Target-Language Community Involvement: Second-Language
Linguistic Self-Confidence and Other Perceived Benefits
Kirsten M. Hummel
The Canadian Modern Language Review / La revue canadienne des
langues vivantes, Volume 69, Number 1, February / février 2013, pp.
65-90 (Article)
Published by University of Toronto Press
For additional information about this article
https://muse.jhu.edu/article/498634
[ Access provided at 9 Sep 2022 15:54 GMT from La Bibliotheque de l'Universite Laval ]
Target-Language Community
Involvement: Second-Language
Linguistic Self-Confidence and Other
Perceived Benefits
Kirsten M. Hummel
Abstract: French native-speaking students (N = 20) enrolled in a university
TESL program were asked to participate in a community service-learning
project in an English-speaking minority community in Québec. Results from
this qualitative study indicated that active community involvement led to
strong perceptions of positive effects. The principal effects reported by participants included greater linguistic self-confidence along with the perception of
having improved their second language (L2) skills, increased knowledge
about their field of study (L2 teaching), and confirmation of their professional
goals, personal satisfaction from helping young children and other community members, and to some extent, greater knowledge about the local Englishspeaking community. The results suggest that community service learning
may have been an effective way to enhance L2 learning for the participants in
this study, with particular effects on linguistic self-confidence, and might be
appropriate in similar contexts in which opportunities for intergroup contact
are not readily available.
Keywords: linguistic self-confidence, second-language acquisition, service
learning
Résumé : Des étudiants de langue maternelle française (N = 20) inscrits dans
un programme universitaire d’enseignement de l’anglais langue seconde
(TESL) ont été sollicités pour prendre part à une expérience d’apprentissage
par le travail communautaire dans une collectivité anglophone en situation
minoritaire du Québec. Les résultats de cette étude qualitative montrent que
l’engagement actif dans la communauté a produit une perception personnelle
très marquée des effets positifs. En plus d’une confiance en soi accrue sur le
plan linguistique, les principaux effets rapportés par les participants sont :
l’impression d’avoir amélioré leurs habiletés dans leur langue seconde (L2),
une meilleure connaissance de leur domaine d’études (l’enseignement d’une
L2) et la confirmation de leurs objectifs professionnels, la satisfaction personnelle d’avoir aidé de jeunes enfants et d’autres membres de la communauté,
et, dans une certaine mesure, une meilleure connaissance de la communauté
anglophone locale. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’apprentissage par le travail
communautaire peut constituer un moyen efficace, pour les participants de
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Hummel
l’étude, d’améliorer l’apprentissage de leur L2, notamment en ce qui concerne
la confiance en soi, en plus de convenir à d’autres contextes similaires quand
les occasions de contacts intergroupes sont rares.
Mots clés : confiance en soi sur le plan linguistique; acquisition de la langue
seconde; apprentissage par le bénévolat
This study involved French native-speaking university students in a
service-learning experience in an English-speaking minority community in the province of Québec. Our principal objective was to observe
the effects of interactions and collaborative activities with native
speakers on the linguistic self-confidence of students of English as a
second language (ESL). We also examined effects of the experience on
students’ perceptions of academic benefits and their attitudes toward
the second-language (L2) community. We used qualitative methods,
in particular semi-structured interviews, to explore effects of this community-based learning experience.
French is the official language of Québec, and approximately 80%
of the population consists of native speakers of French. The approximate 8% of native English speakers in Québec live predominantly in
the greater Montreal region, although many also live in the Eastern
Townships, east of Montreal and in the Gatineau (near Ottawa)
region. In addition, more than 12% of the population has a mother
tongue other than French or English (Statistics Canada, 2007). Outside
of the areas mentioned earlier, the population is overwhelmingly composed of native speakers of French. French-language universities
throughout the province are committed to training Francophone students to develop the necessary skills to teach ESL in primary and secondary schools. An ongoing complaint on the part of these future ESL
teachers in areas outside of Montreal is the lack of local opportunities
to use English in natural contexts. Students are exposed to English for
approximately 15 hours per week in their university courses, but at
many of the French-language universities few opportunities arise to
interact with English speakers outside the restricted context of their
classrooms.
In this regard, although the body of literature on study-abroad experiences is increasing (for overviews, see DuFon & Churchill, 2006;
Kinginger, 2009), relatively few studies have explicitly investigated
the effects of facilitating reciprocal interactions between L2 learners
and target-language community members (for some exceptions, see
Wurr & Hellebrandt, 2007). This is surprising because substantial
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research has attested to the importance of social context (e.g., Belmechri & Hummel, 1998; Clément, 1980; Noels & Clément, 1996) as well
as social psychological variables such as attitudes and motivation
(e.g., Gardner, 1985; Gardner & Lambert, 1972; see also Dörnyei, 2005
for a review) in the L2 learning process.
One increasingly prevalent learning approach with particular relevance to issues concerning the role of social context in any learning
situation is known as community-based learning or community-based
service learning. Service learning has generally been defined as learning in education that takes place outside of the institution and draws
on student experiences and interactions with members of the surrounding community. Important distinctions are made between service learning, in which both service to the community and learning
on the part of students are equally valued, and volunteering, which
primarily emphasizes service to the community. A distinction is also
made between service learning and the practice of internships, in
which the focus is on training students to prepare for a future profession. In a service-learning approach, students use their academic
course content to understand and deal with issues found in local
communities.
Service learning is closely related to experiential learning theory and
research by Kolb (1984), whose model suggests that four main elements
make up effective learning: concrete experience, observation and reflection, formation of abstract concepts, and testing in new situations (or
active experimentation). Important components of service learning
include the elements of reflection and reciprocity: personal reflection to
facilitate student learning and development and reciprocity between
the student and the person or group served. An increasingly abundant
literature has indicated the positive impact of community service learning on student personal development (e.g., Astin & Sax, 1998) and academic outcomes (e.g., Strage, 2000).
Although the potential benefits of service learning for language
learning are emerging (e.g., Overfield, 1997; Polansky, 2004; Wurr &
Hellebrandt, 2007), relatively few empirical studies have specifically
focused on the effect of service learning on variables related to L2
learning. In one study based on a small number of survey questions,
Morris (2001) reported significant effects on attitude and motivation
after a semester-long service-learning class in a group of students
studying Spanish who initially showed low motivation. Similarly, a
short-term service-learning project in an ESL community college
course was reported to lead to positive effects (Elwell & Bean, 2001). A
survey-based study (Grassi, Hanley, & Liston, 2004) revealed service
learning had positive academic and personal outcomes for Hispanic
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L2 learners in public school systems in the United States. A recent service-learning study in Spanish-heritage language education revealed
positive effects on participants’ confidence as well as on their identity
as Spanish speakers (Leeman, Rabin, & Roman-Mendoza, 2011). Such
results support the suggestion by Grabois (2007), who pointed out the
potential benefits of service learning for language learning, emphasizing that “it diminishes the classroom as the primary place of learning,
and establishes an environment where authentic interaction is not a
pedagogical goal, but rather social reality” (p. 181).
Social constructivism is a theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes social
interaction as the source for the construction of knowledge systems.
Some L2 researchers (see Lantolf, 2000, and Lantolf & Poehner, 2008,
for representative views) have proposed a type of neo-Vygotskian,
social constructivist approach to language learning, commonly identified as a sociocultural approach in the field of L2 acquisition. Community-based service learning draws on both experiential learning theory
and social constructivism in acknowledging the effectiveness of concrete experience and interactions in a social community to enhance
learning. Stewart (2007, p. 86) pointed out the link between the sociocultural approach and service learning:
A sociocultural perspective on language teaching and learning is also
situated in the belief that students are active participants in the learning
process. A basic tenet of this theory is that humans learn language via
cognitive and linguistic interactions with the material and social worlds.
Through repeated participation in activities with more capable peers
within a sociocultural environment, language learners acquire the
linguistic, cultural and other knowledge needed to function within a given
society. This dovetails nicely with service-learning, which places students
in the community interacting with native speakers of the target language.
The sociocultural viewpoint has led to the importance of social context becoming increasingly highlighted in the L2 learning literature.
Social contexts vary from informal to formal learning environments
and refer as well to whether the target language is the language spoken in the wider community or not and whether that language is associated with high or low social prestige. Any change in social context is
likely to have an impact on aspects of the learner’s motivation. In reviewing research, Noels (2009, p. 299) has pointed out that “features
of the context of acquisition can have quite profound implications for
the experience of language learning.”
Attitudes toward a community and the people who speak the
L2 are particularly relevant to issues relating to social context.
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The importance of attitudes is recognized in Gardner’s (1985) socioeducational model, in that “integrativeness” is a central motivational
component, subsuming integrative orientation, interest in foreign languages, and attitudes toward the L2 community, and reflects the “individual’s willingness and interest in social interaction with members
of other groups” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993, p. 159). The importance
of social context and, in particular, active involvement with targetlanguage speakers has been stressed by MacIntyre (2007, p. 566): “The
major motivation to learn another language is to develop a communicative relationship with people from another cultural group.”
Related to the notion of social context, linguistic self-confidence
has been proposed as an additional important concept in L2 sociopsychological research (e.g., Clément & Kruidenier, 1985; Dörnyei &
Skehan; 2003). In Clément’s socio-contextual model (Clément, 1980;
Clément, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977), linguistic self-confidence plays an
important role in L2 learning. Linguistic self-confidence has been
defined as “self-perceptions of communicative competence and concomitant low levels of anxiety in using the second language” (Noels,
Pon, & Clément, 1996, p. 248) and “is associated with increased usage
of and communicative competence in the L2” (Noels & Clément, 1996,
p. 216). The quality and quantity of first language (L1) and L2 intergroup contact contribute to linguistic self-confidence (e.g., Dörnyei,
2005). Gardner (1985, p. 54) asserted that “self confidence . . . develops
as a result of positive experience in the context of the second language
and serves to motivate individuals to learn the second language.”
Clément, Noels, and Deneault (2001) found that more positive contact
experiences led to more confident language use. Several studies have
indicated that high levels of linguistic self-confidence are linked to
greater identification with the target culture (Noels & Clément, 1996;
Noels et al., 1996), to lower levels of anxiety (Cheng, Horwitz, & Schallert, 1999; Clément, Dörnyei, & Noels, 1994; MacIntyre, Noels, &
Clément, 1997), and to sociocultural and academic adaptation on the
part of international students studying abroad (Yu & Shen, 2012). Particularly relevant to the linguistic context of this study is research
(e.g., Clément et al., 1994) that has revealed the importance of linguistic self-confidence in situations in which there is little direct contact
with target-language speakers.
In sum, as we have described, research has indicated that the social
context in which learning an L2 takes place can have important effects
on attitudinal and motivational variables associated with the language
learner. Contact with native speakers has been found to affect linguistic self-confidence, which is linked to positive attitudes toward the L2
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community as well as to greater L2 achievement. What is missing are
concrete, effective means to intervene in the learning situation to
enhance attitudinal and motivational components such as linguistic
self-confidence (e.g., Cheng & Dörnyei, 2007). As mentioned earlier in
this article, we propose that one potentially effective avenue is community-based service learning.
We designed this qualitative study, expanding on a smaller scale
pilot study (Hummel, 2008), to explore the effect of a communitybased service-learning experience on L2 learners’ who were training
to be L2 teachers in an environment in which there are normally few
opportunities for direct collaboration with target-language speakers
outside the classroom. We sought to examine the effect that collaborative activities in the minority-language community would have on
students’ linguistic self-confidence and their perception of L2 development, as well as on their perceptions of skill development related to
their future profession.
Method
Participants
Participants consisted of Francophone students enrolled in a four-year
TESL program. They were recruited from a language acquisition
course in which they were introduced to research and practices in L1
and L2 acquisition. The L2 acquisition part of the course was considered particularly appropriate for the service-learning project because
topics relating to theories and applications in L2 learning could be
experienced first-hand by participants involved in the L2 community.
Participants (N = 20, 16 women, 4 men; mean age = 21.75 years)
participated in collaborative community-based activities during one
of their university terms. A total of 30 students originally participated
in the community activities, but the participants whose data were retained for this study had to meet the following criteria: French L1
speakers with no prior English-speaking community experience who
participated in the community activity at least three times during the
term. A subset of 10 participants sat for a second, filmed interview,
which was intended to be a video presentation of the service-learning
activity for future students.
Background questionnaires aided in the selection of a homogeneous
population: same L1 and similar previous L2 exposure, educational
background, and age. Students were paid a modest sum ($15 per activity session) to cover transportation and time involvement for activities
and interviews.
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Procedure
The project to participate in community activities was announced
to students in the TESL program at the beginning of the academic
term, after approval from the university ethics committee. Areas of involvement included helping with local English-community childcare
services, tutoring various subjects (English, math, reading) at one of
the local English-language schools, helping at a seniors’ lunch activity,
and helping at the local English-language library. Frequency of community participation ranged from three to twelve times over the
3.5-month period, with an average of six times during that period.
Community participants were contacted before the project, and the
research activity was explained to them. Classroom teachers were contacted by school principals or by a school teacher representative to
elicit their participation.
To ensure that the experience was not simply volunteering but
could be considered to fit the profile of service learning, students were
recruited from a course that focused on issues in L2 acquisition, were
introduced to service learning in an initial interview and through
readings related to service learning,1 completed questionnaires asking
them to reflect on their service-learning activities, and participated in
an interview session during which they were asked to reflect on possible links between their experiences and their academic course work.
Qualitative data were gathered primarily through semi-structured
oral interviews during which students were asked to describe effects of
the activity related to their L2 development, as well as their academic,
professional, and personal development. Interview protocols were designed to draw on the basic tenets of a sociocultural approach, that is,
that each participant brings his or her own personal, social, and cultural experiences to the learning endeavour. Interview questions (see
Appendix A) were posed so as to stimulate students’ own reflections
about their community experiences, and they were asked what they
considered they had learned. The assistants who carried out the interviews were asked to attempt to discover aspects of the experience that
most interested participants and to ask follow-up questions in those
areas. The interviews (conducted in the target language, English) were
carried out during the final week of the 3.5-month activity period. Interviews were carried out in a quiet room with only the interviewee
and interviewer present. They were audio recorded and transcribed.
Video filming was carried out in a quiet room, with the interviewee,
interviewer, and videographer present. General descriptive information on participants is provided in Table 1.
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Table 1: Participant community assignments
Participant
name
Sex
Age
Activity
Attendance during
3.5 months
Anne-Marie
Alex
Bernard
Caroline
F
M
M
F
19
22
20
25
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Two times a month
Céline
F
19
Chantal
F
20
Delphine
F
20
Diane
F
20
Guy
Guylaine
M
F
20
19
Hélène
Irène
Julie
F
F
F
25
20
20
Lynda
Lyse
Manon
Mélanie
F
F
F
F
19
28
21
37
Michel
Pamela
Sabine
M
F
F
21
19
22
Elementary school, teacher’s assistant
Meals for seniors
Elementary school, homework help
Child care centre and conversation
club
Elementary school, afterschool
homework clinic
Elementary school, teacher’s assistant,
Grade 1
Elementary school, teacher’s assistant,
kindergarten
Elementary school teacher’s assistant,
Grade 2, children with learning
disabilities
High school math tutor
Elementary school, reading, disability
students
Childcare
Childcare
Elementary school, teacher’s assistant,
kindergarten
Elementary school, teacher’s assistant
Elementary school, tutoring
Library
Elementary school, teacher’s assistant
and childcare
Elementary school, teacher’s assistant
Elementary school, homework help
Elementary school, teacher’s assistant,
pre-kindergarten
Once a week
Once a week
Once every other
week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Two times a month
Two times a month
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week/= and
two times a month
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
F = female; M = male
Oral interviews
The major source of data consisted of semi-structured oral interviews.
Interviews were conducted at the end of the academic term, after the
community service-learning experience. The interviews were conducted by one of two graduate student research assistants, each of
whom was trained in interviewing procedures. For instance, interviewers were trained to interact in a neutral fashion so as not to
unduly influence responses and to ask relevant follow-up questions
when appropriate. We decided to conduct the interviews in English,
the L2 of participants, to be consistent with the unwritten policy of the
students’ academic program, which seeks to encourage English use
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and exposure to English input as much as possible to prepare these
future English teachers. In addition, students generally desire opportunities to use their English skills, and we decided the interviews
would give them the opportunity to do so. Still, interviewers were instructed to be receptive to participants using or switching into French,
if they so desired. All of the participants opted to carry out the interviews entirely in English.
All interviews were taped with a digital recorder and later transcribed for analysis. The interviewer referred to a set of questions to
stimulate responses from the participants. Interviews lasted approximately 15 minutes. After the interviews, participants were asked
whether they were willing to sit for another interview at a later date
that would be filmed because a video was being produced for educational purposes. Ten participants agreed to have their interviews
filmed, and these sessions were also transcribed for consultation for
the data analysis. The information obtained from the filmed interviews was highly consistent with that compiled from the audio-recorded interviews and validated the information obtained from
participants who consented to both interview formats.
We examined the interview data in view of recurring themes, as
prompted by the reflective questions posed during the interview sessions. The main themes that emerged from the interview data were
linguistic self-confidence, academic program–related skills, personal
effects, knowledge about the local community, motivation to continue
activity, and general evaluation of the value of the activity. A grid was
developed, and transcripts were examined and their contents coded
in terms of the presence or absence of the main themes and for specific
topics occurring within each theme (e.g., L2 speaking ability). A
trained assistant (graduate student) with no previous experience with
the project carried out cross-coding to guard against bias. An agreement level of 90% was obtained, a level considered good in the literature2 (e.g., Kalinowski, Lai, Fidler, & Cumming, 2010).
Results and discussion
Some of the principal effects reported (see Figure 1) included greater
L2 linguistic self-confidence, increased knowledge of the chosen field
of study (L2 teaching), personal satisfaction from helping young children and other community members, and greater knowledge of the
local English-speaking community. These self-reported benefits support findings from other studies that suggest that social context, in
particular contact with speakers of the target-language community,
has a variety of benefits, including a positive impact on factors such as
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Figure 1: Reporting of community service learning positive effects (N = 20)
L2 = second language
willingness to communicate (e.g., Clément, Baker, & MacIntyre, 2003;
MacIntyre & Charos, 1996) on the part of L2 learners. Discussed earlier
in this article, attitudes as well as level and type of motivation have
been found to be strongly influenced by the social context of learning
(e.g., Belmechri & Hummel, 1998; Clément, 1980; Noels & Clément,
1996), and participants’ reports of benefits described in this study
appear to support such findings.
Linguistic self-confidence
The issue we were particularly interested in exploring with regard to
these Francophone future ESL teachers was the impact that activities
in the target language community might have on their own perceptions of their L2 skill. Would there be any increase in linguistic selfconfidence, a characteristic that previous studies (Clément, 1980;
Clément et al., 1994, 2001; Noels & Clément, 1996) have identified as
associated with increased target-language community contact? We explored the data for indices that might provide information about this
specific theme, focusing on evidence of perceived communicative
competence and low anxiety when using English (Noels et al., 1996).
Participants were close to unanimous (17 of 20) in reporting specific beneficial effects, ranging from subtle to major, on their L2 selfconfidence. Several of the students made explicit references to effects
on their linguistic self-confidence. For instance, Caroline,3 working at
an English-language childcare centre and conversation club, replied
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when asked whether she had learned anything from this experience,
“I learned . . . a little more about myself . . . that I can . . . speak; I’m
always [still] shy to speak, but actually I can. That’s what I learned.”
Later, in response to a question about any positive impacts of the
experience, Caroline asserted, “Like I said before, now I know that I
can speak . . . I wasn’t sure . . . because . . . of my English level, but . . .
now . . . I know that I can help them.” Similarly, when asked what she
liked the most about the experience, she replied, “Speaking. I had the
opportunity to speak in English.”
A male student, Alex, reported being pleasantly surprised that
native English speakers complimented him on his English skill:
They were really curious to know where I was coming from, why I was so
good in English, that was a bit of a surprise because I didn’t know how I
would do, but according to them I have a good accent and some were even
wondering whether I was from an English family, from an English place,
or . . . what was up with me, so that was interesting.
Alex mentioned that much of his English improvement occurred
when he started taking all his courses in English at the university; he
also made an explicit reference to linguistic self-confidence in reporting that because of the experience, his “confidence has probably gone
up a bit.”
Other students explicitly mentioned gaining confidence in their
oral English skills from the experience. For instance, Irène, who participated in the English-language community’s childcare activity, explicitly mentioned effects on her confidence. She pointed out that she did
not think her speaking ability had improved, but her confidence had:
“I am more confident when I speak English . . . since I’m confident I’m
more able, not because of my capacity of speaking English, speaking
English is the same. It’s just that I feel more comfortable speaking it.”
Later in the interview, she reiterated the positive impact of the experience on her linguistic self-confidence, although she admitted she still
hesitated: “It’s more automatic for me when I speak, not always, depends on the days, but I think I’m more confident perhaps. I hope it
has been good for me, but I’m always [still] hesitating.”
Irène’s comments indicate that her perception was that she was
more self-assured about using English, even though she was not
entirely sure that her competence per se had improved over the relatively short period of the project. An increase in confidence in speaking skills is consistent with several comments from other participants.
For example, Céline, who worked in an after-school homework clinic,
reported that having to use English in a new environment was a good
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experience in that she felt less anxiety about speaking: “I learned that I
was better to speak English with kids than with older native speakers
because I have less stress on me so I feel free.”
The interesting distinction that some participants made between
their improved self-confidence in using the L2 versus their lack of certainty that their fluency had actually improved may be largely the
result of the short time frame allotted to the service-learning project, a
scant few months. Obviously, language fluency is not attained overnight or even over a 3.5-month time period of weekly contact experiences. However, such a short-term experience may be enough to lead
to a tangible increase in participants’ self-confidence about using the
target language. This finding is intriguing in itself, and one that merits
additional research.
Guy, who tutored math at an English-language high school,
pointed out that he learned how difficult it is to be in a situation of
authority and yet need to be a good model for students when teaching
in one’s L2. He emphasized that his experience made him strive
harder to overcome the extra difficulties posed by having a less-thannative-like command of English, which led to greater self-confidence
in his skill. “You have to speak good English, you just don’t want to,
you have to. You have to give an example and that’s why it’s important.” For Guy, it was a challenge to have to tutor math in his L2
because his credibility as an authority in the material was at stake.
This challenge, however, ultimately gave him greater self-confidence
in his expressive abilities. As emphasized in a sociocultural approach
to language learning, the learner’s own interactions with others and
involvement in activities are what lead to personal growth and skill
development.
The remarks from Mélanie, who worked as a teacher’s assistant in
an elementary school, suggest an increase in linguistic self-confidence.
On being asked what she enjoyed most, she reported,
I had the interaction between people [which] is so much important. And
after one hour I can speak English . . . better because . . . it gives energy and
before to go [going] I hesitate and I’m looking for my words, and after one
hour it’s very different.
Mélanie’s remarks highlight the importance of conversational activity in allowing the language learner necessary verbal interaction. Attempting to learn a target language is challenging in an environment
in which opportunities to put it into practice are few and far between,
as is the case for English in many communities outside of Montreal in
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language speakers are common in many other L2 learning situations
worldwide. As expressed by Mélanie, having the opportunity to use
her L2 in real conversational interactions gave her energy and led to a
greater degree of linguistic self-confidence.
In addition to explicit references to an increase in confidence in
using the L2, several of the participants referred to the beneficial effects of the experience on specific aspects of their L2 communicative
competence. Michel, who participated as a teacher’s assistant in an
elementary school, alluded to expanding his linguistic register in
English: “It helped me develop my register for younger children
mostly because I am not really used to speaking to Anglophone kids
because most of the people I talk to in English are grown-ups.” He
noted that he would definitely use later on what he had learned from
his contact with children.
In a similar vein, Delphine, who helped in a kindergarten class,
pointed out the value in having to learn to use the target language in
various contexts and with different speech partners:
To have to speak in a different context is always good because you can
speak with friends and be really comfortable; then you get to speak to a
teacher and then you’re more nervous . . . but then have to speak to
children, but they rely on your language in a way . . . so it got me in
another environment . . . to practice in a different environment is always
good.
In one instance, the English-language–related gains were reported
to occur through contact with literature and by paying attention to the
language used by children. Sabine, who assisted a teacher in an elementary school, reported learning more about English-language
books, as well as about English:
I didn’t know a lot of English language literature before, but through this
activity I discovered books that children love, like Dr. Seuss. I paid attention
to how the children build their sentences . . . I think it helped me . . . and I
was better to use the third person. . . . I improved . . . because we have to
speak slowly . . . when we read a story to teach them correctly. . . . I will try
to continue to improve my English . . . maybe by reading more.
Sabine is an interesting case in that she admitted to lacking selfconfidence about her L2 skills at the outset of the project but was
determined to take advantage of opportunities open to her to improve
her skills. At one point in the interview, she spoke about some difficulties she had in coming to terms with an insensitive remark by a child
she had tutored. She nevertheless reported that this painful experience
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helped her learn about herself and the skills she would need to
develop to teach young children. “I can’t give up; I have to learn how
to deal with stuff.” She recognized the benefits of the experience when
asked whether she would recommend it to her peers: “Yes, really. . . .
They’ll discover a lot more about themselves and how to teach, things
they can’t really learn without this experience.”
Participants reported several ways in which they considered their
experience to have had a positive impact on their L2 skill development. For instance, Céline reported, “I learned some, because the
more I speak with the children, the more I learned new words sometimes . . . they learn [taught] me some words that I didn’t know.”
In addition, several students pointed out that the experience helped
draw their attention to specific aspects of their L2 skills that needed
improvement. For instance, Chantal reported that she considered her
English skills to have improved from her elementary school tutoring
experience. “Just to hear children sometimes talking better than me
was an incentive to try to improve my English with the kids.”
Diane, who also worked at an elementary school, pointed out that
her experience helped draw her attention to her own English pronunciation of the challenging “th” sound: “During their vocabulary I had
to tell them the vocabulary of the week and one day it was though and
I said ‘dough’ and he [the student] wrote dough . . . so I said ‘No, I
mean though,’ so now I pay attention to that.”
Another student (Hélène) mentioned that doing her childcare activity helped her realize that her English skills needed improving and
that if she went more regularly, “It would be better for me, for my
English speaking, for sure.”
Academic benefits
One of the main objectives of service learning is applying classroom
knowledge in a real-world context. Several students in this project
made specific reference to the benefits of having the opportunity to
make concrete applications of their academic material. For instance,
Bernard reported, “It helped me understand some of my classes. Until
you really experience it, you can’t really understand. You learn more
than in class.”
In fact, most participants (17 of 20) explicitly referred to benefits
related to their academic program in which they were studying to
become ESL teachers. One of the benefits most frequently mentioned
by those involved in schools was the exposure to new teaching strategies, allowing them to evaluate the ones that seemed to work best in
the classroom. For example, a participant in an elementary school reported, “I’m going to use what I learned . . . how to present new
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material and activities to children.” Another participant, Pamela, reported a similar benefit, followed by her indication that the experience
helped confirm her career choice: “I learned that there were ways to
explain things to children. That if you want them to understand something, you have to explain it really concisely. And I learned that I was
[studying] in what I want to do.”
Lyse reported,
I think it gave me tools to work with more difficult students. You know
this is something that I acquired, you learn new stuff, and it’s all going to
be a part of what I’m going to become as a teacher. So it’s all going to work
inside of me. . . . Maybe I’ll be a better teacher.
Bernard described the impact of the tutoring experience on his teaching skills:
It improved my . . . thoughts about how education should be structured, it
makes my thoughts evolve. I see . . . that this personalized teaching is the
best way you can help students believe they’re not just a number.
These personal reflections indicate that even though students encountered sometimes challenging situations in their community service activities, at the same time they gained what they considered to
be valuable experience in preparing for their chosen profession.
Knowledge gained about the L2 community
Participants were asked whether, as a result of their activity, they
learned something that they did not know before about the local
English-speaking community. Twelve students made specific references to learning something new about the community. One interesting common response to this interview question was students’
reporting their main discovery to be that L2 community institutions,
and schools in particular, actually existed in their region. Several students reported that they had had little to no pre-existing knowledge of
the community or of the existence of English-language schools in the
local area and found it interesting to discover this. Pamela reported
discovering the community was larger than she had thought. A few
students reported that their activity did not really allow them to learn
much about the L2 community because their interactions were largely
confined to activity carried out with toddlers (in the childcare activity)
or young children (in the tutoring activity).
In one interview, Irène first reported that she did not really consider English native speakers as constituting a community, simply
that “they speak English and we speak French.” However, toward the
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end of the interview, when she was asked to sum up her experience,
she appeared to contradict this initial statement by acknowledging the
community:
I think this opportunity gave us the opportunity to be part of the
community; it was a good idea to give students the opportunity to do it.
Two hours a month is not difficult and gives the chance to become part
of the community.
Irène’s initial reaction that there was not a separate English-speaking
community reflected her previously held belief that a veritable Englishspeaking community with its own institutions and cultural entities did
not exist in the local environment. Her later acknowledgment that she
had the chance to become part of the community appears to indicate a
tacit recognition that a veritable English-speaking community exists.
Remarks from other participants support this view, in that several students expressed surprise at discovering English-language schools and a
local historical library actually exist in the overwhelmingly Francophone region of Québec in which the study took place.
Similarly, Céline reported discovering the existence of the Englishspeaking community with its own school system. In addition, her
experience cleared up her misconception that students could avoid
learning French by attending an English-language school:
I learned the English community [does] exist in Québec. I didn’t know that
before and it changed a bit my opinion about it because I thought that to go
in English schools was a way to pass by French . . . but actually the kids
that go to English schools do have French classes so they have to learn it.
It’s not a way to pretend that French doesn’t exist. It’s a good way for these
kids to learn two languages at the same time.
Alex, who helped out with a seniors’ lunchtime activity, appeared
to learn quite a bit about the local English-speaking community
through regular contact with older adults who had largely been raised
in the Anglophone community. Although conversations were mostly
in English, he noted that individuals made the effort to address him in
French as well:
I didn’t know much [beforehand]; I was surprised to learn that there are a
good number of them [English native speakers]. I learned about their
background, about life during the fifties and sixties. I was open about the
Anglos, but I had attitudes that changed a bit. In the first weeks I was
questioned, but in the end I earned their respect. They are a fine bunch of
people and they speak good French.
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It is interesting to note Alex’s admission that his attitudes changed
as a result of getting to know individuals from the English-speaking
community. Although he did not elaborate on those previously held
attitudes, the suggestion is that some of the stereotypes he held about
this ethnolinguistic group may have been altered as a result of his
experience. Consistent with Alex’s experience, Clément et al. (1977)
found that Anglophone students who had more contact with Francophones exhibited more positive attitudes toward that group and its
language than those without that contact. Note that altering of stereotypes is consistent with sociocultural views.
Manon, who volunteered at the local English-language library, was
very enthusiastic about her experience and reported that she met
quite a few English-speaking volunteers and realized that there is a
lively, dynamic community in the city. Her enthusiasm was such that
she said that she intended to bring her own future students to visit the
library once she herself became an English teacher in a town more
than an hour’s drive away.
Personal satisfaction and development
Many students (14 of 20) reported various specific positive effects
related to their personal development. For instance, a male student
who volunteered as an elementary school tutor reported, “I found it
really helped me just grasp that energy cause . . . if they’re happy, I’m
happy. If they learn, I’m happy, so . . . it just gave me energy.”
Mélanie volunteered, “I always went out with a big smile. Either in
schools or in the [community] centre because I had the interaction
between people [that] is so much important.” A similar emotional
benefit was reported by Chantal, who emphasized the positive feeling
her participation gave her: “Just to do it made me feel so great. I know
I don’t have much time, but it’s only an hour . . . It made my day.”
Hélène, who volunteered at the childcare centre, described how refreshing it was to observe children’s ability to accept racial differences:
It makes me think about lots of things . . . I mean, they have . . . so much to
teach us in a way, because they . . . don’t have any prejudice. . . . One of the
girls with me is . . . a black woman wearing a hijab. . . . [The] first time they
saw her, they looked at her, and when she started talking . . . it’s like if they
just forget that she was black and she was wearing a hijab. It’s just amazing
to see how kids don’t care about those things . . . it’s like if they had all true
values inside them, and when we grow up we just get worse instead of
better. . . . So, this reminds me what true values are in a way.
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Guy expressed the personal satisfaction he gained from his high
school tutoring experience in which he helped students with their
math homework:
I liked the feeling to teach . . . it’s fun to realize that you make a difference,
a small difference but you make a difference for those kids, you know?
Because they’re not understanding their lessons well . . . so you really
make a difference with tutoring because when you enter the small meeting
room they have maybe two or three questions that they have to understand
in order to pass their tests or exams . . . and when they leave the room,
well, they say they understand; I don’t know if it’s true, but they say they
understand and they say you make a difference, so that’s what I like
most. . . . It’s the feeling you make a difference.
These various descriptions related to perceived personal benefits
indicate not only that students gained in terms of linguistic and academic skills, but that their interactions gave them positive feelings
about the experience and about their role in these activities. Students
ultimately found their experiences personally gratifying.
Motivation to continue activity
Students were asked whether they wanted to continue to have contact
with the L2 community after the project ended. In fact, 19 of 20 students expressed a desire to continue, although several participants
mentioned that because they would be moving back home for the
summer, they would not be able to continue. Only one student placed
a condition on his potential participation, saying he would continue if
he continued to receive payment for transportation. In contrast, others
said that even without the pay, they would want to do the activity.
General evaluation of the value of the activity, indexed by
willingness to recommend it to peers
Students were asked to evaluate whether they would recommend the
activity to their peers, a response considered to reflect the value they
placed on the activity. Again, the response to this question was almost
unanimous, with some going so far as to suggest that it should be required for students in their program. They justified their positive responses by pointing out the usefulness of the activity in terms of
improving their English skills and learning more about teaching strategies. Even Lynda, a student who reported an unpleasant experience
with a teacher she perceived did not welcome having her in the classroom, reported that she would nevertheless recommend the activity to
her peers, although not the same teacher assignment.
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General discussion
The positive effects expressed by students who participated actively
in this project appear to be substantial. Students expressed their overall satisfaction with their experience. The only negative comments expressed on the part of two participants were with regard to what they
perceived as a lack of collaboration with specific classroom teachers in
their teacher aide experience. It may be that these teachers were not
fully willing participants in the project, an aspect that should be taken
into account in future projects.
The effect we were most interested in exploring was linguistic selfconfidence. Indeed, numerous reflections on the part of participants
referred directly or indirectly to increased linguistic self-confidence as
a result of the experience. The opportunity to interact with members
of the target-language community allowed them to practice using
their L2 skills in a real-life environment. This study’s results corroborate research referred to earlier (e.g., Clément et al., 2001; Noels &
Clément, 1996; Noels et al., 1996) in suggesting that increased intergroup contact leads to greater linguistic self-confidence. Interacting
with children in elementary and high schools may have been particularly well suited to allowing participants to use their L2 in nonthreatening circumstances. As reported earlier, several students pointed
out specific instances in which children corrected their utterances or
in which participants needed to self-correct after children’s lack of
comprehension. Similar corrections on the part of an adult or person
in a position of authority may well have had a deleterious effect on
the participant’s self-confidence. In addition, as referred to earlier
(Clément et al., 1994), linguistic self-confidence is particularly important in situations in which relatively few opportunities occur for intergroup contact, as was the case in this study. It is also interesting to
note that participants’ perceived gains in linguistic self-confidence occurred despite the relatively short period of the project. It is possible
that a longer period would have led to even more substantial effects,
along with more noticeable improvement in aspects of L2 skill.
Participants overwhelmingly pointed out benefits in terms of allowing them to actively apply what they learn in the classroom to real-life
environments. This result was particularly apparent for those who
were involved in school tutoring experiences. Some referred to the
experience as directly relevant to their future role as teachers. In this
regard, we note that the role of practice in shaping teacher identity is
an important although relatively unexplored issue (for a recent exception, see Kanno & Stuart, 2011). Participants also reported enjoying
their experience and, for the most part, considered it to have expanded
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their view of the local English-speaking community. A few students
whose contacts were essentially limited to toddlers or to the young
children they tutored, sometimes from primarily French-speaking families, reported that they did not learn new information about the L2
community. Still, there is the illustrative example of Irène, who first expressed her view that there was no separate English-language community, only to later sum up her experience as beneficial in allowing her
to get to know more about this community. It is possible that students
may have underestimated what they in fact learned about the local
English-speaking community. Indeed, the very fact that several participants reported that their main discovery about the cultural community
was that English-language institutions actually existed in their region
underscores the value of the experience in bringing this fact to their
awareness.
Many students also reported various ways in which they found
their experiences personally enriching. Several of these testimonies
emphasized how gratifying it was to feel they were making a positive
contribution to society. As Guy reported in describing his tutoring
experience, “They say they understand and they say you make a difference, so that’s what I like most . . . It’s the feeling you make a difference.” As for participants’ motivation to continue, the response from
participants who manifested a desire to continue the same or a similar
activity in the future was close to unanimous.
Finally, as an indication of their attitude and general evaluation of
the value of the activity, all interviewees gave an unambiguously positive response when asked whether they would recommend the activity to their university peers enrolled in one of the English programs.
Along with other benefits, a service-learning project of this sort
may be an effective means to increase linguistic self-confidence and,
ultimately, to enhance language learning motivation, particularly in
contexts with reduced access to the target-language community. Participants reacted very positively to the opportunity to interact with
native speakers in ways in which their personal skills were valued
and useful, whether by tutoring children or assisting community
members in other ways.
It is important to point out possible shortcomings associated with a
qualitative study of this kind. For one, participants were not compelled to carry out the activities but were recruited as volunteers. The
students who participated may therefore have had more positive attitudes toward and stronger motivation in English learning and toward
the English-speaking community than students who did not opt to get
involved. Whether community-based learning would be as successful
with less motivated students remains to be determined.
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Another consideration is that the time frame for this study was relatively short: one academic term (approximately 3.5 months). We cannot determine whether shorter or longer term experiences would be
equally facilitative. Also, whether any effects the experience had on
students will be long lasting is difficult to know. For these reasons,
we recommend further research with a larger sample population,
followed over a longer treatment period, to ascertain whether the
perceptions of benefits reported by participants might ultimately be
confirmed under other circumstances.
It is possible that responding in English, the participants’ L2, might
have inhibited interview responses, although it should be pointed out
that they were told they could respond in their L1 if they so desired,
and none chose to do so.
Given the design of this study, we cannot compare results from a
similar group without a service-learning experience. We cannot determine, therefore, whether another type of experience not involving target-language community involvement would have led to similar
positive reactions. Still, the many comments made by students specifically highlighting the benefits they perceived from their exchanges
with native speakers suggest that an activity without such interaction
may not have been as successful.
Conclusion
In sum, results from this project indicate that active involvement with
the local community of native-language speakers led to strong perceptions of positive effects. The main benefits reported by participants
include greater linguistic self-confidence and the perception of having
improved their L2 skills in various ways, increased knowledge about
their field of study (L2 teaching) and confirmation of their professional
goals, personal satisfaction from helping young children and other
community members, and to some extent greater knowledge about
the local English-speaking community. The results of this study therefore suggest that community service learning may be an effective way
to enhance L2 learning for the participants in this study, with particular effects on the learner’s linguistic self-confidence, and might be
appropriate in other, similar contexts in which opportunities for intergroup contact are difficult to find.
This study involved French native speakers participating in the
local English-language minority community, but similar benefits
might follow from other pairings in which language learners are
encouraged to become active participants in target-language community organizations. Students learning French in other provinces with
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substantial French-speaking communities, such as Manitoba and Saskatchewan, are good examples. Service learning for languages as
diverse as Spanish or Mandarin could similarly be developed with
local community organizations where these exist. Although each linguistic situation is unique in terms of social context, just as individuals
are uniquely defined by their own personal skills, interests, and motivations, certain commonalities remain where linguistic communities
co-reside. Regardless of variables such as majority versus minority
language status, dialogue and exchanges among members of both
(or multiple) linguistic communities can enhance knowledge and
understanding on numerous levels (e.g., intellectual, social, cultural,
personal). For students whose objective is to teach the language of
another linguistic community, the opportunity to interact in meaningful ways with members of that community, as in a service-learning
framework, can be particularly rewarding.
Correspondence should be addressed to Kirsten M. Hummel, Department of
Languages, Linguistics, and Translation, 1030 Boul des Sciences humaines,
Laval University, Québec, G1V 0A6. E-mail: Kirsten.Hummel@lli.ulaval.ca.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by a grant from the Canadian Council on Learning
(CLL). Preliminary data from the CLL project were previously reported in a
brief report in the Academic Exchange Quarterly (2008). I acknowledge the
invaluable assistance of my principal research assistant, Maryse Arseneau, as
well as the collaboration of assistants Jane Wilkinson, Xing Yuan Shan, and
José Ramirez. Grateful acknowledgment also goes to Voice of English-Speaking Quebec and Helen Walling for support for the project from its inception. I
also thank the university students who participated in this project, as well as
the teachers, in particular Lorna Gailis, and other community partners without
whom this project would not have materialized. I also thank two anonymous
reviewers for their constructive remarks.
Notes
1
2
3
Readings were selected and adapted from Learning Through Serving: A Student Guidebook for Service-Learning Across the Disciplines (Cress et al., 2005),
as well as from the Canadian Alliance for Community Service-Learning
Web site (http://www.communityservicelearning.ca/en/).
Some coding discrepancies appeared to result from scoring differences
related to academic program effects and personal effects.
Note that names have been changed to protect identities.
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© 2013 CMLR/RCLV, 69, 1, 65–90
doi:10.3138/cmlr.1152
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Appendix A
Interview questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Where was your community activity?
What specifically did you do at the activity?
How often did you go?
Was it what you expected; if not, how was it different?
Did you learn something from this activity that you didn’t know
before?
a. About the specific activity (e.g., tutoring, etc.)?
b. About the local English community?
c. About yourself or your own abilities?
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
What did you like most?
What did you like the least?
Did your perceptions change throughout the weeks?
Do you feel like your participation was helpful to the community
organization and/or to members of the English-speaking community (e.g., students)?
Do you think your participation had any positive impacts on you
and skills related to your program of study (English skill, teaching skills, etc.)?
How will you use what you learned in this experience?
Would you recommend this activity to other students in your
program?
Would you like to continue the activity beyond the end of this
term?
Can you think of specific ways to improve this type of project in
the future?
© 2013 CMLR/RCLV, 69, 1, 65–90
doi:10.3138/cmlr.1152