STAGE ORAL CHECK PREPARATION
TASK A: Pilot Qualifications
Required Documents: FAR 61.3
To fly an aircraft, a person must have:
- Pilot Certificate or Student Pilot Certificate: Pilot Certificate NEVER expires, but a
Biannual Flight Review is required to
keep it current.
Biannual Flight Review is done every 24 calendar months and consists of the minimum
of 1-hour ground, and 1-hour flight.
It can be done by a CFI or obtaining a new license. You cannot fail a biannual flight
review, itʼs done to proficiency.
For student solo, needs logbook with endorsement by CFI
- Government Issued Photo ID: For example, Passport, Driverʼs License.
- Medical Certificate: FAR 61.23
1st, 2nd, 3rd Class. Under 40 years, and at or over 40 years
Class Under 40
Valid for 60 calendar months
At or Over 40
Valid for 24 calendar months
1st
ATP privileges: 12 months
Commercial Pilot privileges: 12 months
Recreational, Private & CFI Privileges: 60 months
ATP privileges: 6 months
Commercial Pilot privileges: 12 months
Recreational, Private & CFI privileges: 24 months
2nd Commercial Pilot privileges: 12 months
Recreational, Private & CFI privilege: 60 months
Commercial Pilot privileges: 12 months
Recreational, Private & CFI privileges: 24 months
3rd Recreational, Private & CFI privileges: 60 months Recreational, Private & CFI
privileges: 24 months
Logbook: FAR 61.51
To show currency or show requirement training time and aeronautical experience for
certificate, rating or flight review.
For example: biannual flight review, to carry passengers. (Do NOT need to carry
logbook)
To carry passengers: 3 takeoffs and landings in the same category, class and type (if
required) within the preceding 90 days of the
flight. Day landings can be touch and go, at night (during the period beginning 1 hour
after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise)
landings have to be full stop. TAILWHEEL landings have to be full stop in day and night.
Eligibility Requirements: FAR 61.103
To be eligible for a private pilot certificate, a person must:
- Be at least 17 years of age
- Be able to read, speak, write and understand the English language
- Receive a logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor
- Pass the required knowledge test
- Receive flight training
- Meet the aeronautical experience requirements
- Pass a practical test
- Comply with the appropriate sections of this part that apply to the aircraft category
and class rating sought.
Privileges and Limitations: FAR 61.113
The main privilege of a private pilot is being the sole manipulator of the aircraft. In other
words, being the PIC.
- A pilot cannot act as a pilot in command of an aircraft if that is carrying passengers or
property for hire.
- A pilot cannot act as a pilot in command for compensation or hire.
- A private pilot can act as a pilot in command of an aircraft in connection to any
business or employment only if its
incidental to the business and is not carrying persons for compensation or hire.
For example: if you have a business and take a business trip, the business is paying for
the flight expenses, NOT you.
- A private pilot cannot pay less than the pro rata share of the expenses of a flight with
passengers, expenses like, fuel, oil,
airport expenditures and rental fees.
For example: When you as a pilot go flying with 3 of your friends, you are supposed to
pay at least 25% of the flight
expenses, but not less, paying equal parts. If you spend $1,000 on the flight, you
should pay at least $250 but not less.
- A private pilot can act as a pilot in command of a flight for charity or nonprofit event.
For example: The charity pays for your expenses of the flight, but not for you as a pilot.
- A private pilot can be reimbursed for aircraft operating expenses that are directly
related to search and location operations.
- A private pilot who is an aircraft salesman can demonstrate an aircraft to a potential
buyer only if the pilot has more than 200
logged hours.
- A private pilot who meets the requirements of FAR 61.69 can tow a glider on
unpowered ultralight vehicle.
Category and Class: FAR 1. Definitions
Airmen Aircraft
Category Airplane, Glider, Rotorcraft, Lighter-than-air Transport, Normal, Utility,
Aerobatic
Class
Single Engine Land
Single Engine Sea
Multi Engine Land
Multi Engine Sea
Airplane, Glider, Rotorcraft
Type B737
A320
Large airplanes (MTOW is over 12,500 lbs)
Turbine
or when required by FAA
TASK B: Airworthiness Requirements
Aircraft Documents: FAR 91.9, 91.203
P.A.R.R.O.W.S.
- Placards: Markings and stickers placed in an aircraft, stating operation instructions or
limitations for that aircraft. Placards are
found in the section 2 of POH. If any of those which applies isnʼt installed, the aircraft is
not airworthy.
- Airworthiness Certificate: is a certificate that the aircraft received when it met all the
requirements to be airworthy. It DOES
NOT expire so we have to keep it current doing all the inspections required.
Inspections required for Airworthiness Certificate: FAR 91.409, 91.411, 91.413, 91.207
A.V.I.A.T.E.S
o Airworthiness Directives: They are mandatory inspections issued by the FAA when
they see a problem in the
aircraft. There are 2 types: Urgent and Non-urgent. Non-urgent has 2 types: One time
and Recurrent. ADʼs cannot
be overflown. These can be found in the FAA website.
For Example: Cessna 172P has 3 recurrent ADs; Seat rail (every 100 hours), Ignition
switch (every 2,000 hours),
Map light (every 12 calendar months)
o VOR: VOR inspection needs to be done every 30 days. It is ONLY required for IFR
flights.
o Inspections:
.. 100-hour: Only required for aircraft flown for compensation or hire (flight training),
done every 100 hours,
cannot be overflown. Unless itʼs being taken to maintenance. +10 hours extra
For example: if you fly over the 100-hour for 4 hours, those 4 hours are being taken
from the next 100hour (96 hours).
Who can perform a 100-hour inspection? An A&P
.. Annual: Done every 12 calendar months. Cannot be overflown. It can take over the
100-hour inspection,
but 100-hour inspection cannot supersede an annual inspection.
Who can perform an annual inspection? An A&P who holds an IA.
* A&P: Airframe and Power plant mechanic / IA: Inspection Authorization
.. What is Preventive Maintenance? Preventive Maintenance is all the small maintenance
that can be done by
a pilot.
For example: changing tires, burned lights, spark plugs, fuel or oil filters.
o Altimeter: An altimeter needs to be inspected every 24 calendar months. It is ONLY
required for IFR flights.
o Transponder: A transponder needs to be inspected every 24 calendar months.
o ELT: An ELT needs to be inspected every 12 months. Battery must be replaced when
battery is used for ½ of the
its life, or more than 1 cumulative hour.
o Static Pressure System: A static pressure system needs to be inspected every 24
calendar months.
- Registration: All aircrafts have to be registered. A registration has a valid period and
some situations of which a registration
wouldnʼt be valid anymore.
o Registration is valid for 3 years, but it can expire when:
30.F.U.T.D.U.C.
.. 30 days after ownerʼs death
.. Foreign registration (if you take it to another country)
.. Transfer of ownership (if you sell the airplane)
.. Destruction (if you crash and wreck the airplane)
.. US citizenship loss (if for any reason your citizenship is revoked)
.. Cancellation upon request
- Radio License: Only needed if flying outside the US, pilot and airplane need one.
- Operators Manual: The operatorʼs manual for that specific aircraft has to have:
o Serial Number
o Tail Number
o Weight and Balance
- Weight and Balance: It must have the most current weight and balance data with
serial number and tail number.
- Supplements: Supplements are manuals for the extra equipment installed in the
aircraft, for example: GPS, Radios, etc.
Preflight Action: FAR 91.103
A.W.K.R.A.F.T.
- All information available
- Weather
- Known ATC delays (e.g. TFR)
- Runway lengths & status
- Alternatives (mandatory only for IFR)
- Fuel requirements (FAA minimum: 30min / L3 minimum: 1hr)
- Takeoff and landing distances
Required Equipment for VFR Day/Night operations: FAR 91.205
A.T.O.M.A.T.O.E. F.L.A.M.E.S & F.L.A.P.S.
VFR Day:
- Altimeter
- Tachometer (for each engine)
- Oil pressure gauge (for each engine using pressure system)
- Manifold pressure gauge (only for controllable pitch propellers and each altitude
engines)
- Airspeed indicator
- Temperature gauge (only needed in liquid-cooled engines)
- Oil temperature gauge (only needed in air-cooled engines)
- Emergency equipment (floating gear if flying over water beyond power-off gliding
distance from shore, for hire only)
- Fuel gauges (for each tank)
- Landing gear position indicator (only for retractable landing gears)
- Anti-collision light (aviation white or red or strobes after 03/11/96)
- Magnetic direction indicator
- ELT
exception) Aircraft while engaged in training operations conducted entirely within a 50nautical mile radius of the airport
from which such local flight operations began.
- Safety belts and harness
VFR Night:
- Fuses (3 of each type) or circuit beakers
- Landing light (only for hire)
- Anti-collision light (aviation white or red or strobes, after 08/11/1971)
- Position lights (green-red)
- Source of electrical power (generator, alternator, battery)
Special Flight Permit: FAR 21.197
The Special Flight Permit is a document issued by the FSDO, allowing the pilot to fly the
aircraft in un-airworthy conditions. A
Special Flight Permit is obtained when the pilot requests one to the FSDO, and the
FSDO sends the Special Flight Permit, stating that
the operation can be done, but the PIC is the one that states the aircraft is airworthy,
therefore itʼs on the PIC to take the decision of
making that flight. Only minimum crew can be onboard with Special Flight Permit.
These are situations of when a Special Flight Permit would be obtained:
- Flying an un-airworthy aircraft to the maintenance facility
- Remove the aircraft from area of impending danger (for example: hurricane)
- Flight testing
* FSDO: Flight Standards District Office
Transponder Requirements: FAR 91.215
A.B.C.1.2.3.
- A Class A airspace
- B Class B airspace
- C Class C airspace and above it
- 1 Above 10,000 MSL
- 2 Above 2,500 AGL (in case that 10,000 MSL is below 2,500 AGL)
- 3 30NM Mode C veil
Operations with and without a MEL: FAR 91.213
What is an MEL?
A Minimum Equipment List, which is a list of instruments, equipment and procedures
that allow the aircraft to be operated under
specific conditions with inoperative equipment.
Do we have an MEL?
No, we do not have an MEL, so if we have broken or inoperative equipment since we do
not have an MEL, we have to follow certain
steps which are:
FAR 91.213 (d)(2)(ii) or Advisory Circular 91-67 (AC 91-67):
During the preflight, inoperative instruments or equipment are found?
1. Is the equipment required by the aircrafts equipment list (POH equipment list)? If it is
required, the airplane is un-airworthy
and has to go to maintenance.
2. If it is not required, is it required by the VFR day type certificate (FAA website)? If it is
required, the airplane is unairworthy
and has to go to maintenance.
3. If it is not required, is the equipment required by an ADs? If it is required, the airplane
is un-airworthy and has to go to
maintenance.
4. If it is not required, is the equipment required by FAR 91.205, 207, 215, and etc.
(ATOMATOEFLAMES FLAPS, ELT,
Transponder)? If it is required, the airplane is un-airworthy and has to go to
maintenance.
5. If it is not required, the inoperative equipment must be removed from the aircraft by
the regulation of FAR 91.213 (d)(3)(i) or
deactivated by the regulation of FAR 91.213 (d)(3)(ii) and placarded as inoperative.
Also, it should be recorded in
maintenance logbook.
6. At this point, the pilot in command shall make a final determination to confirm that
the inoperative instrument or equipment
does not constitute hazard and make the GO/NO GO decision.
TASK C: Weather Information
Clouds
- High Clouds (above 20,000ʼ AGL)
o Cirrus Clouds: Cirrus clouds form in stable air at high altitudes. They are thin and
wispy and usually form above
30,000 feet. White or light gray in color, they often exist in patches or narrow bands
that cross the sky. Since cirrus
clouds are sometimes blown from the tops of thunderstorms, they can be an advance
warning of approaching bad
weather.
o Cirrostratus Clouds: Cirrostratus clouds also are thin, white clouds that often form in
long bands or sheets against
a deep blue background. Although they may be several thousands of feet thick,
moisture content is low and they
pose no icing hazard.
o Cirrocumulus Clouds: Cirrocumulus clouds are white patchy clouds that look like
cotton. They form as a result of
shallow convective currents at high altitude and may produce light turbulence.
- Clouds with Vertical Development
o Cumulus Clouds: Cumulus clouds form in convective currents resulting from the
heating of the earthʼs surface.
They usually have flat bottoms and dome-shaped tops. Widely spaced cumulus clouds
that form in fairly clear skies
are called fair weather cumulus and indicate a shallow layer of instability. You can
expect turbulence, but little icing
and precipitation.
o Towering Cumulus: Towering cumulus clouds look like large mounds of cotton with
billowing cauliflower tops.
Their color may vary from brilliant white at the top to gray near the bottom. Towering
cumulus clouds indicate a
fairly deep area of unstable air. They contain moderate to heavy turbulence with icing
and often develop into
thunderstorms.
o Cumulonimbus Clouds: Cumulonimbus clouds, which are more commonly called
thunderstorms, are large,
vertically developed clouds that form in very unstable air. They are gray-white to black
in color and contain large
amounts of moisture. Many flying hazards are linked with cumulonimbus clouds.
Frontal Weather
- Air Mass: A large body of air with some characteristics of the surrounding area.
When an air mass moves across water and land, it eventually comes in contact with
another air mass with different
characteristics. The boundary layer between two types of air masses is called front. An
approaching front means a change in
weather.
- Cold Front
o Mass of cold, dense and stable air advances and replaces a body of warmer air.
o Move 25-30 mph (some up to 60 mph).
o Stays close to ground, slides under warmer air forcing it aloft.
o Temperature will decrease suddenly forcing creation of clouds.
- Fast-Moving Cold Front
o Cold fronts that are pushed along by an intense high-pressure system located well
behind the front.
o Surface friction acts to slow down the movement of the front, causing the leading
edge of the front to bulge out and
steepen the frontʼs slope.
o Hazardous because of the wide differences in moisture and temperature between
fronts.
- Slow-Moving Cold Fronts
o Produces clouds that move far behind the leading edge of the front. Broad area of
stratus clouds.
- Warm Front
o Warm mass of air advances and replaces a colder body of air.
o Move slowly; 10-25 mph.
o Slides over the top of the cooler air and gradually pushes it out of the area.
o Warm air masses contain high humidity, as air is lifted, the temperature drops, and
condensation will occur.
- Stationary Fronts
o When the opposing forces of two air masses are relatively balanced, the front that
separates them may remain
stationary and influence local flying conditions for several days.
o The weather is typically a mixture of weather found in both warm and cold fronts.
- Occluded Fronts
o Occurs when a fast-moving cold front catches up to a slow-moving warm front.
o The difference in temperature within each frontal system is a major factor that
influences which type of front and
weather are created.
.. Cold Front Occlusion
• Develops when the fast-moving front is colder than the air ahead of the slow-moving
warm front.
• The cold air replaces the cool air at the surface and forces the warm front aloft.
.. Warm Front Occlusion
• Takes place when the air ahead of the slow-moving warm front is colder than the air
within the fastmoving
cold front.
Thunderstorm
- 3 Conditions to Form a Thunderstorm
o Moisture
o Rising unstable air
o Lifting action
- 3 Stages of Thunderstorm
o Cumulus
o Mature
o Dissipating
- Avoidance: Stay away from thunderstorm more than 20 NM.
Fog
When the temperature of air near ground is cooled to its dew point, water vapor in the
air condenses and becomes visible in the form
of fog.
- 4 Types of Fog
o Radiation fog: On clear night, with relatively little wind, radiation fog may form.
o Advection fog: When a layer of warm and moist air moves over a cold surface,
advection fog may form. To form
it, wind is needed, which is up to 15 kts. It most happens in coastal areas.
o Upslope fog: When moist stable air is forced up sloping land features like a mountain
range, upslope fog may form.
o Steam fog: When cold and dry air moves over warm water, it may form steam fog.
This is common over bodies of
water during the coldest times of the year. Low-level turbulence and icing are
commonly associated with it.
Icing
- Visible moisture necessary for structural icing
- Freezing rain gives the highest rate of accumulation
- Temperature of aircraft surface 0°C or less
- Effects: Thrust reduced / Drag and weight increased / Lift decreased
- Types of Ice
o Rime ice
.. Stratus clouds
.. Tiny super cooled droplets
.. Trapped air – gives opaque appearance
.. Changes shape of airfoil, destroys lift
.. On leading edge of airfoils
.. Temps: -15°C to -20°C
o Clear ice
.. In areas of large supercooled water droplets
.. In cumulus clouds or freezing rain under warm front inversion
.. Flow over the surface, slowly freeze
.. Glaze the surface
.. Most serious form of ice – adheres, difficult to remove
.. Temps: 0°C to -10°C
o Mixed ice
.. Combo of rime and clear
.. Temps: -10°C to -15°C
Types of Weather Briefing
1-800-WXBRIEF, or www.duats.com
- Standard: provides most complete information and a more complete weather picture.
FULL BRIEFING
o Adverse conditions
o VFR flight is not recommended
o Synopsis
o Current conditions
o En route forecast
o Destination forecast
o Forecast winds and temperature aloft
o Notices to Airmen
o ATC delays
o Other information
- Abbreviated: shortened version of the standard briefing. It should be requested when
a departure has been delayed or when
weather information is needed to update the previous briefing.
- Outlook: should be requested when a planned departure is 6 hours or more away. It
provides initial forecast information that is
limited in scope due to the time frame of the planned flight.
- Inflight: given within the FSS area of responsibility.
Weather Reports
- Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR): Issued usually 55 minutes past every hour,
valid only when issued, but used as
a reference for the rest of the hour until a next METAR is issued. Coverage area is within
5 NM.
A METAR is an observation that reports the current weather conditions at that specific
airport.
Hereʼs an example of a METAR:
KSFB 152353Z 34000KT 10SMCLR 12/M04 A3022 RMK AO2 SLP233 T01171044
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Airport Code: Sanford International Airport
2. Time of Issue: Day 15 @ 2353 Zulu
3. Wind Direction and Speed: 340° @ 4 kts
4. Visibility: 10 SM
5. Sky Condition: Clear
(SKC: manual, CLR: automated below 12,000 ft | FEW: 1/8-2/8 | SCT: 3/8-4/8 | BKN:
5/8-7/8 | OVC: 8/8)
6. Temperature/Dew Point: 12°C/-4°C
7. Altimeter Setting: 30.22 inches of mercury
8. Remarks (extra information)
9. This means that the METAR station is automated and has a precipitation
discriminator.
(*AO1: Automated station which doesnʼt has a precipitation discriminator)
10. This shows the temperature to a specific number. T0117 is the temperature 11.7°C
and 1044 is the dew point
-4.4°C. If itʼs positive dew point, it would be 0044.
Dew Point: Temperature at which the air cools enough to begin condensing and forming
dew.
VC vs. DSNT: Vicinity is between 5 and 10 NM. / Distant is between 10 and 30 NM.
Definition of Ceiling: The height-above-ground level of the lowest broken or overcast
layer. If the sky is totally
obscured, the height of the vertical visibility (VV) is used as the ceiling height.
- Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF): Issued 4 times a day, valid for 24-30 hours
depending on airport.
A TAF is a forecast of the expected meteorological conditions for a time period within 5
SM of the airports runway complex
(terminal).
Hereʼs an example of a TAF:
KSFB 152359Z 1600/1624 33008KT P6SMSKC
123456
FM161400 35010KT P6SM SKC
7 8 9 10
1. Airport Code: Sanford International Airport
2. Time of Issue: Day 15 @ 2329 Zulu
3. Valid Times: It is valid from the day 16 @ 0000 Zulu to the day 16 @ 2400 Zulu
4. Winds: 330° @ 8 kts
5. Visibility: Greater than 6 SM
6. Sky condition: Sky clear
7. FROM indication: It means that from that specific time the day 16 @ 1400 Zulu
8. Winds: 350° @ 10 kts
9. Visibility: Greater than 6 SM
o The TAF has different types of indications:
.. BCMG: The weather will change gradually over two hours or more.
.. FM(FROM): It is a significant change in the conditions, a rapid change over a period of
less than 1
hour.
.. TEMPO: It indicates temporary changes that are greater than 50% chance of
happening. They may last
for 1 hour or less, and they cover half of the period.
.. PROB30/40: It indicates a low probability of 30%/40% chance of a thunderstorm or
precipitation event
and its associated weather and obscuration elements (wind, visibility and/or sky
condition).
- Area Forecast (FA): Not being used anymore
- Airmenʼs Meteorological Information (AIRMET): Issued 4 times a day, valid for 6 hours.
It is a description of weather phenomena that may affect the safety of flight. There are
3 types of AIRMET. All weather in
AIRMETs are moderate.
o AIRMET SIERRA: for IFR conditions or mountain obscuration.
o AIRMET TANGO: for moderate turbulence, surface winds more than 30 knots, and
low-level wind shear.
o AIRMET ZULU: for moderate icing and freezing levels.
- Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET): Issued only when is needed, valid
for 4 hours.
It is a description of weather phenomena that may affect the safety of flight and implies
severe weather not associated with
convective activity. It would be issued in case of:
o Severe or extreme turbulence
o Severe icing
o Widespread dust storm or sand storm lowering visibility less than 3 miles
o Volcanic ash
- Convective SIGMET: Issued hourly at 55 minutes past the hour, valid for 2 hours or
until superseded by the next hourly
issuance.
It is a description of weather phenomena associated with thunderstorms. It implies
severe or greater turbulence, severe icing,
a low-level wind shear. A convective SIGMET is issued with these criteria.
o A line of thunderstorms at least 60 miles long with thunderstorms affecting at least
40% of its length
o An area of active thunderstorms affecting at least 3,000 mi2 covering at least 40% of
the area concerned and
exhibiting a very strong radar reflectivity intensity or a significant satellite or lightening
signature
o Embedded or severe thunderstorm(s) expected to occur for more than 30 minutes
during the valid period regardless
of the size of the area
Special Convective SIGMET would be issued when the weather phenomena include:
o Tornado, hail greater or equal to ¾ of an inch or wind gusts greater than or equal to
50 knots at the surface
- Winds and Temperature Aloft Chart: Issued 4 times a day, valid for 6 hours
The winds aloft are forecasts of wind direction, wind speed, and temperature at
specified times, altitudes and locations.
Wind forecasts are not issued for altitudes within 1,500 ft of a locationʼs elevation.
Temperature forecasts are not issued for
altitudes within 2,500 ft of a locationʼs elevation. They are indicated in reference to the
true North.
Light and variable winds or wind speeds of less than 5 knots are expressed by 9900.
Decoding winds of 754556:
o Subtract 50 of the first 2 digits. 75-50=25
o Add 100 to the second 2 digits. 45+100=145
o Add negative to last 2 digits: -56
Winds are from 250° @ 145 knots and temperature is -56°C
(Extracted from FBUS31 KWNO 020202)
FD1US1
DATA BASED ON 020000Z
VALID 020600Z FOR USE 0200-0900Z. TEMPS NEG ABV 24000
FT 3000 6000 9000 12000 18000 24000 30000 34000 39000
AMA 2223 2536+11 2633+02 2540-17 2642-26 266942 259348 761756
BRO 1730 1718+18 1405+13 9900+07 2617-08 2724-18 274334 285044 285256
CLL 2019 2222+15 2524+11 2922+05 2728-11 2752-21 276236 276845 278856
HOU 1922 2121+17 2520+11 2921+04 2624-10 2746-20 275435 275945 288157
INK 1732+16 2614+12 2521+04 2544-13 2546-24 258237 259545 750154
LBB 1942+14 2433+11 2534+03 2536-15 2848-25 258039 259746 761255
LBB 1942+14 2433+11 2534+03 2536-15 2848-25 258039 259746 761255
SAT 1732 1820+19 2110+13 2708+06 2725-11 2743-19 265634 276444 277256
SPS 0314 2330+12 2730+09 2830+02 2740-15 2654-25 267838 269048 771656
T01 1917 2012+16 2507+11 3313+03 2622-08 2739-20 284635 285245 297457
T06 2014 2207+15 3105+10 3212+02 2821-08 2839-21 294334 294746 306857
T07 2113 2206+14 9900+09 3609+02 2922-08 2934-21 293835 305346 306559
4J3 9900 1913+11 2409+08 2710+01 2819-09 2929-21 314036 325347 316559
o AMA has winds but no temperature at 6,000 ft. Because AMA is within 2,500 ft of that
location elevation.
o INK has no indication of winds at 3,000 ft. Because itʼs within 1,500 ft of that location
elevation.
o SPS winds at 39,000 ft are 270° @ 116 kts and temperature is -56°C
o 4J3 winds at 3,000 ft are light and variable.
- Surface Analysis Chart: Issued every 3 hours, valid only when issued
o These charts depict sea level pressure, positions of highs and lows, ridges and
troughs; location and type of fronts.
o Plot Legend
.. Cold Front: A zone separating two air masses, of which the cooler, denser mass is
advancing and
replacing the warmer. Usually unstable air, moisture, updrafts, conditions for
thunderstorms, or bad weather
ahead of the front. CB, SHRA, LGHT, good visibility.
.. Warm Front: A transition zone between a mass of warm air and the cold air which it is
replacing.
Usually high humidity, steady precipitations, steady air and bad visibility.
.. Occluded Front: A composite of two fronts, formed as a cold front overtakes a slowmoving warm
front. Two types of occlusions can form depending on the relative coldness of the air
behind the cold front
to the air ahead of the warm or stationary front.
• In a cold front occlusion, cold air pushes underneath a warm air mass, forcing it
skyward. The
weather can be mixture of both warm and cold front.
• In a warm front occlusion, warmer air overruns colder air. The weather is more severe
than cold
front occlusion.
.. Stationary Front: It forms when warm and cold air meet and neither air mass has the
force to move
the other. They remain stationary, or “standing still.” Where the warm and cold air meet,
clouds and fog
form, and it may rain or snow. It can bring many days of clouds and precipitation.
.. Trough: An elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure; the opposite of a
ridge. On
WPCʼs surface analysis, this feature is also used to depict outflow boundaries.
.. Squall Line: A line of active thunderstorms, either continuous or with breaks, including
contiguous
precipitation areas resulting from the existence of the thunderstorms.
.. Dry Line: A boundary separating moist and dry air masses. It typically lies north-south
across the
central and southern high plains states during the spring and early summer, where it
separates moist air
from the Gulf of Mexico (to the east) and dry desert air from the southwestern states
(to the west).
.. Tropical Wave: A trough or cyclonic curvature maximum in the trade wind easterlies.
.. High Pressure: Clockwise, downward and outward circulation creating winds in the
northern hemisphere.
Generally, area of dry stable descending air, good weather.
.. Low Pressure: Counter-clockwise, inward and upward circulation in northern
hemisphere. Generally,
unstable air, increasing cloudiness and precipitation, bad weather.
- Low Level Significant Weather Chart (SigWx): Issued 4 times a day, valid for 6 hours
o This low-level weather chart depicts weather flying categories, turbulence and
freezing levels below FL240.
Inflight icing is not on the Low-Level SigWx Chart.
o VFR: visibility more than 5 SM and ceiling more than 3,000 ft
o MVFR: visibility 3-5 SM and/or ceiling 1,000-3,000 ft
o IFR: visibility 1-3 SM and/or ceiling 500-1,000 ft
o LIFR: visibility less than 1 SM and/or ceiling less than 500 ft
- Radar Summary Chart: Issued every hour. It may vary to some fast updates ranging
from 4-6 minutes. It displays
precipitation intensity, trend, or moisture presence.
- Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP): Pilots should report any observation of bad or good
weather to help other pilots with flight
planning and preparation. Aircrafts in flight are the best way to localize icing and
turbulence conditions. There are 2 types of
PIREP:
o Urgent (UUA): Tornadoes, severe or extreme turbulence or icing, hail, wind shear,
volcanic ash
GNV UUA /OA OCF190026 /TM 2318 /FL130 /TP B767 /TB SEV
1234567
1. GNV: Area where it was reported
2. UUA: Message type, urgent PIREP
3. OV: Location, position reference where the phenomenon occurred. 190° at 26 NM
from the Ocala VOR.
4. TM: Time, 23-18 Zulu
5. FL130: Altitude in flight level, 13,000 ft
6. TP: Aircraft type, Boeing 767
7. TB SEV: Severe turbulence
o Routine (UA): Normal report
GNV UA /OA OCF090020 /TM 2238 /FL170 /TP B737 /TB MOD
1234567
1. GNV: Area where it was reported
2. UA: Message type, routine PIREP
3. OV: Location, position reference where the phenomenon occurred. 90° at 20 NM
from the Ocala VOR.
4. TM: Time, 22-38 Zulu
5. FL170: Altitude in flight level, 17,000 ft
6. TP: Aircraft type, Boeing 737
7. TB MOD: Moderate turbulence
- En Route Weather Source
o ATIS, AWOS, ASOS
o HIWAS (Hazard Inflight Weather Advisory Service)
* See the chart in a VOR frequency which has “H”. Tune the VOR frequency and it will
broadcast.
o ATC
o PIREP
o Fly Watch (En route flight advisory service)
- Icing: AIM 7-1-20, 7-1-21
o Rime: Rough, milky, opaque, instantaneous freezing or small super-cooled water
droplets. It changes aerodynamic
characteristics.
o Clear: Glossy, translucent, slow freezing of large super-cooled water droplets. It adds
weight of the aircraft.
o Mixed: Combination of rime and clear.
o Induction: Icing that occurs in the aircraft system such as carburetor, air filter.
WEATHER INFORMATION TABLE
REPORT TYPE ISSUANCE TIMES AGE WHEN RECʼD VALID PERIOD INFORMATION
CONTAINED
Aviation Routine Weather
Report (METAR)
Hourly
50 to 55 past each Hr.
Current Data
5 to 30 minutes old
Time of issue
Type report / airport identifier / date / time / wind /
visibility / Wx / sky cond. / temp. / dew point / altimeter /
remarks
Terminal Aerodrome
Forecast (TAF)
4 times daily
0000z/0600z/1200z/1800z
Forecast Data 24~30 hours Forecasts; winds / visibility / significant Wx / sky cond. /
Wx changes and probability forecast
AIRMET (WA) Every 6 hours
(or as required)
Current and Forecast
Data
6 hours, Max. 3 Type reports – Sierra / Tango / Zulu
Sierra: IFR cond. / extensive Mt. obscuration
Tango: mod. turbulence / sust. SFC winds 30+ kts
Zulu: mod. icing / freezing level heights
SIGMET (WS) As required,
when SIGMET Wx occurs
Current and Forecast
Data
4 hours, Max. Severe / extreme turbulence / CAT – without TS
Severe icing – without TS
Dust / sand-storm / volcanic ash / volcanic eruption
Convective SIGMET (WST) Hourly
55 mins. past each hour
Current and Forecast
Data
2 hours, Max. TS / lines of TS / embedded TS / hail ¾” diam. / sust. SFC
winds 50+ kts / tornadoes
Winds and Temperatures
Aloft (FD)
4 times daily
0000z/0600z/1200z/1800z
Forecast Data Time interval of use is
stated on forecast
Forecast winds and temperature from 3,000 ft
No winds within 1,500 ft from SFC
No temps. within 2,500 ft from SFC
Pilot Reports (PIREP) As reported Current Data Current Wx from time of
report
UA = Routine report
UUA = Urgent report
Sky cond. / Wx / visibility / temp. / wind / turb. / icing /
remarks
Surface Analysis Chart Every 3 hours 2-3 hours old Observed Data Fronts / pressure
systems / isobars – can include radar data
Some charts include station data.
Weather Depiction Chart Every 3 hours 1 hour old Observed Data Areas of VFR/MVFR/
IFR – fronts/pressure systems
Station data includes cloud cover/ceilings.
Radar Summary Chart Hourly
15 past each Hr.
1 hour Observed Data Precipitation – type/intensity/trend/coverage/tops
/direction of movement of cells and areas
Low-Level Significant
Weather Prognostic Chart
4 times daily
0000z/0600z/1200z/1800z
Forecast Data Left panels – 12 hrs.
Right panels – 24 hrs.
Lower panels – pressure centers/fronts/precip.
Upper panels – VFR/MVFR/IFR/turb./freezing levels
TASK D: Cross Country Flight Planning
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)
Time-critical aeronautical information which is of either a temporary nature or not
sufficiently known in advance to permit publication
on aeronautical chart or in other operational publications receives immediate
dissemination via the National NOTAM System.
- NOTAM (D) or distant: It is disseminated for all navigational facilities that are the part
of the National Airspace System
(NAS), all public use airports, seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the Chart
Supplement U.S.
- Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs: On those occasions when it becomes necessary to
disseminate information which is
regulatory in nature, the National Flight Data Center (NFDC), in Washington, DC, will
issue an FDC NOTAM.
- Pointer NOTAMs: It is issued by a flight service station to highlight or point out
another NOTAM, such as an FDC or
NOTAM (D) NOTAM.
- Special Activity Airspace (SAA) NOTAMs: These NOTAMs are issued when Special
Activity Airspace will be active outside
the published schedule times and when required by the published schedule.
- Military NOTAMs: It is pertaining to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy
navigational aids/airports that are part of the
NAS.
Navigation
- Pilotage: Navigating by reference to visible landmarks or checkpoints.
- Dead Reckoning: Computations of direction and distance from a known position, and
radio navigation
Lost Procedures
C.C.C.C.C. (5Cs)
- Confess yourself that you are lost
- Climb to the route ceiling or above minimum safe altitude
- Conserve the fuel
- Communicate to appropriate controlling agency
- Comply with controllerʼs instructions (fuel permitting)
VFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level: FAR 91.159
Applicable for cruising flights 3,000 above the surface:
W.E.E.O.
On a MAGNETIC COURSE from 180 degrees to 359 degrees, even thousands + 500
(4,500, 6,500, 8,500) = West Even
On a MAGNETIC COURSE from 0 degrees to 179 degrees, odd thousands + 500 (3,500,
5,500, 7,500) = East Odd
TASK E: National Airspace System
Definition: AIM-3-1-1
- There are two categories of airspace or airspace areas:
o Regulatory (Class A, B, C, D, E and G airspace areas, restricted and prohibited areas)
o Non-regulatory (Military Operation Areas(MOAs), Controlled firing areas, Prohibited
areas, Restricted areas, Alert
areas, Warning areas, Alert areas, National security and TFR)
- Within these two categories, there are four types:
o Controlled
o Uncontrolled
o Special use
o Other airspace
Controlled Airspace
- Class A airspace: AIM-3-2-2
It is the airspace from 18,000 MSL up to but not including FL 600, including the
airspace overlying the waters within 12 NM
off the coast of the 48 contiguous states and Alaska; and designated airspace beyond
12 NM off the coast of the 48
contiguous states and Alaska.
o Operating rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements: FAR 91.135
.. Operating aircraft in Class A must conduct that operation under IFR.
.. ATC clearance must be received before entering the airspace.
.. Mode-C transponder (FAR 91.215).
.. DME for flights AT and ABOVE FL240 (FAR 91.205 (e)).
.. Pilot MUST have an Instrument Rating.
.. Airplane MUST be Instrument Rated.
o Chart: Class A airspace is NOT specifically charted.
- Class B airspace: AIM-3-2-3
Generally, this airspace is from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nationʼs
busiest airports in terms of IFR
operations or passenger enplanement. The configuration of each Class B airspace area
is individually tailored and consists of
a surface area and two or more layers (some Class B airspace areas resemble upsidedown wedding cakes) and is designed to
contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft enters the airspace. An
ATC clearance is required for all aircraft
to operate in the area, and all aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services
within the airspace. The cloud clearance
requirement for VFR operation is “clear of clouds.”
o Operating rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements: FAR 91.131
.. Regardless of weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required prior to operating
within Class B airspace.
.. 2-way radio communication is required.
.. At least a private pilot license, or student pilot with Class B endorsement is required.
.. A mode-C transponder is required (FAR 91.215).
o Aircraft Speed: FAR 91.117
There is no specific restriction in Class B airspace UNLESS BELOW 10,000 feet MSL. It
is 250 KIAS and when
underlying a Class B, it is 200 KIAS. (every aircraft below 10,000 feet MSL must not
exceed 250 KIAS)
o Chart:
- Class C airspace: AIM 3-2-4
It is the airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation (charted in
MSL) surrounding those airports that
have an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar approach control, and that
have a certain number of IFR operations
or passenger activities. The airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core that
extends from the surface to up to 4,000 feet
above the airport elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf that extends no lower than 1,200
feet up to 4,000 feet above the airport
elevation.
o Operating rules an Pilot/Equipment Requirements: FAR 91.130
.. 2-way radio communication is required.
.. A mode-C transponder is required (FAR 91.215)
.. No specific certification is required (minimum student pilot).
o Aircraft Speed: FAF 91.117
No aircraft may operate an aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface within 4
NM of the primary airport of a
Class C or Class D airspace at more than 200 KIAS.
o Chart:
- Class D airspace: AIM 3-2-5
Generally, Class D airspace extends upward from the surface to 2,500 feet above the
airport elevation (charted in MSL)
surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower.
o Operating rules an Pilot/Equipment Requirements: FAR 91.129s
.. 2-way radio communication
o Aircraft Speed: FAR 91.117
No aircraft may operate an aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface within 4
NM of the primary airport of a
Class C or Class D airspace at more than 200 KIAS.
o Chart:
- Class E airspace: AIM 3-2-6
Class E airspace is controlled airspace that is designated to serve a variety of terminal
or en route purposes.
o Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirement: N/A
o Charts: Class E airspace below 14,500 feet MSL is charted on Sectional, Terminal and
IFR low en route altitude
charts.
o Vertical Limits: Unless otherwise depicted Class E airspace starts at 14,500 feet MSL
to but not including 18,000
feet MSL (17,999). And above FL 600.
o Type of Class E Airspace: Class E airspace may be designated for the following
purposes.
S.E.T.V.O.D.A.
.. Surface: Class E that extends from the Surface to the next airspace. It is charted
Dashed Magenta
.. Extension: Class E airspace may be designated as extensions to Class B, Class C,
Class D and Class E
surface areas. Class E extension begins at the surface. Until the next controlled
airspace. It is charted
Dashed Magenta.
.. Transition: Class E airspace may be designated for transitioning aircraft to/from the
terminal or en route
environment. Transitions of Class E airspace extend upward from 700 feet AGL
depicted in magenta or
1,200 feet AGL depicted blue.
.. Victor Airways: They extend from 1,200 feet AGL up to below 18,000 feet MSL. They
have a 4 NM
radius to each side, total 8 NM.
.. Offshore: There are Class E that extends from a specified altitude up to below 18,000
feet MSL. And they
start from 12 miles from the coast.
.. Domestic en route: There are Class E airspace that provide controlled airspace in
those areas.
.. Above 14,500 MSL and above FL 600
Uncontrolled Airspace
- Class G airspace: AIM 3-3-1
Class G airspace is that portion of airspace that has not been designated as Class A,
Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E
airspace.
There are no minimum requirements for VFR just to avoid other aircraft.
Special Use Airspace: AIM 3-4-1
Special use airspace consists of that airspace wherein activities must be confined,
where limitations are imposed to aircraft that are not
part of those activities. Except for controlled firing areas, special use airspace areas are
depicted on aeronautical charts.
M.C.P.R.A.W.N.
- MOAs (Military Operation Areas): AIM 3-4-5
MOAs consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral limits established for the
purpose of separating certain military
traffic training activities from IFR traffic.
- CFAs (Controlled Firing Areas): AIM 3-4-7
CFAs contain activities which, if not conducted in a controlled environment, could be
hazardous to non-participating aircraft.
The distinguishing of the CFA as compared to other special use airspace is that
activities are suspended immediately when
spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout positions indicate an aircraft might be
approaching the area.
(Not Depicted)
- Prohibited Areas: AIM 3-4-2
Prohibited area contains airspace of defined dimensions identified by an area on the
surface of the earth within which the
flight of aircraft is prohibited.
- Restricted Areas: AIM 3-4-3
Restricted areas contain airspace identified by an area on the surface of the earth
within the flight of aircraft, while not
wholly prohibited, is subject to restrictions. Restricted areas denote the existence of
unusual, often invisible, hazards to
aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery or guided missiles.
(If HOT: No entry / if COLD: Can enter with ATC permission)
- Alert Areas: AIM 3-4-6
Alert areas are depicted on aeronautical charts to inform non-participating pilot of
areas that may contain a high volume of
pilot training or an unusual type of aerial activity.
- Warning Areas: AIM 3-4-4
A warning area extends from 3NM outward from the coast of the U.S. and contains
activity that may be hazardous to nonparticipating
aircraft. The purpose is to warn non-participating pilots of a potential danger.
- NSAs (National Security Areas): AIM 3-4-8
NSAs consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral dimensions established at
locations where there is a requirement for
increased security and safety of ground facilities. Pilots are requested to voluntarily
avoid flying through a depicted NSA.
They may be prohibited if greater level of security is required.
Other Airspace Areas
M.T.V.P.A.T.
- MTRs (Military Training Routes): AIM 3-5-2
Military training routes were established by the Department of Defense and are for use
by the military for the purpose of
conducting low-altitude, high-speed training.
There are IFR (IR) and VFR (VR) training routes.
Routes are identified by:
o MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet AGL must be identified with four number
characters;
e.g. IR1206, VR1207
o MTRs with one or more segments above 1,500 feet AGL must be identified by three
number characters;
e.g. IR206, VR207 or IR92 which equals to IR092, the “0” is omitted from the character.
- TFRs (Temporary Flight Restrictions): AIM 3-5-3
Temporary flight restrictions are part of a certain airspace where operations by nonparticipating aircraft has been prohibited.
All non-participating pilots must comply with the TFR. When conducting flight in an
area where a temporary flight
restriction area is in effect, NOTAMs should be checked during flight planning.
A TFR may be established for:
o Protect persons and property in the air or in the surface from an imminent hazard.
o Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft.
o Protect the president, vice president, or other public figures.
- VFR Flyways: AIM 3-5-5
These flyways are there to alleviate traffic and for pilots to plan flights into, out of,
through or to avoid Class B airspace.
- Parachute Jumping Areas: AIM 3-5-4
This area indicates parachute operations in the vicinity of an airport without an
operating control tower. There is no substitute
for alertness so itʼs essential that pilots conducting parachutes operations be alert, look
for other traffic, and exchange traffic
information to other aircraft.
- Airport Advisory Services: AIM 3-5-1
Airport advisory area is operated within 10 SM of an airport where a control tower is not
operating but where a FSS is
located in the airport, ONLY IN ALASKA.
- TRSA (Terminal Radar Service Area): AIM 3-5-6
In a TRSA, the primary airport(s) become(s) Class D airspace, the remaining portion of
the TRSA overlies controlled
airspace which is normally Class E airspace beginning at 700 or 1,200 feet and
stablished to transition to/from the en
route/terminal environment.
Airspace Entry Requirements Minimum Pilot
Requirements Airspeed Shown on Charts
Class A
IFR
Mode-C transponder
Radio
Instrument rating No limitation None
Clearance
At least Private
Class B Mode-C transponder
Established two-way radio
or Student solo pilot
(needs endorsement for a certain
airport)
250 KIAS (inside B)
200 KIAS (under B)
Solid blue line
Class C Mode-C transponder
Established two-way radio Student pilot
200 KIAS (in C within 4 NM under 2,500
ft)
250 KIAS (others)
Solid magenta line
Class D Established two-way radio Student pilot 200 KIAS (in D within 4 NM under
2,500
ft) Dashed blue line
Class E None Student pilot 200 KIAS (under 10,000 ft)
None (above 10,000 ft) None
Class G None Student pilot 250 KIAS None
TASK F: Performance and Limitations
Takeoff Data Card
- PA & DA
o PA: The altitude from the sea level at the standard pressure (29.92 “Hg).
PA = (29.92 – Current Pressure) * 1,000 + Elevation
o DA: The vertical distance above sea level in the standard atmosphere at which a given
density is to be found.
DA = (Current Temperature – Standard Temperature) * 120 + PA
- V speeds
o Vso: Stall speed in landing configuration = 33 kts
o Vs1: Stall speed in clean configuration = 44 kts
o Vr: Rotation speed ˜ 55 kts
o Vx: Best angle of climb (gains the most altitude in a given horizontal distance) = 60
kts
o Vy: Best rate of climb (gains the most altitude in a given time) = 76 kts
o Vfe: Maximum flap extended speed; 10° = 110 kts / 20,30° = 85 kts
o Va: Maneuvering speed ˜ 99 kts
(maximum speed at which full or abrupt control movements may be used)
o Vno: Maximum structural cruising speed (only in smooth air) = 127 kts
o Vne: Never exceed speed = 158 kts
o Vg: Best glide speed (travels the farthest for a given altitude) = 65 kts
Types of Airspeed
- IAS: Indicated airspeed. The direct instrument reading obtained from the ASI,
uncorrected for variations in atmospheric
density, installation error, or instrument error. Manufacturers use this airspeed as the
basis for determining aircraft
performance.
- CAS: Calibrated airspeed. IAS corrected for installation error and instrument error.
- TAS: True airspeed. CAS corrected for altitude and nonstandard temperature. For a
given CAS, TAS increases as altitude
increases; or for a given TAS, CAS decreases as altitude increases.
- GS: Groundspeed. The actual speed of the airplane over the ground. It is TAS
adjusted for wind.
Types of Altitude
- Indicated altitude: read directly from the altimeter when it is set to the current
altimeter setting
- True altitude: the vertical distance of the aircraft above sea level – the actual altitude.
It is often expressed as feet above MSL.
- Absolute altitude: the vertical distance of an aircraft above the terrain, or above
ground level (AGL).
- Pressure altitude: the altitude indicated when the altimeter setting window is adjusted
to 29.92 ”Hg. This is the altitude above
the standard datum plane, which is a theoretical plane where air pressure (corrected to
15 °C) equals 29.92 “Hg.
- Density altitude: pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard temperature.
This is an important altitude because it
is directly related to the aircraftʼs performance.
Four Forces of Flight
- Lift: It is the upward force created by the difference of pressure of the air that passes
over and under the wing.
Principles of lift:
o Bernoulliʼs Principle: As the velocity of a fluid (air) increases, its pressure decreases,
creating an area of low
pressure over the wing, and an area of high pressure under the wing, high pressure
seeks low pressure creating an
upward movement.
o Newtonʼs 3rd Law: Fore every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
- Weight: The force of gravity which acts vertically through the CG of the plane toward
the center of the earth.
- Thrust: It is the forward-acting force which opposes drag and propels the airplane.
- Drag: Rearward, retarding force, caused by the disruption of airflow by the wing,
fuselage, other objects. Drag opposes thrust
and acts rearward parallel to the relative wind.
There are 2 kinds of drag:
o Parasite Drag: Caused by an aircraft surface which deflects/interferes with the
smooth airflow of the airplane.
There are 3 types of parasite drag:
.. Form Drag: It is the portion of parasite drag generated by the aircraft due to its shape
and airflow around it
(e.g. engine cowlings, antennas, aerodynamic shape of other components).
.. Interference Drag: It comes from the intersection of airstreams that creates eddy
currents, turbulence, or
restricts smooth airflow (e.g. intersection of the wing, fuselage at the wing root).
.. Skin Friction Drag: It is the aerodynamic resistance due to the contact of moving air
with the surface of an
aircraft.
o Induced Drag: When lift is produced, induced drag is produced. It can also manifest
as wingtip vortices, when the
area of high pressure under the wing seeks the area of low pressure on top of the wing
creating wing tip vortices.
Turning Tendencies:
- Torque: (Left turning tendency – Rolling)
Torque is based on newtonʼs 3rd law, for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction meaning that the propeller goes
one way, an equal force attempts to rotate the plane the other way.
- Asymmetric Thrust (P-Factor): (Left turning tendency – Yawing)
When flying with a high AOA, the bite of the down moving blade is greater than the up
moving blade, meaning the down
moving blade has a greater AOA than the up moving blade, creating more thrust than
the ascending blade, making the
airplane yaw to the left.
- Gyroscopic Precession: (Yawing)
When a force is applied on a rotating object, it will deflect the force 90° to the direction
of the turn.
- Spiraling Slipstream: (Theory - Yawing)
The high-speed rotation of the prop gives a spiraling rotation (prop wash) to the
slipstream around the fuselage hitting the
rudder and as well creating a yawing moment.
- Adverse Yaw:
Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift because of the raising wing, it
also produces more drag. This added
drag causes the wing to slow down slightly. This results in the aircraft yawing toward
the wing which had experienced an
increase in lift (and drag). From the pilotʼs perspective, the yaw is opposite the
direction of the bank. (Cessna 172ʼs aileron
has DIFFERENTIAL and FRISE characteristic to prevent adverse yaw.)
Effects of Loading an Airplane
- Forward CG:
Higher stall speed, slower cruise (due to more drag), more longitudinal stability, longer
take-off roll, better stall/spin
recovery, similar to heavy aircraft
- Aft CG:
Lower stall speed, faster cruise (due to less drag), less longitudinal stagbility, shorter
take-off roll, poor stall/spin recovery,
similar to light aircraft
Utility Category
- Different weight (low) / Different load factor (high) / Different maneuvers (+ spin)
Stability
Stability is the quality of an aircraft to correct for conditions that may disturb its
equilibrium, and to return to or continue on the
original flightpath.
There are 2 types of stability, Static and Dynamic.
- Static Stability:
Static stability refers to the initial tendency, of direction of movement, back to
equilibrium. It refers to the aircrafts initial
response when disturbed from a given AOA, slip or bank.
o Positive Static Stability: The initial tendency of the aircraft to return to the original
state of equilibrium after being
disturbed.
o Neutral Static Stability: The initial tendency of the aircraft to remain in a new
condition after its equilibrium has
been disturbed.
o Negative Static Stability: The initial tendency of the aircraft to continue away from the
original state of
equilibrium after being disturbed.
o Dynamic Stability:
Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft response over time when disturbed from a given
AOA, slip or bank.
.. Positive Dynamic Stability: Over time, the motion of the displaced object decreases in
amplitude and,
because it is positive, the object displaced returns toward the equilibrium state.
.. Neutral Dynamic Stability: Once displaced, the displaced object neither decreases or
increases in
amplitude.
.. Negative Dynamic Stability: Over time, the motion of the displaced object increases
and becomes more
divergent.
Ground Effect
Ground Effect is the increased lift (force) and decreased aerodynamic drag that an
aircraft's wings generate when they are close to a
fixed surface
TASK G: Operations of Systems (Cessna 172P)
Flight Controls
- Control Surfaces
o Aileron: Conventional type with differential and frise type (to prevent adverse yaw)
.. Differential: One aileron is raised a greater distance than the other aileron is lowered.
The extra upward
aileron movement produces more drag change than an increase in AOA on the
downward aileron. This
produces an increase in drag on the descending wing, which reduces adverse yaw.
.. Frise: The aileron being raised pivots on an offset hinge. The leading edge of the
aileron is now pushed into
the airflow creating drag, which reduces adverse yaw. In this case, frise ailerons are
using form drag to
counter induced drag.
o Rudder
o Elevator
- Trim System
- Wing Flap System
o Single-slot type: They increase wing camber, like other flaps. When extended, they
open a slot between the wing
and the flap. By opening a slot between the wing and the flap, high pressure air from
the bottom of the wing flows
through the slot into the upper surface. This adds energy to the wing's boundary layer,
delays airflow separation, and
produces less drag. The result is lots of additional lift without the excessive drag
Landing Gear System
- Tricycle type with a steerable nose and two main wheels
- Shock absorption is provided by the tubular spring-steel main landing gear struts and
the air/oil nose gear shock strut.
- A shimmy damper uses a cylinder filled with hydraulic fluid or a rubber/lubricant
combination to prevent rapid movement of
the nose wheel, while not interfering with slower operations.
- Each main gear wheel is equipped with a hydraulically actuated single-disc brake.
Engine
C.H.A.N.D.L.4.1.
- Carbureted
- Horizontally opposed
o Better cooling
o Better sight
o Reduced vibration
- Air-cooled
- Normally aspirated: It doesnʼt have a turbocharger or supercharger)
- Direct-driven: Propeller is directly linked to crank shaft. Engine RPM = Propeller RPM
- Lycoming Model O-320-D2J (manufacturer and model no.)
- 4-cylinder
- 160 HP at 2,700 RPM
Ignition-Starter System
- Two engine-driven magnetos: magnetos have nothing to do with battery/generator
system.
o Right magneto fires the lower right and upper left spark plugs.
Left magnet - fires the lower left and upper right spark plugs.
o Run-up magneto check: If RPM drops more than 125, there is a lot of carbon in the
cylinders.
o Ground check: If the engine doesnʼt stop, P-lead is broken, which means grounding
doesnʼt work.
- Two spark plugs in each cylinder: more reliable, produces more power, and burns fuel
more evenly
- Starter contactor: When the switch is START position, the starter contactor is
energized, and the starter will crank the engine.
Air Induction System
- Flow: Ram air . Air filter . Airbox. . Carburetor
- When to use carburetor heat
o In the event of carburetor icing
* The vaporization of the fuel and the pressure change induced by the venturi together
cause the air passing through
the carburetor to cool rapidly.
o The intake filter becomes blocked
o Low RPM - when the carburetor butterfly valve mostly closed, the engine cools
rapidly and vaporization of the
fuel is less complete than if the engine is warm. In this condition, the engine is more
susceptible to carburetor icing.
Exhaust System
Engine exhaust systems vent the burned combustion gases overboard, provide heat for
the cabin, and defrost the windscreen.
- Cabin heat: Outside air is drawn into the air inlet and is ducted through a shroud
around the muffler. The muffler is heated by
the exiting exhaust gases and, in turn, heats the air around the muffler.
Carburetor and Priming System
- The engine is equipped with an up-draft, float-type, fixed jet carburetor mounted on
the bottom of the engine.
* Disadvantage of carbureted system: Chance of carburetor icing & Low fuel efficiency
- Fuel is atomized, proportionally mixed with intake air, and delivered to the cylinders
through intake manifold tubes.
- The proportion of atomized fuel to air may be controlled, within limits, by the mixture
control.
- The flow of the fuel-air mixture to the combustion chambers is controlled by throttle
lever.
* A small gap between throttle valve and the tube allows little amount of mixture to flow
in even though the throttle is idle.
- For easy starting in cold weather, the engine is equipped with a manual primer which
draws fuel from the fuel strainer and
injects it into the cylinder intake ports.
Cooling System
- Ram air for engine cooling enters through two intake openings in the front of the
engine cowling.
- No manual cooling system control is provided
Propeller
- Characteristics: Two-bladed, Fixed-pitch, One-piece forged aluminum alloy
- Diameter: 74 ~ 75 “
Fuel System: gravity fed system
- Fuel grade: 100LL (Blue) or 100 (Green)
- Two vented fuel tanks (one tank in each wing)
Fuel Tanks Fuel Level Total Fuel Total Unusable Total Usable
Standard 21.5 43 3 40
Long Range 27 54 4 50
Integral 34 68 6 62
o Fuel Quantity (U.S. Gallons)
o Venting system: prevents vacuum in fuel tanks which result in decreasing fuel flow
and eventual engine stoppage.
.. Left tank: Vent (w/ check valve)
.. Right tank
• Interconnected to left tank
• has vented fuel cap
- Fuel flows by gravity from the two wing tanks to a four-position selector valve; BOTH,
RIGHT, LEFT, and OFF
- Fuel flows through a strainer which acts as a filter to the carburetor
- From the carburetor, mixed fuel and airflows to the cylinders through intake manifold
tubes.
- The manual primer draws its fuel from the fuel strainer and injects it into the cylinder
intake ports.
- Fuel quantity is measured by two float-type fuel quantity transmitters (one in each
tank) and indicated by two electricallyoperated
fuel quantity indicators.
* The indicators cannot be relied upon for accurate readings during skids, slips, or
unusual attitudes.
Brake System
- The airplane has a single-disc, hydraulically-actuated brake on each main landing
gear wheel.
- Each brake is connected, by a hydraulic line, to a master cylinder attached to each of
the pilotʼs rudder pedals.
- Working process: Brakes . Master cylinder . Hydraulic fluids . Compression on brake
pads
Electrical System
- The airplane is equipped with a 28-volt, direct-current electrical system.
- The system is powered by a belt-driven, 60-amp alternator and a 24-volt battery.
o Alternator needs some amount of electricity for starting.
o In case of the alternatorʼs malfunction
.. The battery can last 30 minutes.
.. If the alternator dies, low voltage light is on. (below 24.5 volts)
.. If thereʼs an over 28-voltage condition, alternator control unit cuts the alternator line
off.
(alternator circuit breaker pops up)
- Power is supplied to most general electrical and all avionics circuits through the
primary bus bar and the avionics bus bar.
* Why separated? Avionics are sensitive. When the engine starts, large amounts of
sudden electricity can be generated, and it
can damage the avionics.
- Ammeter
o (+): The battery is charging
o (-): The battery is discharging, which means the alternator is malfunctioning.
Cabin Heating, Ventilating and Defrosting System
The temperature and volume of airflow into the cabin can be regulated by manipulation
of the push-pull CABIN HT and CABIN AIR
control knobs.
Vacuum System and Instruments
An engine-driven vacuum system provides the suction necessary to operate the
attitude indicator and directional indicator.
Instruments
- Pitot-static system and instruments
o Pitot tube and static port are connected to ASI, VSI, and Altimeter.
o Impact pressure = Pitot tube pressure – Static port pressure
= (Ram-air pressure + Static pressure) – Static port pressure
o Small hole in the back of the chamber that allows moisture to drain from the system
should the aircraft enter
precipitation.
o Hole blockage
.. If both ram air hole and drain hole are blocked (= Pitot tube pressure is fixed)
• Climb: ASI .
• Descent: ASI .
.. If ram air is blocked (= Pitot tube pressure is equalized to static pressure)
• ASI becomes 0.
.. If static port is blocked
• ASI is inaccurate.
. Climb: ASI .
. Descent: ASI .
• VSI becomes 0.
• Altimeter becomes frozen.
.. Alternate static source
• When static port is blocked, use alternate static source to measure pressure inside
cockpit.
• Pressure inside cockpit is lower than ambient air.
- Altimeter
o Pressure inside the aneroid wafer is set to 29.92 “Hg.
o Pressure inside the case is equal to the ambient air pressure.
o How to work
.. Climb: Aneroid wafer expands.
.. Descent: Aneroid wafer is compressed.
- Airspeed Indicator
o Pitot tube is connected to the diaphragm.
o Static port is connected to the case.
o The dynamic pressure expands or contracts one side of the diaphragm, which is
attached to an indicating system
- VSI (Vertical Speed Indicator)
o Static port is connected to the diaphragm and calibrated leak.
o Pressure in the diaphragm is same to the ram air pressure.
o Pressure in the case is equalized slowly to the ram air pressure because of calibrated
laek.
TASK H: Human Factors
Aeronautical Decision Making (ADM)
- 3P Checklist
o Perceive the given set of circumstances for a flight | e.g.) Low voltage light is
illuminated.
o Process by evaluating their impact on flight safety | e.g.) Look up the emergency
checklist.
o Perform by implementing the best course of action | e.g.) Execute the emergency
checklist.
- 5P Checklist
o Plan
o Plane
o Pilot
o Passenger
o Programming
- DECIDE Checklist
o Detect the problem
o Estimate the need to react
o Choose a course of action
o Identify solutions
o Do the necessary actions
o Evaluate the effect of actions
- PAVE Checklist
o Pilot
o Aircraft
o enVironment
o External pressure
Personal Checklist: AIM 8-1-1
I.M.S.A.F.E.
- Illness
- Medicine
- Stress
- Alcohol
o 8 hours after the consumption
o Not under influence of alcohol
o Alcohol concentration under 0.04 in blood or breath specimen
- Fatigue
o Acute: Short term and is a normal occurrence in everyday living
o Chronic: Extending over a long period of time, usually has psychological roots,
although an underlying disease is
sometimes responsible
- Emotions (or Eaten)
Spatial Disorientation: Refer to the lack of orientation with regard to the position,
altitude, or movement of the airplane in space.
- Vestibular system: organs found in the inner ear that sense position by the way we are
balanced
- Somatosensory system: nerves in the skin, muscles, and joints that, along with
hearing, sense position based on gravity,
feeling, and sound
- Visual system: eyes, which sense position based on what is seen
Landing Illusions: AIM 8-1-5
F.R.R.A.G.
- Featureless Terrain: Illusion of being too high . tendency to pitch down
- Runway Width: Narrow, illusion of being too high . tendency to pitch down
- Runway Slope: Up-sloping, illusion of being high . tendency to pitch down
- Atmospheric
o Rain – Illusion of being high . tendency to pitch down
o Haze – Illusion of being further away . tendency to pitch down
o Fog – Illusion of being pitched up . tendency to pitch down
- Ground Lighting: Bright lights, illusion of being too low
Illusions in Flight: AIM 8-1-5
I.C.E.F.L.A.G.G.S.
- Inversion Illusion: An abrupt change from climb to straight and level, illusion of
tumbling backwards. Disoriented pilot will
push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude.
- Coriolis Illusion: An abrupt head movement in a prolonged constant-rate turn that has
ceased stimulating the motion sensing
system can create the illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely different axis.
Disoriented pilot thinks the aircraft is
doing a maneuver that is not intended to.
- Elevator Illusion: An abrupt upward vertical acceleration in an updraft or an abrupt
downward vertical acceleration in a
downdraft. Disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose-low attitude or pull the
aircraft into a nose-up attitude.
- False Horizon: Sloping cloud formation, an obscured horizon, aurora borealis, dark
scene spread with ground lights and stars.
To align the aircraft with the horizon, the pilot may place the aircraft in a dangerous
attitude.
- The Leans: An abrupt correction of a banked attitude, which has been entered too
slowly to stimulate the motion sensing
system in the inner ear, can create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction. The
disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft
back into its original dangerous attitude, or if level flight is maintained, will feel
compelled to lean in the perceived vertical
plane until this illusion subsides.
- Autokinesis: In the dark, a stationary light will appear to move about when stared at
many seconds. Pilot could lose control of
the aircraft for attempting to align with the lights. (due to rodsʼ switching)
- Graveyard Spin: The pilot recovering from a spin that was stopped the fluid in the
inner ear can create the illusion that he or
she has entered a spin in the other direction although they just re-enter the original
spin.
- Graveyard Spiral: While turning you notice you have lost altitude. Your sensory
systems make you feel as though you are in
level flight, so you pitch back. Although you are actually in a turn, the abrupt pitching
back tightens the turn and you lose
more altitude and increase the loss of altitude, the process then repeats itself.
- Somatogravic Illusion: Rapid acceleration (take off) crates illusion of being in a noseup attitude. The disoriented pilot may
push the aircraft into a nose-low or dive attitude.
Physical Conditions
M.D.H. C.H.O.S.E.N.S.
- Motion Sickness: Symptoms include nausea, dizziness, paleness, sweating, vomiting.
Caused by the brain receiving
conflicting signals from the inner ear and eye.
- Drugs: No person may act as crew member while sing any drug that effects the
personʼs faculties in any way contrary to
safety.
- Hypoxia: AIM 8-1-2
Oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient to impair functions of the brain or other
organs.
o Symptoms
H.E.L. Im.D.V.D.C.C.
.. Headache
.. Euphoria
.. Light-headed
.. Impaired judgement
.. Drowsiness
.. Visual impairment
.. Dizziness
.. Consciousness
.. Cyanosis
o Types
.. Hypoxic: Altitude/low pressure prevents oxygen from passing into the lungs.
(Canʼt get)
.. Hypemic: Blood-hemoglobin doesnʼt carry the oxygen, blocked by carbon monoxide
which is a byproduct
of all internal combustion engines and combustion heaters.
(Canʼt carry)
.. Stagnant: Circulation, possibly causes include age, high-Gʼs, cold, heart problems,
etc.
(Canʼt circulate)
.. Histotoxic: Drug/alcohol, preventing cells from properly using oxygen.
(Canʼt use)
- Carbon Monoxide: Colorless, odorless and tasteless gas that is a by-product of
combustion, can enter the cabin through cabin
heat. (AIM 8-1-4)
- Hyperventilation: Caused by stress when the body exhales too much carbon dioxide
(lack of CO2 in the blood). Symptoms
are similar to hypoxia; slow the breathing by talking singing or breathing into a bag.
- Oxygen Requirements (for non-pressurized aircraft):
o 12,500 to 14,000 ft: Flight crew must use supplemental oxygen if itʼs over 30 minutes.
o Above 14,000 ft: Flight crew must use supplemental oxygen for entire time.
o Above 15,000 ft: All occupants must be supplied supplemental oxygen for entire time.
.. Supplemental Oxygen for Optimum Protection (NOT a regulation)
• Night: Above 5,000 ft (rods use more oxygen than cone.)
• Day: Above 10,000 ft
.. Pressurized Aircraft
• FL250: 10-minute supply required for each occupant in case of emergency descent.
• Above FL350: 1 pilot must use oxygen at all times or use a system that automatically
supplies
oxygen if cabin altitude exceeds 14,000 ft.
- Sinus Block: During ascent or descent, pressure in the sinus cavities should equalize
with cabin pressure. Pain results if it
doesnʼt avoid flying when you have any sinus problems (a cold). (AIM 8-1-2)
- Ear Block: Eustachian tube, which connects the inner and outer ear, sometime does
not equalize pressure during descent.
Remedies include yawning, chewing, swallowing or a Valsalva procedure. (AIM 8-1-2)
- Night Vision: Adaptation requires 30 minutes; Eye produces a chemical called
rhodopsin.
- Scuba Diving: Nitrogen absorbed in the blood during the scuba diving can be released
and form bubbles in the blood.
o For flights above 8,000 ft MSL, divers must wait 24 hours before flying
o For flights up to 8,000 ft MSL, diver must wait 24 hours if dive required a controlled
ascend, 12 hours for dive
NOT requiring a controlled ascend (AIM 8-1-2)