
boaters,
path,
between
between
board
power
sailers,
boat
enthusiasts
are
on
parking
swimmers
and
and
the
lets.
▼ Not
yet
related
T
here
dog
are
walkers
four
car
and
parks
▼ Needs
to
focus
plus
sunbathers,
two
focused
capacity
on
a
busy
day
is
3,500
cars.
overow
T
here
is
along
the
Ferry
Road
of
approximately
on
conicts
but
also
1,000
conict
mainly
between
implied
parks.
detail
but
needs
to
focus
roadside
on
parking
conicts
and
▼ Good
T
he
on
sailing
users
Studland
conict
along
visitors.
in
to
Beach.
▼ Identies
between
litter
privately
walkers
and
identied
situated
▲ Now
the
to
shop,
Studland
and
needs
question
Centre
seasonal
with
management
naturists
these
but
the
of
of
along
to
the
maximum
includes
beach
detail
back
became
parking
T
he
which
than
pressures
family
by
National
capacity
park
daily
the
information
Since
tourism/
rather
1962.
relate
car
example.
conicting
users
conicting
T
he
located
PRACTICE
cars
conicting
pressures
and
▼ Needs
to
focus
on
conicting
pressures
end
September
,
between
total
140,000
number
and
of
200,000.
cars
On
in
a
National
busy
day
T
rust
there
parks
are
are
about
▼ Descriptive
25,000
people
on
the
beach
and
up
to
1,000
cars
parked
on
the
conict,
Ferry
Road.
As
many
as
300
cars
are
parked
illegally
on
T
here
in
the
are
e.g.
residents
than
1,000,000
visitors
per
year
.
T
hese
in
time.
Most
arrive
in
July
and
August.
numbers
20,000–25,000
about
the
of
with
visitors
on
Nature
come
just
Reser ve,
the
approximately
Bournemouth/Studland
95%
T
here
is
a
for
the
which
beach
8,000
chain
beach
and
contains
on
busy
coming
ferry.
only
the
a
Of
5%
sand
day
and
Little
large
on
by
all
foot
200
the
Sea
vo lume
the
beach
problem
litter
the
venture
dunes,
due
bins
the
–
the
National
during
the
lost
children,
often
up
12–13
high
Trust
summer
to
their
focus
heathland,
tonnes
a
week
to
refer
back
to
the
are
inux
of
visitors.
T
o
put
out
approximately
months.
Ano ther
30
a
day,
who
have
to
be
of
very
good
information
co pe
could
easily
conicting
be
related
back
to
pressures
problem
is
about
managing
the
reunited
impacts
with
to
question
litter
to
needs
into
Lake.
of
but
pressures
visitors
▼ This
is
parking
across
that
with
illegal
is
▼ Lots
dumped
over
detail
conicting
▼ Needs
woodland
to
and
T
he
on
the
relate
tourists
are
▼ Good
concentrated
on
between
village.
more
estimated
of
easily
yellow
local
lines
account
problems—could
of
tourism,
not
the
conicts
parents.
33
B
OPTION
B:
OCE ANS
▲ Back on track!
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Dealing
with
naturists.
offended
called
conicts
People
by
the
Heather
dunes,
which
of
using
interest
the
naturists.
Walk
allows
which
the
-
coastal
T
o
this
runs
general
the
main
path
end
for
a
public
the
to
being
walking
new
behind
one
feel
footpath
naturist
walk
the
the
was
area
full
created
in
the
length
▲ Management of conicting
pressures
of
the
and
beach
tear
on
without
the
encountering
footpaths
on
the
naturists.
Nature
T
here
Reser ve,
is
but
some
this
wear
is
▲ Finally! Conict between
being
walkers
and
worn
▲ Good point—would be useful
to
dene
monitored
and
walkways
have
been
put
down
in
the
most
naturists
land-use
T
he
parts.
main
way
the
beach
has
been
managed
is
by
land-use
zoning
zoning.
is
where
T
he
the
car
parks
cafes
and
are
at
either
toilets
are
end
of
located,
the
and
beach,
these
and
areas
this
get
▲ Describes land-use zoning—
most
implied
way
conicting
of
dealing
of
pressures
middle
beach
is
to
conicting
say
,
of
is
family
▲ That
the
visitors.
T
he
nature
reser ve
is
located
near
the
with
the
also
beach,
located
beaches
as
and
few
around
possible.
people
this
walk
area,
Overall,
it
so
is
there.
as
a
to
T
he
be
very
naturist
as
far
from
effective
way
the
of
managing
pressures
managing
the
beach.
Lots of good detail, but lacks focus on conict. Had the candidate said “To manage
conict between family tourism and nature conservation needs, land-use zoning
has been used” this would have made the answer much more appropriate. Overall
6/10 as conict and management are largely implicit.
Marks 6/10
34
E XT R E M E
C
This
option
E N V I R O N M E N TS
requires
a
study
of
two
different
extreme
Yo shold be able to show:
environments:
✔
•
Cold
and
glacial
high-altitude
areas,
environments
periglacial
areas
and
why
(polar,
in
non-polar
places
Hot,
arid
environments
how
(hot
deserts
and
Extreme
also
the
environments
difficult
for
are
relatively
human
inaccessible
habitation.
and
physical
in
varying
are
possibilities
for
settlement
extract
activity
.
the
kinds
This
option
main
of
people
extreme
have
for
examines
landscape
extreme
create
unique
environments;
power
of
different
they
to
these
offer,
management
C . 1
the
stakeholders
T H E
and
and
extreme
future
possibilities
way
and
for
managing
their
extreme
communities.
processes
of
both
in
which
environments
the
from
economic
natural
the
value
Nevertheless,
and
characteristics
environments,
adapted
opportunities
pose
processes
economic
environments
and
extreme
environments;
✔
there
be
areas).
to
are
to
semi✔
arid
considered
latitudes);
landscapes
•
are
high
✔
mountains
some
environments;
challenges
and
the
they
sustainability
.
C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S
O F
E XT R E M E
E N V I R O N M E N T S
Yo shold be able to show why some places are
• Arid – having less than 250 mm
considered to be ex treme environments:
✔
Global-scale
and
hot,
high
distribution
arid
of
environments
mountains
in
cold
and
(polar,
non-polar
high-altitude
glacial
places)
of precipitation per year.
and
areas,
hot,
environments
periglacial
arid
areas,
• Semi-arid – having less than
500 mm of precipitation per year.
environments
• Ice sheet – a continent-size ice
(hot
deserts
and
semi-arid
areas);
2
mass, at least 50,000 km
✔
Relief
and
climatic
characteristics
that
make
in size.
environments
• Glacier – a slow-moving body
extreme,
including
unreliability
and
intensity
of
rainfall
in
arid
of ice.
environments
✔
How
relief,
remoteness
and
the
climate,
present
risk
of
human
ash
oods;
discomfort,
challenges
for
inaccessibility
human
habitation
and
and
resource
development;
✔
Detailed
Concept link
examples
for
illustrative
PL ACES: Places that are classified
purposes;
as having extreme environments
✔
The
changing
distribution
of
extreme
environments
over
time,
are those that present challenges
including
the
advance
and
retreat
of
glaciers
and
natural
for those attempting to live there
desertication.
and develop resources. Over time,
the distribution of these areas
is changing, due to processes
Global-scale distribtion of cold and high-altitde
such as global climate change,
environments and hot, arid environments
Cold
arid
which can make some areas more
habitable and other areas less. As
environments
a result of these challenges and
The
world’s
main
and
Greenland,
ice
masses
exist
at
high
latitudes,
as
in
Antarctica
oppor tunities, places evolve.
and
at
high
altitudes,
as
in
the
Alps
and
the
Himalayas.
35
c
OPTION
C:
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Approximately
a
quarter
of
the
Earth’s
surface
is
characterized
by
long
Test yorself
periods
thaw.
C.1 Describe how (a) polar
regions and (b) arid regions vary
in
with latitude.
large
[2+2]
of
the
arid
Most
areas
northern
parts
latitudes
Hot,
extreme
These
of
cold
are
hemisphere
Siberia.
that
and
winter
known
snowfall,
but
“periglacial”
including
There
experience
as
are
also
much
some
periglacial
it
also
areas
of
and
has
are
northern
high-altitude
a
summer
widespread
Canada
areas
in
and
low
conditions.
environments
arid
areas
are
located
in
the
tropics,
associated
with
the
When describing locations with
subtropical
high-pressure
belt.
However,
some
are
located
alongside
respect to latitude, make use of
cold
ocean
currents
(such
as
the
Namib
and
Atacama
deserts),
some
are
the main lines of latitude (where
located
in
the
lee
of
mountain
ranges
(such
as
the
Gobi
and
Patagonian
relevant), for example, the
deserts),
while
others
are
located
in
continental
interiors
(such
as
the
equator (0°), Tropics of Cancer
Sahara
and
the
Australian
deserts).
and Capricorn (23.5°N and
23.5°S), and Antarctic and Arctic
Circles (66.5°S and 66.5°N).
Relief and climatic characteristics that make
environments ex treme
Anchorage
Test yorself
whereas
C.2 Identify one factor, other
in
Alaska,
Casablanca
USA,
in
is
an
Morocco
example
is
an
of
a
periglacial
example
of
a
environment,
semi-arid
environment.
than temperature or precipitation,
Anchorage
has
a
mean
annual
temperature
of
−4°C.
The
temperature
that makes a periglacial
range
is
from
15°C
in
summer
(July)
to
−11°C
in
winter
(January),
environment difficult to live in
a
and explain why.
range
of
26°C.
Rainfall
is
relatively
low
(374
mm),
mainly
falling
[1+2]
between
July
in
the
In
contrast,
from
form
a
low
August).
winter
and
of
October.
This
of
the
precipitation
in
winter
will
be
snow.
Casablanca’s
of
Much
13°C
is
months
a
in
range
of
mean
winter
of
annual
to
just
a
high
10°C.
temperature
of
23°C
Rainfall
in
is
is
18°C,
summer
more
ranging
(July/
plentiful
in
the
October–February
.
How relief, climate, hman discomfor t,
inaccessibility and remoteness present
challenges for hman habitation and resorce
development
Challenges
extremes
People
allow
skin
against
water
to
sand
the
floods
intensity
the
rainfall,
and
the
36
unvegetated
floods
in
are
sun
water
Cline
loose,
of
where
the
of
water
this
irrigation
is
evapotranspiration.
light-coloured
day
.
and
their
their
the
flocks
work
in
clothing
protect
Turbans
around
move
most
example,
insolation
wrapped
do
For
even
rates
during
and
semi-arid
capacity
brought
surfaces
of
and
environments
accessibility
,
to
their
provide
face
to
to
be
the
protect
close
to
morning
heat.
arid
be
resources.
herders
They
semi-arid
reflect
be
environments
temperature,
high
long,
can
Nomadic
may
of
semi-arid
and
of
difficult,
the
infiltration
Floods
lack
wear
and
hot,
arid
circulate,
midday
in
concentrations
flash
to
periods.
occur
exceeds
surface.
may
sun
intense
a
there
against
the
dry
and
farming
air
storms.
during
avoid
Flash
from
hot,
and
of
the
practised
protection
arid
include
makes
Oryx grazing in a hot, arid deser t
hot,
Challenges
shortages
Figre C.1.1.
of
(thus
in
Creek
and
causing
about
less
wadis,
areas
by
when
water
interception
gullies
Cave
to
summer
or
Creek
rainfall
flow
and
infiltration)
channels,
in
over
convectional
for
Arizona,
example,
USA in
2014.
C .1
Challenges
in
Challenges
glacial
from
glacial
low
low
•
•
environments
and
waste
hours
have
thawing
the
of
an
of
need
with
glacial
areas
include
road
the
instability
possibility
and
the
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
of
flooding
the
are
reduce
that
make
disposal
darkness
that
that
buildings
special
the
wheels
and
and
of
expensive
plant
growth
human
may
and
growth
provision
limit
on
by:
difficult
difficult
impact
permafrost
for
plant
environment
adverse
of
characterized
happiness
cause
infrastructure
on
vehicles
to
cope
ice/snow
Figre C.1.2.
•
OF
areas
landslides,
that
working
subsidence
•
and
avalanches,
temperatures
long
and
glacial
C H A R A C T E R I S T I CS
melt.
the
water
and
periglacial
temperatures
make
•
in
surges,
Periglacial
•
periglacial
THE
need
to
keep
some
machines
running
A periglacial environment in Thingvellir,
the
Iceland
whole
Many
transport
soils
to
are
People
For
•
to
prevent
mountainous
economic
leads
time
activity
routes
may
have
difficult,
make
reduced
likely
areas
shutdown.
for
steep
example,
mountainous
temperatures,
to
be
adapt
thin
to
and
living
relief,
so
making
Brooks
areas
settlement
Range,
inaccessible.
growing
seasons
are
and
Alaska.
The
Limited
high
shorter,
relief
and
infertile.
in
cold
environments
in
a
variety
of
ways.
example:
some
up
people
for
lamps
a
lack
to
may
of
deal
take
vitamin
sunshine
with
the
or
lack
D
use
of
supplements
SAD
light
in
(seasonal
in
winter
affective
to
make
disorder)
winter
Test yorself
C.3 Describe one challenge
that is similar in hot and semi•
clothing
needs
to
be
windproof
as
strong
winds
contribute
to
wind
arid environments and in cold
chill
in
winter
may
prevent
months—heavy
clothing,
head
protection
and
gloves
environments.
[2]
frostbite
C.4 Explain how the traditional
•
buildings
may
be
built
on
stilts
to
avoid
potential
issues
with
clothing worn in deser ts helps
permafrost
thaw
in
summer
people to adapt to the extreme
•
cars
need
diesel
snow
fuel
tyres
freezing
to
due
travel
to
over
extreme
snow
cold
and
in
extra
heaters
to
stop
deser t environment.
[2]
winter.
The changing distribtion of ex treme environments
over time
Past
and
present
Desertification
areas
that
distribution
refers
were
to
of
the
previously
arid
spread
is
anthropogenic
desertification
is
natural,
million
desert
now
years.
For
covered
due
to
example,
with
of
semi-arid
acacia
induced)
long-term
and
conditions
productive.
(human
the
environments
desert-like
biologically
desertification
two
and
but
climate
Kalahari
mopane
Much
some
change
sands
into
modern
are
over
mainly
the
last
fossil
trees.
Content link
Past
and
present
distribution
of
glacial
environments
The causes and consequences
There
are
glacial
a
number
phases.
of
These
interrelated
include
factors
natural
that
may
cause
(Milankovitch)
ice
cycles,
ages
such
and
as:
of global climate change are
explored fur ther in units 2.1
and 2.2.
•
the
“stretch”
in
the
Earth’s
orbit
around
the
Sun
37
c
OPTION
C:
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
•
the
“tilt”
of
the
•
the
“wobble”
Earth
of
the
Earth’s
axis.
Test yorself
In
addition,
there
are
changes
in:
C.5 Describe how natural cycles
affect glaciations.
•
the
distribution
•
reflectivity
•
tectonic
•
human
of
land
and
sea
[3]
C.6 Briefly explain how albedo
(albedo)
changes lead to changes in the
amount of ice present.
activity
[2]
effects
(anthropogenic
impacts).
C.7 Sggest how human
The
activities influence glacial
advances/retreats.
[3]
past
and
long-term
C . 2
P H Y S I C A L
present
environments
in
the
changes
distribution
northern
in
of
glacial
hemisphere
and
is
periglacial
related
to
these
very
climate.
P R O C E S S E S
A N D
L A N D S C A P E S
Yo shold be able to show how physical processes create
• Dirnal – during the course of
one day.
niqe landscapes in ex treme environments:
✔
Glacial
processes
landscape
lakes,
pyramidal
medial
✔
✔
and
Periglacial
heave,
erosion,
in
moraine
of
periglacial
patterned
Physical
chemical
Hot,
arid
landscape
mesas
and
glacial
and
cirques/corries,
troughs,
soliuction
features,
and
lateral,
and
including
frost
permafrost,
pingos;
in
hot,
deposition
features,
and
deposition,
erratics;
freeze-thaw,
ground
and
including
arêtes,
and
weathering
transportation
pedestals,
areas,
landscape
thermokarst,
and
transport
glaciated
peaks/horns,
terminal
processes
and
erosion,
✔
of
features
arid
by
including
environments,
wind
dunes,
and
and
water;
wadis,
rock
buttes.
Glacial processes of erosion, transpor t and deposition,
Concept link
and landscape featres in glaciated areas
PROCESSES: Natural processes
shape environments, with
Processes
in
extreme
environments:
Glacial
environments
landforms being created in
Glacial
erosion
and
associated
processes
consist
of
a
number
of
arid and glacial environments.
different
actions.
Change occurs as a number
of these processes take
•
Abrasion
•
Plucking
is
often
called
the
“sandpaper
effect”.
place simultaneously. There
(or
quarrying)
is
the
ripping
out
of
material
from
the
are different rates of change
bedrock.
depending on the environment
and the feature being formed in
Types
of
glacial
erosion
the landscape.
•
•
A pyramid
A ribbon
result
•
of
A corrie
peak
lake
a
is
an
A glacial
formed
long
damming
weathering,
•
is
is
by
when
lake
found
trough
is
a
in
a
or
more
trough
arêtes
often
converge.
formed
as
a
moraine.
armchair-shaped
abrasion,
three
hollow
plucking,
and
steep-sided
formed
the
and
by
freeze-thaw
rotational
relatively
movement
flat-floored
of
ice.
valley
,
An annotated diagram can be
formed
by
many
cirque
glaciers
and
valley
glaciers.
used to show the formation and
shape of glacial features.
38
•
An
arête
the
retreat
is
a
of
sharp
ridge
cirques.
formed
by
freeze-thaw
weathering
and
C.2
Glacier
load
can
be
AND
L ANDSC APE S
carried:
•
subglacially—under
•
englacially—within
•
supraglacially—on
Glacial
the
the
top
glacier
glacier
of
the
glacier.
deposition
Terminal
example
moraines
of
mark
terminal
the
maximum
moraines
is
the
advance
Franz
Josef
of
a
glacier.
terminal
A good
moraine
in
Zealand.
Lateral
of
P R O C E SS E S
transport
A glacier ’s
New
P H YS I C A L
the
moraine
material
refers
comes
to
the
from
moraine
loose
carried
weathered
at
the
rock
side
from
of
the
a
glacier.
valley
Much
sides.
Test yorself
Medial
moraines
occur
when
two
glaciers
meet.
The
two
lateral
C.8 Distingish between lateral
moraines
that
meet
subsequently
flow
as
one
medial
moraine
in
the
and medial moraine.
middle
of
the
enlarged
[2]
glacier.
C.9 Explain how erratics can
Erratics
are
rocks
that
have
been
deposited
in
an
area
of
different
be used to analyse glacial
geology
.
They
have
been
eroded
by
ice,
transported
and
deposited.
movement.
[2]
Periglacial processes of freeze-thaw, soliflction and frost
heave, and periglacial landscape featres
The
main
periglacial
solifluction
and
Freeze-thaw
down
rocks
and
It
is
day
a
ways
slow
and
as
far
of
soil
Frost
as
1
that
cm
the
with
and
year.
in
means
year.
is
as
a
it
weathering,
flows
flowing
material
can
within
at
to
the
at
breaking
number
repeated
is
the
and
and
this
is
transported
speeds
soak
the
which
Scree
to
autumn,
soil
permafrost,
along
in
leads
and
effective
due
of
freezing
leads
to
the
rocks.
Water
process
stones
This
occurring
impermeable
it
freeze-thaw
and
areas
spring
weathered
per
common
jointed
movement,
heave
(peds)
literally
is
periglacial
every
many
include
heave.
especially
of
Solifluction
main
many
cycles
thawing,
breakdown
processes
weathering
in
freeze-thaw
frost
of
into
and
of
the
downslope.
between
the
it
one
1
ground,
carries
cm
but
per
only
particles
Figre C.2.1.
permafrost.
water
ground
that
freezes
upwards
lifts
towards
soil
the
Frost heave of soil
particles
surface.
Content link
slope
Freeze-thaw weathering and
solifluction are discussed in the
context of geophysical hazards in
Patterned
Tor
option D.1.
ground
Braided
rivers
Solifluction
and
lobes
terracettes
Pingo
Asymmetric
slope
Figre C.2.2.
Periglacial landscape features
39
c
OPTION
C:
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Permafrost
years).
•
is
There
defined
are
Continuous
effectively
•
as
three
permanently
main
types
of
permafrost—where
remains
Discontinuous
at
the
frozen
subsoil
(for
at
least
two
permafrost:
the
surface
upper
limit
throughout
permafrost—where
there
is
of
the
the
ground
year
significant
melting
in
summer
•
Sporadic
Pingos
50
m
are
and
system
and
by
rounded
widths
pingos
forms
domes.
beds.
is
The
or
from
trapped
the
freezes
there
due
to
masses
depressions
and
heave
freezing
pits
may
an
be
of
talik
lakes
lake
the
ice
is
lake
trapped
of
the
lake
sediments),
that
upwards,
into
and
edge
(unfrozen
forced
freezes
sediments
the
from
over
Open-
collects,
small
beneath
of
types.
overlying
expanding
are
ice-cored
thawing
a
heights
water
inwards
the
fragmented.
main
beneath
forms
by
sediments
change,
up
is
reach
two
where
develop
groundwater
an
can
are
bottoms
compressed
extensive
climate
that
groundwater
and
produce
permafrost
There
that
grows,
the
hills
m.
pingos
overlying
to
is
500
valley
above
increasingly
When
Test yorself
ice
in
permafrost
Eventually
itself
ice-cored
over
form
large
freezing
but
of
Closed-system
As
basin.
permafrost—where
surrounds
and
the
it.
talik
dome.
ground
irregular
formed.
ice,
surface
These
for
of
are
example,
hummocks,
by
fire
shallow
called thermokarst.
C.10 Define the terms
(a) permafrost and
(b) thermokarst.
Patterned
[1+1]
C.11 Explain (a) the formation
of patterned ground and (b) the
process of frost-heave.
on
flatter
where
ground
ground,
there
metres
is
refers
and
to
the
stone
limited
regular
stripes
on
precipitation
stone
circles
steeper
and
and
slopes,
limited
ice.
polygons
found
They
in
can
areas
be
several
wide.
[2+2]
Physical and chemical weathering in hot, arid
environments, and erosion, transpor tation and
deposition by wind and water
Weathering
Disintegration
where
day
there
and
occur
some
is
or
a
contract
only
in
the
instances,
insolation
large
by
weathering
diurnal
night.
outer
rocks
As
rock
layers.
may
is
found
temperature
is
This
split
in
a
poor
causes
in
range.
hot
The
conductor
peeling
or
desert
rocks
of
areas
heat
heat,
up
by
stresses
exfoliation.
In
two.
Erosion
Salt
of
crystallization
salt.
When
temperature
There
•
are
•
rises,
two
Deflation
behind
T
ransportation
Sand-sized
some
flash
in
40
is
the
floods.
wind
erosion
deposition
crystals
and
of
are
exert
rock
left
by
solutions
behind.
pressure
on
As
the
rock.
erosion:
removal
carried
by
and
may
a
mm)
surface
be
flash
of
by
and
small
material,
leaving
particles.
water
are
moved
and
occasional
as
wind-borne
by
three
processes:
creep.
irregular
flood,
deposited
out
wind
(0.15–0.25
experience
During
is
salt
expand
progressive
areas
which
salts
of
saltation
areas
decomposition
materials.
the
and
dry
desert
material,
the
particles
suspension,
Rainfall
is
the
evaporates,
types
larger
Abrasion
causes
water
the
the
episodic
heavy
river
flood
(sporadic)
downpours
picks
up
subsides.
a
large
but
that
cause
volume
of
C.3
M A N A GING
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Hot, arid landscape featres
Landforms
•
Sand
and
•
•
dunes
where
are
formed
there
is
a
Wadis
are
dry
Mesas
are
relatively
isolated
from
gullies
the
where
large
that
have
large
main
wind
supply
speed
of
been
areas
plateau
of
is
high
and
constant,
sand.
eroded
plateau
either
by
by
that
flash
have
erosion
or
floods.
become
through
slope
Test yorself
retreat.
C.12 Sggest how the climate
•
Buttes
are
isolated
peaks,
often
the
remnants
of
former
mesas
or
of hot, arid and semi-arid
plateaus.
environments influences the
•
Rock
pedestals
ground
(by
rocks
abrasion)
resembling
C . 3
are
a
that
and
so
have
have
been
a
eroded
wider
closer
upper
to
part,
the
processes of weathering and
sometimes
erosion.
[3]
mushroom.
M A N A G I N G
E XT R E M E
E N V I R O N M E N T S
Yo shold be able to show the varying power of
• Infer tile soils – soils that are
different stakeholders to ex tract economic vale
lacking in nutrients or bases.
from ex treme environments:
• Irrigation – the addition of
✔
Agricultural
the
distinction
salinization
✔
opportunities
Human
Case
and
cold
and
study
and
arid
areas,
including
irrigation
access,
water to farmed areas in order to
help plants cope with seasonal
ownership;
environments,
one
in
infertility
,
opportunities
resource
of
challenges
aridity
land
physical
in
permafrost
✔
risk
and
extraction
between
and
or permanent shor tages of water.
and
challenges
including
for
mineral
inaccessibility
,
nationalism;
cold
environment
to
illustrate
the
issues;
It is dangerous to generalize. The
✔
Human
and
extraction
climatic
physical
in
and
arid
opportunities
environments,
political
and
challenges
including
for
oppor tunities and challenges in
mineral
inaccessibility
arid areas and cold areas vary
and
with the level of development of
factors;
the country. HICs (such as the
✔
Case
study
of
one
arid
environment
to
illustrate
the
issues;
USA and Canada) are more able
✔
Opportunities
and
challenges
for
tourism
in
extreme
environments;
to deal with such areas than
LICs (such as Nepal and Burkina
✔
Detailed
examples
illustrating
the
involvement
of
local
and
Faso). To avoid this potential
global
stakeholders.
pitfall, use case studies to back
up your points.
Agricltral oppor tnities and challenges in arid areas
Aridity
refers
peryear),
or
Insemi-arid
and
500
water
so
lack
soils
lack
of
so
there
are
moisture
are
nutrients
the
is
(dry)
or
of
(precipitation
high
annual
are
rainfall
varies
for
than
250
between
farming,
mm
rates.
250
mm
especially
where
used.
sometimes
in
less
evapotranspiration
possibility
and
bases
matter
inputs
very
some
methods
arid
organic
reduce
of
there
environments,
mm,
limited
also
a
conservation
Desert
the
to
where
the
entering
soil.
the
infertile.
There
soil,
is
and
a
Infertility
lack
low
of
refers
biomass,
weathering
to
and
Content link
rates
The lack of moisture in arid and
nutrients.
semi-arid environments relates to
Salinization
may
occur
250
water
in
areas
where
annual
precipitation
is
less
than
discussions of water security in
mm.
As
evaporates,
salts
are
left
behind
in
the
soil
making
it
option A.3 and unit 3.2.
toxic
to
many
plants.
41
c
OPTION
C:
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Not
all
societies
possible,
it
may
groundwater
irrigation
In
some
land
in
one
the
They
to
in
and
may
lead
be
are
such
to
norms
land
Even
as
as
extraction
Mali,
especially
often
or
deny
to
agricultural
where
irrigation
salinization,
the
problems
such
limited,
acquire
there
irrigation.
Moreover,
countries
social
to
to
problems
pollution.
may
right
Nonetheless,
access
area
societies
systems
people
•
lead
and
ownership
legal
have
is
depletion
of
water
of
for
elsewhere.
Niger
for
and
Burkina
women.
women
maintain
and
their
opportunities
in
Faso,
Formal
law,
indigenous
land.
arid
environments.
include:
nomadism
amounts
(the
of
traditional
rainfall
•
settled
farming
•
irrigation
in
•
increased
use
and
using
areas
of
way
of
dealing
with
insufficient
pasture)
groundwater
close
to
rivers
or
drought-tolerant
oases
species.
Hman and physical oppor tnities and challenges for
Concept link
mineral ex traction in cold environments
POWER: Mining resources and
agriculture are two examples of
Challenges
for
mineral
extraction
land use in extreme environments.
Resource
development
in
periglacial
environments
is
hindered
by
low
The development of these
temperatures
that:
industries may be in conflict
with the aims and desires of
•
make
the
make
it
working
environment
difficult
those already in situ in these
•
difficult/expensive
to
provide
services
such
as
water
and
areas, and a power dynamic can
sewage
disposal
develop between different vested
par ties, such as TNCs and local
•
mean
groups. With resource availability
in
that
winter
some
or
machines
they
shut
have
to
be
kept
running
the
whole
time
down.
declining, governments may seek
There
are
also
a
number
of
hazards
such
as
avalanches,
rock
falls
and
to enhance their sovereign power
frost
heave.
Waste
disposal
is
difficult
because
of
the
low
temperatures.
by trying to develop their domestic
power sources. Government
In
addition,
priorities, plus the aims of TNCs,
difficulties
can be pivotal in the decision-
difficult.
remoteness,
combine
to
inaccessibility
,
make
mineral
water
supply
extraction
in
and
cold
transport
environments
making process when places are
Resource
nationalism
may
also
limit
access
to
resources.
Denmark
contested.
remained
in
Greenland
resources.
benefits
has
This
to
made
control
of
achieved
Greenland’s
full
resource
Greenland.
Arctic
oil
home
resources
rule,
nationalism
However,
exploration
the
in
until
including
was
oil
expected
price
Greenland
the
control
to
In
2009,
natural
bring
collapse
too
1990s.
of
great
since
expensive
2013
and
not
worthwhile.
Opportunities
for
The
exploitation
fuel
resources
development
wealth
but
it
for
can
conflicts
Case
42
can
also
areas
periglacial
both
of
areas
for
their
opportunities
the
fragile
and
economies
communities,
their
local
Mining
and
extraction
improve
put
among
damaged
of
creates
individuals,
study:
Large
mineral
of
TNCs
environment
mineral
and
challenges.
these
and
fossil
Resource
regions
national
under
and
generate
governments,
pressure
and
communities.
in
northern
Europe’s
polluted
Europe
remaining
as
mining
wilderness
companies
areas
risk
prepare
to
being
develop
create
C.3
northern
nickel,
Finland,
coal,
gold,
developments
lakes
and
Sweden
and
diamonds,
could
bring
mountains,
as
Norway
zinc
and
as
to
uranium,
phosphorus.
permanent
well
for
damage
indigenous
to
iron
the
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
ore,
However,
and
Test yorself
these
network
herders
M A N A GING
of
the
rivers,
tourist
C.13 Briefly explain how
permafrost may hinder mineral
industry
.
extraction in periglacial
environments.
More
than
one-eighth
of
Finland
has
been
designated
for
mining
[2]
and
2
the
Norwegian
open-cast
copper,
fertilizer
phosphorus
cobalt,
nickel
contaminating
the
company
mine
and
near
Yara
Sokli.
chromium
feeding
grounds
International
Heavy
from
of
metals
existing
plans
such
a
as
mines
40–60
km
antimony
,
C.14 Analyse problems caused
by mineral extraction in cold
environments.
are
[10]
reindeer.
Hman and physical oppor tnities and challenges for
mineral ex traction in arid environments
Opportunities
Areas
of
The
and
and
include
copper
in
oil
in
the
Arizona,
Middle
East,
USA and
in
uranium
the
in
Atacama
Chile.
provides
infrastructure,
wages
extraction
extraction
Niger,
opportunities
which
for
Challenges
aesthetic
erosion.
for
include
changes
remoteness,
economic
for
local
mineral
There
major
are
revenue
investment
provided
Challenges
are
mineral
mineral
Australia
Desert,
for
into
gains
local
people
the
and
areas,
and/or
and
the
resources
for
being
improvement
employment
migrant
mined,
of
and
local
higher
workforce.
extraction
the
also
natural
for
and
some
effects
on
landscape,
economic
inaccessibility
problems
from
country
environmental
in
are
the
and
the
hot,
local
pollution
social
of
supplies,
and
challenges.
challenge
arid
water
accelerated
In
attracting
addition,
a
workforce
environments.
Table C.3.1. Top ve copper
Case
study:
Mining
in
Chile
producers (‘000 tonnes), 2015
Chile
is
Copper
Mining
one
the
the
growth
Chilean
on
energy
,
rights
public
to
60%
tremendous
potential
and
of
for
high
developing
tolerate
Figre C.3.1.
important
over
state,
limitations
the
most
for
generates
economic
for
of
accounts
of
profit
of
countries
export
private
huge
salaries
mining
impacts
for
Chile,
indigenous
the
mining
Chile’s
for
include
people,
in
investors,
potential
many
of
scarcity
and
the
the
world.
Rank
Contry
Tonnes ('0 0 0)
1
Chile
5,434
2
China
1,642
3
Peru
1,299
4
USA
1,196
5
Australia
914
revenue.
tax
the
of
considerable
revenues
workers.
water,
The
affordable
willingness
of
the
mining.
Source of data: The Economist (2017)
The Atacama Deser t is the main focus of Chilean mining.
Test yorself
C.15 Identify the minerals that
are found in Chile.
[1]
C.16 Sggest why copper is
so impor tant for Chile’s
economy.
[3]
43
c
OPTION
C:
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Mining
has
has
caused
had
some
considerable
Increased
workers
of
water
negative
wetlands
dust
that
can
competition
and
example,
many
the
per
for
indigenous
Cerro
to
dry
be
out
out.
water
a
copper
use
Mining
between
populations
of
The
transported
Colorado
second
impacts.
is
groundwater
operations
large
generate
distances
mine
by
operators,
threatening
mining
protected
of
mine
biodiversity
.
project
wetland
wind.
pumped
between
For
125
1994
litres
and
2002.
Oppor tnities and challenges for torism
in ex treme environments
In
Content link
desert
(dunes,
regions,
salt
flats,
opportunities
canyons),
Link this content with discussions
pursuits.
Tourism
of tourism in option E.
workers,
major
Challenges
shortages
The
impacts
erosion,
(and
Case
or
study:
Dubai
•
Over
is
15
In
2016,
Over
resources
waste,
be
jobs,
and
of
to
be
for
introduction
include
of
scenery
outdoor
incomes
for
its
accessibility
,
water
tourism.
aesthetic
mass
changes,
exotic
positive/negative,
to
and
governments.
temperature,
sustain
linked
culture
providing
taxes
environment
hazards,
may
indigenous
movement,
water
species
and
shortages
habitat
short-term/long-term,
unintentional.
by
the
United
most
tourists
Arab
globally
visited
Emirates
visited
Dubai
in
city
.
2017;
20
million
are
2020.
tourism
to
in
fourth
million
12%
tourism
Test yorself
of
TNCs
natural
can
the
expected
•
the
T
ourism
expected
•
lack
tourism
many
extremes
degradation,
These
intentional
for
include
salinization),
removal.
•
a
on
land
create
benefits
may
and
may
for
wildlife,
rise
of
contributed
to
over
Dubai’s
sector
by
£15
over
£5
billion
population
billion
by
will
to
UAE’s
GDP—this
is
2026.
be
working
in
the
travel
and
2026.
C.17 Otline reasons for the
T
ourism
growth of tourism in the UAE.
in
cold
environments
[3]
Tourism
is
a
major
economic
activity
in
cold
environments,
in
C.18 Sggest why the increasing
particular
alpine
areas.
However,
even
wilderness
areas,
such
as
the
dependence of Dubai on tourism
Arctic
and
Antarctica,
have
seen
an
increase
in
visitor
numbers,
for
and recreation may lead to
many
problems in the future.
reasons:
[3]
•
The
various
northern
attractions
of
•
Improved
accessibility
•
Improved
infrastructure
•
Increased
•
The
In
cold
other
personal
desire
or
its
wilderness
areas—scenery
,
wildlife,
lights
for
affluence
“new”
high-altitude
outdoor
leisure
time
experiences.
regions,
activities,
and
scenery
opportunities
and
may
experiencing
focus
life
in
on
skiing
and
indigenous
Test yorself
societies.
C.19 Briefly explain the growth of
tourism in cold environments.
[3]
C.20 Analyse two environmental
multiplier
tourism
can
pollution,
[6]
as
well
as
effect
lead
may
the
avalanches.
44
governments
to
conflict
challenges
impacts that tourism in cold
environments can have.
the
Many
that
the
with
also
it
recognize
can
have.
destruction
indigenous
include
mitigation
of
On
of
the
the
the
natural
other
natural
peoples
remoteness,
potential
and
hand,
tourism
economic
such
and
increased
environment,
availability
hazards
for
as
of
leakage.
power,
landslides
The
access,
and
C.4
C . 4
E XT R E M E
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N T S ’
E N V I R O N M E N TS ’
FuTuRE S
F U T U R E S
Yo shold be able to show examples of ftre possibilities
Desalination – the removal of
for managing ex treme environments and their commnities:
salt from seawater to produce
✔
The
causes,
acceleration,
desertication
✔
One
of
✔
case
consequences
including
study
land
use,
illustrating
the
and
management
conict
and
climate
human
and
physical
freshwater.
of
change;
dimensions
desertication;
Increasing
competition
environments,
for
including
organizations,
access
the
transnational
role
to
of
resources
in
indigenous
corporations
extreme
groups,
(TNCs)
and
civil
society
militia
groups;
✔
✔
One
New
case
study
technology
environments,
to
and
highlight
the
sustainable
including
greater
issues;
development
use
of
solar
in
extreme
power
and
desalination;
✔
The
impacts
and
environments,
management
including
of
global
adaptation
by
climate
local
change
in
extreme
populations.
The cases, acceleration, conseqences and
Concept link
management of deser tification
POSSIBILITIES: Extreme
Desertification
conditions
is
into
widespread
defined
as
previously
process,
the
spread
productive
affecting
low-
of
deserts
areas.
and
or
desert-like
Desertification
high-income
is
environments are under threat
a
countries
from socio-economic and
alike.
environmental pressures.
Technological development, as
Desertification
is
the
result
of
many
factors:
well as adaptation, can ensure
•
Increased
pressure
on
land
resources
due
to
migration
that these areas are able to
•
Changes
in
•
Increased
evolve with changing situations,
agriculture
and also enable positive change
use
of
water
through
more
intensive
agriculture.
so that sustainability in these
Desertification
has
•
Reduced
•
Encroachment
Wind
by
erosion
adding
building
an
area
can
yields
by
small
they
reduce
they
act
as
study:
in
the
reduced
up
by
the
dams
fencing.
to
flooding;
to
bind
they
and
on
the
rain-fed
productive
Runoff
(diguettes).
Trees
can
soil;
create
be
they
shade
can
of
be
planted
and
wind
settlements.
breaks
captured
Livestock
return
for
agriculture
land
construction
soil.
the
environments is achieved.
following:
irrigated
sand-bodies
matter
help
wind
in
earthen
putting
They
of
be
organic
of
functions.
Case
crop
resulted
to
can
be
and
to
and
the
kept
provide
nutrients
animals
by
off
various
the
people;
soil;
and
breaks.
Desertification
in
Europe
Test yorself
A fifth
of
Spanish
land
is
so
degraded
that
it
is
turning
into
desert.
In
C.21 Examine the impacts of
many
places
tourism
is
making
things
far
worse.
Water
is
pumped
deser tification.
from
below
ground,
pulling
salt
water
from
the
sea
into
the
[2+2+2]
aquifers.
C.22 Sggest ways in which
In
some
parts
has
of
that
it
and
ecosystems
Mediterranean
reduced
the
and
soil’s
Europe,
capacity
resulted
in
to
the
degradation
support
human
is
so
severe
communities
deser tification can be
managed.
[2+2]
desertification.
45
c
OPTION
C:
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Increasing competition for access to resorces
in ex treme environments
Case
study:
The
Carmichael
coal
mine,
Galilee
Basin,
Queensland,
Australia
The
Galilee
tonnes
of
including
lines
and
Barrier
Test yorself
Basin
coal.
the
a
One
stakeholders’ viewpoints
Queensland.
regarding development of coal
litres
mining in the Galilee Basin.
places.
[1+1]
a
C.24 Briefly explain (a) the
Critics
advantages and (b) the
that
disadvantages of developing the
mining in the Galilee Basin.
proposed
largest
an
year.
The
argue
mining
The
that
(and
table
mining
is
the
firm,
impact
Carmichael
water
of
Indian
environmental
Australia
complex
thermal
expansion
Adani,
C.23 Identify the various
Queensland,
world’s
massive
Reef.
key
in
A huge
will
mine
is
coal
Abbot
is
be
on
alone
the
water,
will
to
port
on
27
billion
planned
here,
the
Great
project.
which
by
while
been
is
railway
require
drop
always
around
mines
Point
behind
expected
have
coal
project,
unsustainable,
agriculture)
contains
of
is
up
50
limited
to
12.5
metres
those
in
in
some
favour
Australia’s
in
billion
argue
primary
industries.
[2+2]
New technology and sstainable development
in ex treme environments
Desalination
Desalination
is
(or
desalinated
desalinization)
to
produce
fresh
removes
water
fit
salt
for
from
seawater.
human
Seawater
consumption
Content link
(potable
water)
and
for
irrigation.
Desalination in the context of
water security is discussed in
Due
unit 3.2.
generally
to
high
available
In
2015,
and
there
worldwide,
water
The
for
osmosis
the
depletion
were
of
18,500
of
desalinating
86.8
is
a
but
problem
desalination
million
cubic
seawater
alternatives
in
certain
plants
metres
are
per
are
not
always
locations.
operating
day
,
providing
people.
regarding
technology
costs
reserves
around
million
criticism
the
alternatives,
is
that
it
desalination
costs
too
and
the
use
of
reverse-
much.
power
From
is
input,
than
producing
300
main
Solar
energy
greater
a
relatively
growing
small
rapidly
.
In
base,
2017,
the
installed
global
solar
capacity
power
of
solar
capacity
electricity
passed
Content link
400,000
megawatts.
This
amounts
to
about
1.8
per
cent
of
all
global
Solar power, as a renewable
electricity
generation.
Experts
say
that
solar
power
has
huge
potential
energy source, is relevant to
for
technological
improvement
which
could
make
it
a
major
source
of
the discussions of energy
global
electricity
in
years
to
come.
consumption in unit 3.1.
Test yorself
Ad vantages
Disad vantages
A completely renewable resource
Initial high cost of solar plants
No noise or direct pollution during
Solar power cannot be harnessed during
electricity generation
intense storms or at night
Very limited maintenance required to keep
Of limited use in countries with low annual
solar plants running
hours of sunshine
C.25 Briefly describe
two advantages and two
disadvantages of solar
energy.
46
Table C.4.1. The advantages and disadvantages of solar power
[4]
QuE STION
PRACTICE
The impacts and management of global climate
change in ex treme environments
The
Arctic
warming
Resilience
could
be
Report
felt
as
far
2016
reported
away
as
the
that
the
Indian
effects
of
Arctic
Content link
Ocean.
The impacts of global climate
Climate
tipping
points
occur
when
a
natural
system,
such
as
the
polar
change are discussed more
ice
cap,
undergoes
sudden
or
overwhelming
change
that
is
irreversible.
generally in unit 2.2.
In
•
the
Arctic,
growth
ice
•
the
in
with
tipping
vegetation
darker
emissions
tundra
it
Scientists
could
have
from
a
unpredictable
of
include:
tundra,
thus
which
replaces
absorbing
methane,
a
potent
more
reflective
snow
and
heat
greenhouse
gas,
from
the
warms.
speculated
suddenly
melting
on
vegetation,
increased
as
points
take
hold
relatively
and
for
some
and
slow
potentially
years
change
that
the
feedback
dynamics
phenomenon
irreversible
to
a
of
mechanisms
Arctic
fast-moving
consequences
for
ice
one
with
Test yorself
global
C.26 Describe one example
warming.
For
instance,
when
sea
ice
shrinks,
it
leaves
areas
of
dark
of positive feedback and one
ocean
that
absorb
more
heat
than
the
reflective
ice,
which
in
turn
example of negative feedback
causes
further
shrinkage
and
so
on
in
a
spiral.
due to potential climate change
Coping
strategies
•
changing
the
•
relocating
•
increased
(adaptations)
type
of
in
cold
environments
include:
in the Arctic.
[1+1]
C.27 Briefly explain, and
farming/fishing
illustrate, the term “tipping
homes
away
from
coastal
locations
point”.
focus
on
tourism
and
[2+1]
recreation.
QuESTION PRACTICE
Examine the photo on the right, which shows a
landform within the Alps mountain range.
a)
i)
Describe two main features of the
landform shown.
ii)
Explain the processes of plucking
and abrasion.
b)
[2]
[2 + 2]
Briey explain two factors that aect
the location of the world’s hot deser ts.
[2 + 2]
Essays
Either: Examine the oppor tunities and
challenges for mineral extraction in cold
environments.
[10]
Or: Examine the causes and consequences
of deser tication.
[10]
How do I approach these qestions?
a)
i)
This asks you to distinguish, that is, make clear the dierence between a glacial trough and a corrie lake.
ii)
This asks you to explain. To get two marks you will need to identify the process and then develop the
answer with detail/exemplication.
b)
You need to identify two factors, and then explain how they aect the location of deser ts. Again, to score
two marks for each point, you need to develop the answer.
First essay choice:
Good answers are likely to cover both oppor tunities and challenges in cold environments. If only one is
covered, the maximum mark that can be achieved is 6/10. Oppor tunities and challenges are likely to include
a range of environmental, social, economic and political factors. You should include suppor ting
examples/case studies in your answer, and you must include some evaluation to achieve full marks.
47
c
OPTION
C:
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Second essay choice:
Good answers are likely to cover both the causes and consequences of deser tication. If only one is covered, the
maximum mark that can be achieved is 6/10. Causes and consequences are likely to include a range of environmental,
social, economic and political factors. You should include suppor ting examples/case studies in your answer, and you
must include some evaluation to achieve full marks.
S AMPLE STuDENT ANS WER
▲ Landform
identied
a)
It
▲ Two
features
i)
T
he
has
landform
very
steep
is
a
valley
glacial
sides,
trough
and
a
(U-shaped
concave
valley).
valley
oor
.
described
Marks 2/2
▲ Valid
ii)
point
Abrasion
sandpaper
▲ Development
is
the
and
it
scratching
is
most
and
effective
scraping
when
the
of
rocks
load
like
carried
by
the
point
glacier
over
point
▲ Valid
development
stronger/tougher/more
which
from
▲ Valid
is
it
moves
underneath
meltwater
away
can
from
the
get
the
In
contrast,
glacier
.
into
solid
It
joints,
rock
angular/sharper
plucking
occurs
freeze
on
and
is
the
the
ripping
jointed
pluck
than
rocks
or
rip
of
rock
rock
where
the
rock
below.
Marks 4/4
b)
▲ Valid
point
▲ Valid
explanation
Some
such
as
the
with
cold
currents.
T
he
from
forming,
although
there
deserts
are
found
at
Namib
cold
great
Desert
current
may
be
found
prevents
fog
distance
are
in
from
much
coastal
the
by
sea,
rain
areas.
e.g.
a
Other
Central
point
Sahara
▲ Valid
deserts
coast
hot
▲ Valid
hot
Desert.
T
his
means
that
any
water-bearing
winds
that
development
there
to
could
the
more
have
been
have
continental
lost
their
moisture
by
the
time
they
get
interiors.
Marks 4/4
Essays
Either: Examine the oppor tunities and challenges for mineral extraction in
cold environments.
▲ Good point, lots of information
T
here
▲ Good
range
of
resources
and
are
many
environments.
opportunities
T
he
Arctic
is
for
mineral
believed
to
extraction
contain
up
to
in
90
cold
billion
areas
barrels
▲ Potential
resource
and
impacts
of
of
undiscovered
natural
oil
gas
(13%
and
of
undiscovered
20%
of
oil),
undiscovered
30%
of
natural
gas
development
liquids.
at
▲ Introduces
advantages
a
range
with
In
Kiruna
addition,
(Sweden)
there
and
are
signicant
gold
in
Alaska.
deposits
So,
of
there
iron
are
ore
many
of
some
support
potential
mining
48
undiscovered
benets
in
companies
terms
and
of
tax
job
creation,
revenues
for
increased
countries.
wealth
for
QuE STION
However
,
to
there
extract
make
are
many
minerals
working
in
disadvantages
cold
conditions
for
environments.
difcult.
companies
T
he
Some
low
oil
PRACTICE
trying
temperatures
workers
in
Siberia
▲ Disadvantages
are
paid
seven
Russia.
T
he
such
water
as
times
low
as
much
temperatures
and
sewerage
as
oil
make
workers
it
disposal.
in
difcult
During
other
to
parts
provide
winter
of
ser vices
there
▲ Quantication
are
▲ Explanation
very
long
night
nights
time.
–
in
Vitamin
some
D
places
more
deciency
is
a
than
real
twenty
problem
hours
for
of
many
▲ Range
some
of
valid
points
with
explanation
people.
T
he
permafrost
makes
it
very
difcult
to
operate
due
to
thawing
▼ Fair
good
(by
heat)
which
may
cause
order
to
can
pressure
build
roads
lead
on
to
the
and
subsidence.
permafrost
buildings,
T
he
and
weight
cause
foundations
of
it
points
to
say
a
thick
gravel
pad.
However
,
valuable
sh-spawning
T
here
also
are
many
the
habitats
hazards
in
extraction
to
melt.
need
from
cold
of
to
gravel
be
In
be
exactly
.
▲ Simple
explanation
built
explanation
removes
rivers.
▲ Solution
environments,
would
vehicles
▲ Further
into
but
“where”
to
problem
including
▲ Negative environmental impact
avalanches,
mining
rock
falls,
activities
icings
more
and
difcult.
frost
A
heave.
further
T
hese
problem
make
is
that
any
▲ Good
pollution
that
is
produced,
such
as
oil
leaks,
take
a
very
explanation
there
to
decompose,
has
been
due
climate
to
the
low
change
temperatures.
which
is
Most
causing
the
cold
environments
to
rise
–
this
is
not
temperatures
necessarily
a
as
it
can
increase
the
amount
of
permafrost
impact—but
why?
good
▲ Well
thing
hazards
recently,
▼ Negative
of
problems
long
▲ Geophysical
time
of
explained
repetition
from
melt.
above
Covers a range of advantages and disadvantages. Disadvantages given greater
▲ Recent
changes
attention. Some suppor t but not very detailed. No conclusion given.
Marks 8/10
Or: Examine the causes and consequences of deser tication.
Approximately
desertication.
among
25%
of
the
Earth’s
Desertication
physical,
biological,
is
land
surface
caused
political,
by
experiences
complex
social,
interactions
cultural
▲ Complex
and
▲ Range
economic
factors.
sustained
cover
and
high
a
It
can
result
temperatures,
range
of
human
from
forest
prolonged
res,
activities
as
of
causes
drought,
reduced
such
vegetation
over-grazing,
▲ Identies
over-cultivation,
reduced
periods
of
falling
land
can
result
in
productivity,
a
decline
reduced
in
crop
malnutrition. Soils
may
(due
over-exploitation);
to
to
agricultural
wind
and
rain
erosion,
a
range
of
natural
fallow.
and
Desertication
issue
experience
of
loss
due
poverty
nutritive
of
to
causes
of
desertication
fertility,
yields,
loss
particularly
soil
human
soil
the
and
matter
surface
loss
▲ Impacts
due
of
49
c
OPTION
C:
E X TREME
E N V I R O N M E N TS
vegetation;
fertilizer);
▲ Good
points
made
about
surface
Water
on
the
effects
(due
resources
limited
extinct
environmental
has
impacts
on
people
on
food
security
a
become
–
there
for
the
vicious
use
scarce
is
a
may
cover
.
of
excessive
and
the
use
of
chemical
encrusting
agricultural
and
occur
Plant
reduction
availability
affects
circle
of
hunger
in
farmers
may
and
make
of
tables
may
when
it
rains
animal
due
species
biodiversity
with
to
the
may
become
knock-on
imported
increasing
and
turn
pressures
It
food
food
urban
for
to
it
It
can
lead
exploitation
production
aid,
lead
areas.
people.
increased
revenues
to
dry
billion
malnutrition,
may
in
from
one
and
Falling
foods.
food
not
leads
national
creating
a
increased
to
only
of
a
leads
falling
be benecial.
Marks 8/10
to
governments.
dependency
migration,
an
incomes
and
slums.
Generally a very good account—a case study or named examples would
50
the
machinery).
groundwater
and
in
nearly
reduced
them
of
poverty
increase
upon
points
oods
resource.
It
valid
the
compression
heavy
dwindling
for
▲ All
to
vegetation
Desertication
to
▲ Impact
to
impacts
effects
▲ Now
of
(due
water
fall. Ironically,
▲ More
pollution
soils
soil
▲ Impacts
soil
G EO P H YS I CA L
D
The
of
human
risks,
and
and
HAZARDS
natural
worlds
geophysical
face
hazards
a
are
number
a
You sould be able to sow:
constant
✔
threat
in
many
parts
of
the
world.
Dynamic
how
geological
geophysical
processes
ensure
that
places
at
varying
processes
give
rise
to
tectonic
levels
events
of
differing
type
and
of
magnitude;
development
volcanoes
types
You
of
and/or
mass
may
extreme
should
have
cope
with
earthquakes
the
as
impact
well
as
of
✔
different
how
for
movement.
have
already
climatic
be
to
studied
events
familiar
as
with
other
part
the
of
risks
Unit
conceptual
2,
such
so
✔
as
can
as
the
processes
involved,
the
the
people
effect
in
places,
coping
with
possibilities
D . 1
to
the
the
power
risk
create
of
and
different
the
events,
hazard
risks
power
in
of
geophysical
different
local
hazards
contexts;
how
future
possibilities
can
lessen
human
on
vulnerability
different
generate
places;
varying
affect
systems
connections
✔
such
different
how
you
geophysical
to
geophysical
hazards.
stakeholders
and
the
resilience.
G E O P H Y S I C A L
S Y S T E M S
You sould be able to sow ow geologcal proc esses
• Convecton currents – the
g ve rse to geopyscal events of dff erng type and
transfer of heat via movement of
magntude:
magma in the Ear th’s crust.
✔
Mechanisms
convection
of
plate
currents,
movement
plumes,
including
subduction
internal
and
heating,
rifting
at
• Subducton – when a tectonic
plate
plate is forced underneath another
margins;
tectonic plate into the mantle at a
convergent plate boundary.
✔
Characteristics
by
varying
hazards
of
types
volcanoes
of
(shield,
volcanic
(pyroclastic
ows,
composite
eruption;
lahars,
and
associated
cinder)
formed
secondary
• Rftng – the creation of a crack
landslides);
or fault line in the Ear th’s crust as
the lithosphere is extended and
✔
Characteristics
of
earthquakes
(depth
of
focus,
epicentre
and
wave
stretched.
types)
caused
human
by
triggers
secondary
varying
(dam
hazards
types
building,
(tsunami,
of
plate
margin
resource
movement
extraction);
landslides,
and
associated
liquefaction,
transverse
• Pyroclastc flow – a rapidly
moving mixture of hot gases,
rocks and lava that is produced
faults);
when a volcano erupts.
✔
Classication
of
(physical
human),
and
and
mass
movement
liquidity
,
types
speed
according
of
onset,
to
cause
duration,
extent
• Laar – a flow of volcanic debris
that has mixed with water and mud.
frequency
.
• Lquefacton – when a saturated
land surface changes composition,
moving from a solid to a liquid
Mecansms of plate movement
temporarily due to seismic
activity in the Ear th’s crust.
The
Earth
Each
of
the
between
within
mantle
plates
is
a
layers
these
the
system
affect
has
layers
Earth’s
the
converge,
that
a
is
constructed
different
that
crust.
drives
In
overlying
diverge
or
from
composition,
the
processes
particular,
series
and
of
convection
lithosphere
compress
a
and
this
against
it
of
is
layers.
the
tectonic
currents
ensures
each
interaction
movement
within
that
the
tectonic
• Transverse fault – when rocks
move in opposite directions to
one another creating tension and
a release of seismic energy.
other.
51
D
OPTION
D:
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
When
the
different
types
of
movement
occur,
they
result
in
the
Concept ln
formation
PROCESSES: Geological processes
create geophysical events such as
ear thquakes, volcanic eruptions
and mass movement. The extent
of the processes, in terms of the
intensity, will result in a range
For
the
of
oceanic
underneath
between
released.
at different scales. The spatial
interaction between geological
areas influences the speed of
the
the
plate
two
plates
in
the
a
is
These
via
of
rock
into
eventually
to
plumes,
the
will
type)
is
leads
to
and
as
pressure,
land
oceanic
will
make
friction
being
on
are
plate
their
Upon
crust,
forced
energy
mass
mountains
plate.
or
creates
seismic
the
continental
events.
continental
This
the
fold
hazard
subducted
mantle.
formed
under
in
eruption
are
of
against
occurs,
compress
magma
creation
the
earthquake
weaknesses
volcanic
the
converges
denser
plate
and
forced
plumes
mantle.
surface
(a
an
and
crust
continental
plate
addition,
surface,
landforms
oceanic
Subsequently
In
the
when
tectonic
continental
of different effects occurring
various
example,
the
formed.
melts
way
to
reaching
the
occur.
onset and other characteristics of
Figure
D.1.1
shows
these
different
types
of
plate
movement
and
how
the hazard.
they
connect
within
Fgure D.1.1.
the
Earth’s
geophysical
system:
Dierent types of tectonic plate movement
You should be able to describe
and explain the processes
that take place at convergent,
Plate
Plate
divergent and transform plate
boundaries and ensure that you
include appropriate terminology.
Asthenosphere
Divergent
For example, tectonic plates
move apar t at divergent plate
margins, such as the Nor th
American plate and the Eurasian
Plate
Plate
plates, due to convection
Asthenosphere
currents in the mantle. This
Convergent
allows magma to rise and solidify,
which means that the sea floor
spreads as the plates move
apar t under the Atlantic Ocean.
Plate
Underwater shield volcanoes
Plate
Asthenosphere
can be formed, which may reach
above the water level over time
Transform
due to fur ther eruptions.
Note the presence of the continental rift zone in the diagram of divergent
plates,
Test yourself
Fgure D.1.2.
D.1(a) State two types of
volcano.
[2]
(b) Descrbe the differences in
terms of the lava emitted from
the two types of volcano that you
named in par t (a).
52
which
[2]
shows
how
a
continental
plate
is
being
Mass movements in the Dolomites, Italy
stretched.
D .1
G E O P h YS i C A L
S YS T E M S
Caracterstcs of volcanoes
Composite
volcanoes,
characteristics
hazards
classified
gases,
in
created
into
ash
tsunamis,
shield
terms
primary
fall)
and
food
of
during
and
their
and
(e.g.
shape,
after
lava
secondary
cinder
an
the
type
eruption.
flows,
(e.g.
volcanoes
of
have
eruption
The
and
hazards
pyroclastic
lahars,
different
flows,
landslides,
can
the
be
volcanic
flooding,
shortages).
Fgure D.1.3.
Test yourself
D
D.2 Copy figure D.1.3 and
annotate to describe or explain
the process that is taking place at
each letter.
[6]
C
B
Sea
level
As with other examination
Mantle
questions for the optional
themes on paper 1, this
type of question provides
an oppor tunity to draw an
A
E
annotated diagram. Your diagram
and your annotations need to be
F
clear, and they should explain
the processes and features.
Test yourself
D.3 Explan the formation of landforms at divergent plate margins.
[2+2]
Caracterstcs of ear tquaes
The
is
point
called
called
the
compress
liquid
and
Surface
roll
the
focus.
liquid;
waves
along
the
from
There
expand
solid
Surface
surface
Earth’s
epicentre.
and
and
not
name.
on
the
surface
The
are
the
surfaces.
true
different
ground
move
from
form
when
P-
surface
side
to
fall
like
a
the
an
only
to
of
seismic
seismic
travel
side
well
reach
Love
crust,
both
material
and
surface,
down.
hence
waves
which
the
P-waves
solid
up
Rayleigh
waves
emanates
in
affecting
as
the
is
waves.
through
as
categories:
and
energy
earthquakes
accordion,
S-waves
two
wave,
of
types
side
and
into
where
like
S-waves
they
waves
from
centre
the
which
move
the
side.
53
D
OPTION
D:
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Classfcaton of mass movement types
Human
of
activity
fracking
has
earthquakes,
in
areas
creates
W
ater
can
an
as
in
tectonic
also
and
the
issue
in
parts
risk
in
seismic
areas
Oklahoma,
cracks
instability
create
of
some
of
movement
pressure
weakness
Mining
increase
been
such
where
flooded.
can
has
instability
the
in
it
has
USA.
taken
behind
in
as
activity
.
the
dam
the
Earth’s
and
will
underlying
presence
resulted
Dams
place,
The
are
the
in
minor
often
increase,
rock
crust.
built
valley
is
which
beneath
the
dam.
Earthquakes
can
Content ln
occur
due
to
the
extraction
of
fluids
underground,
such
as
water
when
Option A.4 examines the pros and
mining
coal
for
example,
which
creates
subsidence
and
movement
in
cons of constructing dams.
the
crust.
Figure
D.1.4
shows
the
different
types
of
mass
movement.
Flow
Wet
Avalanche
Mud
Earth
Flow
Rotational
Block
Flow
Slide
Slide
Solifluction
Dry
Soil
Rock
Creep
Fall
Slide
Fgure D.1.4.
Heave
Types of mass movement
Fast
Slow
Weathering
also
movement,
and
Weathering
can
Table D.1.1.
creates
seismic
be
instability
energy
categorized
and
causes
as
enables
different
unpredictability
mechanical,
chemical
types
in
a
or
of
mass
slope.
biological.
Categories of weathering
Mecancal
Cemcal
Bologcal
Freeze–thaw
Hydrolysis
Chelation
Pressure release
Oxidation
Salt crystallization
Hydration
Thermal expansion/exfoliation
Solution
Carbonation
Freeze–thaw
weathering
can
create
instability
due
to
the
expansion
Test yourself
and
contraction
D.4 Compare and contrast flows
to
and slides.
lubricate
[2+2]
rock
A rock
can
falls
on
the
when
dry
,
steep
surface,
avalanche
often
travel
is
water
a
the
down
freezes
slopes.
rock
slide
most
Where
can
rapid
hollows
and
there
in
is
cracks,
more
and
can
moisture
lead
to
occur.
type
where
melts
of
mass
previous
movement
avalanches
and
have
Content ln
taken
place.
Connect this information with the
A rotational
slip
is
concave
in
shape
and
normally
occurs
when
a
weak
effects of increasing temperature
rock
type
such
as
clay
becomes
saturated.
due to global warming described
gets
in unit 2.1.
54
heavy
in
conjunction
with
gravity
.
The
clay
will
then
slip
as
it
D. 2
Flows
can
involved
be
in
differentiated
the
according
movement.
In
a
to
debris
the
size
flow,
of
the
G E O P h YS i C A L
hAz ARD
RiSk S
particles
more
than
50%
mud
flow
more
of
the
Content ln
particles
50%
of
are
the
coarser
particles
than
are
sand,
finer
whereas
than
sand.
in
a
A lahar
is
an
than
example
of
Mass movements occurring in
a
extreme environments is explored
mudflow.
in option C.2.
Creep
is
a
slow
contraction
absorbed
as
movement
well
and
as
then
that
heating
released
is
caused
and
via
due
cooling
of
to
the
soil,
expansion
as
moisture
and
is
evaporation.
Test yourself
A slump
occurs
when
rock
or
soil
falls
in
blocks
independent
of
a
D.5 Explan why some types of
curved
slip
plane
underneath.
mass movement cause more
Solifluction
frozen
and
is
the
downwards
subsurface,
moves
over
D . 2
and
more
it
is
movement
common
frozen
of
where
permafrost
soil
over
upper
a
permanently
permafrost
problems for people than other
melts
types of mass movement.
[4]
underneath.
G E O P H Y S I C A L
H A Z A R D
R I S K S
You sould be able to sow ow geopyscal systems
Magntude – the size and extent
generate aard rss for dfferent places:
of a geophysical hazard.
✔
The
distribution
of
geophysical
hazards
(earthquakes,
volcanoes,
Rs – the probability of a
mass
movements);
hazard event causing harmful
✔
The
relevance
risk
management;
of
hazard
magnitude
and
frequency/recurrence
for
consequences such as threats to
life, proper ty and infrastructure.
Governance – the ability for
✔
Geophysical
hazard
risk
as
a
product
of
economic
factors
(levels
of
the local or national authorities
development
and
technology),
demographic
factors
social
factors
(education,
gender),
to mitigate the risk from a
(population
density
and
structure)
and
geophysical hazard.
political
✔
factors
Geographic
including
(governance);
factors
affecting
rural/urban
geophysical
location,
time
of
hazard
day
and
event
impacts,
degree
of
isolation.
Te dstrbuton of geopyscal aards
Earthquakes
major
and
tectonic
movement
volcanoes
plates
linked
to
and
an
tend
as
to
such
be
they
earthquake
or
located
have
a
along
linear
volcanic
the
edges
pattern.
eruption
of
Mass
will
also
Test yourself
take
place
in
these
mountainous
resulting
in
and
same
areas
locations
where
as
well
there
as
have
in
been
areas
that
land-use
are
D.6 Descrbe the distribution of
changes
different types of volcanoes.
instability
.
[3]
Te relevance of aard magntude and frequency/
recurrence for rs management
The
magnitude
and
events
Richter
the
scale,
more
of
10.
a
earthquakes
larger
created
magnitude
factors
of
with
of
For
powerful
by
Charles
earthquakes.
example,
than
a
and
volcanoes
magnitude
a
It
tend
Richter
is
quake
a
to
in
can
be
1935,
is
logarithmic
that
be
more
measures
measured,
infrequent.
designed
scale
4.0
and
is
ten
to
The
assess
measures
times
3.0.
55
D
OPTION
D:
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
The
Mercalli
scale
is
used
to
measure
the
damage
caused
by
an
Concept ln
earthquake.
PL ACES: Risks for people and
developed.
places are increased due to a
combination of natural and human
factors which vary from place to
to
assess
of
rock
More
It
the
recently
,
uses
a
amount
along
a
seismometer
fault
is
in
greater
of
seismic
line
used
to
1979,
range
and
Moment
variables
energy
,
the
detect
the
of
area
the
specifically
where
seismic
Magnitude
than
a
the
surface
scale
Richter
was
scale
movement
is
ruptured.
A
waves.
place. The natural reasons tend
The
V
olcano
Explosivity
Index
(VEI)
is
used
to
measure
volcanic
to relate to relative distance
eruptions.
It
is
a
complex
measure
that
includes
the
amount
of
to a volcano, a fault line, or a
material
emitted
and
the
height
of
an
ash
column
during
an
eruption.
slope, whereas human reasons
The
eruption
of
Mount
St
Helens
in
1980
was
VEI
5
and
Mount
incorporate a number of socioPinatubo
in
1991
was
VEI
6.
The
Index
is
logarithmic,
similar
to
the
economic and political factors,
Richter
scale,
and
the
top
of
the
Index
is
VEI
8,
which
is
one
million
quite often relating to the human
times
more
explosive
than
a
VEI
2.
The
United
States
Geological
development status of a place.
Survey
10
(USGS)
years
and
has
stated
that
is
much
more
a
year).
A
a
VEI
5
infrequent
normally
than
a
happens
VEI
3
once
(which
every
occurs
3
several
times
VEI
1
will
only
emit
0.0001– 0.001
km
of
Test yourself
3
material
D.7 State the relationship
during
material,
10
an
times
eruption,
more
while
than
VEI
VEI
2
will
emit
0.001–0.01
km
of
1.
between the magnitude of a
hazard event and the frequency
Geopyscal aard rs
of its occurrence.
[2]
D.8 Descrbe a scale that is used
to measure the magnitude of the
extent of a volcanic eruption.
A range
of
factors
geophysical
increase
Some
of
the
risk
these
faced
factors
by
people
in
relation
to
are:
[3]
•
Economic:
quality
ability
slope
•
of
to
Social:
The
the
by
than
were
less
to
to
•
Political:
well
Test yourself
as
warn
D.9 Suggest how disparities in
will
education can increase the risk
there
from geophysical hazards.
new
[4]
as
to
the
Policy
people.
is
a
be
know
buildings
earthquake.
in
2004,
to
are
of
taken
appropriate
rules
and
lines
have
and
be
in
are
died.
meant
climb
and
rural
able
to
a
a
urban
areas.
This
for
in
was
safety
,
For
withstand
in
with
order
country
.
ensure
hazard
govern
in
died
conjunction
often
a
at
during
monitoring
for
an
women
trees
in
within
that
for
more
that
communication
especially
than
to
females
prepared
regulations
of
warnings
prepare
male
governments
of
the
event,the
stabilization
exacerbated
Universities
and
factor,
population
Chile
by
to
which
risk
dictate
hazard
understand
one
research
a
females
are
four
hazard
funded
the
how
every
swim
Oxfam.
undertake
important
greater
for
to
movement.
to
occurs,
education,
how
by
decisions
The
an
in
knowledge
services
likely
inequalities
in
and
mass
example,
example,
tsunami
may
more
for
gender
study
providing
also
are
to
will
respond
system
earthquake
For
to
a
government
emergency
an
that
susceptible
inequalities
likely
improve
warning
less
development
services
people
When
Ocean
accordingly
the
economic
early
is
disasters.
due
of
governments,
males,
Indian
partly
it
Educated
natural
the
an
that
earthquake.
risk
level
emergency
fund
such
released
56
can
hazards.
in
event,
order
as
to
construction
areas
where
example,
a
9.0
all
magnitude
D. 3
hAz ARD
RiSk
AND
V U LN E R A BiLi T Y
Geograpc factors affectng geopyscal
aard event mpacts
There
week
are
also
and
the
between
a
other
time
centre
earthquake
or
factors
of
of
day
that
population
mass
can
when
an
increase
event
and
the
risk,
occurs,
location
such
as
of
as
well
the
the
as
day
the
of
the
distance
This may be an essay question
rather than a shor t answer
eruption,
response, and the command
movement.
term “to what extent” should
prompt you to include
Test yourself
evaluation. Here, for example,
D.10 “Social and economic factors are the sole causes of the impacts
there is agreement and
from geophysical hazard events.” To wat ex tent do you agree with this
disagreement with the statement
statement?
[10]
in the question.
D . 3
H A Z A R D
R I S K
A N D
V U L N E R A B I L I T Y
You sould be able to sow ow te varyng power of
• Vulnerablty – the
geopyscal aards can affect people n dfferent
susceptibility of a community to
local contex ts:
the impacts of a hazard event.
✔
Two
contemporary
hazards,
✔
For
earthquake
each
hazards
geophysical
knowledge
✔
contrasting
and
geophysical
hazard
and
event
studies
mass
type,
understanding
hazard
case
the
each
for
movement
case
studies
volcanic
hazards;
should
develop
of:
proles,
including
any
secondary
hazards;
✔
varied
impacts
of
these
hazards
on
different
aspects
of
human
wellbeing;
✔
why
levels
of
vulnerability
communities,
personal
Case
study:
including
knowledge
Volcanic
and
eruption
varied
spatial
both
between
variations
in
and
hazard
within
perception,
preparedness.
at
Volcán
de
Fuego,
2018
Concept ln
Hazard
event
Guatemala,
former
with
one
one
of
three
toxic
seismometer
emitted
gas,
unexpected
than
Fuego,
is
At
the
ash
composite
for
to
a
of
since
June
and
2018
the
in
to
it
and
volcano.
POWER: While some geophysical
the
active
and
flows.
the
More
fact
hazards can be predicted, the
power of geophysical hazards
erupted,
pyroclastic
information
monitoring
seen
close
constantly
of
lahars
lack
volcano
located
being
beginning
clouds,
been
been
a
volcanoes
known
due
had
had
de
major
It
eruptions.
lava,
was
V
olcán
Antigua.
Vulcanian
eruption
was
is
capital,
producing
just
profile:
The
that
material
can ensure that places still
face a tremendous amount
of devastation. Ear thquakes
in par ticular can severely
1974.
impact places, especially if it
Impacts:
The
eruption
immediately
affected
almost
13,000
people
living
is challenging to implement
in
the
vicinity
of
the
volcano.
There
was
an
evacuation,
given
temporary
but
not
before
measures to reduce the
110
people
died.
People
were
shelter.
The
UN
Refugee
vulnerability of people living there.
Agency
stated
in
the
weeks
in
the
capital,
amount
3000
of
volcano
15
times
is
a
than
the
Guatemala
in
may
Vulnerability:
more
following
ash
people
that
the
eruption.
City
,
died
is
predominantly
so
million
was
atmosphere.
have
Guatemala
year,
1.7
the
in
a
Aurora
closed
A local
for
would
be
affected
International
several
days
organization
Airport
due
to
estimated
the
nearly
total.
poor
rural.
people
La
people
country
The
are
and
volcano
used
to
the
area
erupts
periods
of
around
the
approximately
uncertainty
.
57
D
OPTION
Fgure D.3.1.
D:
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
An eruption occurs at the Volcán de Fuego, Guatemala
Preparedness:
monitored
National
The
and
government
eruption
But
the
were
The
covered
over
a
in
an
namely
the
order
people
owners
Case
an
the
it
lies
the
Nepal
in
an
underneath
eventually
pressure
7
for
miles.
midday
.
after
and
and
Almost
8
destroyed
south
base
people
buy
to
food.
order
hospital
at
the
to
study:
or
has
resort
died.
for
Rodeo
rock,
at
was
and
Residents
not
were
warning
are
Locals
given
some
evacuation
with
called
began
disaster.
were
many
zone.
does
these
not
groups
to
evacuated,
La
Reunion
of
was
followed,
earthquakes
The
which
form
2015
were
Indian
after
quite
and
is
its
being
tension,
energy
.
shallow
occurred
a
in
plate
creates
seismic
including
a
so
high
it
is
of
is
in
6.7
at
and
The
a
just
depth
before
shock
the
day
were
the
half
a
2015
plan.
a
week
Everest
density
to
reach
are
of
homes
Water
after
which
the
engulfed
lake
in
But
earthquake
bed,
the
and
had
so
it
is
had
areas
affected
and
occurred.
were
retrofitted
training
were
to
susceptible
been
received
authorities
rural
a
are
struggling
liquefaction
Kathmandu
staff
in
that
constructed
population
earthquake,
and
living
areas
poorly
the
former
hospitals
training
injured
600,000
damaged.
places
Mount
population
on
were
Some
people.
earthquakes,
the
on
Buildings
built
20,000
many
challenging
in
surprised
much
less
areas.
movement
profile:
homes
19
almost
During
killed,
affected.
occurred
killed
with
On
Rwanda.
continually
in
were
landslides.
urban
Mass
event
lies
of
follow.
INSIVUMEH.
Kathmandu
250,000
Fortunately
,
than
El
government
people
plate,
the
available
and
withstand
Rwankuba,
fell
over
not
poor,
magnitude
Hazard
people
people
avalanche
emergency
prepared
Case
and
waves.
Preparedness:
in
9,000
Kathmandu
seismic
in
from
of
volcanic
regarding
risk
to
2015
Eurasian
aftershocks
region,
are
some
a
the
government
impending
the
was
flows
eruption
communities
If
seismic
earthquake
camp
earthquakes
the
the
people
experienced
released
there
the
Hydrology
informed
earthquake.
Nepal
mountainous
the
of
Nepal,
has
and
responsibility
active
miles
were
An
Vulnerability:
by
48
is
million
electricity
earthquake.
the
7.8
original
overall
were
the
was
A series
the
Impacts:
It
in
from
after
authorities
training
from
that
settlement
the
tourist
and
pyroclastic
ash
rural
However,
upmarket
subducted
of
the
6am
rural
about
these
information
profile:
since
epicentre
58
at
leave.
Earthquake
event
history
,
evacuate,
to
saw
study:
Hazard
to
whether
at
the
Seismology
,
(INSIVUMEH)
issued
procedures.
decide
of
with
with
of
limited
issue
from
hundred
critical
them
volcanologists
warnings
only
3pm.
been
Meteorology
Guatemala
an
has
Institute
V
olcanology
,
of
volcano
It
6
in
May
Rwankuba,
2018
happened
throughout
the
a
major
after
a
previous
Rwanda
mudslide
period
night.
of
2018
occurred
heavy
rain
in
which
a
D. 3
Vulnerability:
in
Africa
several
these
at
a
with
lack
These
of
of
had
the
density
is
total
that
decided
which
The
were
to
countries
stay
in
lightning
Impacts:
Rubazo,
18
the
had
due
received
world
the
had
they
life
of
adopt
the
particularly
in
6
May
,
of
a
and
V U LN E R A BiLi T Y
of
people
of
are
there
is
other
recorded.
rainfall.
AND
of
slopes
and
number
injuries
in
The
Population
a
relatively
2018).
people
follow
was
to
leave
that
one
the
Framework
to
the
advice
of
implementing
relation
so
RiSk
countries
one
the
and
expectancy
Sendai
by
foot
agriculture,
average
Rwanda
disasters
on
3.7
not
the
deforestation,
and
asked
did
villages.
to
risk
plans,
above
increased
but
their
to
deaths
at
populated
movement
depend
(approximately
risk,
to
mass
Prior
with
densely
living
Due
to
slopes.
to
most
population
government
in
the
country
.
place
rate
at
the
reduces
development
and
on
fertility
its
the
of
susceptible
taken
growing
one
communities
country
Preparedness:
areas
rural
is
of
in
are
drainage
landslides
high
many
mountains
mountains
risk.
west
Rwanda
hAz ARD
and
first
Monitor,
local
flooding,
landslides
strikes.
people
Bisesero
were
and
killed,
Gatsata,
12
were
and
300
injured
people
in
the
were
villages
made
of
homeless.
Test yourself
D.11 Using a specific case study, explan the causes and consequences of
You should ensure that the
a rapid mass movement.
[3+3]
example you have chosen for
question D.11 represents rapid
D.12 Suggest reasons why communities often underestimate the
probability of a tectonic hazard event occurring.
[4]
mass movement, and while
the human causes should
D.13 Explan the ways in which vulnerability to a geophysical hazard can
be explained, natural factors
be reduced.
[2+2]
should also be included.
The consequences could be
categorized into the economic,
social and environmental
impacts. The consequences
Geophysical hazards include volcanic eruptions, ear thquakes and mass
should be explained.
movements, and each of these can be discussed. An ear thquake will
provide more oppor tunities for developing explanations.
Try to discuss examples and case studies that have taken place in your
lifetime. There have been a range of hazard events that have occurred, and
you should be in a position to discuss eruptions, ear thquakes and mass
movement in detail.
Better answers should present a discussion of the relative damage
caused by the initial hazard event and that caused by secondary effects;
concluding remarks may agree or disagree with the statement.
59
D
OPTION
D . 4
D:
G E O P H YS I C A L
F U T U R E
HAZ ARDS
R E S I L I E N C E
A N D
A D A P TAT I O N
You sould be able to sow ow future possbltes can
• Reslence – the capability
lessen uman vulnerablty to geopyscal aards:
of a place to recover from the
impacts from a geophysical
✔
Global
hazard.
geophysical
including
• Slope stablaton – ensuring
✔
event
Geophysical
a slope is not susceptible
planning
to mass movement by
hazard
(land-use
preparedness,
implementing a strategy.
hazard
frequency
use
and
and
disaster
adaptation
zoning)
of
trends
population
through
and
insurance
future
government
resilience
adoption
of
projections,
estimates;
increased
personal
and
and
growth
(increased
new
technology);
✔
Pre-event
slope
management
stabilization),
design,
tsunami
monitoring
✔
Post-event
and
earthquakes
defences),
lava
technologies
to
to
for
mass
and
tsunami
volcanoes
strategies
include
map
(to
the
(to
include
(rescue,
enhanced
hazards/disasters,
continuing
movement
(to
include
GPS
include
building
crater
diversions);
management
reconstruction),
promote
strategies
human
rehabilitation,
use
of
locate
communications
survivors
and
development.
Global geopyscal aard and dsaster trends
Content ln
and future projectons
You will study megacities in unit 1.
Test yourself
The
following
and
also
the
map
shows
location
Fgure D.4.1.
of
those
areas
at
risk
due
to
seismic
activity
megacities.
Megacities (circled), and areas at risk due to seismic activity
D.14 Descrbe the distribution of
areas at very high risk .
[3]
D.15 identfy three highly
London
populated areas that are in areas
New
at very high risk .
[3]
York
Osaka
Istanbul
Los
Delhi
Angeles
D.16 The world’s fastest-growing
Mexico
City
cities are located in Niger, Burundi,
Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Tanzania,
Mali and Angola. Using figure D.4.1,
state whether this will mean more
Sao
people are susceptible to seismic
hazard risk.
[1]
Paulo
Key:
Very
high
risk
Geopyscal aard adaptaton
It should be noted that the
Historical
information in question D.16
are
only mentions growth rather than
type
the total number of people living
can
in these cities and also does not
Areas
state the location of these cities
people
within each country. Some par ts
has
of countries are more at risk than
level
others.
60
more
of
be
a
analysis
at
risk
hazard
used
at
to
risk
do
number
of
protect
live
of
seismic
help
to
inform
earthquakes,
makes
from
not
can
from
land-use
areas
mass
and
areas
is
in
a
and
those
people
low.
authorities
and
not
The
about
areas
unpredictability
However,
volcanic
eruptions
areas.
are
the
challenge.
landslides
movement
that
activity
zoning
from
work
city
although
can
be
island
allowed
to
of
that
of
this
zoning
eruptions.
zoned
so
that
Montserrat
visit
unless
the
D. 4
FUTURE
R E S iLiE NC E
AND
A D A P TAT i O N
Pre-event management strateges
Concept ln
There
is
a
range
of
strategies
that
can
be
implemented
in
order
that
POSSiBiLiTiES: Pre- and
the
future
impacts
from
a
geophysical
hazard
can
be
reduced.
Quite
post-event strategies can be
often
these
strategies
are
only
implemented
after
a
hazard
event
has
implemented involving a range
taken
place,
since
the
risk
may
not
have
been
known
previously
or
of different stakeholders and
the
impacts
were
unforeseen.
In
addition,
the
level
of
knowledge
the use of technology in order to
about
the
different
strategies
may
have
been
limited
or
the
expertise
reduce the risk and vulnerability
not
available.
One
example
is
modifying
construction
codes
so
that
of places. These possibilities not
buildings
are
built
to
withstand
a
higher
magnitude
earthquake.
This
only include financial input, but
involves
modifications
such
as
steel
reinforcement,
base
isolators,
also the education of citizens who
movable
hydraulic
joints,
strategies
to
reduce
building
shaking,
also need to take ownership of
shatterproof
glass,
deep
foundations.
By
including
these
things
when
responsibility for safeguarding
designing
buildings
in
order
that
seismic
energy
is
absorbed,
they
themselves.
should
not
collapse
or
suffer
damage
during
a
seismic
event.
Test yourself
D.17 Dscuss how building design can be the most effective way for
people to reduce their vulnerability to ear thquakes.
If the command term for this
[2+2+2]
question was “evaluate” then
it would be possible to offer an
alternative view by stating that
In
terms
of
secondary
hazards,
a
warning
system
can
alert
places
about
land-use zoning, early-warning
an
impending
tsunami.
Sensors
on
the
sea
bed
send
data
to
buoys
on
the
systems, evaluation planning
ocean
surface
which
is
then
transmitted
via
satellite
to
warning
centres.
and increased education would
A slope
can
example
T
able
by
D.4.1
be
modified
stabilizing
summarizes
in
it
order
with
the
a
that
the
metal
other
ways
land
mesh
in
to
does
not
prevent
which
a
slope
slip,
rock
can
for
falls.
be
represent more effective ways of
reducing vulnerability.
stabilized.
Fgure D.4.2.
Table D.4.1.
Strategies for stabilizing slopes
Ear thquake-resistant pipeline
Strategy
how t wors
Removng groundwater
This can be achieved by using pipes to remove water or
by pumping out the water. Dierent soil types can make it
more challenging to achieve this.
improvng surface dranage
The removal of areas that will allow water to accumulate and
the drainage of water from a surface via the use of pipes.
Removng materal
The excavation of soil and rock at the top of a slope can
reduce the pressure that may cause a landslide.
installng ples
Metal beams are installed in the ground that is underlying
the unstable soil and rock in order to create stability.
Fgure D.4.3.
Constructng walls
A wall built from concrete, rock or logs is often used with
Slope stabilization in Brunei
the installation of piles if material slips between the piles.
Removng unstable
If the soil is liable to move, it is replaced with material that
materal
is less liable to move. This could be soil or rock that is less
prone to weathering.
Aorestaton/reforestaton/
The planting of vegetation can help to stabilize a slope
plantng vegetaton
and remove moisture from the soil.
V
olcanoes
are
movements
monitored
and
the
with
release
of
GPS
technology
volcanic
that
monitors
seismic
gases.
61
D
OPTION
D:
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Post-event management strateges
Case
study:
Rescue:
The
collapsed
Oxfam
a
family
8.5
that
Facebook.
to
log
the
bank
million
in
government
buildings.
and
blood
Earthquake
Red
in
they
immediately
Cross
were
all
used.
Google’s
who
2015
International
sent
Kathmandu.
people
people
Nepal,
teams
right
via
a
to
help
used
in
as
and
for
the
Red
crowdsourcing
order
to
Cross
opened
and
which
donated
in
Aid,
friends
feature
was
people
Christian
notified
Check
million
rescued
search
such
users
Safety
US$15
Finder
been
to
Facebook
Over
Person
had
began
charities
over
using
information
reconnect
them
with
Content ln
family
members.
The
collect
information
Ushadidi
internet-based
platform
was
used
to
The use of the Ushahidi platform
about
the
immediate
needs
of
people
affected.
in building resilience is explored
Helicopters
were
used
to
assess
the
damage
and
help
rescue
people.
fur ther in unit 6.3.
Rehabilitation:
Markets
crops
were
were
opened
T
emporary
restored
harvested.
after
a
month
Reconstruction:
rupees,
Victim
was
and
a
Special
to
Test yourself
many
D.18 Explan how a place is able
to increase preparedness before
a geophysical hazard event
involving mass movement.
eruptions easier to predict but
Additional
family
more difficult to respond to than
[10]
loans,
with
by
which
funding
the
of
the
were
25,000
only
took
while
creation
for
a
an
that
given
to
very
as
to
to
Valley
.
people
focused
the
amount
satisfied.
rebuilt
Two
and
were
these
the
to
cremate
requiring
made
via
to
had
this
a
and
money
rapidly
to
be
dealt
Constitution,
Reconstruction Authority
.
A “to what extent” type question, such as D.19, would require an essay
or extended response since it requires evaluation. You have the option to
discuss the causes, the effects and the responses alongside a range of
variables such as building design, early warning systems and other forms
of being prepared and responding. Time management is therefore very
impor tant and allocating a set time of approximately 22–25 minutes for
your essay response at the end of each option is imperative.
Both volcanoes and ear thquakes must be discussed, and you should
ensure that your paragraphs have a focus. For example, one paragraph
could explain how volcanic eruptions are more measurable and
predictions can be made based on the changes and release of gases.
Your next section could then discuss the responses.
Examples of how to predict ear thquakes and volcanic eruptions
should be included.
62
a
hospital
disabled.
grants
releasing
on
was
after
remained
to
rupees
objected
and
A plan
(NRRF)
A year
be
those
came
in
200,000
structures.
that
billion
slow
event.
earthquakes
due
been
40,000
to
tarpaulin
‘Earthquake
Fund
had
those
country
,
National
received
was
had
summer
and
Kathmandu
This
received
was
place
of
temporary
politicians
of
to
as
homeless.
traumatic
reconstruction.
US$4.1
was
the
the
resistant
homes
provided
approximately
authorities
of
Families
government
clashes
the
outside
rupees
was
bamboo
Kathmandu
were
present.
5%
still
responses:
the
made
improved
of
destroyed
conditions
only
Constitution
the
still
those
Rehabilitation
fund
villages
debris
amount
and
food
access
in
for
process
were
given
rupees
to
to
made
children
buildings
government
Violent
first
delayed
that
and
with
access
homes
25,000
provided
schools
were
billion
whilst
an
although
projects.
of
towns
post-event
introduced
whose
buildings
and
helped
earthquake,
member,
External
for
US$2
and
the
school
treatment
[2+2]
D.19 To wat ex tent are volcanic
ear thquakes?
after
and
ensure
damaged
legislation
that
Reconstruction
raise
earthquake,
years
order
were
T
emporary
affected
Loan’
to
National
severely
of
Those
people
proposed
created
the
and
in
shelters
QUE STiON
PRACTiCE
QUESTiON PRACTiCE
Examne the gure on the right, which shows the
location of 5,741 rainfall-triggered landslides from
2007–2013, in blue
a)
Descrbe the global distribution
of landslides.
b)
[2]
Suggest two social factors that can increase
a person’s vulnerability to ear thquakes.
c)
[2 + 2]
Using an example, explan two negative
impacts of a volcanic eruption.
[2 + 2]
Essay
Examne the role of technology in increasing the resilience of places that are susceptible to
geophysical hazards.
[10]
how do i approac tese questons?
a)
2 marks are available for this question and therefore two separate points are required.
b)
When social factors are discussed in Geography, they relate to health and education primarily. You
should state two factors that are distinct from each other and then you explain each of them, making a
clear link to increasing risk . You may want to also include an example at the end of each point.
c)
Four marks are awarded for two separate points, with development of these points. Bear in mind that there are
short-, medium- and long-term eects. Avoid discussing positive eects, such as fertile soil, as this is irrelevant
to the question. Ensure that you refer to an example, as stated in the question. As the command term is
“explain”, the two impacts stated must be developed to show how people and places were aected negatively.
Essay
The use of technology has helped places to increase their resilience to a range of geophysical hazards and
this involves both primary and secondary hazards. You will have studied a range of examples in the nal
par t of this unit for dierent geophysical hazards. The command term is “examine” which means that you
should discuss an assumption that technology is increasing resilience in places by perhaps ndings
issues. Key concepts such as “possibility” and “power ” could be discussed as well as spatial interaction
since geophysical events can cover large areas and information can be shared between places.
S AMPLE STUDENT ANS WER
a)
at
Landslides
the
edge
of
Philippines,
tends
plate
west
to
be
found
boundaries
coast
of
the
along
with
USA,
a
linear
large
and
in
patterns
such
concentration
the
as
in
the
UK.
Mars 2/2
b) T
he education
of
people
in an area can help people cope when an
earthquake strikes. T
his is because people will have been trained
in how
to
escaping
protect
a
themselves
and
also
where
to
evacuate
to
when
building. T
herefore places where people have not been
educated in this area are at a greater risk and are more vulnerable.
Government
ensure
that
buildings.
warnings
funding
people
Mexico
from
have
into
early
warning
information
City
is
Mexico’s
an
to
example
Pacic
be
of
systems
able
a
to
place
will
evacuate
that
from
receives
early
coastline.
The rst point is valid and is developed but the second point, while including
accurate knowledge, refers to an economic factor rather than a social factor.
Mars 2/4
63
D
OPTION
D:
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
c)
▲ Appropriate
▲ 1
mark:
example
relevant
effect
T
he
detail
for
the
people
of
the
people
living
with
some
another
Guatemala.
and
de
A
Fuego
caused
primary
working
close
effect
to
the
signicant
was
the
volcano
loss
effects
of
and
life
100
to
to
people
with
Villages
people
people
mark:
Volcán
were
buried
in
ash
and
mud
which
covered
houses,
example
and
▲ 1
of
the
died.
accurate
eruption
relevant
had
also
to
needing
live
in
rescuing
shelters
in
from
the
these
days
and
houses
weeks
and
after
4
,000
the
effect
eruption
took
place.
detail
2 marks for the two negative eects given and 2 fur ther marks for the
development of these points.
Mars 4/4
Essay
Examne the role of technology in increasing the resilience of places that are
susceptible to geophysical hazards.
T
echnology
▲ Knowledge
demonstrated
movement
should
also
advances
effects
of
essay
should
be
dened
introduction
to
show
valid
will
able
point
has
to
an
the
in
an
people
area
Pacic
knowledge
about
T
echnology
risk
from
and
can
there
the
use
have
causes
and
hardware
geophysical
been
and
hazards.
be
volcanoes
different
ways
and
in
earthquakes.
which
T
his
technology
helps
in
places
in
order
that
people
and
property
when
at
to
NOAA
Ocean
event
strikes,
react
risk.
an
In
has
the
more
order
to
will
place.
introduction
quickly
warn
installed
which
takes
a
and
be
people
system
transmit
of
of
technology
able
about
39
to
evacuate
incoming
buoys
information
across
when
a
is
created.
T
he
information
is
transmitted
to
a
T
sunami
technology
Warning
▲ Further
this
type
detail
of
provided
technology
the
media.
are
issued
risk
▲ Connects
with
the
question
and
about
the
with
categories
(proactive,
such
as
enables
along
at
least
3
in
Alaska,
people
hours
moveable
increasing
the
west
coast
strategy
tsunami
point
T
his
that
Another
▲ A valid
Center
,
to
and
evacuate
alerts
an
are
area
sent
as
the
out
via
warnings
for
ensures
alert
is
items
the
of
that
a
before
can
the
be
resilience
the
is
tsunami
moved,
for
a
reaches
therefore
place,
such
land.
T
his
reducing
as
major
the
cities
USA.
more
reactive
proactive
strategy)
is
than
reactive
(the
constructing
knowledge
for
strategies
buildings
that
can
withstand
major
seismic
waves.
T
here
are
reactive)
different
64
the
years
relation
tsunami
to
the
earthquake
tsunamis,
provided
can
resilience
sur vive
helped
from
▲ Evidence
reduce
hazards
discuss
increase
When
and
and
20
knowledge
are
▲ Clear
try
hazards.
last
in
to
the
to
the
increasing
geophysical
Geophysical
term
in
in
be
included
▼ This
developed
many
software
▼ Mass
has
techniques
for
making
buildings
more
resilient:
QUE STiON
deep
foundations,
dampers,
and
a
reinforced
structure.
▲ Knowledge
An
example
of
T
ransamerica
that
is
prone
pyramid
which
been
building
to
and
building
major
its
prevents
101
inside
the
during
the
Mexico
in
building
is
has
San
deep
one
in
to
of
are
Finally,
building
52
fee t
tallest
which
counteract
which
collapsing.
world’s
T
aiwan,
constructed
T
he
sunk
from
the
foundations
Francisco,
earthquakes.
earthquake.
City
in
building
building
an
that
foundations
constructed
T
aipei
in
a
the
the
with
can
is
is
a
the
looks
like
a
have
swing
of
Mayor
up
to
the
the
5ft
building
building
concre te
and
▲ Three
steel
which
provides
a
rigid
framework
for
the
their
buildings
design
resilience.
the
since
People
them
during
When
media
from
will
a
volcanic
to
alert
ash
or
different
Kileaua
warn
in
more
area
not
an
construction
than
and
will
1
technique
working
feel
collapse
more
and
in
techniques
is
these
secure
there
is
needed
no
ensure
buildings
need
to
that
and
▲ Links
the
question
these
evacuate
eruption
that
T
his
levels
of
Hawaii
is
takes
live
place,
near
the
something
development
erupted
in
volcano
that
and
2018
technology
it
about
happens
was
when
is
in
used
used
the
the
threat
countries
when
television
via
was
Mount
used
to
▲ Appropriate
technology
has
been
used
in
order
that
places
are
able
to
▼ Limited
and
become
levels
to
example
people.
Overall,
T
hese
examples
information
in
to
knowing
accurate
earthquake.
people
lava.
further
living
surrounding
buildings
at
have
appropriate
building.
with
T
hese
resilient
underground
buildings,
reinforced
about
construction
city
Dampers
swaying
T
orre
PRACTiCE
more
resilient
measures
of
have
prior
been
development.
to
and
during
implemented
in
a
geophysical
places
at
event.
the
detail
point
for
being
this
example
made
is
quite
simplistic
different

This response is much stronger for ear thquakes than volcanoes, and there
is a lack of balance. Examples are included throughout with some detail
provided although more detail would ensure that the response obtained a
higher mark .
Mars 7/10
65
LEISURE,
E
This
optional
between
AND
unit
examines
increasing
the
economic
S P O RT
relationship
development
Yo sold be able to sow:
and
the
✔
evolving
tastes
for
leisure
and
touristic
TO U R I S M
how
human
leisure
Places
are
human
utilize
examined
attributes,
these
The
unit
and
the
in
and
attributes
assesses
the
terms
also
as
a
role
of
how
their
of
physical
governments
route
for
of
a
rural
✔
how
into
development.
corporations
festival
and
a
in
physical
sites
of
sporting
give
rise
to
and
human
factors
shape
places
leisure;
tourism,
the
varying
power
of
different
countries
to
large-scale
participate
international
processes
activities;
and
can
✔
impacts
development
activities.
in
global
tourism
and
sport;
event.
✔
future
possibilities
participation
in,
for
management
tourism
and
sport
of,
at
and
varying
scales.
E . 1
C H A N G I N G
L E I S U R E
PAT T E R N S
Yo sold be able to sow ow ma developmet
• Lesre – time free from the
processes ve rse to lesre actvtes:
demands of work when a person
can enjoy hobbies or spor ts.
✔
The
growth
different
and
changing
geographic
and
purpose
of
leisure
developmental
time
for
societies
in
contexts;
• Torsm – when people travel
to a place that is outside their
✔
home environment for no more
The
categorization
and
sporting
The
link
of
touristic
activities
(cost,
activities
(cost,
popularity
,
duration,
destination)
site);
than one year in duration for
✔
between
economic
development
and
participation
in
reasons such as leisure and
leisure
activities;
business.
✔
Detailed
examples
participation
stages
✔
Factors
of
two
illustrate
or
more
recent
changes
societies
at
in
contrasting
development;
affecting
including
for
to
personal
afuence,
participation
gender,
stage
in
in
sports
lifecycle,
and
tourism,
personality
,
place
of
residence.
Te rowt ad ca prpose of lesre
tme for socetes  dfferet eorapc ad
developmetal cotex ts
A two-day
people
a
paid
time
weekend
only
had
holiday
that
one
was
day
system
employers
introduced
off
was
a
in
week.
In
introduced.
legally
provide
in
China
2008,
The
in
1995—previously
,
this
changed
amount
China
is
one
again
of
paid
of
the
and
holiday
lowest
in
the
Cotet lk
world
compared
to
countries
with
a
similar
or
higher
level
of
economic
The growth of megacities in China
development.
is explored in unit 1.2, and the
resulting social and environmental
In
the
stresses are looked at in
of
China,
option G.3.
they
66
UK,
a
country
workers
work
five
with
receive
days
per
a
GDP
at
least
week.
per
28
capita
days
four
paid
times
annual
larger
leave
than
per
that
year
if
E .1
Leisure
activities
have
evolved
in
China.
As
cities
have
C h A nging
LEiSuRE
PAT T E R n S
grown
Cocept lk
into
megacities,
environmental
industry
has
there
has
stresses
grown
as
been
and
as
an
a
people
increase
result
try
to
of
in
this
escape
a
range
the
of
social
outdoor
urban
and
leisure
PROCESSES: Socio-economic and
political change bring societal
areas.
developments which will increase
The
growth
of
technology
has
meant
that
young
people
now
spend
access for people to par ticipate
several
hours
each
week
participating
in
online
gaming.
The
growth
in activities relating to leisure
of
the
middle
class
in
China
means
that
people
have
the
money
to
and tourism. Conversely, these
travel
outside
of
the
cities
and
to
purchase
technology
.
Some
traditional
dynamic processes may also
leisure
activities
remain
popular—elderly
people
in
China
play
group
reduce access for par ticular
games
such
as
Mahjong.
groups and produce differences
within and between countries.
Te cateorzato of torstc actvtes (cost,
drato, destato) ad spor t actvtes
Cotet lk
(cost, poplarty, ste)
The growth of the “new global
The
cost
of
touristic
and
sporting
activities
varies
according
to
middle class” is examined in
following:
unit 3.1.
•
Mode
of
transport
•
Accommodation
•
Duration
•
Distance
•
The
of
stay
travelled
activities
from
place
undertaken
at
of
the
origin
to
the
destination
destination
Test yorself
•
The
equipment
needed
for
a
sporting
activity
.
E.1 Sest how economic
Some
as
sports
historical
will
more
connections
organizations
example,
be
and
cricket
popular
to
players
in
a
sport
than
others,
could
connected
Commonwealth
to
and
factors
influence
a
sport
in
the
a
factors may either increase or
such
number
country
,
of
decrease a person’s involvement
in leisure activities.
for
countries.
[3+3]
E.2 Descrbe the relationship
between GDP per person and
number of hours worked as
Te lk bet wee ecoomc developmet ad
shown in figure E.1.1.
[3]
par tcpato  lesre actvtes
As
countries
participation
time
and
a
develop
in
economically
,
leisure
greater
activities
amount
of
it
due
is
to
likely
an
disposable
that
there
increase
in
will
paid
be
greater
holiday
income.
When describing information in a
There
are
a
range
of
other
economic
factors
such
as
a
person’s
char t, it is sometimes necessary
salary
,
the
cost
of
living
or
the
financial
stability
in
a
place,
for
to describe how trends or
example.
relationships can experience
AT IP AC
950
subtle changes. The previous
India
Mexico
Malawi
900
China
question demonstrates this,
USA
REP
Indonesia
850
since while the relationship is
Brazil
DE KROW
800
generally negative, the negativity
Russia
SRU OH
750
in the relationship is much
700
clearer at higher levels of GDP
.
650
South
Africa
Spain
LAUNNA
600
Fre E.1.1.
Italy
UK
550
Hours worked vs GDP per capita
France
(as a fraction of GDP per capita)
500
1/64
1/32
1/16
1/8
1/4
1/2
1
Source of data: American Economic Review
GDP
(AS
A
FRACTION
OF
US
GDP
PER
PER
CAPITA
CAPITA )
2016, 106(9): 2426–2457
67
E
OPTION
E:
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
Case
In
SPOR T
study:
recent
that
a
AND
years
people
wider
have
Recent
range
given
activities
the
now
of
rise
and
unhealthy
in
are
changes
UK,
the
the
gym
participation
introduction
spending
electronic
to
in
more
devices
popularity
membership
lifestyles
have
been
and
of
of
leisure
the
new
time
also
UK
technology
at
increased
movie
have
in
home.
internet
streaming
increased
highlighted
by
For
the
has
bandwidth
services.
as
meant
example,
issues
Healthy
linked
to
media.
Factors affect persoal par tcpato  spor ts ad
torsm, cld afflece, eder, stae  lfecycle,
Test yorself
persoalty, place of resdece
E.3 Otle two reasons why
As
already
discussed,
affluence
influences
a
person’s
involvement
in
people’s par ticipation in leisure
leisure,
and
this
also
applies
to
a
person’s
ability
to
engage
in
tourism.
activities has increased in two
In
the
USA,
children
from
low-income
backgrounds
are
far
less
active
societies at contrasting stages of
than
development.
those
from
higher-income
backgrounds
according
to
the
Aspen
[2+2]
Institute’s
do
not
Sports
tend
disposable
with
An example should be included
for each reason and for the shor t
response questions, an example
would help to ensure that the
credited.
gender
gender
recent
have
a description or explanation are
in
also
in
less
to
the
the
influence
have
as
Parks
for
in
low-income
children.
people
are
Due
not
to
able
areas
having
to
less
engage
golf.
which
certain
been
sports
a
education
of
some
as
ban
sports
sports
they
are
changes
males.
on
(PE)
outside
leisure
young
such
countries
same
females
their
sports
removed
physical
activities
participate
played
more
in.
often
by
other.
there
Arabia
programme.
affluent
may
some
years,
allow
during
in
than
access
Saudi
part
Society
organized
equipment-based
Traditionally
one
and
have
income,
A person’s
In
additional marks for extending
to
In
females
lessons.
school
to
It
such
July
in
is
take
that
2017,
public
hoped
part
in
females
the
government
schools
that
can
this
taking
change
sporting
will
activities
time.
Cotet lk
Personality
Policies devised to improve gender
equality are outlined in unit 1.3.
person
to
is
participate
ability
a
will
who
to
risk-taker
in
travel
person’s
influence
a
rock
due
country
a
person’s
might
be
travel
climbing. A person’s
to
of
their
access
residence
or
destination.
interested
to
in
location
may
transportation
nationality
For
visiting
may
example,
places
in
influence
networks.
affect
their
In
a
order
their
addition,
ability
Test yorself
to
E.4 Dsts between leisure
and tourism.
[2]
E.5 Exame three factors that
determine levels of par ticipation
in spor ting activities.
[3+3]
travel
the
to
example,
in
travelling
In
another
countries
most
sections
tourist
or
2018
to
the
the
the
US
to
restrictions
for
citizens
government
young
countries
and
population
movement
certain
implemented
such
elderly
that
on
from
have
as
Iran
people
the
restrictions
or
on
For
people
Sudan.
represent
most
between
countries.
time
for
the
demographic
leisure
and
activities.
Socio-economic
different
in
due
restrictions
USA from
countries
of
country
,
visa
levels
leisure
and
and
of
political
processes
development
tourism
which
are
taking
affect
the
place
in
countries
participation
of
at
people
activities.
A definition of tourism is given
at the beginning of this chapter,
but there are various different
definitions. For example, having
to stay overnight in a place is a
definition from one source but it
is not par t of the definition from
the United Nations World Tourism
Organization.
68
For the answer to E.5, it is possible to discuss par ticipation at a local,
national or an international scale. The first par t of this unit enables you to
have knowledge for all three scales. Therefore, a range of different factors
can be explained.
E.2
E . 2
TO u R i S M
A n D
A n D
TO u R i S M
AnD
S P O R T
n AT i O n A L
SPOR T
AT
AT
ThE
T h E
LO C A L
AnD
n AT i O n A L
SC ALE
L O C A L
S C A L E
Yo sold be able to sow ow pyscal ad ma
• Prmary torstc resorces
factors sape places to stes of lesre:
the human and physical
✔
Human
and
and
urban
physical
tourism
factors
explaining
hotspots,
secondary
touristic
Variations
in
including
the
the
growth
role
of
of
resources that attract people to
rural
primary
visit a place. For example, the
and
historical architecture (human)
resources;
or the climate (physical) of a
✔
sphere
of
inuence
for
different
kinds
of
sporting
and
place. Note that not all human
touristic
facility
,
including
neighbourhood
parks
and
gyms,
city
resources are developed for
stadiums
and
national
parks;
tourism purposes.
✔
Factors
affecting
the
geography
of
a
national
sports
league,
• Secodary torstc resorces
including
the
location
of
its
hierarchy
of
teams
and
the
distribution
the human resources that are
of
supporters;
developed for tourism such as
✔
Case
study
of
one
national
sports
the provision of accommodation
league;
or transpor tation infrastructure.
✔
Large-scale
temporary
sporting,
sites
of
musical,
leisure
cultural
and
their
or
religious
associated
festivals
costs
and
as
benets;
• Torsm otspot – a place or
an attraction that receives a high
✔
Case
study
of
one
festival
in
a
rural
location,
its
site
factors
and
level of visitor interest.
geographic
impacts.
• Spere of flece – the area
from which people are drawn in
order to visit a spor ting facility or
hma ad pyscal factors expla te rowt of rral
touristic attraction.
ad rba torsm otspots, cld te role of prmary
• herarcy – a structure that,
ad secodary torstc resorces
in this context, represents the
The
growth
factors,
and
such
then
a
rural
as
value
secondary
tourism
site
of
tend
to
to
such
as
enable
focus
(primary
touristic
hotspots
outstanding
factor,
resources)
hotspots
cultural
a
human
(secondary
areas,
of
sites
to
that
such
could
beauty
building
people
on
initially
natural
the
resource),
resources
often
be
of
visit
the
have
as
the
the
a
involves
(primary
road
site.
unique
Eiffel
tour
physical
ranking of spor ting teams at a
national scale.
network
In
urban
historical
Tower
guides
resource)
at
in
and
Paris,
each
and
Test yorself
site.
E.6 “Most spor ting facilities tend
to be located near the centre of
a city.” Dscss this statement.
Varatos  spere of flece for dfferet kds of
[10]
spor t ad torstc faclty, cld eborood
parks ad yms, cty stadms ad atoal parks
There
each
from
that
is
of
a
which
is
quite
whereas
from
wide
them
a
sporting
afield.
following
are
is,
sporting
a
will
common
attraction
of
have
people
further
tourist
range
will
in
sphere
be
a
drawn
place
stadium
In
the
factors
further
that
will
to
as
the
and
influence
may
such
general,
facilities
of
that
place.
have
a
tourist
(SOI),
a
people
unique
will
determine
be
the
is
A sporting
small
velodrome
more
attractions
which
SOI
will
and
of
as
attract
a
gym)
people
well-known
a
to
and
area
facility
(such
prepared
SOI
the
travel.
a
The
place:
Question E.6 provides an
oppor tunity to offer different
perspectives depending on
the spor t and the city that is
discussed. Responses will either
agree or disagree. There are
•
The
size
of
the
facility
•
The
transportation
many possible approaches to
links
this question and the candidate’s
•
Advertising
•
Networks
argument and conclusion are
likely to depend on the examples
(museums
or
art
galleries
could
be
part
of
a
network
chosen for discussion.
allowing
access
to
many
different
places).
69
E
OPTION
E:
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Factors affect te eorapy of a atoal spor ts
Cocept lk
PL ACES: Places that contain
leae, cld te locato of ts erarcy of
teams ad te dstrbto of sppor ters
tourism and spor ting facilities
Case
study:
The
football
league
in
England
and
Wales
attract people from varying
distances and this can be due
to a number of physical and
human factors. The amount of
people visiting places or using
facilities will subsequently alter
the character of such places
which may, in turn, influence the
popularity among visitors and
users, such as becoming less
appealing due to overcrowding.
Football
and
is
there
the
is
a
most
non-professional
57
of
leagues
players
Above
which
and
will
Premier
Again,
Figure
in
be
is
sporting
the
League
Wales
from
shows
2,
also
and
the
of
in
the
or
System,
and
there
the
and
are
majority
Football
Championship
leagues.
The
well-known
this
Wales
non-professionals.
English
the
and
professional
Championship,
many
play
location
1
the
these
England
for
leagues
amateurs
called
in
Above
League
within
League
play
includes
Wales
the
be
in
structure
National
tiers
league
also
which
or
pastime
league
will
a
professional.
League
teams
leagues
there
of
In
divisions
these
from
E.2.1
teams.
84
level,
consists
teams
teams
and
this
popular
well-established
League
league,
players
there
football
is
in
these
the
teams.
league.
teams
in
the
English
Football
League.
Key
The
Premier
The
Championship
League
1
League
2
League
N
the
Welsh–English
border
Isle
Fre E.2.1.
of
Man
Location of teams
in the English Football League and
Premier League for the 2017/2018
football season
Test yorself
E.7 Descrbe the distribution of teams in the English Championship
league.
[3]
E.8 Expla why the map is not effective in showing the
distribution of teams.
[1+1]
E.9 Sest how the data could be presented in a more effective way.
[1+1]
The
term
sporting
on
70
TV
.
“supporter”
venue
to
can
watch
refer
the
to
team
people
or
actually
alternatively
travelling
watching
to
the
the
match
E.2
A number
support,
local
of
factors
such
as
affect
the
community
,
cost
for
a
of
person’s
travel
or
choice
the
TO u R i S M
about
link
which
between
AnD
team
the
SPOR T
they
club
and
AT
ThE
LO C A L
AnD
n AT i O n A L
SC ALE
will
the
example.
Test yorself
E.10 Referring to a national spor ts league you have studied, sest the
The example provided in this
factors that have determined the locations of its teams.
[3+3]
chapter is football, but a range of
different spor ting leagues can be
explained for this question.
Lare-scale spor t , mscal, cltral or relos
festvals as temporary stes of lesre ad ter
assocated costs ad beefts
Festivals
for
a
can
example
short
and
period
they
can
Carnival,
Festival,
As
with
with
Case
The
in
food,
such
exist
as
in
an
different
urban
rural
aspects
and
afternoon
both
and
to
clothing
or
for
settings
settings
of
religion.
an
(for
(for
a
location’s
Festivals
extended
example,
example,
culture,
can
last
for
weekend,
Notting
Burning
Hill
Man
Nevada).
any
large-scale
event,
there
are
costs
and
benefits
associated
festivals.
study:
Bonnaroo
Music
Tennessee,
attracts
early
June.
the
shuttle
There
buses
a
and
USA,
The
site
reach
centre
are
Music
60
of
is
the
Arts
a
Arts
via
or
is
a
southeast
car
its
farm
or
by
festival
Nashville.
when
during
using
airport,
USA
four-day
of
people
700-acre
site
Festival,
Festival
75,000
Nashville
each
and
miles
approximately
Festivalgoers
from
dedicated
London)
Bonnaroo
rural
and
be
music,
and
it
is
the
It
held
rest
shuttle
hotels
held
began
each
of
the
buses
in
the
in
in
2002
year
year.
which
city
run
run
day
.
number
of
geographic
impacts
associated
with
the
festival:
•
A road
a
approaching
bridge
people
cannot
are
the
handle
worried
site
the
that
is
going
heavy
this
will
to
have
traffic
to
be
visiting
encourage
upgraded
the
more
site.
traffic
since
Local
in
the
local
area.
•
Crimes
year,
•
The
mainly
heat
well
•
have
as
and
The
festival
and
state
The
for
supplying
such
festival
as
on
via
the
people
have
been
arrested
each
caused
heat
some
at
the
festival
as
exhaustion.
approximately
the
fatalities
money
US
spent
$51
by
million
to
attendees
the
and
local
the
tax
organizers.
reinforces
with
and
drugs.
have
contributes
economies
levied
America
committed,
humidity
illnesses
revenue
•
been
the
Nashville
cultural
history
of
music
in
this
part
of
Test yorself
nearby
.
E.11 idetfy the primary and
•
The
Bonnaroo
Works
Fund
was
set
up
in
2009
which
supports
secondary tourist resources for
local
and
national
organizations
in
the
arts,
education
and
the Bonnaroo Music and Ar ts
environmental
sustainability
.
About
US$7
million
had
been
Festival.
donated
to
various
organizations
by
[4]
2017.
71
E
OPTION
E . 3
E:
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
TO u R i S M
AND
A n D
SPOR T
S P O R T
i n T E R n AT i O n A L
AT
T h E
S C A L E
Yo sold be able to sow te vary power of dfferet
• nce torsm – a specific
cotres to par tcpate  lobal torsm ad spor t:
tourism product that is tailored
to meet the needs of a par ticular
✔
Niche
national
audience/market segment such
including
as heritage tourism or movie
tourism;
tourism
adventure
strategies
tourism,
with
movie
a
global
location
sphere
tourism
of
inuence,
and
heritage
location tourism.
✔
The
• TnC – a transnational
role
of
including
corporation or company that
TNCs
the
in
costs
expanding
and
international
benets
of
TNC
tourism
involvement
destinations,
for
different
stakeholders;
operates in a number of different
✔
Costs
and
benets
of
tourism
as
a
national
development
strategy
,
countries.
including
✔
Political,
economic
economic
international
World
✔
Cup
Case
and
and
sporting
sociocultural
cultural
events,
effects;
factors
affecting
including
the
the
hosting
Olympics
and
of
football
events;
study
of
international
costs
and
benets
for
one
country
hosting
an
event.
nce atoal torsm stratees wt a lobal spere
Cocept lk
of flece, cld ad vetre torsm, move
POWER: Involvement in
locato torsm ad ertae torsm
tourism can provide a pathway
to economic development.
Niche
Mainstream tourism products,
in
as well as niche attractions,
product
can attract a significant number
products
of visitors and ensure the
example,
tourism
mind.
Due
can
products
to
this
extend
can
offer
scaling
are
unique
outside
a
designed
aspect,
of
with
the
national
once-in-a-lifetime
Mount
a
very
sphere
of
specific
market
influence
boundaries.
experience
for
this
Adventure
for
some,
tourism
for
Everest.
countries become more powerful
Movie
location
tourism
exists
around
the
world
as
people
venture
to
economically. Any changes to
visit
the
place
where
their
favourite
movie
was
made
or
a
particular
global tourism markets can have a
scene
was
filmed.
The
greater
the
popularity
of
the
film,
the
wider
detrimental impact upon countries
the
SOI
will
be.
For
example,
New
York
City
has
been
home
to
many
also, such as a global recession.
memorable
Heritage
films
tourism
such
can
as
King
Kong
represent
a
and
wide
Superman.
range
of
historic
and
cultural
Test yorself
aspects
E.12 Otle what is meant by
heritage tourism.
of
a
significant
[3]
example,
place.
People
buildings
the
or
Forbidden
will
travel
where
City
a
in
long
distances
well-known
event
to
visit
took
areas
place,
with
for
Beijing.
E.13 State an example of heritage
tourism.
[1]
Te role of TnCs  expad teratoal torsm
destatos, cld te costs ad beefts of
TnC volvemet for dfferet stakeolders
A number
of
international
can
72
have
a
transnational
tourism,
range
of
and
costs
corporations
their
and
(TNCs)
presence
benefits
for
in
a
are
involved
country
different
and
in
destination
stakeholders.
E.3
Case
The
to
study:
Gambia
boost
along
on
T
ourism
a
its
sent
to
first
TNCs
The
in
of
affordable
in
turn
•
arrive
in
the
it
a
•
costs
Jobs
•
of
are
Gender
TNC
•
to
•
The
than
or
AT
ThE
i n T E R n AT i O n A L
SC ALE
country
.
Its
economy
are
It
aims
destinations
is
based
experiences
the
money
accommodate
a
that
90%
of
is
all
can
more
a
Norwegian
hotels
were
built
by
countries.
often
include
the
Ving,
on
be
air
for
expensive,
travel
tourists
power
and
to
in
so
by
creating
accommodation,
visit
the
Gambia,
controlling
the
flow
of
country
.
involvement
people
are
jobs
in
is:
involved
in
tourism-related
foreign-owned
hotels
than
hotels.
with
tends
to
a
are:
low
be
skilled
salary
lower
in
and
they
are
seasonal;
foreign-owned
hotels
hotels;
positions
tend
to
be
held
by
Europeans
Gambians;
percentage
hotels,
the
country
hotels
was
point
domestic-owned
Management
rather
Gambia
involvement
equality
coast.
(the
in
tourism
remittances
large
easier
more
low-skilled
compared
presence
the
significant
into
are
domestic-owned
The
and
that
that
lot
them
TNC
there
on
European
Employment—42,000
activities;
land
Africa
deals
visitors
of
TNC
international
remittances
From
to
make
benefit
a
Twenty
other
travel
gives
SPOR T
foreign.
1960s.
holiday
international
key
or
from
operators
which
The
to
air
of
and
Gambia).
the
arriving
has
out-migration,
the
TNC
cost
tour
of
domestic
company
,
strip
AnD
Gambia
developing
agriculture
amount
back
the
Africa
via
10-kilometre
visitors,
The
West
GDP
tourism,
large
in
in
TO u R i S M
of
locally-sourced
sometimes
only
food
is
low
in
foreign-owned
5%.
Costs ad beefts of torsm as a atoal developmet
stratey, cld ecoomc ad sococltral effects
The
contribution
increased
from
Economic
to
effects
support
tourism
the
taxes
example,
that
6.8%
tourism
in
1998
include
job
agriculture
in
order
Barbados
in
to
makes
to
8.5%
creation
industry
.
help
raise
to
in
GDP
on
the
continent
of
Africa
2017.
and
the
Countries
funds
and
sourcing
will
of
often
reduce
local
food
introduce
debt,
for
2018.
Test yorself
Sociocultural
international
effects
understanding.
equality
with
by
include
visitors
and
Countries
launching
women
running
a
the
locals
such
range
and
exchange
thus
as
of
of
cultural
furthering
Tanzania
have
female-driven
directing
tour
traits
between
intercultural
improved
tourism
gender
enterprises
E.14 Using an example that you
have studied, expla a strategy
to develop tourism at a national
scale.
[2+2]
companies.
73
E
OPTION
E:
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Poltcal, ecoomc ad cltral factors affect
te ost of teratoal spor t evets,
cld te Olympcs ad football World Cp evets
There
are
forward
several
to
Olympics,
host
such
of
can
strategy
Case
The
a
new
as
creation
be
study:
Delhi
reasons
why
international
the
prestige
sporting
for
Delhi
countries
sporting
of
hosting
venues,
an
adjoining
regenerating
urban
Commonwealth
Commonwealth
choose
events
Games
put
the
event
themselves
World
and
facilities
job
and
Cup
or
creation.
the
The
infrastructure
areas.
Games,
in
to
like
2010
2010
provided
the
following
benefits:
•
A new
•
•
terminal
The
Metro
and
city
4,000
Roads
•
Air
•
Around
The
•
were
was
4,000
as
jobs
•
people
bus
Workers
the
•
The
sports
•
were
connections
they
but
airport.
between
the
airport
that
are
powered
by
compressed
Corruption
paths
were
introduced.
introduced.
created.
to
in
are
was
8,000
many
the
from
were
facilities
irregularities,
cycle
forcibly
Almost
service
they
and
were
were
brought
money
because
with
international
follows:
displaced,
no
the
introduced
improved,
infrastructure.
those
were
norms
were
200,000
at
(CNG).
quality
costs
expanded,
buses
gas
•
opened
centre.
new
natural
was
was
city
not
and
used
in
to
travel
such
as
16
projects
order
sustain
there
did
unsafe
and
for
4
of
there
hours.
not
receive
conditions.
have
for
some
since
was
Bihar
in
revenue
were
for
Bawana
time
post-Games
officials
way
live
worked
enough
with
make
built
as
states
generating
some
were
to
reluctant
centre
poor
uncovered,
and
flats
were
promised
were
not
displaced
deteriorated
their
upkeep.
containing
taken
to
court.
For questions about costs and
•
Taxes
were
increased
in
to
the
city’s
budget
after
benefits, the acronym SEEP will
spending
on
the
Games.
The
original
cost
of
the
Games
was
be useful: address the Social,
estimated
at
US$270m
but
this
increased
to
US$4.1
billion.
Economic, Environmental and
Political effects (this also applies
The
success
to causes). Bear in mind that
of
causes and effects occur at
citizens
different
of
from
growth
stakeholders
a
in
leisure
such
as
and
TNCs,
tourism
national
is
linked
to
the
government
power
and
the
place.
different scales. Also, benefits
and problems can change over
Test yorself
time, such as the shor t-term
benefits versus the long-term
E.15 Sest reasons why a country’s gross national income (GNI)
costs of a spor ting event.
increases before and during a major spor ting event.
74
[3+3]
E.4
E . 4
M A n A g i n g
S P O R T
M A n A ging
TO u R i S M
F O R
T h E
TO u R i S M
AnD
SPOR T
FOR
ThE
FuTuRE
A n D
F u T u R E
Yo sold be able to sow examples of ftre possbltes
Carry capacty – the
for maaemet of, ad par tcpato , torsm ad
maximum number of people that
spor t at vary scales:
may visit a tourist destination
✔
The
consequences
and
urban
capacity
of
tourism
and
unsustainable
hotspots,
possible
touristic
including
management
the
growth
concept
options
to
in
of
at the same time without
rural
causing destruction of the
carrying
increase
physical, economic or socio-
site
cultural environment and an
resilience;
unacceptable decrease in the
✔
The
concept
of
sustainable
tourism,
including
the
growth
of
quality of visitors’ satisfaction.
ecotourism;
Reslece – the ability for
✔
One
case
study
of
sustainable
tourism
in
one
low-income
a destination to overcome
country;
problems due to unsustainable
✔
Factors
use
of
inuencing
social
future
media,
international
international
tourism,
security
and
including
diaspora
greater
growth;
growth in tourism numbers (and
other factors such as security
concerns).
✔
The
growing
importance
of
political
and
cultural
inuences
Sstaable torsm – tourism
on
international
sport
participation,
including
international
that takes full account of its
agreements,
inclusion
via
changing
gender
roles
and
the
growing
current and future economic,
importance
of
the
Paralympics.
social and environmental
impacts, and addresses the
needs of visitors, the industry,
the environment and host
Te coseqeces of sstaable torstc rowt
communities.
 rral ad rba torsm otspots, cld te
cocept of carry capacty ad possble maaemet
Daspora – the dispersion of
people from a country to a range
optos to crease ste reslece
of other countries.
Unsustainable
touristic
environmental
numbers
in
growth
consequences
hotspots
can
can
for
result
a
in
have
economic,
destination.
economic
social
Excessive
losses
as
a
and
visitor
place
gains
a
Cocept lk
bad
reputation
problems
and
the
as
and
local
people
people
environment
can
do
not
begin
to
suffer
want
to
resent
due
to
go
the
there.
There
can
overcrowding
noise
and
visual
be
that
social
occurs,
POSSiBiLiTiES: As places become
more popular from tourism, and
pollution.
the possibilities for economic
development become a reality, it
Case
study:
T
ourism
in
Barcelona
is often necessary for alternative
Barcelona
has
growth
the
felt
some
of
these
impacts
in
recent
years
due
to
a
tourism products to be developed
in
number
of
tourists
visiting
the
city
,
which
is
the
20th
to ensure that there is economic,
most
visited
city
in
the
world.
social and environmental
Local
people
Airbnb,
of
and
renting
rents
have
Tourism
10,000
and
In
a
2014.
the
introduced
•
Zone
This
1:
has
was
from
No
HUT
more
buying
created
around
in
in
Plan
order
permits
tourist
in
applications
properties
81
amount
the
pressures
of
properties
has
with
such
appeared
sole
on
Housing
in
2005
sustainability.
as
purpose
locals
Used
to
just
throughout
as
for
under
the
city
2016.
for
to
via
economic
The
graffiti
attacked
Urban
passed
via
rooms
dramatically
.
grew
Special
and
been
Anti-tourist
bus
was
homes
have
out.
increased
tourist
(PEUAT)
out
people
them
(HUTs)
in
2015,
rent
Tourist
manage
four
rental
Accommodation
tourism.
different
licences
or
Plan
Restrictions
were
zones:
hotel
licences
will
be
granted.
75
E
OPTION
E:
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
•
AND
Zone
Test yorself
as
2:
Situated
Zone
one
E.16 Study the following image
SPOR T
1
in
next
terms
establishment
of
to
Zone
new
closes,
1,
this
licences
a
new
area
for
has
the
same
restrictions
accommodation,
licence
may
be
although
if
issued.
from Barcelona and detfy the
•
Zone
3:
There
is
less
impact
from
tourist
accommodation
in
this
possible consequences from
zone,
tourism.
therefore
387
new
licences
will
be
granted
when
licences
[2]
expire
in
other
zones,
and
within
certain
parameters.
E.17 Evalate the strategies
•
Zone
4:
These
are
areas
where
no
tourist
rentals
are
permitted.
designed to manage tourism in
one named urban area.
[10]
Fre E.4.1
Tourist market in Barcelona
In question E.17, there is a wide
range of suitable answers, such
as Barcelona or Venice. Note
that the command term here is
“evaluate”, so if your response is
descriptive you will be credited
with a low-level mark . You
should explain the strengths and
weaknesses of the strategies
that have been implemented.
Te cocept of sstaable torsm, cld
te rowt of ecotorsm
The
term
“sustainable
“ecotourism”.
need
and
to
be
tourism”
However,
aware
protection
of
of.
by
destination
also
is
are
Ecotourism
biodiversity
.
comprehensive
but
there
ensuring
often
intertwined
distinctions
is
concerned
Sustainable
not
economic
only
and
with
between
with
tourism
the
is
environmental
sociocultural
terms
them
such
that
as
you
conservation
more
sustainability
in
a
sustainability
.
Test yorself
E.18 Defe the term “ecotourism” and state an example from a place
that you have studied.
[2+1]
E.19 Descrbe the main characteristics of sustainable tourism.
[3]
E.20 Dsts between sustainable tourism and ecotourism.
[2]
E.21 Aalyse two ways in which ecotourism is a sustainable
industry.
Case
study:
Wilderness
that
in
[2+2]
has
Sustainable
Safaris
had
national
a
company
families
funded
provides
76
of
such
on
in
as
the
eight
medical
is
in
a
sustainable
since
which
Africa.
in
to
that
nine
is
area
In
makes
tourism
1995.
home
Revenue
an
agriculture.
cooperative
assistance
Zimbabwe
country
schools
subsistence
women’s
in
Hwange,
elephants
supports
rely
a
Zimbabwe
presence
parks
concentration
in
tourism
It
provides
to
the
addition,
jewelry
villages.
the
safaris
highest
generated
where
company
by
the
majority
of
Wilderness
and
a
clinic
has
that
E.4
Wildlife
is
elephants
cost
The
of
at
sustained
(surface
least
company
Wilderness,
12
boreholes
water
of
has
via
limited)
are
and
dug
to
provide
Wilderness
has
water
covered
TO u R i S M
AnD
SPOR T
FOR
ThE
FuTuRE
for
the
them.
also
which
is
that
M A n A ging
created
runs
a
scheme
weekly
called
Children
environmental
groups
in
in
the
order
to
Test yorself
educate
primary-school
students
about
ecological
value.
E.22 Sest how the
Some
of
the
provides
also
energy
been
tracking
company’s
for
involved
of
the
camps
lighting
in
a
use
and
only
for
campaign
renewable
purifying
to
prohibit
energy
water.
the
which
Wilderness
illegal
hunting
advantages of sustainable
has
and
tourism may outweigh any
disadvantages.
[6]
pangolin.
Factors flec ftre teratoal torsm, cld
reater se of socal meda, teratoal secrty ad
daspora rowt
Try to revise three to five
Technology
tourism
a
range
is
continually
experiences.
of
different
secondary
touristic
changing
Social
media
applications
resources
how
is
while
are
people
plan
advertising
reviews
updated
on
their
international
destinations
of
primary
websites
contain specific detail about
and
such
details for each case study if
possible. Your answers must
via
that par ticular example of
as
sustainable tourism. A good rule
TripAdvisor.
of thumb is that your response
In
terms
of
to
impact
security
,
the
threat
of
conflict
and
terrorism
is
expected
should not be so general that it
tourism
in
the
future.
However,
in
some
parts
of
the
world
could apply to any sustainable
there
has
been
a
reduction
in
conflict.
Colombia,
for
example,
is
tourism destination or package.
developing
controlled
of
by
travellers
result
as
ecotourism
of
the
the
has
rebel
been
USA’s
in
parts
group,
of
FARC.
restricted
ban
on
the
in
people
country
On
some
the
that
other
countries,
travelling
from
were
previously
hand,
for
the
movement
example,
certain
as
countries
a
such
Iran.
Diaspora
revenue
that
growth
in
some
between
from
has
US$250
Jamaicans
been
identified
countries.
For
million
returning
to
as
an
example,
and
the
area
in
US$300
for
2017,
increasing
Jamaica
million
is
tourism
announced
generated
annually
island.
Te row mpor tace of poltcal ad cltral
fleces o teratoal spor t par tcpato, cld
teratoal areemets, clso va ca eder
roles ad te row mpor tace of te Paralympcs
Stereotypes
by
about
the
Women
in
gender
(IOC)
Sport
the
the
More
athletes
Furthermore,
were
1.84
Rio
There
a
In
in
is
in
Olympic
gaining
people
in
Rio
viewing
billion
sport.
are
2016
been
of
and
gender,
Equality
both
One
of
in
are
to
to
to
by
as
(there
(for
but
Olympic
that
a
issues
female
2020.
more
were
four
people
9.9%
years
example,
4.11
years
alongside
address
ensure
50%
London
2004,
Project
society
increasing
Athens
recent
understanding
International
aim
is
participating
compared
for
the
Review
reaches
in
greater
which
importance
also
altered
a
objective
Games
figures
viewers
have
sports
terms
Gender
Commission,
Paralympics
event.
female
for
in
roles
equality
has
inequality
participation
The
traditional
gender
Paralympics.
Committee
of
and
increased
billion
visit
more
earlier).
there
viewers
2016).
are
possibilities
environmental
adequate
for
increasing
sustainability
management
the
in
equality
leisure
positive
and
impact
and
economic,
tourism,
may
not
social
although
be
and
without
realized.
77
E
OPTION
E:
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
QuESTiOn PRACTiCE
The table shows the world’s 15 most visited cities in 2017.
Table E.4.1.
City
The 15 most visited cities in the world, 2017
Visitors
City
(millions)
Visitors
City
(millions)
Bangkok
20.2
Tokyo
London
20
Paris
16.1
Visitors
(millions)
12.5
Istanbul
9.24
Seoul
12.44
Barcelona
8.9
New York City
12.4
Amsterdam
8.7
Dubai
16
Kuala Lumpur
12.1
Milan
8.4
Singapore
13.45
Hong Kong
9.25
Osaka
7.9
Source of data: Mastercard Global Destination Cities Index (2017)
a)
)
Determine the range of values for visitor numbers in 2017.
[1]
)
State the median value of visitor numbers in 2017.
[1]
b)
Otle one way in which high visitor numbers may impact negatively on local communities.
c)
Using an example, expla one strength and one weakness of ecotourism for local
communities.
[2]
[3 + 3]
Essay
Examine ways in which tourism can aect a country’s development.
[10]
how do i approac tese qestos?
a)
)
A quick calculation is required for this question and it is recommended that you show your working. You
should also include the unit of measurement (in this case, millions of visitors).
)
This is quick question wor th only 1 mark . No sentence is required, simply state the median value (remember
that the median is the middle number).
b)
This question is wor th 2 marks, so be prepared to be quite specic about the negative impact, or alternatively
include an example. Ideally, you should include both.
c)
You should structure your answer to this question as two separate paragraphs, for the strength and weakness
respectively. These two points will require development, and you should refer to an example in your answer.
Essay
This is quite an “open” question in which you can discuss a range of eects due to the development of tourism
such as economic, social and environmental consequences. These consequences could come from dierent
tourism sectors, such as mass tourism or sustainable tourism, and there are both costs and benets from tourism.
Remember that the command term is “examine”, so an assumption that tourism can only be beneficial (or the
opposite) must be challenged in your response. Key concepts such as place could be discussed as well as scale
since you will have studied tourism as a national development strategy. With this in mind, you could discuss the
national benets from such a strategy, such as the contribution to GDP
, as well as the local disadvantages, such as
locals only being employed in unskilled jobs.
You could also take a temporal approach by examining how tourism can aect a place over time. You may have
studied the Butler model, which demonstrates how costs and benets can occur as a destination develops and
how these perspectives may dier depending on the stakeholder involved (for example, a local environment group
versus a hotel owner).
78
QuE STiOn
PRACTiCE
S AMPLE STuDEnT AnS WER
a)
i)
20.2
–
7
.9
=
12.3
million
visitors.
Mark 1/1
ii)
20.2
–
7
.9
=
12.3
million
visitors.
Incorrect, since the range between the 1st and 15th value has been stated
again. New York City with 12.4 million is the median value (8th consecutive
value out of 15).
Marks 0/1
b)
High
numbers
of
visitors
can
negatively
impact
on
local
▲ Negative
communities
on
a
city’s
due
to
streets.
the
T
his
congestion
is
seen
in
and
cities
overcrowding
such
as
of
Barcelona
▲ Example
developed
and
Vienna
consuming
jobs
or
and
for
going
it
means
people
to
that
travel
it
to
is
more
places
arduous
within
the
impact
given
tourists
and
time
city
for
given
and
point
further
their
shopping.
Marks 2/2
▼ There
c)
One
strength
for
local
communities
is
that
for
environment
they
are
not
being
sustainable
Monteverde
A
is
negative
cloud
for
forest
impact
from
damaged
the
in
future.
Costa
by
T
his
the
tourists,
has
is
been
in
valid
relevant
thus
seen
this
widespread
T
he
are
minimized
growth
development
amount
create
of
jobs
many
of
for
in
order
mass-market
the
indirect
local
development
(although
is
a
included)
the
is
that
there
is
a
lack
of
in
an
area
since
to
protect
tourism
community
the
will
and
reason
development
visitor
third
numbers
of
point
Rica.
ecotourism
economic
lack
example
▼ A valid
more
a
their
is
given.
needed
to
Further
get
the
mark
environment.
create
these
a
larger
will
in
turn
jobs.
Marks 4/6
Essay
Examine ways in which tourism can aect a country’s development.
▲ Knowledge
T
he
term
‘development’
is
often
used
to
describe
a
with
economic
country’s
T
ourism
their
development
social
is
development,
when
normal
although
people
home
but
decide
not
for
it
can
such
to
as
visit
longer
also
be
health
a
applied
and
1
year
.
to
a
valid
shown
here
denition
the
education.
destination
than
is
country’s
away
Some
from
▲ Another
valid
denition
countries
79
E
OPTION
E:
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
with
▲ Appropriate
SPOR T
unique
historical
▲ Provides
statement
a
clear
which
increase
thesis
provides
for
provide
examples
would
to
improve
inux
an
outline
such
as
a
beach
or
a
GDP
have
with
the
an
resources
inux
of
available
tourists.
to
be
able
to
Alternatively,
of
tourists
can
exceed
a
place’s
carrying
capacity.
be
discussed
the
I
agree
and
disagree
with
the
statement
since
there
are
of
as
well
as
benets.
which
structure
Greece
has
modern
▲ Clear
resources
evaluation
costs
the
building
their
T
herefore,
▼ Could
touristic
a
an
foundation
primary
terminology
seen
tremendous
history.
Mass
benets
tourism
has
from
tourism
developed
in
the
during
its
country
and
point
it
is
a
very
popular
destination
for
many
Europeans.
In
1950,
▲ Provides evidence of tourism
33,000
growth
which
applies
to
the
2017
.
a
▲ Relevant
example
with
tourists
visited
Greece
which
increased
to
27
million
by
question
some
Greece
recession
and
other
suffered
for
6
an
years.
European
economic
It
was
collapse
helped
countries
but
with
in
2008
and
assistance
tourism
helped
it
suffered
from
the
recover
IMF
and
detail
it
contributed
30%
▲ A nal
with
the
sentence
thesis
that
of
all
approximately
employment
25%
of
connected
Greece’s
to
GDP
tourism.
with
almost
T
herefore
Greece
is
connects
statement
and
an
example
of
a
country
that
experienced
economic
development
question
▼ No
point
beginning
made
of
this
at
the
paragraph
from
tourism,
more
to
help
the
Maldives,
Greece
and
with
of
economic
to
as
16%
and
of
recognize
well
local
as
and
it
then
used
tourism
once
economically.
has
receives
jobs
that
since
are
a
GDP
per
almost
capita
75%
supported
explanation
is
there
are
tourism
restaurants
contribute
gure
almost
half
that
by
of
its
GDP
tourism.
It
from
is
tourism
important
and
workers
to
jobs
will
supermarkets
supported.
money
indirect
the
All
of
supported
spend
which
these
government
jobs
their
be
can
tourists
money
means
will
which
by
that
taxed
then
in
other
and
be
will
spent
on
of
improving
the
social
benets
and
80
which
all
employment
social
but
benets
explanation
▲ Example
develop
recession
structure
of
▲ Example
further
a
which
T
he
would
suffered
education.
development
of
the
Maldives
such
as
health
QuE STiOn
T
here
can
be
a
cost
though
as
a
destination
can
▲ Discussion
experience
of
costs
benets—therefore
signicant
from
social
tourism
and
problems
Ibiza
is
whilst
a
great
earning
example
increased
for
this.
revenue
However
,
costs
increase
is
such
in
famous
over
the
(this
people
for
its
30
since
was
overcrowded
crime
last
problems
as
clubs
years.
local
banned
who
during
were
in
the
and
beaches,
tourism
the
2018
looking
are
for
drugs
there
renting
though)
congestion
season.
illegal
Economically,
people
trafc
so
somewhere
out
has
also
rooms
is
an
appropriate
example
an
Ibiza
▲ Evidence
for
social
▲ Evidence
for
economic
▲ Connects
with
costs
increased
been
and
apartments
increased
live.
as
there
and
addition,
trade
have
rents
to
In
well
answer
evaluation
▲ An
are
as
the
PRACTiCE
T
herefore
for
costs
local
social
and
the
thesis
statement
economic
T
his
problems
essay
has
examining
T
his
essay
can
shown
tourism
only
be
the
the
result
costs
growth
somewhat
in
and
of
benets
Greece,
agrees
tourism
with
the
the
development.
from
tourism
Maldives
and
by
Ibiza.
statement.
A very shor t conclusion is present, which could be more detailed by reecting
on the key points of the essay. The response demonstrates that dierent
places have varying experiences from tourism and examples from a range
of countries at dierent levels of development show the student’s breadth of
knowledge.
Fur ther knowledge could be included about the growth of tourism in each
destination but the presence of evaluation ensures that the response will be
credited with a mark from 7 upwards. Fur ther explanation and some minor
improvements to the structure of the essay would increase the mark awarded
and the carry capacity of places could be explicitly mentioned in the main
body of the essay.
Finally, more connections with the key concepts, such as the power of
dierent stakeholders within the development and evolution of a tourism
strategy, would improve the response.
Marks 8/10
81
F
This
theme
health.
FOOD
examines
Economic
the
geography
development
is
of
often
food
AND
and
You should be able to show:
accompanied
✔
by
changes
in
diet
and
in
disease
H E A LT H
pattern.
ways
of
measuring
between
neither
Food
food
food
and
and
intake
health
health
nor
are
are
health
closely
is
easy
related.
influenced
by
to
in
food
and
health
places;
measure.
The
provision
gender,
TNCs
✔
of
how
physical
changes
and
and
governments.
✔
the
in
✔
power
future
and
M E A S U R I N G
F O O D
and
food
incidence
inuence
F. 1
disparities
However,
of
human
and
spread
different
over
diets
possibilities
improved
A N D
processes
production
and
of
for
to
disease;
stakeholders
and
lead
consumption,
in
relation
to
health;
sustainable
agriculture
heath.
H E A LT H
You should be able to show ways of measuring disparities
• Food security – food security
for a population exists when all its
in food and health bet ween places:
people, at all times, have access
✔
Global
patterns
in
food/nutrition
indicators,
including
the
food
to sufficient, safe and nutritious
security
index,
the
hunger
index,
calories
per
person/capita,
food to meet their dietary needs
indicators
of
malnutrition;
and food preferences for an active
✔
The
nutrition
transition,
and
associated
regional
variations
of
food
and healthy life.
consumption
and
nutrition
choices;
• Nutrition transition – the
change in diet that is associated
✔
Global
life
with a population becoming
access
wealthier (shifting from low
and
income to middle income) and
patterns
expectancy
to
in
health
(HALE),
sanitation
and
indicators,
infant
the
including
mortality,
ratio
health-adjusted
maternal
between
mortality,
doctors/physicians
people;
consuming more meat and dairy
✔
The
epidemiological
transition,
the
diseases
continuum
(diseases
products.
of
poverty
aging
• Epidemiology – the study of
to
diseases
population
for
of
afuence),
disease
and
the
implications
of
a
global
burden.
diseases.
• Epidemiological transition –
Global patterns in food/nutrition indicators
the shift in the major diseases
experienced as a population
moves from being poorer
to wealthier. For example, a
decrease in infectious diseases
There
the
are
data
Index,
many
uses
although
malnutrition
inequalities
terms
that
they
and
are
are
in
access
quite
to
food
subjective,
comprised
of
many
and
such
nutrition.
as
the
elements
Some
Global
related
of
Hunger
to
mortality
.
but an increase in degenerative
The
Food
Security
Index
measures
the
affordability
,
availability
and
diseases.
quality
The
of
of
food.
Global
three
child
Hunger
main
components
mortality
undernutrition
82
Index
(as
(GHI)
(but
measured
(stunting
and
is
a
four
by
the
composite
indicator,
indicators).
under-5
wasting)
and
These
mortality
consisting
include
rate),
inadequate
child
access
tofood.
F
.1
Prevalence
of
hunger
food
supply,
child
nutrition
wasting),
100
on
being
child
based
mortality
(stunting
a
scale
ME A S URING
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
on
and
and
0–100,
worst.
Greater
or
equal
to
50
35.0–49.9
20.0–34.9
10.0–19.9
Less
than
10.0
Insufficient
significant
Insufficient
Not
data,
concern
data
calculated
Figure F
.1.1.
GHI, by severity, 2017
Test yourself
Access
to
person
per
and
food
can
day
,
height/age
or
also
by
be
measured
indicators
compared
with
of
by
the
number
malnutrition
national
of
such
calories
as
per
weight/age
F
.1 Describe the global variations
or
in the GHI.
[3]
statistics.
The nutrition transition, and associated regional variations
of food consumption and nutrition choices
You are not expected to know the
The
dietary
qualitative
higher
and
energy
saturated
from
changes
fat
that
characterize
quantitative
density
intake
diet
with
(mainly
carbohydrates,
changes
in
“nutrition
diet.
increased
from
dietary
the
animal
fibre,
fruit
There
fat
and
is
a
shift
added
sources),
and
transition”
and
include
towards
sugar,
reduced
a
greater
intake
vegetables.
names of all countries, so don’t
worry if you cannot identify a
par ticular country. However, you
are expected to know all of the
continents and you can refer to
a country’s place in a par ticular
continent (e.g. nor th, south,
40
Figure F
.1.2.
Percentage of total
coastal, central, etc).
energy from fat and saturated fatty
30
acids
Source of data: World Health Organization
%
20
Content link
Relate this information to the
10
trends in food consumption
explored in unit 3.1.
0
Low
Lower
income
Upper
High
middle
middle
income
income
income
Test yourself
Key
F
.2 Define the term “nutrition
Energy
from
total
Energy
from
saturated
fat
fatty
transition”.
acids
[1]
Global patterns in health indicators
You will not be expected to
Health-adjusted
life
expectancy
(HALE)
produce exact calculations
HALE
is
an
measures
of
sex-specific
number
based
of
on
measure
indicator
both
of
age-
mortality
expected
the
of
and
overall
into
of
a
life
life
and
of
single
of
in
a
a
health
population.
data,
statistic.
equivalent
experience
of
health
sex-specific
data,
years
average
quantity
the
to
of
HALE
years
population.
quality
and
age-
combines
and
in
full
HALE
is
in the exam, but you will be
expected to manipulate the
indicates
lived
Thus,
It
the
health,
a
data (estimate/work out a rough
change/rate of change) to
achieve full marks.
life.
83
F
OPTION
F:
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
•
The
social
burden
of
ill
health
is
higher
for
The
social
burden
of
ill
health
is
highest
women
than
for
men.
Concept link
•
among
those
in
“early”
old
PL ACES: Places at different stages
age,
not
among
the
very
elderly
.
of development have unique
•
characteristics in terms of the
Higher
socio-economic
expectancy
health of their citizens. Spatial
and
a
status
lower
confers
burden
of
ill
a
dual
advantage—longer
life
health.
patterns can be established
Infant
globally to connect places with
mortality
rate
similarities, such as levels of
The
infant
mortality
rate
(IMR)
is
the
number
of
deaths
in
children
malnutrition or obesity. Indicators
under
the
age
of
1
per
1,000
live
births.
It
is
an
age-specific
mortality
that measure the health of people
rate,
that
is,
so
more
it
is
comparing
the
death
rates
among
the
same
ages,
and
are varied, and there is a transition
is
useful
than
the
crude
death
rate.
over time in places as a range of
factors affect a person’s access to
Maternal
mortality
rates
healthcare and education.
The
maternal
deaths
by
per
100,000
pregnancy
MMR
with
Access
Due
the
to
to
are
live
its
rate
(MMR)
births
from
management.
2,000
deaths
per
is
the
any
In
annual
cause
2016,
100,000
number
related
South
live
to
of
or
Sudan
female
aggravated
had
the
highest
births.
sanitation
a
combination
of
access
rural
access
or
over
provision
without
Test yourself
mortality
and
to
of
population
facilities,
to
the
sanitation
urban
improved
growth
number
has
disparities:
sanitation
of
increased
over
80%
facilities
and
people
since
of
the
slow
in
progress
1990.
In
urban
compared
with
sub-Saharan
to
Africa
addition,
population
51%
in
rural
there
has
areas.
F
.3 Explain why the infant
mor tality rate is a useful indicator
Global
of development.
variations
in
access
to
doctors/physicians
[2]
Access
to
doctors
varies
from
one
doctor
per
100,000
people
in
Burundi
F
.4 Suggest why the number
and
one
doctor
per
50,000
people
in
Mozambique
to
one
doctor
per
280
of doctors per person is not a
people
in
Hungary
and
Iceland.
There
is
also
a
disparity
in
the
facilities
reliable measure of the quality
available
of health care systems.
in
hospitals
and
clinics.
[2]
The epidemiological transition, the diseases continuum
and the implications of a global aging population for
disease burden
The
epidemiological
largely
infectious,
degenerative
there
has
HICs
and
due
to
and
35%.
Aging
Of
in
been
a
a
rise
the
total
people
decline
in
global
60
in
to
disease
the
diseases
infectious
degenerative
disease
aged
refers
non-communicable.
cardiovascular
and
the
and
transition
communicable
In
the
in
those
last
diseases
diseases.
(CVD)
shift
to
The
in
mortality
that
two
are
centuries,
many
of
proportion
increased
to
from
largely
today’s
of
between
deaths
10%
burden
burden
years
of
and
disease,
older.
23%
This
is
attributable
accounts
for
to
about
disorders
50%
of
burden
in
the
Content link
health
burden
in
high-income
countries
and
20%
of
the
The challenges associated with
low-
and
middle-income
countries.
The
leading
contributors
to
disease
aging populations are looked at in
burden
in
older
people
unit 1.3.
over)
84
and
cancer
(15%).
are
CVD
(over
30%
in
people
aged
60
years
and
F
.2
F. 2
F O O D
SYST E M S
A N D
FO OD
S YS T E M S
S P R E A D
AND
O F
SPRE AD
OF
DISE A SE S
D I S E A S E S
You should be able to show how physical and human
• Systems – a simplified way
processes lead to changes in food production and
of looking at a feature (such as
consumption, and incidence and spread of disease:
farming), by breaking it down into
inputs (factors), processes and
✔
The
merits
of
a
systems
approach
(inputs,
stores,
transfers,
products.
outputs)
to
compare
production,
and
energy
relative
efciency
and
sustainability
in
water
footprints
different
in
food
• Water footprints – a measure
places;
of the use of water by humans
✔
The
physical
and
human
processes
that
can
lead
to
variations
in
or nations and/or the amount
food
consumption;
needed to grow or manufacture
✔
The
importance
of
diffusion
(including
expansion,
relocation)
in
the
and
the
of
diseases,
spread
of
adoption/acquisition,
agricultural
products such as meat.
innovations,
• Diffusion – the way in which
also
in
spread
and
the
role
of
geographic
a feature (such as a disease)
factors
(including
physical,
economic
and
political
barriers)
in
the
spreads.
rate
✔
of
diffusion;
Geographic
impacts
factors
water-borne
✔
contributing
(demographic
One
to
the
incidence,
socio-economic)
of
diffusion
and
vector-borne
and
diseases;
detailed
detailed
and
example
example
of
a
of
a
vector-borne
water-borne
disease
and
one
disease.
The merits of a systems approach to compare energy
efficiency and water footprints in food production,
and relative sustainability in different places
A system
by
is
a
breaking
simplified
it
down
way
into
of
looking
inputs
at
(factors
a
complex
that
affect
feature,
the
system),
Table F
.2.1. Energy eciency
their
relative
size
(stores),
processes
(the
activities
that
lead
to
the
ratios for selected farming systems
production
of
food)
and
outputs
(products
of
the
system).
(input:output of energy input)
Energy
The
efficiency
energy
into
a
the
contrasts
but
efficiency
system
system,
the
ratios
ratio
compared
inputs
with
are
may
with
very
intensive
returns
is
be
a
measure
the
low
outputs.
but
farming
of
the
where
relatively
the
In
amount
a
energy
traditional
outputs
the
of
are
inputs
1:65
Hunter-gatherers
1:7.8
Cereal farm
1:1.9
Dairy farm
1:0.38
Greenhouse lettuces
1:0.002
inputs
agroforestry
relatively
may
Agroforestry
be
high.
quite
This
high
low.
Source of data: Adapted from Tivy, J.,
Agricultural ecology, 1990, Longman
Water
The
footprints
projected
products
is
resources.
water
in
food
increase
likely
to
in
put
Large-scale
footprints
production
than
the
production
further
and
pressure
commercial
small-scale
on
farming
consumption
the
world’s
systems
subsistence
tend
farming
of
animal
freshwater
to
have
higher
systems.
3
The
water
footprint
of
meat
from
beef
cattle
(15,400
m
per
tonne)
3
is
much
larger
than
the
footprint
of
meat
from
sheep
(10,400
m
per
Test yourself
3
tonne)
or
chicken
(4,300
m
per
tonne).
F
.5 Suggest why the energy
Per
tonne
footprint
Global
water
feed
of
product,
than
animal
per
for
products
generally
have
a
larger
water
crops.
Most
animals.
efficiency ratio for agroforestry is
higher than for dairy farms.
production
year.
the
animal
of
requires
this
water
about
(98%)
2,422
is
billion
used
in
the
cubic
metres
production
of
of
[2]
F
.6 Explain why the water
footprint for animals is higher
than for crops.
[2]
85
F
OPTION
F:
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
The physical and human processes that can lead to
variations in food consumption
Income
and
level
of
education
influence
food
choice.
Diet
may
vary
Content link
depending
on
the
availability
food.
low-income
of
income
to
purchase
more
healthy
The effect of income on the
For
a
family
,
price
plays
a
larger
role
than
taste
and
consumption of food and other
quality
in
deciding
whether
the
food
will
be
purchased.
The
variety
of
resources is looked at in unit 3.1.
foods
carried
in
neighbourhood
shops
may
also
influence
diet.
The impor tance of diffusion in the spread of agricultural
innovations, the spread of diseases, and the role of
geographic factors in the rate of diffusion
Diffusion
The
innovations
introduction
number
of
financial
to
of
other
security
,
Be sure to study diagrams
the
more
people
accept
the
are
agricultural
very
more
people
technique
information
personality
of
the
few
to
the
adopter
and
and
an
often
will
the
a
the
a
proximity
innovation.
cost
(figure
take
upon
innovations,
and
adopt
innovation
change
depends
regarding
people
widespread,
adopt
reluctant
new
Figure F
.2.1.
new
Initially
becomes
increasingly
to
a
including
adopters.
information
some
of
factors
is
reduced,
F.2.1).
long
As
However,
time,
if
at
all,
technique.
The diusion of innovations
carefully, and work out what
they show before you begin
100
an answer. In figure F.2.1 the
blue line shows the number
%
of adopters at any given time
75
erahs
whereas the red line refers to the
cumulative number of people
tekraM
50
that have adopted an innovation
over time.
25
Test yourself
0
F
.7 Suggest reasons why some
people are reluctant to adopt an
innovation.
Innovators
Early
Early
Late
Laggards
2.5%
Adopters
Majority
Majority
16%
13.5%
34%
34%
[2]
Types
There
•
•
of
disease
are
diffusion
several
types
of
Expansion
diffusion
source
diffuses
and
Relocation
into
new
occurs
diffusion:
when
outwards
diffusion
areas,
disease
occurs
leaving
into
its
expanding
new
when
behind
the
the
disease
has
a
areas.
spreading
origin
or
the
disease
source
of
moves
the
disease.
•
Contagious
the
•
direct
Hierarchical
through
•
diffusion
contact
an
Network
is
ordered
diffusion
or
the
spread
individuals
diffusion
transportation
86
of
occurs
sequence
occurs
social
of
with
when
of
an
a
a
networks.
or
disease
disease
through
infected.
phenomenon
classes
when
infectious
those
spreads
places.
spreads
via
F
.2
FO OD
S YS T E M S
AND
SPRE AD
OF
DISE A SE S
Geographic factors contributing to the incidence, diffusion
Concept link
and impacts (demographic and socio-economic) of
PROCESSES:
Changes to the
vector-borne and water-borne diseases
processes of food production and
A number
impacts
(an
of
of
geographic
diseases
insect/a
such
factors
as
vector-borne
lead
cholera
to
(a
the
incidence,
water-borne
spread
disease)
consumption take place at a range
and
and
malaria
of different scales. Production,
for example, can be affected by
disease).
the access to shipping routes
Water-borne
disease:
Cholera
during geopolitical tension, or the
availability of new technology
Each
year
there
are
between
1.3
million
and
4.0
Most
of
million
cases
of
cholera,
that increases agricultural yields.
and
21,000–143,000
deaths
worldwide.
those
infected
can
be
These processes operate within
successfully
treated
with
oral
rehydration
solution.
a system, and the water-food-
Cholera
water
is
an
acute
diarrheal
contaminated
with
the
infection
caused
bacterium
by
Vibrio
ingestion
of
food
or
cholerae.
energy nexus is par t of this
system. The spread of different
forms of disease is possible due to
Cholera
transmission
is
closely
linked
to
inadequate
access
to
clean
geographic processes such as the
water
and
sanitation
facilities.
Typical
at-risk
areas
include
slums
and
movement of people, or the lack of
refugee
camps,
where
minimum
requirements
for
clean
water
and
vaccines in a place.
sanitation
The
and
are
not
long-term
universal
Actions
solution
access
targeting
implementation
and
hygiene
sanitation
being
to
for
cholera
safe
adapted
good
control
drinking
environmental
of
(WASH)
and
met.
hygiene
to
economic
adequate
include
sustainable
ensure
practices
in
and
conditions
long-term
solutions
lies
water
to
the
use
the
water,
of
development
sanitation.
safe
populations
sanitation
water,
most
at
basic
risk
of
cholera.
Vector-borne
disease:
Malaria
life-threatening
is
a
transmitted
to
mosquitoes.
In
2016
in
and
reduce
DR
in
malaria
Figure F
.2.2.
through
an
the
and
estimated
Africa
for
billion
disease
preventable
were
funding
US$2.7
is
deaths.
Nigeria
Total
people
It
there
445,000
Malaria
caused
bites
parasites
infected
that
are
female Anopheles
curable.
216
accounted
of
by
million
for
90%
of
cases
of
malaria
malaria
cases
and
deaths
(40%
Congo).
malaria
2016.
control
V
ector
and
control
elimination
is
the
main
reached
way
to
an
estimated
prevent
and
transmission.
The global distribution of malaria
Key
Malaria
occurs
Malaria
occurs
not
transmission
in
Malaria
is
transmission
throughout
some
parts
transmission
known
to
occur
Source of data: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
87
F
OPTION
F:
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Two
forms
indoor
of
vector
residual
control—insecticide-treated
spraying
(IRS)—are
spraying
with
effective
in
mosquito
a
wide
nets
range
and
of
circumstances.
Indoor
residual
reduce
malaria
of
houses
in
transmission.
targeted
areas
insecticides
Its
are
potential
is
is
a
powerful
realized
way
when
to
at
rapidly
least
80%
sprayed.
Test yourself
F
.8 Outline the ways in which diseasess may be spread.
[5]
F
.9 (a) Describe the distribution of malaria as shown in figure F.2.2.
[3]
(b) Explain two reasons for the distribution that you have described. [2+2]
F
.10 Compare the main conditions required for the development of cholera
with the main conditions required for the development of malaria.
F. 3
S TA K E H O L D E R S
I N
F O O D
A N D
[2+2]
H E A LT H
You should be able to show the power of different
• Famine – the UN definition
of a famine states that 20% of
stakeholders in relation to influence over diets and health:
the population must have fewer
✔
The
roles
of
international
organizations
(such
as
the
World
Food
than 2,100 kilocalories of food
Programme,
Food
and
Nations
World
Agriculture
Organization
of
the
United
available per day; more than
and
Health
Organization),
governments
and
NGOs
30% of children must be acutely
in
combating
food
insecurity
and
disease;
malnourished; and two deaths
✔
The
inuence
of
TNCs
(agribusinesses
and
the
media)
in
shaping
per day in every 10,000 people
food
consumption
habits;
(or four deaths per day in every
10,000 children) must be being
✔
caused by lack of food.
Gender
roles
related
to
food
production/acquisition
✔
Factors
power
✔
affecting
of
One
the
case
country
the
media
study
or
and
and
severity
and
of
of
access
the
health,
disparities
famine,
to
issues
including
in
including
international
affecting
food
health;
a
governance,
the
aid;
famine-stricken
area.
The roles of international organizations, governments and
NGOs in combating food insecurity and disease
Be careful about using the term
Combating
food
insecurity
“famine”. It has a very precise
meaning. Many places lack
Many
stakeholders
contribute
to
achieving
food
security:
food security but do not have
•
The
Food
and
Agriculture
Organization
(FAO),
whose
main
aims
a famine.
include
•
The
World
focuses
•
•
on
National
to
eradication
Food
food
of
it,
of
hunger,
Programme
assistance
governments
A number
access
88
the
NGOs
such
as
help
(WFP)
for
may
to
food
the
aims
to
poorest
subsidize
deliver
Operation
insecurity
and
food
food
Hunger
to
in
end
and
malnutrition;
global
most
hunger.
It
vulnerable;
production;
those
South
with
insufficient
Africa.
F
.3
Combating
The
Health
health
There
are
other
Vaccines
financing
that
was
brand
was
70
and
Malaria
(WHO)
For
was
is
immunization
Sans
Frontières
the
in
1971
and
the
run
Nobel
by
its
the
in
(GA
VI)
part
of
Global
2002.
the
UN
Fund
The
provides
AND
H E A LT H
that
deals
to
Fight
Global
AIDS,
Alliance
international
coverage.
(MSF—Doctors
to
humanitarianism
awarded
example,
launched
Immunizations
founded
of
owned
Organization
initiatives.
and
for
Médecins
FO OD
issues.
Tuberculosis
for
IN
disease
World
with
S TA K E H O L D E R S
provide
emergency
independent
Peace
staff.
Prize
In
in
2015
Without
it
of
Borders)
medical
aid
governments.
1999,
is
a
provided
is
an
and
MSF,
worldwide
medical
NGO
a
new
which
movement
aid
in
over
countries.
•
MSF
(in
•
•
treated
5,883
Bangladesh)
them
aged
They
also
They
treated
(SGBV)
they
between
between
saw
5
4,680
377
between
only
people
treat
a
for
September
and
of
survivors
2017
measles
of
and
fraction
in
the
and
Cox’s
April
Bazar
2018,
district
most
of
14.
cases
August
diphtheria
of
sexual
April
all
in
that
and
period.
gender-based
2018.
However,
violence
MSF
believe
cases.
The influence of TNCs (agribusinesses and the media)
Concept link
in shaping food consumption habits
POWER: When there are issues
The
nutrition
starchy
but
transition
staples
there
is
also
energy-dense,
and
to
harmful
in
include
a
LICs
more
tendency
towards
non-traditional
fatty
acids,
leads
fruit
and
foods
are
to
a
and
an
change
increase
which
poor
in
in
diet
vegetables,
are
in
away
meat
intake
often
and
of
high
connected with the healthcare
from
and diets of people, it normally
dairy
,
processed,
in
sugar,
salt
involves a significant section of
the global population, covering
an area of a country, continent or
micronutrients.
a socio-economic/demographic
Multinational
retailers
have
followed
multinational
food
group within society. To tackle
manufacturers,
soft-drink
companies
and
fast-food
chains
into
food
these problems, it can often
and
drink
sectors
in
virtually
all
countries;
they
have
introduced
involve a range of different
the
types
of
supply-chain
management
previously
seen
only
in
the
stakeholders, each with different
developed
world.
levels of power, but each with a
The
move
seen
as
towards
demand
labour-force
processed
There
In
has
Latin
relative
and
fast
been
food
to
have
is
a
staples
some
that
prices
the
early
packaged
and
soft
marketing,
for
of
to
of
was
and
urbanization
demand
for
LICs
and
may
be
fresh
often
50%–60%
of
the lives of those that struggle to
female
get access to good and to
convenience
and
firms
and
food
at
LICs.
sales.
convenience
vegetables.
and
targeted
MICs
retail
foods
Modern
supermarkets
children,
to
foods.
(and
foods
convenience
relative
supermarket
40%
in
of
processed
fruit
drink
vested interest in safeguarding
combat disease.
supermarkets
of
MICs
supermarkets
price
Western
stages
in
out.
packaged
food
a
deliver
the
and
diets
incomes,
led
eating
reduce
evidence
in
and
fast-food
the
have
expansion
preference
some
particularly
Growing
supermarkets
traditional
reduced
Brazil,
rapid
sophisticated
encourage
There
a
food
systems
manufacturers,
employ
driven.
Western-style
participation
America,
Modern
more
cheaper
to
fresh
penetration
than
in
Test yourself
stores)
produce,
in
a
country
.
traditional
F
.11 Explain how TNCs influence
In
global food consumption.
[4]
outlets.
89
F
OPTION
F:
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Gender roles related to food and health
Gender,
food
security
In
and
low-income
women
and
security
grow
in
out
their
most
Women
often
Gender
and
and
as
in
about
unpaid
of
the
of
and
Eritrea,
guaranteeing
usually
food
Rural
and
a
the
While
rearing
for
small
carry
diet,
products.
food-producing
sub-Saharan
involved
men
also
diverse
marketable
and
rural
food
responsible
women
ensures
provide
Asia
workers
are
which
half
in
communities.
protein.
can
South-East
Ethiopia
roles
and
most
processing,
losses
as
women
provides
represent
workforce
crops,
preparing
food
such
different
households
which
minimizes
play
field
and
livestock,
countries,
men
mainly
growing
Figure F
.3.1.
nutrition
in
Africa,
subsistence
but
farming.
health
A woman prepares
injera bread in Chencha, Ethiopia
Life
be
expectancy
partly
lifestyle
and
for
because
than
retire
at
women
men
women.
a
later
are
is
generally
more
likely
However,
age,
and
more
that
may
higher
to
have
men
than
a
work
hasten
for
more
men.
full-time
their
This
may
“self-destructive”
death.
than
women,
Nevertheless,
Content link
women
in
LICs
have
low
expectancy
very
physical
jobs,
which
may
explain,
in
part,
the
Unit 5.1 examines ways of
life
compared
with
HICs.
Poverty
and
diseases
are
also
promoting gender equality in
likely
to
play
an
important
part.
the workplace.
Table F
.3.1.
Rank
Highest and lowest life expectancies: male and female (2015–20)
Highest female
Years
Rank
Highest male life
life expectancy
Years
expectancy
1
Monaco
93.6
1
Monaco
85.6
2
Hong Kong
87.4
2=
Hong Kong
81.7
3
Japan
87.3
2=
Iceland
81.7
4
Singapore
86.7
4
Switzerland
81.6
Italy
86.0
5
Israel, Italy
81.3
Test yourself
F
.12 Study table F.3.1.
5
(a) Describe the main
Lowest female life
Lowest male life
differences in life expectancy for
expectancy
expectancy
the countries with the highest
1
Swaziland
47.7
1
Swaziland
49.5
2
Lesotho
50.2
2
Lesotho
50.3
3
Sierra Leone
52.7
3
Cen. African Rep.
51.1
4
Chad
53.6
4
Chad
51.4
5
Cote d’Ivoire
53.8
5
Sierra Leone
51.5
and lowest life expectancies for
females and males.
[2+2]
(b) Suggest reasons for the
differences that you have
identified.
[3]
Source of data: The Economist, Pocket world in gures (2017)
Factors affecting the severity of famine
There
are
rainfall
or
many
may
overgrazing
pressure
the
or
increased
—civil
Case
In
It
90
war
main
2017,
disrupts
in
first
A lack
farming,
in
Sudan
time
was
the
declared
2011
that
to
lead
to
and
in
UN
reduction
a
to
East,
state
had
of
may
to
aid.
in
food
could
likely
Sudan
Middle
be
is
access
South
the
facilities
factor
unreliable
Deforestation
population
a
affordability
storage
in
the
Increased
could
main
transport
and
and/or
shortages.
unemployment)
proper
famine
Africa
since
as
low
food
Decreasing
However,
a
tenure
(such
of
and
degradation.
land
person.
causing
Famine
South
the
soil
entitlement
waste.
factor
study:
was
per
Prolonged
shortages
secure
famine.
food
famine.
cause
of
land
of
water
may
food
of
to
lack
of
in
outbreaks
the
a
amount
decrease
causes
lead
or
lead
lead
be
a
to
to
political
Civil
recent
in
war
was
years.
2017
of
used
famine
the
by
term.
the
UN.
Afurther
F
.4
1.1
million
Some
people
250,000
children
malnutrition.
Three
at
a
other
Nearly
2013,
are
over
escape
work
at
risk
pay
F. 4
of
risk
25%
ethnic
to
said
to
under
6
be
the
million
famine”.
of
of
killings.
for
age
of
“emergency”
5
The
suffer
relied
Somalia
Sudan’s
People
an
Between
starvation.
South
in
people
countries—Nigeria,
“credible
people
were
on
and
the
factor
flee
from
food
H E A LT H
that
“severe
aid
they
cannot
FO OD
SECURITY
AND
S U S TA I N A B I L I T Y
share
fled
harvest
acute”
during
countries,
have
AND
situation.
Yemen—were
four
population
who
FUTURE
said
20
is
to
be
million
war.
their
their
2018.
Since
homes
crops
to
or
Test yourself
F
.13 Define the term famine.
[2]
food.
F U T U R E
H E A LT H
S E C U R I T Y
A N D
A N D
F O O D
S U S TA I N A B I L I T Y
You should be able to show examples of future possibilities
• Epidemic – a fast-spreading
for sustainable agriculture and improved health:
✔
Possible
✔
solutions
One
case
to
study
food
of
insecurity
,
attempts
to
including
tackle
food
waste
outbreak of a disease.
reduction;
• Pandemic – a global epidemic.
• In vitro meat – Cultured or
insecurity;
synthetic meat produced in a
✔
Advantages
and
disadvantages
of
contemporary
approaches
laboratory from stem cells rather
to
food
production,
including
genetically
modied
organisms
than from an animal that has
(GMOs),
vertical
farming
and
in
vitro
meat;
ever lived.
✔
The
merits
including
means
✔
of
of
prevention
social
and
Managing
pandemics,
prior
and
of
treatment
marginalization
infection
local
and
global
scientic
in
issues,
managing
government
disease,
priorities,
intervention;
including
the
awareness,
epidemiology
international
of
the
action
disease,
and
the
role
media;
✔
One
case
learned
study
for
of
a
contemporary
pandemic
pandemic
management
in
the
and
the
lessons
future.
Possible solutions to food insecurity
Case
study:
Food
Achieving
insecurity
scarcity
,
the
hazards
and
household
in
need
security
Bangladesh
to
increase
climate
and
food
change.
individual
is
in
Bangladesh
affected
production
Food
levels.
by
of
security
international
nutritional
remains
Bangladesh
has
an
trade,
food,
issue
made
land
natural
at
national,
significant
Despite progress being made to
progress
in
improving
food
security
by
increasing
production
of
rice
find solutions to food security,
using
irrigation
and
high-yielding
varieties.
Increased
emphasis
on
rice
not everyone will benefit. It
has
necessitated
has
also
increased
imports
of
other
foods.
The
government
is good practice to identify
invested
in
storage
facilities
for
rice,
and
cold-storage
facilities
those who will not benefit from
for
meat,
fish,
eggs
and
potatoes.
The
transport
infrastructure
has
improved food security, as well
been
upgraded
to
enable
faster
and
better
distribution
of
food,
as those who will.
including
imports.
Ad vantages and disad vantages of contemporary
Test yourself
approaches to food production
F
.14 Explain how it is possible to
The
advantages
and
disadvantages
of
genetically
modified
achieve food security.
organisms
There
are
become
[4]
(GMOs)
many
more
advantages
predictable,
related
and
food
to
GMOs.
quality
For
can
be
example,
food
improved
by
supplies
the
91
F
OPTION
F:
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
introduction
of
more
vitamins.
GMOs
can
be
modified
to
last
longer
Concept link
POSSIBILITIES: Environmental
and social sustainability refers to
and
may
and
vaccines
even
herbicides
have
medical
designed
and
into
pesticides,
benefits
the
as
(increased
food).
genetic
There
nutrients,
may
resistance
be
is
less
proteins
need
designed
to
into
use
the
GMO.
the improvements to the natural
However,
GMOs
may
cause
antibiotic
resistance.
Crops
that
are
landscape such that future
genetically
modified
may
produce
seeds
that
are
genetically
modified.
generations have access to the
It
is
possible
for
genes
to
get
into
wild
species—a
number
of
weed
similar or improved levels of
species
are
known
to
be
resistant
to
the
herbicide
atrazine.
GMOs
are
nutrition as the current generation.
heavily
controlled
by
TNCs,
and
independent
research
regarding
their
With rising populations and
impacts
is
generally
not
allowed.
increased consumerism, plus the
impact of global climate change,
Vertical
farming
innovative food production
techniques are needed to increase
V
ertical
by
production such that providing
as
adequate nutrition is possible.
day
farming
and
many
reduces
This also requires efficient
allows
night,
vertical
air
as
it
farms
pollution
crops
uses
are
and
to
be
LED
grown
lighting.
found
in
emissions
throughout
It
reduces
high-rise
of
CO
.
the
buildings
It
uses
year,
transport
in
and
costs
cities.
minimal
This
water,
as
2
distribution strategies, and thus
water
food
there are a range of different
stakeholders involved in the food
use
can
be
controlled
organically—no
damage
the
and
pesticides
recycled.
are
V
ertical
needed
as
farming
there
are
also
no
grows
pests
to
crops.
production process.
However,
sector.
pollinate
There
vertical
The
is
the
a
In
vitro
In
vitro
means
in
San
on
that
occurs
lead
to
increases
naturally
.
reliance
This
could
pollination
plants
farming
“Plenty”
farming
of
great
irrigation.
V
ertical
cost
This
there
mainly
in
loss
are
for
in
jobs
are
the
costs
cuts,
urban
in
no
lighting,
power
HICs
of
there
increases
technology
,
if
a
as
the
transport
insects
of
heating
the
and
crops
areas,
to
production.
for
could
die.
example
Francisco.
meat
meat
(IVM)
already
exists
but
is
very
expensive.
It
refers
to
Test yourself
meat
F
.15 Describe the advantages
ethical
[2+2]
F
.16 Outline the main advantages
of genetically modified food.
is
potentially
and disadvantages of in vitro
food.
that
[3]
meat
more
and
perceived
of
in
a
laboratory
environmentally
disease-free
production
contribute
out
grown
to
as
type
systems
local
and
of
that
global
unnatural,
rather
friendly
farming
are
than
energy-
less
and
a
and
On
IVM
offers
to
other
and
a
friendly
,
conventional
water-intensive
the
tasty
farm.
animal-welfare
compared
pollution.
potentially
on
hand,
likely
to
and
IVM
put
is
farmers
business.
The merits of prevention and treatment in
managing disease
Preventative
will
reduce
healthy
of
the
diet
cancer,
Curative
stroke.
and
lost
risk
to
are
economy
,
of
many
Figure F
.4.1.
Regular exercise is an
92
care.
The
difficult
is
the
benefits
and
poor
money
may
be
This
or
may
to
and
from
excess
lifestyles
people
to
that
having
reduce
the
a
risk
to
treat
expensive
cancers,
than
heart
disease
preventative
and
health
care
hospitalization.
of
preventing
diseases—treatment,
costs
are
major
burdens
to
the
families.
poor
or
range
drinking
health-care
and
policies
strokes.
required
lengthy
world’s
choices.
and
more
businesses
information,
eective preventative treatment
disease.
much
involve
adopting
smoking
treatment
is
means
attacks
productivity
Many
of
not
heart
This
may
There
treatment
are
access
socially
at
to
increased
health
risk
of
facilities
marginalized,
and
disease.
for
may
Many
adequate
have
to
lack
health
make
QUE STION
The
the
provision
UK’s
case
in
of
health-care
National
the
USA.
Health
services
Service,
However,
not
or
may
it
be
may
everyone
public,
be
can
for
private,
afford
PRACTICE
example,
as
is
largely
the
private
health-care.
Managing pandemics
Pandemics
to
manage
are
global
and
they
epidemics.
may
Their
involve
new
large
scale
diseases
or
makes
them
relatively
difficult
unknown
ones.
Following
the
government
Containment
exposed
to
to
were
closed,
to
speedy
Case
The
a
the
of
likely
condition
school
response
as
The
number
figure
key
potential
such
study:
a
in
West
of
and
a
given
over
and
not
the
Nigerian
social
radio.
did
only
had
in
not
been
if
they
media
Markets
the
it
who
isolated
and
banned.
pandemic,
officials
America
and
broadcasts
were
2015,
campaign.
Everyone
monitored,
were
become
in
health
Ebola.
Television
health
Africa
public
ending
lessons
to
and
Although
happen
West
were
schools
Africa
due
but
in
Europe.
pandemic
worldwide
double
major
to
found
North
people
Ebola
massive
Gatherings
diabetes
to
and
a
was
people.
and
had
areas
of
symptoms.
reassure
Ebola
the
virus
the
used
other
was
the
developed
the
outbreak
established
by
2035.
cause
of
with
diabetes
Diabetes
blindness,
is
a
is
around
chronic,
kidney
422
million,
Test yourself
lifelong
failure,
heart
attacks,
F
.17 Explain why a pandemic
stroke
and
lower
limb
amputation.
The
disease
reduces
both
a
person’s
could trigger a global
quality
of
life
and
life
expectancy
.
recession.
Four
diet
major
trials
(reducing
activity
can
have
fat
delay
demonstrated
intake),
or
preventing
prevent
type
II
that
lifestyle
obesity
diabetes
and
changes
involving
increasing
among
people
physical
at
[3]
F
.18 Define the factors that led
to the successful containment of
the Ebola virus.
[2]
highrisk.
QUESTION PRACTICE
The following diagram shows factors aecting food insecurity.
No
Inadequate
access
to
finance
nutrition
No
access
Social
Social
factor
to
markets
factor
X
Y
Food
insecurity
a)
Identify what social factors X and Y could be.
[2]
b)
i)
Outline why two named groups of people experience food insecurity.
[2 + 2]
ii)
Explain two ways in which improved food security can be achieved.
[2 + 2]
93
F
OPTION
F:
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Essays
Either: Examine the impact of one vector-borne disease.
[10]
Or: Examine the nutrition transition that occurs as countries develop.
[10]
How do I approach these questions?
a)
1 mark is awarded for each valid suggestion, with a maximum of 2 marks.
b)
i)
You need to outline two dierent population groups that are at risk of food insecurity, and give some detail for
each one. Describe the conditions that mean they have limited food supply—it is not good enough to say that
they have “no food”; you should think of dierent reasons why their food supply is limited.
ii)
This asks for ways in which food security can be achieved. Each of the reasons should be developed or
demonstrated using an example.
Essays
For these essays, the command term is examine. This means that you should discuss the underlying assumptions and
interrelationships of the issues presented in the question. For the rst essay, you should consider a number of impacts of a
named vector-borne disease on people and societies, and relate these to the four key concepts (places, processes, power and
possibilities). For the second essay, you should examine how people's diet changes as they transition from LIC to MIC to HIC.
Remember to refer to specic examples, and some critical thinking and evaluation should be present in your answer.
S AMPLE STUDENT ANS WER
a)
to
Other
walk
social
long
factors
affecting
distances
to
ge t
food
water
security
and
include
rewood
and
having
poor
education.
Marks 2/2
b)
i)
One
people
▲ 1
population
living
in
group
Syria.
experiencing
T
his
is
because
food
there
insecurity
is
a
civil
is
war
going
mark
on
there
group
▲ 1
mark
▲ 1
mark—very
is
simple,
and
food
supplies
experiencing
because
there
is
a
food
are
disrupted.
insecurity
famine
there,
are
and
Another
people
in
farmers
population
Sudan.
are
T
his
unable
to
but
produce
many
crops.
acceptable
Marks 4/4
▲ 1
mark
ii)
One
crops.
▲ 1
way
In
of
vitro
producing
farming
more
also
food
helps
is
through
produce
the
much
use
food
of
GM
from
a
mark
single
stem
cell.
Neither point developed.
Marks 2/4
Essays
Either: Examine the impact of one vector-borne disease.
Malaria
▲ Identies
a
valid
is
a
life-threatening
disease
of
humans
caused
by
the
vector-borne
disease
plasmodium
94
parasite
and
transmitted
to
people
via
the
bite
of
QUE STION
the
female
Anopheles
mosquito.
In
2015,
around
100
countries
▲ Good
and
territories
billion
people
malaria.
among
had
–
ongoing
almost
However
,
half
between
populations
at
malaria
the
world’s
2000
risk
transmission.
(the
and
rate
population
2015,
of
new
–
About
are
malaria
cases)
at
by
detail
3.2
risk
of
incidence
fell
▲ Evaluative
cent
globally.
populations
at
At
risk
the
fell
same
by
time,
60
per
malaria
cent
death
globally
rates
among
a
trend
in
all
age
▲ Identies
and
groups
the
and
global
by
65
malaria
per
cent
among
burden.
In
children
2015
the
under
region
ve.
gives
cent
of
malaria
cases
and
90
per
cent
of
malaria
direct
cost
medication,
of
malaria
doctors’
fees
to
individual
and
households
preventative
opening
the
nets,
which
help
to
reduce
measures
transmission.
scene
paragraph
well
and
incidence/death
identies
rate
includes
such
as
▲ Death
the
bed
area
deaths.
changing
T
he
worst-affected
support
suffered
▲ Good
per
the
some
Sub-
—sets
88
comment
37
▲ Shows
per
PRACTICE
Infected
rst
has
para.
been
covered
Economic
in
costs
now
individuals
covered
are
unable
to
the
attacks.
work,
which
can
reduce
family
incomes
during
▲ Demographic
Some
population
contracting
groups
malaria,
are
and
at
considerably
developing
severe
higher
risk
disease,
than
others.
▲ Social
T
hese
include
women
and
infants,
patients
children
with
under
HIV/AIDS,
ve
as
years
well
as
of
age,
pregnant
the
“at
mobile
populations
and
travellers.
costs—identies
risk”
some
of
population
non -immune
▼ Not
migrants,
focus
of
Children
backed
up
with
real-life
with
examples
severe
malaria
symptoms:
metabolic
frequently
severe
develop
anaemia,
acidosis,
or
one
or
respiratory
cerebral
more
of
distress
the
in
following
relation
to
malaria.
The rst paragraph was full of detail but thereafter it becomes quite generic.
A named, located example (such as Nigeria or DR Congo) would be good to
show the changes/impacts in a real-life situation.
Marks 7/10
Or: Examine the nutrition transition that occurs as countries develop.
As
is
income
an
increases
increase
and
a
in
low-income
change
in
countries
food
(LICs),
consumption
▲ Sound
there
patterns.
▲ Good
People
in
LICs
generally
carbohydrates,
of
meat
LIC,
and
people
dairy
derive
carbohydrates
countries
while
(HICs)
per
11
their
food
contribution
negligible.
80
and
the
derive
cent
per
of
cent
generally
In
of
energy
fats
is
Bangladesh,
their
from
derive
small
nutritional
fats.
most
People
of
mainly
for
their
and
energy
description
from
example,
in
denition
that
an
▲ Real-life
example
from
high-income
food
energy
95
F
OPTION
F:
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
from
carbohydrates
from
meat
and
▲ Very
clear
good
and
and
Denmark,
and
dairy.
for
fat,
T
he
with
a
average
instance,
substantial
consumer
derives
45–50
in
per
contribution
the
US,
cent
of
France
their
food
introduction—
sets
the
energy
scene
from
carbohydrates
and
40
per
cent
from
fats.
Studies of human nutrition have shown that worldwide a
nutrition transition is taking place, in which people are shifting
▲ True
for
towards more afuent food consumption patterns. T
he nutrition
modern
civilizations—some
would
say
transition began in developed countries 300 years ago. It coincided
there
were
earlier
NTs
with great economic growth. For LICs, a small increase in income
may lead to a large increase in calorie intake, while for HICs
increases in income may not lead to an increase in calorie intake.
Food
▼ Should
LIC
and
state
MICs.
increasing
that
this
HICs
is
have
substantially
consumption
not
since
the
1970s
are
consistently
are
mainly
prices,
it
would
of
these
be
of
good
with
reasons,
to
(both
still
develop
some
and
other
point,
a
kind
of
HICs
HICs,
the
and
in
protein
LICs,
lower
by
and
main
in
than
higher
but
in
content).
their
HICs.
income
sociocultural
also
play
meat
to
have
dietary
cereals,
intake
an
in
a
Growth
rates
consumption
T
he
per
levels
transition
capita
–
preferences,
but
in
per
diet
is
food
refrigeration,
role.
while
changes
since
mainly
increased.
increasing
part
of
the
1970s
vegetable
Animal
reducing/replacing
health-related,
comparison—it
interesting
the
it
oil
protein
and,
to
intake
population
for
have
various
been
a
smaller
has
seems
reasons
the
to
been
be
(ethical,
LICs
the
environmental
diet
has
and
diversied
economic).
since
the
1970s.
Intake
of
would
details
for
cereals,
including
rice,
as
well
as
vegetable
oil,
sugar
,
meat
and
societies
dairy
is
periods
of
and
▲ Good
with
conclusion—brings
points
together
and
has
a
higher
cereal
cereals
T
here
main
since
reverse-
In
particular
much
concerns
interested
be
substantially
examples
stabilizing:
▲ Sound
energy
higher
individual
extent,
in
in
inuenced
reduction
transition
increased
but
In
▲ Good
has
been
capita
range
capita
the
1970s.
▼ Good
per
for
is
a
also
has
exceeds
strong
staple
compared
intake
foods.
of
In
to
1970s,
stagnated
the
positive
consumption
share
in
and
LICs,
protein
dairy,
even
in
more
declined.
recent
T
heir
share
HICs.
relationship
animal
although
between
and
sh
a
and
level
of
negative
pulses
are
income
relationship
driving
the
brief
increases
evaluative
now
in
total
protein
availability
per
capita.
Sugar
intake
comment
is
in
also
stabilizing.
LICs
is
exception
slowly
of
T
hese
numbers
evolving
in
the
seem
to
direction
suggest
of
the
that
HICs,
the
diet
with
the
sugar
.
Good overall account—apar t from the examples in the opening paragraph, most
of the suppor t relates to HICs/LICs.
Marks 8/10
96
URBAN
G
According
to
population
the
lives
E N V I R O N M E N TS
UN,
in
much
urban
of
the
world’s
environments.
You should be able to show:
These
✔
areas
are
constantly
evolving
as
people
enter
the
characteristics
places,
leave.
This
creates
economically
,
and
national
people
who
opportunities
socially
and
in
these
populations
infrastructure
for
and
local
for
✔
how
the
economic
bring
change
the
varying
relation
of,
✔
and
over
to
urban
future
power
of
urban
activities;
demographic
time
to
urban
processes
systems;
the
VA R I E T Y
O F
of
experience
possibilities
U R B A N
different
of,
stakeholders
and
in
management
stresses;
management
T H E
economic
places.
✔
G . 1
distribution
and
challenges
environmentally
governments,
live
and
and
and
of
for
urban
the
sustainable
systems.
E N V I R O N M E N T S
You should be able to show the characteristics
• Site – the actual land on which
and distribution of urban places, populations
a settlement or an urban area
and economic actiities:
was established.
✔
Characteristics
hierarchy
(planned
✔
Factors
of
of
or
places,
including
(including
site,
megacities)
function,
and
land
growth
use,
process
spontaneous);
affecting
commercial,
proximity
urban
settlement
to
the
a
central
activities that take place in an
urban area.
pattern
industrial),
• Function – the main economic
of
urban
including
business
economic
physical
district
activities
factors,
(CBD)
and
land
(retail,
values,
planning;
• Depriation – people and
groups that experience a lower
standard of living than the
majority of people living in an
✔
Factors
affecting
the
pattern
of
residential
areas
within
urban
areas,
urban environment.
including
physical
factors,
land
values,
ethnicity
and
planning;
• Informal housing – residential
✔
The
incidence
of
poverty
,
deprivation
and
informal
activity
areas that have been built
(housing
and
industry)
in
urban
areas
at
varying
stages
of
illegally by residents.
development.
• Informal sector – people who
work in the informal sector do
Characteristics of urban places
not declare their income and pay
no tax on it. This is also known as
When
considering
the
original
sites
of
settlements,
the
presence
of
the black economy, the shadow
flat
land
would
have
allowed
for
the
straightforward
construction
economy or the grey economy.
of
buildings,
drinking
and
and
for
the
proximity
irrigating
to
water
would
provide
a
supply
for
crops.
Concept link
PL ACES: Urban environments evolve, and towns and cities develop an
identity as a whole along with the areas within them. Economic and social
processes take place and the physical geography of a locality will also
enable change.
97
G
OPTION
G:
URBAN
E N V I R O N M E N TS
The
location
of
a
settlement
would
subsequently
give
a
village,
town
Test yourself
or
G.1 State an alternative name for
informal housing.
city
a
function.
agricultural
For
produce
example,
from
a
market
nearby
rural
town
areas
could
could
develop
be
where
bought
and
sold.
[1]
A settlement
can
G.2 Describe the location where
land
town
informal housing is normally
recreational
found in a LIC.
[2]
use
in
a
land
regulations
also
how
may
it
be
is
multifunctional
or
city
uses
dictate
not
be
can
also
existing
how
in
and
vary
,
many
land
is
to
it
can
with
over
industrial,
urban
be
evolve
time.
residential
environments.
used
in
an
The
urban
and
Planning
area
and
used.
G.3 Suggest two reasons why
the housing has been built in
the location you described
above.
Urban
or
[2+2]
it
growth
can
be
can
be
planned
spontaneous
(such
developments).
Thus
established
evolve.
and
as
urban
new
(for
example,
private
places
are
or
illegal
public
unique
and
settlements)
housing
dynamic
as
they
are
Factors affecting the pattern of urban economic
actiities (retail, commercial, industrial)
Secondary
are
(manufacturing)
located
in
amount
of
a
and
value,
(CBD),
the
in
areas.
theory
and
consumers
the
bars
will
the
to
tertiary
closer
cost
of
tend
all
tertiary
Secondary
compared
higher
restaurants
and
urban
land
and
to
the
be
have
you
activities
get
the
Service
located
to
to
closer
this
economic
will
economic
land.
access
(services)
require
activities.
central
to
the
via
a
All
larger
land
business
industries
area
activities
such
CBD
as
public
has
district
as
offices,
workers
and
private
transportation.
Factors affecting the pattern of residential areas
within urban areas
Residential
areas
establishment
decided
by
the
CBD
than
of
based
local
will
on
demolished
can
be
government),
some
As
in
the
people
an
with
location
and
country
.
urban
migrate
to
The
area
urban
be
the
and
the
more
possible
planning
owned
of
and
public
anyway)
of
edge-of-city
value
being
of
the
more
public
public
will
environments,
the
to
the
is
set
the
rather
reduce
the
land.
blocks
may
be
houses.
(provided
by
the
vary
.
For
example,
housing
can
exist
housing
desirable
closer
upwards
the
can
to
housing
restrictions
apartment
housing
relation
and
building
price
example,
in
formal
expensive
since
purchase
For
of
detached/single-family
privately
the
is
above
location
blocks,
not
of
mentioned
The
land
that
place.
housing
same
of
might
terms
take
both
and
the
Land
replaced
public
parts
in
can
of
apartment
(which
and
been
housing.
cost
for
costs
Redevelopment
cities
the
used
outwards
inner-city
already
authorities.
be
development
Housing
have
informal
can
than
also
vary
,
in
with
others.
diversity
of
places
Test yourself
increases.
Some
areas
may
have
a
higher
concentration
of
people
from
G.4 Suggest three reasons why
a
particular
ethnic
background
due
to
the
existence
of
familiar
cultural
different ethnic groups are often
traits
or
cheap
rent
prices.
concentrated in different par ts
of cities.
[3+3]
In
summary
,
types
98
in
an
a
range
urban
of
area.
processes
creates
patterns
of
different
housing
G. 2
G . 2
C H A N G I N G
U R B A N
C H A NGING
URBAN
S YS T E M S
S Y S T E M S
You should be able to show how economic and
• Centripetal – movement
demographic processes bring change oer time
towards an urban area.
to urban systems:
• Centrifugal – movement away
✔
Urbanization,
movements,
natural
increase
including
and
centripetal
rural–urban
migration
population
in
from an urban area.
industrializing
• Gentrification – a general term
cities,
and
inner-city
gentrication
in
post-industrial
cities;
for the arrival of wealthier people
✔
Centrifugal
population
movements,
including
suburbanization
and
counter-urbanization;
in an existing urban district, a
related increase in rents and
property values, and changes in
✔
Urban
system
growth
including
infrastructure
improvements
the district’s character and culture.
over
time,
such
as
transport,
sanitation,
water,
waste
disposal
and
• Post-industrial city – a city
telecommunications;
whose economy has shifted
✔
Case
study
of
infrastructure
growth
over
time
in
one
city;
from producing goods and
✔
The
causes
of
urban
and
demographic
deindustrialization
and
its
economic,
social
consequences.
products to one that mainly
offers services.
• Deindustrialization – the
process of social and economic
Urbanization, natural increase and centripetal
change which is due to the
reduction in industrial capacity
population moements
or the activities of a country’s
Urbanization
has
taken
place
over
time;
both
middle-income
countries
manufacturing and heavy industry.
(MICs)
and
low-income
countries
(LICs)
have
experienced
significant
• Urbanization – an increase in
urban
growth
in
population
over
recent
decades.
Rural-to-urban
the propor tion of people living
migration,
a
centripetal
movement,
has
increased
the
amount
of
people
in towns and cities compared to
living
in
urban
areas.
Migrants
may
then
have
children
once
they
are
rural areas.
settled
in
the
increase
(the
increase
the
urban
area,
difference
thus
the
between
processes
crude
of
birth
migration
and
death
and
natural
rates)
can
• Counter-urbanization – a
population.
movement of people away from
urban areas to rural areas and
Gentrification
is
a
process
that
has
been
increasingly
highlighted
in
smaller settlements.
many
towns
significant
and
and
cities,
as
sometimes
wealthier
people
controversial
move
into
economic
an
and
area
social
creating
effects.
Content link
Connect this information with the
Centrifugal population moements
population changes described
Centrifugal
population
movements
are
the
opposite
of
centripetal
in unit 1.
movements
processes
as
such
people
as
move
away
suburbanization
from
and
the
centre
of
urban
areas
via
counter-urbanization.
Test yourself
G.5 Identify one type of
Urban system growth
centripetal movement.
Urban
areas
should
be
acknowledged
as
systems,
and
as
such
[1]
they
G.6 Discuss the process of
have
inputs,
processes
and
outputs.
The
inputs,
for
example,
could
be
gentrification.
the
in-migration
people
such
the
as
via
urban
of
in
and
people.
and
and
people
to
or
processes
within
with
need
for
might
transportation.
management
cope
a
challenges
The
private
the
sustainability
environment
increase
issues
public
rubbish,
level
of
to
an
of
urban
change
reduce
different
the
the
Outputs
outputs
system.
within
the
be
level
can
can
The
the
of
movement
be
G.7 Explain why cities in some
waste
parts of the world have higher
determine
ability
system,
for
such
pollution,
can
[6]
of
an
as
an
rates of population growth
than others.
[2+2]
create
stakeholders.
99
G
OPTION
G:
URBAN
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Case
study:
Infrastructure
growth
over
time
in
São
Paulo,
Brazil
Concept link
São
Paulo
is
a
city
within
the
state
of
São
Paulo
and
it
is
one
of
the
PROCESS: Movement takes
largest
cities
in
the
world.
In
2018
the
population
of
the
metropolitan
place to and from, and within, a
urban
area
was
estimated
to
be
21,730,000.
While
the
total
fertility
town or city. These processes
rate
(TFR)
is
below
replacement
level
(1.69),
the
city
has
grown
due
to
require a response from city
previously
higher
fertility
rates
and
rural-to-urban
migration
which
authorities in order to ensure
began
in
the
mid-19th
century
.
that services are managed. In
addition to these processes,
The
other changes connected with
Congestion
industry, and the process of
travelling
industrial decline, results in a
the
range of consequences that
ownership.
city
has
city’s
had
is
in
a
issues
major
and
road
with
issue
around
networks
transport,
which
the
city
.
have
With
not
sanitation
increases
one
grown
the
car
at
and
for
the
water.
urban
stress
every
same
for
two
pace
those
people,
as
car
require attention from political
W
ater
is
sourced
from
outside
the
city
.
This
system
has
been
described
organizations at a local and
as
inefficient
due
to
leaks
which
mean
that
additional
water
has
to
be
national level.
sourced
recent
from
elsewhere
drought
population
led
and
to
to
meet
12-hour
reservoirs
the
needs
water
fell
to
of
cut-offs
very
low
residents.
for
many
levels.
In
of
Both
addition,
the
the
city’s
state
of
São
Test yourself
Paulo
G.8 Analyse the environmental
consequences from city growth
and
rivers,
the
city
reservoirs
Tietê
and
the
Each
citizen
have
and
struggled
coastal
Pinheiros,
are
to
treat
waters.
in
the
Two
top
10
sewage,
of
São
most
and
waste
Paulo’s
polluted
has
main
rivers
entered
rivers,
in
the
Brazil.
relating to solid waste in
São Paulo.
produces
approximately
1.1
kg
of
waste
per
day
and
most
[4]
of
this
waste
(catadores)
is
deposited
travel
around
in
the
landfills.
city
to
Teams
collect
of
garbage
waste
that
collectors
can
be
recycled.
The causes of urban deindustrialization and its economic,
social and demographic consequences
As
already
arriving
change.
of
The
Economic
are
then
no
loss
create
no
So
also
The
a
in
of
evolve.
their
if
only
into
constant
city
(HICs)
the
the
area
and
could
to
area
the
flux
also
seen
in
a
of
people
subject
the
secondary
or
their
to
demise
industry
city
can
have
place,
employment
they
The
as
do
an
loss
lost
of
area
of
to
have
there
the
income
that
Crime
and
living
mills
can
they
and
search
industry
old
which
that
have
feel
in
people
and
find
not
people
families.
leave
number
take
of
employees
depression,
people
in
are
have
of
loss
former
opportunities.
as
will
reduction
a
a
consequences.
urban
themselves
causing
of
relocation
include
poverty
such
renovation
converted
process
places
100
be
not
be
may
of
with
areas
deindustrialization,
retraining
support
Alternatively
,
could
jobs
increase,
employment.
or
the
demographic
cycle
or
dynamic
countries
and
industry
,
problems,
longer
may
are
industrial
cities
and
a
skillset
will
in
consequences
create
health
unrest
there
of
social
cities
and
high-income
alternative
required
can
in
industry
economic,
can
leaving,
Cities
heavy
MICs.
discussed,
and
of
social
new
jobs,
there.
and
factories
apartments.
deindustrialization
creates
a
range
of
consequences
as
G. 3
G . 3
U R B A N
URBAN
E N v I R O N M E N TA L
E N V I R O N M E N TA L
S O C I A L
AND
SOCIAL
S T R E SS E S
A N D
S T R E S S E S
You should be able to show the arying power of
• Albedo – the amount of
dierent stakeholders in relation to the experience
of, and management of, urban stresses:
incoming solar energy reflected
back into the atmosphere by the
Ear th's surface.
✔
Urban
microclimate
modication
and
management,
including
the
urban heat island effect, and air pollution patterns and its management;
• Microclimate – the distinctive
climate of a small-scale area,
✔
Case
study
of
air
pollution
in
one
city
and
its
varying
impact
such as a garden, park , valley or
on
people;
par t of a city.
✔
Trafc
congestion
patterns,
trends
and
impacts;
• Urban heat island – an urban
✔
Case
study
of
one
affected
city
and
the
management
response;
area where the temperatures
are higher than the rural areas
✔
Contested
land-use
changes,
including
slum
clearances,
urban
surrounding it.
redevelopment
and
the
depletion
of
green
space;
• Slum clearance – the
✔
Detailed
contrasting
examples
of
two
affected
neighbourhoods
demolition of slums, sometimes
and
their
populations;
accompanied by the rehousing
✔
Managing
cycle
of
the
impacts
deprivation
of
and
urban
social
geographic
deprivation,
patterns
of
including
the
crime;
of the inhabitants, to improve
living conditions and the
environment of an inner city.
• Cycle of depriation – The
Urban microclimate modification and management
persistence of pover ty and
An
urban
microclimate
is
an
urban
area
that
has
a
climate
that
is
different
other forms of socio-economic
to
the
surrounding
rural
area.
T
owns
and
cities
are
often
warmer
than
disadvantage through
their
surrounding
areas
due
to
the
urban
heat
island
effect,
as
tall
generations via a sequence of
buildings
and
dark
surfaces
retain
heat
from
solar
radiation.
There
will
events.
also
be
which
layout
more
rainfall
as
water
vapour
can
of
buildings
in
there
is
a
greater
condense.
relation
to
amount
Wind
speeds
prevailing
of
dust
vary
winds.
particles
more
The
due
large
upon
to
the
number
of
Concept link
vehicles
and
increase
the
when
there
higher
frequencies
amount
is
less
of
of
pollution
vegetation
to
congestion
compared
filter
the
to
in
urban
rural
areas
areas,
will
also
POWER: Every person living in an
especially
urban environment contributes to
air.
the social and environmental well-
being of that place. For example,
Test yourself
the collective will of residents,
Figure G.3.1.
Urban heat island prole
industry, and city authorities
have the power to try and control
92
91
stress to maintain and improve
)F°(
90
the quality of life. As cities change,
89
pmeT
it is necessary to re-evaluate
88
the choices that these different
87
stakeholders make. For example,
86
85
fur ther reducing the amount and
type of vehicles on the place’s
road network .
Urban
Rural
Suburban
Commercial
Residential
Residential
Suburban
Downtown
Park
Residential
G.9 Define the term albedo.
[2]
G.10 Use figure G.3.1 to describe how the temperature changes
between the rural area and the suburban residential area.
[3]
101
G
OPTION
G:
URBAN
E N V I R O N M E N TS
G.11 Choosing either rural, downtown or urban residential, justify how
human activities can either increase or decrease the effects of an urban
Ensure that data or quantification
heat island.
[2+2]
is included when describing
G.12 Apar t from temperature, justify how human activities can modify the
char ts or diagrams. The inclusion
microclimate of an area.
of data will not necessarily earn
[3+3]
you a mark , but it will often
be necessary in order to gain
Air
pollution
is
much
higher
in
urban
areas
than
in
rural
areas,
but
the total marks available for a
cities
have
differing
levels
of
air
pollution,
for
example,
Mexico
City
question.
compared
to
emissions
Vancouver.
and
from
Various
industry
.
pollutants
PM
and
2.5
10
micrometres
into
the
World
of
air
respectively)
bloodstream,
Health
is
an
causing
Organization
annual
can
average,
states
in
be
present
(particle
from
matter
vehicle
2.5
and
10
get
into
breathing
but
can
PM
that
a
problems
20
some
person’s
lungs
and
micrograms
cities
the
and
lung
per
average
pass
cancer.
cubic
PM
The
metre
is
over
10
300
micrograms
Case
The
594
study:
city
of
PM
,
Air
per
cubic
metre.
pollution
Onitshain
which
is
in
Onitsha,
Nigeriahas
one
of
the
an
Nigeria
annual
highest
in
the
pollution
world.
reading
This
is
a
of
result
of
10
emissions
cement).
such
as
from
Dust
PM
.
vehicles
storms
There
as
that
is
well
as
occur
currently
in
from
the
industry
region
limited
(mining,
also
evidence
manufacturing
generate
about
finer
the
particles
impact
on
2.5
people’s
cause
of
health,
but
premature
it
is
anticipated
death
in
that
Onitsha
in
air
the
pollution
coming
will
be
a
major
years.
Traffic congestion patterns, trends and impacts
Case
study:
Mexico
has
City
has
contributed
The
physical
from
the
Traffic
Several
in
plagued
the
plus
of
driving
the
into
in
by
Mexico
traffic
environmental
those
which
the
management
introduction
avoid
been
to
geography
vehicles
“bowl”
congestion
and
industry
is
located,
strategies
have
congestion
and
prevailing
from
city
city
by
social
winds
to
the
been
providing
for
stress
ensure
north
surrounded
Metrobus-dedicated
the
City
of
decades
that
that
the
by
lane,
efficient
to
the
city
this
there.
emissions
remain
in
volcanoes.
implemented,
bus
and
exists
such
as
encourage
public
the
people
to
transportation.
Test yourself
Figure G.3.2.
Transpor t emissions in kilograms per capita vs population density (people per hectare)
700
tropsnart
600
Marseilles
500
Johannesburg
400
rep
Kuala
Lumpur
300
gk(
snoissime
)atipac
morf
Atlanta
Frankfurt
Mexico
City
laudividnI
Paris
200
Harare
Cape
Town
Cairo
Curitiba
São
Los
100
Berlin
Angeles
Paulo
Shanghai
Singapore
Seoul
Bogotã
Mumbai
Tokyo
Delhi
Santiago
0
0
50
100
Population
150
density
200
(people
per
250
300
350
hectare)
Source of data: World Bank (2009)
102
G.13 Describe the relationship between population density and air pollution from transpor t.
[2]
G.14 Compare and contrast the air quality in two cities of your choice.
[6]
G. 3
URBAN
E N v I R O N M E N TA L
AND
SOCIAL
S T R E SS E S
Contested land-use changes
Slum
can
clearance
relate
housing
city
in
to
public
cities
be
in
In
private
study:
and
been
use
golf
Case
In
are
of
has
in
to
the
a
the
are
have
new
space
new
one
often
and
the
term
or
the
land
redeveloped
Redevelopment
housing
does
“slum”
19th-century
demolished
built
been
but
will
not
by
the
has
into
can
been
new
often
provide
Sydney
developments
“in-fill”
site
of
and
has
sites
local
playing
wetlands
relocate
this
be
at
loss
the
to
in
residential
such
the
and
plans
park
a
in
golf
been
replaced
by
between
the
campaign
fields,
order
with
private
cycle
to
course
met
a
within
city’s
groups
tracks,
build
to
the
protests
access
10,000
park,
which
since
only
,
Mumbai
living
of
the
are
no
on
the
single-
plan
many
local
350
for
people
the
would
feet,
homes
constructed
people
level.
are
not
will
currently
In
provision
currently
be
which
development
the
is
of
square
ground
Huts in the Dharavi slum
Dharavi
slum
whereas
that
Figure G.3.3.
part
the
new
the
industry
the
As
current
The
upwards,
is
in
measuring
some
informal
of
controversy
.
those
that
there
in
redevelopment
building
Therefore
the
all
is
residents.
homes
the
of
about
also
home
than
addition,
for
if
LICs,
dilapidated
illegally
HICs
green
Redevelopment
Dharavi’s
live
LICs
been
constructed
Cove
attracted
smaller
involve
be
course,
public
study:
entitled
by
in
and
and
course.
redevelopment,
is
of
playgrounds
Mumbai,
slum
in
HICs
LICs
developments.
example,
protesting
space
multi-use
Slums
75%
will
Cook
There
green
in
have
housing
for
almost
2030
community
homes.
both
Slums
they
Depletion
boundaries.
have
in
homes.
Sydney
,
2011
HICs.
since
controversial,
Case
place
settlements
developed.
and
affordable
is
takes
illegal
authorities
sold
be
to
of
space
present.
happy
with
plans.
Managing the impacts of urban social depriation
Urban
and
at
In
environments
social
varying
many
differences
levels
break
for
of
countries,
responsibility
to
are
the
of
example,
exist,
local
of
which
with
with
significant
some
inequality
.
residents
Economic
marginalized
in
cities
development.
trying
cycle
areas
and
to
national
improve
poverty
.
is
one
of
In
the
the
governments
the
quality
borough
most
of
of
deprived
have
life
in
these
Newham
parts
the
of
in
the
areas
and
Test yourself
London,
city
,
the
G.15 Choosing a par ticular
council
created
a
team
that
identified
people
living
in
low-quality
stakeholder, discuss how they
housing,
such
as
in
garden
sheds
that
had
been
converted.
A strategy
have the power/responsibility to
called
Workplace
was
also
developed
in
which
people
were
able
to
resolve a social or environmental
attend
training
courses
paid
for
by
the
local
authority
which
resulted
in
stress in urban areas.
those
The
people
power
changing
finding
of
work
developers
land
use
when
as
and
a
result
of
their
politicians
developing
can
urban
new
be
[1+4]
skills.
very
influential
in
areas.
103
G
OPTION
G . 4
G:
URBAN
E N V I R O N M E N TS
B U I L D I N G
S Y S T E M S
S U S TA I N A B L E
F O R
T H E
U R B A N
F U T U R E
You should be able to show examples of future possibilities
• Resilient city design – a
for the sustainable management of urban systems:
city that has been designed
to absorb future shocks and
✔
Urban
growth
stresses to its social, economic
patterns
and technical systems and
urban
and
projections
trends
population
of
for
2050,
rural–urban
sizes
and
including
regional/continental
migration,
as
well
as
changing
structures;
infrastructures so that it can
✔
Resilient
city
design,
including
strategies
to
manage
escalating
maintain essentially the same
climatic
and
geopolitical
risks
to
urban
areas;
functions, structures, systems
✔
and identity.
• Geopolitical risk – the risk
✔
from a government or an
Two
Eco-city
detailed
design,
examples
including
to
illustrate
strategies
to
possible
manage
strategies;
the
urban
ecological
footprint;
organization in one country
✔
Two
detailed
examples
to
illustrate
possible
environmental
influencing an urban area’s
strategies;
policies in another country.
✔
Smart
city
design
and
the
use
of
new
technology
to
run
city
• Urban ecological footprint – the
services
and
systems,
including
purpose-built
settlements
and
theoretical measurement of the
retrotting
technology
to
older
settlements.
amount of land and water that
an urban population requires
to produce the resources it
Urban growth projections for 2050
consumes and to absorb its waste
under prevailing technology.
Each
year,
report
the
which
United
details
Nations
current
produces
and
future
its
World
Population
demographic
trends
Prospects
based
on
• Smar t city design – the
past
and
current
data.
A greater
number
of
the
world’s
population
is
effective integration of physical,
now
living
in
urban
areas.
In
2018
the
UN
reported
that
70%
of
the
digital and human systems in
world’s
projected
population
in
2050
(10
billion)
will
be
living
in
urban
the built environment to deliver
areas.
a sustainable, prosperous and
inclusive future for its citizens.
• Retrofitting – the directed
Test yourself
alteration of the fabric, form or
Figure G.4.1.
Past and future urban and rural populations: Nor th America,
systems that comprise urban
Europe and Oceania (data from 2014)
environments to improve energy,
North
America
Europe
Oceania
water and waste efficiencies.
100
90
noitroporP
examines changing amounts of
noitalupop
connects with unit 1, since it
fo
This section of the syllabus
)%(
latot
Content link
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
people living in urban areas. The
0
units 1–3 (paper 2) and
units 4–6 (paper 3) is perfectly
valid in order to develop your
Key:
2014
exam responses for paper 1
Source of data: Depar tment of Economic and Social Aairs, United Nations (2014)
options.
104
0502
0302
0102
0991
0791
0591
0502
0302
0102
0991
0791
0591
0502
0302
0102
0991
0791
0591
inclusion of content from
G. 4
BUILDING
S U S TA I N A B L E
URBAN
S YS T E M S
FOR
THE
FUTURE
Concept link
G.16 Define the term urbanization.
[1]
POSSIBILITIES: Towns and
G.17 Using figure G.4.1, identify the continent with the highest propor tion
cities are being retrofitted in
of people living in urban areas in 2014.
[1]
order to respond to climatic and
G.18 Identify the continent with the projected lowest rate of urbanization
geopolitical risks, while new urban
between 1950 and 2050.
[1]
environments are being planned
and designed to ensure that
G.19 Describe the projected change in the propor tion of people living in
urban areas in Asia between 1950 and 2050.
[3]
environmental sustainability is
achieved.
Resilient city design
The
UN
areas
reported
that
flooding,
are
these
from
and
in
in
the
Barrier
city
a
In
have
reclaimed
to
Geopolitical
that
are
exists
on
as
of
city
state
built
to
to
or
as
and
the
were
to
located
climate
plans
in
in
such
place
as
to
of
and
flooding
Sea.
areas
can
Singapore
which
be
from
Managed
filled
Rhine
and
three
flooding
contain
with
it
sunken
water.
protects
The
the
sea.
3
be
at
can
tropical
surges,
4
to
storms,
and
metres
to
such
to
involve
cities,
between
Syria
governments
least
also
spread
cities,
to
storm
if
hard
any
above
sea
land
is
level
metres.
connections
European
that
River
against
from
have
to
North
public
the
must
can
to
vulnerable
vulnerable
areas
places
spread
city
on
is
level
cities
relating
need
Rotterdam
some
the
that
urban
cultural
have
is
protect
it
disasters
concrete
from
previous
well
national
made
in
world’s
risks.
from
positioned
nearby
refugees
Jordan,
allowed
surge
risks
in
rise
the
Cities
strategies:
construction
a
historical
2011,
a
been
for
compared
is
storm
Singapore,
walls
is
of
natural
Netherlands,
ground
Maeslant
from
to
90%
cyclones.
sea-level
rivers
the
that
climate-related
from
these
voids
and
environmental
Rotterdam,
rivers
2016
vulnerable
drought
withstand
Possible
in
conflict.
especially
places.
For
neighbouring
as
Cologne,
accommodate
Instability
when
there
example,
countries,
which
this
puts
since
such
as
pressure
diaspora.
Eco-city design
In
general,
there
has
been
an
increase
in
environmental
awareness
and
Content link
cities
are
striving
to
implement
city
designs
in
order
to
become
more
Environmental sustainability in
environmentally
sustainable.
This
is
beneficial
to
the
urban
ecological
societies is discussed fur ther in
footprint
as
outputs
are
recycled.
unit 3.3.
Smart
and
city
city
systems
can
cyber
There
be
is
a
Milan,
(“vertical
trees
square
dust
a
more
mobility
,
range
of
of
a
city
Italy
.
and
a
metres
is
a
the
of
for
that
famous
of
other
which
two
in
order
Many
is
energy
,
Milan
has
different
city
services
aspects
such
of
as
been
a
Figure G.4.2.
A shaded street in Masdar City,
a planned eco-city project in the UAE
urban
and
apartment
absorbs
run
etc.
areas.
Oregon
implemented
examples,
vegetation
to
introduced,
improving
strategies:
consists
forest
manner.
technology
renewable
strategy
of
range
of
new
possibilities
One
forest”),
technology
efficient
when
environmental
Greening
800
in
incorporates
affected
defence,
Possible
by
design
Bosco
blocks
equating
carbon
V
erticale
that
to
contain
20,000
dioxide
and
particles.
105
G
OPTION
G:
URBAN
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Portland,
green
10%
Oregon,
initiatives
of
the
energy
in
and
by
by
public
the
been
a
creating
population
significantly
network,
has
city
pioneer
188
miles
commutes
via
transportation
aims
to
be
amongst
of
cycle
bicycle.
with
powered
an
US
cities
paths,
It
has
in
and
also
extensive
completely
developing
almost
invested
bus
by
and
tram
renewable
2050.
Since the ecological footprint
Test yourself
is calculated using several
G.20 Define the term urban ecological footprint.
[2]
different variables, there are a
number of different answers to
question G.21. A good approach
G.21 Analyse how the urban ecological footprint can increase or
decrease.
[3+3]
would be to discuss land and
water for one par t of the answer
QUESTION PRACTICE
and then to discuss the way in
which waste is managed for the
Examine gure 6.3.3, on page 103, which shows the Dharavi slum in the
city of Mumbai.
second par t of the answer.
a)
Identify two pieces of evidence showing that this is an
informal residential area, other than the poor quality
of housing.
b)
[1 + 1]
Using an example of a city you have studied, outline
If question G.21 was in the
two reasons why cer tain ethnic groups tend to be located in
middle of the structured
specic places.
[2 + 2]
questions, then it would be a
c)
Explain two processes that are responsible for population
good oppor tunity to include
growth in megacities.
[2 + 2]
an example that you have
studied. Marks are available for
Essays
developing descriptions and
Either: Using examples, examine the varied eects of human
explanations via extension, and
activity on urban microclimates.
[10]
for the inclusion of examples.
Or: Examine the similarities and dierences in patterns of urban
The Brazilian city of Curitiba
deprivation for two or more cities you have studied.
[10]
would be an ideal example of a
city that implemented various
measures to reduce its urban
How do I approach these questions?
a)
ecological footprint.
The question states that you are not permitted to discuss the
construction of the dwellings. Therefore you should write about other
aspects of how the place has developed in your answer.
b)
You should have studied an example that demonstrates why
dierent groups tend to locate in cer tain areas of an urban
settlement. Consider a range of social reasons in your answer.
c)
Fur ther explanation is needed for this question and you must recall
the fundamental reasons why population in any place increases or
decreases.
First essay choice:
This essay requires an understanding of the dierent climatic
variables. So there is plenty of oppor tunity to include a wide range of
appropriate terminology which will increase your mark for knowledge
and understanding. Your introduction should dene the term “urban
microclimate”, and you should be aware that human activity does not
always have a negative impact on urban microclimates.
106
QUE STION
PRACTICE
Second essay choice:
The question requires information about the distribution of deprivation
in dierent cities, so this must be discussed in the answer. Evaluation
is expected, so consider how the location of deprivation is either similar
or dierent in cities in countries at dierent levels of development.
The introduction should dene impor tant terms in the question, such
as deprivation and development, while the main body of the essay
should explain the causes behind the development of these areas
of deprivation. You should contextualize the level of deprivation in
relation to the socio-economic status of each city and consider what the
characteristics of these places are that classify them as deprived.
S AMPLE STUDENT ANS WER
a)
T
here
is
a
lack
of
infrastructure
present
such
as
ofcial
roads
▲ Two
the
and
it
is
for
pavements.
haphazard
Also,
in
the
development
nature
and
does
has
not
not
follow
be
a
planned
urban
pieces
gure
of
evidence
from
given
since
plan,
example.
Marks 2/2
b)
Most
cities
will
have
areas
where
certain
ethnic
groups
tend
to
▲ 1
reside
in
an
area.
Amsterdam
Zuidoost
is
area
of
mark—valid
within
that
contains
because
the
Suriname.
cost
In
Amsterdam,
other
people
same
a
high
of
rent
was
addition,
they
from
cultural
Surinamese
concentration
may
very
when
prefer
Suriname
traits
food
may
such
as
of
cheap
people
to
live
seen,
Moksi
when
move
in
because
be
people
an
there
such
from
area
is
as
moved
from
Suriname
that
more
being
the
and
area
city
Suriname
people
from
city
Amsterdam
able
to
mark
for
a
valid
reason
to
▲ Another
contains
chance
▲ 1
that
valid
reason
given
the
purchase
Meti.
Two distinct and developed reasons have been provided by using a place-
specic example.
Marks 4/4
▼ 2
c)
Population
increases
or
decreases
due
to
changes
to
a
city’s
or
marks—the
decrease
answer.
fertility
rate.
More
children
will
mean
more
people
and
vice
reason
is
due
to
the
death
rate.
If
more
people
are
Population
natural
latter
second
this
change
the
population.
and
should
increase
in
the
changes
migration
due
also
be
and
the
discussed
with
dying
reference
then
natural
discussed
versa.
to
T
he
is
to
in-migration
and
out-
migration
Marks 2/4
107
G
OPTION
G:
URBAN
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Essays
Either: Using examples, examine the varied eects of human activity on
urban microclimates.
Human
of
▲ Appropriate
an
urban
in
urban
microclimate.
environments
T
he
different
cause
human
the
formation
activities
in
knowledge
urban
▲ Appropriate
activities
terminology
environments
polluting
T
he
industries
construction
matter
lead
to
of
the
have
and
different
transport
buildings
urban
heat
and
effects
lead
the
island
on
to
the
the
release
effect.
climate.
creation
of
T
he
of
Heavy
smog.
particulate
construction
▲ The introduction shows
of
knowledge
a
and
foundation
it
for
buildings
air
quality
and
T
he
knowledge
T
hese
urban
higher
rural
by
different
a
heat
areas
terminology
can
to
then
raising
act
as
60%
is
also
and
roads.
of
cloud
will
the
V
enturi
to
create
the
unique
the
areas.
formation
island
and
industry
which
of
solar
insolation
used
areas.
in
In
the
effect
Many
of
is
by
caused
human
the
release
particulate
matter
as
it
the
rainfall.
temperatures
urban
are
nuclei
area
surrounded
result
T
his
increase
increased
urban
in
will
an
is
T
his
activities.
atmosphere.
of
which
temperature.
condensation
it,
tarmac
urban
human
the
trap
raise
T
his
solar
absorbed
present
but
paragraph
causes
of
so
it
can
the
released
this
central
then
solar
be
albedo
of
meaning
mainly
more
will
the
be
Recently
made
that
this
lowers
insolation,
cities
buildings
means
the
combine
is
lower
into
infrastructure
modern
▲ A focused
a
possibility
temperature.
discusses
causing
allows
cloud
In
to
many
coverage
the
the
the
temperature.
buildings
inner
construction
of
water
addition,
raising
due
in
city
of
areas,
buildings
terminology
and
▲ Explanation
patterns,
urban
transport
around
coverage
concrete
the
different
as
by
effect
in
have
matter
the
Humans
and
of
such
condense
cloud
island
that
variety
particulate
▲ Appropriate
effects
experienced
temperature
activities
▲ Appropriate
wind
wind
microclimate
▲ Shows
disrupts
discussing
effect.
temperature,
also
provides
has
at
glass
night,
by
is
the
concrete
solar
slightly
reected
high
as
the
the
in
contains
increases
more
many
albedo.
during
cloud
absorbs
insolation
increasing
district
that
as
more
changed
insolation
trapped
area
that
business
of
the
the
coverage
T
his
day,
causing
that
temperature
temperatures
to
increase
during
the
day.
Many
different
human
increase
activities
escapes
108
result
from
in
the
release
residential
of
heat
buildings.
into
the
atmosphere
as
heat
QUE STION
T
he
effect
of
human
activities
on
the
urban
microclimate
is
so
▼ Only
one
included
great
two
that
in
degrees
cities
above
such
that
Human
activities
creation
of
as
of
London
the
affect
average
surrounding
the
photochemical
the
urban
smog
temperature
rural
to
the
other
vehicles.
T
he
smog
affects
the
through
emissions
the
from
cars
climate
as
it
can
cloud
condensation
photochemical
smog
can
react
other
can
cause
with
nuclei
has
had
increasing
a
chemicals
big
in
effect
the
cloud
on
the
coverage.
repeats
clarication,
what
has
been
and
said
above
T
his
temperature
atmosphere.
needs
act
it
as
been
detail
is
▼ This
and
has
limited
area.
microclimate
due
example
with
PRACTICE
Nitrous
as
it
oxides
▲ Knowledge
of
ozone,
ozone
depletion
meaning
that
as
more
they
catalyse
solar
the
insolation
photodissociation
can
reach
the
▲ More
urban
area,
increasing
the
temperature.
Human
activity
also
and
relevant
examples
affects
winds
patterns
in
urban
environments,
leading
knowledge
understanding
although
no
provided
to
▼ There should be a new a
the
V
enturi
effect.
In
cities,
the
normal
route
for
wind
is
blocked
paragraph
discusses
by
in
different
buildings
refracted
is
buildings,
more
so
increasing
around
the
disordered
the
sides
and
wind
of
is
wind
channelled
speed.
buildings
chaotic
in
through
However
,
meaning
cities.
T
his
effect
since
the
speed
next
and
section
direction
gaps
wind
that
here
wind
is
the
also
▲ A second
example
included
although
in
The
is
again,
limited
wind
causes
wind
detail.
some
response
relevant
includes
knowledge
and
understanding
speed
to
be
three
nicknamed
Human
an
higher
these
but
activities
can
transport,
on
cause
some
urban
areas,
in
for
buildings
urban
areas
wind
varies
in
the
eventually
temperatures,
in
as
seen
in
Chicago,
city”.
different
they
welcomed
they
of
effect
affect
higher
windy
activities
activities
be
“the
important
extent,
times
result
the
in
climate
urban
and
different
effects
a
T
he
and
areas
and
more
in
a
T
he
effect
they
comfortable
T
he
different
having
while
others.
have
different
to
precipitation.
cities
providing
signicant
industry
microclimate.
of
speed
and
of
may
climate,
impact
of
▲ The
this
microclimate
can
exacerbate
issues
such
as
with
the
Paris
the
conclusion
content
However,
heatwave
of
2003
where
2,000
people
died
from
heat-related
T
okyo
urban
in
2018
environment
industries
expand
the
the
CBD
or
where
on
but
release
over
the
people
climate
alter
of
50
is
slightly,
died.
T
he
changing,
such
photochemical
as
the
impact
of
however
,
high
the
some
summarizes
response.
of
these
relevant
issues
examples
and
of
the
earlier
in
could
the
have
been
included
response
as
albedo
of
smog.
This is a very good response which addresses a range of dierent factors that
can be inuenced by human activity. There is description and explanation
with brief examples present. The structure could be improved slightly by
having a greater focus for each paragraph. Evaluation could be been included
by discussing how human activities have reduced the amount of pollution or
temperature in cities. This would have increased the mark .
Marks 8/10
109
G
OPTION
G:
URBAN
E N V I R O N M E N TS
Or: Examine the similarities and dierences in patterns of urban deprivation for
two or more cities you have studied.
Deprivation
quality
issues
will
of
or
a
have
can
life
due
low
life
some
deprivation
▲ The
very
introduction
good
important
level
of
contains
with
dened,
of
thesis
statement
structure
with
the
and
to
the
to
be
and
sweeping
including
HDI.
the
both
LICs
LICs
people
of
is
plenty
paragraph
deprivation
of
for
and
evidence
the
the
in
location
▼ It
people
low
being
with
levels.
high
and
health
unequal,
levels
of
Development
refers
of
a
city
or
country
or
the
level
of
T
he
statement
is
somewhat
correct
in
that
cities
at
development
levels
will
have
areas
that
are
deprived,
of
these
Lagos,
will
London
differ
.
and
T
his
will
be
demonstrated
by
Paris.
and
MICs,
areas
that
are
deprived
tend
to
be
located
the
often
outskirts
by
rural
of
to
cities.
urban
Illegal
settlements
migrants
who
are
established,
construct
their
own
the
on
In
Lagos,
live,
is
city.
stilts
to
the
located
T
he
land
avoid
shanty
where
is
the
town
the
land
swampy
water
.
of
T
he
Makoko
meets
and
the
many
children
where
water
of
that
the
live
250,000
on
the
homes
there
edge
are
tend
built
to
drop
of
characteristics
out
of
school
via
shing
at
a
young
age
in
order
to
try
and
bring
in
money
deprivation
In
for
with
areas,
income
example
homes.
the
parts
of
and
quite
▲ Appropriate
of
other
level
Urban
contain
development
location
towards
▲ There
that
low
statement
MICs
this
or
low
discussed
In
when
of
a
evidence
discussing
a
lack
experiencing
examples
but
▼ Quite
a
people
expectancy.
parts
economic
different
listed
to
as
a
their
clear
dened
a
knowledge
terminology
be
is
the
actually
extreme
US$1.90
poverty
a
day
fact,
▲ Connects
a
with
the
they
are
removed
by
as
water
clean
the
there
is
under
a
lack
constant
government.
and
of
No
electricity
government
threat
basic
and
of
their
ser vices
most
investment.
homes
are
residents
being
provided
live
such
below
the
threshold
extreme
statement,
and
thesis
poverty
deprivation
is
line
of
located
$3
on
a
the
day.
T
his
outskirts
example
of
a
demonstrates
city,
on
land
that
(and
well-structured
water)
that
is
undesirable.
paragraph
In
▼ Refers
could
be
to
location
more
although
explicit
in
London,
and
fully
connect
with
the
of
the
Makoko,
poorest
it
districts
exists
in
the
is
called
inner-city
T
ower
Hamle ts
rather
than
order
the
to
unlike
one
outer-city.
It
is
the
most
deprived
part
of
London
with
essay
statement
just
less
than
50%
unemployment
▲ Detail
example
is
provided
for
rate
children
of
8%.
living
Here
in
though
poverty
there
is
and
an
government
this
investment
status
110
of
of
which
the
attempts
residents
of
to
improve
T
ower
the
Hamle ts.
socio-economic
QUE STION
It
should
is
be
different
noted
to
that
the
London.
In
denition
Lagos
it
is
of
poverty
absolute
used
in
poverty,
Lagos
living
▼ This
on
less
than
$3
a
day
whereas
in
London,
the
level
of
poverty
gure
is
median
poverty
in
only
the
is
income.
both
T
his
cities,
location
the
of
means
type
poverty
of
in
that
when
poverty
both
is
comparing
different.
cities
areas
but
the
that
both
cities
have
levels
of
inequality
and
that
there
are
level
paragraph
explanation
which
explanation
of
where
Finally
people
there
is
a
are
more
deprived
similarity
than
between
the
other
parts
pattern
of
of
the
cities
in
outskirts.
MICs
Paris
and
has
a
LICs
in
terms
number
of
of
‘sink
deprivation
estates’
two
of
the
the
outskirts
most
of
the
expensive
city.
real
T
he
centre
estate
in
of
the
Paris
world
deprivation
being
which
are
on
the
thesis
point
made
contains
whilst
the
contain
government-provided
accommodation
that
is
in
poor
housing
condition.
or
People
marginalized
and
forgotten
about
by
the
rented
these
evidence
cities
with
patterns
different
of
deprivation
levels
of
are
provided
for
deprivation
estates
evidence
of
deprivation
government.
be
more
information
summary,
example
sink
could
In
the
located
▼ The
feel
to
some
private
on
linked
statement
▲ Some
estates
the
cities
▲ Appropriate
on
extends
difference
city.
▲ Clear
in
the
includes
clear
between
areas
demonstrated
not
▲ This
is
is
of
T
herefore
different,
inaccurate
is
▲ Knowledge
UK
’s
PRACTICE
different
and
similar
detailed—this
could
relate
to
any
city
in
development.
▼ The
brief
conclusion
and
the
is
points
very
that
have
been
Apar t from the inaccurate reference to the extreme pover ty level, this essay
made
in
each
paragraph
should
be
contains a high level of knowledge and each paragraph contains explanations
included
linked to the thesis statement and question. Evaluation is present since
similarities and dierences are justied via the well-chosen examples.
Some paragraphs contain more explanation than other paragraphs whilst
the conclusion is very brief, which prevents the response from receiving full
marks.
Marks 9/10
111
CHANGING
1
This
key
core
theme
global
dynamics,
P O P U L AT I O N
provides
issues
of
climate
our
change
consumption.
Four
issues:
power,
There
places,
are
positive
a
key
background
time,
such
and
concepts
of
to
the
Y sd b ab t sw:
population
✔
how
✔
the
influence
and
change
these
as
well
ones.
It
is
necessary
to
accept
processes
these
possibilities.
affect
the
the
causes,
and
to
seek
between
places;
solutions
of
population
people
and
change
and
how
places;
that
there
are
population
possibilities
and
responsibility
power
for
varies
as
✔
negative
population
resource
processes
aspects
as
and
over
the
decision-making
process.
manage
issues.
1 . 1
P O P U L AT I O N
A N D
D EV E L O P M E N T
E C O N O M I C
PAT T E R N S
Y sd b ab t sw w ppat
• Ppat dsty – the
vas bt w pacs:
number of people living in a
given area, usually expressed
✔
as people per square kilometre.
Physical
global
and
human
factors
affecting
population
distribution
at
the
scale;
It is calculated by dividing the
✔
Global
patterns
and
classication
of
economic
development:
population of a region by its area.
✔
Low-income
countries;
✔
Middle-income
✔
High-income
• Ppat dstbt – the
location of people within an
countries
and
emerging
economies;
area. Population is unevenly
countries;
distributed for a number of
reasons. Factors that attract
people include mineral resources,
temperate climate, the availability
✔
Population
scale,
distribution
including
patterns
and
and
voluntary
megacity
economic
internal
development
migration,
at
the
national
core–periphery
growth;
of water and fer tile, flat land.
✔
Two
detailed
and
contrasting
examples
of
uneven
population
Factors that repel people include
distribution.
dense vegetation, limited
accessibility and political or
religious oppression.
Pysca ad ma facts affctg ppat
• Vtay ta mgat –
dstbt at t gba sca
refers to the movement of
Population
distribution
and
density
refer
to
where
people
live
and
population away from their home,
how
many
live
in
a
given
area.
They
are
both
affected
by
a
number
of
from one part of a country to
physical
and
human
factors.
another. It occurs when people are
free to move where they choose.
• C–ppy – a more-
Ctt k
developed par t (core) of a
Physical factors affecting population distribution and density are discussed
country or the world, and a less-
in options A.3, B.3 and C.1.
developed par t (periphery) of a
country or the world.
• Mgacty – a city with more
than 10 million inhabitants.
112
PAT T e r n S
D e V e lo P M e n T
e C onoMiC
AnD
P o P u l AT i o n
1 .1
] 3[
] 2[
.1.1.1 erugiF ni nwohs ytisned noitalupop hgih fo snoiger eht rof snosaer tsggS 2.1
000,000,1
42–1
rednU
94–52
99–05
rep
002
fo
ciporT
ciporT
rotauqE
fo
stnatibahnI
dna
991–001
1
.1.1.1 gF
.ytisned noitalupop dna noitubirtsid noitalupop neewteb sgtsD 1.1
–
qs
revo
mk
ytisned noitalupop dlroW
000,000,5
000,000,5
nabrU
revO
–
000,000,01
000,000,01
noitalupop
nrocirpaC
recnaC
fsy tsT
Population varies between pacs. The distribution of population is
influenced by physical factors in the first instance, and increasingly by
human factors.
113
1
U NI T
1:
C H A NGING
P O P U L AT I O N
Gba patts ad cassfcat f
cmc dvpmt
Ccpt k
PlACeS: Places have similarities
and differences in terms of their
population distribution and
economic development. Underlying
each of these, there are a range of
Equator
physical and human factors that
ensure each process is dynamic and
there is an interrelationship between
these two factors. Not only are
High
income
(US$12,476
and
over)
there internal interactions occurring
between places within a country,
Upper-middle
income
(US$4,036–US$12,475)
Lower-middle
income
(US$1,026–US$4,035)
Low
income
(US$1,025
and
under)
but also between countries due to
No
data
regional and global processes.
Fg 1.1.2.
The World Bank economic classification of countries
Tst ysf
1.3 Dscb the distribution of
(a) high-income countries, and
(b) low-income countries as
When describing patterns, try to structure your answers so that you show
shown in figure 1.1.2.
[2+2]
the main features and anomalies (exceptions), and suppor t your answers
with examples. So for this question you would actually name countries
that are anomalies, for example.
It is easy to talk about rich
Ppat dstbt ad cmc dvpmt
and poor countries. However,
at t ata sca
the World Bank uses a four-
fold classification to illustrate
Megacity
growth
in
the
Greater
Bay
Area,
China
the diversity of economic
Megacity
clusters
will
deliver
China’s
future
economic
growth,
and
the
development within countries:
most
productive
will
be
the
Greater
Bay
Area,
which
combines
the
nine
high income, upper-middle
cities
of
the
Pearl
River
Delta
with
the
Special
Administrative
Regions
income, lower-middle income
of
Hong
Kong
and
Macau.
The
Area
accounts
for
just
1%
of
China’s
and low income.
land
the
mass,
country’s
accounts
Ctt k
contains
40%
by
for
nearly
exports
22%
of
and
70
million
12%
China’s
of
its
people
GDP
.
high-tech
and
The
exports
produces
Guangdong
and
this
37%
of
province
could
rise
to
2025.
Connect this information with the
The
growth
of
and
income
inequalities,
megacities
can
lead
to
urban
sprawl,
slum
development
role of powerful organizations and
which
can
cause
social
and
political
tension.
global groups in helping countries
In
addition,
air
quality
and
water
quality
is
poor,
and
much
of
the
develop, discussed in unit 4.1.
Pearl
River
Delta
has
been
degraded.
Large
cities
without
affordable
Unit 4.2 discusses how global
housing
and
efficient
public
transport
can
push
the
poor
to
live
far
networks and flows can also
from
jobs
and
markets,
forcing
them
to
choose
between
long
and
affect this development.
expensive
The
Pearl
due
to
a
commutes
River
large
development
major
or
Delta
amount
of
attraction
the
for
living
has
of
Free
in
slums
developed
cheap
migrants
into
labour,
Economic
ready
in
an
Zone
to
which
a
large
they
sea
Shenzhen.
escape
few
rights.
manufacturing
excellent
at
have
rural
port,
It
has
poverty
region
and
the
been
for
a
the
Ctt k
prospects
of
better-paid
work
in
urban
areas.
However,
many
migrants
The effect of free trade zones
lack
the
right
to
education
and
healthcare
in
urban
areas,
and
they
(F TZs) on global interactions is
remain
relatively
discussed in unit 4.3.
have
114
rights.
impoverished
compared
to
those
urbanites
who
1 .1
Migration
come
is
from
also
affecting
money
sent
rural
back
areas.
Most
(remittances)
of
the
from
P o P u l AT i o n
wealth
migrants
in
rural
AnD
e C onoMiC
D e V e lo P M e n T
PAT T e r n S
areas
working
in
Key
urban
areas.
0–199
metres
N
Core–periphery
200–399
metres
400–999
metres
over
patterns
500
1,000
or
metres
more
people
Portsmouth
Young,
males
for
Change
ambitious
migrate
better
to
employment
prospects
Increase
in
between
periphery
local
less
purchasing
power
force
new
employment
existing
opportunities
activity
Fg 1.1.4.
market;
labour
for
in
Smaller
labour
force—aging
in
attraction
and
age
of
Decrease
gap
core
in
structure
core
of
area
Decline
and
local
in
services
economic
A model of labour migration and core–periphery inequalities
Roseau
Capital
investment
attracted
to
Lack
core
in
of
investment
periphery
0
5
km
Fg 1.1.3.
Increased
gap
between
core
Decelerated
periphery
in
investment
returns
on
distribution in Dominica
growth
potential
or
and
Population
and
decline
of
periphery
investment
Fg 1.1.5.
A model of investment and core–periphery inequalities
Tst ysf
Uneven
population
distribution:
China
1.4 Dscb the distribution
of population on the island of
China’s
population
is
concentrated
in
the
eastern
part
of
the
country
,
Dominica.
especially
in
coastal
of
of
the
the
Gobi
of
rest
Desert),
the
The
uneven
the
steep
is
the
lower
reaches
characterized
slopes
of
the
by
of
desert
Himalayas
river
(for
and
valleys.
example,
the
dry
to
population
for
allow
distribution
geography
.
rain-fed
for
[2]
Much
the
1.5 Sggst reasons for the
grasslands
distribution of population in
Dominica.
physical
provide
steep
country
and
north-west.
country’s
can
zones
much
in
Only
a
China
small
agriculture—most
agriculture.
In
results
primarily
proportion
of
the
addition,
land
the
of
is
the
too
coastal
from
[3]
the
country
dry
and
or
too
river
Tst ysf
locations
are
the
more
favoured
sites
for
trade
and
commerce.
1.6 Sggst why some cities
Uneven
The
population
distribution
parts
of
the
population
whereas
core
distribution:
of
South
large
Africa’s
economic
densities
areas
of
of
South
the
1,000
develop into megacities.
population
regions,
over
Africa
such
as
people
Northern
per
Cape
is
very
Gauteng
square
Province
uneven.
Some
province,
1.7 ot the advantages
have
and disadvantages of megacity
kilometre,
have
growth.
densities
[3]
[3+3]
of
1.8 Using the data on the Greater
under
five
found
in
people/per
square
kilometre.
High
population
densities
are
Bay Area megacity growth and
areas
where
there
are
good
mineral
resources,
such
as
gold
figures 1.1.4 and 1.1.5, xpa
and
diamonds,
good
farming
potential,
and
good
trading
potential,
how megacities can lead to
such
as
Durban
and
Cape
Town.
core–periphery inequalities in a
In
general,
west.
This
the
population
partly
reflects
decreases
the
from
distribution
the
of
south-east
rainfall
in
to
the
South
north-
Africa:
country or region.
[2+2]
the
1.9 Using an atlas, sggst how
lowest
densities
are
found
in
the
most
arid
areas
and
in
parts
of
the
physical and human factors have
mountain
regions.
influenced the distribution of
population in China.
[3+3]
115
1
U NI T
1 . 2
1:
C H A NGING
P O P U L AT I O N
C H A N G I N G
P O P U L AT I O N S
A N D
P L A C E S
Y sd b ab t xam pcsss f ppat
• nata cas – the growth
cag ad t ffct  pp ad pacs:
in population as a result of bir th
rates exceeding death rates.
✔
Population
including
change
natural
and
demographic
increase,
fertility
transition
rate,
life
over
time,
expectancy
,
population
• Tta f tty at – the
structure
and
dependency
ratios;
average number of children born
to a woman if she lives to the end
✔
Detailed
examples
of
two
or
more
contrasting
countries;
of her child-bearing years.
✔
The
consequences
of
megacity
growth
for
individuals
and
societies;
• lf xpctacy – the average
✔
One
case
study
of
a
contemporary
megacity
experiencing
rapid
number of years to be lived by a
growth;
group of people born in the same
year. Life expectancy at bir th is
✔
also a measure of overall quality
The
causes
and
consequences
of
forced
migration
and
internal
displacement;
of life in a country.
✔
Detailed
examples
of
two
or
more
forced
movements,
• Ppat stct – the
to
include
environmental
and
political
push
factors,
and
composition or make-up of
consequences
for
people
and
places.
the population, for example,
age, sex, occupation, race,
ethnicity, religion, class. The most
Ppat cag ad dmgapc tast
commonly used indicators are
age and sex, and these are shown
Tab 1.2.1.
Population characteristics for China and Ethiopia
using a population pyramid.
China
Ethiopia
12.3
36.5
• Dpdcy at – a measure
Bir th rate (‰)
of the non-workers divided by
Death rate (‰)
7.8
7.7
Population aged 0–15 years (%)
17.2
43.5
the workers. It is commonly
expressed as the population
Population aged 16–65 years (%)
72.0
53.6
population aged 65 and over (the
Population aged over 65 years (%)
10.8
2.9
retired) divided by the population
Dependency ratio (%)
38.8
86.6
aged 0–15 (the children) and the
aged 16–64 (the workers).
Source of data: Adapted from CIA World Factbook
• Dmgapc tast –
The
Demographic
Transition
Model
(DTM)
suggests
that
changes
in
changes in bir th and death rates
birth
and
death
rates
happen
in
five
stages:
over time; both rates change
from high to low.
1.
High
birth
rate,
2.
Birth
rate
stays
3.
Birth
rate
starts
4.
Birth
rate
is
5.
The
fluctuating
but
high
death
rate.
• Fcd mgat – migration
high,
death
rate
starts
to
fall.
that occurs due to war, religious
to
fall,
death
rate
continues
falling.
persecution, famine, slavery,
politics or natural disasters,
low,
death
rate
is
low.
creating refugees and internally
birth
rate
is
low
and
the
death
rate
increases.
displaced people.
Tab 1.2.2.
Bir th and death rate for Bangladesh, 1901–2018
Period
Birth rate (per thousand)
Death rate (per thousand)
1901–11
53.8
45.6
1911–21
52.9
47.3
1921–31
50.4
41.7
1931–41
52.7
37.8
1941–51
49.4
40.7
1951–61
51.3
29.7
1961–74
48.3
19.4
1971–80
47.0
17.2
Tst ysf
1.10 Df the terms “bir th rate”
and “death rate”.
[1+1]
1.11 Cmpa the demographic
characteristics of Ethiopia with
those of China.
[2+2]
1.12 Sggst why population
growth varies between China and
Ethiopia.
116
[2]
1.2
Period
Birth rate (per thousand)
Death rate (per thousand)
1986
38.9
11.9
1989
–
11.4
1994
27.8
8.6
1998
19.9
4.8
2011
22.9
5.7
2018
18.8
5.4
C h A nGinG
P o P u l AT i o n S
AnD
Pl A C e S
Ccpt k
Dashes indicate no data is available
ProCeSSeS: Economic,
Source of data: UN Commission on Population and Development and CIA World Factbook
environmental, political and
social processes create change
within a country’s population
Tst ysf
by influencing fer tility, deaths
1.13 (a) Using table 1.2.2, dtm the natural increase for Bangladesh
and migration. Changes occur
for the period 1901 to 2018.
[1]
in rural and urban areas and the
(b) idtfy the period when natural increase was greatest.
[1]
interactions between these places
create fur ther changes, such as
(c) Dscb the trends in natural increase in Bangladesh between
the forced movement of people
1901 and 2018.
[2]
from one place to another. The
1.14 Daw an appropriate char t to show the changes in the bir th rate and
process of internal displacement
death rate for Bangladesh for the period 1901–2018.
[3]
1.15 Dscb the main changes you have shown.
[3]
of people can be linked to
environmental and political
change, and this migration can
1.16 T wat x tt does Bangladesh follow the Demographic Transition
subsequently create pressure
Model (DTM)?
[3]
elsewhere within a country.
T csqcs f mgacty gwt f dvdas
ad scts
Case
study:
Greater
A contemporary
Bay
megacity
experiencing
rapid
growth—the
Area
Ctt k
China
has
completed
building
a
55
km
bridge
connecting
the
former
The factors affecting the economic
European
colonies
of
Hong
Kong
and
Macau
with
the
city
of
Zhuhai.
activities of urban environments
It
was
designed
by
the
Chinese
government
to
connect
these
two
semi-
as megacities are discussed
autonomous
regions
more
closely
to
the
mainland,
both
economically
and
fur ther in option G.1.
politically
.
Kong
into
Beijing’s
urban
The
China’s
Greater
than
with
some
Indonesia
2025.
world”,
2017.
Bay
to
busiest
and
international
The
Greater
large-scale
Hong
lost
any
Area
to
of
of
the
Area
and
all
area
plans
to
of
by
and
Hong
element
nine
in
neighbouring
Guangzhou.
nearly
70
million
larger
trillion
of
the
goods
in
private
The
world’s
Kong,
thriving
cities.
promote
that
autonomy
.
crucial
with
containing
China.
opportunities,
claim
a
links
economy
Hong
three
is
Macau
which
Australia,
billion
area
link,
Shenzhen
US$2.8
driven
three
in
of
“workshop
ports—in
residents
freedoms
as
area’s
Shenzhen—and
business
Kong
other
airports
Bay
the
an
rail
network,
and
economy
,
such
The
more
has
rail
Kong
covers
double
is
billion
megacities
US$670
is
container
Guangzhou
the
trillion
nearly
than
Hong
countries
economy
US$11
high-speed
Mexico.
Guangdong
Bay
new
project
US$1.5
G20
enterprise
10
vast
including
a
a
integrate
exporting
Its
Greater
to
and
predicted
by
addition,
plan
areas,
people
is
In
but
they
Critics
many
have
argue
Fg 1.2.1.
The Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau bridge took over
15 years to build and cost nearly US$20 billion
117
1
U NI T
1:
C H A NGING
P O P U L AT I O N
that
one
of
the
creation
of
an
most
visible
signs
of
Beijing’s
political
intentions
is
the
Tst ysf
in
1.17 Stat one advantage and
West
additional
Kowloon,
Hong
border
crossing
facility
in
the
new
rail
station
Kong.
two disadvantages of high
population density.
[1+2]
GREATER
BAY
GUANGDONG
AREA
Dongguan
1.18 Sggst why the Greater
Bay Area continues to attract
many migrants.
[3]
Guangzhou
1.19 ot the potential
Huizhou
Foshan
impacts of megacity growth for
individuals and societies.
[3]
Zhaoqing
4
Jiangmen
Shenzhen
Remember to read the question
3
2
carefully, and then answer it.
HONG
KONG
1
Sometimes, as here, you are
asked to give different numbers
Macau
of advantages/disadvantages or
social/economic/environmental
Zhongshan
reasons. In question 1.17, you
will only receive credit for one
1
Hong
2
High
3
Shenzhen-Zhongshan
4
Humen
South
China
Kong-Zhuhai-Macau
speed
rail
bridge
link
advantage, but you are expected
Sea
bridge*
to give two disadvantages.
Pearl
River
bridge
Zhuhai
*Due
50
Tst ysf
to
be
completed
in
2023
km
Fg 1.2.2.
The Greater Bay Area megacity region
1.20 ot the main areas
of the world in which there are
T cass ad csqcs f fcd mgat ad
displacements due to conflict
ta dspacmt
and violence.
[3]
Causes
civil
of
war,
forced
causes
climate
and
change
Democratic
internally
of
war
tribal
and
of
Africa
failure,
livestock
conflict
some
and the resulting influence on
cultural diversity and identity is
discussed fur ther in unit 5.2.
118
7
and
have
armed
In
2016,
550
up
and
drought,
include
tribal
conflict.
hurricanes,
global
(DRC)
mainly
food
forces
Kivu.
years
of
insecurity
forced
due
to
many
over
due
fighting
armed
South
has
In
and
and
conflicts
between
have
led
contrast,
drought
and
million
violence
to
in
have
many
the
led
malnutrition.
people
heavy
2.2
to
to
become
“taxation”
by
the
years
IDPs,
Horn
to
In
crop
addition,
IDPs,
and
non-state
al-Shabaab.
evacuated
lost
of
Congo
(IDPs),
Ethiopia),
have
displacement
terrorism
eruptions.
and
displaced
people.
90%
and
deaths,
flooding
people
to
been
of
flooding,
country’s
Kivu
violence
group
million
were
(Somalia
internal
rise
Inter-communal
the
North
of
people
disaster.
in
include
Republic
and
and
the
volcanic
displaced
groups
especially
The displacement of populations
uprising,
Environmental
The
Ctt k
movement
political
in
the
Also
ahead
their
homes
Yangtze
in
that
of
half
a
Basin
nearly
Hurricane
lives,
were
River
year,
Matthew,
million
destroyed
in
10%
in
China
of
while
people
the
in
were
worst
displaced
Cuba’s
over
population
Haiti
around
displaced
affected
areas.
and
1.3
1 . 3
C H A L L E N G E S
A N D
C h A ll e nGe S
AnD
oP Por T u ni T ie S
O P P O R T U N I T I E S
Y sd b ab t assss ppat pssbts ad
• Sx at – the ratio of males to
pw v t dcs-makg pcss:
females in a population or cohor t
✔
Global
and
and
regional/continental
trends
in
family
size,
sex
(age group).
ratios
aging/greying;
• Agg ppat – a situation
✔
Policies
associated
with
managing
population
change,
focusing
on:
in many HICs where the
average age of the population
✔
Policies
related
✔
Pro-natalist
✔
Gender
to
aging
societies;
is increasing. It occurs when
or
anti-natalist
bir th rates fall and the number
policies;
of elderly people increases.
equality
policies
and
anti-trafcking
policies;
Countries with older populations
✔
The
demographic
could
be
dividend
considered
a
and
resource
the
ways
when
in
which
population
contemplating
(a high percentage aged 65 and
possible
over) need to invest more in the
futures;
health sector and in pensions.
This may create problems if the
✔
One
case
study
of
a
country
beneting
from
a
demographic
workforce is small or reducing.
dividend.
• P-atast pcs –
population policies that
Gba ad ga/ctta tds  famy sz,
encourage families to have more
children, for example longer
sx ats ad agg
maternity/paternity leave,
The
highest
fertility
rates
(more
than
five
children
per
woman)
are
increased child allowance.
found
two
Central
children
most
the
in
rapid
rate
per
West
woman)
decline
fell
However,
and
from
in
the
about
globally
,
Africa,
are
found
fertility
seven
fertility
whereas
in
rate
the
rates
in
are
the
North
has
lowest
America
been
1950s
to
rates
in
North
around
declining
and
the
than
Europe.
Africa,
three
around
(fewer
in
The
where
the
2010s.
• At-atast pcs –
population policies that
encourage families to have fewer
children, for example forced
world.
abor tions, sterilization.
As
a
result
of
the
falling
fertility
rates,
family
size
around
the
world
• Gd qaty – treating
is
generally
decreasing.
Reasons
for
this
include
more
working
males and females the same.
women,
longer
of
the
high
working
of
hours,
contraception
individualistic
cost
having
marital
and/or
the
children,
the
breakdown,
desire
for
a
high
cost
greater
more
of
housing,
availability
materialistic
• Taffckg – taking people
and
against their will and forcing
lifestyle.
them into occupations they do
not wish to do.
Sex
ratios
men
vary
(274.0)
women
India
(84.5)
are
and
for
across
considerably
for
every
found
western
every
Russia,
100
across
Asia.
100
parts
women.
the
In
Low
eastern
the
world.
Relatively
Middle
contrast,
women.
of
around
East
high
and
Europe
of
ratios
has
men
and
UAE
North
Mauritius
ratios
The
to
has
of
men
Africa,
the
most
to
China,
fewest
women
the
are
• Dmgapc dvdd –
the benefits that come from
men
a very large propor tion of the
found
population being in the adult age
range, and a reduced propor tion
Japan.
of young and/or elderly.
Pcs asscatd wt maagg ppat cag
Policies
related
According
•
between
aged
•
to
by
aging
the
2015
over
2020
to
60
the
societies
World
and
2050,
years
will
number
children
aged
by
80%
Health
under
of
5
the
Organization:
proportion
double
people
from
aged
of
12%
over
the
to
60
world’s
population
24%
years
Tst ysf
will
outnumber
years
1.21 Sggst reasons for
variations in gender differences
around the world.
•
2050,
income
of
older
people
will
be
living
in
low-
and
[3]
middle-
countries.
119
1
U NI T
1:
C H A NGING
P O P U L AT I O N
With
a
aging,
growing
other
life
there
risk
of
is
a
gradual
disease,
changes,
such
decrease
and
as
in
ultimately
retirement,
physical
death.
and
mental
However,
relocation
to
more
capacity
,
there
are
appropriate
A common misconception is that
housing,
and
the
death
of
partners,
friends
and
relatives.
aging populations are a drain on
societies. Some aging populations
Policies
to
deal
with
aging
societies
must
therefore:
can be a drain, but many are well•
commit
to
•
align
•
develop
•
provide
healthy
aging,
that
is,
improve
the
health
of
the
elderly
off and provide valuable social
and economic services such as
health
systems
with
the
needs
of
the
older
population
childcare and charity work, and
systems
to
deal
with
long-term
care
they may spend a lot on travel
and recreation.
However,
increase
raising
pensions
these
the
the
and
things
burden
age
of
financial
require
on
a
assistance.
great
taxpayers,
for
deal
of
funding
example,
which
increased
may
taxes
and/or
retirement.
When describing data from
Pro-natalist
and
anti-natalist
policies
a graph or table, look for the
Pro-natalist
policies
are
designed
to
encourage
families
attempt
reduce
to
have
more
maximum and minimum values
children,
while
anti-natalist
policies
to
the
birth
rate.
and any trends, and point
Singapore
has
had
both
anti-natalist
policies
and
pro-natalist
policies.
out exceptions (anomalies).
Remember to use the data
In
(manipulate it or transform it)
1960,
1.5
by
Singapore
1985,
and
had
has
a
total
fertility
remained
low
rate
since
of
over
5.5.
This
fell
to
under
then.
rather than just copying it.
Anti-natalist
policies
•
creation
of
•
increased
•
promotion
•
increased
•
use
•
free
the
in
Singapore
Family
Planning
(1972–87)
and
included:
Population
Board
Tst ysf
access
to
family
planning
clinics
1.22 ot the oppor tunities
of
sterilization
programmes
and constraints of having
(a) an aging population, and
(b) a youthful population.
[3+3]
Ccpt k
PoSSiBiliTieS AnD PoWer:
of
the
or
to
media
education
However,
three
access
from
more
low-cost
to
and
1987,
promote
low-cost
contraception
smaller
healthcare
pro-natalist
children
if
they
families
policies
could
for
smaller
families.
encouraged
afford
families
to
have
to.
A country’s population will be
•
The
Family
•
Child
Planning
and
Population
Board
was
abolished.
influenced by political decisions
benefits
were
increased,
especially
for
those
with
higher
that focus on different demographic
academic
qualifications.
sections in a country. For example,
policies such as implementing pro-
•
Maternity
leave
•
There
•
Sterilization
•
State-sponsored
was
increased.
natalist and anti-natalist policies,
was
government-sponsored
childcare.
or ensuring that an emerging
youthful working population will find
employment opportunities, may
and
abortion
dating
were
discouraged.
agencies
were
established.
help to manage change and help
Overall,
there
were
slight
increases
in
the
fertility
rate
when
these
a country develop in a sustainable
measures
were
introduced
but
they
were
short-lived.
Some
businesses
manner. Governments can be
were
against
the
increased
maternity
leave,
and
some
individuals
felt
effective in creating change, such
their
“free
choice”
was
being
eroded.
as China’s One Child Policy, although
there are many other governments in
Gender
equality
policies
other countries that have struggled
to influence their citizens with regard
According
to
the
UN:
to natalism. Contemporary issues
•
in
Sub-Saharan
Africa
and
Western
Asia
girls
face
barriers
to
such as human trafficking not only
entering
primary
and
secondary
schools
relate to the power of authorities
•
women
in
North
Africa
account
for
less
than
20%
of
jobs
in
the
non-
within a country’s borders, but also
agricultural
sector
cross-border cooperation in order to
manage the illegal movement.
•
on
average,
globally
.
120
women
in
the
labour
market
earn
24%
less
than
men
1.3
C h A ll e nGe S
AnD
oP Por T u ni T ie S
Ctt k
Unit 5.1 discusses UN policies for
empowering women and indexes
for measuring gender equality in
more detail.
Key
–25
0
to
to
0
25
25
to
50
50
to
75
Proportion
men
of
working
compared
to
women.
Fg 1.3.1.
Inequalities in employment (the dierence between the
propor tion of men and women working)
Source of data: International Labour Organization
The
UN
Sustainable
•
end
all
forms
•
eliminate
•
recognize
•
give
of
Development
discrimination
Goals
(SDG)
against
aim
women
to:
and
Tst ysf
girls
everywhere
1.23 idtfy the region(s) where
inequality in employment is
all
forms
of
violence
against
women
and
girls
greatest.
and
value
all
forms
of
unpaid
care
and
domestic
[2]
work
1.24 evaat the type of
women
control
natural
of
equal
land
rights
and
to
economic
property
,
resources,
financial
services,
ownership
inheritance
map shown in Figure 1.3.1
and
(choropleth—density shading)
and
and its scale as a means
resources.
of showing variations in
Anti-trafcking
Human
and
policies
trafficking
hopes.
It
is
Tab 1.3.1.
a
is
employment.
a
crime
global
that
strips
people
of
their
rights,
[3]
dignity
problem.
Modern-day slavery: victims and prots by region
Developed
Latin
Central and
economies
America
Southern
and the EU
and the
Europe and
Caribbean
the CIS
Africa
Middle
Asia-
East
Pacic
Victims
1.5 m
1.8 m
1.6 m
3.7 m
600,000
11.7 m
Cost (US$)
$44.9 bn
$12 bn
$18 bn
$13 bn
$8.5 bn
$52 bn
Cost per victim
$34,800
$7,500
$12,900
$3,900
$15,000
$5000
Ctt k
Unit 4.2 discusses illegal flows,
Source of data: International Labour Organization (2014)
such as human trafficking,
There
are
a
number
of
organizations
and
charities
raising
awareness
of
fur ther.
human
The
trafficking.
Blue
Heart
awareness
attempts
of
to
encourages
Campaign
the
impact
produce
people
(www.unodc.org/blueheart/)
of
action
to
wear
trafficking
to
stop
the
and
the
trafficking.
Blue
Heart
to
need
To
to
fight
raise
show
raises
it;
it
also
awareness,
solidarity
with
it
Tst ysf
the
1.25 Dscb the number of
victims
of
trafficking.
(The
Blue
Heart
is
a
symbol
for
the
sadness
of
victims and profits by geographic
those
trafficked
and
the
cold-heartedness
of
the
traffickers.)
region, based on the data in
The
in
United
Persons,
Nations
V
oluntary
Especially
Women
Trust
and
Fund
for
Children
Victims
was
of
created
Trafficking
in
2010
as
table 1.3.1.
[3]
an
1.26 Briefly xpa the reasons
integral
part
of
a
global
effort
to
address
trafficking
in
persons.
The
for the use of the Blue Hear t as a
Trust
Fund
provides
humanitarian,
legal
and
financial
aid
to
victims
symbol of trafficking.
of
trafficking.
exploited
by
It
supports
NGOs
that
help
people
who
have
[2]
been
trafficking.
121
1
U NI T
1:
C H A NGING
P O P U L AT I O N
T dmgapc dvdd
Case
study:
Demographic
dividend
in
Kenya
The command term “analyse” in
a question would require you to
Kenya’s
bring out the essential elements
level
of a structure or feature. When
has
referring to this case study, you
Kenya’s
fertility
(2.1),
but
resulted
in
it
rate
fell
is
rapid
population
still
by
relatively
over
50%
population
increased
high
between
growth
almost
and
is
1978
and
a
fourfold
above
and
the
2014.
youthful
between
replacement
High
age
fertility
structure.
1969
and
2014.
would need to consider Kenya’s
Access
to
family
planning
is
projected
to
increase
from
just
over
50%
in
total fer tility rate (for example, is
2014
to
70%
by
2030.
it high/low, falling/rising, above/
below replacement level?).
Kenya
falls
can
expect
below
population
and
CMR
girls
The
main
decline,
the
result
in
if
access
of
of
a
are
rates
to
dividend
and
the
may
be
more
demographic
of
ratio
workers
insufficient
could
lead
to
social
tensions.
employment,
and
jobs
Many
that
to
Having
greater
the
people
could
a
the
birth
adults
to
fall
as
and
in
the
the
is
that
there
children
larger
revenue
and
is
have
to
elderly
.
for
the
to
having
leave
families
should
country
.
too
and
the
being
country
separated.
QueSTion PrACTiCe
On the right, a Lorenz curve shows the inequality in the distribution of population in China.
100
a)
Using the Lorenz curve:
90
)
stat the propor tion of people living on the most densely
80
populated 10% of the land area in China
[1]
70
and
stat the propor tion of people living on the least densely
40
b)
%
[1]
fo
50
populated 10% of the land area in China.
dnal
60
)
Sggst two physical factors that can lead to uneven population
30
distribution.
[2 + 2]
20
c)
Using an example that you have studied, xpa the impact of
10
internal migration on the source regions.
[4]
10
Essay
20
30
%
40
of
50
60
70
80
90
100
population
“Of all the possible challenges facing dierent countries, demographic
issues are of greatest concern.”
T wat x tt do you agree with this statement?
[10]
hw d i appac ts qsts?
a)
This question requires you to read o the graph.
)
The reading for the most densely populated area should be straightforward.
)
The reading for the least densely populated area requires some data manipulation. To read o the Lorenz
curve for the least densely populated 10% of the land, this must be taken away from 100% (that is, take the
reading for 90% of the area, and then the value for the percentage of population living on 90% of the land
must be taken away from 100% of the population).
122
of
an
the
workforce
workforce,
may
IMR
value
underemployment
lead
rate
the
realized.
dividend
for
if
of
increases,
widely
unemployment,
and
occur
expected
relative
decreases.
output
to
proportion
contraception
becomes
economic
there
and
search
Birth
proportion
greater
adults
political
in
the
level
school
dependency
However,
many
at
advantage
in
Thus,
demographic
increases.
remaining
increase
a
replacement
Que STion
b)
PrACTiCe
You are asked to suggest (identify) two physical factors and to suggest how they aect distribution. One mark
will be awarded for the identication of a valid physical factor and another mark for fur ther development/
exemplication. The explanation will need to be developed (more detailed and/or have a suppor ting example)
in order to get the second mark . There is no credit for the identication/explanation of any human factors.
c)
In this question the impacts have to be related to the source (where the migrants come from). No credit is
given for impacts on the destination. Each of the impacts needs to be developed for full marks, that is, a more
detailed explanation of the impacts in the source area.
Essay
A well-structured answer is needed for this extended response question. Half of your essay should be an
examination of either aging populations (Stage 5 of the demographic transition model, DTM) or youthful populations,
and the consequences related to their respective populations. Problems may relate to health, education or the cost
of services needed, while oppor tunities may be economic and/or social. The other half of your essay should counter
the argument in the question, potentially by covering other challenges to countries such as migration and climate
change. Your essay should include appropriate terminology, located examples and suppor ting facts and gures.
S AMPle STuDenT AnS Wer
a)
i)
53%
Mak 1/1
ii)
2%
Mak 1/1
b)
Relief
affects
mountainous
because
steep
it
is
population
are
less
difcult
distribution
likely
to
to
build
allow
as
areas
human
that
are
habitation.
infrastructure
and
farm
T
his
crops
is
▲ Valid
development
point
▲ Valid
development
point
on
slopes.
Distance
to
the
distribution
easier
coast
as
transport
is
people
another
are
(ports)
more
and
factor
likely
leisure
affecting
to
live
on
population
the
coast
due
to
(beaches).
Two valid reasons with some development.
Maks 4/4
c)
T
he
have
impacts
been
both
remittances
on
the
good
from
region
and
the
bad.
family
migrants
On
that
the
good
migrated
have
come
side,
many
and
▲ Valid
point
▲ Valid
point
from
receive
sometimes
the
▼ Two
neither
migrants
might
themselves
On
the
leave
to
causing
other
hand,
nd
ser vices
return
jobs.
become
to
some
the
job
villages
T
his
to
build
a
house
to
fewer
due
to
▲ First
from
depopulation
jobs
the
in
lack
the
of
long
use,
T
his
means
that
regions
get
although
in
detail
as
point
▲ Development
point
many
term
such
negative
as
as
post
▼ Two
have
ofces.
points
for
growth.
suffer
leads
redundant
village
valid
developed
valid
been
points
–
developed
could
better
poorer
.
Although the points were not developed there is sucient detail to gain full
marks.
Maks 4/4
123
1
U NI T
1:
C H A NGING
P O P U L AT I O N
Essay
“Of all the possible challenges facing dierent countries, demographic issues
are of greatest concern.” T wat x tt do you agree with this statement?
T
here
are
many
demographic,
▲ Clear
the
introduction—suggests
likely
structure
of
the
Often
the
challenges
social,
in
different
economic,
challenges
are
a
countries.
political
mixture
of
and
more
T
hese
include
environmental.
than
one
e.g.
too
essay
many
people
(economic
(e.g.
in
megacities)
challenge)
which
in
can
turn
lead
leads
to
to
unemployment
poverty
(social
challenge).
▲ Valid
challenge
and
nominal
For
many
countries
with
an
ageing
population
e.g.
Japan
or
support
China,
there
accepted
▲ Further
are
some
problems
one
with
million
a
shrinking
Syrian
workforce.
migrants
in
order
Germany
to
make
up
development/
exemplication
▲ Generic
challenges
of
an
the
short-fall
an
ageing
of
its
declining
population
can
be
workforce.
the
high
Other
cost
of
problems
pensions
related
and
to
health
ageing
care,
and
the
need
for
sheltered
accommodation
for
the
elderly.
population
▲ Generic
youthful
▲ Some
challenges
of
a
Equally,
there
on
places,
school
development
and
such
as
rates
of
Niger
clinics,
for
not
youthful
enough
jobs
populations
and
so
on.
–
pressure
Many
LICs,
the
and
Mali,
have
youthful
populations
but
high
unemployment.
support
other
countries,
demographic
of
the
problems
challenges.
For
do
not
people
necessarily
living
in
stem
low-lying
from
islands,
counter-argument
rising
▲ Valid
problems
population
In
▲ Start
are
point—climate
change
of
sea
levels,
freshwater
increasing
sources
are
a
storms
bigger
and
contamination
concern
e.g.
in
Kiribati.
refugees
For
others,
and
▲ Second
124
valid
point
e.g.
falling
in
food
Sudan
yields
and
are
a
South
more
Sudan,
pressing
desertication
concern.
Que STion
T
his
has
an
impact
on
population,
although
arguably
has
been
▲ Population
caused
by
increased
population
pressure
on
the
Y
emen,
Saudi
the
the
major
Arabia.
blockade
T
he
of
concerns
air
strikes
Y
emen’s
ports
are
civil
war
(bombings)
are
major
and
by
as
a
potential
cause
environment.
and
In
PrACTiCe
the
war
Saudi
concerns,
with
Arabia
and
impact
up
to
and
12
▲ Another
valid
example—good
details
million
people
In
other
rich
In
the
are
at
risk
countries,
of
star vation.
other
concerns
may
be
more
pressing.
▲ Contemporary
UK,
the
Brexit
negotiations
have
created
example—good
major
point
uncertainty
future.
regarding
Moreover
,
nationals,
whose
it
is
the
countries’
creating
future
in
the
economic
uncertainty
UK
is
in
and
for
political
non -UK
question.
For
countries
▲ Demographic
such
as
China,
trade
wars
economic
challenges.
pollution
and
a
T
he
with
the
country
declining
labour
USA
has
are
other
force,
causing
challenges,
although
the
such
latter
challenge
as
could
▲ Another
contemporary
challenge—identies
be
partially
So,
overall,
necessarily
people
the
are
solved
speeding
demographic
the
greatest
affected
quality
by
of
life
by
for
up
rural-urban
challenges
challenge
other
are
in
all
challenges,
migration.
important
countries.
so
there
is
but
of
Brexit
major
challenges
in
a
number
of
China
not
Nevertheless,
an
impact
on
people.
Good account—focused on the question; has good suppor ting evidence.
Critical thinking/evaluation is implied but not explicit.
Maks 9/10
125
G LO B A L
2
C L I M AT E —
VULNERABILIT Y
AND
RESILIENCE
Four
key
power,
concepts
processes
influence
and
these
issues:
possibilities.
places,
There
are
Yo od e ae to ow:
positive
✔
aspects
of
change,
as
well
as
negative
ones.
It
how
natural
global
necessary
to
seek
to
accept
solutions
responsibility
and
manage
the
for
the
causes,
✔
issues.
how
✔
energy
the
that
C L I M AT E
O F
effects
there
are
of
global
and
climate
affect
and
change
environmental
possibilities
change
making
C A U S E S
processes
the
balance;
societies
climate
T H E
human
and
places,
2 . 1
and
is
power
for
on
systems;
responding
over
the
to
decision-
process.
G L O B A L
C H A N G E
Yo od e ae to ow ow natra and an
• Aedo – the amount of
procee affect te goa energy aance:
incoming solar energy reflected
back into the atmosphere by the
✔
Ear th’s surface.
• Antropogenc – human-related
The
atmospheric
and
energy
✔
Changes
✔
The
in
system,
including
the
natural
greenhouse
effect
balance;
the
global
energy
balance,
and
the
role
of
feedback
loops;
processes and/or impacts.
enhanced
greenhouse
effect
and
international
variations
in
• Energy aance – the balance
greenhouse
gas
sources
and
emissions,
in
relation
to
economic
between incoming shor t-wave
development,
globalization
and
trade.
radiation and outgoing shor t-
wave and long-wave radiation.
• Enanced greenoe
Te atoperc yte
effect – the increasing amount
of greenhouses gases in the
The
natural
greenhouse
effect
and
the
enhanced
greenhouse
effect
(global
warming)
atmosphere, as a result of
The
natural
greenhouse
effect
is
the
process
by
which
certain
gases
human activities, and their
(greenhouse
gases)
allow
short-wave
radiation
from
the
Sun
to
pass
impact on atmospheric systems
through
the
atmosphere
but
trap
an
increasing
proportion
of
outgoing
including global warming.
long-wave
• Goa warng – the increase
of
in temperatures around the
it
the
world that has been noticed
planet
since the 1960s, and in
However,
par ticular since the 1980s.
100°C,
atmosphere.
there
on
the
radiation
would
that
is
be
The
the
Earth.
greenhouse
no
life
on
almost
the
same
daytime
whereas
Moon
from
by
are
Earth.
night
they
−18°C
effect
For
on
may
leads
is
thing,
a
from
the
be
radiation
good
example,
distance
temperatures
about
This
the
Moon
−150°C.
compared
the
with
as
Average
about
is
the
reach
a
for
Moon
Sun
may
to
warming
without
an
airless
Earth.
as
high
as
temperatures
15°C
on
Earth.
The
• Greenoe effect – also
Earth’s
atmosphere
therefore
raises
temperatures
by
about
33°C.
called the natural greenhouse
effect, this is the process by
There
are
which cer tain gases (water
about
95%
vapour, carbon dioxide, methane
greenhouse
warming
126
a
number
of
effect.
are
of
greenhouse
greenhouse
gases
However,
carbon
dioxide,
by
the
gases.
Water
volume
gases
methane
and
mainly
and
vapour
for
accounts
about
implicated
50%
in
of
for
the
global
chlorofluorocarbons.
2 .1
Carbon
dioxide (CO
)
levels
have
risen
from
about
315
parts
per
ThE
C AusE s
OF
GlO b A l
C l i m AT E
C h A NGE
million
2
and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs))
(ppm)
in
1950
to
over
400
ppm
in
2015,
and
are
expected
to
reach
allow shor t-wave radiation from
600
ppm
by
2050.
The
increase
is
due
to
human
activities:
burning
fossil
the Sun to pass through the
fuels
(coal,
oil
and
natural
gas)
and
land-use
changes
such
as
deforestation.
atmosphere and heat up the
Deforestation
of
the
tropical
rainforest
is
a
double
blow
,
since
it
not
only
Ear th, but trap a propor tion of
increases
atmospheric
CO
levels
but
it
also
removes
the
trees
that
convert
2
long-wave radiation from the
CO
into
oxygen.
Carbon
dioxide
accounts
for
about
20%
of
the
greenhouse
2
Ear th. This radiation leads to a
effect
but
an
increased
proportion
of
the
enhanced
greenhouse
effect.
warming of the atmosphere.
Methane
is
the
second-largest
contributor
to
global
warming,
and
• Feedack – the ways that
its
presence
in
the
atmosphere
is
increasing
at
a
rate
of
1%
per
changes in an environment may
annum.
It
is
estimated
that
cattle
convert
up
to
10%
of
the
food
they
be accelerated or modified by the
eat
into
methane
and
emit
100
million
tonnes
of
methane
into
the
processes operating in a system.
atmosphere
important
methane
each
year.
sources:
paddy
annually
,
permafrost
will
Natural
while,
melt
fields
as
and
wetland
emit
global
release
and
up
to
paddy
150
warming
vast
fields
million
increases,
quantities
of
are
other
tonnes
bogs
of
• Potve feedack – changes
trapped
in
methane.
in a system that lead to greater
deviation from the original
condition (also known as
The
enhanced
greenhouse
effect
is
the
impact
of
increasing
levels
of
cumulative causation or a
greenhouses
gases
in
the
atmosphere
as
global
as
a
result
of
human
activities.
It
vicious circle).
is
often
the
referred
changes
habitats
from
by
and
in
the
the
changes
the
to
global
patterns
incidence
in
the
enhanced
warming.
of
Earth’s
of
Global
rainfall
drought,
greenhouse
and
floods
atmosphere,
climate
change
refers
temperature,
and
believed
storms,
to
be
sea
to
level,
resulting
caused
mainly
effect.
• Negatve feedack – changes
in a system that occur and lead
to other changes, but eventually
the whole system stabilizes.
The increase in the world’s
greenhouse
gases
is
linked
trade and globalization. As
industrialization has
to
industrialization,
increased,
so too
has
Tet yoref
atmospheric CO
. Many LICs and NICs
are
actively industrializing
and
2
adopting a consumer
culture.
Industrial
potential to add to atmospheric CO
activity among
the
NICs
. Nevertheless, the per-capita
has
the
emissions
2.1 According to figure 2.1.1,
deterne the amount of the
2
in HICs are responsible for much
of
the
growth
in
atmospheric
CO
incoming solar radiation that is
2
absorbed by the Ear th’s
surface.
[1]
Cange n te goa energy aance
2.2 Otne the ways in which
Space
23
7
solar radiation differs from the
49
9
Outgoing
Ear th’s radiation.
12
Radiation
[2]
Incoming
Radiation
100
2.3 Copare the incoming sources
Emitted
by
Emitted
clouds
Emitted
directly
to
of energy in the atmosphere with
by
space
atmosphere
Reflected
the outgoing energy sources.
by
[2]
clouds
2.4 Expan two processes
Absorbed
by
atmosphere
in which global energy is
19
104
Absorbed
by
atmosphere
balanced.
Atmosphere
[2+2]
4
Absorbed
by
clouds
Latent
Emitted
by
atmosphere
Reflected
(Water
Heat
Vapor
changing
liquid
by
to
ice)
Do not confuse the ozone layer
surface
with the greenhouse effect—
Sensible
Heat
(Rising
air
they are very different. The
currents)
Emitted
by
surface
ozone layer protects the Ear th
Land,
Ocean
47
Radiation
Absorbed
by
Surface
98
24
5
Radiation
Emitted
from
Surface
116
from harmful ultraviolet radiation
whereas the greenhouse effect
Fgre 2.1.1.
The Ear th’s energy balance
is responsible for raising the
temperature on Ear th and
making life possible. (Ozone is
a minor greenhouse gas, but its
Be very clear about the difference between the natural greenhouse effect
contribution to the greenhouse
(which is a good thing and vital for life) and the enhanced greenhouse
effect is very small.)
effect (which is related to human activities and is not so good for everyone).
127
2
U NI T
2:
GLO B A L
C L I M AT E — V U L N E R A B I L I T Y
Solar
radiation
There
have
caused
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
variations
been
changes
many
in
the
variations
Earth’s
in
solar
climate
radiation,
over
the
and
these
geological
have
past.
Tet yoref
However,
2.5 Dtng between the
recent
natural greenhouse effect and
been
the enhanced greenhouse effect.
[2]
the
measured
1960s.
activity
volcanic
dimming reduces some of
in
the impact of the enhanced
In
and
radiation
2.6 Briefly expan how global
variations
warming.
1991,
in
Since
by
global
reaching
activity
,
radiation
1970s,
satellites.
addition,
and
solar
the
Solar
there
has
warming.
the
such
as
the
activity
been
no
However,
Earth’s
human-caused
have
not
fluctuations
surface
eruption
has
some
of
be
Mt
significant
solar
been
of
between
the
put
global
to
in
in
have
since
sunspot
variation
down
Pinatubo
causing
radiation
declining
correlation
can
pollution,
been
in
in
solar
periodic
the
Philippines
dimming.
greenhouse effect/global
Feedback
warming.
loops
[2]
Tae 2.1.1.
Many students get confused
Some albedo values for terrestrial surfaces
Surface
Albedo (%)
Water (Sun’s angle over 40°)
2–4
Water (Sun’s angle less than 40°)
6–80
about positive and negative
Fresh snow
75–90
feedback . The terms do not mean
Old snow
40–70
Dry sand
35–45
good or bad. Positive feedback
means that the feature continues
Dark , wet soil
5–15
Dry concrete
17–27
Black road surface
5–10
Grass
20–30
to change, whereas negative
feedback means that it stops
changing, that is, it adapts to a
new circumstance.
Deciduous forest
10–20
Coniferous forest
5–15
Crops
15–25
Tundra
15–20
Temperature
Source of data: Adapted from Barry, R. and Chorley, R.,
Increases
Atmosphere, weather and climate, Routledge (1998)
Increases
Carbon
and
dioxide
methane
Permafrost
released
Tet yoref
into
thaw
atmosphere
2.7 Briefly expan how albedo changes may change lead to changes in
the energy balance.
[2]
Increases
2.8 sgget how the release of methane can lead to feedback loops
Fgre 2.1.2.
A positive feedback
associated with changes in the global energy balance.
[2]
mechanism involving methane and
enhancing climate change
Te enanced greenoe effect and nternatona
varaton n greenoe ga orce and
Content nk
eon
The impact of global climate
In
1990,
total
CO
change on extreme environments
emissions
were
about
22
billion
produced
most
of
the
CO
is discussed in option C.4.
emissions,
about
by
produced
2016
up
Tet yoref
the
from
CO
,
North
about
2
America,
billion
Asia-Pacific
25%
Europe
in
1990.
and
with
tonnes,
region
China
Eurasia’s
about
and
produced
alone
output
6
the
billion
rest
almost
produced
had
of
Europe
billion
tonnes.
Asia
half
fallen
to
and
tonnes,
emissions are likely to change
over the period between now and
[2]
North
America
had
remained
steady
overall.
China
was
10
By
emissions,
billion
6
only
similar.
global
around
2
and
of
about
2.9 sgget how greenhouse gas
128
8
2
followed
2040.
tonnes.
2
Eurasia
tonnes
billion
of
tonnes,
2.2
2 . 2
T H E
ThE
C O N S E Q U E N C E S
C L I M AT E
CONsEquENCE s
O F
OF
GlO b A l
C l i m AT E
C h A NGE
G L O B A L
C H A N G E
Yo od e ae to ow te effect of goa cate
• sat water ntron – the
cange on pace, ocete and envronenta yte:
contamination of groundwater
✔
Climate
change
✔
Impacts
of
hazards,
and
climate
the
hydrosphere,
change
migration
and
on
people
ocean
atmosphere
and
transport
places,
and
biosphere;
including
health
by seawater.
• boe – a large-scale
naturally occurring ecosystem,
routes.
identifiable on a global or
regional scale.
Cate cange and te ydropere, atopere
• Ecoyte er vce – the
and opere
products and services provided
by ecosystems, such as climate
Water
stored
in
ice
and
oceans,
and
changing
sea
levels
regulation, flood regulation,
oxygen, food, timber and water.
Europe’s
glaciers
lost
around
25%
of
their
mass
between
2006
and
2014.
• Ecoogca treod – the
•
Sea
levels
•
There
are
expected
to
rise
by
one
metre
by
2100.
point at which there is an
has
been
a
13.3%
decrease
in
Arctic
sea
ice
each
decade
since
1980.
•
By
of
abrupt change in an ecosystem
proper ties or quality.
2040,
summer
Canada
and
sea
ice
is
likely
to
be
limited
to
the
northern
coasts
Greenland.
• Reence – the ability
of a population or a human
or natural system to absorb
•
By
2080,
arctic
summer
sea
ice
•
By
2100,
arctic
temperatures
is
expected
to
disappear
completely
.
change without having to make a
industrial
will
be
as
high
as
7°C
above
pre-
fundamental change.
levels.
• Treod (or tppng pont) –
the critical level at which change
Carbon
stored
in
ice,
oceans
and
the
biosphere
is irreversible.
Glaciers
store
carbon
derived
from
primary
production
on
the
• Vneraty – the degree
glacier
and
deposition
of
materials
such
as
soot
or
by-products
of
the
to which a human or natural
combustion
of
fossil
fuels.
Measurements
in
Greenland
and Antarctica
system is susceptible to, and
suggest
that
the
amount
of
organic
carbon
lost
from
glaciers
will
increase
unable to cope with, the adverse
by
50%
between
2015
and
2050.
That
equates
to
roughly
half
of
the
total
impacts of climate change.
amount
of
carbon
Permafrost
carbon
frozen
carbon
is
carried
contains
released
form.
If
could
vast
either
by
Mississippi
amounts
as
permafrost
be
the
released
carbon
of
into
the
carbon.
dioxide
continues
River
to
When
or
melt,
to
as
ocean
by
each
permafrost
methane,
some
atmosphere
the
190
year.
melts,
stored
in
gigatonnes
of
Content nk
Changes in sea levels are also
2200.
discussed in option B.2.
Methane
ocean
from
acidification.
dioxide
with
released
emissions
seawater
to
seafloor
Currently
are
about
absorbed
make
it
permafrost
more
by
25%
the
acidic.
could
of
contribute
human-produced
oceans.
This
also
Carbon
change
carbon
dioxide
affects
to
reacts
many
marine
organisms.
Carbon dioxide (CO
) and
2
Incidence
and
severity
of
extreme
weather
events
including
methane (CH
drought
) have dissimilar
4
names, but both contain carbon,
Trends
towards
extreme
climate
change
are
likely
to
increase.
This
and both are greenhouse gases.
includes
the
the
meandering
freshwater
the
weakening
NAD
could
behaviour
from
Scandinavia
land
by
the
of
Greenland’s
between
reduce
of
9
2009
and
North
the
ice
stream.
sheet
2010.
temperatures
jet
Atlantic
the
UK,
(NAD)
Increased
caused
A complete
in
Drift
a
30%
and
flows
of
slowdown
switch-off
Greenland,
of
the
Iceland
of
NAD
and
°C.
129
2
U NI T
2:
GLO B A L
C L I M AT E — V U L N E R A B I L I T Y
Due
to
higher
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
temperatures,
there
may
be
an
increase
in
cyclone
activity
Concept nk
(including
Pl ACEs: All places will be
more
hurricanes).
frequent
and
Increased
intense
storm
evaporation
activity
,
may
potentially
particularly
in
lead
coastal
to
areas.
affected by global climate
Wildfires
have
become
more
common
in
high
latitudes.
As
firefighting
change, with some places
in
remote
areas
is
difficult,
many
of
these
fires
burn
for
months,
adding
experiencing benefits, and others
carbon
to
the
atmosphere.
will be negatively impacted.
The natural and human worlds
Spatial
changes
in
biomes,
habitats
and
animal
migration
patterns
are changing, and places at
varying levels of development
will suffer contrasting impacts.
For example, some places may
suffer environmental degradation
and populations will relocate to
another place, while others may
Tropical
and
led
forests
frequency
to
the
are
of
Amazon
Although
beginning
droughts.
rainforest
Indonesia’s
rainforest,
forest
the
grow
forests
fires
on
to
In
back
and
emitting
forests
there
die
2005
are
emit
carbon-rich
due
2010,
more
only
to
of
increased
severe
carbon
20–25%
massive
the
two
than
the
amounts
it
size
of
severity
droughts
absorbed.
of
the
carbon
as
Amazon
many
of
peat.
experience rising food prices due
Climate
change
can
affect
where
species
live,
their
food
supply
and
the
to a reduction in the agricultural
timing
of
biological
events.
Projected
climate
change
may
increase
the
yield in their country, or perhaps
extinction
of
species
in
sensitive
areas.
Climate
change
may
affect
elsewhere in the world.
the
capacity
of
ecosystems
droughts
are
and
to
Warming
may
latitudes.
As
warm,
are
may
such
as
projected
The
impact
food
web.
decline
in
of
fish
to
in
that
species
higher
affect
50%
sea
as
fires,
ecosystems
fewer
have
places
in
migrated
altitudes
can
ice
the
by
into
As
habitat
up
rivers
coldwater
coldwater
their
pass
in
eaten
species.
replacing
The
of
or
intrusion
some
are
salmon.
are
arctic
have
saltwater
change
such
conditions.
species
and
climate
algae
fish
around
Reductions
the
rise,
adversely
lose
and
species
warmer
species
trout
to
as
Many
levels
water
events,
Mountain
and
force
sea
warm
species
Fgre 2.2.1.
refuge.
latitudes
freshwater
extreme
vulnerable,
take
higher
survive
floods.
especially
which
to
to
species
by
through
Arctic
lead
2080.
the
to
zooplankton,
a
and
Global climate change is leading to the
in
turn
by
cod.
Cod
are
an
important
food
source
for
drying of many soils
seals,
Agricultural
crop
which
yields,
are
limit
of
fed
on
by
cultivation
polar
and
bears.
soil
erosion
Content nk
Future possibilities in sustainable
•
In
food production are discussed in
to
option F.4.
•
areas,
•
a
In
decrease
The
limits
and
Russia
to
130
some
conditions.
the
of
crop
of
millet
to
possibility
Soil
erosion,
of
the
and
cultivation
due
size
yields
will
sub-Saharan
of
land
Sahara
move
degradation
and
to
areas
by
further
and
during
due
warmer
increase
temperatures
agriculture
Desert
an
sorghum
may
rising
reduce
Africa,
in
of
in
increasing
20th
North
tundra,
will
lead
century
.
America
which
growing
desertification
the
drier
40–80%.
north
the
and
1.5–2.0°C
has
will
lead
seasons.
increased
the
2.2
ThE
CONsEquENCE s
OF
GlO b A l
C l i m AT E
C h A NGE
ipact of cate cange on peope and pace, ncdng
eat azard, graton and ocean tranpor t rote
It is a common misconception that
Certain
population
groups
are
more
vulnerable
to
climate
change.
only the poor will be affected by
These
include
the
poor,
young,
elderly
and
sick,
and
people
living
in
climate change. Although certain
vulnerable
areas.
Low-lying
coastal
areas
are
at
risk
from
a
variety
of
groups are more vulnerable to
threats
such
as
flooding,
saltwater
intrusion
and
storm
surges.
Cities
climate change (for example,
are
also
vulnerable
due
to
the
large
concentrations
of
people
there.
poor, indigenous populations and
Cities
increase
microclimates
the
risk
and
the
infrastructure,
schemes,
of
heat-island
including
transport
heatwaves
and
to
effect.
drainage
power
due
and
supply
the
Many
sewer
formation
cities
of
have
systems,
urban
an
flood
refugees), many middle- and
aging
high-income people will also be
protection
systems.
affected. Food prices will rise, food
scarcity will increase, insurance
premiums will increase, and the
Indigenous
populations
are
vulnerable
for
many
reasons.
They:
likelihood of water shortages will
•
rely
on
the
natural
environment
for
food
and
cultural
practices,
as
also increase.
well
as
in
for
income
•
live
isolated
and/or
low-income
•
have
high
rates
of
uninsured
•
have
high
rates
of
existing
communities
individuals
health
risks
compared
to
other
groups.
Try to get across the complexity of the impact of climate change on
Content nk
human health. For example, people’s health will not only be affected by
Managing climate change in
the spread of diseases such as malaria, but many people will be affected
by severe dehydration due to prolonged drought, and fatigue due to high
urban environments is discussed
in option G.4.
temperatures, which may lead to an increase in illness (morbidity) and
death rates (mor tality).
Diseases
rise.
order
to
Around
rely
on
faster,
but
such
This
a
is
as
malaria
because
the
60
million
glacial
there
is
people
meltwater
likely
long-term
to
all
increase
large-scale
locations,
been
saltwater
of
the
such
forced
intrusion
in
the
for
be
decrease
a
already
become
more
need
common
as
temperatures
temperatures
above
20°C
in
breed.
Considering
some
will
mosquitoes
an
as
Indus
their
increase
the
as
to
the
the
Pacific
leave
into
their
the
of
above,
number
of
Brahmaputra
supply
.
in
sources
information
in
and
water
With
short-term
water
island
planners
of
are
Kiribati,
due
to
flow
basins
melting
of
water,
disappear.
climate-change
homes
river
glaciers
anticipating
refugees.
some
rising
sea
In
people
levels
have
and
freshwater.
Tet yoref
Transport
Arctic
Not
routes,
Canada,
only
facilitate
would
oil
such
may
this
as
open
the
north-west
up,
allow
as
for
well
as
passage
the
year-round
seas
from
to
the
transport,
it
the
USA to
north
may
of
Siberia.
also
2.10 Expan how climate change
may affect (a) agriculture and
() ecosystems.
[3+3]
exploration.
131
2
U NI T
2 . 3
2:
GLO B A L
C L I M AT E — V U L N E R A B I L I T Y
R E S P O N D I N G
C L I M AT E
T O
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
G L O B A L
C H A N G E
Yo od e ae to ow exape of pote for
• Adaptaton – initiatives and
repondng to cate cange and power over te
measures to reduce the
decon-akng proce:
vulnerability of human and natural
systems to climate change.
✔
Disparities
including
• mtgaton – attempts to reduce
(age,
the causes of climate change.
✔
• Rk – the probability of a
in
exposure
variations
gender
and
Government-led
climate
hazard event causing harmful
in
to
climate-change
people’s
location,
risk
and
wealth,
education)
and
risk
adaptation
and
mitigation
vulnerability
,
social
differences
perception;
strategies
for
global
change;
consequences (expected losses
✔
Civil
society
and
corporate
strategies
to
address
global
climate
in terms of death, injuries,
change.
proper ty damage, economy and
environment).
Dparte n expore to cate-cange
• Geoengneerng – schemes
designed to tackle the effects
rk and vneraty
of climate change directly,
There
usually by removing CO
are
many
disparities
in
exposure
to
climate
change,
such
as
by
from
2
location,
wealth,
gender,
London’s
exposure
age,
education
and
risk
perception.
the air or limiting the amount of
sunlight reaching the planet’s
to
climate-change
risk
and
vulnerability
surface (also known as climate
London
engineering).
is
droughts,
already
vulnerable
heatwaves
and
to
very
extreme
cold
weather,
weather.
It
is
namely
likely
floods,
that
in
a
• stakeoder – a person,
warming
world,
London
will
experience
warmer,
wetter
winters
and
community and/or an
hotter,
drier
summers.
V
ery
cold
winters
will
still
occur,
although
they
organization that has an interest
will
become
less
frequent.
Sea
level
will
continue
to
rise
for
centuries.
in something, For example,
stakeholders in climate change
London
might include farmers, oil
from
companies, residents in low-
events.
lying coastal areas and so on.
over
Tet yoref
is
the
vulnerable
North
Some
1.25
15%
million
of
key
of
flooding.
is
flooding
of
the
to
lives
more
increase
for
in
on
a
the
sources:
Thames
floodplain.
480,000
links,
due
to
Although
tidal
and
That
properties
schools
future
water.
many
from
than
(transport
demand
from
flooding
city
people,
likely
increased
to
river
infrastructure
Drought
and
Sea,
and
means
and
a
hospitals)
decreased
there
flooding
heavy
were
rainfall
that
great
are
at
summer
deal
risk
rainfall
droughts
in
2003
2.11 Using examples, briefly
and
2006,
and
floods
in
2000
and
2002,
London
was
able
to
deal
with
them.
expan how vulnerability varies
with (a) location, () wealth,
Climate
change
and
Cape
T
own
(c) gender, (d) age, (e) education
and (f) risk perception.
Cape
[2+2+2+2+2+2]
dry
Town
years,
and
the
would
June
is
running
dam
levels
authorities
have
2018
left
out
of
were
around
heavy
rains
of
water.
usable
preparing
4
million
refilled
By
water
to
January
were
shut
off
residents
Cape
2018,
down
to
residential
reliant
Town’s
following
17%
dam
on
to
of
three
capacity
supplies.
standpipes.
43%
capacity
,
This
In
and
Tet yoref
Day
Zero
was
put
back
until
sometime
in
2019.
2.12 sgget why London is
Given
vulnerable to flooding.
the
huge
disparities
in
South
African
society
,
there
is
plenty
[2]
of
scope
for
resentment.
Some
are
sharing
tips
on
how
to
wash
in
a
2.13 sgget why Cape Town is
bucket
running out of water.
reuse
the
contents.
Farms
and
hotels
have
halved
water
[2]
use.
Others
2.14 Otne the measures that
city’s
have been taken to reduce water
Thus,
consumption in Cape Town.
first
132
and
[3]
are
exceeding
authorities,
water
major
emptying
usage
city
in
the
is
the
still
50
litres
per
supermarket
too
high
developed
and
day
shelves
Cape
world
recommended
that
of
Town
runs
bottled
may
out
of
by
the
water.
become
water.
the
2.3
South
Africa’s
weather
services
have
told
politicians
that
their
RE sPONDiNG
TO
GlO b A l
C l i m AT E
C h A NGE
models
2.15 Briefly expan the terms
no
longer
work
and
their
long-term
climate-change
predictions
have
“desalination” and “cost-benefit
arrived
10
years
early
.
analysis”.
Investments
that
would
have
failed
cost-benefit
analyses
10
years
[2+2]
ago—
2.16 Otne one advantage and
expensive
desalination
plants
in
Cape
T
own’s
case—now
look
essential.
one disadvantage of desalination
for Cape Town.
[2+2]
Governent-ed adaptaton and tgaton tratege
2.17 Briefly expan why London
for goa cate cange
should be better able to adapt to
climate change than Cape
Mitigation
strategies
for
global
climate
change
Town.
Mitigation
Many
of
refers
these
to
are
attempts
shown
in
to
reduce
table
the
causes
of
climate
[2]
change.
2.3.1.
Tet yoref
National and international methods
Individual methods
•
•
Use public transpor t
•
Use locally produced foods
•
Use energy-ecient products
•
Turn o appliances when not in use
•
Reduce heating by insulating buildings
•
Use double- or triple-glazed windows
•
Turn o taps when not in use
•
Walk more or ride a bicycle
•
Use less heating/air-conditioning
2.18 Defne the terms (a) carbonControl the amount of atmospheric
offset schemes, () geopollution
engineering, (c) carbon capture
•
Geoengineering
and (d) ocean fer tilization.
•
Develop carbon-capture schemes
[1+1+1+1]
•
Develop renewable energy sources
•
Set limits on carbon emissions
•
Ocean fer tilization
•
Carbon-trading schemes
•
Carbon-oset schemes
•
Tet yoref
2.19 identfy the likely
adaptation strategies that may
Introduce carbon taxes
be used for (a) sea-level rise, and
Tae 2.3.1.
Government-led
Adaptation
() famine/food shor tages. [2+2]
Methods of climate change mitigation
adaptation
refers
to
strategies
initiatives
for
and
global
climate
measures
to
change
reduce
the
• Cv ocety – any
vulnerability
of
human
and
natural
systems
to
climate
change.
organization or movement that
There
ways
are
of
many
problems
adapting
to
related
them.
Some
to
of
climate
these
change,
are
shown
and
in
many
table
possible
works between the household,
the private sector and the state
2.3.2.
to negotiate matters of public
concern. Civil societies include
Climate-change risks
Potential adaptation strategies
•
Flooding
•
Early-warning systems
•
Disease
•
Emergency shelters
•
Sea-level rise
•
New forms of agriculture
•
Contaminated water
•
Genetic engineering/high-yielding varieties of crops (HYVs)
•
Dehydration
•
Irrigation
•
Drought
•
Sea walls
•
Famine/food shor tages
•
Mosquito nets
•
Over-heating
•
Desalination
•
Migration
non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), community groups,
trade unions, academic
institutions and faith-based
organizations.
Try to keep up to date. Changes
Tae 2.3.2.
Risks of climate change and possible adaptation strategies
in government can have a
significant impact on climate-
Cv ocety and corporate tratege
change policy, for example. In
to addre cate cange
2017, the US president, Donald
Trump, signed deals to increase
WWF
Australia
production of fossil fuels,
Australia
is
vulnerable
and
low-lying.
and
fires.
One
in
The
six
change
Extreme
Great
species
threatening
are
to
weather
Barrier
is
shellfish
also
climate
each
Reef
threatened
as
an
well
as
change.
events
has
with
coral.
increasing
Most
have
suffered
led
its
to
from
extinction.
Water
of
cities
floods,
coral
Ocean
shortages
are
coastal
droughts
and
Xi Jinping, indicated that China
would like the world to increase
bleaching.
acidification
whereas the Chinese president,
is
agricultural
production and use of clean
energy.
problem.
133
2
U NI T
2:
GLO B A L
C L I M AT E — V U L N E R A B I L I T Y
As
a
civil
society
,
AND
WWF
R E S ILIE NC E
Australia
is
committed
to:
Content nk
•
limiting
global
warming
to
1.5°C
above
pre-industrial
levels
by
the
The success of civil societies
end
of
the
century
in raising awareness of
environmental risks is explored
•
achieving
net-zero
achieving
100%
carbon
pollution
in
Australia
before
2050
fur ther in unit 6.3.
•
100%
renewable
renewable
electricity
energy
before
in
Australia
before
2050,
including
2035.
Tet yoref
2.20 Evaate the role of civil societies in the fight against climate change.
[5]
quEsTiON PRACTiCE
a)
Study the following gure, which shows changes in atmospheric CO
and mean surface temperature since 1880.
2
0.6
400
380
0
Temp.
OC
–0.3
300
erutarepmeT
2
320
ylamona
)mpp(
340
)C°(
0.3
360
CO
2
–0.6
280
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
2020
Years
)
Etate the increase in atmospheric CO
(ppm) between 1960 and 2015.
[1]
2
)
Etate the change in temperature between 1960 and 2015.
[1]
)
Draw a labelled diagram to show the main features of the greenhouse eect.
[4]
c)
)
sgget one reason why predictions for global climate change vary.
[2]
)
Expan one natural cause of climate change.
[2]
Essay
“Climate change impacts will be greatest for places with a high population density.”
To wat ex tent do you agree with t statement?
[10]
how do i approac tee eton?
a)
)
A calculation is required—the 1960 value is approximately 300 ppm and the 2015 value is approximately
390 ppm. A value between 80 and 100 ppm would be accepted.
)
This requires manipulation of the temperature anomalies—from between 0.0–0.1°C in 1960 to just under 0.6°C in
2015, so approximately 0.6°C (0.5–0.6°C accepted).
)
This requires a labelled diagram that explains how the greenhouse eect works.
c)
Par t (i) asks you to suggest reasons. You do not necessarily need to know the exact reasons, but you should be able
to come up with some logical ideas, for example, about spatial scales, temporal scales, the role of feedback , the
complexity of the issue.
Par t (ii) asks you to outline reasons. You should give a brief explanation of how climate change can be caused by
natural processes, for example, volcanic activity, dust storms, variations in solar output and so on.
Essay
As the command term is to wat ex tent, your answer should provide suppor ting arguments and counterarguments for
the statement given in the question. Essay questions in papers 2 and 3 are also synoptic, which means you will need
information from across dierent units to answer the question. For example, you might want to draw on your knowledge
134
quE sTiON
PRACTiCE
of densely populated areas near coastlines (unit 1) to suppor t the argument. However, you could counter the
argument by describing how climate change impacts will also depend on latitude, and by discussing
non-human impacts of climate change (unit 2).
s AmPlE sTuDENT ANs WER
a) i) 300 ppm to 395 ppm , so an increase of 95 ppm of CO
2
mark 1/1
ii)
0.6°C
mark 1/1
b)
Marks gained for references to “shor t-wave solar radiation”;
“radiation trapped due to greenhouse gases”; “long-wave
radiation”; and “re-emitted into atmosphere”.
mark 4/4
c)
i)
Certain
disasters,
much
the
things
for
inuence
example
climate
the
volcanoes.
will
change
global
It
is
until
climate
difcult
after
the
to
such
as
predict
event
has
natural
how
happened.
▼ More
For
example
the
Iceland
volcano
reduced
solar
radiation
into
By
Earth,
making
Ano ther
is
due
to
the
reason
the
climate
why
fact
lo ts
how
much
of
of
climate
things
change
inuence
the
can
vary
climate
of
▼ Ocean
pressure
an
area
such
as
ocean
circulation
and
air
pressure,
and
constantly
climate
changing
conditions
and
so
it
is
hard
to
predict
circulation
not
and
developed
air
enough
these
to
are
needed—data?
cooler?
coo ler
.
predictions
that
detail
the
future
explain
climate
how
they
affect
global
change
accurately.
One factor and poor choice of suppor t material—it had very limited impact on
global climate. The eruption of Mt Pinatubo would have been better as suppor t.
mark 1/2
135
2
U NI T
2:
GLO B A L
C L I M AT E — V U L N E R A B I L I T Y
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
ii) Solar aring is a natural cause of climate change which involves an
increase in radiation received from the Sun, therefore changing the
climate. Sun spots are the opposite of solar aring which is when dark
patches appear on the surface of the Sun.
Only one natural cause explained. Sun spots not developed enough.
mark 1/2
Essay
“Climate change impacts will be greatest for places with a high
population density.” To wat ex tent do you agree with this statement?
Climate
▲ Valid point
issues
of
around
▲ Good exemplication of a
number
of
factors
impacts
of
global
inuencing
relief
change
our
the
age.
of
the
However
,
world.
(height
one
Its
above
most
its
impacts
important
impacts
vary
sea-level),
are
with
environmental
not
evenly
population
proximity
to
the
spread
density,
oceans
(coastal
the
locations)
climate
is
and
level
of
wealth
(poverty
–
being
able
to
plan
for
change
climate
▲ Summary point
▲ Valid point and example
change)
number
of
Climate
change
lying
rise
as
dependents.
could
countries,
in
sea
well
level
such
would
as
It
demographic
is
a
complex
potentially
as
over
have
10%
e.g.
age,
health,
issue.
Bangladesh.
ood
factors
a
huge
For
of
impact
example,
the
a
country
on
low-
1-metre
and
affect
▲ Good development of point
9%
of
the
waters
▲ Impacts
change
on
of
a
global
rich
country
Estuary
a
national
scale
to
and
and
built
much
point—the
(afford)
adaptation
on
of
and
the
in
the
South
UK
’s
East,
coastal
and
the
Severn
Estuary.
cities.
T
hese
Globally,
areas
there
contain
are
many
many
sites
that
to
climate
change
e.g.
New
Y
ork
(which
was
Superstorm
land
the
less
city
these
is
Sandy
than
built
cities
5m
on
have
in
above
land
the
2012),
sea
Shanghai
level,
reclaimed
potential
to
be
and
from
(which
T
okyo,
the
affected,
sea.
where
However
,
they
also
ability
climate
change
have
the
resources
to
adapt
to
climate
change.
London
has
the
schemes
T
hames
is
Barrier
raising
storm
136
Mersey
important
by
although
cope
the
vulnerable
affected
is
to
London
levels
global
megacities
▲ Valid
affect
sea
development—changes
are
from
would
Rising
climate
large
▲ Good
population.
its
to
sea
surges.
protect
walls
it
against
and
tidal
building
a
ooding
new
and
barrier
to
New
deal
Y
ork
with
quE sTiON
▲ Start
Not
everywhere
vulnerable
to
to
construct
so
rising
sea
Populations
vulnerable.
is
sea
in
Small
level
defences
living
In
lucky.
of
but
a
do
not
40%
of
city
are
is
the
areas,
In
poorest
making
addition
to
live
them
and
However
,
the
(by
river
they
banks,
canals
vulnerable
are
seawater)
dengue
impact
to
especially
ooding,
contamination
malaria
close
to
vulnerable
and
the
counterargument
▲ Valid
point
▲ Valid
point—vulnerability
at
largest
over
below
sea
level,
and
T
his
of
has
migrations,
forest
humans,
the
Overall,
in
areas
as
it
is
climate
of
high
rises
had
res
region
not
drainage
ooding.
to
spread
▲ Good
detail
▲ Good
detail—range
freshwater
of
diseases
such
as
change
varies
especially
in
true
a
since
major
etc.
but
say
population
have
impact
on
relatively
generally
to
2000
that
has
a
density.
In
the
little
low
climate
been
in
ice
the
of
areas
climate
hazards
cover
,
impact
population
change
some
will
cases
it
counterargument
Arctic,
animal
▲ Valid
point
▲ Valid
point—
on
density.
be
greatest
may
natural
with
a
lack
of
resources
to
cope
with
change,
such
as
in
the
slums
of
impacts
on
the
environment
be
summarises
the
argument
impacts
of
spatially.
▲ Conclusion
so,
of
populations
fever
.
temperature
10°C.
support
particularly
▲ Another
T
he
and
strength.
slum
and
of
are
resources
and
cities
the
Kiribati,
the
size
low-lying
about
e.g.
have
sufcient
slums
Jakarta,
islands
PRACTiCE
Jakarta,
but
spatially
and
shows
(places)
and
that
due
it
varies
to
wealth
(power)
other
areas
impacts
of
low
may
be
greater
population
on
density,
the
natural
such
as
in
environment
the
in
Arctic.
Good account—focused. Lots of valid suppor t. Covers both sides of
the argument, and has a conclusion that shows variations in place
and power.
mark 9/10
137
G LO B A L
3
RESOURCE
CONSUMPTION
AND
S EC U R I T Y
This
unit
examines
expansion
of
the
how
population
world’s
middle
growth
class
have
and
the
Yo sho be be to show:
affected
✔
consumption
of
resources
(for
example,
how
global
resource
energy
of
and
water,
food)
food
Nevertheless,
world’s
to
and
there
resources
the
point
energy
are
where
security
possibilities
sustainably
,
there
in
such
are
some
to
as
and
the
circular
availability
✔
manage
how
pressure
security
the
of
processes
affect
consumption;
on
resources
affects
the
future
places;
resource
that
there
are
possibilities
for
managing
economy
.
resources
sustainably
decision-making
3 . 1
and
issues
regions.
✔
stewardship
development
water,
G L O B A L
T R E N D S
I N
and
power
over
the
process.
C O N S U M P T I O N
Yo sho be be to show how gob eveopmet
• Biocpcity – the land and
processes ffect resorce vibiity  cosmptio:
water to provide resources for
humanity.
✔
Global
and
reduction,
regional/continental
including
the
growth
progress
of
the
towards
“new
poverty
global
middle
class”;
• Ecoogic footprit – the
hypothetical area of land
✔
required by a society, a group or
Measuring
national
trends
and
in
global
resource
consumption,
ecological
including
individual,
footprints;
an individual to fulfill all of their
✔
An
overview
of
global
patterns
and
trends
in
the
availability
and
resource needs and assimilate
consumption
of:
all of their waste. It is measured
in global hectares (gha).
✔
Water,
including
embedded
water
in
food
and
manufactured
goods;
• Embee (vir t) wter –
the amount of water used in
✔
Land/food,
the production and transpor t to
including
changing
diets
in
middle-income
countries;
market of goods.
✔
Energy
,
including
the
relative
and
changing
importance
of
• Hyrocrbos – chemical
hydrocarbons,
nuclear
power,
renewables
and
new
sources
of
compounds consisting of carbon
modern
energy
.
and hydrogen, such as oil and
natural gas.
• Gree wter – the rainfall
that is stored in the soil and
Gob  regio/cotiet progress towrs
pover ty rectio, icig the growth of the
evaporates from it; the main
“ew gob mie css”
source of water for natural
ecosystems, and for rainfed
agriculture, which produces 60%
of the world’s food.
One
of
the
(MDGs)
and
of
was
2015.
US$1.25
a
In
a
people
US$4
the
successes
global
1990
day;
by
2015
as
day—almost
for
18%
of
it
50%
was
middle
tripled
of
the
millennium
reduction
around
classified
accounted
138
main
of
in
extreme
people
around
14%.
class—that
between
people
in
in
LICs
poverty
LICs
In
is,
1900
in
development
between
on
contrast,
living
and
1900
lived
on
2015.
and
goals
less
the
at
number
least
This
nearly
2000
than
population
50%
in
2015.
3 .1
The
growth
of
the
“new
global
middle
GlO B a l
TREndS
In
COnS uMPTIOn
class”
• Be wter – renewable
According
to
the
World
Bank
(2016):
surface water runoff and
•
Low-income
capita
of
economies
US$1,045
or
are
less
defined
in
as
those
with
a
GNI
per
groundwater recharge; the main
source for human withdrawals
2014.
and the traditional focus of water
•
Middle-income
economies
are
those
with
a
GNI
per
capita
of
resource management.
US$1,046–US$12,735.
• Grey wter – waste water
•
Lower-middle-income
economies
have
an
income
of
that has been produced in
US$1,046–US$4,124.
homes and offices. It may
•
Upper
middle-income
countries
have
income
come from sinks, showers,
of
baths, dishwashers, washing
US$4,125–US$12,735.
machines, etc., but it does not
•
High-income
economies
are
those
with
a
GNI
per
capita
of
contain fecal material.
US$12,736
•
or
more.
Lower-middle-income
and
are
per
separated
at
a
GNI
upper-middle-income
capita
of
economies
US$4,125.
Tbe 3.1.1. Size of the middle class, 2009–2030 (millions of people and
global share)
2009
2020
2030
Test yorsef
(Millions)
(%)
(Millions)
(%)
(Millions)
(%)
Nor th America
338
18
333
10
322
7
Europe
664
36
703
22
680
14
Central and South America
181
10
251
8
313
6
Asia-Pacific
525
28
1740
54
3228
66
Sub-Saharan Africa
32
2
57
2
107
2
Middle East and Nor th Africa
105
6
165
5
234
5
World
1845
100
3249
100
4884
100
3.1 Compre the relative
distribution of middle-class
population between 2009
and 2030.
[3+3]
Source of data: Kharas, H., The emerging middle class in developing countries, World Bank (2011)
Middle
Class
100%
Test yorsef
noitalupop
90%
3.2 Ietify the type of scale
80%
used in figure 3.1.1, and state
70%
why it has been used.
[1+2]
fo
60%
tnecrep
3.3 Otie the changes in
50%
projected annual income
40%
evitalumuC
in China, as indicated in
Key
30%
2009
figure 3.1.1.
[2+2+2]
20%
2020
10%
2030
0%
100
1,000
US$2/
10,000
US$5/
day
100,000
US$10/
day
US$100/
day
day
Cocept ik
Annual
income
(2005
PPPS,
log
scale)
PROCESSES: The rise of the
Figre 3.1.1. Changes in annual income in China, 2009–2030
new global middle class can
be attributed to a number of
Mesrig tres i resorce cosmptio
geographical processes that have
As
individuals
and
countries
become
wealthier,
their
consumption
of
enabled people to escape from
resources
increases.
This
includes
food,
water,
energy
and
consumer
pover ty and to join a segment of
goods,
for
example.
Changes
in
diet,
with
increasing
consumption
the global demographic. This is
of
meat
and
dairy
products,
have
an
impact
on
the
amount
of
water
increasing the ecological footprint
and
energy
used
in
agriculture.
One
way
of
examining
resource
due to rising consumption.
consumption
is
to
look
at
ecological
footprints.
139
3
U NI T
3:
GLO B A L
RE SOUR CE
CONS UMPTION
Ecological
The
of
it
and
footprint
water
consumes
ecological
and
grounds,
On
supply
productivity
forest
if
left
to
land,
its
the
a
its
ecological
or
under
of
six
to
area
and
built-up
absorb
of
amount
resources
technology
.
The
grazing
land,
carbon.
represents
cropland,
land).
much
the
the
cropland,
biocapacity
(including
of
produce
prevailing
things:
nation’s
assets
and
also
measurement
requires
forest
state
grounds
carbon
use
land,
city
,
can
theoretical
waste
the
ecological
hectares—globally
average
the
population
built-up
fishing
our
is
tracks
side,
of
a
absorb
unharvested,
especially
Both
that
footprint
fishing
the
SECURITY
footprints
ecological
land
AND
the
grazing
These
areas,
waste
we
the
land,
especially
generate,
emissions.
footprint
and
comparable,
biocapacity
are
standardized
expressed
hectares
in
with
global
world
productivity
.
Test yorsef
3.4 describe the main
characteristics of the countries
Rk
Cotry
EFP
1
United Arab Emirates
10.68
2
Qatar
10.51
with the highest ecological
Tbe 3.1.2. Countries with the highest ecological footprint (EFP)
footprints.
[2]
3.5 Otie the main
Rk
Cotry
EFP
187
Timor-Leste
0.49
188
Eritrea
0.48
characteristics of the countries
with the lowest ecological
footprints.
[2]
Tbe 3.1.3. Countries with the lowest ecological footprints
Brceo
Ciro
(4.52 gh)
(2.85 gh)
Food
33.3%
35.0%
Housing
4.7%
13.9%
Personal transpor tation
20.6%
12.2%
Goods
13.3%
9.4%
Test yorsef
3.6 Sty table 3.1.4. Using an
appropriate data presentation
technique, plot the urban
ecological footprints for
Barcelona and Cairo. Compre
Services
3.9%
8.9%
Government
6.1%
7.2%
Infrastructure investment (houses, bridges, roads, factories)
18.1%
13.3%
the main differences between
the
two footprints.
[2+3]
3.7 Sggest why Barcelona
has a higher biocapacity
Tbe 3.1.4. Composition (%) of ecological footprints for Barcelona and Cairo
than Cairo.
[2]
3.8 Briefly expi two reasons
a over view of gob ptters  tres i
why the overall ecological
the vibiity  cosmptio of wter,
footprints in urban areas are
/foo  eergy
higher than in rural areas.
[2+2]
Patterns
and
trends
in
the
availability
and
consumption
of
water
3.9 Ietify, and jstify, one
component of the ecological
Annual
footprint that may be smaller in
annual
urban areas compared to rural
has
areas.
by
water
availability
is
highest
in
Asia.
Asia
also
has
the
highest
3
[1+2]
the
consumption,
next
Europe.
highest
Both
rates,
consumption
rates.
and
trends
around
water
Africa
consumption
Patterns
at
in
the
km
availability
and
while
1,350
South
Oceania
per
and
America
has
availability
the
and
year.
North
consumption,
have
much
lowest
America
followed
smaller
availability
consumption
of
and
food
Cotet ik
Economic
development
is
normally
accompanied
by
improvements
Factors affecting water
in
a
country’s
food
supply
.
Increasing
urbanization
will
also
have
availability are explored fur ther in
consequences
for
the
dietary
patterns
and
lifestyles
of
individuals,
option A.3.
not
140
all
of
which
will
be
positive.
Changes
in
diets
are
referred
to
3 .1
as
be
the
“nutrition
accelerating,
transition”.
especially
The
in
the
pace
of
these
low-income
changes
and
seems
GlO B a l
TREndS
In
COnS uMPTIOn
to
middle-income
countries.
The
dietary
both
changes
quantitative
include
shifts
density
diet
in
the
with
a
structure
intake,
dietary
and
Diets
evolve
interactions.
traditions,
factors
all
time,
Income,
of
role
reduced
reduced
over
as
characterize
qualitative
greater
saturated-fat
fibre,
that
and
diet
fat
intakes
being
prices,
the
for
fruit
the
“nutrition
changes.
and
complex
influenced
individual
well
as
geographical,
interact
in
a
complex
added
vegetable
by
transition”
adverse
towards
and
of
The
a
higher
sugars
energy-
in
foods,
carbohydrates
many
factors
preferences
to
include
changes
greater
and
intakes.
environmental,
manner
dietary
shape
and
and
complex
beliefs,
social
dietary
and
cultural
economic
assessmet tip
consumption
Remember that in IB Geography,
patterns.
the term “region” refers to a
The
world
has
made
consumption
per
accompanied
by
from
and
staples,
to
person.
as
oils.
produce
and
vegetables.
and
intense
The
significant
such
vegetable
water
significant
roots
So
and
and
water
growth
in
structural
However,
meat
progress
this
food
comes
at
are
a
and
a
more
shift
to
it
group of countries, such as the
has
in
requires
does
to
become
been
diet
livestock
price—it
than
likely
food
consumption
towards
products
shortages
increasing
changes
tubers,
dairy
in
country.
products
far
more
produce
more
Middle East, rather than par t of a
away
grain
Test yorsef
frequent
Study table 3.1.5.
as
the
demand
for
meat
and
dairy
products
increases.
3.10 determie the region with
Tbe 3.1.5. Global and regional per capita food consumption (kcal per capita
per day)
(i) the greatest calorie intake
and (ii) the lowest calorie
intake in 2015.
Regio
Yer 2015
Yer 2030
World
2,940
3,050
Developing countries
2,850
2,980
Near East and Nor th Africa
3,090
3,170
Sub-Saharan Africa
2,360
2,540
Latin America and the Caribbean
2,980
3,140
East Asia
3,060
3,190
[1+1]
3.11 Ietify the regions
predicted to experience the
highest (i) absolute and (ii)
relative increase in calorie intake
a
between 2015 and 2030.
South Asia
2,700
2,900
Industrialized countries
3,440
3,500
Transition countries
3,060
3,180
[1+1]
assessmet tip
When asked to describe a graph
or identify changes, data should
a
Excludes South Africa
be quantified rather than just
Source of data: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (2002)
copied, otherwise full marks will
Patterns
and
trends
in
the
availability
and
consumption
of
not be awarded.
energy
14,000
Key
13,000
Test yorsef
Coal
12,000
11,000
Hydroelectricity
Nuclear
energy
10,000
Natural
gas
9,000
Oil
5,000
3,000
noilliM
4,000
sennot
6,000
fo
7,000
lio
8,000
tnelaviuqe
Renewables
Look at figure 3.1.2.
3.12 Expi the scale “million
tonnes of oil equivalent”
(mtoe).
[2]
3.13 Ietify the type of graph
that is being used, and expi
briefly why it is appropriate for
2,000
this data.
[1+2]
1,000
0
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
3.14 describe the main changes
16
in the consumption of energy
Years
resources between 1991 and
Figre 3.1.2. World consumption of energy resources, 1991–2016
2016.
[3]
Source of data: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2017
141
3
U NI T
3:
GLO B A L
RE SOUR CE
CONS UMPTION
Overall
barrels
largest
global
per
but
despite
of
1991
there
of
energy
1991,
world
Nuclear
it
New
sources
Biofuels
plants
are
that
sugarcane
new
a
an
into
initiative
O F
R E S O U R C E
in
for
less
is
day
amount
around
from
then
fell
of
of
mtoe
by
South
amount
500
Fukushima-Daichii
modern
whereas
of
and
fossil
energy
6%).
By
2016.
and
and
oil
the
out
of
The
Central
North
produced.
world’s
a
global
2016,
less
total
than
nuclear.
around
2011
nuclear
gas
source.
fossil
fuels
years
ago.
some
fuels.
integrate
greenhouse
but
the
small
came
per
and
million
Europe/Eurasia
in
than
(which
2006
millions
to
in
East
65
(possibly
disaster
in
Japan).
energy
ethanol,
to
relatively
mtoe
the
of
today
,
additive
reducing
to
modern
died
falls
around
barrels
Middle
increase
consumption
peaked
type
grown
animals
as
of
a
from
million
the
relative
accounted
reaction
90
in
absolute
8,000
increased
over
was
provides
energy
energy
reflecting
to
were
an
approximately
5%
or
production
in
America,
In
SECURITY
increase
America,
energy
.
I M PA C T S
day
relative
Nuclear
3 . 2
oil
AND
cars
In
biofuel
into
C H A N G I N G
made
can
United
its
by
are
made
from
decades,
there
2016,
emissions
are
For
They
run
plants
Brazil
on
and
has
pure
Airlines
energy
from
turned
ethanol
announced
supply
in
the
a
hope
of
60%.
T R E N D S
I N
C O N S U M P T I O N
Yo sho be be to show how pressre o resorces
• Recover – capture some
ffects the ftre secrity of pces:
value (for example in an
energy-from-waste plant or
✔
as a nutrient, such as compost).
The
water–food–energy
“nexus”
and
how
its
complex
interactions
affect:
• Recyce – use in a different
✔
National
water
security
,
✔
National
food
✔
National
energy
including
access
to
safe
water;
way (may involve “downcycling”).
security
,
including
food
availability;
• Rece – use less resource
security
,
including
energy
pathways
and
to meet the need (also called
geopolitical
issues;
“minimization”).
• Remove – eliminate demand
✔
The
implications
energy
altogether (also called
of
global
climate
change
for
the
water–food–
nexus;
“prevention” or “conservation”).
✔
The
disposal
international
• Re-sorce – change materials
and
recycling
ows
of
of
consumer
items,
including
waste.
or sources (for example, using
low-carbon electricity to meet
demand).
• Resorce stewrship – a
concept that humans can
use resources in a way that is
sustainable.
• Retr – put back in an
environmentally benign way.
This may require treatment or
containment.
The wter–foo–eergy “exs”
The
water–food–energy
these
the
three
food
land
use
(such
production
(HEP),
water
influence
other
lighting,
produce
and
as
may
salinization).
for
142
economic
sector
food
water
influences
by
transport,
altering
Food
quality
the
water
and
(such
for
In
as
etc.
In
return,
biofuels,
influences
impact
stocks.
Food
hydroelectric
quality
food
power
developments
energy
and
use
between
eutrophication,
energy
requires
sector
and
fish
example,
turn,
temperature,
production
as
interrelationships
production
water
such
the
infrastructure
energy
,
processing,
sources,
to
example,
W
ater
cooling/cleaning.
purposes.
energy
on
refers
For
versa.
irrigation),
W
ater
water
sectors.
vice
impact
for
nexus
and
for
machinery
,
production
help
to
may
availability
reduce
may
the
3.2
negative
impacts
of
burning
fossil
fuels,
for
I M Pa C TS
example,
OF
by
C H a nGInG
acting
TREndS
In
RE SOuR CE
COnS uMPTIOn
as
• Rese – reintroduce into the
carbon
sinks.
By
promoting
one
type
of
development
over
another,
same method as before.
the
if
water
water
available
is
used
developments
sector
may
three
is
food
developments
(irrigation),
The
is
central
increasing
due
changes
in
to
is
on
that
the
sustainable
rising
and
reduced.
potential
shows
impacts
to
diet
the
nexus
unintentional
nexus
urbanization,
food
reduced.
have
food–energy
all
for
is
for
for
Similarly
,
energy
other
sectors.
development.
population,
economic
• Eergy secrity – having
developments
increasing
in
The
one
water–
Demand
wealth,
for
rapid
growth.
access to sufficient, clean,
reliable and affordable energy
sources for cooking, heating,
lighting, communications and
productive uses.
• Foo secrity – having a
National
water
security
sufficient amount of good-quality
Despite
the
recognition
approaches
to
water
of
water–food–energy
management
in
many
nexus
areas
linkages,
treat
the
current
three
food.
sectors
• nexs – the interrelationship,
independently
.
That
is
the
case
in
the
Southern African
Development
interdependence and
Community
(SADC),
where
a
lack
of
cooperation
and
coordination
has
interactions between water, food
hampered
developments
in
the
water
sector.
Moreover,
many
of
the
river
and energy.
basins
are
transboundary
(have
parts
of
their
river
system
in
different
• Wter secrity – continuing
countries)
which
makes
coordination
more
difficult.
Most
of
the
dams
access to safe drinking water
in
the
region
were
built
for
a
single
purpose
although
some,
such
as
the
and sanitation.
Kariba
There
Dam
is
region
an
uneven
proportion
access
Even
25%
in
around
With
and
of
annual
the
consumption
in
is
the
richest
models
demand
2080
for
availability
be
in
to
A large
in
to
75%
there
of
the
are
to
areas
Zambia),
their
in
the
clean
from
for
water.
region,
water.
decrease
water
Up
purposes.
Although
rural
southern
water
of
SADC.
year.
exist.
for
country
a
multiple
Zimbabwe,
pay
access
forecast
by
in
59%
In
to
the
per
not
lives
and
have
in
for
infrastructure
does
limited.
lack
rain
the
region
adapted
water
of
population
people
will
of
mm
Zimbabwe
rainfall
increasing
energy
,
the
water
Africa,
climate
being
Congo,
households
million
addition,
in
safe
now
650
DR
around
South
5
in
67%
to
than
SADC’s
example,
around
20%
it
of
are
distribution
less
supplies
redistribute
and
Zambia,
receives
plentiful
(for
in
of
In
about
Africa.
agriculture
domestic
squeezed.
Figre 3.2.1.
National
food
Human pressure on water resources in
security
the Eastern Cape, Republic of South Africa
Within
is
the
SADC
cultivated,
Only
3.5%
but
this
the
region’s
of
vulnerability
2015–16,
of
over
agriculture
region,
the
40
only
sustains
contributes
the
arable
region
million
around
to
some
is
the
of
insecurity
.
of
land
60%
irrigated,
became
17%
of
livelihood
land
food
people
6%
the
food
of
and
During
the
this
the
insecure.
regional
GDP
.
population.
increases
drought
the
of
Nevertheless,
Despite
Cocept ik
the
Pl aCES: Some places are more
importance
of
agriculture
in
the
region
and
its
consumption
of
76%
secure than others in terms of
of
the
region’s
water
resources,
the
current
agricultural
performance
their access to food, energy and
is
insufficient
to
ensure
regional
food
security
and
economic
growth.
water. The resources could be
Reasons
for
the
low
growth
include
low
investment,
regular
droughts,
sourced within the country’s
lack
of
credit
and
poor
farming
practices.
In
addition,
climate
change
borders, or alternatively they can
is
causing
increased
rainfall
variability
and
reductions
in
crop
yields. As
be secured from other places.
more
water
is
needed
for
energy
developments
or
domestic/industrial
The spatial interaction between
uses,
there
may
be
increased
pressure
on
the
agricultural
sector ’s
supply
countries and their ability to trade
of
water.
The
area
is
likely
to
experience
more
food
shortages,
and
enables the latter.
reductions
National
The
food
energy
SADC
which
in
despite
its
growing
population.
security
faces
were
availability
energy
originally
insecurities.
constructed
Some
for
the
dams,
such
purpose
of
as
Kariba,
hydroelectric
143
3
U NI T
3:
GLO B A L
RE SOUR CE
CONS UMPTION
production,
water
has
are
supply
,
large
15
HEP
,
how
been
DR
the
biomass
Congo,
remains
and
desertification
the
for
basins
on
the
the
pressure
among
totals
safe
mining
relatively
which
could
source
rural
biomass
of
if
not
energy
,
population
has
led
to
be
is
Zambia
electricity
,
activities.
have
the
as
the
capacity
24%
access
large-scale
for
guaranteed.
funds.
only
have
There
developed
not
urban
SADC
unexploited.
countries
and
aquaculture,
to
However,
of
to
the
total
electricity
.
deforestation
and
region.
is
increasing
growth,
to
and
produce
requires
the
will
careful
three
that
due
has
to
led
more
on
food
urbanization,
to
and
management,
sectors.
impact
frequent
industrialization
power
blackouts
in
However,
energy
energy
under
coordination
the
predicted
production,
food
increasing
and
water
cooperation
decline
in
production
rainfall
and
access
to
water.
Countries
in
remaining
the
oil
Middle
reserves.
East
This
control
gives
Oil policies of Middle Eastern
political
advantage—countries
countries are discussed fur ther
friendly
terms
in unit 4.1.
region
for
help
•
maintain
•
involve
the
with
their
•
to
and
for
region.
scarcity
On
provide
between
with
main
of
energy
economic
The
Cotet ik
in
are
Mozambique
the
Over-dependence
Demand
that
river
region
5%
to
transport
cooperation
whole
population
diversified
resources
transboundary
supply
SECURITY
ecotourism,
energy
although
Angola,
and
AND
oil
ensure
other
increase
hand,
the
Middle
want
supply
stability
political
Middle
energy
that
the
that
50%
it.
oil
of
East
may
the
an
world’s
economic
have
Countries
to
that
stay
and
on
depend
on
the
to:
political
good
the
those
need
about
links
East
in
in
the
with
Middle
the
economic
situation
conservation
is
also
or
East
Middle
East
cooperation.
an
incentive
develop
for
alternative
rich
countries
forms
of
energy
.
The impictios of gob cimte chge for the
wter–foo–eergy exs
Climate
many
change
productivity
,
will
for
in
will
frequency
impact
on
some
also
of
food,
influence
Attempts
the
to
on
in
areas
and
the
methods
irrigation
and
Increased
therefore
areas
and
of
may
in
others.
is
and
supplies.
an
reduce
increase
change
shocks,
energy
nexus.
may
to
of
use
may
The
create
adaptation
groundwater
may
increase
Climate
change
desalination
energy
it
it
it.
Water
The
will
Moreover,
impact
on
in
supplies
demand
expected
these
nexus
agricultural
to
increase
have
due
one
an
to
their
part
will
also
production
new
demands
climate
seawater,
would
have
also
of
water
such
very
require
impact
biofuels
for
change,
are
an
as
energy
extra
on
and
resources.
the
use
of
pumping
and
resources.
climate
change
creates
critical
challenges
for
water,
energy
The consequences of global
and
food,
with
increasing
temperature,
reducing
snowpack
and
climate change are discussed
changing
precipitation,
as
well
as
ecosystem
processes
at
regional
in unit 2.2.
scales.
144
In
the
Sacramento–San
Joaquin
Delta
and
drip
intensive.
Cotet ik
Global
have
two.
climate
power
water–food–energy
areas
interdependence,
other
water–food–energy
Some
other
and
the
some
change.
water
limit
hydroelectric
In
climate-related
interconnections
an
influence
ways.
whereas
diminish
energy
the
could
contrasting
Central
Valley
3.2
watersheds
due
to
the
in
increased
precipitation,
services
and
affect
production,
Likely
California,
the
as
•
Projected
•
Loss
end
of
of
regional
increased
water
well
impacts
USA,
as
ecosystem
temperature,
water
and
fish
the
nexus
wildlife
services
changes
stresses
energy
and
I M Pa C TS
from
and
in
OF
are
C H a nGInG
In
RE SOuR CE
COnS uMPTIOn
reduced
snowpack
drought.
TREndS
The
agricultural
and
reduced
food
habitats.
include:
temperature
snowpack,
this
increase
with
ranging
48–65%
of
from
snow
2
to
water
5°C
by
content
2100;
loss
by
the
Test yorsef
century;
3.15 ayse how, and why,
•
Droughts,
with
more
dry
years
and
less
water,
which
will
affect
global climate change may affect
food
and
energy;
the water–food–energy nexus in
•
More
frequent
flooding
and
fire,
affecting
water
quality
in
the
California.
[2+2]
watershed;
3.16 Otie two advantages
•
Rising
sea
levels;
•
Increasing
•
Changes
and two disadvantages of global
climate change for the water–
energy
demand;
food–energy nexus.
Countries
Two
with
and
secure.
It
costs
high
By
2050,
from
29
water
have
on
person,
Saudi
its
in
influenced
a
97%
in
produces
is
and
exports
will
urban
have
litres
dates,
the
levels
In
contrast,
Yemen
the
most
has
one
food.
of
the
Over
food-insecure.
Yemen’s
food
instability
.
increased
food
market.
this
is
Yemen’s
is
one
of
86
due
have
of
26
is
and
and
consumption
to
be
to
is
Saudi
energy-
cover
very
reserves.
50
pressure
million,
on
improved
food
living
and
water,
and
safe
water.
Average
in
urban
the
up
and
standards
country
has
means
and
of
over
linked
have
is
to
has
that
crop
of
its
some
yields.
accounts
The
to
the
and
Middle
imports
to
East
about
double
and
60%
are
by
2040.
social
water,
have
insecurity
.
cannot
buy
harvest
food
production
about
fruit
government
population,
food
farmers
for
the
including
income
litres
Arabia
reduced.
in
political
exacerbated
no
It
the
expected
15–20
some
by
been
hunger.
40%
and
and
country
resources,
have
and
eggs
water
Saudi
subsidized
subsidies
rates
areas,
resources,
products,
million,
Conflict
reduces
five
food
the
been
food
are
and
40%
of
at
of
a
qat,
a
Yemen’s
consumption.
the
to
great
heavily
natural
widespread
cubic
current
Moreover,
food-
groundwater
food-insecure
crisis
grown,
scarcity
water
around
imports
have
to
Yemenis,
scarce
instability
.
drug,
agricultural
with
water
displacement
they
been
population,
and
Water
narcotic
Yemen
Its
import
forecast
day
highest
million
However,
Population
the
world’s
10
to
security
water-,
water
limited
dairy
although
its
has
its
the
of
is
food
per
Despite
in
and
its
place
access
Agriculture
is
Its
growth
for
resource
transition.
vegetables.
past,
of
economy
depleted
This
security
currently
seawater.
demand
areas.
levels
is
population
100–350
rural
Arabia
of
Rapid
Saudis
resource
different
has
nutrition
of
consumption
it
2015.
the
of
oil-based
and
production.
day
very
[2+2]
habitats.
levels
Saudi
Arabia’s
million
Around
and
desalination
experienced
per
with
Yemen.
relies
of
per
species
contrasting
countries
Arabia
the
in
most
metres
and
water
water
conflict
badly
water-stressed
of
demand
between
countries
available
per
already
Saudi
in
the
person
exceeds
Arabia
and
world,
per
year.
supply
.
Yemen,
oil
affected.
145
3
U NI T
3:
GLO B A L
RE SOUR CE
CONS UMPTION
AND
SECURITY
The ispos  recycig of cosmer items
There
are
many
•
Remove—the
•
Reduce
•
Reuse
•
the
or
used
liners;
to
•
Recover
and/or
from
of
of
goods
old
new
to
clothes
of
their
recycling
demand
of
consumer
items.
altogether
lifespan,
tyres
to
reduce
forms
of
the
another
used
as
value—compost
incinerate
and
waste
extend
reuse
old
disposal
elimination
Recycle—create
put
of
amount
goods
bottles
Figre 3.2.2.
forms
use
for
soil
same
(for
example
cleaning
waste;
reuse
of
milk
erosion
product
(recycled
plastic
bags
paper),
used
as
or
bin
cloths)
biodegradable
(burn)
example
collect
waste
for
electricity
use
and
as
fertilizer
heat
it
Recycling is
•
Disposal—put
waste
in
landfill
sites
(natural
or
the
result
of
becoming more widespread in many
quarrying)
or
use
to
make
artificial
hills.
HICs
Flows
of
waste
Increasing
In
general,
HICs
that
Test yorsef
between
Africa
(MIT)
t wo negative impacts of the
[2+2]
are
and
of
flow
and
of
shipped
suggests
waste
tonnes
out
of
in
monitors,
TVs
exported
European
and
the
by
2010,
being
(including
The
Research
that,
are
waste
MICs.
250,000
Asia.
computers,
were
3 . 3
the
LICs
products
3.17 Cotrst t wo positive and
disposal of e-waste.
to
amounts
EU
the
the
and
1.3
million
every
tonnes
year,
discarded
mobile
waste)
Environment
of
phones,
used
to
Institute
258.2
of
is
from
Agency
mostly
Massachusetts
US
internationally
.
electronic
estimates
electrical
west
of
Technology
million
which
only
66%
recycled.
R E S O U R C E
S T E W A R D S H I P
Yo sho be be to show exmpes of possibiities for
Cocept ik
mgig resorces sstiby  power over the
POWER and POSSIBIlITIES:
ecisio-mkig process:
Resource stewardship is
a pathway to achieving
✔
environmental sustainability and
Divergent
thinking
about
population
and
resource
consumption
trends:
involves a range of stakeholders.
✔
Pessimistic
✔
Optimistic
✔
Balanced
views,
including
neo-Malthusian
views;
This complex web of vested par ties
involves multi-governmental
views,
including
Boserup;
organisations such as the UN
views,
including
resource
stewardship;
with their SDGs and national
governments altering their
mindsets and policies to engage
✔
Resource
✔
with the circular economy. People
The
stewardship
value
effective
of
the
cycling
strategies,
circular
of
including:
economy
materials
and
as
a
systems
approach
energy;
also have everyday choices to
✔
The
role
of
the
UN
Sustainable
Development
make regarding resources. As
progress
environmental degradation,
consumerism and population
sizes all increase, the decisions
made at a number of levels and
scales will determine the future of
the planet and its citizens.
146
made
toward
meeting
them.
Goals
and
for
3.3
RE SOuR CE
S T E Wa R d S HIP
diverget thikig bot poptio  resorce
• diverget thikig – finding
cosmptio tres
new solutions to old problems;
There
are
many
resources.
Two
views
of
the
on
the
most
relationship
famous
are
between
the
views
population
of
Thomas
thinking “outside the box”.
and
Malthus
• Circr ecoomy – an economy
and
Ester
Boserup.
that preserves natural
Malthus
would
wrote
outstrip
Malthusians,
The
in
1798
the
such
reducing
artificial
the
as
use
his
growth
Paul
neo-Malthusians
encourage
but
of
of
main
resources—has
Ehrlich
have
the
and
same
contraception
population
growth.
contraception,
as
he
idea—that
the
population
been
Limits
pessimistic
and
Malthus
family
himself
considered
it
to
updated
to
message,
was
be
by
Growth
planning
against
use and reduces loss through
neo-
managing finite stocks and
team.
but
as
immoral
capacity, optimizes resource
growth
a
the
(he
renewable flows.
they
way
of
use
was
of
• Refrbish – to restore and to
make useful again.
a
• Recyce – refers to the
vicar).
Neo-Malthusians
also
suggest
that
there
needs
to
be
greater
manufacturing of a used good
redistribution
of
wealth
and
fairer
access
to
resources.
into another good that can be
In
contrast,
will
find
that
new
Ester
Boserup
solutions
to
suggests
overcome
techniques/methods
example,
using
irrigation
and
the
land
more
fertilizers,
and
that,
as
shortages
would
of
need
arises,
resources.
increase
intensively
,
using
the
She
people
used again, such as bottles,
suggested
paper, aluminium. However, not
productivity
,
increasing
high-yielding
the
for
use
varieties
all products can be recycled.
of
of
Coffee cups made from
crops.
cardboard with plastic coating
cannot be recycled.
• Biochemic feestock –
Population
Population
growth
growth
refers to the production of
renewable energy from crops
Increased
food
Increased
demand
food
demand
such as corn, sugarcane,
soyabeans and palm oil.
Less
Per
food
Improved
capita
agriculture
Population
• aerobic igestio/
productivity
growth
Positive
Increased
checks
mortality
ecompositio – the production
Food
Food
per
per
capita
falls
capita
of biogas and/or fer tilizer from
Negative
Decreased
Preventive
feedback
crops.
loop
fertility
checks
Food
Agricultural
supply
capital
Reduction
population
Population
in
growth
Test yorsef
continues
growth
3.18 distigish between the
Malthusian and neo-Malthusian
Figre 3.3.1. Malthusian (left) and Boserup (right) views on population growth
views of population growth and
The
an
neo-Malthusians
overpopulated
“The
battle
Bomb,
food,
1968,
to
have
planet.
feed
all
water
In
The
humanity
Buccaneer
energy
,
been
Books).
and
land
predicting
Population
is
over”
global
Bomb,
(Paul
famine
Ehrlich
because
resources.
[2+2]
pronounced:
Ehrlich, The
Neo-Malthusians
of
predicted
Population
a
crisis
of
assessmet tip
resources.
Make sure that you answer
According
to
the
economist
Amaryta
Sen,
famine
was
not
caused
by
the question! If a question
declining
availability
of
food,
but
a
decline
in
food
entitlement,
as
a
asks about neo-Malthusian
result
of
unemployment,
a
lack
of
benefits,
rising
food
prices,
etc.
For
solutions to the population–
example,
many
landless
labourers
in
Kalahandi,
India,
may
help
to
resources issue, make sure that
produce
rice
but
cannot
afford
to
buy
it.
However,
Stephen
Devereux
you provide neo-Malthusian
of
the
International
Development
Institute
believes
that
it
is
more
than
solutions rather than Malthusian
an
economic
factor
for
example,
political
regime,
natural
disasters,
civil
ones.
war,
local
issues
The
are
term
and
all
important
and
sustainable.
looking
governance,
in
“stewardship”
environment
is
global
after
its
different
refers
to
resources,
“Stewardship”
the
climate
environment
in
careful
way
suggests
and
and
environmental
places.
the
a
change
its
that
that
management
benefits
people
resources
for
of
the
humanity
are
the
and
caretakers—
benefit
of
147
3
U NI T
3:
GLO B A L
RE SOUR CE
CONS UMPTION
humanity
,
rather
AND
than
SECURITY
just
preserving
environments
for
their
own
Test yorsef
benefit.
3.19 Briefly escribe how
is
increased demand for food
include
could lead to improvements in
marine
agricultural productivity.
very
It
is
a
concept
difficult
to
attempts
fishing
that
operates
achieve.
in
reaching
policies
on
Examples
and
a
of
global
global
agreements
reducing
on
scale,
things
plastic
and,
resource
as
such,
stewardship
like
climate
change,
pollution.
[3]
3.20 Otie the contribution
Resorce stewrship strtegies
of academics, such as Sen and
The
circular
economy
Devereux, to the debate about
population and resources.
[2+2]
A circular
resource
economy
use
and
is
one
reduces
that
loss
preserves
through
natural
capacity
,
managing
finite
optimizes
stocks
and
3.21 Expi the term “resource
renewable
stewardship”.
flows.
It
is
an
economy
that
restores
and
regenerates
[2]
resources,
and
keeps
products,
materials
and
components
at
their
3.22 Sggest how resource
highest
utility
The
of
and
value.
stewardship contributes to the
management of population and
resources.
role
the
UN
Sustainable
Development
Goals
(SDGs)
[2]
The
SDGs
were
introduced
in
2015
and
will
run
until
2030.
They
follow
3.23 defie “circular
on
economy”.
from,
and
extend
the
original,
Millennium
Development
Goals
that
[1]
existed
3.24 Sggest how materials from
are
animals used for the production
related
of meat and milk could be used
of
for biochemical feedstock .
between
faring.
the
to
2000
There
is
gender
oceans
and
and
still
2015.
much
equality
,
many
It
is
too
poverty
climate
more.
early
around
change,
The
to
SDGs
assess
the
how
world,
and
desertification,
are
the
SDGs
problems
acidification
ambitious.
[2]
QuESTIOn PRaCTICE
The following graph shows the size and composition of the ecological footprint for selected countries.
12
Built-up
land
Fishing
Forest
10
Grazing
Cropland
Carbon
rep
labolg(
lacigolocE
seratceh
tnirptoof
)nosr ep
8
6
4
2
world
average
biocapacity
0
natsinahgfA
hsedalgnaB
aidnI
airegiN
anihC
aissuR
KU
ASU
tiawuK
)
dee the term “ecological footprint”.
b)
Otie t wo dierences in the ecological footprint of the USA and Nigeria.
[2 + 2]
c)
Briey expi two factors that lead to a decline in food availability.
[2 + 2]
148
[2]
QuE STIOn
PRaCTICE
Essay
“By the end of the 21st century there will be too many people and not enough resources left.”
To wht ex tet do you agree with this statement?
[10]
How o I pproch these qestios?
)
This asks for a denition. It is wor th 2 marks, so you should have two specic points in your answer.
b)
You are required to give two dierences in the ecological footprint of the USA and Nigeria. One dierence could be the
size of the ecological footprint and another could be the composition. You will need to add details.
c)
An explanation is required. You should identify two valid factors and then develop each one fur ther and/or give some
exemplication.
S aMPlE STudEnT anS WER
a)
T
he
theoretical
measurement
of
the
amount
of
land
and
water
▲ Good
that
to
a
population
absorb
its
needs
waste
to
produce
measured
in
the
resources
global
it
consumes
point
and
hectares.
▲ Valid
point
A good denition.
Mrks 2/2
b)
T
he
USA
5ghas
per
Nigeria.
produces
annum
T
his
is
much
in
the
because
more
USA
the
carbon
than
compared
USA
uses
Nigeria
with
more
just
does,
above
energy
and
zero
in
▼ Inaccurate
fossil
fuel
as
it
is
a
more
economically
developed
it
more
has
higher
carbon,
proportion
products
USA
of
a
of
are
needs
living.
Nigeria’s
Nigeria,
and
uses
forest
used
more
7
of
gha
which
is
more
use
for
Overall,
at
population.
of
the
due
the
below
1
of
T
he
gha.
to
T
his
high
ecological
USA
the
its
and
world
more
USA
infrastructure
USA
’s
for
use
carbon.
about
fuel,
this
T
he
is
fossil
also
and
footprint
over
average
has
a
1
is
gha
valid
per
as
the
EFP
is
given
person
emits
higher
forest
furniture.
population
just
fuels
because
data
country
as
and
of
therefore
▼ Not
more
use
and
T
he
standard
bigger
than
gha/person
▲ Valid
point
▲ Valid
point
in
biocapacity.
▲ 1
mark
Somewhat contradictory in places. Could have developed the composition of
Nigeria’s EFP
. Some valid points are made.
Mrks 3/4
c)
Physical
of
the
there
then
factors
physical
is
a
the
common
factors
drought,
crops
and
do
problem
that
that
not
in
human
is
get
factors
cause
29
food
cause
shortages
consecutive
enough
water
Sub-Saharan
food
to
days
grow.
Africa.
is
shortages.
the
climate.
without
T
his
is
One
If
rainfall,
a
▲ Denition
of
drought
very
▲ Development
149
3
U NI T
3:
GLO B A L
RE SOUR CE
CONS UMPTION
AND
SECURITY
Physical factor correctly explained, and some development, e.g. location, and
denition of drought.
▲ Correct
human
identication
of
A
factor
human
example,
▲ Located
factor
in
that
Y
emen
can
they
cause
import
food
90%
shortages
of
their
is
civil
food.
But
war
.
For
because
of
example
the
civil
sent
war
,
over
country
there
was
also
food.
but
as
there
was
a
blockade
T
his
which
caused
hardly
any
prevented
famine
food
weapons
throughout
being
their
available.
Human factor correctly identied/explained and located example – very
contemporary
Mrks 4/4
Essay
“By the end of the 21st century there will be too many people and not enough
resources left.” To wht ex tet do you agree with this statement?
▲ Starts
with
a
statistic
By
to
▲ Links
to
relative
growth
the
be
T
his
end
around
is
an
than
▲ Increase
as
in
quality
quantity
of
of
life
as
If
at
the
in
a
will
or
population
the
main
range
of
people
wash
fewer
middle
low
billion
More
at
income
the
countries
countries
Goals
is
projected
present.
importantly,
income
Development
eradicated
HICs.
T
his
but
may
people
they
the
it
eat
use
car)
by
may
be
richer
more
more
and
private
vehicles).
(SDGs)
world’s
(MICs)
(LICs).
are
to
be
achieved,
2030
be
good
and
everyone
news
for
the
will
be
living
world’s
bad
they
news
for
consume
resource
more
depletion.
resources.
meat
water
and
dairy
(showers,
products
baths,
than
water
the
poorer
garden,
consume
more
energy
(more
electrical
goods,
needed
to
fuel
More
the
land,
increased
water
and
demand
energy
for
resources
consumer
and
will
be
non -
introduction
cover
the
water-food-energy
resources
▲ Exemplication
of
goods.
nexus
is
the
concept
that
explains
how
nexus
increased
concepts
energy
water
is
demand
has
an
needed
T
his
security
shows
in
the
and
use
impact
production
HEP).
150
more
50%.
7
population
use
T
he
to
be
become
consumer
▲ Good
over
from
world’s
issues
resource
clear
up
the
problem
people;
▲ Very
of
and
Sustainable
Richer
regarding
billion,
have
present
MICs
As
▲ Clear
will
century,
population
‘dilemma’
▲ Identies
11
21st
people
poverty
▲ Suggests
the
increase
population
well
of
to
on
produce
(e.g.
of
one
the
component
other
food,
there
desalination,
that
future.
there
two.
could
be
is
For
less
of
example,
energy
pumping
a
these
problem
of
three
if
more
available
groundwater
,
with
resource
for
QuE STIOn
PRaCTICE
▲ Considers neo-Malthusian view
T
he
neo-Malthusians,
Rome,
suggest
outstrip
will
an
be
the
a
growth
be
in
food
avoided.
associated
with
as
Paul
population
of
population
increase
could
that
such
growth
resources,
crash.
However
,
higher
and
However
,
supply,
and
has
that
with
and
the
the
Club
potential
ultimately
population
redistribution
reduced
resource
Ehrlich
population
consumption,
of
of
to
there
wealth,
growth
due
▲ Solutions
control,
to
is
offered
this
usually
greater
wealth.
In
contrast,
Ester
(knowledge
She
and
believed
changes
in
Boserup
believed
technology)
that
increasing
agricultural
to
that
nd
people
a
solution
population
techniques.
have
At
size
to
the
resources
the
problems.
▲ Counter-view
stimulated
present,
this
could
be
▲ Range
GMOs,
in -vitro
meat
production
(stem
cells)
and
greater
use
of
new
technologies
of
hydroponics.
Other
theories
include
Hardin’s
‘T
ragedy
of
the
Commons’
i.e.
▲ Goes
beyond
Malthusian
common
greed
resources
and
suggests
available
a
lack
that
to
such
of
proper
resources
future
as
the
oceans
will
management.
can
be
used
generations.
It
in
be
over-shed
Resource
a
way
suggests
that
maximises
loss.
It
is
and
resource
possible
social
use,
that
equity.
preser ves
with
more
T
he
idea
natural
re-use
a
can
be
circular
capital
and
argument
stewardship
made
▲ Introduces
environmental
of
normal
Boserup
through
and
sustainability
vs
and
recycling
sustainability
equity
economy
reduces
of
goods,
▲ Good
range
of
concepts
and
exemplication
waste
disposal
can
be
reduced
and
the
life
of
natural
resources
extended.
T
hus
it
is
enough
we
use
and
not
inevitable
resources.
resources
have
a
high
–
that
However
,
and
it
waste
standard
there
of
will
will
be
take
a
them
–
living
if
too
major
the
for
many
people
shift
world
is
in
to
or
the
reach
not
way
2100
all.
Conclusion brings it all together—touches on ‘inevitability’ but shows that the
population-resource balance could go either way. Perhaps a more in-depth
account of one or more resources and their use, decline and/or alternatives
could allow for greater evaluative comments.
Mrks 9/10
151
POWER,
4
The
study
of
perspective
“Globalization”
of
Western
a
interactions
study
often
culture
interactions”
process
N ET W O R K S
global
than
on
of
the
a
has
on
world,
the
broader
Y shd e ae t sh:
traits
and
and
✔
how
global
“global
✔
how
different
be
adopted,
adapted
or
global
complex
process
4 . 1
is
neither
resisted
inevitable
and
inuence
varies
spatially;
places
become
interconnected
by
interactions;
by
how
political,
nor
technological
and
physical
societies.
processes
The
power
commodities
✔
may
O N LY )
domination
whereas
two-way
cultural
a
(HL
AND
globalization.
focuses
suggests
whereby
PLACES
inuence
global
interactions.
universal.
G L O B A L
I N T E R A C T I O N S
G L O B A L
P O W E R
A N D
Y shd e ae t sh h ga e ad fee
• Gazat – “the growing
vaes satay:
interdependence of countries
worldwide through the
✔
increasing volume and variety
Globalization
indices
showing
how
countries
participate
in
global
interactions;
of cross-border transactions
✔
Global
superpowers
and
their
economic,
geopolitical
and
cultural
in goods and services and of
inuence;
international capital flows,
and through the more rapid
✔
Powerful
organizations
and
global
groups:
and widespread diffusion of
✔
G7/8,
G20
and
Organization
for
Economic
Cooperation
and
technology” (International
Development
(OECD)
groups;
Monetary Fund).
✔
Organization
of
the
Petroleum
Exporting
Countries’
(OPEC)
• Sft e – this refers to
inuence
over
energy
policies;
the positive influence that one
✔
country can have over another
global
lending
Monetary
through its culture, education,
institutions,
Fund
(IMF)
and
including
New
the
International
Development
Bank
(NDB).
enterprise, digital exper tise,
engagement and government,
as opposed to had e where
force or coercion is used.
Gazat des shg h tes a tate
 ga teats
• See – a nation or
The
KOF
Index
of
Globalization
group of nations that has a
leading position in international
politics.
The
KOF
Index
•
economic
services,
market
•
social
the
economic,
social
•
well
as
exchanges
(38%
political
(26%
globalization—long-distance
as
information
(36%
of
globalization—the
people
152
covers
and
political
dimensions
of
globalization:
of
of
the
the
Index).
flows
of
perceptions
goods,
that
capital
and
accompany
Index)
spread
of
ideas,
information,
images
Index)
globalization—the
the
and
diffusion
of
government
policies
and
4 .1
Glo b A l
inTErAcTionS
AnD
Glo b A l
powEr
Globalization
index
80+
60–<80
40–59.9
20–39.9
No
2015
data
(based
2015
on
data)
Fge 4.1.1. The KOF Index, 2018 (based on data for 2015)
The
level
of
globalization
Switzerland
which
to
is
other
to
and
say
fell
Sweden
they
had
slightly
were
the
the
most
in
2015.
most
Overall,
globalized
economic,
social
the
Netherlands,
countries
and
in
2015,
political
links
When referring to a map such as
figure 4.1.1, make sure that you
refer to the information in the
key. For example, the USA and
countries.
Australia both have a KOF Index
From
1990
to
2007,
the
level
of
globalization
increased
rapidly
.
In
2015,
of 60–<80.
the
level
was
of
globalization
caused
by
globalization.
the
outcome
reduced
The
de
has
taxes
in
of
press
Due
to
to
be
policies
of
the
in
services
on
de
refers
to
de
time
since
and
1975.
This
stagnating
USA in
2016
De
jure
social
on
de
for
has
recent
have
facto
facto
de
social
years
resulted
and
in
De
relates
social
number
of
of
tourists
refers
embassies
membership
trade
De
and
whereas
to
relates
refers
and
freedom
facto
to
duties,
globalization
connections.
(NGOs),
cross-border
customs
of
and
globalization
facto
to
numbers
globalization
internet
(actual/real)
jure
fallen—the
declined.
trade
connections,
organizations
focuses
has
jure
trade.
the
between
potential
globalization
international
international
first
referendum
The
services;
telephone
non-government
globalization
facto
and
and
whereas
globalization
and
de
goods
and
the
globalization
distinguishes
restrictions
migration,
Brexit
for
globalization.
now
but
international
the
UK’s
globalization.
goods
and
economic
isolationalist
the
Index
(legal)
exchange
to
The
of
increased,
trade
declining
economic
KOF
jure
decreased
of
political
international
de
jure
international
political
organizations
treaties.
their
lesser
degree
placed
much
lower
of
interdependence,
down
the
rankings
larger
in
the
countries
KOF
Index
tend
than
Test ysef
smaller
countries.
For
example,
the
USA was
in
63rd
position
for
4.1 Defe globalization.
economic
their
the
high
EU,
UK)
The
globalization,
are
the
of
economic,
largest
overall
most
operate
level
European
considered
economically
as
Singapore,
financial
the
29th
for
social
social
and
10th
political
for
than
countries
trading
political.
Due
interdependence
(Germany
,
globalized
and/or
Netherlands
and
economies
more
globalized
hubs
and
Italy
,
the
tend
centres,
to
France
USA or
be
for
within
and
the
China.
those
[2]
to
that
4.2 Exa the advantages of
using an index of globalization,
such as the KOF Index.
[6]
4.3 Exa the disadvantages of
using an index of globalization,
example,
such as the KOF Index.
Malta.
[6]
Ga sees ad the em, geta
ad ta fee
The
USA remains
strong
allies
and
considerable
universities.
of
huge
“soft
Its
the
world’s
partners,
power”
economy
amounts
of
shale
main
and
a
through
has
superpower.
massive
been
its
It
military
film
helped
and
since
has
a
large
superiority
.
TV
industries,
2000
by
the
economy
,
It
has
and
You need to be able to discuss
detailed examples of at least two
contrasting superpowers.
discovery
gas.
153
4
U NI T
4:
POWER,
PL A C E S
AND
In
NE TWORK S
contrast,
the
in
China
greatest
President
2018,
China
and
and
to
has
has
protection
Hard
Hard
and
of
hard
its
have
spread
on
the
The
USA.
the
way
power
The
In
in
over
in
2017,
the
of
US
however,
global
Xi
country
,
is
partnership
Pacific
President,
the
and
government
tackling
influence
Chinese
superpower
Trans-Pacific
change.
the
its
largest
of
climate
lead
expanding
his
to
concept
may
militarily
.
re-emerged
climate
Rim
Jinping,
and
has
a
both
has
also
vision
refers
a
significant
in
to
the
but
so
deals
to
another
Syria
power.
and
the
that
it
It
participated
annexed
is
its
film
power
its
in
the
Crimea.
is
is
a
exert
good
power,
and
through
indication
the
ability
to
benefits.
influence
culture,
one
country
soft
museums
measured
in
can
enterprise,
Cultural
music,
generally
that
education,
government.
industry
,
may
strength
economic
it
positive
and
countries
military
which
through
the
soft
too
in
engagement
through
power
A country’s
refers
Educational
as
Assad
power
power,
over
expertise,
the
act
it
President
trading
power
to
that
been
coercion.
establish
Soft
also
of
power
or
challenger
rejected
and
second
growth.
soft
force
world’s
consolidate
Chinese
Russia
the
refused
economically
managed
is
O N LY )
long-term
Trump
announced
change,
for
(HL
digital
power
and
terms
can
be
galleries.
of
higher
Fge 4.1.2. The image of the
education,
through
the
quality
of
the
university
,
its
ability
to
attract
Statue of Liber ty has had significant
international
students
and
its
contribution
to
academic
research
cultural impact globally. This is an
publishing.
Enterprise
refers
to
the
attractiveness
of
a
country’s
example of the soft power of the USA
business
The
Test ysef
power ” and “soft power ”.
digital
world’s
4.4 Dstgsh between “hard
[2]
model,
networked
of
states,
human
for
soft
high-tech
The
role
rights,
innovation
power
of
of
and
relates
companies.
membership
networks.
freedom,
ctet 
capacity
component
leading
embassy
its
to
tax
the
government
and
in
framework.
influence
Engagement
multilateral
democracy
its
refers
to
organizations
soft
power
of
the
the
best-
and
relates
to
equality
.
pef gazats ad ga gs
Cultural influences across
countries are examined fur ther in
G8/G7
unit 5.2.
The
G8
is
Canada,
They
a
meet
recession.
from
the
Without
other;
the
group
France,
of
periodically
However,
Ukraine,
Russia,
but,
eight
to
G7
was
industrial
Japan,
discuss
suspended
the
economic
G7
(or
and
the
world
Russian
have
countries,
Russia,
major
the
countries
China,
leading
Italy
,
following
Russia
the
without
world’s
leading
Germany
,
issues
and
the
in
G8
of
the
as
of
USA.
world
Crimea
became
common
countries
political
consisting
and
such
annexation
more
G8)
UK
the
with
cannot
G7.
each
claim
to
be
powerhouses.
G20
The
G20
discuss
from
grouping
South
invites
contribute
20
to
Italy
,
Africa,
the
of
Brazil,
Japan,
Turkey
,
guest
agenda.
the
world’s
financial
Australia,
several
to
of
related
Indonesia,
Arabia,
154
a
Argentina,
India,
G20
is
policies
Canada,
Mexico,
UK,
major
stability
.
to
economies
includes
China,
Republic
USA and
countries
It
the
of
France,
Korea,
EU.
participate
in
that
representatives
Each
G20
Germany
,
Russia,
year
Saudi
the
events
and
4 .1
The
G20
global
countries
trade,
66%
account
of
world
for
90%
of
the
population
global
and
84%
economy
,
of
fossil
80%
fuel
Glo b A l
inTErAcTionS
AnD
Glo b A l
powEr
of
emissions.
Key
G20
EU
Members
Members
invited
not
individually
represented
guests
Fge 4.1.3. The G20 members map
Key
Founder
Other
members
(1961)
members
Fge 4.1.4. OECD countries
The
Organisation
(OECD)
was
G7
inner
is
its
identify
,
for
group
analyse
them.
Its
for
formed
and
aims
Economic
in
1961,
of
leading
discuss
Co-operation
and
by
2017
industrial
problems,
and
there
nations.
and
to
Development
were
35
The
find
members.
OECD
potential
The
aims
to
solutions
include:
Test ysef
•
to
restore
•
to
foster
confidence
in
markets
4.5 ote e advantage and
and
support
new
sources
of
growth
through
innovation
t  disadvantages of the G7
and
environmentally
friendly
“green
growth”
countries.
•
to
develop
skills
for
people
of
all
ages
to
work
[1+2]
productively
.
4.6 Dstgsh between
membership of the G7 and G20
countries.
[2]
4.7 Sggest the likely
characteristics of the member
countries of the OECD
(Figure 4.1.4).
[2]
155
4
U NI T
4:
POWER,
PL A C E S
AND
NE TWORK S
OPEC
The
(Organization
role
of
OPEC
coordinate
•
(HL
of
is
and
O N LY )
the
Petroleum
Exporting
Countries)
to:
unify
the
petroleum
policies
of
its
member
countries
ensure
•
o
the
an
stabilization
efficient,
of
oil
economic
markets
and
in
regular
order
to
secure:
supply
of
petroleum
investing
in
the
to
consumers
o
o
a
steady
a
fair
income
return
on
to
producers
capital
for
those
petroleum
industry
.
OPEC
is
a
permanent
intergovernmental
organization,
created
in
cet 
1960
powEr: The influence that one
country can have over another
by
Iran,
Iraq,
to
prominence
of
1973
In
recent
and
Kuwait,
during
the
Saudi
1970s,
Arabia
with
and
its
V
enezuela.
involvement
OPEC
in
the
oil
rose
crises
1979.
country changes over time and
times,
escalating
social
unrest
in
many
parts
of
North
Africa
space. Some countries have
and
the
Middle
East
has
affected
both
supply
and
demand
of
oil.
Prices
more influence than others, and
were
stable
between
2011
and
2014,
but
due
to
oversupply
,
prices
fell
as such, are classified as global
in
2014.
OPEC’s
influence
has
been
further
reduced
by
the
discovery
of
superpowers. In addition to
huge
shale
gas
reserves
in
the
USA.
these powerful countries, multi-
governmental organizations, such
Global
lending
institutions:
New
Development
Bank
as OPEC, have global superpowers
and their members can create and
resolve complex situations, such
as the production and availability
of oil, or the lending of capital to
help alleviate the effects from an
economic recession.
The
New
Development
established
India,
is
to
China
the
in
five
budget
BRICS
is
about
•
over
•
27%
Projects
•
South
resources
BRICS
BRICS
and
42%
20%
of
for
is
the
emerging
multilateral
It
was
founded
infrastructure
and
sustainable
other
countries
(BRICS).
first
emerging
has
a
US$100
20%
bank
economies—Brazil,
and
developing
share
in
the
in
Russia,
2015.
Its
development
economies.
NDB.
aim
The
Each
annual
billion.
for:
of
of
the
(NDB)
and
Africa
approximately
account
•
Bank
developing
and
mobilize
projects
of
by
the
world’s
global
world’s
population
GDP
land
area.
include:
US$81
project
million
for
proposed
Industrial
Area
100,000
to
be
kWh
rooftop
implemented
in
solar
the
photovoltaic
Shanghai
power
Lingang
(SLIA).
When writing about multi-
government organizations
•
(MGOs), try to have some
US$300
million
implemented
for
in
an
offshore
Fujian
wind
Province,
power
project
proposed
to
China.
balance, that is, have some
positive aspects as well as some
International
Monetary
Fund
(IMF)
negative ones.
The
IMF
was
established
in
1944
•
promoting
international
•
facilitating
the
with
monetary
expansion
and
the
aim
of:
cooperation
balanced
growth
of
international
trade
•
promoting
•
making
resources
payments
156
international
stability
available
difficulties.
to
members
experiencing
balance
of
be
4.2
The
IMF’s
fundamental
mission
is
to
ensure
the
stability
of
Glo b A l
nE Twork S
AnD
F lo w S
the
Test ysef
international
global
to
economy
countries
the
monetary
IMF
and
and
focuses
system.
the
giving
on
It
does
economies
practical
lending
for
of
by
keeping
member
help.
debt
this
Unlike
track
countries,
and
the
lending
development
reduction
of
4.8 Sggest definitions for
banks,
the terms (a) bilateral
export-led
surveillance and ()
development.
The
IMF
Greece,
on
has
multilateral surveillance.
189
Ukraine
their
GDP
.
amount
of
members,
and
The
Pakistan.
quota
finance
a
and
that
biggest
Members
a
member
its
country
can
borrowers
of
the
pays
receive
IMF
include
pay
a
determines
from
the
IMF
Portugal,
quota,
the
and
based
maximum
its
[2+2]
4.9 Dstgsh between
“capacity development” and
“lending”.
[2]
voting
4.10 Evaate the role of
power
within
the
IMF.
the NDB.
4 . 2
G L O B A L
N E T W O R K S
A N D
[4]
F L O W S
Y shd e ae t sh h dffeet aes eme
• remttaes – the money sent
teeted y ga teats:
back by a migrant to their family
✔
An
overview
of
contemporary
✔
global
trade
in
✔
an
✔
international
✔
illegal
materials,
global
networks
manufactured
and
goods
in the migrant’s country of origin.
ows:
and
• nats – illegal drugs that
services;
are prohibited from general use.
overview
of
international
aid,
loans
and
debt
relief;
• Taffed ee – people
remittances
from
economic
migrants;
who are moved against their will;
ows,
such
as
trafcked
people,
counterfeit
goods
and
✔
Foreign
Direct
corporations
for example, for forced labour or
sexual slavery.
narcotics;
Investment
(TNCs),
and
(FDI)
ways
and
in
outsourcing
which
this
by
transnational
networks
places
and
• FDi (Feg Det
ivestmet) – the investment
by a company into the
markets;
structures, equipment or
✔
Two
contrasting
detailed
examples
of
TNCs
and
their
global
organizations of a foreign
strategies
and
supply
chains.
country. It does not include
investment in shares of
companies of other countries.
A ve ve f temay ga et s ad fs
• Tnc (tasata
Global
trade
in
materials,
manufactured
goods
and
services
at) – a company
with facilities in more than one
In
1990,
about
50%
of
world
trade
by
volume
was
between
HICs.
A
country. Generally, decisionfurther
15–20%
was
from
HICs
to
LICs,
and
up
to
40%
was
from
LICs
making and research and
to
HICs.
The
volume
of
trade
between
LICs
was
relatively
small.
development take place in
By
1995,
the
main
changes
that
had
occurred
were
the
decline
in
HICs, whereas assembly and
the
relative
importance
of
trade
between
HICs;
a
doubling
of
trade
production is more likely to occur
between
LICs,
and
a
relative
decline
in
trade
from
HICs
to
LICs.
in regions of low labour costs.
There
was
power.
down
also
Since
to
an
1995,
about
trade
between
trade
from
increasing
the
30%,
LICs
HICs
to
influence
proportion
trade
and
of
between
China
China
has
LICs
has
also
of
China
trade
risen
as
a
between
has
to
risen
to
around
global
HICs
economic
has
around
10%.
20%,
The
• rese edmet – the
gone
amount of land and physical
and
volume
of
increased.
resources (water, fer tile soils,
minerals, e.g. oil, natural gas,
coal, iron ore) that a country has
within its borders.
In
terms
about
10%,
70%
and
world
45%,
of
of
trade
trade
by
world
from
accounted
trade
trade
LICs
value,
trade,
to
accounted
between
for
between
about
in
trade
HICs
for
HICs
20%
1990,
and
about
trade
but
HICs
10%.
between
China
each,
between
between
also
by
trade
and
there
and
By
the
had
LICs
an
accounted
China
2015,
HICs
from
was
HICs
to
a
further
proportion
fallen
HICs
increase
for
in
to
of
around
still
the
value
of
LICs.
157
4
U NI T
4:
POWER,
PL A C E S
AND
NE TWORK S
There
are
four
main
Cross-border
•
to
another,
provision
of
overseas
country
,
for
doctors,
2014,
trade
less
EU
of
oil
global
Commercial
30%,
than
and
of
delivery
services
individual
in
Services
service
by
trade
another
in
from
between
services:
one
country
countries
or
the
country
tourism,
study
abroad,
in
people—people
by
a
supplier
other
in
another
countries
working
overseas,
such
as
architects.
services
totalled
abroad
account
The
with
provided
operating
accounted
USA.
services,
a
example,
banks
engineers,
the
of
flying
presence—services
example,
trade
in
international
services
consumption
5%.
of
airlines
abroad—for
presence
70%
importer
example,
medical
Presence
•
components
accountancy
Commercial
•
O N LY )
trade—the
for
Consumption
•
In
(HL
a
for
10%
for
and
about
EU28
trade
around
about
was
55%
US$4.8
of
the
presence
75%
the
surplus
of
of
cross-border
natural
economic
world’s
of
trillion.
total,
persons
output
largest
in
the
exporter
and
€162.9billion.
Be sure to specify whether you
International
aid
are writing about the absolute
amount of aid that a country
The
donates (usually in US dollars)
or the relative amount (as a
main
America
main
percentage of GNI). For example,
the USA gives the largest amount
in absolute terms, but not in
appear
to
Russia,
are
the
largest
and
go
and
development
to
are
in
much
Australia,
poor
of
South-East
each
next
largest
UAE
in
sub-Saharan
less
in
The
than
donors,
2017,
aid
are
New
The
0.25%
relation
to
countries
and
highest
Africa,
largest
donating
rich
Zealand
countries.
Asia.
donates
donors,
the
of
Europe,
recipients
although
relative terms.
donors
and
levels
Eastern
donors
are
of
their
GNI.
less
than
0.5%
GNI
were
in
Japan,
North
while
of
aid
Europe
the
Saudi
and
USA and
France
of
the
would
and
their
GNI.
Arabia
Japan,
the
UK
The
(1.8%)
(1.26%).
Test ysef
International
loans
4.11 Dese the main changes
The
International
Bank
for
Reconstruction
and
Development
(IBRD)
is
in global trade in manufactured
the
goods since 1990.
world’s
largest
development
bank
and
hopes
to
eliminate
poverty
[4]
by
2030.
The
International
Development Association
(IDA)
is
the
largest
4.12 idetfy the main
multilateral
source
of
concessional
finance
(lending
that
offers
lower
characteristics of the countries
interest
rates
and/or
longer
repayment
periods)
to
boost
growth
and
cut
that were (a) the top ten World
poverty
.
The
IDA lends
only
to
nations
with
a
very
low
per
capita
income.
Bank borrowers between
For
such
countries,
loans
are
interest-free
and
allow
long
repayment
1945–2015, () the top ten
periods.
While
the
IBRD
provides
loans
and
assistance
to
mainly
middle-
IBRD borrowers in 2015 and
income
countries,
the
IDA helps
the
world’s
low-income
countries.
() the top ten IDA borrowers
in 2015.
[2+2+2]
Tae 4.2.1 Top ten World Bank
borrowers, 1945–2015 (US$ billion)
India
Tae 4.2.2 Top ten IBRD borrowers,
2015 (US$ billion)
102.1
India
Brazil
58.8
China
55.8
Mexico
Indonesia
Tae 4.2.3 Top ten IDA borrowers, 2015
(US$ billion)
2.1
Bangladesh
China
1.8
India
1.7
Colombia
1.4
Ethiopia
1.4
54.0
Egypt
1.4
Pakistan
1.3
50.5
Ukraine
1.3
Kenya
1.3
Turkey
38.0
Argentina
1.3
Nigeria
1.0
Argentina
30.8
Turkey
1.1
Tanzania
0.9
Pakistan
27.7
Morocco
1.1
Vietnam
0.8
Bangladesh
23.5
Indonesia
1.0
Myanmar
0.7
Colombia
21.7
Poland
1.0
Ghana
0.7
Source of data: World Bank
158
1.9
4.2
Debt
Glo b A l
nE Twork S
AnD
F lo w S
relief
ctet 
The
Heavily
Indebted
Poor
Countries
(HIPC)
and
the
Multilateral
Debt
The SDGs are outlined in unit 5.1:
Relief
Initiative
(MDRI)
are
the
two
main
approaches
to
reducing
debt
in
Development oppor tunities.
poor
countries.
from
the
must
The
Some
programme
undertake
MDRI
also
sustainable
36
countries
(Figure
economic
helps
4.2.1).
and
T
o
social
countries
development
eligible
goals
for
qualify
reform
make
debt
for
to
progress
relief
debt
try
have
relief,
and
towards
graduated
countries
reduce
poverty
.
achieving
the
(SDGs).
Test ysef
4.13 Dese the distribution
of HIPC countries, as shown on
figure 4.2.1.
[3]
4.14 Exa the advantages of
debt relief.
[2+2]
Fge 4.2.1. Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs), shaded in green
Remember that not all
International
remittances
from
economic
migrants
remittances flow from HICs
Remittances
billion
in
in
2017.
increased
2002,
and
Although
crisis/recession,
increase.
of
Since
money
to
then
there
the
1998,
LICs
from
almost
increased
was
a
recovery
dip
was
remittances
and
MICs
zero
1990
rapidly
in
to
quick,
and
been
overseas
a
to
around
about
2008–09,
have
than
in
US$450
following
are transferred from oil-rich
financial
continued
important
development
to LICs and MICs—some
billion
the
remittances
more
US$100
to
countries to HICs and some from
MICs to HICs.
transfer
aid.
Test ysef
4.15 (a) Sggest reasons why India, China, the Philippines and Mexico
were the top remittance receivers of 2017.
[2+2+2]
() In some countries, remittances account for a very high propor tion of
GDP
. These include the Kyrgyz Republic, Tonga, Tajikistan, Haiti, Honduras
and Moldova. ote reasons why remittances should form such a high
propor tion of GDP in these countries.
Illegal
flows
There
are
many
forms
of
illegal
[2+2+2]
flows,
such
as
trafficked
people
and
narcotics.
Trafficking
Drugs
there
106
and
were
people
over
countries.
60%
of
region.
Most
highest
63,000
share
a
crime
Report
victims
are
can
in
of
on
a
global
stated
of
that
scale.
trafficking,
from
domestic
or
international,
although
less
occurs
victims
relatively
inbound
come
richer
within
from
the
people
UN
2012
data
Office
and
than
same
The
30%
poorer
from
other
by
About
are
inter-
geographical
Middle
on
2014
provided
international.
relatively
countries.
trafficked
The
between
be
trafficking
Frequently
,
exploited
is
2016
Trafficking
victims
regional.
are
of
Crime
sub-
countries
East
has
and
the
regions.
159
4
U NI T
4:
POWER,
PL A C E S
AND
NE TWORK S
Drug
trafficking
manufacture,
drug
total
(HL
trade
is
global
is
a
O N LY )
major
distribution
estimated
global
and
to
be
trade
sale
of
worth
involving
illegal
more
the
cultivation,
substances.
than
US$300
The
global
billion,
or
1%
of
trade.
Feg Det ivestmet (FDi) ad tsg y
tasata ats (Tncs)
A transnational
a
large
cities,
with
located
is
in
the
of
in
LICs
(TNC)
countries.
research
concentrated
FDI
corporation
number
and
growth
and
is
an
Generally
,
development
areas
of
organization
TNC
(R&D)
HICs,
and
that
operates
headquarters
and
are
in
in
HIC
decision-making
assembly
and
production
MICs.
investment
by
a
TNC
into
the
structures,
equipment
or
cet 
organizations
pl AcES: The dynamic flow of
goods, capital and services
depends on the role of
for
the
raw
materials
rising
governments and corporations in
facilitating the transfer of these
items. Places can become more
attractive over time for FDI, which
boosts the power of corporations
and can also bring possibilities
of
investor
foreign
and
skilled
are
foreign
cheap
and
increased
earnings.
security
and
agricultural
perceived
country
.
investing
unemployment
between
there
a
of
in
foreign
the
unskilled
may
lead
products
to
as
well-paying
labour.
exports,
many
the
of
foreign
workers
a
number
include
However,
country
,
workers.
of
are
These
investing
volumes
However,
There
abroad.
For
the
jobs
are
country
migrate
to
to
lead
may
an
cheaper
to
increased
recipient
increased
benefits
it
and
the
of
access
country
,
employment
poorly
reducing
urban
paid,
its
areas
gap
and
have
little
production
in
search
of
of
the
jobs.
to a place in terms of economic
development. The majority of the
The
T
ata
Group
global flows are legal, but illegal
The
Tata
Group
comprises
over
100
companies,
encompassing
cars
and
goods and services are also par t
consulting,
software
and
steel,
tea
and
coffee,
transport
and
power,
of a global network .
chemicals
and
hotels.
software
company
.
10
world.
in
the
hotel
group.
company
.
branded
Tata
the
revenues
its
Tata
in
revenue
Apple
Inc.
Global
in
over
group
2015
India’s
Resorts
is
the
and
Services
largest
is
the
(TCS)
is
Asia’s
steelmaker
Palaces
country’s
Beverages
80
countries
earned
and
comes
is
US$900
received
and
Hotels
Power
is
is
largest
world’s
India’s
private
and
largest
number
biggest
luxury
electricity
second-largest
maker
of
45
from
7
and
trillion
billion
employs
rupees,
rupees
outside
in
or
about
US$108
profits.
600,000
billion,
Nearly
60
people.
in
per
cent
of
India.
Inc.
Apple
over
Consultancy
Steel
tea.
operates
Overall,
Taj
Tata
Tata
Tata
one
the
billion
much
ethical
of
in
richest
2018.
criticism
issues
in
on
corporations
However,
account
of
the
in
the
Apple
human
world,
supply
rights
valued
chain
and
at
has
environmental
China.
Test ysef
4.16 Briefly exa three
reasons why companies such
as the Tata Group and Apple
[2+2+2]
the
over
manufacture
230
Code
safe
Inc. invest in other
countries.
For
of
countries
Conduct,
working
fairly
and
wherever
160
of
the
Apple
conditions,
ethically
,
they
iPhone,
Apple
worldwide—349
and
make
states
treat
use
that
of
has
them
“suppliers
workers
with
or
perform
785
China.
are
suppliers
In
its
required
dignity
environmentally
products
some
in
and
services
for
to
provide
respect,
responsible
in
Supplier
act
practices
Apple”.
4.3
4 . 3
H U M A N
O N
HuMAn
A N D
G L O B A L
AnD
p H YS i c A l
inFluEncE S
P H Y S I C A L
on
Glo b A l
inTErAcTionS
I N F L U E N C E S
I N T E R A C T I O N S
Y shd e ae t sh h ta, tehga ad
• Fee tade ze (F T Z) – a
hysa esses fee ga teats:
relatively small-scale special
✔
Political
factors
that
affect
global
economic zone in which
interactions:
goods may be impor ted and
✔
multi-governmental
organizations
(MGOs)
and
free
trade
manufactured and re-expor ted
zones
(FTZs);
without customs duty (tax).
✔
economic
migration
Our
“shrinking
controls
and
rules;
They are often located close to
por ts, airpor ts and/or national
✔
world”
and
the
forces
driving
technological
boundaries to take advantage of
innovation:
location for trade.
✔
changing
global
data
ow
✔
transport
developments
✔
patterns
patterns
and
trends;
• Mt-gvemet
over
time;
gazat (MGo) – an
organization consisting of
and
trends
in
communication
infrastructure
and
use;
several sovereign states.
✔
The
inuence
✔
natural
✔
the
of
the
physical
resource
potentially
varying
environment
on
global
interactions:
availability;
limiting
effect
of
geographic
isolation,
at
scales.
pta fats that affet ga teats
Multi-governmental
Until
relatively
organizations
recently
,
the
(MGOs)
world
was
becoming
more
connected.
cet 
There
were
many
advantages
of
this
for
investors,
TNCs
and
nations,
procESSES: Human and physical
including:
factors determine the level of
•
greater
access
to
•
access
to
new
•
access
to
sources
•
the
raw
materials
and
natural
resources
interaction between places.
These factors include government
markets
policy, the availability of raw
of
cheap
and/or
skilled
labour
materials and the technological
ability
efficiency
,
to
achieve
greater
competitive
productivity
advantage
or
cost
through
increased
infrastructure which change over
reduction.
time and facilitate the interactions
between places. Conversely,
However,
since
2010,
there
has
been
a
rise
in
nationalism
(for
example,
these factors can present
the
UK’s
“Brexit”
vote),
protectionism
(for
example,
President
Trump’s
challenges which may result in the
policies
in
the
USA),
an
increase
in
tariffs
(the
USA and
China)
and
a
implementation of new measures,
stepping
back
from
global
interactions
(for
example,
the
Trans-Pacific
such as the restriction the
Partnership).
freedom of movement of people,
The
Trans-Pacific
Comprehensive
Partnership
agreement
In
2018,
and
UK
(TPP)
Progressive
(CPTPP).
and
the
Partnership
This
represents
expressed
is
an
been
Agreement
now
13.4%
has
the
of
interest
for
world’s
global
in
replaced
by
the
third-largest
gross
joining
capital and information, or the
Trans-Pacific
domestic
CPTPP
(as
development of energy production
trade
which may reduce the level of
product.
did
the
interaction between countries.
USA).
161
4
U NI T
4:
POWER,
PL A C E S
AND
NE TWORK S
(HL
O N LY )
Test ysef
4.17 ote the advantages
and disadvantages of multi-
governmental organizations,
such as the CPTPP
.
[3+3]
4.18 State why the UK’s interest
in joining the CPTPP is considered
strange by many politicians.
[2]
Fge 4.3.1. Signatories to the CPTPP
, in green
Free
trade
zones
A free
trade
goods
may
customs
and/or
trade.
and
duty
(tax).
is
Originally
but
a
type
and
They
free
trade
facilities
often
to
services,
special
economic
located
take
zones
for
increasingly
financial
of
manufactured
are
boundaries
distribution
software,
(FTZ)
imported
national
operations,
Test ysef
zone
be
offered
to
of
ports,
the
research
on
and
in
service
airports
for
storage
and
re-export
industries
back-office
which
without
location
warehousing,
trans-shipment
focus
zone
re-exported
close
advantage
trade,
they
and
including
operations.
4.19 Briefly exa one
advantage and one disadvantage
An
of free trade zones.
300
[2+2]
export
ha,
goods
in
zone
specializes
EPZs
Economic
Illegal
processing
that
must
migration
in
be
exported,
controls
immigration
to
(EPZ)
is
a
small
manufacturing
the
and
area,
for
whereas
in
usually
export.
an
In
FTZ
less
than
China,
there
is
70%
no
of
quota.
rules
USA refers
to
foreign
nationals
voluntarily
Keep referring back to the
residing
in
the
country
in
violation
of
US
immigration
and
nationality
question so that you make
laws.
Illegal
immigration
carries
a
civil
penalty
.
Punishment
can
sure your answer is relevant
include
fines,
imprisonment
and
deportation.
and gains as many marks as
It
possible.
is
the
estimated
Around
ctet 
that
there
are
around
12
million
illegal
immigrants
in
USA.
about
7
5.5
million
million
migrants
crossed
the
have
over-stayed
border
their
visas
whereas
illegally
.
Connect this information with the
Illegal
migration
over
the
US–Mexico
border
is
concentrated
aspects of migration discussed in
around
big
border
cities
such
as
El
Paso
in
Texas
and
San
Diego
in
units 1.1 and 1.2.
California,
patrols.
illegal
Test ysef
4.20 Aayse reasons why some
In
countries attempt to control
along
migration.
(1,100
[3+3]
Stricter
have
the
the
of
wall
new
to
instead
Congress
Mexican
km)
the
US
extensive
enforcement
immigration,
2007,
for
which
be
of
border
the
border
pushing
approved
border,
with
fencing.
In
the
a
completed—and
for
US
to
in
into
calling
enhanced
has
failed
more
for
paid
for
more
Donald
by
to
remote
approximately
President
be
and
cities
flow
plan
funds
2017,
fencing
border
curb
regions.
fencing
700
miles
Trump
called
Mexico.
o “shg d” ad the fes dvg
tehga vat
Changing
The
the
data
development
internet,
interact,
162
global
flow
and
e-mail
and
expansion
and
communicate
patterns
of
trends
innovative
smartphones,
and
share.
has
technology
,
changed
Individuals
and
the
including
ways
people
businesses
buy
,
4.3
sell
and
communicate
information,
Some
to
barriers
restrict
the
are
to
internet
referred
restrict
that
data
increased
is
the
concerned
data
cross-border
With
data,
countries
placed
can
or
via
the
In
day
.
The
flow
trade
of
However,
flows,
p H YS i c A l
transfer
data,
inFluEncE S
on
Glo b A l
inTErAcTionS
of
and
agreements,
considerable
data
AnD
flows.
free
borders.
create
on
data
flows.
crosses
restrictions
as
about
such
flows
to
every
HuMAn
global
governments
unnecessary
obstacles
trade
Information about data flows
have
to
barriers
global
may
trade.
becomes obsolete very quickly.
It is a good idea to gather
information throughout your IB
course, so that you may show
suffer.
how it changes over time.
About
one-eighth
e-commerce,
digitized.
such
as
over
the
and
from
190
the
mailing
are
more
is
time
It
to
and
coaches
a
long
1840,
and
time
passenger
and
700
in
over
to
best
was
travel
jets
mph.
it
reach
are
at
and
in
the
international
are
of
to
its
its
business
market
to
beyond
audience.
networks,
small
centre
goods
streaming
reach
global
digital
already
virtual
expanded
increased
a
comparatively
refers
Thus,
sense
average
10
between
could
travel
the
at
time
the
one
places
them.
just
to
from
that
physical
ships
files
companies
participating
a
services
Netflix
streaming,
and
by
exchange
music
allow
out
number
global
of
users.
of
time
“travel”
between
the
MP3
market
among
carried
traded
when
platforms
are
is
networks.
to
a
world’s
online
Singapore
suggests
travel
trade
instantaneous
games,
to
convergence”
required
together—not
1500
and
the
the
local
countries
developments
decreasing.
needed
of
goods
example,
DVDs
small
digital
“Time–space
the
For
Digital
a
Europe
world’s
half
online
concentrated
USA,
T
ransport
of
global
allows
apps,
countries.
Although
The
about
software.
constraints
flows
the
Digitization
e-books,
services,
model
and
of
are
but
For
ways
place
in
the
mph.
for
This
places.
By
which
another
getting
closer
time
example,
speed
in
to
between
horse-drawn
meant
the
it
took
1960s,
speeds
of
between
needed
to
travel
500
between
faraway
places
Fge 4.3.2. Developments in
was
much
reduced.
Finally
,
in
the
modern
era,
information
can
be
sent
container ships have had a major
around
the
world
by
the
internet
in
a
matter
of
seconds.
impact on economic geography
The
size
1960s.
foot
of
The
container
largest
equivalent
transported,
unit
transported.
the
Panama
12,000
a
certain
and
the
Patterns
potential
for
Electronic
But
many
shift
most
from
of
size
are
Some
seas
Ocean
in
is
a
are
Straits
good
over
that
the
some
so
too
of
14-fold
that
more
of
few
canals
it
can
shallow
Malacca
since
19,000
cost
relatively
Moreover,
pass.
pass—the
are
reduces
there
over
now
advantages
ships.
TEUs
goods
ports
may
the
be
per
that
be
too
ships
allow
linking
(twenty-
can
transport
allow
to
the
Test ysef
can
small—
of
boats
up
to
above
Indian
Ocean
4.21 idetfy the main winners
and losers as a result of
(a) changing data flows and
() transport developments.
[1+1]
example.
communication
communication
advancing
progress
infrastructure
technologies
towards
and
(ICTs)
economic
use
offer
and
increased
social
objectives.
commerce
(e-commerce)
developing
offline
these
are
widened
and
development
ships
being
trends
Information
increased
is
to
Pacific
The
larger
However,
these
to
size
and
the
Canal
TEUs
has
container
units).
and
accommodate
ships
to
countries
online
economies
trade.
buy
is
growing
remain
Less
goods
in
all
relatively
than
and
5%
of
services
parts
of
the
unprepared
the
world.
for
population
the
in
online.
163
4
U NI T
4:
POWER,
PL A C E S
AND
NE TWORK S
(HL
O N LY )
Data
available
Percent
of
0%
Least
Developed
Developing
countries
countries,
No
data
total
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
(LDCs)
excluding
LDCs
Test ysef
Transition
economies
Developed
economies
4.22 Using figure 4.3.3, exame
the extent to which digitization
enabled equal access to the
benefits of globalization.
Fge 4.3.3. Share of countries having data on ICT use by businesses, by
[8]
development group, 2003–2016
The
digital
and
emerging
economy
intelligence,
are
already
is
bringing
technologies
the
Internet
disrupting
new
such
of
as
Things,
economies
risks
along
advanced
cloud
and
with
opportunities,
robotics,
computing
artificial
and
3D
printing
societies.
The fee f the hysa evmet 
ga teats
Natural
resource
Natural
availability
resource
availability
is
another
important
determinant
of
ctet 
physical
Resource availability connects
with resource security, which is
discussed in unit 3.2.
trade
balances.
absolute
of
Since
and
of
The
the
India,
Guyana
Mali,
areas
as
to
pay
the
highest
of
Sudan
also
of
markets
export
or
and
some
of
have
few
such
as
net
China,
poor
trade
(which
been
remarkable
resource
of
resources
China,
the
least
Sub-Saharan
in
suppliers
exceptions.
the
USA
countries,
like
Saudi
amount
African
are
mainly
Arabia,
of
large
India,
natural
countries,
such
as
Botswana.
can
be
costs
to
pay
physical
materials.
USA,
with
that
Kenya
a
proportion
their
to
are
countries,
to
countries
countries)
geographic
transport
have
15
There
and
effect
correlation
resource-rich
Canada,
Countries
to
high
exporters
number
world
may
net
a
of
Countries
limiting
tariffs
the
up
Namibia
increased
either
countries
were
a
markets.
substantial
of
markets.
Russia,
include
from
has
importers,
Australia.
have
access
to
net
Mauritania,
Isolation
10%
it
resource-rich
with
potentially
as
made
global
such
and
is
Latvia,
countries
resources
The
to
most
were
or
countries,
Brazil
1990,
numbers
materials
Some
patterns,
a
isolation,
major
and
are
get
for
its
the
For
oil
which
may
example,
to
use
varying
limiting
times
landlocked
goods.
at
the
of
factor.
may
also
Peripheral
reduce
have
South
coast.
another
scales
to
pay
Sudan
has
Landlocked
country’s
air
space.
Access
of
to
market
agriculture
markets
and
and
international
are
also
long
been
industry
labour.
America–Japan)
there
has
and
This
scale.
and
occurs
For
and
theme
at
a
local
geography
,
cores
in
and
location
scale
there
(mostly
local
in
considered
example,
periphery
national
a
have
is
a
as
well
global
and
in
as
at
core
Sub-Saharan
models
relation
a
to
regional
(EU–North
Africa),
but
peripheries.
QuESTion prAcTicE
a) Aayse how the global influence of dierent superpower states has changed over time.
[12]
) Exame reasons why it is hard to measure the real size of dierent global flows (such as migration or trade).
[16]
164
QuE STion
prAcTicE
H d i aah these qests?
a) The command term is “analyse”: break down the subject of the question in order to bring out the essential elements
or structure. In this case, you should show how superpowers have changed, and why they have changed. To achieve the
most marks you should provide examples to back up the points you make.
The focus should be on changing superpowers: which countries, when did they become superpowers, and what made
them a superpower.
Good answers are likely to say why some superpowers have declined.
) The command term is “examine”: consider an argument or a concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and
interrelationships of the issue. In this question you should exame the characteristics of dierent global flows and the
resulting attempts to measure the extent of these flows.
S AMplE STuDEnT AnS wEr
▲ Correct
a)
A
superpower
is
a
country
that
is
able
to
inuence
policy
on
denition,
valid
point
a
▲ Further development—another
geographical
USA
and,
inuence
on
increasingly,
the
in
rest
of
China.
the
world,
as
Superpowers
seen,
for
example,
generally
have
a
in
the
valid
point
large
▼ Correct
population,
land
area,
economy
and
access
to
resources.
Superpowers
point
general—would
grow
and
decline
nineteenth
–
the
century
UK
and
was
rst
a
superpower
half
of
the
during
twentieth
the
second
century.
half
of
However
,
the
as
colonies
took
their
independence
after
the
Second
World War,
declined
as
a
was
for
a
the
have
been
the
in
always
the
been
Afghanistan
of
world’s
the
Soviet
only
Union
superpower
.
in
1991,
However
,
the
the
to
able
has
to
achieve
not
been
its
goals
entirely
–
military
successful,
the
USA
has
▲ A valid
of
isolationist
and
that
and
the
USA
under
inward-looking,
President
and
that
T
rump
the
has
It
has
also
of
USA
is
losing
back
case
economically,
argued
that
the
is
rivalling
growth
of
the
directly
description
UK
as
a
of
the
superpower
dates
gain
that
of
or
more
credit
detail
here
its
could
China,
been
the
become
status.
growth
tie
question
the
contemporary
give
some
isolationist
T
he
and
many
▲ Good
superpower
would
refer
involvement
▼ Some
argue
growth
USA
would
critics
its
question
decline
not
for
good—should
superpower
.
break-up
time
with
the
study
Following
very
better
its
to
UK
be
support
▼ Reasons
former
but
can
the
European
detail
point—
on
the
US’s
position
USA.
Union,
▼ Changing nature of
superpowers
a
group
left
the
of
28
EU),
countries
has
also
(at
been
the
time
described
of
writing,
as
a
the
UK
superpower
,
has
but
Since
between
1992
China’s
member
countries
economic
growth
reduce
has
its
been
but
not
explicit
internal
▼ Needs
differences
implied
not
cohesion.
question
to
to
refer
make
back
it
to
the
relevant
substantial.
▲ Focus on changing
China
is
now
a
major
trading
partner
with
the
USA,
Japan,
superpowers—the
South
Korea
and
the
EU.
However
,
President
T
rump
a
trade
war
with
China.
China’s
of
China
has
▼ Could
threatened
growth
economic
give
data
or
more
structure
detail
remains
different
employed
in
to
that
agriculture,
of
the
29%
USA
in
–
it
has
around
manufacturing
28%
and
43%
in
▲ Good
shows
ser vices,
compared
with
2%,
23%
and
75%
respectively
in
China
However
,
its
is
the
PPP
is
world’s
leading
$16,600
manufacturing
compared
with
contrast
data
which
between
China
the
and
USA.
supporting
the
the
USA
country.
$59,500
of
the
USA.
165
4
U NI T
▲ Shows
some
4:
POWER,
PL A C E S
contrast
AND
T
he
is
▲ Denition
of
soft
NE TWORK S
USA
the
ability
without
power
power
▲ Develops
idea
of
soft
power
such
also
▲ This
is
a
good
and
section
political
to
as
aid
and
more
their
and
the
some
China
approach
USA is
areas,
is
eg
doing
soft
taking
the
than
individuals,
coercion.
culture,
human
political
rights.
programmes,
countries
values
example,
T
he
such
the
Friends,
power ”
and
nations
achieve
and
soft
foreign
USA
distribution
as
“Soft
communities
Many
For
China.
of
has
policies
favours
American
led
to
the
inuences
hand,
that
or
power ”
investment.
Americanization
▲ A balanced
“soft
change
and
TV
O N LY )
force
through
lms
on
has
using
democracy
cultural
(HL
USA
has
other
not
cultures
been
at
and
the
languages.
front
of
On
leading
the
other
actions
to
showing
better
power,
lead
the
of
in
but
on
tackle
environmental
issues
such
as
climate
change.
T
he
Chinese
that
climate
President
Xi
Jinping
has
vowed
to
protect
the
Paris
Agreement,
change
which
aims
to
limit
climate
change
and
fossil
fuel
emissions.
Overall, a very good essay. Makes many good points with suppor t. However, it
could refer back to the question more directly.
Mas 9/12
b)
▲ Identies
KOF
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here
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are
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global
of
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size
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hese
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it
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explain
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it
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the
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in
protectionism,
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anti-migration
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ows
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and
and
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Moreover
,
166
on
Netherlands
USA
countries
exemplication
ideas.
examines
ser vices,
Other
of
some
include
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scale
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at
to
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look
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technology
ows
available
easy
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exchange
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▲ Valid
indices
some
in
them,
America
off-shoring
many
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hese
prAcTicE
include
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remittances.
Some
money
is
sent
directly
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migrants
to
individuals
their
families,
wealthy
and
people
so
have
is
not
been
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lodging
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other
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in
instances,
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some
accounts
to
▼ Going
avoid
paying
tax.
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companies
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here
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hese
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length
scope.
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get
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highly
linked
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a
money
including
are
believed
are
illegal
detected.
or
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problem,
organized
to
be
they
domestic
trafcked
worldwide
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as
and
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to
and
laundering,
of
people
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trade
in
illicit
people,
go
trade
and
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are
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are
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drugs
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points
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detail
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also
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corruption.
manufacture,
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mainly
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2012
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most
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up
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were
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Africa,
42
the
per
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cent
trafcked
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make
ows
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victims
women,
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and
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children
number
of
Africa
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victims
and
rather
in
2004
.
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2014
,
children
accounted
for
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per
are
victims,
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and
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forced
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per
labour
cent.
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he
also
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2004
,
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men
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cent
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,
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and
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and
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of
answering
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28
terms
question
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did
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than
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East
much
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denitions
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often
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large-scale
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T
he
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rafcking
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Generally a clear and focused answer. Some valid points with exemplication,
but also some information included not directly related to the question.
Mas 10/16
167
H U M A N D EV E LO P M E N T
5
AND
(HL
This
unit
looks
development
at
different
and
aspects
inequalities.
It
of
DIVERSIT Y
O N LY )
human
examines
You should be able to show:
ways
✔
in
which
human
development
can
be
ways
of
supporting
the
processes
of
human
improved.
development;
Differences
in
to
be
which
in
culture
culture
cultural
are
considered,
changes.
change
and
In
some
global
as
are
cases,
ways
✔
resistance
interactions
how
and
can
observed.
✔
the
global
varying
resist
5 . 1
D EV E L O P M E N T
interactions
changes
or
to
bring
cultural
inuences
places;
power
accept
of
local
places
and
actors
to
change.
O P P O R T U N I T I E S
You should be able to show ways of suppor ting the
• Gender – the array of
socially constructed roles and
relationships, personality traits,
processes of human development:
✔
attitudes, behaviours, values,
The
multidimensional
measure
process
of
human
development
and
ways
to
it:
relative power and influence that
✔
UN
Sustainable
✔
Validity
Development
Goals
(SDGs)
criteria;
society ascribes to the two sexes
and
reliability
of
development
indicators
and
indices,
on a differential basis.
including
the
Human
Development
Index
(HDI)
and
Gender
• Sex – the biological
Inequality
Index
(GII);
characteristics that define
✔
Empowering
✔
Detailed
women
and
indigenous
or
minority
groups;
humans as female or male.
illustrative
examples
of
afrmative
action
to
close
the
• Gender equality – the concept
development
gap;
that all human beings, both
women and men, are free to
✔
The
importance
of
social
entrepreneurship
approaches
for
human
development:
develop their personal abilities
and make choices without the
✔
The
work
of
✔
Alternative
✔
TNC
micronance
organizations
and
their
networks;
limitations set by stereotypes,
trading
networks
such
as
fair
trade;
rigid gender roles or prejudices.
corporate
social
responsibility
frameworks
and
global
• Gender equity – means that
agreements.
women and men are treated fairly
according to their respective needs.
• Empowerment – means that
women and men can take control
The multidimensional process of human development
and ways to measure it
of their lives, set their own
UN
Sustainable
Development
Goals
criteria
agendas, gain skills, increase self-
confidence, solve problems and
Goal
1:
Eradicate
Goal
2:
End
poverty
and
promote
prosperity
in
a
changing
world
develop self-reliance.
• Sustainable development goals
promote
hunger,
sustainable
achieve
food
food
security
and
improved
nutrition,
and
production
(SDGs) – a set of goals developed
Goal
3:
Ensure
healthy
lives
Goal
4:
Ensure
inclusive
and
promote
well-being
for
all
at
all
ages
by the United Nations to end
pover ty, promote peace and to
protect the planet.
learning
Goal
168
5:
opportunities
Achieve
and
for
gender
equitable
education
and
promote
lifelong
all
equality
and
empower
all
women
and
girls
5 .1
Goal
6:
Ensure
sanitation
for
availability
and
sustainable
management
of
water
D E V E LO P M E N T
OP POR T U NI T IE S
and
Content link
all
The 17 SDGs relate to many
Goal
7:
Ensure
access
to
affordable,
reliable,
sustainable
and
modern
aspects of the IB Geography
energy
for
all
Course, for example, oceans
Goal
full
8:
Promote
and
sustained,
productive
inclusive
employment
and
and
sustainable
decent
work
economic
for
growth,
all
(goal 14), deser ts (goal 15), urban
environments (goal 11), food and
health (goal 2) and freshwater
Goal
9:
Build
resilient
infrastructure,
promote
inclusive
and
sustainable
(goal 6). Some are related
industrialization,
and
foster
innovation
indirectly, such as tourism
Goal
10:
Reduce
inequality
within
and
among
countries
(goal 16).
Goal
and
11:
Make
cities
and
human
settlements
inclusive,
safe,
resilient
sustainable
Goal
12:
Ensure
sustainable
Goal
13:
Take
Goal
14:
Conserve
urgent
action
consumption
to
combat
and
climate
production
change
patterns
and
its
impacts
Test yourself
and
sustainably
use
the
oceans,
seas
and
marine
5.1 Suggest a definition for the
resources
for
sustainable
development
terms “inclusive” (SDG 4, 8, 9, 11,
Goal
15:
Protect,
restore
and
promote
sustainable
use
of
terrestrial
16), “foster ” (SDG 9) and LDCs
ecosystems,
sustainably
manage
forests,
combat
desertification,
halt
and SIDS (SDG 9, 10).
and
reverse
land
degradation,
and
halt
biodiversity
[1+1+1]
loss
5.2 Identify the environmental
Goal
16:
Promote
peaceful
and
inclusive
societies
for
sustainable
issues covered by the SDGs.
development,
provide
access
to
justice
for
all,
and
build
[2]
effective,
5.3 Describe ways in which
accountable
and
inclusive
institutions
at
all
levels
gender inequalities remain
Goal
17:
Global
Partnership
Validity
The
Strengthen
and
the
for
reliability
Human
means
It
implementation
Sustainable
of
includes
Index
three
•
Longevity
(life
•
Education
index—mean
and
revitalize
the
a problem.
[4]
Development
development
Development
development.
of
indicators
(HDI)
basic
is
a
and
indices
composite
components
of
measure
human
of
development:
expectancy)
years
of
schooling
or
expected
years
of
schooling
•
Standard
of
purchasing
The
United
holistic
head.
Nations
than
(GNI
composite
living—income
single
was
adjusted
to
local
cost
of
living,
that
is,
power.
has
encouraged
indicators
previously
index
so
that
the
such
known
the
as
as
use
Gross
gross
importance
of
of
the
HDI
National
national
any
one
as
it
is
Income
product.)
factor
is
more
(GNI)
It
is
per
a
reduced.
Concept link
PROCESSES: Composite,
multidimensional indices are
regarded as the most appropriate
methods of measuring the success
of direct and indirect human
development processes.
Key
Very
high
High
Medium
Low
Try to have some data for the HDI
Data
unavailable
of contrasting countries, that is,
include examples of HICs, MICs
Figure 5.1.1.
The Human Development Index, 2017 (based on 2015 and
and LICs.
2016 data)
169
5
U NI T
5:
HUMAN
D E V E LO P M E N T
AND
DI VERSIT Y
T
able 5.1.1.
(HL
O N LY )
Human Development Index for the United Arab Emirates, 2015
Test yourself
HDI
Life
Expected
Mean years
Gross national
GNI per
(value)
expectancy
years of
of schooling
income (GNI)
capita rank
at bir th
schooling
per capita PPP*
minus HDI
(years)
(years)
(US$)
rank
77.1
13.3
69,200
35
5.4 Describe the distribution of
the global pattern of HDI.
[3]
5.5 Examine on the composition
of the HDI for the United Arab
Emirates.
0.840
9.5
[6]
*PPP = power purchasing parity
Source of data: Human Development Repor t (2016)
The
Gender
three
•
Inequality
aspects
of
•
human
Reproductive
adolescent
Gender
birth
and
secondary
Economic
T
able 5.1.2.
HDI
gender
inequalities
in
by
maternal
mortality
ratio
and
rates
seats
males
held
aged
measured
by
women,
over
25
through
and
years
the
with
the
proportion
proportion
some
of
of
adult
experience
of
school
status—as
and
females
measured
aged
15
by
and
labour
force
participation
by
over.
The components of the gender inequality for selected countries
Country
GII
GII
Rank
42
measures
measured
empowerment—as
females
males
(GII)
development:
health—as
parliamentary
•
Index
United Arab
Maternal
Adolescent bir th
Share of
Population with
Labour force
mor tality ratio
rate (bir ths per
seats in
at least some
par ticipation
(deaths per
1,0 0 0 women
parliament
secondary education
rate (% ages
10 0,0 0 0 live
aged 15–19)
(%) held by
(% ages 25 and older)
15 and older)
bir ths)
women
Value
Rank
Female
Male
Female
Male
2015
2015
2015
2015
2015
2005–15
2005–15
2015
2015
0.232
46
6
29.7
22.5
77.4
64.5
41.9
91.6
0.695
157
856
133.5
14.9
1.7
9.9
64.0
Emirates
186
187
Chad
Niger
0.695
157
553
202.4
13.3
3.6
8.4
79.3
89.4
40.2
Source of data: Human Development Repor t (2016)
Empowering
women
Test yourself
UN
Women
(full
title:
the
United
Nations
Entity
for
Gender
Equality
5.6 Chad and Niger have the
and
the
Empowerment
of
Women)
has
seven
principles:
world’s highest gender inequality
1.
index. Compare the nature of
Establish
high-level
corporate
leadership
for
gender
equality
gender inequality in these two
2.
countries.
Treat
all
women
and
men
fairly
at
work—respect
and
support
[2+2+2]
human
rights
and
nondiscrimination
5.7 Using table 5.1.2, outline the
3.
Ensure
the
health,
safety
and
well-being
of
all
women
and
men
main features of the UAE’s gender
workers
inequality index.
[5]
4.
Promote
education,
training
and
professional
development
for
women
5.
Implement
practices
enterprise
that
development,
empower
supply
chain
and
marketing
women
Make sure you have some
6.
Promote
equality
7.
Measure
and
through
community
initiatives
and
advocacy
hard data (facts and figures)
publicly
report
on
progress
to
achieve
gender
to discuss the need for the
equality
.
empowerment of women.
The
following
lists
outline
some
of
the
inequalities
today
.
Women
•
170
at
risk:
Women
represent
70%
of
the
world’s
poor.
facing
women
5 .1
•
In
is
•
the
developing
less
An
than
the
percentage
of
land
owned
by
OP POR T U NI T IE S
women
2%.
estimated
and
world,
D E V E LO P M E N T
72%
of
the
world’s
33
million
refugees
are
women
children.
Violence
against
women:
Test yourself
•
The
most
globally
common
is
form
physical
of
violence
violence
experienced
inflicted
by
an
by
women
intimate
5.8 Outline ways in which
partner.
women are disadvantaged
relative to men.
Women
and
the
business
[6]
case:
5.9 Suggest two ways in which
•
In Asia,
the
gender
equality
gap
in
employment
rates
for
women
gender inequality could be
cost
US$47
billion
annually
through
lost
productivity—about
45%
of
reduced.
women
Women
•
remained
and
About
outside
workplace
compared
to
19%
of
[2+2]
men.
education:
two-thirds
world’s
the
adult
of
the
estimated
population)
who
776
lack
million
basic
adults
literacy
(or
skills
16%
are
of
the
women.
Make sure that you read the
question carefully. Question
Empowering
women
in
Colombia
5.8 asks you for “ways” (plural)
During
the
armed
conflicts
in
Colombia
(mid-1960s
to
2013),
women
and Question 5.9 asks you for
became
mobilized
and
they
have
influenced
new
laws
and
policies.
“two ways”. So, in both par ts you
Colombia
now
has
more
women
in
decision-making
positions
than
need to provide two (or more)
ever
before:
by
2011,
32%
of
cabinet
members
were
women,
up
from
examples.
just
12%
exceeds
in
1998.
that
increased
of
boys’,
from
Empowering
Girls’
30%
enrolment
and
in
women’s
1990
indigenous
in
to
peoples
secondary
participation
nearly
or
and
43%
minority
in
in
tertiary
the
education
labour
force
2017.
groups
When answering questions that
The
Millennium
working
in
improve
their
boost
their
around
15%
are
to
of
in
20
health,
globe,
poor.
worse
influence
affect
countries
There
Largely
and
around
the
are
(MDG)
world
their
constituting
health
Goals
preserve
livelihoods.
the
its
Development
5%
marginalized
than
the
participate
general
in
to
help
cultures,
some
just
Achievement
370
of
and
protect
isolated,
and
their
rights
are
economic
ask you to “suggest” or “explain”,
and
people
population
indigenous
and
is
people
indigenous
world’s
population,
political
indigenous
million
the
Fund
much
but
people
less
processes
able
you should always try to use
examples in your answers
as suppor t for the point that
you make, and/or develop the
explanation with cause–effect
type comments.
that
them.
Content link
In
Panama,
for
development
It
provided
and
project
financial
improved
Minority
example,
local
groups
minority
groups
for
the
and
a
UN
established
Ngäbe-Buglé
technical
leaders’
may
in
the
also
include
country
(for
sustainable
T
erritory
support
planning
a
and
to
the
to
restore
immigrants,
the
land
communities
administrative
example,
rural
refugees
rights.
involved,
and
people are discussed in
unit 6.3.
skills.
Rohingya
Effor ts to empower Aboriginal
ethnic
people
in
Test yourself
Myanmar),
who
also
experience
discrimination
and
inequalities.
5.10 Suggest how the needs
for indigenous people differ
The impor tance of social entrepreneurship approaches for
from those of non-indigenous
people.
human development
[4]
5.11 Outline ways in which
Microfinance
indigenous people are
In
1983,
to
allow
The
Muhammad
idea
the
has
However,
who
the
in
is
not
spread
a
across
Andhra
their
the
Grameen
For
for
and
developing
example,
Pradesh
blamed
back
the
microbusinesses
downside.
were
pay
launched
establish
India’s
lenders
could
to
since
there
microcredit
when
poor
Yunus
an
a
increase
in
improve
Bangladesh
their
lives.
disadvantaged relative to
non-indigenous people.
[2+2]
world.
big
province
Bank
expansion
caused
in
a
suicides
of
crisis
by
in
2010,
farmers
loans.
171
5
U NI T
5:
HUMAN
D E V E LO P M E N T
Part
AND
of
large
the
but
problem
scale.
20–40%,
still
Typical
cheaper
is
(HL
that
microfinance
annual
than
the
O N LY )
percentage
traditional
is
very
interest
local
hard
rates
to
provide
are
in
moneylender
the
or
on
a
region
of
pawnbroker
expensive.
Alternative
Fair
DI VERSIT Y
trade
trading
can
economically
companies
be
Table 5.1.3.
defined
and
take
networks
such
as
as
trade
fair
that
environmentally
responsibility
for
trade
attempts
to
responsible.
the
wider
be
It
is
impact
socially
,
trade
of
in
their
which
business.
Fair trade pros and cons
Pros
Cons
It pays higher wages to its workers.
There is a limited customer base for fair
trade products.
It considers worker safety.
There are fewer fair trade products to
Don’t confuse fair trade and
choose from than non-fair trade products.
free trade. Fair trade tries to
There is no discrimination.
Fair trade costs may increase due to
be socially, economically and
administrative costs.
environmentally responsible
It tries to eliminate the need for child
Most large buyers are not attracted to the
labour.
fair trade model.
Organic methods are often used to produce
The demand for fair trade products reduces
fair trade products.
in times of recession.
whereas free trade allows trade
between two countries and can
be quite exploitative.
TNC
corporate
Corporate
when
social
business
business
makes
behaviour
Adverse
For
and
good
could
example,
sewing
forced
a
a
“Six
To
achieve
Cents
football,
and
for
1990s
an
Nike
appear
community
the
agreements
in
environmental)
of
performance
Socially
loyalty
and
1950s,
welfare.
corporation.
customer
the
significance
irresponsible
and
reduced
environmental
sales.
impacts
reputation.
Nike
its
article
Hour”
abuse.
to
global
identified
conditions
allowing
an
and
began
(and
any
declining
the
for
of
social
for
social
Following
system
supply
in
about
activists
Nike
its
on
sense
result
(CSR)
context
throughout
overtime
extensive
the
frameworks
academics
corporation’s
workers.
heading
in
and
reporting
publicity
globalization
the
responsibility
business
damage
exploit
responsibility
leaders
decisions
Improving
may
social
monitoring
targeted
published
and
became
Nike
was
suppliers
a
picture
in
in Life
of
a
synonymous
gradually
and
anti-
to
abuse
magazine
Pakistani
with
adopted
remedying
by
LICs
an
slave
and
with
boy
wages,
expensive
factory
and
conditions
chain.
effective
CSR,
companies
should
address
the
following
areas:
Test yourself
5.12 Outline one advantage
•
Ways
to
minimize
percentage
•
Ways
to
minimize
salary
•
Ways
to
provide
of
employee
turnover;
and one disadvantage of
microfinance.
inequalities;
[2+2]
daycare
services
for
employees
with
young
5.13 Describe one advantage
children;
and one disadvantage of fair
trade.
[2+2]
•
Ways
to
promote
provide
a
flexible
work–life
working
hours
or
working
hours
that
balance;
5.14 Briefly explain the
advantages of corporate
social responsibility (CSR).
172
•
Ways
to
improve
•
Ways
to
ensure
the
female:male
ratio
in
managerial
roles;
[3]
human
rights
are
observed
by
suppliers.
in
t
5.2
The
UN’s
agency
to
International
that
deals
international
opportunities
the
ILO
labour
labour
for
include
5 . 2
with
all.
Organization
problems,
standards,
It
North
Labour
has
187
Korea
social
the
especially
protection
members.
and
is
specialist
those
and
Countries
not
in
C H A NGING
IDENTITIE S
AND
C U LT U R E S
UN
relation
work
belonging
to
Eritrea.
C H A N G I N G
I D E N T I T I E S
A N D
C U LT U R E S
You should be able to show how global interactions bring
• Culture – a system of shared
cultural influences and changes to places:
meanings used by people who
belong to the same community,
✔
The
global
spectrum
of
cultural
traits,
ethnicities
and
identities,
and
group or nation, to help them
ways
in
which
the
spectrum
of
diversity
is
widening
or
narrowing
interpret and make sense of the
at
different
scales;
world. These systems of meanings
✔
The effects of global interactions on cultural diversity in different places:
include language, religion, custom
✔
the
diffusion
of
cultural
traits,
✔
glocalization
of
branded
✔
cultural
and
cultural
and tradition, as well as ideas
imperialism;
about “place”.
commodities,
and
cultural
hybridity;
• Cultural diffusion – the spread
landscape
changes
in
the
built
environment;
of cultural ideas, from their place
✔
How
diasporas
global
✔
and
Case
inuence
local
study
cultural
diversity
and
identity
at
both
of
a
of origin to other regions, groups
or nations.
scales;
global
diaspora
population
and
its
cultures.
• Cultural imperialism – the
practice of promoting the culture,
values or language of one nation
The global spectrum of cultural traits,
in another, less-powerful one.
ethnicities and identities
• Diaspora – the forced or
voluntary dispersal of any
Culture
gives
people
a
sense
of
community
and
belonging.
Until
population sharing a common
recently
,
cultures
had
been
considered
spatially
bounded,
although
racial, ethnic or cultural identity,
the
rise
(and
fall)
of
some
empires
led
to
a
two-way
spread
of
after leaving their settled territory
certain
cultural
traits
(sport
and
food,
for
example).
Contemporary
and migrating to new areas.
globalization
and
has
led
to
ties
between
distant
and
disparate
places,
ideas
symbols.
• Glocalization – the adaptation
of a product or service to the
Advances
in
information
technology
during
the
20th
century
have
locality or culture for which it is
enabled
cultural
symbols
(such
as
music,
images
and
text)
to
flow
marketed.
around
to
a
the
new
culture,
Such
the
world
“global
around
symbols
world,
culture
is
Current
ways
the
scale
•
the
rise
•
the
idea
before.
culture”
such
culture
that
they
Some
based
as
on
argue
the
have
become
shaped
this
diffusion
McDonald’s
have
that
and
new
led
Western
Coca-Cola.
widespread
a
of
has
global
around
• Homogenization – the process
by which features become
increasingly similar or uniform.
consumer
globalization
differs
from
cultures
of
the
past
in
many
as:
•
music,
Western
ever
debated.
cultural
such
consumer
the
hotly
than
commodities
of
but
faster
of
of
cultural
TNCs
in
exchanges
the
culture
(it
is
not
a
industries
one-way
(for
process)
example,
film,
TV)
rise
of
the
Test yourself
business
culture.
5.15 Explain why some cities
would choose to be similar to
Globalization
has
led
to
the
mixing,
or
hybridization,
of
culture
rather
other cities.
than
cultural
may
be
many
a
imperialism.
powerful
Westernization/Americanization
process,
but
it
can
be
(and
has
been)
of
[6]
culture
rejected
in
places.
173
5
U NI T
5:
HUMAN
D E V E LO P M E N T
AND
DI VERSIT Y
(HL
O N LY )
The effects of global interactions on cultural diversity
in different places
Culture
the
of
represents
same
the
world.
custom
•
and
These
native
•
a
The
UK
be
of
over
the
Until
produced
boundaries,
music
early
and
could
be
for
people
make
language,
more
from
sense
religion,
and
with
television
to
million
Bengali.
consumption
music
domestic
100
(Chinese),
English
languages.
industry
,
subjected
than
corporations
popular
1990s,
that
them
Mandarin
Russian
world
distribution
primarily
and
have
Arabic,
global
help
include
English,
T
ransnational
the
to
“place”.
languages
global
the
about
dominant
geography
.
meanings
use
meanings
Hindi,
the
dominating
Television:
to
one
of
include
production,
particular
and
of
shared
nation
ideas
These
Portuguese,
influence
•
A number
become
Music:
and
of
or
systems
speakers.
Spanish,
systems
group
tradition,
Language:
has
the
community
,
of
have
artists
music
a
have
powerful
from
the
USA
market.
programmes
audiences
rigorous
within
tended
national
governmental
control.
The
diffusion
New
cultural
technologies,
mean
speed
that
of
between
the
the
factors
that
have
Global
cultural
is
as
and
the
cultural
internet
becoming
and
economies
and
traits,
such
world
transport
migration,
Figure 5.2.1.
of
imperialism
and
more
communications,
and
cultures,
power
of
changed
the
global
satellite
the
lives
in
The
increasing
growth
financial
everyday
communications,
interconnected.
of
increased
interactions
international
markets
recent
are
among
the
decades.
This McDonalds
imperialism
today
has
resulted
from
economic
forces,
restaurant in Dubai is an example of
for
example,
when
the
dominant
culture
(usually
the
USA)
captures
cultural globalization
markets
for
over
popular
•
the
its
Language:
this
number
of
may
is
of
into
are
more
and
to
to
6,000
account,
is
in
by
global
close
if
to
many
influence
Below
languages
2100.
as
a
are
in
first
of
1
billion.
English
fields,
control
examples.
world,
Although
the
total
speakers
is
but
becoming the
USA.
language,
second-language
important
is
the
and
some
the
English
influence
spoken
speakers,
gains
countries.
3,000
the
widely
English
thereby
other
around
due
communication
the
of
reduce
language
Mandarin
taken
culture
There
figure
world
Test yourself
commodities
the
are
medium
including
internet.
5.16 Describe the trend in (a)
global languages and (b) global
media since the 1970s.
•
[2+2]
5.17 Briefly explain how
National
complexes.
global
entertainment
most
the
Cultural
For
merging
which
and
are
Disney
,
of
In
TV
Spanish
branded
hybridity
there
the
“spanglish”.
and
of
example,
origin.
systems
Around
20
are
to
30
media
from
the
News
being
large
superseded
TNCs
industry
,
USA.
mainly
These
Corporation,
by
dominate
from
include
Universal
global
the
the
giants
West,
such
Studios
as
and
BBC.
Glocalization
174
of
Time-Warner,
[2+2]
media
media
and
and why these trends
have happened.
Media:
US
the
is
a
states
inserted
language
one
that
use
merging
and
of
in
are
“code
close
in
and
every
to
the
the
seven
the
switching”,
haphazardly
cultural
previously
phenomenon
Spanish
Roughly
stations
are
is
commodities,
into
hybridity
separate
USA that
English
US
language
residents
US–Mexico
that
is,
is
of
border,
words
English
cultural
involves
and
sentences,
to
traits.
the
produce
Latino
some
radio
phrases
and
in
vice
versa.
5.2
Another
food.
Tex-Mex
which
the
to
example
had
1870s,
a
Texas
and
it
Cultural
The
of
they
of
nachos,
evolve
changes
development
Grande
and
a
started
rice
America’s
sour
Later,
and
the
oldest
in
cattle
serving
and
menu”.
fajitas
valley
large
of
AND
C U LT U R E S
Tex-Mex
Texas,
industry
.
chili
cream
Mexican
breakfast
regional
IDENTITIE S
con
or
In
carne
grated
migrants
in
taco.
cuisine,
today
.
in
uniform
as
the
Rio
beans,
“Mexican
described
to
landscape
evolution
the
the
women
added
tortillas,
been
in
is
population
Hispanic
began
continues
hybridity
developed
Later
so
has
cultural
Mexican
group
developed
Tex-Mex
and
was
large
Americans.
cheese,
of
a
of
C H A NGING
the
built
urban
environment
landscapes
is
the
result
of
a
variety
as
television-
factors:
•
improvements
and
in
communications
internet-based
technology
,
so
technology
,
that
people
such
in
one
city
are
Concept link
aware
PLACES: There are different
of
opportunities
and
trends
in
other
cities
processes that can diffuse culture
•
increased
international
migration
and
the
spread
of
ideas
from one place to another. Places
and
tend to resist, adopt or adapt to the
cultures
introduction of new traits, which
•
time–space
convergence,
which
allows
faster
interactions
between
subsequently retains the cultural
places
makeup of a place, alters it or
•
the
•
desire
of
global
Starbucks
to
reach
improvements
of
•
a
global
•
Many
urban
today
look
of
many
are
to
very
activities
materials
All
and
urban
to
be
that
or
landscape
of
Google
perhaps completely changes the
and
living
and
aspirations
to
be
part
activity
,
culture
(art,
media,
sport
and
activity
cities.
towers
estates
as
countries
are
and
TNCs
cheap
vital
Many
centres,
feature
parks
outsource
labour,
markets.
a
science
open
raw
cities
have
markets
supermarkets.
have
something
unique.
less
Urban
globalized
different
more
Apple,
identity.
different
Tall
shopping
areas
more
are
access
potential
something
W
esternized
in
as
centres
political
globalized
to
of
urban
smart
similar.
out-of-town
have
and
such
markets
economic
Industrial
pedestrianized
and
of
landscapes
cities.
(TNCs)
standards
create
increasingly
their
of
activities)
attempts
new
network
globalization
leisure
in
brands
from
globalized.
Bandar
Seri
one
For
in
common. All
areas
might
that
be
another
than
example,
Begawan,
are
less
expected
the
those
urban
Brunei,
is
Figure 5.2.2.
dominated
by
a
mosque. A large
proportion
of
people
live
in
The urban landscape
Bandar ’s
of Kampong Ayer, Bandar Seri
“water
village”,
yet
even
there
evidence
of
W
estern
culture
can
be
found.
Begawan’s “water village”
How diasporas influence cultural diversity and identity
at both global and local scales
Remember, in your discussion
The
term
diaspora
concentrated
in
refers
one
to
place.
any
dispersal
Examples
of
a
population
formerly
of cities, that no two cities are
include:
the same. Every city is unique in
cer tain aspects, although there
•
professional
and
business
diasporas;
for
instance,
Samsung
are cer tain aspects that may be
Electronics’
UK
division
was
originally
based
in
New
Walden,
and
similar.
as
a
result
many
South
Koreans
moved
to
this
area.
175
5
U NI T
5:
HUMAN
D E V E LO P M E N T
•
AND
DI VERSIT Y
cultural
descent
British
diasporas,
from
people
or
to
may
from
fill
as
the
Caribbean
movement
to
the
encouraged
shortages
bring
other
O N LY )
such
government
countries
Diasporas
the
(HL
their
in
the
culture
population
UK
of
after
migrants
World
immigration
of
War
from
African
II.
The
Commonwealth
workforce.
with
groups,
them.
and
so
Some
may
cultures
marry
may
be
mixed,
hybridized.
Test yourself
Case
study:
The
Chinese
diaspora
5.18 Describe ways in which
Approximately
40
million
people
of
Chinese
origin
live
in
sizeable
the built environment is
numbers
in
at
least
20
countries.
Large
concentrations
are
found
in
becoming more similar
Singapore
around the world.
(2.6
million),
Indonesia
(7.6
million),
Malaysia
(6.2
million),
[5]
Thailand
(7
million)
and
the
USA (3.4
million).
Historically
,
Chinese
5.19 Briefly explain why the built
migration
began
in
the
10th
century
with
the
expansion
of
maritime
environment is becoming more
trade.
similar around the world.
During
of
colonialism,
large
numbers
of
Chinese
moved
[4]
into
Singapore
With
L O C A L
and
globalization,
reasons
5 . 3
periods
has
Mauritius—the
Chinese
latter
migration
encouraged
for
by
professional
the
and
French.
business
increased.
R E S P O N S E S
T O
G L O B A L
I N T E R A C T I O N S
You should be able to show the varying power of local
• Civil society – any organization
places and actors to resist or accept change:
or movement that works in the
area between the household,
✔
Local
and
civil
society
resistance
to
global
interactions:
the private sector and the state
✔
rejection of globalized production, including campaigns against
to negotiate matters of public
TNCs and in favour of local sourcing of food and goods by citizens;
concern. Civil societies include
✔
rise
of
anti-immigration
non-governmental organizations
movements;
(NGOs), community groups, trade
✔
Geopolitical
constraints
on
global
interactions:
unions, academic institutions and
✔
government
participate
and
in
militia
global
controls
on
personal
freedoms
faith-based organizations.
to
interactions;
• Resource nationalism – when
✔
national
trade
resource
restrictions,
including
protectionism
a country decides to take all or
and
par t of one or a number of natural
nationalism;
resources under state ownership.
✔
The
role
of
civil
participating
campaigning
in
society
global
for
in
promoting
interactions,
internet
international-mindedness
including
social
media
use
and
• Protectionism – any economic
and
policy that limits trade between
freedom;
countries in order to protect trade
✔
Two
detailed
examples
of
places
where
restricted
freedoms
in the home country.
have
been
challenged.
Local and civil society resistance to global interactions
Rejection
of
According
•
Six
globalized
to
Greenpeace,
Factory
egg
Figure 5.3.1.
Woodstock , UK
176
Farmers’ market in
•
TNCs
control
corporations—Monsanto,
BASF—control
•
production
farms
now
production
Four
75%
of
the
55%
of
corporations—ADM,
control
more
than
75%
of
DuPont,
world
account
and
for
of
food
Dow,
pesticides
72%
pork
global
Syngenta,
poultry
Cargill
grain
production.
Bayer
and
market.
production
Bunge,
the
global
production,
worldwide.
and
Dreyfus—
trade.
They
43%
of
5.3
overwhelmingly
local
Those
and
of
farmers
who
sales
food
fresher
at
favour
for
the
the
improves
example,
local
Local
and
food
stress
that
miles
it
and
for
like
that
it
improves
has
and
increases
soy
TO
GLO B A L
INTERACTIONS
on
smaller
has
vets
a
market
consumer
provides
a
and
fodder,
corn
RE SPONSE S
crops.
also
economy
,
demand
crops
native
production
farming
increased
of
production
producer,
reduces
the
commodity
expense
local
production.
food,
force
LO C A L
understanding
consumers
carbon
farm
with
footprint.
multiplier
and
access
effect,
It
for
equipment.
Test yourself
The
rise
of
anti-immigration
movements
5.20 Outline the advantages
There
are
many
reasons
for
the
rise
of
anti-immigration
groups.
of mass-produced food.
The
main
concerns
perceived
threats
education
and
of
over
health
environmental
growth.
themselves
from
If
ghettos.
the
Other
spread
of
In
may
Some
society
migrants
opposed
competition
care.
issues
population
society
.
those
are
infectious
a
jobs,
certain
to
the
notably
as
a
include
are
in
into
into
of
LICs
result
5.21 Describe the main
housing,
and
of
characteristics of the
NICs,
farmers’ market shown
rapid
groups
isolate
mainstream
society
,
increased
[4]
the
cost
immigrant
integrate
assimilate
concerns
and
concern
that
to
immigration
cases,
refuse
unable
perceived
be
argue
and
for
some
also
to
they
crime
[3]
5.22 Outline the disadvantages
may
rates
in figure 5.3.1.
form
and
of reliance of farmers’
markets.
[3]
diseases.
Key
Pro-migration
Germany
Anti-migration
29%
66%
United
Kingdom
United
States
37%
52%
41%
51%
Spain
46%
47%
52%
45%
France
52%
24%
Poland
Greece
19%
Italy
19%
Test yourself
70%
69%
5.23 Suggest reasons for the
differences in views concerning
Figure 5.3.2.
Popular views of immigrants in selected countries
immigrants into the countries
Source of data: Pew Research Center (2014)
shown in figure 5.3.2.
[3]
Geopolitical constraints on global interactions
Government
to
and
participate
Myanmar ’s
against
2017.
the
in
Over
and
government
650,000
of
increasingly
the
and
used
minorities,
persecution
Human
Health
in
a
to
a
freedoms
its
large-scale
population
(out
of
escape
Despite
the
leader,
repressive
to
and
girls
a
last
some
that
by
a
in
total
mass
Aung
laws
of
San
to
ethnic
cleansing
Rakhine
1
of
State
million)
killings,
election
the
Suu
control
in
fled
sexual
the
Content link
to
violence,
National
Kyi,
campaign
August
The displacement of the Rohingya
League
for
government
journalists
and
critics
people is related to the aspects of
forced migration discussed in
unit 1.2.
nearly
Christians
90%
especially
the
John
in
the
Hopkins
Association
from
and
Hindus
face
Buddhist.
north
of
Myanmar.
School
of
Public
Thailand,
Myanmar
into
7500
forced
women
marriages
in
years.
Western
on
Muslims,
Women’s
trafficked
five
Myanmar
is
problem,
report
Kachin
been
the
Meanwhile,
is
joint
the
have
over
criticized
a
including
country
trafficking
According
China
personal
government/military
.
Religious
and
Rohingya
abuses.
(NLD)
on
began
Muslim
Bangladesh
other
Democracy
has
controls
interactions
Rohingya
neighbouring
arson
militia
global
its
governments
human
rights
that
had
record
previously
now
see
it
as
a
land
of
177
5
U NI T
5:
HUMAN
D E V E LO P M E N T
AND
DI VERSIT Y
opportunity
are
largely
(CSOs),
in
are
was
Myanmar
CSOs
contemporary changes in
reform.
through
who
Myanmar
Try to keep up to date with
and
have
(HL
the
now
appear
Investors
NLD
less
under
O N LY )
rather
able
military
to
be
experienced
a
have
to
increased,
than
raise
civil
major
under
brain
society
international
dictatorship.
reducing
and
The
the
drain
dealings
organizations
support
than
opportunities
new
in
their
NLD
recent
when
for
CSOs
government.
years.
protectionism.
National
trade
restrictions,
including
protectionism
and
resource
nationalism
Much protectionism is actually
Protectionism
refers
to
any
economic
policy
that
limits
trade
between
carried out by HICs.
countries
in
order
to
protect
trade
in
the
home
country
.
Test yourself
5.24 Outline the characteristics
of the countries with the highest
level of protectionism.
[3]
5.25 Describe the distribution
of countries with a low level of
protectionism.
[3]
Key
1–10
5.26 Examine the “arguments”
11–30
for and against protectionism.
31–100
101–200
[12]
201–300
301–400
5.27 Suggest reasons for the
401–800
Over
growth of nationalism since
2008.
800
[4]
Figure 5.3.3.
Number of protectionist measures taken by dierent countries,
2008–2016
Source of data: Global Trade Aler t
Resource
nationalism
Resource
its
natural
resources
country
and
the
place.
first
receive
they
Not
nationalism
any
more
may
a
state
involved
main
revenue
the
when
under
TNC
The
lack
is
country
ownership.
in
the
advantage
from
the
equipment,
decides
It
to
take
affects
development
for
the
host
development
technology
both
of
the
country
of
or
all
the
is
or
the
to
of
host
resource
that
resource.
finance
part
they
in
can
However,
develop
it
fully
,
Free
Partly
Free
and
so
may
not
benefit
as
much
as
they
might
do.
Where
a
TNC
has
35%
29%
been
it
is
involved
likely
decides
of
to
to
money
the
development
large
nationalize
in
disappear.
in
make
research
The
host
profits.
the
and
and
of
the
resource,
the
development
the
resource
However,
TNC
rely
if
the
TNC
only
on
may
to
each
in
host
the
first
spend
see
place,
government
its
large
amounts
investment
other.
The role of civil society in promoting international
Not
mindedness and par ticipation in global interactions
Assessed
Free
12%
24%
According
to
Freedom
House,
the
internet
is
a
crucial
medium
through
Key
which
people
can
express
themselves
and
share
ideas.
It
is
also
an
FREE
increasingly
PARTLY
rights
NOT
activists
tool
mobilize
through
and
which
advocate
for
democracy
political,
and
social
human
and
economic
FREE
reform.
NOT
important
FREE
Some
authoritarian
states
have
devised
ways
to
filter,
monitor,
ASSESSED
obstruct
Figure 5.3.4.
and/or
manipulate
the
openness
of
the
internet.
Freedom of the
Places
where
restricted
freedoms
have
been
challenged:
The
Arab
Spring
internet in the world
178
The
Arab
and
civil
Spring
wars
relates
that
to
spread
the
range
through
of
demonstrations,
countries
in
the
protests,
Middle
East
riots
and
QUE STION
North
Africa
after
2010.
Most
of
the
revolutions
and
protests
PRACTICE
were
Concept link
over
by
2012,
exception.
in
the
although
By
Arab
the
September
Spring
that
ongoing
2016,
had
conflict
Tunisia
become
a
was
in
Syria
the
only
is
an
important
country
involved
POWER: Global interactions can
be rejected by governments and
democracy
.
their citizens in order to preserve
Numerous
factors
lay
behind
the Arab
Spring:
dissatisfaction
national culture and protect
with
governments,
dictatorships,
corruption,
economic
decline,
domestic industry and resources.
unemployment,
inequalities
in
wealth,
food
shortages
and
escalating
Global recession and political
food
prices.
Widespread
access
to
social
media
networks
made
the Arab
conflict are two examples where
Spring
possible
in
countries
such
as
T
unisia
and
Egypt,
whereas
in
Y
emen
power is exerted via the closing
and
Libya
people
communicated
through
the
traditional
forms
of
media.
of physical borders in order to
A number
of
determined
reasons
change
have
in
been
some
put
areas
forward
but
not
to
explain
others.
They
what
safeguard domestic interests.
has
Alternatively, the power of public
include:
protest (such as when there is an
•
strong
civil
societies—countries
with
strong
civil
societies,
such
as
upwelling of support for greater
Tunisia,
were
more
successful
because
they
were
able
to
transform
freedom) can be an agent of change
the
country
the
degree
after
political
change
and encourage governments to
•
and
the
BBC
violence
•
social
more
Places
The
The
by
where
Aung
the
has
and
with
freedoms
coverage,
the
military
greater
support
have
for
access
the
been
where
such
was
to
Al
as
Jazeera
Egypt,
enact change.
mass
suppressed
social
media
were
protests.
challenged:
Myanmar
are
one
of
the
the
world’s
Myanmar
preventing
health
considerable
authoritarian
Suu
countries
widespread
government
mobilize
2014,
been
of
San
to
of
In
thus
decades
censorship—in
provided
restricted
Rohingya
citizenship.
There
state
media—countries
able
Rohingya
groups,
of
Kyi
of
the
most
care
and
political
military
persecuted
government
for
change
rule
National
aid
to
the
League
minorities,
expelled
the
in
Rohingya.
Myanmar,
democratic
for
without
humanitarian
from
election
Democracy
party
the
of
in
Test yourself
November
2015,
and
her
swearing
in
as
president
in
March
2016.
5.28 Describe the variations
In
the
elections,
over
6,000
candidates
represented
more
than
in free access to the internet
90
political
parties.
However,
75
candidates
were
disqualified
for
according to figure 5.3.4.
failing
to
meet
citizenship
or
residence
criteria,
including
all
of
[3]
the
5.29 Using examples, explain
Rohingya
candidates
and
most
Muslims.
how social media can influence
Despite
publicity
,
discriminated
the
Rohingya
continue
to
be
restricted
and
social development.
[8]
against.
QUESTION PRACTICE
a)
b)
Analyse the global and local cultural inuence of diaspora populations.
[12]
Examine how constraints on global interactions have been challenged in one
or more named countries.
[16]
How do I approach these questions?
a)
The command term is analyse. Therefore, you should break down the question to bring out the essential elements
or structure. In this case, you should show how diaspora populations have inuenced culture on a global and local
scale. To reach the top level, you should have examples to back up the points you make.
The focus should be on a diaspora population: which countries have they gone to, and what aspects of their culture
have they brought with them.
b)
The command term is “examine”: consider an argument or a concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions and
interrelationships of the issue. In this question you may examine the constraints that are imposed on people, and
how these constraints are being challenged, in one or more named countries.
Good answers are likely to show the nature of the constraints and how they are being challenged. They may show
how the constraints and the challenges have changed over time. They may refer to the unequal power that dierent
players have.
179
5
U NI T
5:
HUMAN
D E V E LO P M E N T
AND
DI VERSIT Y
(HL
O N LY )
S AMPLE STUDENT ANS WER
▲ Introduction—good
Focuses
on
global
a)
detail.
T
here
(2.5
than
focus
T
he
80%
to
population
awareness
of
Korean
and
Korean
explain
global
the
the
raise
inuence
on
appeal
via
and
Korean
detail
YouTube.
image
the
global
▼ A bit
of
Hallyu
more
USA
in
found
(2.4
and
27
Korea’s
arts
in
just
million)
three
and
Information
countries.
“national
through
(Korean
pop
of
its
Good
Korea.
countries
Japan
(0.45
-
China
million).
Its
Ser vice
main
(KOCIS)
aim
is
to
runs
32
enhance
brand”
by
promoting
Korean
these
cultural
centres.
T
he
spread
wave)
music)
has
through
been
accelerated
artists
such
as
through
Psy’s
K
-pop
Gangnam
success/
Style
music
video
(the
rst
to
reach
one
billion
views
on
coverage
and
needed
culture
Girls
Generation
SNSD.
Gangnam
Style
literature,
art
apart
has
from
music
—e.g.
food,
that
upheld
group.
cultures
being
practices,
beliefs,
values
and
about
to
a
greater
or
lesser
extent
by
members
of
Psy’s
Many
“integration”.
point
different
on
traditions
cultures
of
scale
culture
▲ General
outside
culture
Each
Korean
are
Culture
and
Y
ouT
ube),
of
these
centres
(Korean
spreading,
living
a
of
of
Koreans
culture.
scale
▲ Evidence
million
support
heritage
Helps
of
million),
cultural
attempting
diaspora
seven
rather
diaspora
▲ But
over
scale
About
▼ Government
are
into
western
T
his
that
refers
of
the
governments
to
encourage
incorporating
nation.
T
he
the
minorities
nation
is
seen
idea
and
as
of
their
having
different
accepted
in
a
foreign
its
own
culture
that
minorities
own
ethnic
must
accept
and
live
by,
whilst
in
south-
country
retaining
T
here
▲ Good
local-scale
▲ Good
facilities
of
example—good
description
for
Koreans
of
cultural
and
London
Korean
in
this
of
the
for
Korean
location,
and
of
Malden’s
in
New
New
local
is
a
town
has
one
of
outside
the
of
most
South
densely
Korea.
po pulated
T
here
are
areas
around
(of
which
about
po pulation
are
of
working
600
are
20,000.
for
South
from
North
Many
of
Korean
Korea)
those
Malden
20
has
Korean
karaoke
here
is
bar
.
part
good
rail
living
companies.
Korean
places
of
worship,
restaurants/cafes,
T
he
reason
for
the
nursery
sho ps,
schoo ls,
supermarke t
concentration
of
and
Koreans
historic
and
part
accessibility.
New
Malden
has
to
both
connection
site
Electronics
for
had
the
its
with
central
Embassy
UK
of
London.
South
headquarters
It
Korea
there.
was
and
T
hus,
also
the
Samsung
Korean
scale
culture
and
at
can
a
be
local
particularly
seen
to
scale,
large
have
even
an
in
number
a
of
inuence
country
Korean
at
that
a
global
does
no t
scale,
have
a
diaspora.
Very good answer – better on a local than a global scale. Good place detail.
Explains the reasons for their location in New Malden.
Marks 10/12
b)
▲ Introduction
themes
identies
T
here
are
many
constraints
on
global
interactions
such
four
as
the
rise
national
180
out
growth
conclusion—refers
and
Malden
the
community
its
Malden
original
▲ Good
New
cultures.
others
a
global
impacts.
residents
Koreans
a
explanation
that
10,000
about
location
local
religious
detail
New
▲ Valid
also
and
example
west
▲ Located
are
their
in
anti-immigration
trade
restrictions.
groups,
T
hese
are
pro tectionism
happening
in
and
many
QUE STION
parts
a
of
the
major
T
here
jobs,
In
impact
are
groups
global
reasons
including
some
the
cost
cases,
may
growth.
2017
,
US
of
be
HICs
a
for
the
rise
perceived
in
LICs,
that
and
are
having
anti-immigration
threats
LICs
and
as
a
certain
and
of
over
education
concern,
socie ty
and
interactions.
housing,
argue
from
mainstream
the
no tably
also
Some
themselves
In
including
on
many
and
issues
world,
compe tition
and
MICs,
result
health
to
care.
environmental
of
rapid
immigrant
refuse
for
po pulation
groups
integrate
iso late
into
socie ty.
President
Donald
Trump
prevented
migrants
▲ One
constraint
developed.
from
seven,
USA,
mainly
although
his
Muslim,
decision
countries
was
from
overturned
entering
by
a
Good
courts.
He
reiterated
his
intention
of
number
having
a
identied
and
detail
the
of
▼ However,
US
PRACTICE
wall
built
how
the
nothing
constraint
about
has
been
challenged
be tween
reason
due
to
the
for
USA
the
and
UK
Mexico
vo ting
to
anti-immigration
to
reduce
leave
the
sympathy
migration.
Euro pean
amongst
Part
Union
many
of
the
was
British
peo ple.
T
rade
restrictions
are
a
form
of
restrictions
place
an
home
goods
more
competitive.
trade
restrictions
consumers,
T
rade
LICs.
increase
have
70%
policies
in
of
the
response
Most
may
on
OECD
trade
the
global
2015,
the
USA
a
as
traded
and
well,
have
goods
lead
as
to
to
to
make
argue
less
that
choice
for
industrialize.
they
often
countries.
imposed
economic
trade
would
country
between
nations
to
most
economists
help
criticized
reduces
20
charge
inefciency
they
been
Protectionism
2008,
additional
although
barriers
protectionism:
affect
Since
restrictive
trade
slowdown.
▲ Second
For
example,
in
imposed
a
256%
tariff
on
and
constraint
developed.
identied
Again,
good
detail
present
Chinese
a
steel
meeting
of
and
the
protectionism
by
the
to
and
US
522%
G7
imposition
response
a
in
cut
of
tariff
June
trade
tariffs
tariffs
on
2018
cold-rolled
issued
barriers,
against
against
it
a
pledge
was
the
Although
to
ght
immediately
USA
Canada’s
steel.
by
steel
followed
Canada,
and
in
aluminium
▼ Some
industries.
Organizations
such
as
the
IMF
and
the
World
reference
“challenge”,
Organisation
very
T
he
slowly
Arab
try
and
S
pring
riots
and
civil
East
and
North
protests
Syria
were
is
country
an
to
mediate
often
it
refers
wars
Africa
over
by
in
the
after
range
2010.
for
of
the
By
S
pring
any
but
countries
of
the
lacks
detail
move
in
protests,
the
Middle
revolutions
ongoing
September
to
they
but
response.
demonstrations,
Most
although
Arab
restrictions
through
exception.
the
trade
years
spread
2012,
important
involved
takes
to
that
over
to
T
rade
become
conict
2016,
a
the
and
in
only
democracy
181
5
U NI T
5:
HUMAN
D E V E LO P M E N T
AND
was
▲ Identies
constraints
North
a
in
Africa
challenge
the
to
Middle
with
good
DI VERSIT Y
T
unisia.
Numerous
East
and
dissatisfaction
media
such
with
decline,
and
networks
as
T
unisia
Following
S
pring
the
was
instability
mixed
succeeded
and
the
where
of
with
A
the
•
Arab
•
and
of
the
less
•
the
For
some,
whereas
Arab
there
Winter
,
has
Y
emen
forms
associated
decline.
in
possible
in
traditional
before,
as
in
T
he
a
Arab
been
wealth,
access
in
of
of
to
social
Libya,
people
media.
the
Arab
violence,
S
pring
greater
food
countries
and
with
wave
T
unisia
reasons
for
to
social
led
to
by
in
collapse
of
more
state
put
areas
successful
of
and
law
has
freedom
Egypt.
and
the
than
widespread
countries
such
and
as
not
with
country
government
forward
but
to
thus
had
compared
For
social
others,
order
,
others.
those
coverage,
as
such
and
as
was
Syria,
has
include:
societies
because
such
they
Al
Jazeera
Egypt,
mass
suppressed,
where
there
in
was
reporting;
mobilize
with
support
greater
for
the
access
to
social
media
were
protests
the
challenge
of
•
support
of
the
national
military—in
Egypt
and
T
unisia,
the
Spring
military
whereas
civil
▼ However,
the
prevents
use
of
supported
in
Libya
the
and
protesters
Syria
the
in
removing
military
the
have
government,
contributed
to
war;
bullet
detailed
evaluation
•
the mobilization of the middle class—countries
with
a
strong,
synthesis
vocal
middle
countries
▼ Very
brief
challenges
focus
of
conclusion
have
this
not
class
with
a
were
weak
more
or
likely
limited
to
see
middle
political
change
than
class.
and
been
a
major
T
hus there are many constraints on global interactions, and there
essay
have been numerous challenges to overcome these constraints.
Good on the Arab Spring as a way in which constraints on global interactions
have been challenged—but elsewhere the constraints are described, but not
the challenges. For a higher mark , there should be a wider range of applied
knowledge being synthesized. For example, there could be more mention of
physical constraints on interactions and attempts to overcome these using
mobile phones and ICT.
Marks 9/16
182
in
change;
where
military
Libya
civil
political
what
T
hey
without
countries
the
explain
strong
after
censorship—in
provided
the
to
been
some
media—countries
able
a
have
transform
BBC
to
has
societies—countries
were
television
more
and
corruption,
Widespread
S
pring
changes
economic
success
degree
contrast
points
and
reasons
civil
able
violence
the
S
pring:
Libya.
T
unisia
and
of
the
inequalities
prices.
Arab
Egypt,
so-called
S
pring
strong
were
Arab
food
the
through
restrictions
number
as
the
made
and
and
determined
success/failure
Arab
dictatorships,
unemployment,
protest
success.
the
Syria
detailed
the
failed
the
▲ More
behind
the
challenge
it
lay
governments,
escalating
communicated
challenge—where
factors
detail
shortages
development
O N LY )
the
economic
▲ Some
(HL
G LO B A L
6
This
and
unit
some
and
the
of
the
threats
political
and
to
individuals
You should be able to show:
economic
✔
sovereignty
of
states.
It
also
analyses
how
technological
and
the
environmental
impacts
of
new
such
which
civil
and
social
as
agribusiness.
society
risks
of
raises
global
It
considers
awareness
ways
about
and
processes
economic
risks
for
global
and
societies;
in
✔
economic
how
global
risks
interactions.
✔
new
for
and
global
6 . 1
globalizing
geopolitical
individuals
flows,
and
transboundary
create
pollution,
AND
RESILIENCE (HL ONLY)
examines
businesses,
RISKS
G E O P O L I T I C A L
A N D
interactions
particular
emerging
create
places
and
environmental
people;
possibilities
for
managing
risks.
E C O N O M I C
R I S K S
You should be able to show how technological and
• Cybercrime – criminal activity
globalizing processes create new geopolitical and
using the internet/computers/
economic risks for individuals and societies:
computing.
✔
• Drone – unmanned aerial
Threats
to
individuals
and
businesses:
vehicle (UAV).
✔
hacking,
identity
theft
personal
freedoms;
political,
economic
and
the
implications
of
surveillance
for
• Profit repatriation – the return
of a company’s foreign-earned
✔
and
physical
risks
to
global
supply
chain
profits or financial assets to that
ows;
company’s home country.
✔
New
and
emerging
threats
to
the
political
and
economic
• 3D printing (or additive
sovereignty
of
states:
manufacturing) – the creation
✔
prot
repatriation
and
tax
avoidance
by
TNCs
and
wealthy
of a physical object from a digital
model by laying down a sequence
individuals;
of layers.
✔
disruptive
technological
innovations,
such
as
drones
and
3D
printing;
✔
The
correlation
between
increased
globalization
and
renewed
nationalism/tribalization;
✔
Two
detailed
examples
to
illustrate
geopolitical
tension/
conict.
Threats to individuals and businesses
Hacking
A major
hacking
number
of
in
a
ransomware
disrupted,
malware,
“event”
National
attack.
resulted
named
worldwide
occurred
Health
in
More
nearly
WannaCry
,
ransomware
in
Service
than
7,000
the
UK
(NHS)
in
May
trusts
one-third
of
trusts
appointments
spread
to
more
2017,
were
than
left
in
being
150
when
a
vulnerable
the
UK
were
cancelled.
countries
in
The
a
outbreak.
183
6
U NI T
6:
GLO B A L
RISK S
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
As
digital
(HL
O N LY )
technologies
are
increasingly
embedded
in
everyday
objects
Concept link
(the
PROCESSES: Individuals,
so-called
hackers
companies and governments are
to
Internet
monitor
surveillance
is
of
and
Things)
affect
required
to
there
is
increased
operations.
maintain
This
potential
may
mean
for
that
increased
security
.
at risk of the use of technology
disrupting personal and economic
Identity
theft
data. This disruption can
Identity
crime
is
a
generic
term
to
describe
a
range
of
crimes
from
jeopardize a person’s identity and
complete
life
theft
to
credit
card
theft
and
subsequent
fraud.
Identity
financial security, as well as the
theft
is
the
acquisition
of
identity-related
data
through
“phishing”,
economic wellbeing of a country.
data
breach/theft,
only
creates
deception
and
accidental
loss.
Technology
not
Hacking is one such process
criminal
opportunities,
it
also
creates
ways
of
detecting
using technology, which may be
them.
Contactless
payment
schemes
have
increased
the
potential
instigated by an individual or by
for
identity
crime,
as
payment
can
be
made
with
a
simple
tap
of
a government. Tensions between
the
card.
nation-states (and nations) often
arise as a result of these disruptive,
technological processes.
1
BILLION
PERSONAL
in
RECORDS
2014
+
LEAKED
alone
15.4
IDENTITY
ON
THE
Study figure 6.1.1.
in
2016
RISE
10.2
Test yourself
million
THEFT
million
in
2007
19
30
VICTIMS
OF
ID
THEFT
6.1 Describe the trend in identity
every
Hours
theft in the USA between 2007
and 2016.
minute
[2]
COST
6.2 Determine the number of
AND
on
TIME
average
TO
per
RESOLVE
victim
victims of identity theft and the
cost/time to resolve identity
theft issues.
[1]
Figure 6.1.1.
Implications
Mass
part
to
Identity theft in the USA
of
surveillance
surveillance
of
a,
wire-tapping
that
mass
rights
and
and
violate
on
enabling
Convention
the
ever
than
files
USA
should
right
to
are
It
media
But
a
exposed
The
with
a
The
an
entire,
and
Council
enshrined
suggests
powers
of
in
GCHQ
of
the
a
significant
interceptions
Europe
threat
that
incompatible
or
email
fundamental
also
are
on
CCTV
to
stated
human
European
the
British
(Government
with
the
European
Rights.
allow
people
governments
UK.
spying
from
privacy
wide-ranging
social
freedoms
hacking.
Rights.
Snowden,
interfere
continues.
the
of
range
Headquarters)
which
and
practice
can
practices
before.
from
Edward
secret
184
and
personal
computer
Human
ever
before
2013,
the
on
internet
freely
It
Human
Communications
The
the
surveillance
Convention
laws
is
population.
for
and
former
the
debate
human
people
are
communicate
more
commercial
US
of
concerning
for
analyst,
massive
how
the
far
sake
more
surveillance
organizations.
intelligence
existence
rights
to
under
leaked
surveillance
the
of
than
In
top
by
government
national
security
6 .1
Political,
economic
and
physical
risks
to
global
supply
chain
GE OPOLI T IC A L
AND
E C ONOMIC
RISK S
flows
Economic risks
Explanation
Asset price rises in a major
Unsustainably overpriced assets such as commodities,
economy
housing and shares in a major economy or region
Failure/shor tfall of critical
Failure to adequately invest in, upgrade and/or
infrastructure
secure infrastructure networks (for example, energy,
transpor tation and communications)
High structural unemployment
A sustained high level of unemployment or
or underemployment
underutilization of the productive capacity of the
employed population
Illicit trade (for example, illicit
Large-scale activities outside the legal framework that
nancial ows, tax evasion,
undermine social interactions, regional or international
human tracking and
collaboration, and global growth
organized crime)
Severe energy price shock
Signicant energy price increases or decreases that
(increase or decrease)
place fur ther economic pressures on highly energy-
dependent industries and consumers
Environmental risks
Extreme weather events (for
Cause major proper ty, infrastructure and/or
example, oods and storms)
environmental damage as well as loss of human life
Major biodiversity loss and
Result in irreversible consequences for the
ecosystem collapse
environment and severely depleted resources for
(terrestrial or marine)
humanity as well as industries
Major natural disasters
Cause major proper ty, infrastructure and/or
(for example, ear thquake,
environmental damage as well as loss of human life
tsunami, volcanic eruption,
geomagnetic storms)
Human-made environmental
Failure to prevent major human-made damage and
damage and disasters (for
disasters, including environmental crime, causing
example, oil spills and
harm to human lives and health, infrastructure,
radioactive contamination)
proper ty, economic activity and the environment
Political risks
Failure of national governance
Inability to govern a nation of geopolitical impor tance
as a result of weak rule of law, corruption or political
deadlock
Failure of regional or global
Inability of regional or global institutions to resolve
governance
issues of economic, geopolitical or environmental
impor tance
Interstate conict with
A bilateral or multilateral dispute between states that
regional consequences
escalates into economic (for example, trade/currency
wars, resource nationalization), military, cyber, societal
or other conict
Large-scale terrorist attacks
Weapons of mass destruction
Individuals or non-state groups with political or
Try to add examples to each of
religious goals that successfully inict large-scale
the risks shown in table 6.1.1
human or material damage
(star t by thinking of your home
The deployment of nuclear, chemical, biological and
radiological technologies and materials, creating
international crises and the potential for signicant
destruction of proper ty and infrastructure
Table 6.1.1.
country), so that you can use
them as “detailed locational
suppor t” in an essay on risks to
global supply chain flows.
Political, economic and physical risks to global supply
chain ows
185
6
U NI T
6:
GLO B A L
RISK S
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
(HL
O N LY )
New and emerging threats to the political and economic
Test yourself
sovereignty of states
6.3 Compare the advantages and
disadvantages of global supply
chains.
Profit
repatriation
and
tax
avoidance
by
TNCs
and
wealthy
individuals
[3+3]
According
to
the
US
Public
Interest
Research
Group
(PIRG)
the
USA’s
6.4 Explain how the main
largest
companies
hold
nearly
US$2.5
trillion
of
accumulated
profits
environmental risks can affect
in
global supply chains.
offshore
accounts
to
avoid
paying
tax.
The
money
is
held
in
over
[2+2+2]
10,000
tax
havens
including
Bermuda,
Ireland,
Luxembourg
and
the
Netherlands.
PIRG
estimates
US$100
It
has
have
would
amount
In
largest
2017,
a
revealed
Facebook
of
to
in
Many
own
way
wealthy
Disruptive
Drones
used
number
privacy
.
the
war
war.
drones
of
paying
In
zone
to
Across
being
paid
Tax
the
the
used
dirty
For
of
it
of
the
complex
Apple,
to
their
Many
trusts.
famous
Although
victimless.
to
charities
genuine,
or
UA
Vs
and
drones
operators
are
being
Drones
and
are
It
health
but
or
it
set
can
it
results
care,
up
their
also
to
be
long
do
Drones
distances
not
can
be
example,
agriculture;
remote
they
be
a
can
also
low
that
commonplace
cost
in
medication,
cause
aware
of
the
drones
and
them
especially
on
for
aircraft,
risk.
enter
can
fly
board.
precision
and
the
much
remote
track
detect
drone
In
to
change,
consumer
to
can
medicines
become
delivering
from
purposes,
hazards
low
will
be
deaths
them.
They
environmental
with
can
environments.
pilot
deliver
a
from
threat
on
humans.
use
have
invasion
civilian
groups
that
chemical
drones
an
therefore
commercial
can
Compared
relatively
and
qualified
for
generally
They
cause
inhospitable
a
monitor
monitor
explosives.
likely
used
can
terrorist
farmers
areas,
criminals,
in
require
are
work.
also
to
They
short)
disconnected
used,
can
need
nations
for
dangerous
is
also
by
duty
schools,
advantage
is
GDP
Papers”
their
profits.
not
dangerous
it
a
they
Arabia).
used
offshore
one
is
as
have
environments
for
the
“Paradise
and
tax
Drones
countries
other
for
operation
future,
more
items
rural
and
areas.
Drones could have a positive impact on farming
Disruptive
3D
technological
printing
(or
manufacture
such
186
very
example,
killing.
However,
Figure 6.1.2.
the
companies.
the
overseas,
to
Saudi
TNCs,
support
500
of
profits
maximize
money
vehicles,
drones
world,
by
or
is
on
developments.
be
situations,
act
as
through
innovations:
the
their
all
equivalent
avoidance
may
back
structures,
to
out
Fortune
tax.
aerial
military
is
and
and
finance
Ds—dull,
where
hold
Companies
donate
this
disadvantages.
desensitized
in
less
individuals
Some
three
Such
legal.
also
400
paid
known
wealthy
tax.
missing
Switzerland
efficiently
are
technological
the
of
are
not
which
infrastructural
(unmanned
for
than
the
paying
having
avoiding
did
billion,
unethical.
and
charities.
of
of
is
nearly
companies
documents
affairs
is
from
they
(larger
actors
it
welfare
if
operate
governments
social
of
and
these
pay
Google,
to
legal,
if
government
taxes
US$717
avoid
and
US
in
leaked
tax
shareholders
be
to
to
country
set
musicians
the
year
that,
had
the
structures
may
a
calculated
would
19th
that
million
as
a
innovations:
additive
range
plastics,
of
wood,
3D
printing
manufacturing)
products
paper,
using
resin
a
and
enables
3D
producers
printer
glass.
3D
and
to
raw
technology
materials
can
6 .1
manufacture
to
be
for
tested.
storage
goods
However,
of
large
opportunities
technology
.
is
the
homes
in
made
developed,
has
is
cut
formulated
However,
suited
also
are
the
use
due
designers
is
3D
the
environmental
reduces
and
who
in
world’s
of
creates
are
3D
with
a
first
Project
skilled
damage.
arm
It
needed
for
the
E C ONOMIC
RISK S
designs
need
many
familiar
printing
with
the
technology
(bioprinting).
printers.
lack
time
high.
materials,
organs
the
robotic
are
the
breakthroughs
of
to
costs
raw
skilled
main
Netherlands
and
to
be
the
up
when
for
city
to
have
Milestone
bricklayers.
The
3D
nozzle
amount
3D
may
variety
card
habitable
was
The
printer
that
process
that
ejects
for
energy
,
also
a
was
used
specially
they
they
emissions.
and
materials
bank
so
may
are
expensive.
printing,
disease
raw
purposes:
is
toxic
during
heart
of
readers
of
printing
generate
illnesses,
a
criminal
create
large
compounds
respiratory
to
a
runs.
printers
organic
used
and
use
production
especially
also
of
human
printers
volatile
weapons
of
huge
small
linked
slow
,
a
set-up
reduces
AND
cement.
plastic,
may
the
part,
and
3D
for
emit
been
highly
with
costs
the
which
amounts
of
the
in
essentially
uses
for
One
manufacture
Eindhoven
quickly
,
GE OPOLI T IC A L
and
be
They
these
cancer.
are
to
better
mainly
may
have
3D
used.
used
It
printers
3D
printers
produce
machines.
The correlation bet ween increased globalization
and renewed nationalism
The
opposite
widespread
considered
people
to
tension/conflict:
Nationalism
is
fundamentally
,
a
EU
(for
and
Radical
and
out
in
that
policies
euro,
of
Economic
(though
these
2018,
US
same
T
rump
looking
which
the
It
to
it
is
becoming
previously
to
their
are
had
been
However,
nation
often
of
state
TNCs
rather
compared
with
the
EU
is
angry
groups
free
do
a
do
largely
or
on
among
think
is
extend
to
national
as
seen
within
leave
political
based
attitudes
not
among
referendum
criticism
have
nationalism
trade
not
a
about
wider
on
US$130
of
plans
best
this
to
the
groups.
Islamophobia
sections
that
they
that
the
beyond
of
US
US$400
USA
are
of
losing
economic
a
rage
at
the
China
for
and
knock-on
25%
imports.
billion
of
billion
all
wars
tariffs
by
imposing
President
worth
US
countries
trade
effect.
responded
worth
US$500
and
policy
view)
impose
China
billion
over
in
known
amount
tariffs
import
the
with
imports.
similar
further
is
agree
announced
Chinese
on
USA’s
the
on
is,
EU
growing,
self-interest
nationalist
A common
that
and
imports
Kingdom's
Economic
T
rump
tariffs
national
the
populations.
who
of
their
are
Europe
and
cooperation
feelings
multiculturalism
suggests
worth
in
Europe
continent,
close
populist
draws
foreign
announced
China
defend
in
Contemporary
nationalistic
United
with
some
nationalism
extremely
economy
.
President
Currently
,
from
and
which
globalization.
prosperous
right-wing
destructive
billion
then
and
right-wings
are
level
Rising
populism
and
theory
there
US$50
for
tension/conflict:
mutually
the
of
struggle
trade
Geopolitical
are
rise
globalized
free
now
reappearance.
wishing
right-wing
a
are
from
competitors,
Nevertheless,
example,
the
a
peaceful
anti-immigration.
society
on
a
governments
EU),
In
making
framework
governments.
the
Europe,
winners
world
global
nationalism,
and
countries.
Geopolitical
by
main
the
from
is
America
the
around
them
other
provides
globalization
North
among
from
protect
than
of
in
of
imports.
goods,
worth
of
goods
China.
187
6
U NI T
6:
GLO B A L
RISK S
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
(HL
O N LY )
Chinese
investment
in
the
with
investment
in
China
US
vulnerable
to
the
Chinese
China.
Moreover,
China.
Any
the
country
USA would
from
the
either
be
USA is
impacts
that
over
imposing
Global
as
US$165
US$625
affect
goods
would
inflation
to
any
billion,
billion.
restrictions
would
supplies
affected,
country
.
of
around
on
more
the
Thus,
US
than
likely
the
USA is
investment
just
supply
country
would
compared
the
chain
that
in
USA and
in
China
imports
or
goods
result.
Test yourself
6.5 Using examples, analyse the problems associated with tax
6 . 2
avoidance by TNCs and wealthy individuals.
[6]
6.6 Using an example, explain the rise of nationalism.
[6]
E N V I R O N M E N TA L
R I S K S
You should be able to show how global interactions create
• Transboundary pollution (TBP)
– pollution that originates in
environmental risks for par ticular places and people:
one country but affects another
✔
Transboundary
pollution
(TBP)
affecting
a
large
area/more
than
country.
one
country;
✔
TBP
• Carbon footprint – a measure
case
study
including
the
consequences
and
possible
of how much carbon is used to
responses;
produce, store, transpor t and sell
goods to consumers.
✔
Environmental
• Agribusiness – large-scale,
✔
localized
✔
carbon
impacts
pollution,
of
global
ows
including
at
varying
impacts
along
scales:
shipping
lanes;
commercial, intensive farming.
✔
footprints
Environmental
✔
polluting
✔
food
for
issues
global
linked
with
manufacturing
production
ows
systems
the
of
food,
global
goods
shift
of
and
people;
industry:
industries;
for
global
agribusiness.
Transboundary pollution
Case
study:
Chernobyl
disaster,
April
1986
Although it is recommended
The
Chernobyl
disaster
was
the
explosion
of
a
nuclear
reactor
in
that your case studies come
Ukraine
in
1986.
A combination
of
design
flaws
and
human
error
from within your own lifetime,
contributed
to
the
Chernobyl
disaster.
First,
there
were
design
sometimes the best examples
drawbacks
with
the
reactor.
Second,
human
error
due
to
poor
are a little older. Although
supervision
led
to
unstable
operations.
there have been examples of
transboundary pollution that
Radionuclides,
have occurred in more recent
released
years, this example has a very
distribution
clear spatial variation in its
Europe.
impact, and it is still having an
the
into
of
This
normally
the
contained
atmosphere
airborne
led
to
contamination
the
of
for
within
nearly
radionuclides
contamination
the
ten
resulted
of
reactor
days.
soil,
core,
were
Widespread
across
plants
most
and
of
western
animals,
and
foodstuffs.
impact on those who live in
Firefighters
fought
the
fire
at
very
close
quarters.
All
of
the
firefighters
the area.
received
200
serious
cases
of
emerging;
of
throat
areas
order
contain
to
time
isolate
it.
the
found
of
the
the
there
in
The
has
those
There
were
health
been
who
a
31
effects
sharp
lived
in
deaths
of
the
and
disaster
increase
the
over
most
in
the
are
still
number
contaminated
accident.
exposed
However,
container,
doses.
burns.
example,
cancers
to
in
radiation
for
the
In
gaps
188
at
radiation
due
to
reactor,
the
although
a
“sarcophagus”
difficult
these
are
working
regularly
(coffin)
conditions,
monitored
was
built
there
for
are
radiation.
6.2
Everybody
the
of
from
evacuation,
15
cm
was
measures
within
removed,
later
contaminated
land
rivers
Kiev
the
km
of
the
decontamination
were
and
30
and
found
being
all
to
work
of
washed
140
was
began.
buildings
be
reservoir,
reactor
had
limited
evacuated.
All
to
soil
be
to
a
away
,
and
radionuclides
dykes
and
dams
were
Test yourself
These
To
RISK S
After
depth
cleaned.
effectiveness.
E N V I R O N M E N TA L
6.7 Describe how the hazards
prevent
seeping
the
into
associated with the Chernobyl
explosion varied spatially.
[4]
built.
Environmental impacts of global flows at varying scales
Localized
pollution,
Shipping
is
a
including
growing
sector
atmospheric
pollutants.
emissions
sulfur
of
impacts
but
one
Shipping
dioxide
(SO
along
)
of
shipping
the
makes
and
a
least
lanes
regulated
significant
oxides
of
sources
contribution
nitrogen
(NO
2
PM
and
PM
2.5
10
(particulate
to
and
to
x
matter
with
a
diameter
of
less
than
2.5
and
10
micrometres
Shipping
PM
),
of
respectively).
lanes
concentration
3
Micrograms/m
0.0–0.05
0.05–0.09
0.10–0.19
0.20–0.49
0.50–0.99
1.0
and
over
Figure 6.2.1. Shipping pollution and the world’s main shipping routes
T
able 6.2.1.
Area
Propor tion of annual emissions produced from shipping
Year
NO
SO
x
PM
2
PM
2.5
10
Europe
2009
23%
16%
7.9%
5.5%
UK
2011
45%
40%
21%
15%
UK
2020
73%
14%
21%
15%
Source of data: Depar tment for Environment, Food and Rural Aairs, UK
Shipping
Maritime
content
of
uses
of
sulfur
marine
unlike
lived
of
other
of
black
Carbon
has
oil.
almost
set
a
There
carbon
only
carbon
are
emissions.
areas
to
black
well-mixed
deposition
add
fuel
emissions
the
higher
engines
exclusively
.
global
are
cap
clear
of
The
4.5%
benefits
International
for
the
from
sulfur
the
reduction
emissions.
Emissions
shipping
diesel
Organization
the
of
of
the
footprint
According
embodied
to
in
production
the
regional,
This
is
carbon
the
of
the
for
and
T
rust,
of
of
services
of
the
larger
a
global
emissions.
in
impacts
nearer
the
can
reduce
the
scale,
However,
of
the
Arctic
environments)
ice
short-
areas
and
where
albedo
the
and
carbon.
and
25%
which
total
On
climate
concern
black
goods
issue.
impacts
snow
and
about
big
1–2%
and
snow
flows
of
a
particular
effect
country
is
gases,
with
(ice
on
global
Carbon
goods
and
account
warming
of
ships
greenhouse
cryosphere
black
direct
from
of
services
greenhouse
“flow”
consumption
between
via
gases
the
are
country
international
of
trade.
189
6
U NI T
6:
GLO B A L
RISK S
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
HICs
LICs
are
(HL
typically
and
O N LY )
net
emerging
importers
economies
of
are
embodied
generally
carbon
net
emissions,
exporters
of
whereas
CO
2
emissions.
Transport
the
USA.
is
the
CO
largest
end-use
emissions
from
contributor
transport
towards
exceeded
2
global
billion
warming
tonnes
as
in
far
2
Content link
back
as
2007.
Transport
has
a
significant
impact
in
the
food
and
drink
Relate to this information to the
sector
because
food
is
often
transported
long
distances
and
by
air.
discussion of the water–food–
Even
produce
grown
and
consumed
within
North
America
travels
on
energy nexus in unit 3.2.
average
2,000
km
from
source
to
point
of
sale.
Megajoules per tonne-km
kg CO
e per tonne-km
2
International shipping
0.2
0.14
Inland water
0.3
0.21
Rail
0.3
0.18
Truck
2.7
1.8
Air
10
6.8
Table 6.2.2.
Energy and emissions per tonne-km (CO
e is carbon emissions
2
emissions)
conver ted to the equivalent CO
2
Food
supply
restricted
options
chains
spatially
for
providing
•
sourcing
•
using
•
cultivating
from
in
and
accounts
carrots;
in
during
For
transport
food
may
60%
of
is
out
of
may
are
season
be
three
locally:
for
as
carbon
a
greenhouse.
overall
for
locally
imported
requires
emissions
many
months.
emissions
produced
from
only
plant-based
a
such
associated
require
from
cooling,
than
For
ten
example,
with
times
southern
more
Europe.
refrigeration
or
freezing
storage.
emissions,
Waste
it
There
areas
lower
tomatoes
derived
contributes
in
the
often
contributes
transport
Cultivation
(seasonally).
when
products
tomatoes
food
area
result
transportation
but
growing
complex.
time
produce
local
and/or
products
and
by
storage
field-grown
perishable
long
and
protected
for
Sweden,
than
fresh
storing
storage
Highly
a
produce
harvesting
often
area)
distant
long-term
Importing
energy
are
(by
higher
animals,
a
small
such
as
meat
proportion
products,
such
proportion
of
as
of
fruit
their
and
their
and
carbon
dairy
goods,
carbon
vegetables,
emissions.
disposal
Cooking
PLANT-BASED
FOOD
Transportation
Production
and
processing
Waste
disposal
Cooking
ANIMAL-BASED
FOOD
Transportation
Production
and
processing
Test yourself
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
6.8 Explain why shipping is
Carbon
emissions
(millions
of
tonnes
of
CO
e)
2
associated with high rates of
Figure 6.2.2. Life cycle carbon emissions (millions of tonnes of CO
pollution.
e) for
2
[6]
plant-based foods (top) and animal-based foods (bottom) in the US
6.9 Suggest why impor ting
Source of data: Adapted from Green Technologies in Food Production and Processing (2012)
food may have a lower
environmental cost than
locally produced food.
[6]
Carbon
growth,
190
footprints
rising
of
food
incomes
are
and
likely
to
increasing
increase
levels
of
due
to
population
urbanization.
6.2
The
carbon
than
footprint
previously
Sydney
,
clothing,
that
emissions.
to
They
around
15%
dioxide
Researchers
the
entire
other
produces
identified
and
over
found
that
equivalent
about
Queensland
and
tourism
2013,
is
goods,
carbon
that
e)
to
the
chain
and
3.9
Gt.
University
of
of
Cheng
2009
to
2013.
160
They
gigatonnes
found
gas
countries
emissions
also
including
souvenirs,
greenhouse
between
They
of
Kung
tourism,
global
RISK S
larger
beverages,
from
8%
flows
from
4.5
times
National
tourism-related
period,
(CO
food
about
four
from
and
supply
accommodation,
cosmetics
global
2009
of
examined
transportation,
tourism
thought.
University
University
of
E N V I R O N M E N TA L
(Gt)
from
increased
of
suggested
by
carbon-
that
carbon
2
emissions
due
to
from
rising
global
tourism
would
increase
to
about
6.5
Gt
by
2025
incomes.
Environmental issues linked with the global shift of industry
Polluting
Since
manufacturing
the
1970s,
environmental
there.
to
home
by
Of
number
For
pollutants
these
host
offshoring
countries.
the
these
the
A significant
emerging
standards
However,
industries
Of
many
industries
foreign
may
attract
have
adopted
firms
to
move
large-scale
lax
production
polluting
countries.
of
US
firms
production
in
emissions,
attract
policies
example,
emitted
to
economies
between
China
over
have
to
less
17%
comes
20%
reduced
and
from
come
their
developed
36%
of
pollution
and
four
less
major
export-orientated
from
the
production
at
regulated
air
production.
of
goods
for
USA.
all
the
goods
imported
by
US
manufacturing
firms,
the
proportion
Concept link
produced
At
the
the
in
same
emerging
time,
economies
toxic
USA decreased
by
air
rose
emissions
over
from
from
7%
in
1992
to
manufacturing
35%
in
2016.
industries
in
PLACES: Environmental incidents,
such as the Chernobyl nuclear
50%.
disaster in 1986, demonstrate
US
companies
that
contribute
to
offshore
pollution
are
not
violating
how events that happen in one
environmental
laws
either
at
home
or
in
their
host
countries.
They
are
country create transboundary
taking
advantage
of
those
nations’
lower
environmental
and
labour
pollution incidents, which then have
standards
and
letting
the
host
countries
bear
the
costs.
negative impacts on places for a
It
is
not
just
emerging
HICs
that
economies
relocate
have
polluting
started
to
do
industries
so,
too.
overseas.
The
Chinese
Some
considerable amount of time.
Hebei
The flow of goods between
Iron
and
Steel
Company
has
announced
plans
to
relocate
some
of
places will create pollution at the
the
province’s
steel,
cement
and
glass
production
to
Africa,
Latin
production source, when items are
America,
Eastern
Europe
and
other
parts
of
Asia.
Capacity
for
20
produced using non-renewable
million
tonnes
of
steel
and
30
million
tonnes
of
cement
will
be
energy sources and using scarce
moved
overseas
by
2023.
It
is
building
a
plant
capable
of
making
5
water supplies. The movement of
million
tonnes
annually
in
South
Africa,
and
is
likely
to
shut
mills
in
products along shipping routes
Hebei,
currently
home
to
seven
as
countries
outsourced
of
China’s
most
polluted
cities.
Just
using some of the world’s largest
rich
their
pollution
to
China,
mainly
light
ships will produce more pollution
manufacturing,
China
has
got
to
the
point
in
development
where
it
than all of the vehicles in the world
wants
to
start
exporting
pollution
too,
by
building
steel
and
other
combined, thus affecting places
factories
in
poorer
countries.
at a local scale. Places gain or lose
industry due to market forces and
Food
production
systems
for
global
agribusiness
this can result in benefits, such
Agribusiness
ecosystems
around
ecosystems.
of
single
results
in
the
the
world
Agribusiness
crop
varieties
conversion
is
over
to
and
highly
often
large
degradation
simplified
based
on
of
natural
agricultural
monoculture
(the
growing
as a reduction in air pollution as
manufacturing industry relocates
elsewhere.
areas).
191
6
U NI T
6:
GLO B A L
RISK S
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
Pesticides
are
However,
be
toxic
use
of
water.
in
It
coastal
intensive
The
have
can
and
and
or
used
to
environmental
organisms.
destroy
and
They
unwanted
health
can
organisms.
impacts.
increase
They
surface
may
and
pollution.
(N),
referred
number
(CAFOs
substance
nitrogen
(sometimes
of
O N LY )
non-target
groundwater
The
any
they
to
(HL
lead
to
to
inland
waters.
size
feedlots)
NPK
(P)
a
of
The
is
and
potassium
a
major
the
input
concentrated
increased.
of
of
fertilizers
of
pollution
“dead
fertilizers
fossil
animal
These
of
(K)
source
creation
manufacture
substantial
has
and
fertilizers)
eutrophication
requires
and
phosphorus
as
is
zones”
energy
fuels.
feeding
produce
operations
large
amounts
of
Test yourself
manure
and
significant
nitrate
pollution
of
air,
water
and
groundwater.
6.10 Explain the global shift
There
of polluting manufacturing
industries.
[6]
users.
6 . 3
L O C A L
are
also
depletion,
In
A N D
significant
salinization
western
demands
and
USA,
on
decreases
some
G L O B A L
90%
of
water,
in
leading
water
water
is
to
groundwater
availability
used
for
for
other
agriculture.
R E S I L I E N C E
You should be able to show new and emerging possibilities
• Crowd-sourcing – the process of
sourcing ideas, services, funding
for managing global risks:
or content from the public in order
✔
The
success
of
international
civil
society
organizations
in
to maximize the benefit of a large
attempting
to
raise
awareness
about,
and
nd
solutions
for,
group’s collective assets.
environmental
and
social
risks
associated
with
global
interactions;
• Cyber security – the protection
✔
Detailed
examples
of
one
environmental
and
one
social
civil
of information systems, hardware
society
organization
action;
and software from theft or damage.
✔
Strategies
to
build
resilience:
• E-passpor t – electronic
passpor t containing a computer
✔
reshoring
✔
use
of
economic
activity
by
TNCs;
chip with details about the owner.
of
crowd-sourcing
technologies
to
build
resilience
by
• Reshoring – the relocation to
government
and
civil
society;
the home country of a business’s
✔
new
technologies
for
the
management
of
global
ows
of
data
or company’s operations that were
and
people,
including
cybersecurity
and
e-passports.
overseas.
• Resilience – the ability to protect
lives, livelihoods and infrastructure
The success of international civil society organizations
from destruction, and the ability to
in attempting to raise awareness about, and find
recover after an event.
solutions for, environmental and social risks
associated with global interactions
Case
and
study:
the
Australia’s
of
the
Environmental
Great
Barrier
Great
largest
Barrier
living
organization
action—WWF
Reef
Reef
structures
is
a
in
World
the
Heritage
world.
It
Area
covers
and
an
one
area
of
over
2
344,400
km
Tourism
to
,
and
the
is
reef
one
of
earns
the
world’s
Australia
most
some
popular
AU$6
tourist
billion
attractions.
annually
and
Your case studies for this section
provides
around
69,000
jobs.
must cover environmental and
However,
the
reef
is
extremely
vulnerable.
Since
1990,
it
has
lost
social issues. You could have a
around
half
of
its
coral
cover;
pollution
has
led
to
deadly
starfish
single case study that covers
outbreaks;
global
warming
has
led
to
coral
bleaching;
there
both aspects, or you could
are
even
plans
to
expand
several
ports
along
the
Great
Barrier
Reef
provide two separate accounts,
order
to
export
coal
from
the
Galilee
Basin
to
India.
Increasing
the
as here.
size
192
of
ports
will
lead
to
more
dredging
of
the
reef
and
increased
in
6.3
shipping
pollution.
livestock
for
coral
to
and
WWF
from
farms
halt
is
fisheries
of
to
(producing
washed
the
off
clarity
of
crown-of-thorns
algal
committed
about
and
farms
gets
reducing
leads
awareness
and
from
market)
beds,
explosions
Australia
increasing
manage
global
seagrass
population
runoff
to
the
Pollution
blooms,
to
preserve
reverse
the
decline
reduce
the
impact
issues
key
in
and
in
some
and
WWF
and
It
R E S ILIE NC E
leads
nitrogen
dead
zones.
methods,
initiatives
Australia
ecosystem
GLO B A L
smothers
also
cases
conservation
AND
and
while
supporting
species.
species
land
water.
starfish,
and
improving
the
the
the
crops
LO C A L
is
to
trying
health
in
the
Content link
reef,
and
to
of
climate
change
on
the
reef.
They
have
Management of coral reefs is
called
for
reform
of
Queensland’s
fishing
management
system,
and
discussed in option B.3.
have
encouraged
people
Case
study:
society
Civil
International
The
Aboriginal
years.
and
thought
that
Australia
the
when
Before
that
the
the
a
result
have
has
had
had
a
farming
place
of
no
terrible
an
mortality
urban
life
69.1
for
for
with
per
faced
country
have
them
The
to
open
a
raises
are
to
From
to
Territory
mine
of
on
rural
the
or
these
for
and
per
living
and
with
areas
for
in
against
a
that
issues
mining
is
through
this
no
and
adults.
infant
2010–
projected
83.1
infant
to
years
mortality
compared
Other
social
parts
of
the
abuse.
as
the
that
the
and
that
and
in
website
and
where
supports
parliament.
people
wanted
Mirarr.
Test yourself
enable
homelands)
Mirarr
company
its
have
in
and
poorest
courts
to
of
them
some,
high
births,
projects
with
sacred
in
association,
the
race
employment
born
infants.
(known
historical
lands
the
a
hunting/
people
is
the
country
.
of
For
local
79.7
live
the
drug
funds
many
resulted
women
in
the
would
and
by
1951.
were
traditional
children
1000
result
and
of
areas.
with
2011–2015,
6.1
a
is
in
people
people
young
have
For
campaigned
land
up
non-indigenous
ownership
titles
The
education
men
As
1850
British,
It
people
parts
urban
ways.
of
alcohol
to
the
compared
provided
return
rural
brought
people
and
has
of
conditions
for
country
.
45,000
have
reduced.
Aboriginal
the
limited
was
much
between
poorest
lack
Aboriginal
diet
the
to
around
Aboriginal
of
expectancy
.
successfully
awareness
a
in
lands
the
respectively
,
births
in
for
numbers
the Aboriginal
lived
were
living
life
been
60,000
number
Aboriginal
native
uranium
a
in
Australians.
poor
people
Northern
and
populations
live
the
organization
the
for
traditional
gain
just
options
lower
International
Aboriginal
they
by
arrived
people
that
years
1000
include
Survival
it
and
Aboriginal
3.3
issues
in
has
million
massacres
to
settle
unsanitary
73.7
fell
environment;
expectancy
and
first
and
Australia
population
lives
one
traditional
to
impact
non-indigenous
rate
of
their
but
means
rates
their
their
farmers,
action—Survival
inhabited
occupied Australia,
losing
Furthermore,
be
British
and
choice
opportunities
2012,
of
skills Aboriginal
in
has
around
population
British
turtle.
people
1800s
introduced
hunter-gatherers
As
were
a
organization
the
quality
there
diseases
colonists,
since
the
“adopt”
Aboriginal
population
However,
crashed,
of
and
to
In
6.11 Evaluate the role of one
international civil society
organization in attempting
to raise awareness about,
to
and find solutions for, social
addition,
various
risks associated with global
interactions.
[8]
publications.
Strategies to build resilience
Reshoring
US
of
economic
manufacturing
due
to
reshoring.
USA include
the
activity
has
TNCs
experienced
Companies
General
reshoring,
by
Electric
including
a
wave
that
have
and
Ford.
rising
wages
of
resurgence,
returned
in
their
A number
China,
of
much
of
production
factors
currency
are
it
to
the
driving
fluctuations
193
6
U NI T
6:
GLO B A L
RISK S
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
and
of
the
impact
offshoring
research
or
outsourced
Reshored
to
[6]
there
supply
supply
the
have
share
Use
and
(by
of
buy
the
Real-life examples always
help. Many students use
crowd-sourcing for raising
donations for charitable events,
such as running a marathon
or under taking an arduous
challenge. These are good, small-
scale (local) examples which
contrast well with some larger-
scale events/examples such as
Ushahidi.
The
and
better
made
began
to
sourced
directed
from
receive
crisis
at
Brexit,
25%
of
of
increased
UK.
The
overseas
EU-based
This
may
all
wants
40%
benefit
170,000
Jaguar
firms
a
is
the
to
to
in
Land
over
the
Rover
EU.
double
the
80%.
by
to
to
around
the
old
in
it
for
in
it
of
for
to
finances
benefit
developed
provides
and
the
and
from
the
because
solutions
empowers
new
of
of
many
interact
problems.
these
interactions.
complexity
of
people
for
global
from
problems
bottom-up
remains
for
crisis
as
one
of
as
they
approach
example,
During
mapped
and
Nepal
objective
affected
the
the
first
online
there
and
in
of
is
human
to
of
in
facilitate
of
a
safety
following
reports
even
Much
of
the
based
before
criticism
Haiti.
rights
natural/human-
week
1,500
was
important
information.
earthquake
by
news,
lack
action.
most
monitoring
some
conducted
information
the
crisis
response,
the
The
people
immediate
to
world.
However,
was
people
solutions
such
Facebook
for
and
2011.
2008).
volunteers
as
has
crowd-sourcing
used
(for
messages.
agencies
the
and
needs
issues
overflow
It
facilitated
find
monitoring,
Twitter,
services,
order
Crowd-sourcing
high-technology
,
often
Kenya
in
government
have
elections
of
ideas,
people.
involvement
created,
mapping
the
of
part
the
some
resilience
opportunities
providers
other
text
of
solutions
the
is
earthquake,
information
or
support.
positions,
was
in
an
use
and
from
internet
interdependence
election
elections
Haiti
humanitarian
194
find
Nigerian
or
or
made
that
employs
sourcing
the
group
interactions
understanding
during
2010
and
of
via
many
platform
disasters
firms
Britain
insufficient.
communities
and
which
expensive.
Nissan
build
(for
British
than
all
from
have
costly
items).
result
More
anticipating
engineering
to
a
reshore
locally—Nissan
whereby
mutual
platform
the
EU.
with
replace
replacements.
Honda,
in
as
to
is
demand
production
food
tariffs
to
more
British
and
the
and
currency
UK
sourced
large
necessitates
Ushahidi
2015
a
stakeholder
reporting
chain
the
(which
products
removed
industry
as
process
offers
Ushahidi
car
public
increased
open-source
of
and
the
46%
UK
technologies
Crowd-sourcing
2008,
by
consumer
looking
being
for
goods
proved
global
empowering
33%
chains
the
of
have
other
interactions
In
of
society
the
builds
High-speed
different
is
from
the
such
parts
civil
with
in
milk
intend
companies
The
approaches,
and
Indeed,
places
supply
theft
machinery
during
within
chain
looking
more
of
Crowd-sourcing
arise.
be
abilities
each
between
property
higher
started
from
of
around
to
formula
have
Europe,
supply
and
problems,
with
to
companies
information
people
Disadvantages
production,
changes
issues
managers
British
time,
Crowd-sourcing
top-down
of
heavy
to
regarding
supply
crowd-sourcing
collective
distances
furnishings),
example,
chain
for
value)
government
to
home
devaluation
to
include
competitors
claim
want
shipping.
intellectual
subject
concerns
their
complex
They
on
location
contamination
manufacturing.
Britain,
the
over
businesses
chains
same
British
and
chains
of
the
suppliers
items
(for
supply
proportion
At
of
with
of
geographic
and
commonly
after
50%
effects
the
costs
manufacturers.
process
European
energy
concerns
potential
suppliers
their
and
items
Europe,
almost
include
clothing
are
shipping
In
higher
expensive
example,
6.12 Analyse the advantages
of reshoring.
ship),
of
O N LY )
engineering
disruptions
Test yourself
(HL
of
it
on
they
crowd-
was
coordination
with
6.3
LO C A L
AND
GLO B A L
R E S ILIE NC E
New technologies for the management of global
Concept link
flows of data and people
POSSIBILITIES: Organizations
Cybersecurity
and individuals can support
movements and policies in order
Cybersecurity
,
or
computer
security
,
is
the
protection
of
information
to counter the risks presented from
systems,
hardware
and
software
from
theft
or
damage,
as
well
as
the
global interactions. International
protection
of
information
on
computers
and
related
technology
.
The
environmental organizations, such
need
for
cybersecurity
is
increasing
as
more
and
more
people
and
as Greenpeace, have local, national
organizations
rely
on
computers
and
the
internet.
and international campaigns that
There
is
are
many
threats
“phishing”—the
such
as
details.
are
user
keep
ahead
of
government
carriers.
stop
of
the
most
to
some
internal
and
military
common
account
level
Common
of
or
targets
the
are
and
and
filter
credit
card
need
and
out
widespread, the technological
risk increases. However, there is
the possibility of safeguarding
which
different
possibilities, such as deforestation
new technology becomes more
to
airline
firewalls,
are designed to reduce the negative
in Indonesia’s rainforest. As
threats
organizations,
systems
are
common
information
but
systems
large
systems
most
sensitive
protection,
computer
systems
of
details
protection
prevention
network
One
personal
bank
sophisticated
threats.
security
.
obtain
have
departments,
The
access
more
to
passwords,
computers
becoming
computer
attempt
names,
Most
to
public and private interests using
kinds
cybersecurity or facial recognition
attack.
software at ports of entry, to prevent
hacking and terrorism. Another
One
of
the
main
issues
regarding
cybersecurity
is
that
there
is
a
lack
possibility for facial recognition
of
international
regulations
or
common
rules
to
abide
by
.
Moreover,
software is its use in online banking
national
security
may
be
vulnerable
to
attacks
from
another
country
,
to prevent fraud and identity theft.
making
any
international
treaty
difficult
to
regulate
and
enforce.
E-passports
An
e-passport
the
owner.
at
airports
detection
may
the
be
and
as
left
E-passports
also
passports
However,
Since
the
the
data,
illegally
.
change
the
will
are
be
there
the
more
a
biometrics
be
The
difficult
it,
which
by
such
the
for
dual
is
the
or
one
possible
for
data
faster
also
about
checking
help
fingerprints,
in
in
so
person
which
it
security
to
have
in
crime
which
bioinformation
forge,
is
is
on
issued.
improved.
several
citizenship).
passport
stolen,
may
country
disadvantages
owns
as
contains
include
personal
reproduce
have
passport
in
e-passport
E-passports
crime.
to
some
who
would
chip
the
determined
they
are
person
It
of
difficult
it
of
clearance.
contain
site
(unless
the
computer
border
make
if
a
advantages
some
at
passport
They
has
The
the
associated
does
data
not
could
someone
to
be
hack
with
have
e-passports.
actual
accessed
into
the
access
and
to
used
system
and
data.
ID
Traditional
text
number
Name
information
Country
Place
of
birth
E-passport
Test yourself
Fingerprint
Personal
6.13 Using examples, analyse the
bioinformation
Iris
pattern
advantages and disadvantages
of (a) cybersecurity and
DNA
sample
(b) e-passpor ts.
Figure 6.3.1.
[6+6]
Example of e-passpor t structure
195
6
U NI T
6:
GLO B A L
RISK S
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
(HL
O N LY )
QUESTION PRACTICE
a)
Analyse the carbon footprint of dierent global ows.
[12]
b)
Examine reasons why the global production networks of some TNCs have changed over time.
[16]
How do I approach these questions?
a)
The command word is “analyse”, which means break down the subject of the question in order to bring out the
essential elements. You will need to describe the carbon footprint of a number of ows. You may provide some
comparisons in terms of size of the footprint; the direction of ows between dierent countries/regions; you may
compare changes in carbon ows over time.
b)
“Examine” means consider an argument or a concept in a way that uncovers the assumptions or interrelationships
of the issue. You will need to describe a range of risks to global supply chain ow. You may suggest reasons why
global supply chain ows develop (cheap products, year-round supply, standardized products); you may examine
trends in risks, such as environmental degradation, or the rise of protectionism and trade barriers.
S AMPLE STUDENT ANS WER
▲ Good
denition
a)
T
he
used
▲ Sound
carbon
scene
setting
footprint,
process
of
and
getting
–
to
describes
something
the
It
involves
for
store,
a
measure
transport
of
and
how
sell
much
goods
carbon
to
is
consumers.
many
stages,
such
as
growing
food,
transporting
it
manufacturers,
processing
it
into
a
nished
product,
getting
consumption
to
a
buy
footprint
produce,
is
from
it
▲ Good
to
footprint
denes
to
source
carbon
point
and
about
supermarket,
the
and
the
consumer
making
a
journey
to
goods.
carbon
importance
of
trade
About
25%
of
greenhouse
gases
are
embodied
in
goods
and
footprint
ser vices
the
▲ Good
contrast
opening
of
HICs
point
and
about
which
country
of
“ow ”
between
consumption
the
via
country
of
production
international
trade.
and
HICs
are
the
LICs
typically
net
LICs
emerging
CO
and
importers
of
embodied
economies
are
carbon
emissions
generally
net
whereas
exporters
of
emissions.
2
▲ Good
supporting
data
▲ Good
supporting
detail
T
he
largest
are
between
(8%)
and
countries
relative
importance
of
–
inter-regional
China
China
and
and
involved
in
ows
North
the
of
embodied
America
Rest
of
footprints
Asia
carbon
(9%),
(7%).
associated
emissions
China
T
he
with
and
main
Europe
regions/
global
ows
shows
trading
include
China,
Russia,
Europe
and
North
America.
Some
of
nations/destinations
these
are
source
destinations,
In
terms
total
▲ Identies
provides
the
food
supporting
sector
of
food
carbon
imports
and
local
10%
America,
footprints,
emissions
for
between
for
whereas
Europe
transport
many
others
and
may
fruit
are
Japan.
account
and
mainly
for
vegetables
50%
but
of
the
less
red
to
meat
the
products.T
ransport
carbon
footprint
of
the
is
not
ow
the
of
only
food.
factor
In
fact,
food
harvest/storage
importing
produce
har vesting
196
North
China,
and
contributing
contrast
eg
e.g.
material
than
▲ Good
areas,
and
may
storing
result
local
in
lower
products
overall
for
emissions
many
than
months.
QUE STION
Indeed,
storage
accounts
for
60%
of
the
carbon
emissions
▼ Less
associated
cooling,
with
carrots.
refrigeration
Highly
or
perishable
freezing
during
food
often
transport
Food
footprints
are
likely
to
rise
due
to
population,
the
growing
number
of
increases
in
the
middle-class
people
valid
processes
on
changes
dairy
in
diet
(eg
increasing
proportions
of
meat
point
may
ows.
reasons
prediction
and
about
for
of
that
of
that
has
tourism.
greenhouse
related
2013,
increased
dramatically
in
recent
gas
from
to
3.9
Global
tourism
emissions.
emissions
e)
T
he
increased
T
his
rise
produces
carbon
by
gigatonnes
4
.5Gt.
footprint
around
(Gt)
of
about
15%
8%
from
between
carbon -dioxide
primarily
came
from
of
for
tourism-
growth.
change
rising
are
shopping
expected
to
and
food.
increase
Carbon
to
about
material
Some
given
2009
tourist
by
economic
footprints
supporting
▲ Good
details
details
and
on
tourism
equivalent
emissions
6.5Gt
second
carbon
▲ Good
spending
▼ Could
tourism
from
2025,
say
for
more
its
about
the
growth
global
due
to
incomes.
there
ser vices.
carbon
more
important
have
global
reasons
transport,
T
hus,
to
years
2
on
other
products).
footprint
(CO
that
more
and
sector
is
be
Good
▲ Identies
One
ows
and/or
than
world’s
here
requires
▲ But
storage.
PRACTICE
are
a
Many
number
of
footprint
people
these
of
become
of
global
ows
many
link
goods
wealthier
,
ows
HICs
and
diets
of
many
with
ser vices
change
goods
MICs
is
and
and
and
LICs.
increasing
global
T
he
as
tourism
increases.
Overall, a number of ows have been covered. Data on carbon footprints. Some
reasons for growth. Fluent account. The factors accounting for the growth in
carbon footprint (for example, population growth, middle class, changes in diet)
are touched on for food, but not for tourism, hence full marks are not awarded.
Marks 9/12
b)
T
here
are
many
reasons
why
the
global
production
networks
▲ Introduces
factors
of
some
TNCs
have
changed
over
time.
T
hese
include
different
affecting
global
types
of
production
economic,
networks
political,
social,
environmental
and
technological
factors,
such
▲ Examples
as
changes
the
in
demand
and
supply,
and
the
protability
of
these
factors
given
of
o peration.
▲ Standard
Economic
factors
include
currency
uctuations
and
trade
gives
be
restrictions
and
the
imposed
USA,
and
by
governments,
between
the
USA
e.g.
and
between
China
the
(both
a
hint
introduction
to
how
Brexit
(Britain
voted
to
leave
the
imposed
EU
Rising
require
goods
interest
rates
can
cause
havoc
for
TNCs
that
cheap
prices.
Deb t
crises
in
countries
such
the
link
economics
it
at
student
support
should
really
in
make
2016).
will
EU
▼ The
of
which
essay
structured
▲ Contemporary
announcement
the
is
just
between
explicit—at
politics
the
and
moment
implied
as
▲ Economic
factor
1
▲ Economic
factor
2,
locational
with
support
197
6
U NI T
6:
GLO B A L
RISK S
AND
R E S ILIE NC E
Countries
▲ Economic
factor
may
3
of
▲ Economic
factor
of
▲ Economic
factor
with
threaten
strong
global
raw
may
trade
unions
supply-chain
reduce
materials,
transport
5
O N LY )
and
costs
demand
such
as
oil,
for
a
ows.
unemployment/underemployment
recession
4
(HL
history
High
or
may
increase
strikes
rates
more
consumer
of
general
goods.
the
Shortages
cost
of
goods
as
rise.
This paragraph has a lot of good points—it would be better if it developed some
of these points in more detail, perhaps with an example or a development of
how it aected global production networks.
▲ Overview
▲ Political
of
political
factor
1
with
Political
factors
conict,
which
include
protectionism,
trade
restrictions
and
factors
can
severely
restrict
global
production
networks.
named
Supplies
of
goods
from
the
Middle
East
and
North
Africa
support
were
▲ Political
factor
2
with
named
severely
annexation
affected
of
by
Crimea
the
from
so-called
Ukraine
Arab
led
to
S
pring.
Russia’s
sanctions
against
support
Russia
by
some
experienced
▲ Political
factor
3
with
western
sanctions
countries.
from
Similarly,
western
countries,
North
which
Korea
has
reduces
the
named
ow
of
goods
into
and
out
of
North
Korea.
support
This paragraph has fewer points but reads better as it is better suppor ted. It
would be good to bring in some details from events over the last few years
(during the student’s time studying IB Geography).
T
echnological
T
ransport
▲ Technological
factor
could
infrastructure
affect
global
disruptions
supply-chain
are
unusual
but
ows.
ICT
with
is
located
factors
very
vulnerable
to
hacking.
In
2017
Russia’s
largest
oil
support
company
▲ Good
was
attacked
by
ransomware,
as
was
A.P
.
Moller-
example
Maersk,
showed
the
how
vulnerable
▲ Another
technological
shipping
easy
some
it
is
company.
to
launch
organizations
T
he
a
WannaCry
global
are.
attack,
However
,
ransomware
and
how
technology
can
factor
also
increase
global
production
networks.
For
example,
the
given
growth
▲ Relevant
examples
of
change
shipping
over
from
4000–5000
TEUs
in
the
to
over
18,000
TEUs
in
2013,
has
reduced
the
cost
of
time
transport
signicantly
operations.
markets
to
198
containers,
a
1980s
technological
of
grow
of
in
T
he
and
combination
China
size.
and
the
allowed
of
some
cheaper
Pacic
TNCs
transport
Rim
have
to
expand
and
enabled
their
emerging
some
TNCs
QUE STION
T
here
are
global
Japan
many
environmental
production
and
networks.
California,
both
factors
that
Earthquakes
of
which
may
are
contain
a
disrupt
major
many
threat
in
important
▲ First
industries.
T
he
tsunami
shortage
computer
that
affected
Fukushima-Daiichi
led
to
a
good
chips.
Renesas
Electronics
Corp.,
the
for
largest
chipmaker
,
specialized
took
about
oods
there.
in
two
chips,
known
months
Bangladesh
T
he
2011
supplied
oods
for
as
it
to
about
automobile
start
frequently
in
40%
the
led
to
world
market
microcontrollers.
production
disrupt
T
hailand
of
again.
production
shortages
in
shows
up
to
1,000
factories
were
forced
to
close,
the
of
$20
billion.
production
factories
in
of
In
goods
low-lying
future,
(e.g.
climate
food
and
textiles)
may
and
the
managing
threats
(political,
global
show
may
climate
how
and
change,
intricate
networks
accidental
terrorist),
Monsoon
hard
drives
to
economic
examples
environmental
one
part
of
the
of
impacts
supporting
given;
very
details
affect
submerge
the
but
global
other
nature
“ Brexit”).
is
of
tricky
threats
threats
Global
interactions
a
task.
can
be
can
be,
and
of
with
good
environmental
supporting
world
can
have
effects
in
other
factor
arguments
aggressive
changes
production
Some
(e.g.
networks
how
changes
▲ Conclusion
in
the
of
areas.
production
be
on
network
It
▲ Another
T
hus,
impact
networks
leading
change
very
microchips
good
losses
the
production
▲ Further
after
factor;
information—
world’s
global
fth
environmental
supporting
clearly
of
PRACTICE
is
relatively
simple
parts.
but
brings
the
essay
to
a
close
A good description of a range of factors (technological, economic, political,
environmental) aecting global supply chain ow, including suppor ting details.
Could have provided more on change or contrasts between places and over
time. More synthesis could be present; the answer could relate transpor t
development to the rise of middle class.
Marks 12/16
199
INTERNAL
ASSESSMENT
Why fieldwork matters
Fieldwork
and
is
is
an
essential
compulsory
referred
means
is
to
that
as
it
moderated
will
by
for
the
an
Fieldwork research methods
part
both
HL
internal
be
learning
and
SL
assessment
marked
external
of
IB
by
your
geography
students.
(IA),
It
which
teacher
and
examiner.
Information
and
fieldwork
investigation
is
investigation.
collected
your
in
Fieldwork
to
Y
ou
enable
may
the
should
data
observations
field.
form
adequate
use
own
the
This
basis
provide
of
interpretation
from
each
sufficient
third-party
and
sources
because
in
it
from
information” must
information
important
come
measurements
“primary
analysis.
Your
must
your
IA;
this
is
known
as “secondary
information”.
will:
However,
•
help
you
difficult
•
to
aspects
potentially
when
make
sense
of
the
provide
answering
of
some
the
more
subject
useful
an
of
IAs
case
external
study
exam
material
secondary
referenced
the
will
and
only
primary
you
use
information
should
use
secondary
it
needs
to
be
properly
sparingly—the
information
to
back
best
up
research.
question
Planning and preparing your project
•
provide
higher
research
skills
education
or
that
will
be
useful
in
The
employment
success
careful
•
provide
an
geography
opportunity
skills
in
a
to
be
assessed
non-examination
in
of
your
planning
fieldwork
and
will
depend
on
your
preparation.
your
setting
Choosing the right topic
•
contribute
to
your
overall
grade.
Essential information
The
fieldwork
and
the
most
geographic
•
IA counts
for
20%
of
the
total
marks
at
HL
at
must
themes.
be
topics
The
related
are
core
to
the
found
and
HL
syllabus,
within
the
extension
and
have
25%
topic
suitable
very
few
topics
that
are
suitable
owing
to
their
SL.
global
•
Group
work
•
Fieldwork
•
Each
is
allowed
for
data
•
reports
are
written
scale.
The
investigation
must
be:
collection.
focused
upon
a
clearly
defined
fieldwork
individually
.
question
report
must
be
no
more
than
2,500
words
•
confined
to
a
small
area
and
on
a
local
scale
long.
•
•
It
must
be
related
to
a
topic
on
the
spatial—you
interactions
•
Avoid
these
common
errors
in
your
based
The
▼
The
chosen
topic
has
▼
The
chosen
topic
is
▼
The
chosen
▼
The
eldwork
▼
The
information
report
greatly
exceeds
the
2,500
word
topic
not
does
spatial
relate
to
the
the
consider
area
the
spatial
collection
chosen
of
primary
information
field
manageable
element.
time
•
geographical.
not
the
the
limit.
•
no
on
of
IA:
in
▼
should
syllabus.
able
in
allowed
to
fulfil
terms
and
the
the
of
the
2,500
area
covered,
word
assessment
the
limit
criteria.
syllabus.
Choosing the right site
question
is
too
simplistic.
It
is
collected
only
from
the
internet.
▼
The
survey
whole
▼
The
it
area
is
too
large
and
covers
the
•
region.
eldwork
answer
the
200
The
information
eldwork
analysis
is
essential
fulfils
It
is
of
the
on
is
insufcient
to
•
purely
You
that
the
can
you
local
for
select
fieldwork
following
a
enough
scale,
the
survey
area
to
in
ensure
descriptive.
All
sites
times
of
within
day
but
the
area
covered
information
area
the
and
that
criteria:
sufficient
cover
the
investigation
in
the
time
to
be
is
area
during
are
all
large
collected.
allocated.
question.
•
▼
is
advance
accessible
seasons.
at
all
•
The
land
is
open
to
the
public
and
research
is
of
tailback,
suspended
permitted.
You
•
You
avoid
environments
that
may
put
you
may
physical
for
fieldwork
successful
example,
restricted
to
investigations
surveys
microclimate,
waste
is
of
particulate
supplement
in
decibels,
matter
your
in
or
the
primary
a
survey
of
atmosphere.
information
secondary
or
published
information
but
it
must
situations.
not
many
levels
in
with
dangerous
Where
noise
the
can
footpath
school
be
site,
form
the
information
undertaken;
basis
must
comprehensive
of
your
be
report.
All
appropriately
reference
secondary
credited
using
a
system.
erosion,
infiltration/ground
compaction
and
Collecting and justifying your fieldwork methods
management.
You
must
and
be
be
able
aware
to
of
all
critically
the
techniques
evaluate
each
of
involved
them.
Devising the fieldwork question
The
fieldwork
which
than
should
question
allow
descriptive
for
forms
an
a
basis
to
the
investigative
approach.
The
research,
rather
question
Before
you
start
before
you
leave
you
should
focused,
unambiguous
and
answerable.
it
question
is
unlikely
research
is
simplistic
to
topics
perfectly
be
and
worthy
that
have
of
the
answer
execution.
uncertain
survey
site,
make
and
sure
have:
marked
on
a
map
the
sites
where
the
If
information
the
the
information
be
•
clearly
collecting
was
collected
obvious,
However,
outcomes
are
•
recorded
the
date
and
•
recorded
the
weather
time
of
collection
still
conditions
or
any
special
viable.
event
occurring
on
the
day
that
might
affect
the
results
Carrying out the fieldwork
•
Collecting the right information
recorded
interval
Fieldwork
must
involve
the
the
instrument,
collection
of
technique
where
between
or
Primary
quantitative,
case
of
a
include
traffic
or
a
information
combination
survey
,
photographs,
may
of
qualitative
interviews
be
both.
data
your
traffic
own
subjective
with
hazards.
include
traffic
assessment
Quantitative
counts,
traffic
the
•
might
handling
readings,
the
the
a
particular
time
of
the
advantages
and
technique
justified
the
choice
of
survey
sites
and
their
number/frequency/location
pedestrians
of
justified
the
choice
of
method
used
for
perceived
information
delay
of
placed,
qualitative
In
•
and
is
primary
disadvantages
information.
it
information
collection
justified
sampling
might
times,
length
•
the
technique
used.
How to display your fieldwork information
When
these
you
next
report.
have
to
Use
the
the
processed
text
table
in
your
your
below
fieldwork
report
as
a
guide
Method
Maps
to
information
which
to
they
display
into
refer.
your
graphs,
These
data
maps
and
should
not
tables,
be
you
should
confined
to
the
display
end
of
the
data.
Do
Don’t
Include a map of the survey sites.
Include a national map; it is irrelevant.
Show your results at specic survey sites on this map.
Include scruy, poorly drawn maps in pencil
Annotate your map with brief analytical or descriptive
(hand-drawn maps can be excellent—but ensure
comments to add value to them.
they are clear, accurate and drawn in pen).
Download maps from the Internet without rst
modifying or adapting them for your purpose.
Graphs
Wherever possible, place a series of graphs on the same page
Use a monotonous series of pie char ts to
for comparison.
represent your data page by page.
Use a variety of graphical techniques.
Photos
Take photographs of the eldwork techniques being carried out
Include photos of your friends and teacher
and annotate these to illustrate the methods.
unless they are strictly relevant to the
Make sure that each photograph shows the time it was taken, its
investigation.
location and its orientation.
Sketches
Generally
Make sure that sketches are fully labelled/annotated and dated.
Include sketches unless they are relevant.
Make sure that all illustrations are properly referenced.
Use a range of techniques, but make sure each is suitable.
Map information wherever possible.
201
INTERN AL
A SS E SS M E N T
Criterion C: Quality and treatment of information
Writing your repor t
collected*
Your
the
report
should
assessment
allocation
and
be
structured
criteria
the
shown
according
below.
recommended
The
to
mark
number
of
Marks
This
are
given
for
each
available:
5
marks
words
criterion
assesses
the
usefulness
of
the
data
criterion.
collected
in
your
and
the
report.
way
When
you
present
displaying
this
data
information
in
your
report,
Criterion A : Fieldwork question
refer
to
the
following
points:
Marks available: 3 marks
The
techniques
will
vary
you
use
to
display
your
data
Suggested word count: 300 words
For
this
criterion,
you
should
introduce
question
and
geographic
context
for
When
writing
this
section,
refer
to
the
fieldwork
Geography
relates
question
syllabus
theoretical
for
graphs,
to
and
which
section
your
of
others)
the
your
investigation
background—what
conducting
the
pick
the
tests
(such
diagrams,
images,
about
as
may
confidence
maps,
matrices
annotated
and
which
would
be
of
these
field
sketches.
most
techniques
appropriate
to
(or
display
findings.
your
is
within
the
geographic
the
location?
climate,
context—why
Reasons
geographical
socio-economic
aspects
of
that
your
your
data
written
is
positioned
analysis
logically
(criterion
D).
study?
Think
Explain
to
they
to.
the
reason
you
statistical
and
Ensure
Give
but
points:
Think
State
data,
the
photos
following
the
the
levels),
investigation.
on
the
include
fieldwork
depending
could
features
the
about
annotating
did
follow
relate
an
the
of
accepted
presentation
and
numbering,
tables,
of
graphs
labelling
and
convention
these
aspects
and
is
and
diagrams;
ensure
the
consistent.
area.
*Criterion
not
C
It is essential that you include a map to show the
does
area under investigation. It is recommended that
annotations
you generate these yourself, by either hand drawing
the
assesses
include
word
of
a
your
count
so
information
word
count.
diagrams
aim
to
display
may
keep
and
However,
be
these
lengthy
factored
into
brief.
them or by generating them on a computer
.
Criterion D: Written analysis
Provide
your
hypotheses
predictions
for
for
your
the
study
outcome.
and
add
Justify
your
Marks available: 8 marks
Suggested word count: 1,350 words
predictions.
For
this
criterion,
you
should
demonstrate
your
Criterion B: Method(s) of investigation
knowledge
explaining
Marks available: 3 marks
of
Suggested word count: 300 words
your
within
This
criterion
requires
you
to
explain
the
data
data
collection
writing
this
used
section,
in
your
refer
to
each
of
your
following
methods
written
when
points:
In
your
detail
such
that
the
clearly
and
by
other
to
the
methods
can
justifications
explain
why
the
for
the
you
methods
chose
the
location
such
as
Assess
you
and
used,
any
weather
the
the
other
you
of
and/or
202
methods.
the
following
section:
of
the
central
data,
themes
always
relate
addressed
in
the
and
geographic
the
context
do
the
data
help
to
answer
the
time
of
relevant
your
day
,
the
to
spatial
explain
patterns
these
and
trends
in
your
patterns.
specific
information,
methods.
photos
question?
any
and
Attempt
to
possibly
with
Ensure
explain
your
C)
any
reference
data
are
within
your
anomalies
to
points.
in
secondary
displayed
your
demonstrate
support
your
to
have
conditions.
viability
diagrams
this
question
study;
(criterion
Use
integrated
sampling
data,
techniques
be
Refer
students.
Identify
used:
and
be
fieldwork
Give
interpreting
presentation
in
of
replicated
should
analysis.
writing
analysis
fieldwork
adequate
C)
by
The
When
results
Describe
collected.
methods
fieldwork.
the
understanding
data
(criterion
your
checklist
of
and
the
written
your
data,
sources.
effectively
analysis
to
Criterion E: Conclusion
Criterion F: Evaluation
Marks available: 2 marks
Marks available: 3 marks
Suggested word count: 200 words
Suggested word count: 300 words
In
your
conclusion,
findings
of
following
your
you
should
fieldwork
summarize
investigation;
the
refer
In
to
the
points:
There
must
answers
the
be
the
your
a
clear,
concise
fieldwork
statement
evaluation,
investigation.
following
that
primary
to
the
data
of
your
investigation
to
review
you
your
should
think
about
in
these
the
your
field.
methods
methods
Assess
and
the
of
how
collecting
you
quality
could
of
data
support
for
future
investigations.
conclusion.
Consider
Compare
the
results
of
the
investigation
initial
hypotheses;
it
is
acceptable
for
to
state
that
the
findings
do
factors
of
data;
any
of
your
preliminary
for
personal
may
have
affected
the
example,
bias
or
these
factors
unpredicted
could
external
not
circumstances
match
that
the
include
conclusion
the
against
validity
your
should
evaluate
data
achieved
your
you
particular,
aspects:
Thoroughly
question.
improve
Refer
In
judgements
such
as
the
weather.
or
projections.
Suggest
study
Could
viable
as
and
whole
the
realistic
might
fieldwork
be
ways
in
improved
question
and
which
in
the
sites
the
future.
be
improved?
Suggest
possible
extensions
to
your
investigation.
You
should
represented
and
note
by
that
these
material
assessment
of
the
in
criteria
any
criteria
can
part
is
not
of
be
the
report
confined
to
one
section.
Repor t checklist
Complete
this
checklist
before
you
submit
your
fieldwork
report.
Tasks
Completed
The work is within the 2,500 word limit.
There is a title page with the candidate name and number.
There is a contents page.
All the pages are numbered.
All illustrations have gure numbers.
All illustrations are close to the relevant text.
All sources are correctly referenced.
The appendix contains only raw information.
The repor t has a eldwork question.
All methods of information collection are fully justied.
All maps have normal conventions of title, scale, nor th point and key.
The analysis refers to the eldwork question and the information collected.
There is a conclusion.
The evaluation makes recommendations for improvements.
203
P R A CT I C E
At
this
point,
Geography
exam
you
approach.
papers,
course.
1,
will
syllabus.
2
and
Paper
3
It
3,
is
is
have
re-familiarized
Additionally
,
now
with
time
the
to
same
completed
by
you
put
structure
higher
yourself
will
these
E XA M
have
skills
as
level
the
with
picked
to
the
the
up
test;
external
students
PA P E R S
content
some
in
from
key
this
section
assessment
only
.
Answers
the
options
techniques
you
to
you
will
will
these
and
and
find
are
to
at
the
of
the
refine
practice
complete
papers
units
skills
IB
your
examination
end
available
of
the
DP
at
www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib-prepared-support
Paper 1 (SL and HL)
Option A: Freshwater
1.
Examine
the
diagram
below
showing
the
Lake
Ontario
drainage
basin.
Legend
Canadian
Areas
Binational
U.S.
of
Concern
(AOCs)
AOCs
AOCs
Delisted
Lake
U.S.
AOCs
Ontario
Drainage
Basin
Cornwall
St.
Lawrence
International
River
Drainage
Basin
St.
Lawrence
River
border
State/Provincial
Massena
border
Tributaries
Cities/ Towns
N
Kingston
Belleville
Peterborough
Bay
T
oronto
and
Port
Region
Lake
Toronto
of
Quinte
Oshawa
Hope
Harbour
Watertown
CANADA
Ontario
Hamilton
U.S.A.
Eighteen
Harbour
Oswego
Mile
River/Harbor
Creek
Hamilton
Rochester
St
Catharines
Niagara
Embayment
Falls
Syracuse
Rochester
Niagara
Falls
Niagara
River
Auburn
0
50
0
100
100
Miles
200
Kilometres
Lake Ontario drainage basin
(a)
Estimate
(b)
Using
basin
(c)
is
Explain
one
(d)
a
width
of
from
as
processes
factor
reference
why
the
the
categorised
how
spatial
With
explain
204
the
evidence
to
and
an
drainage
map,
an
of
one
‘open
can
temporal
should
that
be
at
why
its
a
widest
be
have
protected.
[1]
[1]
affected
by
factor.
you
point.
drainage
system’.
erosion
example
wetlands
basin
explain
[2+2]
studied,
[4]
Either
2.
Examine
basin
how
can
human
cause
influences
create
change
in
one
part
downstream
of
in
a
a
drainage
drainage
basin.
[10]
Or
3.
Examine
plan
that
the
importance
you
have
of
an
integrated
basin
management
studied.
[10]
Option B: Oceans
4.
Examine
Head
the
photo
Island,
(a)
Identify
(b)
Using
North
two
an
Suggest
the
coastal
in
on
which
landforms
diagram,
question
how
pressures
right,
shows
a
coastline
at
Bald
Carolina.
annotated
identied
(c)
on
two
(a)
has
different
coastlines
shown
explain
been
types
such
as
in
the
how
photo.
the
[2]
landform
formed.
of
land-use
[4]
can
create
this.
[2+2]
Either
5.
Examine
the
economic
and
ecological
value
of
coastal
margins.
[10]
Or
6.
Evaluate
ocean
initiatives
that
have
been
implemented
to
manage
pollution.
[10]
Option C: Ex treme Environments
Coastline at Bald Head Island, Nor th
7.
Study
the
map
below.
Carolina
Map showing semi-arid environments in yellow
(a)
Describe
map
(b)
Outline
extreme
(c)
the
distribution
of
semi-arid
climates
using
above.
Explain
two
[2]
challenges
for
human
habitation
in
an
environment.
how
economic
the
arid
environments
benets.
[2+2]
can
be
utilized
for
[2+2]
205
PRACTICE
E X AM
PA P E R S
Either
8.
Examine
and
the
extreme
interrelationship
between
global
climate
change
environments.
[10]
Or
N
9.
Examine
extreme
the
conflict
between
environment
that
different
you
have
stakeholders
in
one
studied.
[10]
Option D: Geophysical hazards
10.
Study
the
relation
(a)
map
to
Using
on
map
left,
Examine
Suggest
in
evidence,
vulnerability
(b)
the
liquefaction
the
in
the
photo
two
which
the
shows
district
describe
of
the
the
level
of
Gisborne
vulnerability
in
distribution
New
of
high
district.
on
the
in
Zealand.
[2]
left:
reasons
why
the
building
strength
and
one
in
the
image
Legend
collapsed.
Liqueaction
[2+2]
Vulnerability
Low
(c)
Explain
one
weakness
for
a
scale
that
Medium
measures
0 1 2 3 4 5
(km)
the
magnitude
of
an
earthquake
or
a
volcanic
High
eruption.
[4]
Liquefaction vulnerability in Gisborne,
New Zealand
Either
Source of data: Gisborne District
11.
Examine
how
the
economic
and
social
development
of
a
Council
place
can
influence
geophysical
hazard
risks.
[10]
Or
12.
Examine
places
how
are
planning
able
to
cope
and
with
pre-event
strategies
geophysical
hazard
ensure
that
events.
[10]
Option E: Leisure, spor t and tourism
13.
Study
the
passing
number
chart
below
through
of
the
which
biggest
passengers
they
shows
airports
are
the
in
number
of
Thailand,
designed
to
passengers
in
relation
to
the
handle.
Collapsed building in the Belice valley,
Sicily
MYANMAR
Chiang
Mai
LAOS
9.4
8.0
Suvarnabhumi
Don
Muang
THAILAND
18.5
35.2
45.0
55.9
Bangkok
CAMBODIA
Andaman
Gulf
of
VIETNAM
Sea
Thailand
Phuket
Krabi
6.5
15.1
4.1
3.0
Hat
Yai
Airport
(in
4.0
capacity
millions)
2.5
Number
of
2016
millions)
(in
The capacity of Thailand’s airpor ts and number of passengers in 2016
Source of data: Airpor ts of Thailand Pcl; Civil Aviation Authority of Thailand
206
passengers
in
(a)
(i)
State
the
airport
with
the
largest
amount
of
overcapacity
.
(ii)
State
the
[1]
airport
with
the
smallest
amount
of
overcapacity
.
(b)
Outline
can
(c)
be
Using
the
one
an
the
movements
groups
in
which
tourism
congestion
(people)
[2]
example
economic,
Examine
[1]
in
managed.
sustainable
14.
way
that
social
tourism
influence
that
have
you
and
to
of
a
studied,
low-income
political
affected
international
have
environmental
sports
and
of
country
.
decisions
the
explain
benets
and
participation
sporting
[2+2+2]
social
of
different
events.
[10]
Or
15.
Examine
tourism
how
primary
touristic
resources
can
cause
the
growth
of
hotspots.
[10]
Option F: Food and health
16.
Study
the
schematic
below.
X
Stage
Receding
Stage
3
famine
4
Degenerative
Stage
disease
Reduced
Starchy,
low
low
fat,
labour
variety,
high
Increased
fiber
intensive
fat,
processed
work/
shift
leisure
in
work
sugar,
and
fat,
fruit,
foods
technology
replace
of
deficiencies,
weaning
Obesity
disease,
bone
in
stunting
Slow
mortality
fatness,
bone
problems
decline
Accelerated
shift
to
life
expectancy,
increased
increased
death
disability
recreation,
activity
Reduced
emerges,
Extended
rates
fiber
purposeful
changes
density
increased
sedentarianism
with
leisure
change
veg,
other
MCH
5
Behavioural
reduced
body
improved
health
health
death
aging,
rates
period
Schematic showing stages of nutrition transition
(a)
State
two
labelled
(b)
factors
that
could
be
included
in
the
box
‘X’.
Describe
[2]
what
is
meant
by
the
term
‘epidemiological
transition’.
(c)
Explain
one
[2]
advantage
•
genetically
•
vertical
•
in
vitro
modified
for
each
of
organisms
the
following:
(GMOs)
farming
meat
in
improving
food
production
[2+2+2]
Either
17.
Examine
of
one
the
geographic
vector-borne
factors
disease
and
that
one
caused
the
diffusion
water-borne
disease.
[10]
Or
18.
Evaluate
the
strategies
designed
to
overcome
famine.
[10]
207
PRACTICE
E X AM
PA P E R S
Option G: Urban environments
19.
Study
Drivers’
time
the
spent
chart
in
peak
below.
traffic
congestion
Average
Hours
2017,
cost
$
of
congestion
per
driver,
top
Total
20
0
40
60
80
to
Angeles,
York,
San
Paulo,
3
$bn
4
York
33.7
Angeles
19.2
Francisco
10.6
Brazil
Francisco,
Bogotá,
2
US
Los
São
1
Russia
New
New
city,
States
US
0
Moscow,
cost
100
United
Los
five
’000
US
San
Colombia
London,
Atlanta
7.1
Miami
6.3
Britain
Atlanta,
Paris,
US
France
Britain
Miami,
Bangkok,
US
0
1
2
3
4
Thailand
London
Jakarta,
Washington
DC,
US
Boston,
US
Istanbul,
Mexico
12.2
Indonesia
City,
Turkey
Lincoln
0.2
Manchester
0.4
Birmingham
0.8
Mexico
Braintree
Chicago,
Medellín,
0.06
US
Colombia
Germany
0
Krasnodar,
Seattle,
St
Petersburg,
Rio
de
2
3
4
Munich
3.1
Berlin
7.5
Hamburg
3.8
Stuttgart
1.0
Ruhrgebiet
2.4
US
Russia
Dallas,
Zurich,
1
Russia
US
Switzerland
Janeiro,
Munich,
Brazil
Germany
Congestion in cities, 2017
Source of data: INRIX Research
(a)
Compare
USA and
(b)
Outline
the
cost
of
congestion
to
top
5
cities
in
the
Britain.
two
[1+1]
ways
in
which
trafc
congestion
can
be
reduced.
(c)
With
[2+2]
reference
explain
green
two
to
an
factors
example
that
have
that
you
resulted
have
in
a
studied,
depletion
of
space.
[2+2]
Either
20.
Examine
the
the
urban
extent
to
ecological
which
an
eco-city
design
can
impact
footprint.
[10]
Or
21.
Examine
cycle
208
of
the
links
between
deprivation
in
deindustrialization
urban
environments.
and
the
[10]
Paper 2 (SL and HL)
Par t A
Unit 1: Changing population
1.
Examine
for
the
Saudi
map
below,
which
shows
the
population
distribution
Arabia:
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
People
per
square
kilometre
Population density in Saudi Arabia
Source of data: Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center
(a)
Describe
(b)
Suggest
a
(c)
low
With
the
one
population
physical
population
reference
explain
two
to
distribution.
reason
for
an
[2]
area
that
contains
density
.
a
[2]
megacity
reasons
for
its
that
you
have
studied,
growth.
[3+3]
Unit 2: Global climate—vulnerability and resilience
2.
Study
the
emissions
diagram
for
below
countries
which
and
shows
regions
the
carbon
between
dioxide
2012–2040.
45
Non-OECD
History
countries
Projection
40
snot
Rest
of
non-OECD
Russia
35
cirtem
Africa
30
Middle
East
noillib/dettime
India
25
China
20
OECD
countries
15
Rest
of
OECD
2
OC
10
OECD
Asia
OECD
Europe
5
United
States
0
2012
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
Projected energy-related carbon dioxide emissions by country or region (2012–2040)
Source of data: US Energy Information Administration (2016)
209
PRACTICE
E X AM
PA P E R S
(a)
(i)
In
2020,
estimate
non-OECD
dioxide
(ii)
and
(b)
(i)
(ii)
the
global
in
terms
of
the
the
OECD
amount
of
and
carbon
[1]
country
increase
that
is
projected
(non-proportional)
to
have
between
the
2015
[1]
the
Explain
Explain
countries
between
2040.
Dene
that
(c)
difference
emitted.
Identify
highest
the
term
the
operation
contributes
one
“positive
to
positive
climate
of
one
climate
effect
change
feedback
positive
[1]
feedback
loop
change.
and
upon
loop”.
one
people
[3]
negative
in
effect
from
low-income
countries.
[2+2]
Unit 3: Global resource consumption and security
3.
Study
the
graph
below.
100%
7%
11%
90%
14%
80%
6%
24%
70%
North
60%
9%
America
Europe
Central
50%
Asia
64%
&
South
Sub-Saharan
40%
America
Pacific
Middle
East
Africa
&
North
Africa
46%
30%
20%
10%
4%
4%
6%
5%
2015
2030
0%
Global middle class population, % of total
Source of data: Brookings Institution (2017)
(a)
Identify
the
between
(b)
region
2015
Referring
to
Suggest
how
stewardship
210
that
with
describe
strategies
can
will
experience
the
largest
change
2030.
regions
development,
(c)
and
be
[1]
different
the
levels
changes
designed
achieved.
to
of
economic
between
achieve
2015
and
2030.
[3]
resource
[3+3]
Par t B
4.
Study
the
infographic
below:
%
of
population
over
65.
%
in
of
over
overall
50s
population
Brazil
17%
19%
34%
24%
22%
22%
11%
China
22%
24%
27%
18%
19%
India
10%
15%
6%
17%
18%
Japan
25%
24%
42%
44%
10%
15%
45%
Russia
31%
In
2050
one
person
in
three
will
be
over
65
34%
and
one
person
in
10
will
be
over
80.
36%
UK
34%
36%
38%
2012
—
11%
of
the
world’s
6.9bn
are
over
60
2050
—
28%
of
the
world’s
9.0bn
are
over
60
US
30%
32%
34%
The World’s ageing population
(a)
(i)
Identify
the
increase
of
(ii)
in
(i)
State
the
over
largest
the
age
in
continent
its
will
percentage
experience
of
people
the
over
smallest
the
age
Suggest
[1]
the
of
State
age
(c)
people
65.
age
(ii)
experience
of
[1]
the
increase
(b)
will
percentage
65.
Identify
of
continent
its
the
of
3
65
80
number
in
in
the
in
of
people
year
number
ways
improved.
the
of
who
will
be
over
the
who
will
be
over
the
2050.
people
year
which
[1]
2050.
the
infographic
[1]
could
be
[2+2+2]
211
PRACTICE
E X AM
PA P E R S
Par t C
Either
5.
“Managing
global
agree
population
climate
with
change
this
change
will
will
ensure
decrease.”
To
that
what
the
risks
extent
do
from
you
statement?
[10]
Or
6.
“Despite
the
impacts
development
To
what
is
extent
not
do
from
global
possible
you
climate
without
agree
with
the
this
change,
global
depletion
of
resources.”
statement?
[10]
Paper 3 (HL only)
Unit 4: Power, places and net works
1.
(a)
Explain
of
(b)
the
the
global
“Physical
global
this
role
of
trade
barriers
national
of
legal
no
interactions.”
governments
and
longer
To
illegal
have
what
in
movement
goods.
relevance
extent
the
do
you
[12]
in
relation
agree
to
with
statement?
[16]
Unit 5: Human development and diversity
2.
(a)
Analyse
a
(b)
global
the
Evaluate
in
the
processes
which
affect
cultural
diversity
at
scale.
the
global
[12]
role
of
different
processes
of
stakeholders
human
involved
development.
[16]
Unit 6: Global risks and resilience
3.
(a)
Explain
affects
(b)
“Increasing
global
true?
212
how
the
people
movement
and
of
manufacturing
industry
places.
resilience
interactions.”
to
To
[12]
global
what
risks
extent
can
is
only
this
increase
statement
[16]
Index
Key
terms
are
in
government-led
bold.
mitigation
3D
printing
183,
186–7
hydrosphere,
resources
acidification
adaptation
climate
of
133
coasts
23,
agribusiness
agriculture
antecedent
119,
119–20
solar
191–2
in
coastal
of
arid
and
areas
41–2
86
to
Red
movements
policies
aquaculture
29
119,
177
erosion
coastal
35
of
in
arid
hot
desertification
areas
arid
environments
and
and
of
USA
environments
arid
landscape
extraction
present
41
43–4
rights
diseases
nations
retreating
of
erosion
dune
of
arid
environments
United Arab
37
extraction
tourism
in
cold
44
coral
weathering in hot, arid environments
40
core–periphery
reefs
22,
23
corporate
138
130
water
28,
29
cryosphere
139
dioxide
river
(CO
)
22,
129
192,
diffusion
hybridity
cultural
imperialism
treatment
as
of
an
flood
system
and
mitigation
with
stores
3
of
8–9
typical
river
urbanization,
landforms
drug
on
flood
7
and
183,
9,
stream
characteristics
radius
processes
drought
174
174–5
deforestation
modifications
of
flow,
and
4
erosion,
transportation
173,
92–3
open
flows
basins
of
discharge
river
194
173,
89
2
hydraulic
172–3
99
drones
cultural
86
86–7
outputs,
channel
115
2
cultural
and
channel
risk
responsibility
crowd-sourcing
resources
disease
basin
of
and
(table)
diffusion
4–5
162–4
112
social
of
basins
impact
patterns
176
38
formation
44
51
counter-urbanization
175–6
drainage
42–3
27
core–periphery
development
87–8
examples
86
currents
human
diffusion
inputs,
environments
diffusion
convection
of
prevention
25
technology
45
168
87
drainage
35–6
mineral
Europe
85
drainage
coastal
development
Emirates
biocapacity
deposition
23–4
environments
contagious
on
social
85
disease
diurnal
influences
in
diaspora
cholera
28
coastlines
and
urban
opportunities
combating
and
of
103
45
importance
26
of
101
impacts
46
173,
diffusion
27–8
23
communications
distribution
semi-arid
the
35–6
features
the
93
Chinese
and
26–7
landscapes
cold
arid
carbon
diabetes
on
diasporas
reefs
40
168–71
malaria
physical
45
desalination
26
pressures
coral
39
deprivation
measures
flooding
strategies
swamps
reefs
places
sand
hot,
in
41–2
semi-arid
of
development
24
36
hot,
and
and
cycle
desertification
128
26–7
Beach,
Sea
landforms
opportunities
challenges
blue
change
24–5
challenges
biotic
climate
25
land-use
sovereignty
120
11
agricultural
biomes
greenhouse
and
97
managing
variations
management
advancing
environments
bedload
in
128
erosion
environments
deprivation
global
radiation
Miami
126
deposition
arid
desertification
management
6
hot,
of
24
deprivation
mangrove
processes
116
landforms
glacial
131
132
conflicting
126
anti-natalist
tourism
places
variations
coastlines
diffusion
anti-immigration
and
and
water–food–energy
management
130
moisture
mineral
for
ratio
4
deposition
144–5
responding
opportunities
anthropogenic
past
London
24–5
84,
change
101,
people
emissions
coastal
importance
arid
186–7
10
challenges
aquifers
183,
coastal
and
132–4
188,
agricultural
climate
gas
6
population
albedo
60–2
deposition
129–30
international
hazards
manufacturing
afforestation
on
implications
nexus
change
advancing
aging
impact
22
132
geophysical
additive
28–9
oceans
dependency
and
133
atmosphere
biosphere
abiotic
adaptation
strategies
and
deposition
4
186
129
trafficking
160
174
2
carbon
footprints
centrifugal
centripetal
188,
population
channel
characteristics
channel
modifications
Chernobyl
cholera
circular
civil
189–91
population
disaster,
cultural
movements
movements
99
99
4
societies
rejection
7
1986
188–9
global
superpowers
influence
176–7
role
climate
in
global
Town
causes
of
changes
interactions
47,
atmospheric
Cape
cybercrime
system
the
climate
and
change
energy
corporate
126–8
global
strategies
climate
129–31
disparities
and
cultural
cultures
and
exposure
in
growth
risks
to
to
Highlands
(LHWP)
relief
change
132–3
Water
Project
deforestation
political
water
demographic
demographic
99,
dividend
dividend
transition
in
116
Kenya
122
scarcity
(virtual)
flows
risks
185
economic
186–7
9
water
138
168
indigenous
groups
peoples
or
171
women
170–1
in
Colombia
171
141–2
balance
126,
efficiency
national
119
and
states
women
energy
100
of
physical
chain
empowering
energy
7
and
empowering
energy
159
62
11
supply
empowerment
13
58,
140
183
sovereignty
minority
2015
138,
economic
global
embedded
13
Nepal,
economic
economic
195
195
55–6
economic
threats
on
175–6
demographic
in
53,
footprints
political,
their
153–4
diasporas
deindustrialization
of
and
geopolitical
192,
building
Lesotho
balance
133–4
consequences
192,
empowering
dam
debt
society
173
126–7
global
e-passports
ecological
cultural
183
cybersecurity
132–3
global
in
178–9
126
127–8
civil
of
identities
change
built
174–5
spectrum
influence
production
the
earthquake
and
global
176
in
earthquakes
interactions
economic,
globalized
changes
175
173
diversity
April
148
133,
of
cultures
global
87
economy
landscape
environment
food
security
water–food–energy
enhanced
127–8
ratios
greenhouse
85
143–4
nexus
effect
142–5
126–7
213
INDE X
international
gas
ENSO
20,
variations
emissions
(El
Niño
in
greenhouse
Southern
future
Oscillation)
risks
global
impacts
of
global
flows
shift
epidemics
of
industry
(TBP)
food
erosion
transition
and
management
coastal
82,
gender,
84
deposition
glacial
erosion
resource
changing
zones
28
habitation
and
for
extreme
global
climate
global
distribution
over
time
to
resources
46
43–7
environments
and
41–3
trade
famine
and
landscapes
88,
feedback
flood
the
Middle
Pakistan
Queensland,
erosion
and
risk
of
prediction
urbanization,
on
flood
glacial
variations
in
food
health
82
nexus
86
142–4
of
of
and
35,
risks
plate
28,
57–9
and
types
movement
51–2
hazards
political
55
factors
on
global
and
post-event
health
82,
187–8
chain
and
risks
flows
185
businesses
political
of
and
economic
states
management
hazard
trends
adaptation
hazard
and
(map)
60
and
future
60
management
management
strategies
strategies
62
61
131
in
health
indicators
83–4
diffusion
human
86
69
homogenization
173
development
changing
and
identities
development
diversity
and
cultures
opportunities
responses
to
global
168
173–6
168–73
interactions
176–9
social
186–7
risk
57–9
patterns
hierarchy
physical
magnitude
for
geophysical
hierarchical
183
57
60
global
29–30
individuals
entrepreneurship
approaches
171–3
35–6
periglacial
and
glacial
Human
Development
Index
(HDI)
169–70
37
features
and
present
and
glacial
deposition
erosion,
38–9
distribution
of
glacial
hunger
82–3
hurricanes
22
Hurricane
hydraulic
37–8
processes
hydrographs
diversity
174–5
177–8
natural
6–7
2012
22
4
138
6
hydrograph
152
constraints
Sandy
,
radius
hydrocarbons
39–40
129
cultural
geopolitical
and
hazard
projections
local
on
geophysical
factors
of
disaster
53
nationalism
supply
interactions
effects
of
social
geophysical
53
177–8
104,
economic
39,
154
55–6
hazards
movement
constraints
of
126–7
55
distribution
global
mass
environments
global
152,
risks
vulnerability
55–7
51–5
51
environments
glaciers
83
consumption
water–food–energy
and
82,
risks
vulnerability
factors
periglacial
82–3
183–4
power
pre-event
challenges
food/nutrition
130
60–2
54–5
past
85
transition
adaptation
volcanoes
transport
indicators
nutrition
and
earthquakes
sovereignty
deforestation
174–5
measurement
of
to
global
152–3
effect
hacking
51
of
threats
in
187–8
how
139
relevance
164
characteristics
to
showing
56
and
global
nationalism
participate
173,
geographic
systems
landscape
in
(GMOs)
132
resilience
areas
patterns
organisms
hazards
geopolitical
157–60
138
habitats
hazard
characteristics
140–1
global
170
and
170–1
systems
7
systems
(GII)
food
99
risk
flows
152
interactions
water
technological
126–7
and
grey
168
global
162–4
and
warming
countries
183–5
3
82,
food
risk
hazard
26
modifications
to
geophysical
7
networks
water
and
178–9
and
indices
hard
isolation
political,
flooding
strategies
120–1,
societies
world
globalization
9–12
164
161–2
globalization
12
quality
Index
geophysical
to
and
channel
5–9
to
176–7
154–7
civil
economic,
threats
flood
119,
modified
geographic
8–9
management
214
8
6–7
at
futures
related
globalization
in
in
attempts
mitigation
on
168
interactions
mitigation
impact
at
geopolitical
7
of
157–60
resistance
organizations
globalization
and
2–5
91–2
29
Australia
global
90
geopolitical
mitigation
food
160
127
coastal
roles
genetically
hazard
power
161–4
environment
innovation
162
39
water
Inequality
health
East,
157,
flood
food
equity
mechanisms
Investment)
flood
flows
36
90–1
mitigation
flooding
and
gender
classification
and
Direct
role
flows
society
factors
greenhouse
geophysical
Africa
(Foreign
fishing
characteristics
90
in
2017
FDI
climatic
44
172
famine
161,
hydrology
equality
future
global
influences
interactions
shrinking
168
geophysical
sustainable
46
processes
and
90
global
flood
geoengineering
38–41
tourism
nutrition
143
and
physical
civil
glocalization
gentrification
47
35–6
extreme
development
relief
and
97
Gender
and
groups
91–2
2
gender
37–8
environments
change
technology
(FTZs)
scarcity
gender
and
interactions
powerful
88
technology
management
women
access
for
local
physical
in
insecurity
water
gender
36–7
35–8
future
physical
25,
35
distribution
managing
(EEZs)
86
development
competition
88–91
green
human
characteristics
health
and
political
water
functions
networks
global
82–4
91
security
basin
and
global
and
2
environments
for
security
systems
flooding
40
interactions
global
geomorphology
9
diffusion
global
human
and
weathering
drainage
security
health
security
food
zones
freshwater
and
23
economic
challenges
trade
38
evapotranspiration
expansion
erosion
24
changes
exclusive
of
environments
eutrophication
new
food
food
food
food
freeze-thaw
26
24
erosion
arid
free
flooding
strategies
landforms
diseases
91–3
and
production
national
coastal
of
91
food
combating
4
in
82,
Bangladesh
188–91
82
epidemiological
extreme
and
food
security
achieving
191–2
pollution
91
epidemiology
wave
health
stakeholders
food
transboundary
eustatic
spread
152–7
measuring
188
189–91
hot,
and
sustainability
environmental
erosion
systems
85–8
21
environmental
fair
food
128
characteristics
influences
on
and
hydrographs
INDE X
ice
sheets
ICTs
35,
technologies)
identities
of
identities
vitro
theft
184
91,
infertile
and
in
northern
climate
12,
basin
assessment
aid
see
niche
patterns
development
participation
leisure
36–7,
sport
in
leisure
festivals
changes
uneven
46
scale
the
in
different
future
sport
national
and
liquefaction
drift
the
international
at
the
local
belts
nutrient
sport
scale
ocean
and
82,
lowest
life
expectancies
90
oceans
swamps
movement
mass
care
megacities
Greater
types
in
2018
ocean
open
Area,
China
forced
forced
migration
controls
177
and
migration
migration
voluntary
Sea
for
ocean
42,
migration
43
112
oceans
resource
margins
119–21
99
resources
119,
183,
176,
69
120
186
178
51
oceans
and
relocation
28–30
interactions
157,
86
159
142
192,
resilience
60,
193–4
192
new technologies for
20–2
of
civil
strategies
resource
city
to
disposal
93
global
40
and
with
poverty
of
resource
industries
pollution
189
water,
102
29
191
resource
193–4
105
138
contrasting
levels
of
145
recycling
in
of
consumer
consumption
changing
trends
in
class
trends
resource
and
the
global
138–9
stewardship
land,
138–42
142–6
139–40
reduction
middle
188–91
resilience
Singapore
consumption
9
raising
146
measuring
6
40
in
of
195
104
security
trends
impacts
6
build
design
and
items
93
and people
192–3
consumption
countries
11
pollution
the management
societies
awareness
resilient
3
14
6
diffusion
reshoring
role
25–8
futures
scarcity
Wetlands
global flows of data
29
91,
on
142
remove
29
20
margins
2,
29
29
use
coastal
water
shipping
116–17
change
142
reduce
pollution
40
ocean
growth
142
remittances
23–5
manufacturing
118
(map)
127
cities
flows
reforestation
between
rainfall
air
internal
113
142
recycle
abiotic
places
peak
physical
in
megacity
Convention
recover
20–1
28
29–30
of
ground
permafrost
distribution
transition
repatriation
Ramsar
28–9
biotic
discharge
pollution
116
and
internal
extraction
profit
pyroclastic
20–1
transfers
manage
peak
pingos
162
displacement
mineral
130
movements
in
density
policies
Rotterdam
pandemics
of
touristic
protectionism
3
patterned
migration
rules
carbon
conveyor
futures
management
diabetes
131
anti-immigration
economic
and
171–2
11,
animal
modification
101
distribution
population
resource
microclimate
migration
of
101
management
microfinance
primary
129
currents
energy
overpopulation
117–18
and
116
feedback
re-source
coastal
overfishing
114–15,
ratios
115
change
post-industrial
21–2
coastal
source
22,
demand
systems
outputs
112
Bay
and
ocean–atmosphere
58–9
cycles
oceanic
value
in
managing
54–5
Rwankuba,
84
microclimates
urban
of
to
coastal
27–8
movement
Rwanda,
medical
Africa
population
pro-natalist
ocean
China
and
positive
22
on
sex
20
interactions
87–8
Niña
store
and
strategic
24
oceans
management
South
51
scale
115
managing
20
21
initiatives
economic
national
117–18
83
interactions
(CO2)
resources
116
112
and
116
size,
population
population
22
of
increasing
69–71
83–4,
La
a
the
structure
consequences
of
currents
trends
mangrove
as
112–15
119
South
world
127
86
hurricanes
importance
75–7
at
23
malaria
of
operation
societies
72–4
and
expectancy
highest
and
at
population
uneven
resource
stewardship
72
dioxide
71
ocean
and
tourism
2,
distribution
family
China
resource
transition
margins
activities
68
for
tourism
littoral
in
aging
164
consumption;
tourism
oceans
66–7,
mass
157,
9–12
feedback
impact
67–8
large-scale
load
trends
116
28–9,
diffusion
ENSO
66–8
and
trends
112
distribution
population
187–8
99,
environments
acidification
leisure
patterns
density
demographic
economic
life
China
ocean–atmosphere
changing
population
114–15
51
66
about
economic
development
187
scarcity
nutrition
21–2
11
leisure
and
population
159
resource
network
23
119–22
places
consumption
development
organizations
population
resources
negative
41
20,
thinking
resource
population
nationalism;
158
and
147–8
7–9
84
increase
water
202–3
158
changes
Niña
and
133
187
extreme
report
loans
lakes
157,
opportunities
116–18
42–3
161
USA and
natural
200–3
200–1
your
irrigation
management
natural
international
lahars
rates
nationalism
97
13
international
La
change
112
and
populations
divergent
mitigation
narcotics
97
drainage
writing
Europe
132
Europe
fieldwork
changing
43–4
multi-government
3
(IDBM)
11,
challenges
population
industry
integrated
population
Basin,
46
41
informal
isostatic
mining
(MGOs)
housing
internal
Chile
mortality
191–2
soils
in
flood
92
informal
inputs
cultures
175–6
meat
industry
on
Galilee
Australia
mining
mitigation
173
diasporas
coalmine,
Queensland,
communication
162–4
spectrum
influence
in
and
173
global
identity
Carmichael
129
(information
food
and
146–8
energy
endowment
157
resource
nationalism
176,
resource
stewardship
142,
140–2
178
146
215
INDE X
circular
economy
divergent
and
resource
tax
148
thinking
about
population
consumption
trends
Sustainable
(SDGs)
retreating
risks
tides
risks;
geopolitical
river
landforms
river
processes
sand
dune
sea
risks;
hazard
sediment
168
sex
ratio
sites
slum
pollution
city
152,
power
solifluction
threats
35,
36,
189
of
25,
of
economic
states
186–7
of
on
74
England
sporting
international
sport
and
health
88
and
148,
systems
NGOs
and
88–9
the
media)
movements
Milan
and
99
Portland,
growth
in
São
city
design
104,
Paulo,
105
growth
urban
system
100
projections
growth
urbanization,
72
vertical
natural
for
2050
104
99
increase
population
and
movements
99
25
53,
volcanic
72–3
92
55–6
eruption
Guatemala,
75
in
7,
farming
volcanoes
vulnerability
Zimbabwe
the
waste
75
at
V
olcán
2018
de
Fuego,
57–8
57–9
Gambia
growth
water
73
in
fair
hotspots
75
172
trade
zones
119,
(FTZs)
121,
161,
162
UN
national
and
(TBP)
routes
188–91
footprints
water
management
integrated
water
and
environments
faults
Sustainable
148,
Goals
ecological
footprint
human
104
urban
systems
urban
factors
153–4
factors
urban
Goals
97–8
stresses
variety
urban
of
heat
urban
islands
of
of
waves
modification
environments
source
and
97–8
water
scarcity
on
lakes
and
water
conflict
resources
11–12
2
erosion
processes
24
extreme
12,
23
129–30
14
Marshes
25,
women
WWF
of
shared
of
wave
Iraqi
101
of
water
11
wave
wind
on
23
wetlands
urban
98
101
a
weather,
urban
98
pattern
microclimate
management
(SDGs)
pattern
areas
pressures
watersheds
99–100
places
social
activities
affecting
residential
193
23
Development
urban
and
affecting
economic
184
Australians
systems
of
activities
10
internationally
as
13
14
9
aquifers
97
sustainable
consequences
distribution
(map)
168–9
plans
wetlands
10
scarcity
global
12
9
quality
Development
12
basin
(IDBM)
major
agricultural
51
environments
on
142–4
13
drainage
quality
40
101–3
cultural
futures
participation
environmental
39
143
nexus
85
building
pressures
131
4
transport
environmental
their
security
management
characteristics
geopolitical
water
water
dam
157
pollution
transport
(SDGs)
146
140
163
arid
146
waste
community
159–60
people
transboundary
hot,
of
water–food–energy
trade
ocean
disposal
flows
75–6
157–8
changing
152
load
69,
104–6
International
85
102
105–6
urban
water
51
168–9
strategies
tourism
hotspots
building
influence
Sustainable
City
international
expanding
in
23
superpowers
suspended
in
tourism
transverse
90
4
Aboriginal
103
Mexico
100
urbanization
68
organizations,
processes
economic,
Survival
Mumbai
in
deindustrialization
vegetation
tourism
Barcelona
urban
surveillance
73
77
in
urban
global
strategy
future
tourism
3
superpowers
a
in
99
tourism
89
subduction
as
participation
sustainable
glacier
food
roles
flow
tourism
67
social
105–6
centripetal
tourism
transportation
77
(agribusinesses
subaerial
of
activities
urban
urban
76
TNCs
transport
governments
stream
touristic
development
national
trafficking
and
132
international
TNCs
2010
74
in
of
benefits
trafficked
participation
stakeholders
resilient
116
sustainable
free
in
international
stakeholders
gender
Games,
70
influences
stores
rate
of
population
in
Brazil
unsustainable
69
69
league
events
Sydney
103
design
greening
89
69
tourism
and
Commonwealth
hosting
eco-city
infrastructure
international
28
political
Wales
in
99
Oregon
influencing
trade
football
space
102
103
76–7
influence
facilities
172–3
consumption
factors
of
Nigeria
changes
impacts
congestion
systems
160
affecting
104
66
Delhi
food
factors
role
103
green
the
centrifugal
responsibility
66
and
niche
60
46
to
of
traffic
72,
160
ecotourism
37
154
sovereignty
216
costs
69
39
sovereignty
sport
44,
national
101,
design
depletion
72–3
tourism
clearance
spheres
on
fertility
23
environments
power
solar
resources
corporations)
160
categorization
touristic
Onitsha,
land-use
deprivation
social
Group
tourism
stabilization
smart
soft
total
25
97
slope
Inc.
tourism
9
102
in
contested
managing
51–2
outsourcing
119
shipping
people
pollution
urban
facilities
sex
and
186
influence
4–5
4
supply
semi-arid
data
air
40
corporate
129
secondary
management
101
pollution
redevelopment
Apple
risks
4
84
levels
of
the
stresses
air
103
(transnational
157,
environmental
development
sanitation
flows
plates
Tata
salinization
for
186–7
23
TNCs
discharge
innovations
global
thermokarst
economic
risks;
river
tectonic
24–5
104
51
see
162–4
195
142
rifting
91–2,
technologies
of
Goals
148
coastlines
retrofitting
return
Development
urban
186
46,
disruptive
new
147–8
UN
avoidance
technology
14
40
170–1
(World
Great
Wildlife
Barrier
192–3
Reef,
Fund)
Australia
133–4,
O X
F O
R
D
I B
P
R
E
P A
R
E
D
GEO GR A PH Y
Offering an unparalleled level of assessment suppor t at SL and HL ,
IB Prepared: Geography has been developed directly with the IB to provide
the most up-to-date and authoritative guidance on DP assessment.
Authors
Garrett Nagle
Anthony Gillett
You can trust IB Prepared resources to:
➜
Consolidate essential knowledge and facilitate more effective
exam preparation via concise summaries of course content
FOR FIRST ASSESSMENT
➜
Ensure that learners fully understand assessment requirements
IN 2019
with clear explanations of each component and model answers
➜
Maximize assessment potential with strategic tips, highlighted
common errors and sample answers annotated with exper t advice
What's on the cover?
➜
Build students’ skills and confidence using exam-style questions,
Culebra Cut, Panama Canal
practice papers and worked solutions
and Gambao Rainforest
Resor t, Panama
D
OPTION
D:
G E O P H YS I C A L
Key syllabus material is explained
HAZ ARDS
When
the
different
types
of
movement
occur,
they
result
in
the
Concept lnk
formation
PROCESSES: Geological processes
alongside key definitions
create geophysical events such as
ear thquakes, volcanic eruptions
and mass movement. The extent
of the processes, in terms of the
intensity, will result in a range
at different scales. The spatial
interaction between geological
of
various
example,
oceanic
between
released.
when
the
the
plate
plates
plate
addition,
in
the
a
is
These
via
of
an
rock
into
earthquake
to
eruption
are
the
will
is
to
and
This
land
mass
make
being
on
are
plate
their
Upon
crust,
forced
friction
energy
oceanic
will
plate.
or
creates
mountains
the
events.
continental
seismic
the
fold
as
pressure,
continental
hazard
subducted
mantle.
leads
formed
under
in
of
against
type)
occurs,
compress
magma
creation
the
eventually
plumes,
weaknesses
volcanic
the
converges
denser
plate
and
forced
plumes
mantle.
surface
and
crust
(a
continental
two
Subsequently
In
surface,
landforms
oceanic
tectonic
underneath
the
areas influences the speed of
warn against common errors
the
continental
of different effects occurring
Assessment tips offer guidance and
For
the
formed.
melts
way
to
reaching
the
occur.
onset and other characteristics of
Figure
D.1.1
shows
these
different
types
of
plate
movement
and
how
the hazard.
they
connect
within
Fgure D.1.1.
Assessment questions and sample student
the
Earth’s
geophysical
system:
Dierent types of tectonic plate movement
You should be able to describe
and explain the processes
that take place at convergent,
Plate
responses provide practice oppor tunities
Plate
divergent and transform plate
boundaries and ensure that you
include appropriate terminology.
and useful feedback
Asthenosphere
Divergent
For example, tectonic plates
move apar t at convergent plate
margins, such as the Nor th
American plate and the Eurasian
Plate
Plate
plates, due to convection
Asthenosphere
currents in the mantle. This
Also available, from Oxford
Convergent
allows magma to rise and solidify,
which means that the sea floor
978 0 19 839603 1
spreads as the plates move
apar t under the Atlantic Ocean.
Plate
Underwater shield volcanoes
Plate
Asthenosphere
can be formed, which may reach
above the water level over time
Transform
due to fur ther eruptions.
Note the presence of the continental rift zone in the diagram of divergent
plates,
Test yourself
which
Fgure D.1.2.
shows
how
a
continental
plate
is
being
stretched.
Mass movements in the Dolomites, Italy
D.1() Stte two types of
volcano.
[2]
(b) Descrbe the differences in
terms of the lava emitted from
the two types of volcano that you
named in par t (a).
[2]
52
I B
D I P L O M A
P R O G R A M M E
Suppor t material available at www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib-prepared-suppor t
ISBN
web
978-0-19-843422-1
www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib
9
780198
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