Communication Research Reports
Vol. 36, No. 3, 2019, pp. 191–200
Audio-Only Character Narration
Overcoming Resistance to Narrative
Persuasion
Shane M. Semmler & Travis Loof
Using an entertainment overcoming resistance framework, a posttest-only randomized
experimental design demonstrated that, compared to no audio-only character narration
(n = 57), audio-only character narration (n = 71) elicited more identification with the
narrating character, and identification initiated a process of overcoming counterarguing
against a subjectively perceived narrative lesson embedded in an episode of The Wonder
Years (1998–1993). Although reduced counterarguing did not significantly influence
favorable evaluations of the narrative lesson, it significantly increased the importance of
those evaluations. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of audio-only character
narration on identification, self-reports of a narrative lesson, and the relative influence of
entertainment on attitude favorability versus attitude importance.
Keywords: Audio-Only Character Narration; Entertainment; Identification; Narrative Persuasion; Soliloquy
Ong (1982) observed that early humans used oral storytelling “to store, organize, and
communicate much of what they know” (p. 137). Today, most stories are audiovisual, but even as they entertain, stories continue preserving, promoting, and
disseminating knowledge vital to cultural maintenance and change (Singhal &
Rogers, 1999). Although extant entertainment education research demonstrates the
pro-social potential of narrative persuasion (Brown & Singhal, 1999; Moyer-Gusé,
Shane M. Semmler (PhD, University of Oklahoma, 2010) is an associate professor in the Department of
Communication Studies at the University of South Dakota. Travis Loof (PhD, Texas Tech University, 2017) is
an assistant professor in the Department of Media and Journalism at the University of South Dakota.
Correspondence: Shane M. Semmler, Department of Communication Studies, University of South Dakota,
Dakota Hall #337, Vermillion, SD 57069; E-mail: shane.semmler@usd.edu
ISSN 0882-4096 (print)/ISSN 1746-4099 (online) © 2019 Eastern Communication Association
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2019.1598855
192
S. M. Semmler & T. Loof
Chung, & Jain, 2011) and entertainment researchers continue investigating explanations for entertainment (Semmler, Loof, & Berke, 2015; Tsay-Vogel & Oliver, 2014),
this study united these two pursuits to experimentally investigate how narratives
elicit the entertainment that overcomes resistance to narrative persuasion. More
specifically, we investigated how audio-only character narration by the virtuous
protagonist of a sitcom (Vorhaus, 2012) elicits identification (Tal-Or & Cohen,
2010), and how identification reduces counterarguing against narrative persuasion
(EORM; Moyer-Gusé, 2008).
Audio-Only Character Narration
Audio-only character narration is a form of soliloquy, defined as any theatrical passage
depicting a character verbally addressing the audience outside the perceptual range of
other characters (Hirsh, 2003). Soliloquy elegantly provides character exposition within
the events of a narrative. Although there are several types of soliloquy, audio-only
character narration is an audiovisual adaptation of the interior monologue aside
(Hirsh, 2003). Semmler et al. (2015) defined audio-only character narration as subtle
breaks in the fourth wall with verbal but not visual direct address. In contrast, audiovisual direct address is an audiovisual adaptation of audience-addressed soliloquy (Hirsh,
2003) in which characters vividly break the fourth wall with both eye contact and speech
(Cohen, Oliver, & Bilandzic, 2019). Audiovisual storytellers use both forms of address,
but audio-only character narration is far more common.
The Influence of Audio-Only Character Narration on Identification
Character identification is a form of media entertainment (see Moyer-Gusé, 2008) in
which a spectator’s subjectivity becomes absorbed into a narrative character’s perspective (Cohen, 2001). Identification is cognitive (i.e., sharing a character’s
thoughts), empathic (i.e., feeling a character’s emotions), motivational (i.e., adopting
a character’s goals), and absorbing (i.e., losing self-awareness).
Depending on the narrating character’s level of virtue, the cognitive, empathic,
and motivational exposition provided by narration might elicit identification. Tal-Or
and Cohen (2010) found pre-viewing exposure to written information about
a character’s virtuous deeds elicited significantly more identification than previewing exposure to a character’s unvirtuous deeds. Referencing those findings,
Semmler et al. (2015) reasoned that identification with a narrating antihero was
blocked by the character’s murderous thoughts and actions. Cohen et al. (2019)
similarly observed that an unvirtuous character’s direct addresses failed to elicit
identification.
To eliminate the potentially confounding influence of an unvirtuous narrator, we
tested the influence of audio-only character narration with the traditional hero of
a sitcom, a genre known for reinforcing conventional morality (Vorhaus, 2012). We
therefore expected results similar to Tsay-Vogel and Oliver’s (2014) study of reality
Communication Research Reports 193
television contestants showing that audiovisual character-to-viewer self-disclosures
elicited more identification than character-to-character self-disclosures. That study
also showed that more intimate self-disclosures predicted more identification, suggesting that the more audiences know about a character the more they identify with
that character. Given that audio-only narration unobtrusively provides the cognitive,
empathic, and motivational prerequisites for identification, we proposed the following hypothesis:
H1: Compared to no audio-only character narration, audio-only character narration elicits more identification with the narrating character.
Entertainment Overcoming Resistance to Persuasion
The entertainment overcoming resistance model, or EORM (Moyer-Gusé, 2008), explains
how narratives overcome resistance by eliciting entertainment; reducing resistance to
a narrative message; and ultimately, increasing narrative-consistent persuasion. Because
different narratives entertain and overcome resistance differently, EORM studies should
consider the particular qualities of the entertainment vehicle under investigation (MoyerGusé & Nabi, 2010). Therefore, this study focused on propositions of the EORM regarding
identification and overcoming counterarguing to a narrative lesson embedded in
a moralistic situation comedy featuring a virtuous character providing audio-only character narration. This approach to the EORM is justified by the aforementioned theorizing
regarding identification, the demonstrated capacity of identification to reduce counterarguing (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010), and the negative relationship between counterarguing and narrative persuasion (Moyer-Gusé et al., 2011).
Because persuasion includes modifying attitude favorability and/or attitude
importance (Krosnick & Petty, 1995), Appel and Richter (2010) measured importance as a proxy for long-term narrative influence. Additionally, Moyer-Gusé et al.
(2011) included proxies of attitude importance (i.e., persistence and attitudebehavior consistency) in a study of how identification with sitcom characters
reduced counterarguing and increased persuasion. Modeling these approaches, we
defined the persuasiveness of audio-only character narration in terms of narrativeconsistent modifications of attitude favorability and/or importance. Hypothesis 2
articulates the theoretical model depicted in Figure 1:
+
Identification
Counterarguing
Narration
-
Persuasion
Method
Figure 1 Theoretical model showing the process of narration’s influence on persuasion.
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S. M. Semmler & T. Loof
H2: Identification and counterarguing serially mediate the relationship between
audio-only character narration and favorable evaluations of the narrative
lesson (H2a) and/or the importance of those evaluations (H2b).
Method
This posttest-only randomized experimental design manipulated an episode of the ABCproduced situation comedy The Wonder Years (1988–1993) to create a no-narration and
a yes-narration condition. The hero of The Wonder Years is Kevin Arnold, a teenager
coming of age in the 1960s United States. As a 30-something person, Kevin’s narrations
nostalgically reflect on the events, people, and lessons of his adolescence. Because Kevin is
a likeably virtuous character, and each episode typically involves a moral lesson, The
Wonder Years was ideal for examining the influence of narration on identification and
narrative persuasion. In “Nemesis” (Carlson & Stern, 1989), Kevin learns the moral and
practical dangers of careless gossip after his vengeful ex-girlfriend reveals how Kevin
ridiculed his friends to impress her. The audio-only narration in the episode reinforced,
punctuated, and/or repeated Kevin’s perspective on the narrative action.
Procedure and Sample
Students in a basic communication course earned credit for participating in a “Sitcom
Perceptions” study (N = 147). The “no-narration” condition of “Nemesis” (Carlson &
Stern, 1989) was created using Audacity 2.0.05 (Mazzoni & Dannenberg, 2000/2013)
and Final Cut Pro 7.0.3 (Apple Inc., 2011) to remove Kevin’s 25 instances of audio-only
narration, while leaving the musical soundtrack, background sound effects, and other
dialogue intact (20 minutes and 57 seconds). The “narration” condition was the original
episode (20 minutes and 58 seconds). After viewing the episode, subjects reported their
subjective perception of its narrative lesson, previous exposure to The Wonder Years,
identification, counterarguing against the self-reported narrative lesson, favorable evaluation of that lesson, and importance of that evaluation.
The first author and an undergraduate student coded interpretations of the
narrative lesson as correct, incorrect, or no response. Correct interpretations
included references to the moral and/or practical dangers of gossip and/or the
importance of treating others as one would like to be treated. Cohen’s (1960)
chance-adjusted agreement statistic was calculated on the entire sample (N = 147,
ĸ = .87). Eight respondents reported an inaccurate lesson, and 11 failed to report
a lesson. Consequently, 19 respondents were removed from the final sample
(N = 128): no-narration (n = 57), narration (n = 71). Ultimately, the conditions
did not significantly differ by inaccurate or missing interpretations of the narrative
lesson (no-narration: n = 10, 15%; yes-narration: n = 9, 11%; χ2(1, N = 147) = .438,
p = .678, V = .055) or previous exposure to The Wonder Years (no-narration: n = 15,
26%; yes-narration: n = 18, 25%; χ2(1, N = 128) = .015, p = .901, Cramer's V = .011).
Finally, this data set was uploaded to the Open Science Framework Commons (Loof
& Semmler, 2019).
Communication Research Reports 195
Measures
Identification (Cohen, 2001) and counterarguing (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010) were
measured with 7-point Likert items from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
Illustrative identification items were “While viewing this episode of The Wonder
Years, I forgot myself and was fully absorbed,” and “When Kevin succeeded, I felt
joy, but when he failed, I was sad” (M = 4.54, SD = 1.02, α = .89). The four
counterarguing items (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010) measured responses to participants’ disagreement with their self-reported interpretation of the narrative lesson.
Example items were “I found myself actively agreeing with the episode’s narrative
lesson” (reverse coded), and “I was looking for flaws in the argument in this episode’s
narrative lesson” (M = 2.52, SD = 1.02, α = .73).
Attitude favorability (Burgoon, Cohen, Miller, & Montgomery, 1978) and attitude
importance (Zaichkowsky, 1985) were measured with 7-point adjective rating scales
from 1 (the adjective completely describes the self-reported “narrative lesson” or its
importance) to 7 (the adjective does not at all describe the “narrative lesson” or its
importance). The six adjectives for attitude favorability (Burgoon et al., 1978) were
good, acceptable, right, bad, unacceptable, and wrong, with italicized adjectives
reverse coded (M = 5.05, SD = 1.59, α = .92). The eight adjectives for the attitude
importance measure (Zaichkowsky, 1985) were important, relevant, significant,
means a lot, unimportant, irrelevant, insignificant, and means nothing, with italicized
adjectives reverse coded (M = 5.91, SD = 1.06, α = .93).
Analysis and Results
H1 predicted that, compared to no audio-only character narration, audio-only character
narration elicits more identification. An independent sample t-test showed that narration (M = 4.83, SD = .93) elicited significantly more identification than no narration
(M = 4.18, SD = 1.01), t(126) = 3.80, p < .001, d = .67. Therefore, H1 was confirmed.
H2a and H2b posited that the persuasive influence of audio-only character
narration is indirectly routed through more identification and less counterarguing.
Table 1 displays results for two OLS regression-based PROCESS Model 6 (Hayes,
2013) analyses testing the influence of audio-only character narration (0 = no
narration/1 = yes narration) on attitude favorability and attitude importance through
more identification and less counterarguing. Table 1 shows that audio-only character
narration elicited significantly more identification; identification elicited significantly
less counterarguing; and reduced counterarguing elicited a nonsignificant increase in
attitude favorability but a significant increase in attitude importance. Ultimately, the
PROCESS Model 6 was not significant for attitude favorability, Adj. R2 = .02, Adj.
f2 = .02, R2Δ = .04, f2Δ = .04, FΔ(3, 141) = 2.04, p = .112, but it was significant for
attitude importance, Adj. R2 = .21, Adj. f2 = .27, R2Δ = .23, f2Δ = .30, FΔ
(3,141) = 13.87, p < .001. The only significant path of persuasive influence was the
path ending in attitude importance. Therefore, H2 was confirmed for attitude
importance (H2b) but not for attitude favorability (H2a).
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S. M. Semmler & T. Loof
Table 1 Influence of Audio-Only Narration on Entertainment Overcoming Resistance
to Persuasion
M1
NARRATION a1 .64 (.17)
p < .001
M1 (ID)
M2 (XARG)
Favorability
(FAV)
M2
a2
d21
−.17 (.18)
p = .365
−.27 (.09)
p = .003
c’ .04 (.30)
p = .896
b1 .08 (.15)
p = .594
b2 −.26 (.15)
p = .077
Importance
(IMP)
c’ −.30 (.18)
p = .104
b1 .07 (.09)
p = .473
b2 −.48 (.09)
p < .001
Note. Paths for attitude favorability: NARRATION → ID → FAV [−.1211, .2587]; NARRATION → XARG →
FAV [−.0497, .1829]; NARRATION→ ID → XARG → FAV [−.0074, .1151]. Paths for attitude importance:
NARRATION → ID → IMP [−.0648, .1725]; NARRATION → XARG → IMP [−.0762, .2823]; NARRATION
→ ID → XARG → IMP [.0210, .1965].
Discussion
An experiment testing the influence of audio-only character narration on identification (Tal-Or & Cohen, 2010) and entertainment overcoming resistance to persuasion
(Moyer-Gusé, 2008) confirmed that narration elicited identification, identification
reduced counterarguing, and reduced counterarguing increased the persuasive influence of a televised situation comedy warning against the practical and moral dangers
of gossip. Consistent with propositions of the EORM (Moyer-Gusé, 2008) regarding
the process of narrative persuasion, the influence of audio-only character narration
on attitude importance was significantly mediated by more identification and less
counterarguing. Despite the lack of findings for persuasion defined as attitude
favorability, the significant findings for the influence of audio-only narration on
identification and attitude importance have substantial theoretical and practical
implications.
Audio-Only Character Narration and Identification
Although some have equated voice-over narration (i.e., soliloquy) with sloppy storytelling (Keveney, 2005), this study showed that a virtuous character’s audio-only
character narration enhances the entertainment value of a story through the absorbing process of identification (Cohen, 2001). This finding is consistent with the
critical and popular success of The Wonder Years (1988–1993). In 1989, the show
won a Peabody Award (n.d.) for “imaginative use of sound” (para. 1) and for
pointing “the way to new modes of storytelling” (para. 1).
Now, narration is a common device in television programming (Keveney, 2005).
It is prolific in situation comedies, like Sex and the City (1998–2004) and Arrested
Development (2003–2006 and 2013), and even critically acclaimed dramatic serials,
like A Handmaid’s Tale (2017–present). Because identification is a conceptual form
Communication Research Reports 197
of entertainment (see Moyer-Gusé, 2008) and an empirical correlate of subjectively
perceived enjoyment (see Tal-Or & Cohen, 2010; Tsay-Vogel & Oliver, 2014), the
influence of narration on identification might help explain its proliferation in
audiovisual storytelling.
Identification represents the unification of a character’s thoughts, feelings, and
goals with the subjectivity of the audience (Cohen, 2001). In this study, audio-only
character narration exposed audiences to Kevin’s thoughts and goals through his
words and to Kevin’s feelings through his vocalic modulations (see Semmler, 2014);
however, simply learning more about a character might not be sufficient to elicit the
loss of self-awareness (i.e., absorption) central to identification. Cohen (2001) theorized that narration could prevent absorption by making audiences aware of their
own subjectivity vis-à-vis the narrating character; however, this study’s findings are
more consistent with Cohen’s (2006) later theorizing that audiences drift in and out
of identification with a character. On the other hand, a more vivid form of audiovisual soliloquy, like audiovisual direct address, might become so intrusive that it
overwhelms the capacity of audiences to become absorbed in a narrative stream.
That theorizing is consistent with Cohen et al.’s (2019) finding that audiovisual
direct address did not significantly increase identification; however, the authors use
of a nonvirtuous character meant their results might not generalize to other narratives. In fact, at least two studies have shown that audiences do not identify with
a nonvirtuous character (Semmler et al., 2015; Tal-Or & Cohen, 2010). Our use of
a virtuous character allowed us to rule out the potentially confounding influence of
a nefarious character on the relationship between narration and identification.
Another inconclusive aspect of Cohen et al.’s (2019) study was its reliance on
a relatively decontextualized experimental stimulus. Using the audiovisual direct
address of the Machiavellian villain (Keller, 2015) in Netflix’s House of Cards
(2013–present), Cohen et al. ’s (2019) experimental stimuli consisted of less than
three minutes of the program and only two instances of direct address. Such short
clips and limited direct address might not have been sufficient to elicit identification.
In addition to using a virtuous character, our contextualization of 25 instances of
audio-only character narration within a complete story might help explain why our
manipulation of audio-only character narration elicited identification, while Cohen
et al.’s (2019) manipulation of audiovisual direct address did not elicit identification.
Despite the current study’s illuminating findings regarding the influence of soliloquy
(i.e., audio-only character narration) on identification, investigating the boundary conditions of the relationship between soliloquy and identification remains a vital area of
empirical research beyond the mere conclusion that the exposition provided by soliloquy
is necessary and sufficient to elicit identification. Future research should cross manipulations of exposition (i.e., pre-viewing background, audio-only character narration, and
audiovisual direct address) with manipulations of a character’s virtue (not virtuous versus
virtuous). That being said, the focus of this research was on audio-only character narration’s role within the larger processes of the EORM (Moyer-Gusé, 2008).
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S. M. Semmler & T. Loof
Audio-Only Character Narration and the EORM
Responding to Moyer-Gusé and Nabi’s (2010) recommendation that EORM
researchers use more nuanced counterarguing measures, the target of our counterarguing measure was the subjects’ self-report of the narrative lesson embedded in the
situation comedy. Because our content analysis of those reports showed a common
and accurate understanding of the narrative lesson in “Nemesis” (Carlson & Stern,
1989), we could rule out confounds like misinterpreting the narrative lesson or
counterarguing against incidental aspects of the narrative (e.g., narrative fidelity or
coherence).
On the other hand, the participants’ understanding of the “narrative lesson”
might help explain the weak effect of narration on attitude favorability and its strong
effect on attitude importance. In both the audio-only character narration and no
audio-only character narration conditions, favorable attitudes toward the narrative
lesson were well above the midpoint of the scale, suggesting a possible ceiling effect
for favorable evaluations of the narrative lesson, even if those evaluations might have
been relatively weak prior to exposure to the episode. Unfavorable but weak attitudes
toward gossip are common among college students (i.e., our subject population).
Although 75% of undergraduates in one sample (Baumeister, Zhang, & Vohs, 2004)
expressed a negative view of gossip, nearly all initiated or circulated it. Such
disconnects between attitudes and behavior are indicative of weak attitudes. In
other words, there might have been a ceiling effect for attitude favorability but not
for attitude importance; however, testing that claim would have required a pretest of
respondents’ attitude favorability and attitude importance toward gossip. While still
allowing subjects to arrive at their own interpretation of a narrative lesson, future
studies of entertainment research might measure and control for the audiences’
preexisting views. Given that identification is more likely when audiences recognize
and agree with the identified character’s perspective (see Tal-Or & Cohen, 2010), the
value of entertainment education might be in reinforcement, rather than conversion,
of existence attitudes.
EORM (Moyer-Gusé, 2008) research typically examines pro-social and relatively
noncontroversial attitudes, like avoiding teen pregnancy (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010)
and taking precautions against sexually transmitted diseases (Moyer-Gusé et al.,
2011). Similarly, this study examined attitudes against hurtful gossip, another largely
uncontroversial attitude (see Baumeister et al., 2004). Future research should investigate how the EORM (Moyer-Gusé, 2008) operates with more controversial persuasive outcomes.
Data availability statement
The data described in this article are openly available in the Open Science Framework at https://osf.io/dkrmw/
Communication Research Reports 199
Open Scholarship
This article has earned the Center for Open science badges for Open Data through
Open Practices Disclosure. The materials are openly accessible at https://osf.io/s8z9j/
registrations
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