AP Bio Study 1
AP Bio Study Document
Table of Contents:
Unit 1: Biochemistry
3
Unit 2: Cell Biology
9
Unit 3: Cellular Energetics
16
Unit 4: Cell Division and Communication
35
Unit 5: DNA and Protein Synthesis
44
Unit 6: Genetics
57
Unit 7: Evolution
63
Unit 8: Animal Systems
67
Unit 9: Ecology
83
AP Bio Study 2
Overview:
1) Biochemistry (properties of water, four types of biomolecules, protein structure, dehydration
synthesis/hydrolysis)
2) Cell Biology (organelles, type of cell membrane transport, water potential)
3) Cellular Energetics (Enzymes, Gibbs free energy equation, Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration)
4) Cell Division and Communication (the cell cycle, cancer, Mitosis, Meiosis, Signal-transduction
pathways)
5) DNA and Protein Synthesis (structure of DNA, DNA replication, Transcription, Translation,
Gene regulation, Biotechnology)
6) Genetics (probabilities using Punnett squares, multiplication rule, addition rule, types of
inheritance, pedigrees, recombination frequency, Chi-squared)
7) Evolution (natural selection, reproductive isolation, Hardy-Weinberg problems, genetic drift)
8) Animal Systems (Endocrine, Immune, Nervous, Digestive, Circulatory/Respiratory)
9) Ecology (trophic levels of an ecosystem, nutrient cycles, population dynamics, species
interactions, human impact on the environment)
Master Quizlet
Master Quizlet (Ben Wheeler’s Version)
https://quizlet.com/Christopher_Pomeroy/folders/ap-biology
Printable Bioble (print double sided please, its really long)
Equations and Formulas Sheet
Both Dont Work
AP Concepts at a Glance
Semester One Study Guide
Semester Two Study Guide
Unit 1: Biochemistry
Vocab:
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Biochemistry: molecules in living things, how they react w/ each other
Big 4: CHON Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
Other 4: Phosphorus, Calcium, Potassium, Sulfur
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CHNOPS: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus Sulfur
SPONCH CaFe: Sulfur, Phosphorus, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Calcium, Potassium
Molecules: small particle of matter to do a specific functions
Similar Structures:
- can have same effects on cells
- same shape means they can fit into the same receptors and have same effect
- the shape of the molecule is important to their effect
Reactants > form > Products
New bonds form during chemical reactions
- Most reactants can be reversed - Reversible Reaction
- Product > Reactants
Hemoglobins: carry oxygen in your body (oxygen bus), protein
- Leaves oxygen at destinations
- Reversible Reaction
- Hemoglobin + 4O2 <> HB4O2
Water:
- H2O, Capillary action, Sticky, Polar, Hydrogen bonding, Covalent, Attracted to itself
- Hydrogens are partially positive, Oxygen partially negative
- Hydrogen bonds: hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to 1 electronegative atom, usually
oxygen or nitrogen atoms
Ammonia: having partially + and - charged is what cause molecule to attract to water
- Water and ammonia mix well with water = homogeneous mixture
Oil and water do not mix well = oil is nonpolar
- Any electronegative atom will bond w/ water
Four of water’s properties that facilitate life:
- Cohesive behaviors (sticky): allow plants easier way to get water w/out energy
- Ability to moderate temperature: doesn’t change temp easily
- Expansion upon freezing: less dense as solid, allows life to live under ice during winter
- Versatility as a solvent: very good at dissolving a lot of different substances
Cohesion: hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together
- Help the transport of water against gravity in plants
- Water sticks to itself and sides of plant tubes
- Adhesion of water to plant cell walls also help counter gravity
Surface Tension: how hard it is to break the surface of a liquid
- The hydrogen bonds in water are so strong that insects can manipulate it
Moderation of Temperature: water absorbs heat from warmer air and releases stored heat to
cooler air
- Can absorb / release large amounts of heat w/ only a slight change in its own temp
- Hydrogen bonds are very strong and need lots of heat to break and make water heat up
Solvent of Life:
- a solution is a liquid that is homogenous mixture
- Solvent: the dissolving agent
- Solute: a substance that is dissolved
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- Water is versatile due to its polarity
- Aqueous solution (aq): water is the solvent
- The - and + in water attract to their opposite in solutes
Concentration: how much solute is dissolved in a certain amount of solvent
- Molarity (M): concentration = moles/Liter
Hydrophilic: a substance that like to interact with water
- Interacts w/ hydrogen bonds
Hydrophobic: a substance that is scared of water
- Nonpolar (no charge)
- Doesn’t mix well
Acid and Bases:
- pH scale: tests acidity / basicity of a liquid
- Water = neutral
- Scale 0 - 14
- Higher than 7 = base
- Lower than 7 = acid
- Acid: have a higher conc. of H+ ions
- Base: have a higher conc. of OH- ions
- H2O > H+ + OH- H+ + H2O > H3O+ = H+
- pH scale cont.: determines by the relative conc. Of hydrogen ions
- pH = -log [H+]
- Acid pH < 7
- Bases pH >7
- Most biological fluids have pH values in the range of 6 to 8
- [H+] = 1.0 * 1O^-x M
- Our blood is 7.4
Buffers: a substance that helps maintain the pH level
- To make sure the pH doesn’t change / constant / stable
- Most consist of an acid-base pair that reversibly combines w/ H+ (fluctuating system)
(internal pH of most living cells must remain close to 7)
Bicarbonate Buffer System in the blood
- When working out > breathing rate increases > muscles produce more CO2 > must get it
out b/c it affect pH (lowers it)
- CO2 goes into blood + mixes w/ water making H2CO3
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Produces more acid in the blood - w/ more con.c of Hydrogen ions = more acidic
It goes back to CO2 and you breath it out
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- Can counteract this by regulating our breathing
Acid Precipitation:
- pollutant cause acid rain : mix w/ water bringing down the rains pH making it acidic
- Acid rain can affect more living things : can kill living things : too acidic water, soil, etc.
- Fossil Fuels to produce more CO2 and increases the conc. Of the CO2 and causes
problems
- CO2 mixes with ocean (water) and cause it to be more acidic and affect the life living in
the water
- H+ produced combine with CO3^2 (stolen from animals that use it to create their shells)
- The creatures can’t make their shells or have them as hard as they need them to
be
Van Der Waals Interactions: weak bonds b/n atoms and molecules
- Ex.
- Gecko’s toe hairs (the molecules) are attracted to the molecules on the wall (weak
bonds)
- Due to the large surface area and the amount of attractions, allows the gecko to
walk up the wall
- Opposite attraction and change from electrons allows for a very small weak charge to
allow it to attract to other molecules
- This change is short lived
- So many of these attractions happen that it allows attraction to allow like a gecko
to climb the wall
- The attractions need to close to allows for attractions
Dilution Equation:
Monomers: smallest subunit (molecule) that can still be classified as a biomolecule (can be one
molecule of glucose)
Polymer: multiple monomers bonded together (entire chain of a biomolecule)
- Digestive system breaks down polymers to monomers when we eat, using water
Biomolecules:
AP Bio Study 6
Carbohydrates: (C, H, O )
- Monomers: Monosaccharides
(simple sugars)
- C6H12O6 - Standard chemical
formula
- Polymers: Polysaccharides
- Functions: major nutrients for cells
- Quick energy
- Served as storage
- Provided quick energy to
cells for cellular respiration
- Examples:
- Monos: glucose, fructose,
galactose
- Polys: starch, glycogen,
cellulose
- Starch: (P) energy storage in
plants (high calorie content)
- Glycogen: (P) energy storage
in animals, stored in liver and
muscles
- Cellulose: (P) makes up plant
walls
- Hints:
- Some carb names end in -ose
- ose = carb
- Carbs have 1C:2H:1O ratio
Proteins: (C, H, O, N, (S))
- Monomer: amino acids (20 different
kinds)
- Polymer: Polypeptides
- Function: structural make-up
- Some proteins are enzymes
(all enzymes are proteins)
- Antibodies that fight disease
are proteins
- Transports substances through
cell membrane (protein
channels)
- Receptor proteins on cell
membranes receive molecular
signals
- Movement
- Example:
- Hemoglobins: carries gases
in blood
- Actin + Myosin: make-up
muscles
- Any enzyme is a protein:
most enzyme names in “-ase”
Lipids: (C, H, O, (P)) - long hydrocarbon
chains
- Monomer: glycerol (C3H8O3)
- Fatty acids (palmitic
acids) (C16H32O2)
Nucleic Acids: (C, H, O, N, P)
- Monomer: nucleotides
(nitrogen-containing base, 5 - carbon
sugar, one or more phosphate group
- Polymer: polynucleotides
- Function: contain and transfer
genetic information (instructions for
how and when to make proteins)
- ATP is an energy
molecule
- Example:
- DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
- Directs for its own
replication
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Polymer: triglycerides (no true
polymers)
Functions: energy storage
- Rich in energy
- Long term energy storage
- Insulation
- Cushioning of organs
- Cell membranes structure
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- Some hormones are lipids
- Waxy coating
Examples:
- Phospholipids: found in cell
membrane; have hydrophobic
and hydrophilic ends, major
constitution of cell
membranes
- Steroid hormones: like
estrogen and testosterone
- Cholesterol: common
components of animal cell
membranes precursor which
other steroids are synthesized
- Wax
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Directs RNA
synthesis
Genetic material
RNA: ribonucleic acid
- Controls protein
synthesi
ATP
Primary Structure:
Secondary Structure:
The sequence of amino acids.
Can be in alpha-helix shape or beta-pleated sheet
shape.
Bonds: peptide bonds
Bonds: hydrogen bonds
Tertiary Structure:
Quaternary Structure:
Takes place due to 3-dimensional folding.
Consists of more than one amino acid chain.
Bonds: hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic
Bonds: bonds between peptide chains (hydrogen
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interactions, disulfide, and ionic
Quizlet:
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Biochemistry
Powerpoints:
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Biochemistry
Videos:
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Biomolecules
bonds, hydrophobic interactions, disulfide, and
ionic)
AP Bio Study 9
AP Bio Study 10
Unit 2: Cell Biology
Vocab:
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Cell Membrane Structure and Function:
Phospholipid bilayer: a double layer of phospholipids
- 1 head - polar - phosphate - hydrophilic
- 2 tails - nonpolar - hydrophobic
- Hydrophobic tails are on the inside and the heads are next to the water and on the outside
due to being hydrophilic
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Surface proteins: proteins on the surface of the membrane
Integral proteins: embedded proteins (hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts)
- Transport liquids through the membrane if they are too big to pass through the membrane
itself
- Receive messages from outside the cell
- Anchor structures out or in the cells or cells together
Carbohydrate side chain: help identify a cell such as a name tag so other cells know who they
are and if they are suppose to be there
Amphipathic molecules: has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts
Surface Area vs. Volume:
- The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism (bring/export nutrients) sets limits on
the size of cells
- Ratio has to be large, large surface area to volume
- A cells can’t be too large b/c the cell membrane won’t be sufficient enough to bring in
nutrients and get out waste
- The smaller the cell the easier it is to do its job and get nutrients at the rate they have
- Total Surface area / volume = Surface-to-volume ratio
Peripheral: proteins aren’t embedded
Integral: proteins penetrate the hydrophobic core and often the span the membrane
Protein Fiber: the cytoskeleton
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- Extracellular: outside the cell
- Intercellular: inside the cell
Cholesterol: limits the movement of the membrane so it doesn’t move so much
Function of Membrane Proteins:
- (a) Transport (may have to use ATP energy)
- (b) Enzymatic activity
- (c) Signal transductions (signal, receptor tells the cell what to do)
- (d) Cell - Cell recognition (friend or foe)
- (e) Intercellular joining (attach to each other to form tissue)
- (f) Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix(ECM) (network of cellular
things outside the cell)
Cell Transportation:
Passive Processes: movement of a substance across a membrane with conc. Gradient; doesn’t use
energy
Diffusion: tendency of molecules to spread out due to their intrinsic thermal energy (kinetic
energy-heat)
- Move from high to low concentration (diffuses down conc. gradient)
Osmosis: the movement of water molecules across a membrane (Movement of H2O)
- Hypotonic: solutions w/ low concentration of water
- Hypertonic: solutions w/ high concentration of water
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Isotonic: solutions w/ equal concentration of water
Osmoregulation: the control of water movement
Contractile vacuoles: organelles, pumps out excess H2O
Plasmolysis: loss of water = cell shrinkage, usually lethal to cell
- Water will move from the lower concentration of solvent b/c thats their major
concentration of water to the side w/ higher concentration of solvent b/c that is
where the smaller conc. of water is
Facilitated Diffusion:
- Facilitate = to help
- Transport proteins facilitate the movement of molecules across the membrane
- Transport proteins are specialized for the specific solute they transport
- Sometimes they can be gated and need something to come along and open it first
in order for a molecules to continue through
- Can be inhibited
- Gated channels proteins require a stimulus to open the “gate”
- Polar molecules can’t slide through the nonpolar tails b/c they won’t let go or too big to
get through the phospholipid tails
Active Processes: pump a molecule across a membrane against its concentration gradient,
requires energy
Electrogenic Pump: transport proteins generate voltage (electric potential energy) across a
membrane
- Membrane potential (voltage across a membrane caused by unequal distribution of
cations and anions) direct movement
- By generating voltage across membranes, electrogenic pump store energy that can be
used for cellular work
- Ex) Proton (H+) pump
- Hydrogen ion has only one protons and it is positive when it loses its only
electron
- Na+/K+ pump
Cotransport: when an ATP-powered pump that transports a specific solute can indirectly drive
the action transport of several other solutes
- Can only pump multiple ions
- Can pump charged and uncharged ions
- ex) sucrose H+ cotransporter
Exocytosis: Transports large molecules (proteins and polysaccharides)
- Cells secretes macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane
- Vesicles originated from the golgi body
- ex) Insulin from pancreatic cells
Endocytosis: cells take in macromolecules by forming new vesicles from plasma membrane
- Types:
- Pahocytosis: cell engulfs a particle which forms a vesicle / vacuole, “cell eating”
- Pinocytosis: cells gulps droplets of extracellular fluid, “cell drinking”
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Receptor-mediated endocytosis: extracellular substances (ligands) bind to receptor
proteins which then form vesicles
Calculating water potential:
- Free water moves from regions of higher water potential to regions of lower water
- Y - sin
- Ys - solute potential
- Yp - pressure potential
- Ytotal - total water potential
- Ys + Yp - Ytotal
- Solute potential = -iCRT
- I = # of particles the molecule will make in water
- C = Molar concentration
- R = pressure constant (.0831)
- T = temp in Kelvin (273 + C degrees)
- Open beaker means no pressure potential
A Tour of a Cell:
Light Microscope (LM): visible light passes through a specimen and then through glass lenses,
which magnify the image
- Can magnify the size of a small bacterium
- Can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen
Electron microscopes (EMs): used to study subcellular structures
- Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs): focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a
specimen, providing images that look 3D
- Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs): focus a beam of electrons through a
specimen
- Used mainly to study the internal ultrastructure of cells
Cell Fractionation: takes cells apart and separates the major organelles from one another
- Enables scientists to determine the functions of organelles
Ultracentrifuges: fractionate cells into their component parts
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Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Cells:
- Bacteria are prokaryotic
- Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells
- Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles that compartmentalize their functions
Basic Features of all cells:
- Plasma membrane
- Semi Fluid substances called the cytosol or cytoplasm
- Chromosomes (carry genes, made of DNA)
- Ribosomes (make proteins)
Prokaryotes Only:
- No nucleus
- DNA is in an unbound region called the nucleoid
- Lack the membrane-bound organelles
Eukaryotes Only:
- DNA in a nucleus that is bound by a membranous nuclear envelope
- Membrane-bound organelles (ex. Mitochondria, chloroplasts)
- Cells generally much larger than prokaryotic cells
Nucleus: (genetic library of the cell) contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most
conspicuous organelle
Nuclear Envelope: encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm
Ribosomes: (Protein factories in the cell) are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein
- Carry out protein synthesis in two locations:
- Cytosol (free ribosomes)
- On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or the nuclear envelope (bound
ribosomes)
Components of the endomembrane system:
- Nuclear envelope
- Ribosome on Endoplasmic reticulum
- Golgi apparatus
- Vacuoles / Vesicles
- Plasma membrane
- (lysosomes)
- These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): part of membrane within the cell, continuous w/ the nuclear
envelope
- Smooth ER: lacks ribosomes
- Synthesizes lipids
- Processes toxins
- Rough ER: ribosomes studding its surface
- Bound ribosomes
- Produces proteins and membrane, which are distributed by transport vesicles
- Plays a role in intracellular transport
Golgi Complex: shipping and receiving center, consists of flattened membranous sacs
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- Modifies products of the ER
- Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
- Produces lysosomes
Lysosome: a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes
- Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
- Use enzymes to recycle organelles and macromolecules, or even dead cell (apoptosis)
Vacuoles: (vesicles are larger version) membrane-bound sacs with varied functions
- Food Vacuoles: formed by phagocytosis
- Contractile vacuoles: found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells
- Central Vacuoles: found in many mature plants cells, hold organic compounds and water
Mitochondria: the sites of cellular respiration (creating ATP - taking the carbohydrates to make
ATP)
- Have smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into cristae
- The inner membrane created two compartments: intermembrane space and the
mitochondrial matrix
- Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
- Cristae provide a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP
Chloroplasts: sites of photosynthesis found in plants (part of the plastid family)
- Contain green pigments chlorophyll, ad well as enzymes and other molecules that
function in photosynthesis
- Structures:
- Thylakoids: membranous sacs
- Stroma: the internal fluid
Cytoskeleton: a network of protein fibers extended throughout the cytoplasm
- Organizes cell structures and activities, anchoring many organelles
- Helps to support the cell and maintain its shape
- It interact w/ motor proteins to produce motility
- Vesicles can travel along the “monorails” provided by the cytoskeleton
Centrosome: a “microtubule-organizing center”, the microtubules of the cytoskeleton grow out
from a centrosome near the nucleus
Cilia: many tiny tails of a cell that helps it move around
Flagella: a tail that allows a cell to move around
Pseudopods: “false feet” use cytoplasmic streaming to move cell
Cytoplasm: helps move things through the cell
Cell walls: protect cells, maintain their shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water
- Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and
proteins
Extracellular Matrix (ECM): made up of glycoproteins and other macromolecules
- Functions:
- Support
Adhesion
- Movement (cilia, Flagella)
- Regulation (recognition, “name tags”)
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Intercellular Junctions: adhere, interaction, and communication between cells through direct
contact
- (ex. Plasmodesmata, tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes)
- Plasmodesmata: channels that perforate plant cell walls
- Water and small solutes can pass from cell to cell
- Animal cell Junctions
- Tight Junctions: membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing
leakage of extracellular fluid
- Desmosomes: (anchoring junction) fasten cells together into strong sheets
- Gap Junctions: (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels b/n adjacent
cells
The Cell: A living Unit Greater than the Sum of its Parts:
- Cells rely on the integration of structures and organelles in order to function
- For ex. A macrophage ability to destroy bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating
components such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes, and plasma membrane
Extra:
Lysosomes: contains digestive enzymes
Lysis: to split / to break
Quizlet:
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Cell Biology and Cell Transport
Powerpoints:
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A Tour of the Cell
Cell Membrane
Videos:
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Animal Cells
Plant Cells
Bozeman Science Water Potential
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Unit 3: Cellular Energetics
Vocab:
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Cellular Energetics:
- Homeostasis: balance in the body and cells
- Metabolism: the totality of an organism’s chemical reactions
- Energy: help chemical reactions happen in cells
- Metabolic Pathways: series of chemical reactions
- Begins with a specific molecule and ends w/ a product
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Catabolic Pathways: release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler
compounds (catastrophe - exploded into bits)
Anabolic Pathways: consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones (net
increase of energy)
Bioenergetics: the study of how organisms manage their energy resources
Forms of Energy:
- Kinetic Energy: associated with motion
- Heat: (thermal) kinetic energy associated w/ random movement of atoms
/ molecules
- Potential Energy: energy that matter possesses b/c of its location / structure
- Chemical: is potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
The Law of Energy Transformation:
- Thermodynamics: the study of energy transformation
- Closed system: isolated from its surroundings
- Open system: energy and matter can be transferred b/n the system and its
surroundings
First Law of Thermodynamics: (principle of conservation of energy)
- The energy of the universe is constant
- Energy can be transferred and transformed
- Energy cannot be created or destroyed
- Can only be transformed from one form to another
The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
- Every transfer or transformation, increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe
- Some energy is unusable when transferred and often lost as heat
- Spontaneous Processes: occur w/out a net input of energy
- Such a process w/out the need of input of energy, it increases the entropy
of the universe
Biological Order and Disorder:
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Cells create ordered structures from less ordered materials
- Ex: making proteins using amino acids
- Organisms also replace ordered forms of matter and energy w/ less ordered forms
- Ex: breaking down a protein to get amino acids
Gibbs Free Energy Equation:
- Free-Energy Change: ∆G
- ∆G = 0 - Energy is available
- ∆G > 0 - energy has to be absorbed
- ∆G < 0 - spontaneous
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A living system’s free energy is energy that can do work when temperature and
pressure are uniform, as in a living cell
- The change in free energy (∆G) during a process is related to the change in
enthalpy, or change in total energy (∆H), and change in entropy (T∆S):
- ∆G = ∆H - T∆S
Free Energy: a measure of a system’s instability, its tendency to change to a more stable
state
During a spontaneous change, free energy decreases and the stability of a system
increases
Equilibrium: a state of maximum stability
- A process is spontaneous and cen perform work only when it is moving toward
equilibrium
- Ex:
- a) Gravitational motion
- b) Diffusion
- c) Chemical Reaction
Exergonic reaction: a reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy is
spontaneous
Endergonic Reaction: a reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is
nonspontaneous
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Activation Energy:( EA) the initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction
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Catalyst: a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction w/out being consumed by the
reaction (enzyme)
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Substrate: the reactant that an enzyme acts on
Enzyme-Substrate Complex: the structure of an enzyme binding to its substrate
Active Site: the region on the enzyme where the substrate binds
Induced Fit: changed shape that allows for a better fit
- on a substrate brings chemicals groups of the active site into positions that
enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction
Active site can be lower and EA barrier by:
- Orienting substrates correctly
- Straining substrate bonds
- Providing a favorable environment (pH, charge, etc.)
- Covalently bonding to the substrate
Change in pH and temp affect enzymes shape and affect their ability to function
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Allosteric Regulation: the term used to describe cases where a protein’s function at one
site is affected by binding of a regulatory molecule at another site
- Can either inhibit or stimulate an enzyme’s activity
- Most allosterically regulated enzymes are made from polypeptide subunits
- Activator: stabilized the active form of the enzyme
- Inhibitor: stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme
- Change shape of enzyme to make the shape of the enzyme the right
shape
- Makes sure that the enzymes that need to be active are active at that
moment
Cofactors: non protein enzymes helpers
Coenzymes: organic cofactors
- Help facilitate the enzyme
- Part of the enzyme
Competitive Inhibitors: bind to the active site of the enzyme, competing w/ the
substrate
Noncompetitive Inhibitors: bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to
change shape and making the active site less effective
Regulation of enzyme activity that helps control metabolism:
- The cell switches on/off genes that encode specific enzymes
Feedback Inhibition (Negative Feedback): the end product of a metabolic pathway
shuts down the pathway
- Prevents a cell from wasting chemical resources by synthesizing more product
than is needed
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Positive Feedback: snowball effect, making process longer
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Specific Localization of Enzymes w/in the cell:
- Structures w/in the cell help bring order to metabolic pathways
- Some enzyme act as structural components of membranes
- Some enzymes reside in specific organelles (such as enzymes for cellular
respiration being located in the mitochondria)
- Vacuoles help organize cell
The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP:
- ATP: an organic molecule that releases energy when broken down (release the
phosphate group)
- Cell energy shuttle
- Provides energy for cellular chemical reactions when bond b/n two of it’s
phosphated are broken
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Hydrolysis: the breakdown of bonds b/n the phosphate groups of ATP’s tail
- Energy is released from ATP when the terminal phosphate bond is broken
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This release of energy comes from the chemical change to a state of lower free
energy
How ATP Performs Work:
- ATP drives endergonic reactions by phosphorylation, transferring a phosphate
group to some other molecule, such as reactant
- Three types of cellular work: (powered by the hydrolysis of ATP)
- Mechanical
- Transport
- Chemical
Photosynthesis:
- Photosynthesis: the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy
- Autotrophs: “Self Feeders” sustain themselves w/out eating anything derived from other
organisms
- Producers of the biosphere, producing organic molecules from CO2 and other
inorganic molecules
- Photoautotrophs: organisms that use the energy of sunlight to make organic molecules
from water and CO2
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Chemoautotrophs: sustain themselves using chemicals such as H2S - use chemicals to
make their food
Heterotrophs: Obtain their organic materials from other organisms
- Consumers of the biosphere
- Almost all depend on photoautotrophs for food and oxygen
Chloroplasts: organelles that are responsible for feeding the vast majority of organisms
- Sites of photosynthesis in plants
- Chlorophyll: the green pigment w/in chloroplasts
- Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll drives the synthesis reaction of organic
molecules in the chloroplast
- Stomata (stoma): microscopic pores that allow CO2 to enter leafs and O2 to exit
Photolysis: splitting of water
- Chloroplasts splits water into hydrogen ions and oxygen and electron,
incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into sugar molecules
Light Reaction: (in the thylakoids) split water, release O2, produce ATP, and form
NADPH
Calvin Cycle: (in the stroma) form sugar from CO2 using ATP and NADPH
- Start with carbon fixation, incorporating CO2 into organic molecules
- “The Dark Reactions”, “The Light-Independent Reaction”, “Carbon Fixation
Reaction”
CH2O: basic building block for making sugars
NADPH: electron carrier
PART I: The Light Reaction:
- Convert solar energy to chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
- Chloroplasts are solar-powered chemical factories
- The light reactions take place in the thylakoid membrane
- Product of light reaction: NADPH, ATP, and oxygen
AP Bio Study 25
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Light: a form of electromagnetic energy / radiation
Wavelength: distance b/n crests of waves
- Energy / radiation is determined by wavelength
- Determines type of electromagnetic energy
Electromagnetic Spectrum: the entire range of electromagnetic energy / radiation
Pigments: substances that absorb visible light
- Different pigments absorb different wavelengths
Wavelengths that are not absorbed are reflected or transmitted
Spectrophotometer: measures a pigment’s ability to absorb various wavelengths
- Sends light through pigments and measure the fraction of light transmitted at
each wavelength
Absorption Spectrum: A graph that shows a pigment’s light absorption versus
wavelength
Photosystem: a reaction center associated with light-harvesting complexes
- Consists of a reaction center surrounded by light-harvesting molecules
- Light-Harvesting complex: pigment molecules bound to proteins
- Funnel the energy of light to the reaction center
- Primary electron acceptor: in the reaction center and accepts an excited
electron from chlorophyll
- Solar-powered transfer of an electron from a chlorophyll a molecule to
the primary electron acceptor is the first step of the light reactions
AP Bio Study 26
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Photosystems in the thylakoid:
- Photosystem II: functions first and is best at absorbing a wavelength of 680nm
- Photosystem I: the best at absorbing a wavelength of 700nm
- Work together to use light energy to generate ATP and NADPH
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Chemiosmosis: a process which generates ATP
- The coupling of reactions of the electron transport chain to the production of ATP
- ATP synthase (enzyme) pump H+ ions through a membrane; this allows for the
phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
- Water is split (Photolysis) by photosystem II on the side of the membrane facing
thylakoid space
- The diffusion of H+ from the thylakoid space back to the stroma powers ATP
synthase
- ATP and NADPH are produced on the side facing the stroma, where the Calvin
Cycle takes place
AP Bio Study 27
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PART II: The Calvin Cycle: uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to sugar
- Builds sugar from smaller molecules by using ATP and reducing power of
electrons carried by NADPH (both from light reaction)
- Carbon enters the cycle as CO2 and leaves as a sugar names
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P); happens in the stroma of the chloroplast
- G3P: a three carbon molecule, can be made into glucose, a six carbon molecule
Calvin Cycle:
- Carbon Fixation: CO2 being bonded to large carbon molecules
- Reduction
- Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)
AP Bio Study 28
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On hot, dry days, plants close stomata, which conserves water but also limits
photosynthesis
- The closing of stomata reduces access to CO2 and causes O2 build up
C4 Plants: use the enzyme PEP Carboxylase (strong attraction for CO2) to draw CO2
even when stomates are only slightly open
- They incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds in mesophyll cells
AP Bio Study 29
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These four-carbon compounds are exported to neighboring cells, where they
release their CO2 to be used in the Calvin Cycle
- CAM Plant: open their stomata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic acids stored in
vacuoles
- Stomata close during the day, and CO2 is released from organic acids and used in
the Calvin Cycle (when light is present)
- Review:
- The energy entering chloroplasts as sunlight gets stored as chemical energy in
organic compounds
- Sugar made in chloroplasts supplies chemical energy and carbon skeletons to
synthesize the organic molecules of cells
- In addition to food production, photosynthesis produces the oxygen in our
atmosphere
- Energy from the sun is made into chemical energy through photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration:
Major Concepts:
- Energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and leaves as heat
- Photosynthesis generated oxygen and organic molecules, which are used in cellular
respiration
- Cells use chemical energy stored in organic molecules, like glucose, to generate ATP,
which powers work
- Respiration can create heat
- Plants have both processes
- Have net release of oxygen b/c they create more than needed
Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction:
AP Bio Study 30
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The transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic
matter
- Oxidation: chemical reactions that transfer electrons b/n reactants (loses electrons)
- Reduced reactions, or redox reaction
Catabolic Pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels, ATP is produced
Exergonic: release of energy, (ex: the breakdown of organic molecules)
Fermentation: a partial breakdown of sugars that occurs without oxygen (anaerobic)
Aerobic Cellular Respiration: uses oxygen and breaks down organic molecules to yield ATP
C6H12O6 + 6C2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)
- Opposite of photosynthesis
Glycolysis: can produce ATP with or without O2 (in aerobic or anaerobic conditions)
- Couples with fermentation to produce ATP in the absence of O2
Alcoholic Fermentation (Ethanol Fermentation): pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two
steps, w/ the first releasing CO2
Lactic Acid Fermentation: pyruvate is reduced to NADH, forming lactate as an end product, w/
no release of CO2
Fermentation vs. Aerobic Cellular Respiration:
- Both processes use glycolysis to oxidize glucose and other organic fuels to pyruvate
- The processes have different final electron acceptors an organic molecule (such as
pyruvate) in fermentation and O2 in cellular respiration
- Aerobic cellular respiration produced much more ATP
AP Bio Study 31
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Stages of Aerobic Cellular Respiration:
- Glycolysis: (in cytoplasm of cell) breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
- Before the citric acid cycle can begin, pyruvate (from glycolysis) must be
converted to acetyl CoA (pre-steps to chemical reaction)
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The Citric Acid Cycle (KREBS): completes the breakdown of glucose, (takes place
w/in the mitochondrial matrix) oxidizes organic fuel derived from pyruvate, generating
- One ATP
- 3 NADH
- 1 FADH2
AP Bio Study 32
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Oxidation phosphorylation: Yields the most amount of ATP, powered by the redox
reaction
- In oxidation, electrons are lost
- Chemiosmosis: couples electron transport to ATP synthesis
- NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the electron transport chains, which
power ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation
Production of ATP in Aerobic Respiration:
- Oxidative phosphorylation produced almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular
respiration
AP Bio Study 33
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Electron transport: (cristae of the mitochondria), most are proteins which exist in multiprotein
complexes
- The carriers alternate reduced and oxidized states as the accept and donate electrons
- Electrons drop in free energy as they go down the chain and are finally passed to O2,
forming water
- Generates no ATP
- Function: to break large free-energy drop from food to O2 into smaller steps that release
energy in manageable amounts
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Chemiosmosis:
- Electron transfer in the electron transport chain causes proteins to pump H+ from the
mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space
- H+ then moves back across the membrane, passing through channels in ATP synthase
- ATP synthase uses the exergonic flow of H+ to drive phosphorylation of ATP
AP Bio Study 34
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Catabolism:
- Catabolic pathways funnel electrons from many kinds of organic molecules into
cellular respiration
- Proteins must be digested to amino acids; amino groups can feed glycolysis or
the citric acid cycle
- Fats are digested to glycerol (used in glycolysis) and fatty acids (used generally
in generating acetyl CoA)
- An oxidized grain of fat produces more than 2x as much ATP as an oxidized
gram of carbohydrate
AP Bio Study 35
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Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback Mechanisms:
- If ATP concentration begins to drop, respiration speeds up, when there is plenty
of ATP, respiration slows down
Quizlet:
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Cellular Energetics
Powerpoints:
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Photosynthesis
Cellular Energetics
Cellular Respiration
Videos:
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Enzyme Song
Photosynthesis
ATP and Respiration
AP Bio Study 36
Unit 4: Cell Division and Communication
Vocab:
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Cell Division
Meiosis:
Parent Cell
- The Parent cell’s chromosomes are being
replicated
- Orange (r) + yellow (R) = homologous
- Blue (n) + pink (N) = homologous
Prophase “picture”:
- The cell is a diploid cell; it’s diploid
number (2n) =4
- Spindle fibers will start to appear
- Nuclear envelope disappears
- Chromosomes condense
Metaphase “middle”:
- Chromosome lines up SINGLE file along
the metaphase plate (the equator)
AP Bio Study 37
Anaphase “apart”:
- Sister chromatids move to opposite poles
of the cell
Telophase “two”:
- Two new nuclei are formed
- Both nuclei are identical to each other and
the parent cell
- Nuclear envelope reforms
- Chromosomes decondense
- Since the daughter cells still have
homologous pairs, they are diploid
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Meiosis
AP Bio Study 38
Prophase I:
- Homologous chromosomes synapse and
cross-over
- Spindle fibers appear
- Nuclear envelope disappears
Metaphase I:
- Homologous chromosomes line up
DOUBLE file along the metaphase plate
- Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes
Anaphase I:
- Homologues move to the opposite side of
the cell
Telophase I:
- Two haploid nuclei are created
Prophase II:
- Each cell starts meiosis II
- spindle fibers appear
- chromosomes condense
AP Bio Study 39
Metaphase II:
- Chromosome line up SINGLE file along
the metaphase plate
Anaphase II:
- Sister chromatids move to opposite sides
of the cell
Telophase II:
- Cells are haploid (have only 1 set of
chromosomes)
- Cells have only ½ of the homologous
pairs
- All four cells are genetically different
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Cell Communication
Signal Transduction Pathway: a series of steps by which a signal on a cell’s surface is converted
into a specific cellular response
- Convert signals on a cell’s surface into internal cellular response
AP Bio Study 40
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Cells in a multicellular organism communicate by chemical messengers
Animals and plant cells have cell junctions that directly connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cell
In local signaling, animals cells may communicate by direct contact
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Local Regulators: messenger molecules that travel only short distance
- a) Paracrine signaling
- b) Synaptic signaling
Long distance signaling: plants and animals use chemical called hormones
- c) Hormonal signaling
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Three Stages of Cell Signaling:
AP Bio Study 41
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Reception: a signal molecule binds to a receptor protein, causing it to change shape
- The binding b/n a signal molecule (ligand) and receptor is highly specific
- Most signal receptors are plasma membrane proteins
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Ligand Gated Ion Channels: When a signal molecule binds as a ligand to the
receptor, the gate allows specific ion, such as Na+ and Ca2+, through a channel in
the receptor
AP Bio Study 42
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Transduction: series of molecular interactions relay signals from receptors to target
molecules in the cell
- Signal is amplified
- Multistep reaction pathways can amplify a signal and provide more opportunities
for coordination and regulation
- Signal Transduction Pathway: the molecules that relay a signal from receptor
to response (mostly proteins)
- The receptor activates a protein after protein until a signal is produced
- At each step, the signal is transduced into a different form, usually a
conformational change
- Protein Phosphorylations: transmittance of a signal through a cascade of
protein phosphorylation
- Phosphate enzymes: remove the phosphates
- Kinases: add phosphates
- This phosphorylation and dephosphorylation system acts as a molecular
switch, turning activities on and off
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Cyclic AMP (cAMP): one of the most widely used second messenger
- Adenylyl cyclase, an enzyme in the plasma membrane, converts ATP to
cAMP in response to an extracellular signal
AP Bio Study 43
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Response: Cell signaling leads to regulation of cytoplasmic activities or transcription
- Output response: the cell’s response to an extracellular signal
- A signal transduction pathway lead to regulation of one or more cellular activities
- Many pathways regulate the activities of enzyme, tun genes on or off
Specificity of Cell Signaling:
- Different collection of proteins give each kind of cell specificity in detecting and
responding to signals
- The response is dependent on the cell’s particular collection of proteins
Signal Termination: Inactivation mechanism
- When a signal molecules leave the receptor, the receptor reverts to its inactive state
- Animation
- Video
Quizlet:
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Cell Division and Communication
AP Bio Study 44
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Cell Cycle and Division
Powerpoints:
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Cell Communication
Mitosis and Meiosis
Videos:
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Mitosis
Meiosis
AP Bio Study 45
Unit 5: DNA and Protein Synthesis
Vocab:
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DNA: Instructions for how and when to make proteins (made up of multiple nucleotides)
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
- A polymer consisting of nucleotide monomers
Nitrogenous Bases:
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- Adenine (A): Purine (wide)
- Thymine (T): pyrimidine (narrow)
- Cytosine (C): pyrimidine
- Guanine (G): purine
Genes: organized segments of DNA, each controlling different factors
DNA Base Pair Rule: two sides of the DNA molecule are complementary
- A and T (2 hydrogen bonds)
- C and G (3 hydrogen bonds)
- Hydrogen bonds hold the bases together and are easily broken
Anti-Parallel: one side of the DNA is upside down and one is normal, running in opposite
directions
5’ > 3’: allows for new amino acids to be added to an end of the DNA. each count for a different
carbon on the deoxyribose sugar
Watson and Crick: built models of double helix to conform to the x-rays and chemistry of DNA
Rosalind Franklin: Had concluded that there were two antiparallel sugar-phosphate backbones,
with the nitrogenous bases paired in the molecule’s interior
Sequence: the order of nucleotides in a DNA strand
Replication: Base pairing to a template strand
- Each strand of DNA act as a template for building a new strand
- The parent molecule unwinds (breaks hydrogen bonds) and two new daughter strands are
built based on the base pairing rule
- Semi-conservation: ½ of the DNA is saces and ½ is newly constructed
AP Bio Study 46
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Anti-Parallel Elongation:
- DNA polymerase: in charge of pairing complementary nucleotides (adds nucleotides
only to the 3’ end of the growing strand; (therefore, a new DNA strand can elongate only
in the 5’ to 3’ direction))
- Leading Strand: strand of DNA that has a 3’ end for easier replication. Moving toward
the replication fork
- Lagging Strand: DNA polymerase must work in the direction away from the replication
fork
- Okazaki Fragments: series of segments used to replication of the lagging strand
- DNA Ligase: Glue that connects the okazaki fragments
- Replication Fork: Section where DNA splits
- RNA Primer: laid down foundation for new DNA to attach to. Removed after DNA has
been replicated
AP Bio Study 47
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Proofreading and Repairing DNA:
- DNA Polymerase: proofread newly made DNA, replacing any incorrect nucleotide
- Mismatch repair of DNA: repair enzymes correct errors in base pairing
- Nucleotide excision repair: enzyme cut out and replace damaged stretches of DNA
AP Bio Study 48
1. A thymine dimer distorts the
DNA molecule
2. A nuclease enzyme cuts the
damaged DNA strand at 2 points
and the damaged section is
removed
3. Repair synthesis by a DNA
polymerase fills in the missing
nucleotides
4. DNA ligase seals the free end of
the new DNA to the old DNA,
making the strand complete
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Replicating the Ends of DNA Molecules:
- Telomeres: sequences at the end of eukaryotic DNA
- Do not prevent the shortening of DNA molecules but they do postpone the
erosion of genes near the ends of DNA molecules (sequence: TTAGG repeated)
- Telomerase: enzyme that lengthens telomeres in the gamete cells
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Structure of RNA:
- RNA: a polymer consisting of long chain of nucleotides
- Each nucleotide is made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base
AP Bio Study 49
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Differences in RNA than DNA:
- Sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose (1 extra oxygen)
- RNA is generally single-stranded
- RNA contains uracil in place of thymine
Types of RNA:
- Messenger RNA: (mRNA) carries copies of instructions for assembling amino acids into
proteins in ribosomes
- Ribosomes: complex where proteins are made
- Ribosomal RNA: structural components of Ribosomes
- Transfer RNA: transfers each amino acid to the ribosome
- One for each specific amino acids
- Works w/ mRNA to make proteins
The Central Dogma: Transcription and Translation:
- Transcription: The copy of DNA instructions onto mRNA
- Translation: The sending of mRNA instructions to the Amino Acids (Proteins)
- DNA (transcription - nucleus) -> mRNA (translation- ribosome) -> Amino Acid Proteins
RNA and Protein Synthesis:
- Genes: are coded DNA instructions that control the production of proteins
- Genetic messages can be decoded by copying part of the nucleotide sequence
from DNA to RNA (RNA contains coded info for making proteins)
- Gene Expression: the process by which DNA directs protein synthesis, including two
stages
- 1) Transcription
- 2) Translation
Transcription:
- RNA molecules are produced by copying part of nucleotide sequence of DNA into a
complementary sequence in RNA.
- RNA Polymerase: binds to DNA and separated the DNA strands
- Uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are assembled into
a strand of RNA
- Bind only to Promoters (stretches of DNA at the start of a gene)
- Promoters: indicate where the enzyme binds to make RNA
- Transcription Factors: Mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and initiation of
transcription
AP Bio Study 50
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Modification of mRNA Ends:
- Each end of a pre-mRNA is modified in a particular way once transcription is complete
- The 5’ end receives a modified nucleotide cap
- The 3’ end get a poly-A tail
- These modifications share several functions:
- They seem to facilitate the export of mRNA
- They protect mRNA from hydrolytic enzyme
- They help ribosomes attach to the 5’ end
RNA Editing (Splicing):
- Introns: sequences of nucleotides in eukaryotic genes that are not involved in coding for
proteins
- Cut out of RNA molecules
- Exons: the DNA sequences that code for proteins
- Spliced together to form mRNA
The Genetic Code:
- Codon: consists of three consecutive nucleotide on mRNA that specify a particular
amino acid
- AUG: specifies the amino acid methionine and served as a “start” codon for protein
synthesis
- Stop Codon: three specific stop codons that dignify the end of a polypeptide
AP Bio Study 51
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Translation:
- Translation: the decoding of an mRNA message into a polypeptide chain (protein)
- Takes place in ribosomes
- Uses mRNA codons to produce proteins
- Anticodon: complementary to one mRNA codon used to code for amino acids
- Steps:
- 1) the ribosome binds new tRNA molecules and amino acids as it moves along
the mRNA
- 2) Protein synthesis
- 3) The process continues until the ribosome reaches a stop codon
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The Functional and Evolutionary Importance of Introns:
- Alternative RNA splicing: variations that encode polypeptides depending of which
segments are treated as exons during RNA splicing
- b/c of alternate splicing, the # of different proteins an organism can produce is
much greater than its number of genes.
AP Bio Study 52
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Polypeptides made at Specific Locations in a cell:
- Free Ribosomes: mostly synthesize proteins that function in the cell (cytosol)
- Bound Ribosome: make proteins of the endomembrane system and proteins that are
secreted from the cell
Prokaryotic cells gene expression: lack a nuclear envelope, allowing translation to begin while
transcription progresses
Eukaryotic cell gene expression: the nuclear envelope separates transcription from translation,
Extensive RNA processing occurs in the nucleus
Mutations: changes in the genetic material of a cell or virus
- Affect protein structure and function
- Point Mutation: chemical changes in just one base pair of a gene
Type of Point Mutations:
- Base- Pair Substitutions:
- Replace one nucleotide and its partner w/ another pair of nucleotides
- Missense mutation: code for an amino acid, but not necessarily the right amino
acid
- Nonsense mutation: change an amino acid codon into a stop codon, nearly
always leading to a nonfunctional protein “Stop that nonsense”
AP Bio Study 53
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Base-Pair insertions or deletions
- Some mutations are neutral often due to the “3rd base wobble”
- Are additions or losses of nucleotide pairs in a gene
- Frameshift Mutation: alteration of the reading frame of nucleotides
Mutagens: physical or chemical agents that can cause mutations
- Ex: UV rays, x-rays
Ligase: glue for fragments in DNA replication
Binary Fission: prokaryotic cell division
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Gene Regulation:
Regulation of Gene: Different Genes are expressed for what the cell's needs
- If genes are being expressed then they are being transcribed and translated
- Environmental or “nongenetic” factors can determine whether or not a gene is expressed
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Operons:
AP Bio Study 54
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Operons: control whether a gene or set of gene is turned ON or OFF
- Operons in prokaryotes:
- 1) An operator, an “on-off” switch to which the repressor can bind
- 2) A promoter (region on DNA to which RNA polymerase attaches)
- 3) The gene themselves
- Repressor: a protein that can switch off an operon
- Corepressor: a small molecule that cooperated w/ a repressor to switch an operon off
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Repressible operon: an operon that is usually on; binding of a repressor shuts off
transcription
Inducible operon: an operon that is usually off; a molecule called an inducer inactivates
the repressor and turns on transcription
Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes:
Gene expression is complex and control involved regulatory genes, regulatory elements
and transcription factors that act in concert
Regulatory Gene: product is to regulate other genes called regulatory elements
Transcription Factors:
- 1) bind to specific DNA sequences and/or other regulatory proteins
- 2) Some are activators (increase expression), while others are repressors
(decrease expression)
- 3) The combination of transcription factors binding to the regulatory regions at
any one time determines how much, if any, of the gene product will be produced
AP Bio Study 55
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Control of Protein Synthesis by Controlling mRNA:
The lifespan of mRNA molecules in the cytoplasm is important in determining the
pattern of protein synthesis in a cell
- Eukaryotic mRNA generally survive longer than prokaryotic mRNA
- Just b/c mRNA is transcribed doesn’t mean it’s going to be translated
Initiation of Translation:
- The initiation of translation of selected mRNAs can be blocks by regulator proteins that
bind to sequences or structures of the mRNA
- Alternatively, translation of all mRNAs in a cell may be regulated simultaneously
Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs): regulate gene expression at several points
Effects on mRNAs by ncRNA:
- Micro RNA (miRNAs): small single-stranded RNA molecules that can bind to
complementary mRNA sequences
- These can degrade the mRNA transcript or block its translation
- Small Interfering RNA (siRNA): similar of miRNA but form different RNA precursors
- RNA interference (RNAi): the phenomenon of inhibition of gene expression by siRNA
Studying the Expression of Single Genes:
- Nucleic acid hybridization: a way to detect mRNA in a cell, the base pairing of a strand
of nucleic acid to its complementary sequence
AP Bio Study 56
Nucleic Acid Probe: the complementary molecule that is a short single-stranded DNA or
RNA
- Each probe is labeled w/ a fluorescent tag to allow visualization
- In situ hybridization: The technique that allows us to see the mRNA in place (in situ) in
the intact organism
Gene Therapy: the manipulation of genes to treat / cure genetic diseases
When Regulation Goes Wrong:
- Cancer results from genetic changes that affect cell cycle control
- The gene regulation systems that go wrong during cancer are very same systems that play
important roles in embryonic development
Types of Genes Associated w/ Cancer:
- Genes that normally regulate cell growth and division during the cell cycle include:
- Genes for growth factors
- Their receptor
- Intracellular molecules of signaling pathways
- ***Mutations altering any of these genes in somatic cells can lead to cancer***
Oncogenes: cancer-causing genes
Proto-oncogenes: normal cellular genes that code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth
and division
- A DNA change that makes a proto-oncogene excessively active converts it to an
oncogenes, which may promote excessive cell division and cancer
Tumor-suppressor gene: encode proteins that inhibit abnormal cell division
- Any decrease in the normal activity of a tumor-suppressor protein may contribute to
cancer
P53 gene: encodes a tumor-suppressor protein that is a specific transcription factor that promotes
synthesis of cell cycle - inhibiting proteins
- “Guardian angel of the genome”
- Mutations that knock out the p53 gene can lead to excessive cell growth and cancer
Virus and Cancer:
- Certain viruses promote cancer by integration of viral DNA into a cell’s genome
- By the process, a virus may donate an oncogene to the cell
Individuals who inherit a mutant oncogene or tumor-suppressor allele have an increased risk of
developing certain types of cancer
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Quizlet:
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Gene Regulation
Protein Synthesis
DNA Replication
DNA replication and Protein Synthesis (short)
AP Bio Study 57
Powerpoints:
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Gene Regulation
DNA and Protein Synthesis
Videos:
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DNA
DNA Structure and Replication
AP Bio Study 58
Unit 6: Genetics
Vocab:
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True Breeding: homozygous (“BB” or “bb”)
Hybrid: heterozygous (“Bb”)
Genotype: genetic makeup of an individual for a given gene
Allele: alternate versions of a gene
Concept #1: alternate versions of a gene accounts for variation in inherited characters
Concept #2: for each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent
Concept #3: if the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (dominant) determines the organism’s
appearance, and the other (recessive) has no noticeable effect on appearance.
Law of Segregation: the two alleles for a heritable character separate (segregate) during gamete
formation and end up in different gametes
Homozygous: an organism with two identical alleles for a character
Heterozygous: an organism with two different alleles for a gene (not true-breeding)
Phenotype: an organism’s physical appearance, internal anatomy, physiology, and behavior
Test Cross: breeding an individual with a homozygous recessive individual to test for the
genotype of an specific individual
Monohybrid Cross: Bb x Bb (standard 3:1 ratio)
Dihybrid Cross: BbNn x BbNn (standard 9:3:3:1 ratio)
Law of Independent Assortment: that each pair of alleles for different traits segregates
independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation
- Law only applies to genes on different, nonhomologous chromosomes
Multiplication Rule: the probability that two or more independent events will occur together is
the product of their individual probabilities
Complete Dominance: occurs when phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote
are identical
Codominance: two dominant alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways
Incomplete Dominance: the phenotype of F1 hybrids in somewhere b/n the phenotypes of the
two parental varieties (blend)
Pleiotropy: a property where most genes have multiple phenotypic effects
Epistasis: some traits can be determined by 2 or more genes
Polygenic Inheritance: an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotype (ex: skin
color)
Carriers: are heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically
normal
Cystic Fibrosis: an allele results in defective or absent chloride transport channels in plasma
membranes
Sickle-Cell Disease: caused by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein
in red blood cells
Inbreeding: mating of close relatives
AP Bio Study 59
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Achondroplasia: a form of dwarfism that is lethal when homozygous for the dominant allele
Loci: location
Wild Type: dominant
Mutant: recessive
Sex-linkage: sex-linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance
Sex-linkage gene: a gene located on either sex chromosome
X-linked trait: trait linked with x chromosome
Y-linked trait: trait linked with y chromosomes
Linked genes: genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together
Parental type: same phenotype as parents
Recombinant: different phenotypes than their parent
Recombinant frequency: the percentage of how many recombinant offspring you can get from
your total offspring
Recombination: crossing-over
Linkage Map: a genetic map of a chromosome based on recombination frequencies
Cytogenetic Maps: a genetic map that indicate the positions of genes with respect to
chromosomal features
Nondisjunction: pairs of homologous chromosomes do not separate normally during meiosis. As
a result, one gamete receives two of the same type of chromosome, and another gamete receives
no copy
Aneuploidy: results from the fertilization of gametes in which nondisjunction occurred
Trisomic zygote: has three copies of a particular chromosome
Monosomic zygote: has only one copy of a particular chromosome
Polyploidy: a condition in which an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes
Deletion: removal of a chromosomal segment (not create certain proteins)
Duplication: repeat of a segment in a chromosome (can lead to overproduction of proteins)
Inversion: reverses a segment within a chromosome
Translocation: moves a segment from one chromosome to another
Quizlet:
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Genetics
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Powerpoints (extra):
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Genetics
Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Videos:
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Heredity
AP Bio Study 60
Diagrams:
AP Bio Study 61
AP Bio Study 62
AP Bio Study 63
AP Bio Study 64
Unit 7: Evolution
Vocab:
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Evolution: a change in genetic composition of a population from generation to generation
Endemic Species: species that are not found anywhere else in the world
Fossil: a preserve remnant or impression of an organism that lived in the past
Strata: Layers of sediment and rock in which fossils can be found
Paleontology: The study of fossils
Homology: Similarity in characteristics resulting from a shared ancestry
Homologous Structures: Structures in different species that are similar because of common
ancestry
Vestigial Structures: a structure in an organism that is a “remnant” of an earlier organism and is
usually not useful to the individual
Convergent Evolution: The independent evolution of similar features in different lineages
Adaptive Evolution: Evolution that results in a better match between organisms and their
environment
Genetic Drift: an event where the allele frequencies fluctuate, not following predictions, from
generation to generation, especially in small populations where allele fluctuations are more likely
- Can be caused by chance that some organisms reproduce and other don’t. They can also
be caused by chances in the sex cell combinations in heterozygotes
- Genetic drift can lead to a smaller gene pool in a population, and for “harmful alleles to
become fixed”
The Founder Effect: When a small portion of a whole population becomes isolated, so overtime
they develop a very different gene pool than the rest of the population that they were separated
from, because of genetic drift.
The Bottleneck Effect: A severe drop in population possible due to a fire, flood, or loss of
habitat. Because of chance, the remaining individuals might hold a complete different gene pool
than the original population.
Gene Flow: The transfer of alleles into or out of a population due to the movement of fertile
individuals or their gametes
Relative Fitness: the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation
relative to the contributions of other individuals
Selection: refers to an organism’s phenotype, not genotype
Directional Selection: The shift of the overall phenotype of a population. There is only one
favored phenotype, and the farther away from that phenotype and organism is, the less prevalent
that type is seen in the wild. The shift can go in either directions. It can happen when the
environment changes slightly, or some of the population migrates
Disruptive Selection: The type of selection that favors two types of phenotypes that are at the
extreme, and the original favored phenotype is now very low.
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Stabilizing Selection: Favors the intermediate phenotype and not the extremes. The original
phenotype, instead of changing, becomes more abundant in the populations, so there is less
phenotypic variety.
Sexual Selection: Where individuals with certain traits are more likely than other individuals to
obtain mates
Sexual Dimorphism: A difference in secondary sexual characteristics between males and
females of the same species
Intrasexual selection: individuals of the same sex compete for mates of the opposite sex
Neutral Variation: differences in DNA sequence that do not confer a selective advantage or
disadvantage
Heterozygote Advantage: When it is more advantageous to be heterozygous and not
homozygous
Reproductive Isolation: The existence of biological barriers that impede members of two
species from interbreeding and producing viable, fertile offspring
Prezygotic barrier: A reproductive barrier that doesn’t allow for fertilization of an egg
Postzygotic barrier: A reproductive barrier that prevents offspring from turning into viable,
fertile adults
Biological Species Concept: a species is a group of organism whose members can breed and
produce viable, fertile offspring but cannot produce viable and fertile offspring with and outside
species
Morphological Species Concept: Species are distinguished by body shape and physical
structures
Ecological Species Concept: Species are distinguished by their biological niches.
Accommodates both sexual and asexual organisms
Phylogenetic Species Concept: Characterizing organisms into species by the smallest group of
individuals that share a common ancestor
Allopatric Speciation: When a species is split geographically, so that two new species arise from
the original one
Sympatric Speciation: When speciation occurs with animals living in the same geographical
location
Sexual Selection: Choosing to mate with only particular individuals (Ex: some female fish only
like to mate with fish within the same species)
Polyploidy: A condition where an individual has more than the normal number of sets of
chromosomes
Autopolyploid: An individual who has more than two sets of chromosomes from two parents of
the same species
Alloploid: A fertile individual who has more than two chromosome and has parents that are two
different species
Prezygotic barriers impede mating or hinder
fertilization if mating does occur
Habitat
“Two species that occupy different
Postzygotic barriers prevent a hybrid zygote
from developing into a viable, fertile adult
Reduced
“The genes of different parent
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Isolation
habitats within the same area may
encounter each other rarely, if at
all, even though they are not
isolated by obvious physical
barriers such as mountain ranges.”
Temporal
Isolation
“Species that breed during
different times of the day, different
seasons, or different years cannot
mix their genes.”
Behavioral
Isolation
“Courtship rituals that attract
mates and other behaviors unique
to a species are effective
reproductive barriers, even
between closely related species.
Such behavioral rituals enable
mate recognition - a way to
identify potential mates of the
same species.”
Mechanical
Isolation
“Mating is attempted, but
morphological differences prevent
its successful completion.”
Gametic
Isolation
“Sperm of one species may not be
able to fertilize the eggs of another
species. For instance, sperm may
not be able to survive in the
reproductive tract of females of the
other species or biochemical
mechanisms may prevent the
sperm from penetrating the
membrane surrounding the other
species’ eggs.”
Hybrid
Viability
species may interact in ways that
impair the hybrid's development or
survival in its environment.”
Reduced
Hybrid
Fertility
“Even if the hybrids are vigorous,
they may be sterile. If the
chromosomes of the two parent
species differ in number or
structure, meiosis in the hybrids
may fail to produce normal
gametes. Since the infertile hybrids
cannot produce offspring when
they mate with either parent
species, genes cannot flow freely
between the species.”
Hybrid
Breakdown
“Some first-generation hybrids are
viable and fertile, but when they
mate with one another or with
either parent species, offspring of
the next generation are feeble or
sterile.”
Color code - Mating does not occur; Mating is not successful; Fertilization is not successful
Quizlet:
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Password: Bioble
Quizlet
Powerpoints (extra):
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Evolution
Notes (Printable Study Guide)
AP Bio Study 67
Videos:
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Population Genetics
Natural Selection
Speciation
Evolution
AP Bio Study 68
Unit 8: Animal Systems
Vocab:
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Endocrine System:
- Anatomy: The study of the biological form of an organism
- Physiology: The study of the biological functions an organism performs
- Tissues: Groups of cells with similar appearance and common function
- Organs: Different types of tissues organized into functional units
- Organ systems: Groups of organs that work together
- Homeostasis: Maintenance of an internal balance in the body
- Negative feedback: A control mechanism that reduces the stimulus
- Positive feedback: A control mechanism that reinforces a stimulus to increase the
response
- Endocrine system: Process in which signaling molecules are released into the
bloodstream by endocrine cells to reach all locations in the body
- Hormone: Signaling molecule
- Hypothalamus: Integrates and coordinates the endocrine and nervous systems
- Pituitary gland: Produces critical hormones that control various bodily functions
- Thermoregulation: The regulation of the internal body temperature
- Vasodilation: When blood vessels expand to bring warm blood to the surface of the body
- Vasoconstriction: When blood vessels constrict to push warm blood toward the core of
the body
- Epinephrine: Adrenaline
- Protein Hormones: Bind to receptors outside the cell
- Lipid Hormones: Bind to receptors inside the cell
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AP Bio Study 70
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Nervous System:
- Neuron: Nerve cell that transfers information within the body
- Electrical signals: Long distance signals of charged ions
- Chemical signals: Short distance signals of neurotransmitters
- Ganglia: Clusters of neurons
- Dendrites: Branched extensions from the body of the neuron that collect stimuli
- Axon: Long tail of the neuron
- Axon hillock: Base of the axon
- Synapse: Gap between the end of one axon and the beginning of the next nerve cell
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Neurotransmitters: Chemical signals that pass information between neurons in the
synapse
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Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and is where
information is processed
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The neurons that carry information into and out of
the CNS
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Sensory Neurons: Transmits information from sensors that detect external stimuli or
internal conditions
Interneurons: Integrates the information in the CNS that was transmitted by sensory
neurons
Motor Neurons: Neurons that transmit the signals to trigger muscle or gland activity
Resting potential: The membrane potential of a neuron that is not sending signals
Membrane potential: Difference of charge between the inside and the outside of the cell
Sodium-potassium pump: Helps maintain the K+ and Na+ gradients across the plasma
membrane at rest through the use of ATP
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Ion channel: Embedded protein channel that only allows certain ions to pass through
Depolarization: When a cell goes from its resting potential to active potential
Repolarization: When a cell returns to resting potential from active potential
Active potential: A shift in the membrane potential
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Myelin sheath: Produced by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells; insulate axons and
enables faster travel of signals
Node of Ranvier: Parts of the axon not covered by myelin sheaths
Saltatory conduction: The process of action potentials in sheathed axons jumping
between nodes of Ranvier
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Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSPs): When action potentials are generated
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSPs): When action potentials are inhibited
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Afferent neurons: Sensory neurons that transmit signals toward the CNS
Efferent neurons: Motor neurons that transmit signals away from the CNS
Acetylcholine: Helps with muscle stimulation, memory formation, and learning
Sympathetic division: Brings on the “Fight or Flight” response
Parasympathetic division: Brings on the “Rest and Digest” response
Enteric division: controls digestion
Immune System:
- Pathogens: Agents that cause disease
- Innate Immunity: Attacks anything that looks like it doesn’t belong; rapid response
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Adaptive Immunity: How you adapt to all the pathogens you come into contact with;
slower response
Humoral response: Antibodies defend against infection in body fluids
Cell-mediated response: Cytotoxic cells defend against infection in body cells
Lysozyme: An enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls
Interferon: Interferes with the reproduction of infected cells
Inflammatory response:
- Causes the feeling of pain
- Swelling is the flowing of extra blood to the injury
- Mast cells: First responding white blood cells; releases histamine which causes
vasodilation
- Cytokines released by phagocytic cells promotes blood flow to the site
Some pathogens adapt to avoid the immune system
Lymphocytes: White blood cells
T Cells: A type of white blood cell; mature in the thymus, above the heart; destroy
infected host cells; part of the cell-mediated immune response
B Cells: A type of white blood cell; mature in the bone marrow; produce antibodies; part
of the humoral immune response
Antigen: Cellular name tag that is a protein produced by B cells
Helper T Cells: Activates other T cells and B cells
Antibodies: Tag pathogens for destruction
Plasma cells: B cell clones
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Major Histocompany Complex (MHC) molecules: Display the antigen fragment of the
pathogen it’s infected by
Apoptosis: Cell death
Clonal selection: Natural selection when a B or T cell undergoes multiple cell divisions
to produce identical clones
Clones become effector cells and memory cells
Primary Immune Response (PIR): First immune response to a pathogen, takes longer
Secondary Immune Response (SIR): Is faster, stronger, and more efficient than the PIR
Active Immunity: Occurs naturally when a pathogen infects the body; induced
artificially
Passive Immunity: Provides immediate, short-term protection; Induced artificially
Vaccinations are active immunity
Allergies: Exaggerated responses to antigens
Autoimmune diseases: When the immune system targets healthy, normal cells
Viruses can hide in host cells and go unnoticed by the immune system, until a stimulus
reactivates it
RNA viruses have a high mutation rate
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Digestive System:
- Salivary amylase: breaks down amylose(starch)
- Pancreas produces digestive enzymes
- Fiber feeds the healthy bacteria
- Oral cavity: Made up of the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus
- Lysozyme: Antibacterial action
- Bolus: Chewed food with saliva
- Pharynx: Common area for food and air
- Epiglottis: Transports bolus from pharynx to stomach
- Upper esophageal: Sphincter that allows food through but not air
- Esophagus: Transports bolus from pharynx to stomach
- Peristalsis: Involuntary muscular movement of food
- Lower Esophageal: Sphincter between esophagus and stomach
- Stomach: Storage and mixing chamber; only digests proteins
- Hydrochloric Acid: Activates pepsinogen to pepsin
- Pepsin: Enzyme that digests proteins
- Chyme: What bolus turns into when in the stomach
- Pyloric: Sphincter between stomach and duodenum
- Small Intestine: Made up of duodenum, jejunum and ileum; is the main digestive organ
- Large Intestine: Location of most absorption; made up of the ascending colon,
transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum; where chyme is
converted into feces
- Ileocecal: Sphincter between the small intestine and the large intestine
- Liver: Organ that produces bile
- Gall-Bladder: Storage place for bile
- Pancreas: Produces 4 enzymes and bicarbonate used in digestion
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Circulatory System:
- Closed circulatory system: Blood is always contained in blood vessels
- Open circulatory system: Blood is sometimes in vessels, sometimes in a sinus
- Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart; Are smaller, but have thicker walls
- Veins: Carry blood toward the heart; Have valves that help the blood move in 1 direction
- Capillaries: Connect blood vessels to cells
- Direction of blood flow: Arteries > Arterioles > Capillaries > Venules > Veins
- Blue Blood: Deoxygenated blood
- Red Blood: Oxygenated blood
- Hemoglobin: A protein in red blood cells
- Pulmonary Circuit: Right side of the heart > Pulmonary artery > Capillaries of lungs >
Pulmonary vein > Left side of the heart
- Blood cells: Drop off nutrients, like oxygen, and pick up waste products, like CO2
- Systemic Circuit: Left side of the heart > Body parts > Right side of the heart
- Systolic pressure: Pressure when the heart just pumped
- Diastolic pressure: Pressure in an artery when the heart is relaxed
- Hypertension: High blood pressure
-
Respiratory System:
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Respiration: The exchange of gas with the environment
Pharynx: The point where the air from the nose and mouth meet
Trachea: A tube that splits off from the pharynx and leads to the lungs
Larynx: The vocal chords
Laryngitis: An infection in the larynx
Bronchi: The tubes that break off from the trachea
Bronchioles: The smaller tubes that break off from the bronchi
Alveoli: The smaller tubes that break off from the bronchioles which are covered in
capillaries for oxygen diffusion
Diaphragm: The muscle which pushes air out of the lungs as it expands
Quizlet:
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Immune System - Sahit Version
Nervous System - Sahit Version
Endocrine System - Sahit Version
Circulatory System
Digestive System
Respiratory System
Powerpoint (extra):
-
Animal Structures
Circulation and Respiration
AP Bio Study 83
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Endocrine System
Immunity - Screencast
Nervous System
Unit 8 Study Guide
Videos:
Endocrine System
Immune System - Part 1 - Part 2 - Part 3
Nervous System
Digestive System
Circulatory & Respiratory System
Diagrams:
AP Bio Study 84
Unit 9: Ecology
Vocab:
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Ethology: scientific study of animal behavior, particularly in natural environments
Hierarchy: organization of complex biological structures
- Population: a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area
- Population Ecology: study of the interactions of individuals w/in a population
- Community: multiple populations of various species living close enough for potential
interactions
- Community Ecology: study of the interactions b/n living things living w/in an ecosystem
- Ecosystem: All organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors w/ which they
interact with
- Ecosystem Ecology: how energy and material come into an ecosystem and how they are
used
- Biosphere: global ecosystem, the sum of all the planet’s ecosystems
Biomass: Total Mass (weight) of a living thing, ecosystem, etc.
Productivity: The amount of energy being produced in an ecosystem
Trophic Structure: Food Chain
- Primary Producers: plants
- Primary consumers: herbivores (grasshopper)
- Secondary Consumer: (mouse)
- Tertiary Consumer: (snake)
- Quaternary Consumer: (bird)
Herbivores: plant eaters
Detritivores: eat dead stuff in ecosystems “recyclers” (return energy back to ecosystem)
Carnivores: eat living things
Omnivores: eat plants and animals
Food Web: connecting animals to the multiple things they eat
Bioaccumulation: accumulation of toxic materials through different organisms. The higher on
the food chain, the more toxin they carry (toxins stay w/in organisms forever)
Ecology: Scientific study of the interactions b/n organisms and their environment
- Abiotic: non living components
- Biotic: living components
Dispersal: movement of individuals away from centers of height population density or from their
area of origin (contributes to global distribution of organisms)
- Natural Range Expansions: show the influence of dispersal on distribution
Density: the # of individuals per unit area / volume
Dispersion: the pattern of spacing among individuals w/in the boundaries of the population
Biotic Factors: How species react w/ each other
- Affect the distribution of organisms may include:
- Interactions w/ other species
- Predation (preying of one animal on others)
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Competition
Abiotic Factors:
- Abiotic factors affecting distribution of organisms:
- Temperature (affects biological processes)
- Water (availability)
- Sunlight (rate of photosyn. / photoperiods)
- Wind (rate of evaporation)
- Rock and soil
- Many characteristics of soil limit distribution of plants and thus the
animals that feed upon them:
- Physical Structure
- pH
- Mineral composition
Climate: Prevailing weather in an area
- Components: temp, water, wind, sunlight, moisture levels
- Macroclimate: consist of patterns on the global, regional, and local levels
- Microclimate: consists of very fine patterns , such as those encountered by the
community of organisms underneath a fallen log
Niches / Competitive Exclusion Principle:
- Niche: the role of an organsm w/in an ecosystem
- What it takes and gives to an ecosystem
- Competitive Exclusion Principle: two species going for the same niche, 1 will die b/c
they can’t compete for the same resources
- Can “compromise” and have different natural selection advantages to coexist
- Mutualistic species do not have the same niche, but them benefit each other
Species Diversity: of a community if the variety of organisms that make up the community
- Species Richness: the total # of different species in the community
- Relative Abundance: the proportion each species represents of the total individuals in
the community
Biodiversity: diverse amount of organisms
- Diversity: allows for a variety in species. Environment is constantly changing
Demography: the study of the vital statistics of a population and how they change over time
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Death Rates and Birth Rates are of particular interest
If immigration and emigration are ignored, a population growth rate (per capita increase)
equal birth rate minus death rate
Population Graph / Eqns:
- Population Growth Rate: birth rate - death rate
- Zero population growth occurs when the birth rate equal the death rate
- Exponential Growth: the population increase under idealized conditions, unlimited
environment
Exponential growth:
Key:
dN = change in # of individuals
dt = change in time
r = rmax = maximum rate of growth per
individual (given)
-
Under these conditions, the rate of reproduction is at its maximum, called the intrinsic
rate of increase
-
Logistic Growth: includes the concept of carrying capacity
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Logistic growth: Equation:
-
-
-
Key:
dN = change in # of individuals
dt = change in time
r = rmax = maximum rate of growth per
individual (given)
K = population limit
- Carrying Capacity (K): the max population size the environment can support
R - Strategy vs K - Strategy:
- R - Strategy: Organisms that live in unstable environments that tend to make many
“cheap” offspring b/c it benefits them to maximize their population “r” (rate of growth)
- Ex: flies
- K - Strategy: Organisms that live in stable environments that tend to make few
“expensive” offspring b/c they are approaching carrying capacity (K)
- Take care of their offspring for many years
- Ex: deer
Invasive Species: non - native (doesn’t have natural predators which allow them to flourish)
Density - Dependent Population Regulation: birth rate and death rates are an example of
negative - feedback that regulated population growth
- Factors: competition for resources, territoriality, health, predation, toxic wastes, and
intrinsic factors (genes)
Interactions:
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Interspecific: Interaction between species (inter = between / intra = within)
Competition: Both competing organisms will try to fight for dominance, which hurts
both species.
- Predation: The predator benefits, but the prey is eaten
- Herbivory: has to do with plants being eaten (ex. Cow eats grass)
- Parasitism: the parasite is dependent on its host and the host is harmed by the parasite
- Disease: host of pathogen is harmed while the pathogen flourishes
- Mutualism: When the two species help each other out to the extent where they cannot
live without each other
- Commensalism: one species benefits while the other species really is not affected (ex,
barnacle on a whale, the whale allows the barnacle more access to food in the water and
the whale is not really effected)
Succession: over years, new organisms will move there due to the better environment formed by
previous organisms
- Primary: starting an ecosystem from barren, newly formed land
- Rock erodes and forms soil
- Pioneer species inhabit the new land first b/c they are very low maintenance
- Help make it habitable for more organisms
- Soil gets more nutrient rich - which allows for more species to move in
- Decomposing bodies allow for more nutrients
- Deeper roots, trees block light to ground plants
- Secondary: Success that stars w/ and established climax community, then a disturbance
occurs
- Ex: Forest Fire, Hurricane, tsunami
- If there was originally soil - then it is secondary
- This ecosystem can recover faster
- Climax Community: very diverse and stable
- Pioneer Community: first species to move there
Binary fission: the process that prokaryotes use to split
Behaviors:
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AP Bio Study 89
Chemotaxis: physical movement of an organism toward an increasing / decreasing conc.
gradient of a substance
- Coloration for Protection: coloration of an animal that enables it to blend w/ its
surroundings
- Courtship Rituals: an organism’s behavior meant to attract a mate / express desire to
reproduce
- Imprinting: learning that occurs early in life of an individual and is irreversible for that
period of time
- Inclusive Fitness: the ability to pass on genes including those of close relatives
- Altruistic: belief that the well-being of others is equal to your own
- Innate Behavior: the behaviors that’s genetically hardwired in an organism and can be
performed in response to a cue w/out prior experience
- Learned Behavior: a behavior that is learned by experience. Response to an abnormal
stimuli
- Migration: behavior a species carries out due to climate change
- Pack Behavior: animal traveling in groups for better survival
- Photoperiodism: the response of plants and animals to the length of day / night or
periods of dark / light
- Pollination as a cooperative behavior: Multiple organisms that have a mutually
beneficial relationship w/ each other and result of the pollination of plants
- Predator Warning: different mechanisms of alerting others about the threat of a predator
Nutrient Cycles:
- Nitrogen Cycle:
- Nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted into nitrites (NO2) and nitrates (NO3)
via nitrifying bacteria / N-fixing bacteria
- Plants absorb the usable nitrogen and use it to create biomass / proteins
- Animals gain the useable Nitrogen via eating the plants
- Use nitrogen to make nucleic acids and amino acids
- Decomposers take waste to use deamination to create Ammonium and
N-containing compounds
- Nitrification occurs again to cycle nitrogen w/in dirt
- Denitrification occurs by denitrifying bacteria to return Nitrogen to the
atmosphere
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- CHNOPS
- SPONCH CaFe
Carbon Cycle:
- Photosynthesis takes carbon from the atmosphere and converted from CO2 to
sugar
- Sugar is used in respiration and puts CO2 back into the atmosphere
- Decomposers can feed on carbon from waste
- Carbon can be converted into fossil fuels (Petroleum, oil, Natural Gas, Peet)
- Combustion: burning of fossil fuels
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Water Cycle:
- Transpiration: water evaporates through plant leaves
- Percolation: water being absorbed by the soil
- TOXINS BUILD UP, THEY DON’T GO AWAY
Energy Transfer: (food web / pyramid)
- Only 10% of energy contained by the previous trophic level is passed on
- Producers use photosynthesis to make their food
- Primary consumers
- Secondary consumers
- Tertiary consumer (doesn’t usually go beyond this)
- Producer have greater biomass b/c they are directly absorbing sun energy
Isle Royale: (predator / prey)
- Moose (prey) and the wolves (predators) on the island
- Small and isolated, so easy to keep track of their numbers
- Wolves and Moose were opposites of each other in pattern
- Same patterns, but with a delay- moose increase first, then wolf increase moose decrease
ect.
Long growing seasons were supposed to be good for everyone but more food actually
created drastic changes in population and it was unsustainable being that big and they ran
out of food
Eco systems need to be BALANCED
- In wolf populations there was plenty of inbreeding due to it being an isolated island
which led to genetic disorders and the small population on the island
- Emphasizes how important biodiversity and genetic diversity iN
- BIODIVERSITY IS important to ecosystems bc. The wide range of species is gooddifferent prey, new food, balances everything out
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Invasives species (placed there by mistake)- new ecosystem, so it can thrive and throw
the balance out of whack. Drive down biodiversity
Quizlets:
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Ecology
Powerpoint:
-
Ecology
Extra Help Document
Videos:
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Ecology - Crashcourse
Eco 109 - Crashcourse
Ecosystem Ecology - Crashcourse
Ecological Succession - Crashcourse