CHAPTER 5: ENGLISH- VIETNAMESE CONTRATIVE ANALYSIS ON THE LEVEL OF ABOVESENTENCE. GROUP 8: Lại Thị Phương Anh Phạm Thị Diệu Linh Nguyễn Quỳnh Anh Vũ Anh Thư Nguyễn Phạm Nhật Linh Vũ Thị Thản Nguyễn Thị Kim Thịnh TABLE OF CONTENTS 01 What’s the level of abovesentence 02 Pharagraph and paratone 03 Genre in English and in Vietnamese 04 Contrastive rhetoric and applied linguistics 05 Contrastive rhetoric and the field of rhetoric and composition, Academic institutions 06 Contrastive rhetoric and text linguistics in English and Vietnamese 07 Writing as an activity embedded in a culture 08 Contrastive rhetoric and translation studies 09 Some teaching implications and research directions 10 Summary 01 What’s the level of abovesentence 1. What is the level of above-sentence? - What is a sentence? Grammatically, a sentence is the largest unit of grammatical organization within which parts of speech (for instance: verbs, nouns, adverbs...) and grammatical classes (for example: words, phrases, clauses) are grammatically arranged to function. 02 Pharagraph and paratone 2. Paragraph and paratone 2.1. Paragraph * What is a paragraph? - There are some remarkable definitions about "paragraph". For example, a paragraph is a self-contained unit of a discourse in writing dealing with a particular point or idea. - Or, according to Richards, J.C., Platt, J. and Platt, H. (1997), a paragraph is a unit of organization of written language, which serves to indicate how the main ideas in a written text are grouped *A basic paragraph structure: -In formal academic English, paragraphs have three principal parts: a) The topic sentence. b) The body sentences/ supporting details bout. c) The concluding/ closing sentence. *Some important features of a paragraph. According to Oshima, A., Hogue, A. (1999), a basic paragraph usually contains the following important features: a) Unity: must be used to develop the topic sentence of the paragraph provided that they are closely related to the topic sentence. b) Coherence: It should be understood that in a paragraph, the ideas have a logical flow. * Some examples about a paragraph structure in English and in Vietnamese. a) A paragraph structure in English taken at random for reference only "(1) My friend Mary is a very kind person. (2) She likes helping people. (3) She visits sick people in hospital and she spends time reading to young children at the library. (4) She brings food to her elderly neighbour because he cannot cook for himself anymore. (5) She takes another neighbour's dog for a walk because that person is in a wheelchair. (6) Mary is the kindest person I have ever known.". Notes: Topic sentence: (1); Supporting sentences: (2), (3), (4), (5); Concluding sentence: (6) b) A paragraph structure in Vietnamese taken at random for reference only “(1) Chị Dậu là một người phụ nữ có nhan sắc, có cái đẹp của cô gái Cầu Lim, Đình Cẫm như tác giả nhận xét. (2) Nhưng tấm lòng của chị trắng trong như băng tuyết. (3) Chỉ vì suất sưu mấy đồng bạc, chị đã phải khổ sở, điêu đứng rất nhiều, nhưng chị đã khinh bỉ ném nắm bạc vào mặt tên quan phủ dâm ô. (4) Hai lần bị cưỡng hiếp, hai lần chị đã cương quyết chống lại và thoát ra được. (5) Đạo đức của chị, lòng kiên trinh của chị, tiền tài không làm hoen ố được, sức mạnh và uy vũ của bọn thống trị không lung lạc được.”. Notes: Opening sentence: (1); Topic sentence: (2); Supporting sentences: (3), (4); Concluding sentence: (5) * Some points should be carefully reconsidered when talking about paragraphs in any languages. - Parts of a paragraph: Topic sentence, body sentences/ supporting details, closing/concluding sentence. -How to write a paragraph: Prewriting paragraphs, writing paragraphs, editing paragraphs, publishing paragraphs. Here we should pay much attention to make a paragraph go naturally in an academic way by how to effectively write a topic sentence, supporting sentences, concluding sentence, transitional sentence, opening sentence 2.2. Paratone * What is paratone? -Paratone or speech paragraph is considered as one of the typical means of the discourse functions of intonation. Paratone is a tem occasionally used in Phonology for a coherent formal sequence of intonation units, analogous or similar to the concept of paragraph in writing (Crystal, 2008). * Some characteristics of paratone: (1) the high pitch on the onset syllable of the initial intonation unit (2) the low pitches are relatively high, compared to the low pitches in the final unit of the paragraph (3) there is a gradual lowering of that baseline until the final unit is reached (4) the depth of fall in the final unit is the lowest in the whole paragraph (5) there is usually a slowing down process in the final unit (6) there is a longer pause than usual between intonation units. 03 Genre in English and in Vietnamese 3.1. The concerpt of genre - In brief, the concerpt of genre has also been proposed that considers genres as dynamic, social texts with clear communicative purposes and schematic structures. 3.2. Genre in English - Genre is considered to be a particular style or kind, especially of works of art or literature grouped according to their form or subject matter, for instance: + Narrative + Descriptive + Argumentative + Expository + Procedural or Instructional 3.3. Genre in Vietnamese - There are any differences between two languages that may be the ways each one can be exposed according to its own rules of phonology, lexicology, and grammar. 3.4. Some suggestions for a contrastive analysis between genre in English and genre in Vietnam. - What the reader should do is how to do a contractive analysis rather that what to take for a contractive analysis. 3.5. Genre and text types Genre Text type + Genre is often based on external, non-linguistic criteria for intended audience, purpose, and activity type. + Text type is usually based on the external, linguistic characteristics of text themselves. + Genre can be recognized with the help of external criteria and are named by their users. + Text types often follow systematic internal discourse pattem. 3.6. Some suggestions for a contractive analysis between English and Vietnamese text types. Texts Text types In English 1, Narrative 2, Argumentative A conclusion must be included, which involves not only the summary, but also the writer’s comments, the meaning of the story, for example: “… and lived happily ever after…” Usually directly state the writer’s viewpoint at the beginning -> straightforward. 3, Descriptive 4, Procedural 5, Expository In Vietnamese Both adjectives and nouns are used. Seemingly, more nouns can be used to give illustration for object or persons, if possible, for instance: ‘ màu cỏ úa, ,àu xanh cổ vịt, màu xanh bộ đội, trưởng làng, vườn trường, …” No need to use personal statement or evaluation at the end of the procedural text… Ussually adding the subject’s role in human life (at the body); often giving descriptions and using rhetoric devices (metaphors, personification,..) a conclusion should be used as the writer’s comments and feelings. 04 Contrastive rhetoric and applied linguistics 4.1. Contractive rhetoric. - According to Connor, U. (1999): contractive rhetoric is the study of how a person’s first language and culture influence his or her writing in a second language. 4.2. Applied linguistics. - According to Richards, J.C, Platt, J. and Platt, H. (1997): applied linguistics is not only the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, but also the study of language linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as lexicography, translation, speech pathology. - Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language related real- life problems. - Contractive rhetoric is a brach of applied linguistics because: + it is a area of research in second language acquisition that identifies problems in composition encountered by second language learner and writers. + it has advanced the understanding not only about the second language learning, but also about the second language teaching with very close ties to specific teaching situations. 05 Contrastive rhetoric and the field of rhetoric and composition, Academic 5.1. Contrastive rhetoric (previously mentioned in 5.5.) - In general, it focuses on how a person's first language and culture influence his or her writing in a second language. 5.2. The field of rhetoric and composition -Composition studies - is the professional field of writing research and instruction, focusing especially on writing at the college level in the United States. - Many composition scholars study not only the theory and practice of post secondary writing instruction, but also the influence of different writing conventions and genres on writers' composing processes. 5.3. Academic institutions -Academic institution is an educational institution dedicated to education and research, which grants academic degrees. 5.4. Types of academic institutions -A primary school is an institution where children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as primary or elementary education. -Secondary school is a term used to describe an institution where the final stage of compulsory schooling, known as secondary education, takes place. It follows on from primary or elementary education. There are many different types of secondary school and the terminology used varies around the world. -Advanced educational institutions, also known as tertiary schools or schools of higher education - Tertiary education, also referred to as third stage, third level, and post-secondary education, is the educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school. 06 Contrastive rhetoric and text linguistics in English and Vietnamese 6.1. Some technical terms employed in the section 1) "Deictic" (adj), "deixis" is a term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance to a time, place, or person, for example: "here, there" refer to a place in relation to the speaker; "I" refers to the speaker or writer; "we" refers to the speakers or writers; "you" refers to the person(s) addressed; "he, she, they" refer to some other person or persons)." 2) "Anaphoric" (adj), "anaphora" shows a process where a word or phrase refers back to another a word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.. 3) "Cataphoric" (adj), "cataphora" is the use of a word or phrase which which refers forward to another word or phrase which will be used later in the text or conversation is called "cataphora". 6.2. Contrastive rhetoric (previously mentioned in 5.5.) - In brief, it is the study of how a person's first language and culture influence his or her writing in a second language. 6.3. Text linguistics - According to Richards, J.C., Platt, J. and Platt, H. (1997), text linguistics is a branch of linguistics which studies spoken or written texts, for instance, a descriptive passage, a scene in a play, a conversation. - Coherence in linguistics is what makes a text semantically meaningful. It is especially dealt with in text linguistics - In order to be more specific and clearer, let us mine something different c Lesion" and "coherence" as follows: + Cohesion: It is used to indicate the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a text. This may be the relationship between diffirent sentences or between different part of a sentence. + Coherence: It is used to show the relationships that link the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text. The links may be based on the speakers' shared knowledge. -A cohesive text is created in many different ways. Halliday, M.A.K. and Hasan, R. (2014) identify five general categories of cohesive devices that create coherence in texts: (1) reference, (2) ellipsis, (3) substitution, (4) conjunction, (5) lexical cohesion. 07 Writing as an activity embedded in a culture 7.1. Some necessary explanation regarding part - Here should understand what "embedding" is? "Embed" is used in generative grammar to indicate the occurrence of one sentence in another. Example: "The news that Peter was married surprised his colleagues." where the sentence "that Peter is married" is attached to the sentence "The news surprised his colleagues.", and is therefore an embedded sentence. - What should be understood here “Writing as an activity associated with a culture”? It should be understood as the integration of writing as an activity and the culture under which productive skills (specifically writing skills) develop not only in terms of meaning but also culturally. We cannot separate them in language learning and teaching. 7.2: Some important bases for the section to develop - According to Kadar-Fulop (1988), both the functions of writing in society and the functions of writing instructions influence the writing practices in a particular culture. The functions and conventions of writing that are learnt through education are found to be closely related to the culture and society in which schooling takes place. 7.1. Some necessary explanation regarding part - Here should understand what "embedding" is? "Embed" is used in generative grammar to indicate the occurrence of one sentence in another. Example: "The news that Peter was married surprised his colleagues." where the sentence "that Peter is married" is attached to the sentence "The news surprised his colleagues.", and is therefore an embedded sentence. - What should be understood here “Writing as an activity associated with a culture”? It should be understood as the integration of writing as an activity and the culture under which productive skills (specifically writing skills) develop not only in terms of meaning but also culturally. We cannot separate them in language learning and teaching. 7.2: Some important bases for the section to develop - According to Kadar-Fulop (1988), both the functions of writing in society and the functions of writing instructions influence the writing practices in a particular culture. The functions and conventions of writing that are learnt through education are found to be closely related to the culture and society in which schooling takes place. 7.3. Knowledge as the bases for the activity of writing - Three basic forms of knowledge requisite for the activity of writing in a culture as follows: + Semantic knowledge: words, phrases, larger units of discourse Knowledge of models: text models and other culturally appropriate formulaic uses of language + Knowledge of social and cultural rules governing both - There is a connection between culture, text models, and activity of writing Suggesting appropriate text models to develop writing skills: + Expectations about the nature of texts and how texts are to be received and viewed. + Establishing standards or criteria to measure what a good writing should be like + Learning to write within a culture is a large undertaking one that requires a good + Setting rules for writing number of years and the accumulation of a great deal of knowledge of a culture, the knowledge which we may term cultural knowledge (Kadar-Fulop, 1988). 7.4. Writing is culturally determined - The transfer of first language cultural conversion to second language performance (Kaplan, 1966) - Written language is not universal to all people - Rhetorical organization of ideas in writing is culturally determined - The invention of literacy for the search of truth in terms of cultural universals and particulars 7.5. Different emphasis on cross-cultural writing The IEA study showed culturally national perception on writing for example, "at school": - Low emphasis on "organization" in Chile and style and tone in Netherlands - New Zealand and Sweden emphasize "process" more than other countries do. 3) Sweden concerns the choice of topic than New Zealand does 7.6: Some suggestions for the teaching of how culture is emdedded in language 08 Contrastive rhetoric and translation studies 8.1. Contrastive rhetoric (previously mentioned in 5.5.) - Briefly speaking, contrastive rhetoric is the study of how a person's first language and culture influence his or her writing in a second language. 8.2. Translation studies -Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. 8.3. What is translation? -Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source language text by means of an equivalent target language text; or translation is the process of conveying messages across linguistic and cultural barriers. There are 3 types of translation: + free translation + literal translation +translation equivalence. 8.4. Translation quality In general, translation quality should be as follows: - Accurate: representing the meaning of the source text as faithfully as possible; - Natural: using the language in ways which should be appropriate to the text being translated; - Communicative: expressing the meaning in an understandable way to the intended audience. 8.5. What should we say about contrastive rhetoric and translation studies not only in terms of contrastive analysis, but also in terms of language acquisition? Transfer Contrastive rhetoric Translation studies In the procedure of “transfer” , a language user activates both Similarities languages so that it can apply both of them. The object of "transfer" is all The object of "transfer" is only a Differences knowledge of the source (source translatable utterance/ sentences text) (source text) →writing process →translation process "Acceptability" and "Adequacy" in translation Traditional Model (Source-text oriented Toury's model theory of translation) (Target-text oriented theory of translation) Basis: source text and its environment Basis: Difference between languages alone - Varied degrees of two - Functional-dynamic equivalence "adequacy" and "acceptability" qualities: - Focus: correctness and faithfulness - - Focus: cultural-linguistic context Focus: cultural-linguistic context 09 Some teaching implications and research directions 9.1. Implications from contrastive text studies -Text linguistic contrastive rhetoric studies indicate that different cultures have different expectations of writing which may be internalized as different patterns of discourse. - Other teaching implications from contrastive rhetoric should also include the use of topic sentence analysis as revision tool so that English as a foreign language students can employ what they have learnt and practiced to improve the coherence and cohesion of their own writing. 9.2. Implications from contrastive process-based writing -The teaching of writing should be changeable. The emphasis is no longer on the product. Instead, writing is taught as a process, in which each stage, such as Pre-writing, composing, and editing, is very important. -In other words, writing is not çonsidered a solitary act, but it involves teachers, students, peers and other readers whose responses are a vital part of writing considered as a social construction of meaning ALTERNATIVE RESOURCES Here’s an assortment of alternative resources whose style fits the one of this template: Vectors ● ● Hand drawn flat design trendy cartoon element collection Hand drawn flat design trendy cartoon covers 9.3. Implications from contrastive genre-specific research in English as foreign language settings -In English as a foreign language situations, teachers need knowledge of the rhetorical contrast between English and the other language the students' native language. They should raise their students' awareness of differences about how texts are organized, how explicitly transitions should be. stated, how directly requests are made... The students are not necessarily expected to use the foreign language with native speakers. 9.4. Research directions 1) Text linguistic contrastive studies should gather evidence about differences in writing for a variety of text types and writing situations. 2) Research studies need to examine how writing is learnt in different languages and cultures. 3) With the globalization of discourse patterns, contrastive rhetoricians should learn more about the levels of adequacy and acceptability of second language writing. 4) Both the old and the new contrastive rhetorics reflect the gender blindness of sociolinguistic and text linguistic research as well as the gender-biased empirical parameters of applied linguistics that usually assumes no gender-based differences in second language acquisition. 5) Research on effective classroom interactions in English as a foreign language settings is necessary . 10 Summary THANKS FOR LISTENING! 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