1-a data communication system depends on 4 fundamental
characteristics:
1- delivery: the system must deliver data to the correct destination .in DC ,
communication occurs between 2 devices, the one who sends is called the sender
, and on the other side is the receiver.
2- Accuracy:the system must deliver data accurately. data that have been
altered during transmission is left uncorrected and unusable.
3- timeliness:(‫ )االنضباط في التوقيت‬the system must deliver data in a timely manner,
data delivered late are useless especially in audio and video transmission, data
should be arrived to the destination in the same order as they are sent and
without any significant delay , this kind of transmission is called real –time
transmission.
4- jitter:same as timeliness in which data delay in packets transfer is unstable in
time by means let us assume that video packets are sent every 3-ms, if some of
the packets arrive with 3-ms delay and others with 4-ms , an uneven quality in
the video is the result.
1-Network: a network is a set of computers
connected or linked together through a set of
connection components such as hubs,
switches ,routers, wires …
A network might be small or large.
A small network is found in local or small
area and is called LAN(Local Area Network).
A large network is composed in general of
many small networks(LANS) and dispersed
over wide areas or regions across many
countries, and by this architecture of
networks we found what is called
internet(international netwok).
Another name of a large network is
WAN(Wide Area Network)
2- the components of data communication:
they are 4:
1-sender :is the device that sends the data
message, in general it is a computer or
workstation or node in the network.
2- receiver : is the device that receives the data,
also it is a computer in the network.
3-message or data content: is the information to
be communicated , it can be any ordinary text,
pictures, audio , video….
4- transmission medium: is the physical path by
which a message is traveled from sender to the
receiver. some examples of transmission media
include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber
optic cable, and radio waves(air).
Protocol:
the transmission is submitted to certain rules
(protocol) in order to let the sender
communicates with the receiver in reliable
manner.
3- Data flow
communication between 2 devices can be
simplex, half duplex ,full duplex.
3-1-simplex:
in
simplex
mode
,
the
communication is unidirectional , as a one way
street. only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit; the other can only receive. the simplex
mode can use the entire capacity of the channel
to send data in one direction.
3-2 half-duplex:in this mode , each station can
both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time, when one device is sending , the other can
only receive, and vice versa.
it is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in
both directions. when cars are travelling in one
direction , cars going in the other way must wait.
in half-duplex, the entire capacity of a channel is
taken over by whichever of the 2 devices is
transmitting at the time.
3-3 full-duplex
in this mode of transmission, both stations can
transmit and receive simultaneously.
this mode is like a two-way street with traffic
flowing in both directions at the same time.in
full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction
share the capacity of the link with signals going
in the other direction.
in general this sharing occurs in two ways, either
the link must contain 2 physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other
for receiving.
an example of full-duplex communication is the
telephone network . when 2 people are
communicating by a phone line, both can talk
and listen at the same time.
4-types of connection
a network is 2 or more devices connected
through links. a link is a communication
pathway that transfers data from one device to
another. for communication to occur, 2 devices
must be connected in some way to the same link
at the same time.
there are 2 possible types of connection:
4-1 point-to-point
this connection provides a dedicated link between
2 devices the entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those 2
devices.
4-2 multipoint
a multipoint connection is one in which more
than 2 specific devices share a single link .
in a multipoint environment, the capacity of the
channel is shared, either spatially or temporarily.
if several devices can use the link
simoultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection, if users must take turns , it is a
timeshared connection.
5-Equipments types:DTE-DCE
Fig above shows a typical dial-up network setup.
The data communication equipment (DCE) at
the transmitting end converts the digital signals
into audio tones (modulation) so that the voice
grade telephone lines can be used as guided
media during transmission. At the far end the
receiving audio tones, they are converted back to
digital signals (Demodulation) by the data
communication equipment (DCE) and fed to the
far end data terminal equipment (DTE).
6-LAN-WAN
6-1-LAN
A local area network (LAN) is usually privately
owned and connects some hosts in a single office,
building, or campus. Depending on the needs of
an organization, a LAN can be as simple as two
PCs and a printer in someone’s home office.
Each host in a LAN has an identifier, an address,
that uniquely defines the host in the LAN. A
packet sent by a host to another host carries both
the source host’s and the destination host’s
addresses.
LANs today are connected to each other and to
WANs (discussed next) to create communication
at a wider level.
6-2-WAN
A wide area network (WAN) is also an
interconnection
of
devices
capable
of
communication.
However, there are some differences between a
LAN and a WAN. A LAN is normally limited in
size, spanning an office, a building, or a campus;
a WAN has a wider geographical span, spanning
a town, a state, a country, or even the world. A
LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects
connecting devices such as routers. A LAN is
normally privately owned by the organization
that uses it; a WAN is normally created and run
by communication companies and leased by an
organization that uses it(ISP’S).
When a host in the west coast office sends a
message to another host in the same office, the
router blocks the message, but the switch directs
the message to the destination.
On the other hand, when a host on the west coast
sends a message to a host on the east coast,
router R1 routes the packet to router R2, and the
packet reaches the destination.
7-signals
all computers connected to a network
communicate by exchanging signals with each
other(DATA ON THE TRANSMISSION MEDIUM ).
the nature of the signals depends on the network
medium. the 3 most common types of signals used
for network communications are as follows:
electrical: networks that use copper-based cables
as a medium communicate by using electrical
signals, voltages generated by the transceiver in
each node.
light: fiber optic cables carry signals in the form
of pulses of light. we will see fiber optic later.
radio: most wireless networks communicate by
using radio signals in some form of frequencies
waves.
7-1-Analog vs digital signals
analog data ,such as the sounds made by a
human voice, take on continuous value. when
someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the
air. this can be captured by a microphone and
converted to an analog signal or sampled and
converted to a digital signal.
an example of analog data is clock hours,
minutes, and seconds giving information in a
continuous form. on the other hand , a digital
clock reports the hours and the minutes will
change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06.
digital data take on discrete values, for example
data stored in computer memory in the form of
0’s and 1’s.
7-2-modulation - demodulation
to transmit data over long distances through
telephones cable medium
the signal is
transformed from digital to analog , by means it
is modulated or changed to fit the capability of
the transmission medium.
modulation is the changing of signal from digital
to analog.
when sending, the signal is modulated, on the
other side, when receiving the signal is then
reconverted to analog or
demodulated
(demodulation).
7-3-broadband-baseband
transmission over long distances is the
broadband that uses the modulation and
demodulation processes.
baseband transmission where the entire
bandwidth of the medium is used as one single
channel. every wired LAN today uses a
dedicated
channel
for
two
stations
communicating with each other.
ethernet is a technology used in LAN .
In 10base2 standard ethernet bandwidth of the
channel is 10 megabits per second over 200
meters distance.
signal is converted as the following:
*digital-to-analog.
*digital-to-digital. –
*analog-to-digital.
*analog-to-analog.
7-4-transmission of digital signals
a digital signal is transmitted by using one of the
two different approaches:
-baseband transmission.
-broadband transmission using modulation.
in baseband transmission we send the digital
signal over a channel without changing the signal
to analog. The digital signal used in baseband
transmission occupies the entire bandwidth of
the network media to transmit a single data
signal. Baseband communication is bidirectional,
allowing computers to both send and receive data
using a single cable.
in broadband or modulation, the digital signal is
converted to analog for transmission over long
distance.
we will see modulation later when we talk about
digital to analog conversion.
9-1 DSL:
Stands for "Digital Subscriber Line." DSL is a
communications medium used to transfer digital signals
over standard telephone lines. Along with cable Internet,
DSL is one of the most popular ways ISPs provide
broadband Internet access.
all dsl (digital subscriber line) achieve their high speeds in
the same way by sending data over previously unused
frequencies in phone lines. Voice signals travel over phone
lines at frequencies ranging from 0 kHz to 4 kHz.
Standard modems use the same frequencies, but DSL uses
frequencies between 25 kHz and 1 MHz. This extra
bandwidth ensures that more data can be sent over the
same line.
Frequency for data download , upload, voice.
Digital Subscriber Line is a technology that assumes
digital data does not require change into analog form and
back. Digital data is transmitted to your computer
directly as digital data and this allows the phone company
to use a much wider bandwidth for transmitting it to you.
Meanwhile, if you choose, the signal can be separated so
that some of the bandwidth is used to transmit an analog
signal so that you can use your telephone and computer on
the same line and at the same time.
we will start by some concepts concerning analog
signal.
7-1 sine wave
when you listen to a radio station , this station
broadcast its content over a radio wave signal that
operates at a base waveform or wave of a specific
set of dimensions consisting of an amplitude ,
period, frequency and phase. this wave can be
modified through one of the modulation techniques
discussed later in chapter digital to analog
conversion.
7-1-1 Amplitude
is the height of the wave.
7-1-2 period
refers to the amount of time in seconds a signal
needs to complete 1 cycle.
7-1-3 frequency refers to the number of periods in 1
second
period (t) is the inverse of frequency(f) and
frequency is the inverse of period so
t=1/f and f=1/t
The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?
period is formally expressed in seconds, frequency
is expressed in hertz, which is cycle per second.
units of period and frequency are shown in the
following table:
b- 8 mhz= 8000000 hz /sec=8 106 cycles/sec
1 sec = 8 106 cycles
x? = 1 cycle. or t=1/f=
c-140khz=140000hz=140000cycles/sec
1 sec = 140000cycles
x sec = 1 cycle t=1/f=1/14 104 =0.0714 10-4
= 0.00000714
sec
b-
1microsec = 0 .000001 s=10-6 sec
12 micro = ? =12*0.000001=12 10-6 sec
f=1/t =1/12 10-6 hz= 0.083333 106 hz.=83333hz=
83.333 103 hz= 83.333 khz
c- 1ns=10-9 sec so 220ns=220 *10-9 sec
f=1/t= 1/220 10-9 =0.0045 109 = 4.5 10-3 109
hz=4.5 mhz
7-1-4 phase
the term phase describes the position of the wave
relative to time 0.if we think of the wave as
something that can be shifted backward or forward
along the time axis , phase describes the amount of
that shift.it indicates the status of the first cycle.
a phase shift of 360o (2 π radians) corresponds to a
shift of a complete period, a phase shift of 180o
corresponds to a shift of one-half of a period ,a
phase shift of 90o corresponds to a shift of onequarter of a period.
example: a wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time
0.what is its phase in degrees and radians , such as 360o
=2 π radians.
1 PERIOD OR CYCLE= 360o
SO 1/6 CYCLE = ? =360/6=
60o
360o = 2 π radians
60o =? 120 π /360 = π//3 RAD
8-Composite signal
N.B: A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications.
Periodic analog signals(A signal that repeats its pattern over a period is called
periodic signal) can be classified as simple or composite. A simple periodic analog
signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals.
A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves with
different frequencies, phases and amplitudes.
per example dsl carries voice in unused frequencies in phone lines. Voice signals
travel over phone lines at frequencies ranging from 0 kHz to 4 kHz, but DSL uses
frequencies between 25 kHz and 1 MHz. This extra bandwidth ensures that more
data can be sent over the same line.
Frequency for data download , upload,voice.
Digital Subscriber Line is a technology that assumes digital data does not require
change into analog form and back. Digital data is transmitted to your computer
directly as digital data and this allows the phone company to use a much wider
bandwidth for transmitting it to you. Meanwhile, if you choose, the signal can be
separated so that some of the bandwidth is used to transmit an analog signal so that
you can use your telephone and computer on the same line and at the same time.
So we need to send a composite signal , a signal made of many simple sine wave.
According to Fournier . any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves
with different frequencies, amplitude and phase.
Broadband works a completely different way. Instead of treating your phone line as a
single, narrow pipe between your computer and the ISP's computer, like a dialup
connection, it divides the line into many different channels. Information can travel in
parallel streams down these channels. It's like dividing a highway into several lanes:
lots more traffic can go down it in parallel than down a single-lane road. This is why
broadband is so much faster than dialup.
Most people download far more information than they upload (browsing web pages
is almost exclusively downloading—because most of the data is flowing into your
computer from the Net), so broadband allocates more channels to downloading than
to uploading. This is why broadband computers download several times faster than
they upload. In other words, downloading and uploading are not equivalent or
"symmetrical" processes: they are asymmetric. That's why the technical name for this
type of broadband is Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line or ADSL. Another type of
broadband called DSL allows uploading and downloading at the same speed.
There are two competing and incompatible standards for ADSL. The official ANSI
standard for ADSL is a system called discrete multitone, or DMT. According to
equipment manufacturers, most of the ADSL equipment installed today uses DMT.
An earlier and more easily implemented standard was the carrierless
amplitude/phase (CAP) system, which was used on many of the early installations
of ADSL.
9-Bandwidth
The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. The
bandwidth is normally a difference between two numbers. For example, if a
composite signal contains frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000
− 1000, or 4000.
Figure below shows the concept of bandwidth. The figure depicts two periodic
composite signal. The bandwidth of the periodic signal contains all integer
frequencies between 1000 and 5000 (1000, 1001, 1002, . . .).
Example
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300,
500, 700,and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth.
ThenThe bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
B =fh -fl =900 -100 =800 Hz
spectrum: is the range of frequencies in a signal.
example
A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is
the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then
B = fh - fl so 20=60-fl so fl=60-20=40 hz.
9-1Bandwidth in Hertz
We have discussed this concept. Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies
contained in a composite signal or the range of frequencies a channel can pass. For
example,we can say the bandwidth of a subscriber telephone line is 4 kHz.
9-2 Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds
The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits per second that a channel, or
even a network can transmit. For example, one can say the bandwidth of a Fast
Ethernet network (or the links in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This
means that this network can send 100 Mbps.
10-DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be
represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage.
figure below shows a signal with two level:
we sent 1 bit per level.
A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than
one bit for each level. Figure below shows a signal with four levels:
In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log2L bits. For this reason, we
can send log24
= log222 = 2 log22=2*1= 2 bits in previous figure.
10-1 Bit Rate
The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits persecond (bps). Figure
below shows the bit rate for two signals.
Example 1: A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?
We calculate the number
of bits from the following formula. Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
8
23
Number of bits per level = log2 =log2 =3
3
2 =8 levels
for 8 levels we need 3 bits/level
Example 2 :Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages
per second. What is the required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume that
one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is:
100* 24 * 80 * 8 =1,536,000 bps = 1.536 Mbps
11-Transmission of Digital Signals
The fundamental question is, How can wesend a digital signal from point A to point
B? We can transmit a digital signal by using one of two different approaches:
- baseband transmission
the digital signal is not modulated, instead it is transmitted digitally across the
medium (DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL TRANSMISSION)
-broadband transmission(using modulation).
digital signal is modulated to analog(DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG). in some cases like
DSL data is transmitted digitally.
Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without
changingthe digital signal to an analog signal. Figure below shows baseband
transmission.
Baseband transmission requires that we have a low-pass channel, a channel with a
bandwidth that starts from zero. This is the case if we have a dedicated medium
witha bandwidth constituting only one channel. For example, the entire bandwidth of
a cable connecting two computers is one single channel. As another example, we
mayconnect several computers to a bus, but not allow more than two stations to
communicateat a time. Again we have a low-pass channel, and we can use it for
baseband communication.
Example
An example of a dedicated channel where the entire bandwidth of the medium is
used as one single channel is a LAN. Almost every wired LAN today uses a
dedicated channel for two stations communicating with each other. In a bus topology
LAN with multipoint connections, only two stations can communicate with each
other at each moment in time (timesharing); the other stations need to refrain from
sending data. In a star topology LAN, the entire channel between each station and the
hub is used for communication between these two entities. We study LANs later.
Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an
analog signal for transmission. Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel—a
channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero. This type of channel is more
available than a low-pass channel. Figure 3.24 shows a bandpass channel.
Figure 3.25 shows the modulation of a digital signal. In the figure, a digital signal
isconverted to a composite analog signal. We have used a single-frequency analog
signal(called a carrier); the amplitude of the carrier has been changed to look like the
digital signal.
The result, however, is not a single-frequency signal; it is a composite signal. At the
receiver, the received analog signal is converted to digital,and the result is a replica
of what has been sent.
Example
An example of broadband transmission using modulation is the sending of computer
data througha telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a resident to the central
telephone office. Theselines, installed many years ago, are designed to carry voice
(analog signal) with a limited bandwidth(frequencies between 0 and 4 kHz).
Although this channel can be used as a low-pass channel,it is normally considered a
bandpass channel. One reason is that the bandwidth is so narrow (4 kHz) that if we
treat the channel as low-pass and use it for baseband transmission, the maximumbit
rate can be only 8 kbps. The solution is to consider the channel a bandpass channel,
convert the digital signal from the computer to an analog signal, and send the analog
signal. We can install two converters to change the digital signal to analog and vice
versa at the receiving end. The converter,in this case, is called a modem
(modulator/demodulator), which we discuss in detail later.
12-TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection
causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium
is not thesame as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is
received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.
12-1Attenuation
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels
through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium. That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after
awhile. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To
compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. Figure 3.27 shows
the effect of attenuation and amplification.
Decibel
To show that a signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use the unit of the
decibel.
The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different points. Note that the decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive
if asignal is amplified.
Example 1
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to
one-half.
This means that P2 = P1/2. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as:
A loss of 3 dB (−3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.
Example 2
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This
means that P2 =10P1. In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be
calculated as:
12-2 Distortion
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in a
composite signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own
propagation speed (search about?) through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in
arriving at the final destination. Differences in delay may create a difference in phase
if the delay is not exactly the same as the period duration. In other words,
signalcomponents at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the
sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same. Figure 3.29
shows the effect ofdistortion on a composite signal.
12-3 Noise
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal
noise,induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal. Thermal
noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which creates an extra signal not
originally sent by the transmitter. Induced noise comes from sources such as motors
and appliances.
These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the
receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a
sending antenna and the other as the receiving antenna. Impulse noise is a spike (a
signal with high energy in a very short time) that comes from power lines, lightning,
and soon. Figure 3.30 shows the effect of noise on a signal.
13- Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network.
Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the
same,they are different. A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only
send T bps through this link with T always less than B. In other words, the bandwidth
is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput is an actual measurement of how
fast we can send data. For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps,
but the devices connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This
means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.
Imagine a highway designed to transmit 1000 cars per minute from one point to
another. However, if there is congestion on the road, this figure may be reduced to
100 cars per minute. The bandwidth is 1000 cars per minute; the throughput is 100
cars per minute.
16-Latency (Delay)
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time + processing delay
see page 85 forouzan
17- 4 digital transmission
We said that signals that represent data can also be digital or analog. In this
section, we see how we can represent digital data by using digital signals.
The conversion involves line coding technique.
17-1 Line coding
is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. We assume
thatdata, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are
stored in computer memory as sequences of bits. Line coding converts a
sequence ofbits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital data are encoded
into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by
decoding the digital signal. Figure 4.1 shows the process.
17-2 Line Coding Schemes
2 major schemes will be covered in this paragraph:
- unipolar
- polar
17-2-1 Unipolar Scheme
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time
axis, either above or below.
17-2-1-1NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero)
Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero
(NRZ) scheme in which the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero
voltage defines bit 0. It is called NRZ because the signal does not return
to zero at the middle of the bit. Figure below shows a unipolar NRZ
scheme.
17-2-2 Polar Schemes
In polar schemes, the voltages are on both sides of the time axis. For
example, the voltagelevel for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for
1 can be negative.
17-2-2-1 Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)
In polar NRZ encoding, we use two levels of voltage amplitude. We can
have two versions of polar NRZ: NRZ-L and NRZ-I, as shown in
Figure below.
In the first variation, NRZ-L(NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage
determines the value of the bit. In the second variation, NRZ-I (NRZInvert), the change or lack of change in the level of the voltage
determines the value of the bit. If there is no change, the bit is 0; if
there is a change, the bit is 1.
17-2-2-2-Return-to-Zero (RZ)
return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values:
positive, negative, and zero. In RZ, the signal changes not between bits
but during the bit. In Figure below we see that the signal goes to 0 in
the middle of each bit. It remains there until the beginning of the next
bit.
17-2-2-3-Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester
The idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea of
NRZ-L are combined into the Manchester scheme. In Manchester
encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The voltage
remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in
the second half.
17-2-2-4-Differential Manchester
on the other hand, combines the ideas of RZ and NRZ-I. There is
always a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values are
determined at the beginning of the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a
transition; if the next bit is 1, there is none. Figure below shows both
Manchester and differential Manchester encoding.
questions
1-Draw the graph of the NRZ-L scheme using each of the following data streams, assuming that the last signal level has been positive.
a- 01010101
b-. 00110011
2-Repeat Problem 1 for the Manchester scheme
3-For the bit stream 1100110, sketch the
waveforms for each of the following codes:
a- NRZ-L. Assume, the signal level of preceding bit is positive voltage.
b- Manchester.
c- Differential Manchester - Assume, the signal level of preceding bit is negative voltage
a-
b-
c-
4- Suppose the waveform below comes from Manchester encoded binary data stream. Extract timing
information and give the data binary sequence.
.
5-Find the 8-bit data stream for each case depicted in Figure.
NRZ-I: 10011001.
Differential Manchester: 11000100.
17-5 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the
characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in digital
data. Figure 5.1 shows the relationship between the digital information,
the digital-to-analog modulating process, and the resultant analog
signal.
17-5-1Carrier Signal
In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency
signal that acts as a base for the information signal. This base signal is
called the carrier signal or carrier frequency. The receiving device is
tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that it expects from the
sender. Digital information then changes the carrier signal by
modifying
one or more of its characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase).
This kind of modification is called modulation (shift keying).
As discussed in previously, a sine wave is defined by three
characteristics: amplitude,frequency, and phase. When we vary any
one of these characteristics, we create a different version of that wave.
So, by changing one characteristic of a simple electric signal, we can
use it to represent digital data. Any of the three characteristics can be
altered in this way, giving us at least three mechanisms for modulating
digital data into an analog signal: amplitude shift keying (ASK),
frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK). (see Figure
5.2).
17.5.2 Amplitude Shift Keying
In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
to create signal elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant
while the amplitude changes. Figure 5.4 shows how we can simply
implement binary ASK.
If digital data are presented as a unipolar NRZ (see Chapter 4) digital
signal with a high voltage of 1 V and a low voltage of 0 V, the
implementation can achieved bymultiplying the NRZ digital signal by
the carrier signal coming from an oscillator.
When the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 1, the amplitude of the carrier
frequency is held; when the amplitude of the NRZ signal is 0, the
amplitude of the carrier frequency is zero.
5.5.3 Frequency Shift Keying
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied
to represent data.The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for
the duration of one signal element,but changes for the next signal
element if the data element changes. Both peak amplitude and phase
remain constant for all signal elements.
Figure 5.7 shows the simplified idea behind the second implementation.
The input to the oscillator is the unipolar NRZ signal. When the
amplitude of NRZ is zero, the oscillator keeps its regular frequency;
when the amplitude is positive, the frequency is increased.
17.5.4 Phase Shift Keying
In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two
or more differentsignal elements. Both peak amplitude and frequency
remain constant as the phasechanges. Today, PSK is more common
than ASK or FSK.
We use the same idea for ASK but with a polar NRZ signal instead of a
unipolar NRZ signal, as shownin Figure 5.10.
the 1 bit(positive voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 0°; the 0
bit (negative voltage) isrepresented by a phase starting at 180°.
the signalelement with phase 180° can be seen as the complement of the
signal element withphase 0°.