EDEM SOLOMON SUNDAY PG/M.ED/11/58795 ASSESSMENT OF THE APPLICATION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING AND LEARNING IN EDUCATION Digitally Signed by:: Content manager’s Name DN : CN = Webmaster’s name Ugwuoke Chukwuma O= University of Nigeria, a, Nsukka OU = Innovation Centre 1 ASSESSMENT OF THE APPLICATION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING AND LEARNING IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS IN AKWA IBOM STATE, NIGERIA BY EDEM SOLOMON SUNDAY PG/M.ED/09/50616 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION (COMPUTER EDUCATION), UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA JULY, 2012 2 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Background of the Study The rapid development in information and communication technologies (ICT) has made tremendous changes in the twenty-first century, and also affected the demands of modern societies. Educational systems around the world are under increasing pressure to use Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to teach students the knowledge and skills needed in the 21st century (Bangkok, 2004). In recognition of the impact of new technologies on the place of work and everyday life, Nigeria has joined the global village to restructure her educational system and classroom facilities in order to minimize the teaching and learning technology gap between developed and the developing countries. This is reflected in the word of Achuonye (2002) that the school environment of the 21st century will be a centre of electronic marvels. The application of ICT in education which is exacting an unprecedented impact in the learning process is a result of advancement in information technology. The communicative abilities and facilities offered by the computer, notably the e-mail, led to the replacement of the term “Information Technology” with that of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) over a decade ago. ICT according to Jimoh (2007) is the handling and processing of information (texts, images, graphs, instruction etc) for use, by means of electronic and communication devices such as computers, cameras, and telephone. Zwass (2006) defined ICT to include information processing technologies such as computers and the Internet, line telecommunication, mobile phones and other wireless communications, networks, broadband, and other different types of devices ranging from barcode scanners and Braille readers to global positioning systems. ICT is a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, retrieve and manage information (Ngurukulem, 2005). The term ICT has been used by United Nations (2005) to encompass technological innovation and convergence in information and communication leading to the development of information and knowledge societies, with resulting changes in social interaction, economic and business practices, political engagement, education, health, leisure and entertainment. It is however, an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application, encompassing radio, television, 1 3 cellular phones, computer and network, hardware and software, satellite systems, as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing, and distance learning. Tanner (2003) presents ICT as discipline, resource and key skill. ICT as discipline is a subject in the curriculum. As an instructional resource, ICT encompasses a wide range of technologies including telephones, fax machines, televisions, video, audio recorders, CD players, CD-ROMs, personal organizers, programmable and remote-operated toys, radios, computers as well as any other technologies that can enhance the processes of findings, exploring, analyzing, documenting, exchanging and presenting instruction based information (O’Hara cited in Akudolu, 2006). According to Thomas and Ranga (2000), there are three broad categorizes of application of ICT in education; pedagogy, training and continuing education. The pedagogical application of the ICT is concerned with the use of ICT facilities for teaching and learning, which plays complementary roles in teaching and learning situations, rather than supplement to the teacher or instructor. The pedagogic uses of the computer becomes necessary for development, among teachers as well as students, of competence, skills and attitude related to effective application of information and communication technologies in lesson preparation, instruction delivery, individualized learning and evaluation. Pedagogy through the application of ICT has the advantage of heightening the motivation, helping recall previous learning, providing new instructional stimuli, activating the learner’s response, providing systematic and steady feedback, facilitating appropriate practice, sequencing learning appropriately and providing a viable source of information for enhanced learning (Olakulehin, 2007). The end of formal education does not mean the end of one’s learning. The pace at which new knowledge is being generated and old knowledge is becoming outdated, demands that an individual should continue to learn throughout one’s life. Therefore, ICT can be very effective for facilitating lifelong education, both as a tutor and as a tool. Lecturers who teach students with this system of instruction would be able to kindle in the hearts of the learners a desirable attitude towards ICT tools in their entire life. For teachers to achieve this, they need to be skilled in the use of ICT and also to be able to critically evaluate strategies for the acquisition and the appropriate application of ICT in diverse curriculum area. 4 Application refers to the use of tools in carrying out, execution, or practice of a plan, a method, or any design for doing something. According to Hornby (2005), application is practical use of something especial new technologies for teaching. The technologies can be integrated into curriculum delivery through use of e-learning, video conferencing, electronic platforms, World Wide Web, synchronous and asynchronous software. However, the major implementers and evaluators of ICT in schools are the teachers and instructors. They provide appropriate environment and instruction which enable students acquire the desired ICT knowledge and skills. Furthermore, application of ICT cannot be effective without having a prerequisite ICT competence. However, having ICT in schools will not guarantee their effective use. Regarding the quantity and quality of technology placed in classrooms, the key to how those tools are used are teachers. Therefore, they play a leading role in the application of ICT in teaching and learning process (Kadel cited in Yusuf, 2011). Application of ICT is the use of a diverse set of technological tools and resources to communicate, create, disseminate, store, retrieve and manage information (Ofodu, 2007). Applying ICT in instruction involves the use of ICT facilities to support instruction in grading and teaching. Lecturers use ICT in the delivery of instructional units that integrate a variety of software, application and learning tools. The various ICT facilities used in the teaching-learning process in schools according to Ofodu (2007) include; radio, television, computers, overhead projectors, optical fibres, fax machines, CD-Rom, Internet, electronic notice board, slides, digital multimedia, video/ VCD machine and so on. In the present world of ICT, teaching and learning has gone beyond the teacher standing in front of a group of students and disseminating information to them without the students’ adequate participation. This means that a lecturer can post lectures on internet to students, give assignment to students through internet which the student have to do and submit through e-mail to the lecturer. In so doing, the lecturer will assess the student’s assignment and send immediate feedback to the students via e-mail. However, with the aid of ICT, lecturers can take students beyond traditional limits, ensure their adequate participation in teaching and learning process and create vital environments to experiment and explore skills. This new development is a strong indication that the era of lecturers without ICT skills have gone. Lecturers with adequate and professional skills in application of ICT in teaching will definitely have his students perform better in classroom learning. 5 In the developed countries teaching and learning have taken a new dimension through the application of ICT by teachers in preparing lesson, instruction delivery, individualized learning, and assessment of learning. Application of ICT in instruction delivery motivates students and also encourages students’ participation in class activities. Furthermore, application of ICT in assessing students learning reduce time consumed by lecturers in recording test results, it reduces examination malpractices and also offered immediate feedback to students. Assessment is the act of appraisal (Houghton, 2000). It is also defined by Anunobi (1998), as a process in which one make a judgement about a person or situation. Assessment data effects student advancement, placement, and grades, as well as decisions about instructional strategies and curriculum. Dietel, Herman, and Knuth (1991) defined Assessment as "any method used to better understand the current knowledge that a student possesses." This implies that assessment can be as simple as a teacher's subjective judgment based on a single observation of student performance, or as complex as a five-hour standardized test. The idea of current knowledge implies that what a student knows is always changing and that we can make judgments about student achievement through comparisons over a period of time. Through assessment, decisions about grades, advancement, placement, instructional needs, and curriculum are affected. For any teaching and learning to be meaningful, assessment of students learning must be effective. Effective assessment help teacher and students in monitoring progress of teaching and learning, it help teacher carry out curriculum evaluation and refinement, provide mastery, promotion or grading and determine grades of students, its offer immediate feedback, and motivate students. In this work assessment has to do with the collecting data in order to pass judgement on the application of ICT in teaching and learning. However, teaching without assessment of students’ progress rendered the instructional objective useless. Teaching, according to Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) report of 2002, is a systematic rational and organized process of transmitting or imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes to students in accordance with professional principles. Akinpelu in Offorma (2006) defined teaching as the deliberate effort by a mature or experienced person to impart information, knowledge, skills to an immature or less experienced person through a process that is morally and pedagogically acceptable. The aim of teaching is to facilitate learning. 6 Learning is a process by which a learner acquires knowledge, skills, attitude, concepts, traditions, values and the ability to comprehend in the process which ultimately leads to his mental, social, spiritual and physical growth and development (Paul, 1996). According to Igbo (2000), learning is a change in human disposition or capability which persists over a period of time, and which is not simply ascribed to processes of growth. It is only through the disposition of the learner that learning can take place. However, higher institutions should play their leading role on the need for studentteacher to have ICT skills for their own use in the preparation of materials for teaching and learning activities; the need to facilitate the direct use of ICT in students’ learning activities within the classroom situations; and the need for lecturers to develop in their students a critical awareness of ICT implications and the social implication (Yusuf, 2007). This will facilitate student centered learning and also enhance their learning in every subject by engaging their thinking, decision making, problem solving and reasoning behaviour as well as making them function well in the world of new technology age. FRN (2004) defined higher institution as an education given after secondary education in universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, monotechnics including those institutions offering correspondence courses. Higher institutions have been given mandate in the development of a nation through high level relevant manpower training. A change in the society influences higher institutions and therefore provides a complementary and dynamic effect on the social environment. One of the forces interacting with higher institutions, FRN (2004) is the application of ICT in teaching and learning. The Government of Akwa Ibom State had made some effort to enhance application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in the State. The State government signed agreements with Zinox computers and IB Benest Investments Limited (IBBIL) to provide ICT sustainable intervention at higher institutions in the State’s institutions. The State government has provided ICT facilities in the institutions and built well equipped laboratories fully installed with internet facilities in higher institutions in the State. The State government also offer training for teachers to enable them effectively use the facilities to familiarize students with the use and working of computers. In the same vein, the Akwa Ibom State College of Education which is one of the higher institutions in the State 7 in 2009 selected lecturers in different departments and sent them for ICT training organized by Digital Bridge Institute, International Centre for Communications Studies in Abuja on Advanced Digital Appreciation Programme for Tertiary Institutions to equip lecturers with up-to-date pedagogical use of ICT facilities. However, some of these ICT facilities are provided but the extent of the application is not assessed. It is therefore, in the light of this that the researcher intends to assess the extent of application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Statement of the Problem Application of ICT in teaching and learning has given a lot of concern among the policy markers and experts and has become a bane to national development especially in education sector in the country. Organisations in Africa have been concerned with the problem of application of ICT policy in African schools and given a mandate to Association of African University, (AAU, 2003) to examine the problems and major obstacles affecting the use of ICT in African universities by lecturers. The Association identified among others; poor telecommunication infrastructure, lack of university coherent plan for ICT, problem of connectivity, limited bandwidth, lack of professional development, inadequate funding of ICT infrastructure, non-reliability of public electricity supply, inadequate human resource base, poor maintenance of available facilities, and staff development as the problems and obstacles affecting application of ICT in teaching and learning in schools. Application of ICT in teaching and learning process is capable of equipping students of higher institutions with knowledge, skills and competences with which they can readily be employed after graduation; and also capable of making the work of teaching and learning of lecturers simple. It is based on the potentialities of ICT to enhance quality of teaching and learning that the government, both State and Federal made efforts in providing some of these ICT facilities, and offered in-service trainings, and workshops to equip lecturers with knowledge of ICT application in classroom, but the extent to which these facilities are applied by the lecturers is unknown. It is in this background that the researcher desired to assess the extent of application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. 8 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to assess the extent of application of information and communication technology in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Specifically, the study will assess the: (1) application of ICT in lesson preparation in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. (2) application of ICT in instruction delivery in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. (3) application of ICT in individualized learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. (4) application of ICT in evaluation of learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. (5) constraints to the application of ICT in teaching in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Significance of the Study The findings of this study if implemented will be of immense benefit to lecturers, students of higher institutions, institutions administrator, Akwa Ibom State Government, and fellow researchers with kin interest on ICT. The findings of the study will help lecturers in higher institution to know the teaching and learning activities ICT can be apply. This will help them see the need for knowledge update through workshops and retraining on the skills needed to the application of ICT in preparing lesson, delivery of instruction, individualized learning, and evaluation of learning in classroom. Lecturers will also benefit from applying ICT in lesson preparation in such that it will reduce their workload, save their time, make them be more organized, more productive, increased their efficiency, and help them expedite action in preparing lesson, delivery of instruction and evaluation of learning. Application of ICT in preparing lesson, delivery of instruction, and evaluation of learning will help students on the ground that they will be actively involved and motivated in class activities. The study will help them relates school experiences to work practices. The study will identify the extent of application of ICT in preparing lesson, instruction delivery, and evaluation of learning, thereby helping institutions administrators to know the needed ICT facilities, and make effort for the short-fall by appealing to the appropriate authority, philanthropists and non-governmental organization to come to the aid of the institution. Also, constraints identify by lecturers in applying ICT in classroom will 9 help institutions administrators to make budgetary provision to incorporate such constraints for effective application of ICT in teaching and learning. The study will be of benefit to the government through its ministry of education by providing necessary ICT facilities to boost ICT application for preparing lesson, instruction delivery, and evaluation of learning especially in the State-owned higher institutions. Finally, the study will provide empirical information on the assessment of the application of ICT in teaching and learning for researchers who have special interest in related research on ICT. Research Questions The following research questions will guide the study: (1) To what extent are ICT applied in lesson preparation in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? (2) To what extent are ICT applied in instruction delivery in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? (3) To what extent are ICT applied in individualized learning in the higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? (4) To what extent are ICT applied in evaluation of learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? (5) What are the constraints to the application of ICT in teaching in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? Hypotheses The following three null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study and will be tested at 0.05 level of probability. Ho1: There is no significant difference among the Mean responses of lecturers in University of Uyo, College of Education and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in lesson preparation in Akwa Ibom State. Ho2: There is no significant difference among the Mean responses of lecturers in University of Uyo, College of Education and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in instruction delivery in Akwa Ibom State. 10 Ho3: There is no significant difference between the Mean responses of lecturers in University of Uyo, College of Education and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in individualized learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Scope of the Study The study will be restricted to the three higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Both male and female lecturers in three higher institutions (University of Uyo, Colleges of education and College of Arts and Science) will be studied. Also the study will be restricted to the application of ICT in teaching and learning. 11 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The review of related literature is carried out under the following sub-headings: 1. Conceptual Framework • Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and Teaching - Learning • Application of ICT in lesson preparation • Application of ICT in instructions delivery • Application of ICT in individualized learning • Application of ICT in evaluation of Learning • Constraints to the Application ICT in teaching and learning 2. Theoretical Framework • Constructivist and learning theory • Andragogist theory 3. Review of Related Empirical Studies 4. Summary of Review of Related Literature Conceptual Framework This study focuses on assessment of the application of information and communication technologies (ICT) in teaching and learning. ICT according to Kiplang’at (2004) in Ojiambo (2006) has no universal accepted definition because the applications and technology involved constantly keep changing almost on daily basis. ICT according to him deals with digital data and the ways of storing, retrieval, transmission and receipt of information. Zwass (2006) defined ICT to include information processing technologies such as computers and the internet, line telecommunication, mobile phones and other wireless communications, networks, broadband, and other different types of devices ranging from barcode scanners and Braille readers global positioning systems. The Association of African Universities (2003) defined ICT as “a shorthand for the computers, software, networks, satellite links and related systems that allow people to access, analyse, create, exchange and use data, information and knowledge in ways that, until recently, were almost unimaginable. ICT refers to the infrastructure that brings people together in different places and time zones, with multimedia tools for data, information, and knowledge management in order to expand 10 12 the range of human capabilities” (Heeks, 1999). Ngurukulem (2005) defines ICT as a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, retrieve and manage information. Jimoh (2007) defined ICT as the handling and processing of information (texts, images, graphs, instruction etc) for use, by means of electronic and communication devices such as computers, cameras, telephone. Ofodu (2007) also refer to ICT as electronic or computerized devices, assisted by human and interactive materials that can be used for a wide range of teaching and learning as well as for personal use. From these definitions, ICT could therefore be defined as processing and sharing of information using all kinds of electronic device, an umbrella that includes all technologies for the manipulation and communication of information. The various ICT facilities used in the teaching - learning process in schools according to Ofodu (2007) include; radio, television, computers, overhead projectors, optical fibres, fax machines, CD-Rom, Internet, electronic notice board, slides, digital multimedia, video/ VCD machine and so on. However, looking at the role of education in nation building and the population explosion in the secondary schools these days, the use of ICT in the teachinglearning process becomes imperative. This is true because its adoption by the teachers will enhance effective teaching. Such issues like good course organisation, effective class management, content creation, self-assessment, self-study, collaborative learning, task oriented activities, and effective communication between the actors of teaching - learning process and research activities will be enhanced by the use of ICT based technology. Application is an instructional phase whereby the actual engagements of learners with planned learning opportunities take place (Olaitan & Ali, 1997). According to Yusuf (2011), application is the action that must follow any preliminary thinking in order for something to actually happen. In an information technology context, application involves the use of ICT to support instruction in grading and teaching. Teaching in this context involves, planning, applying and evaluation (Mang & Mankilik, 2001). Each component involves series of decision which the computer teacher must necessarily make in order to teach effectively. The role of teacher in planning, applying and evaluation has been variously expressed by educators. Ukoha (1996) explained that the teacher in the teaching and learning process performs a multiple duty of planner, manager, counselor, doctor and controller. In the view of Offorma (2006), teaching is defined as a 13 systematic activity deliberately engaged in by somebody to facilitate the learning of the intended worthwhile knowledge, skills and values by another person and getting the necessary feedback. It involves the setting up of activities to enable somebody learn something which can improve the person’s knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. The aim of teaching is to facilitate learning. Learning, according to Paul (1996) is a process by which a learner acquires knowledge, skills, attitude, concepts, traditions, values and the ability to comprehend in the process which ultimately leads to his mental, social, spiritual and physical growth and development. According to Igbo (2000), learning is a change in human disposition or capability which persist over a period of time, and which is not simply ascribe to processes of growth. Unachukwu (1990) maintained that learning is a relatively permanent change in the behaviour of the learner and is expressed in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes. He further maintained that learning involves training and constant practice and all these are to be reinforced. According to him, learning is gradual and progressive and leads to the acquisition of new knowledge, attitude and skills. Therefore, learning involves an extension of mental awareness – an extension of consciousness. The conceptual framework in Fig. 1 below illustrates that the independent variable which is conceptualized as constraints to the application of ICT in teaching and learning. The dependent variable is also conceptualized as lesson preparation, instruction delivery, individualized learning, and evaluation of learning. 14 Application of ICT Instructions Delivery Lesson Preparation • Preparing exercise sheets • Preparing lesson note and plan • Downloading or updating lecture materials • Preparing multimedia presentation • Preparing lesson slides • Printing out materials • Surfing for learning experience • Locating teaching methods • • • • • • • • • • • Individualised Learning PowerPoint Data projector Computer CD-ROM Flash Drive Multimedia Interactive Media Smartboard Electronic Whiteboard Modem Satellites • Sending e-mail • Creating desktop publishing • Playing games • Reading online news • Uploading and downloading files • Storing • Processing document • Preparing questions Constraints to the Application • • • • • • • • Limited space to illustrate concepts Computer breakdown Lack of technical skills Inconsistent internet connectivity Unsteady power supply Low maintenance rate Breakdown of supporting facilities Time for preparation of slides, etc. Fig 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study Source: Archibong, I. A.& Effiom, D. O. (2009). ICT in University Education. Evaluation of Learning • Posting quiz, assignment, project, examination, via internet • Marking • Sending feedback • Computation of results • Recording of grades 15 Application of ICT in Lesson Preparation A key aspect of effective teaching is having a prepared lesson plan for what will happen in the classroom. Creating such a plan involves setting realistic goals, deciding how to incorporate course textbooks and other required materials and developing activities that will promote learning. In teaching, more time is spent in preparing any good lesson than presentation. Lesson preparation is all about selection of appropriate and effective learning activities. Therefore, teachers have a view of the content, the objectives, and the learning experiences he or she will offer to the learners. They also look at the resources available and choose the one suitable for the particular topic for the teaching. To this end, Volman and VanEck (2001) posited that in preparing any lesson to be taught to the students, the teacher refer to the course of study for the lists of topics to be covered, the course content, objectives of the lesson, students activities, equipment and materials. Volman et al. explained that lesson preparation ensures that the teacher takes time to reflect his mind about the topic of the lesson, how he will present it and the resources needed to make the presentation a success. He consulted different reference materials, such as textbooks, journals, newspapers, magazine, in the library for preparing the lesson. In today’s information and communication technology age, the new way of preparing lesson has emerged. ICT have been applied by teachers in lesson planning and in preparing handouts or exercise sheets and lesson note. Such ICT include computer, radio, television, overhead projectors, optical fibres, fax machines, CD-ROM, Skype, electronic notice board, slides, digital multimedia, video/VCD machine. It has been used for searching topics and also in preparing direct instruction in the classroom (Roblyer & Edwards, 2000). According to them, some software used by teachers in lesson preparation includes; Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Internet for searching information and locating teaching materials. Microsoft Word is used in preparing lesson note or plan which eliminates the paper presentation. Teachers processed their lesson note or plan through computer. They browse for relevance information or materials necessary for use in different sources in the Internet using computer. With once the computer is Internet Ready and the environment is Internet access, then the teacher having the skill and knowledge can access for any materials he or she needs to make the lesson less boring. Gupfa (2002) in supporting this posited that information virtually in any lesson can be obtained easily on the Internet. He further maintained that a teacher can 16 have a good browse at magazines, textbooks, newspapers, academic papers, journals, government document famous, speeches, novels, among others. According to Ezeadi and Mbanuzue (2007) the extent of applying ICT in lesson preparation in the school had increase tremendously. Ezeadi et al. maintained that public school teachers used computers or the Internet at school to gather information for planning lessons, keeping records, accessing research and best practices for teaching, preparing multimedia presentations for class, and accessing model lesson plans. In addition to using computers or the Internet at school for preparatory and administrative tasks, teachers with computers available at home may use it for such purposes. Computers at school or home will enable the teacher to create instructional materials, gather information, prepared multimedia presentations for class, and accessed model lesson plans. Onyejemezi (1991) maintained that meaningful learning takes place when the learners is fully involved in the process through the use of well prepared and presented instructional media. Therefore, using computer for lesson preparation enable the teacher to record and retrieve the information anytime and anywhere once the computer is available. The information can be stored and transferred in ICT devices, such as disc drive, flash drive, diskette, MP3, MP4 among others. Tanner (2003) in supporting the view said that computer is the origin and the main component of information and communication technology (ICT). He further stated that other computer components will be meaningless without the computer. The replacement of overhead projectors which were used in the past to data projector is as a result of computer. Data projector is indispensable in computer based methods or methods were education documents prepared with computers are used as supporting documents. Blackboard that has been used in the schools for years has been replaced by smart board, books and notebooks have been replaced by flash discs, overhead projectors have been replaced by data projectors, and text-based assignments have been replaced by presentations and slide shows. Therefore, in preparing material or lesson for delivery through a computer, the teacher must be away that the learner will be reading materials off a computer monitor, as opposed to a textbook. Also, audio and video material is limited due to bandwidth and storage capabilities. On the other hand, graphics, illustrations and animations can be used more effectively than in other media. According to Adebayo and Adagundo (2001), lecturers use computers in the cyber café to access World Wide Web (WWW) facilities in Internet to browse or surf websites of 17 authors or other institutions abroad for learning experience in preparing lectures. They pointed out that lecturers of higher institutions use Internet-ready-computer to access the file transfer protocol (FTP) to download or update lecture materials such as textbooks, handouts, articles. Daniel (1999) pointed out that with computer lecturers have unprecedented opportunities to access document that will help them solve problems and answers questions in the class. Anne and Steward (2003) noted that with Internet-ready-computers, much more cheaper and up-to-date information available on the Net can be obtained and use for preparing any lesson. Frank, Raschke, Wood and Yang (2001), opined that, in preparing any lesson to be taught to students, the teachers use computer to obtain lesson materials, obtained original source at anytime of the day and night; prepare slides using Microsoft PowerPoint. In the same view, AAU (2003) summarizes the relevance of computer networking in preparing lesson as follows: (a) It enables teachers to collect academic information available on the Net (b) It improve access to remote resources for preparing any lesson in any area (c) It gives teachers the opportunity to surf the Net for manipulative aid such as specimens, models, experiments, simulators, and learning kits. (d) It enables teachers to locate, interchange and disseminate data or information for preparing any lesson. (e) It enables teachers to obtain varieties of printed materials such as textbooks, workbooks, standard books, magazines, journals. (f) Teachers use computer to design a structured learning experience (g) Computer gives the teachers an opportunity to obtain variety of audio-visual materials such as pictures, posters, films, transparencies, video tapes (h) It enables teachers to reach out to relevant and suitable resources for a given topic and subject available on the Net. Turner (2008) maintained that computers are used by teacher and lecturers to produce letters, worksheets, puzzles, problem sets, handouts, bulletin board materials, lesson plans, tests, forms, newsletters, calendars, reports, certificates, graphic organizers, and seat charts. They also used it to collect data such as electronic grade book, attendance, students information and mail merge. Computer is also used as information board such as 18 announcements, reminders, class introductions, slide shows. Lecturers used computers in preparing lesson presentation with Microsoft PowerPoint program. In view of the infrastructural challenges facing educational system, ICT use, especially computers and internet, was introduced to increase access and to improve the relevance of education. ICT have been used by lecturers to create electronic libraries and catalogues to enhance academic research work. The internet allows cost –effective information delivery services, collaborative and distance education, more than has ever been imagined (Amenyedzi, Lartey & Dzomeku, 2011). The internet has myriad websites to help teachers develop or improve lesson plans, exchange ideas, obtain information, and find free animations and simulations to enliven their lessons. According to Awotua-Efebo (1999), most Internet-based collaborative learning projects include teacher support and training, and conference proceedings are published regularly on the web. Chat rooms or forums may become a laboratory for new ideas. Online study resources can also provide interactive tools for teachers to access feedback from students. Computer-based assignments are an effective way of ascertaining students’ understanding of concepts. Students also learn more quickly, demonstrate greater retention, and are better motivated to learn when they work with computers (Koert, 2000). Teachers use computers to write lesson plans, prepare materials for teaching, record and calculate student grades, and communicate with other teachers. As such, computers have become a routine tool for helping teachers accomplish their professional work (Becker, Ravitz, & Wong, 1999). Robinson (2001) maintained that the new technologies have provided new and speedy ways of constructing the delivery lesson to students and new kind of education resources. He posited that students engage with information use, they acquire particular ways of seeing, some of which may be more powerful, or more appropriate, than others. He further that teachers can design learning strategies which reveal these ways of seeing, and facilitate the acquisition of those which are more helpful to the context through the use of computer in preparing lesson. Therefore, in preparing materials for delivery through a computer, Kurtus (2000) warn that the teachers must realize that the learners will be reading material off a computer monitor, as opposed to a textbook. ICT application in schools according to British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, BECTA (2004) assist in reducing teachers’ workloads through its use 19 for lesson preparation and worksheet, writing students’ report and individual education plan, collating and analysing students’ attainment information for target setting; recording and analysing attendance and disciplinary information, and maintaining link between the school and parent to ensure parental involvement in school activities. Yusuf (2007) maintained that ICT in schools can be used in getting necessary instructional content of subjects, and collaboration can be ensured with teachers globally. In addition, teachers can also have up to date knowledge of a subject area. Application of ICT in Instruction Delivery Instruction delivery over ICT is an exciting new method in Nigerian education system. Instruction delivery is the interaction of prepared lesson with the students in the classroom or laboratory by the teacher. It is the core of every lesson planned or prepared by the instructor, facilitator or teacher. No plan will teach itself no matter how magnificent it looks on paper. Instruction delivery is what makes the lesson exciting and interesting. Using computer for instruction delivery is as a result of revolutionalisation of ICT and its impact on education. In planning, lecturers is saddled with the responsibilities of structuring the course content to achieve the educational aims for a particular level of instruction as well as set the instructional objectives with the purpose of developing students’ best qualities. Planning also involves selecting appropriate teaching methods and techniques suitable for each lesson; identifying and selecting instructional equipment, tools and assembling consumable supplies for instructional purposes and involving students in developing and preparing instruction materials so that lessons will be meaningful and interesting to all the students. The task of the computer teacher will be deciding before hand, the procedure and methods to be used for evaluation. Knowledge of the subject matter and planning alone can not ensure effectiveness in teaching, therefore, a teacher should employ approaches and teaching activities that will help him or her achieve the desired objective. The teachers should guide, direct and supervise activities to create a classroom atmosphere conducive to learning not just a supplier of knowledge. The teacher should make instruction as stimulating as possible, to encourage each student on what to learn. This will go a long way towards alleviating fatigue and boredom and thereby increase the interest and understanding of the students in the classroom. Effective 20 teaching is dependent upon a clear understanding of what is taught. There are a vast array of instructional equipment, tools, and materials. Equipment, tools and materials should be used to supplement written and spoken words, printed works may be naturally useful but there are certain concepts which cannot be transmitted clearly without equipment, tools and materials (Lee, 2002). It is the responsibility of the teachers to select and use relevant equipment and tools. The teacher should realize that they are not end in themselves but their main function is to contribute to instruction and learning. Anne and Stewart (2003) posited that the growing of ICT as an instructional media is changing many of the strategies employed by lecturers in instruction delivery. ICT is a fulfillment of a predicted era. Thus, Gbobamyi (1999) contended that many education authorities in most advanced countries had predicted that computer would pave the way for a new era in education, in which teaching processing and methodology would enhance the dreams of individualized instruction. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) is the term used to describe the used of computer to provide instructions directly to students by simulating teaching and learning situations (Abimbola, 1988). Computer offers several instruction opportunities in the classroom in the areas of drill and practice, simulations, tutorials, animations, demonstrations, data collection and analysis and games. According to Mahammed (2004), the greatest strength of computer as it is reflected to teacher education is that it enables the teacher to reach out to large number of students when connected to the Network. Afolabi (2001) opined that with the use of computer with modem, teachers have access on e-mail list server which provides a form of a tutorial group discussion to complement lecture presentation. As noted by Daniel (1999), computer enables teachers to deliver their instructions to students at anytime and place without geographical bounds on the Net. Bassey (2003) contend that Internet which is interconnection of many computers provide teachers with learning experiences that are packaged and deliver to students on the Net. The author maintained that through Internet teachers can disseminate learning materials to their students at anytime of the day without geographical barrier on the Net. Ezamma (2007) stated that many instructors use computer to give learners a role play scenario, send them off to work in pairs, visit the pairs to coach them and answer questions, and then bring everyone back for a group discussion. It is a virtual equivalent of “turn to the 21 person next to you and take the role of….” As noted by Umar (2003), many instructors use computer to access web conferencing streaming, video narrated PowerPoint presentations and facilitated discussions. Computer enables teachers to deliver a lesson entirely for online over several days or weeks. Umar maintained that teachers use computer to deliver and create resources online to learners. Olorundare (2008) opined that the use of ICT has prepared individuals and society to benefit from ICT that increasingly permeate all realms of life. He further that computer as a tool for instruction delivery has improved the quality of teaching, learning and management in schools and so help raise standards for more equitable and pluralistic development in education. He maintained that based on the training of teachers’ programmes on the basis of ICT, the usage of computers, the basic techniques of the internet, the usage of ICT in teaching, the application of computer for instruction delivery has become increasingly practice in the school. Research consensus has holds that the most effective uses of ICT are those in which the teacher, aided by ICT can challenge pupils’ understanding and thinking, either through whole-class discussions and individual/small group work using ICT. Naturally, the installation of information technology laboratories and the school provision with the technical elements of ICT is a primary condition, in order to make use of these technologies during the teaching process. They are electronic technologies used by teachers for accessing, processing, gathering, manipulating and presenting or communicating information. It encompasses software, hardware, and even the connectivity including computer and Internet (Anderson & Baskin, 2002). Yusuf (2007) maintained that when ICT are employed in education, given the right condition for instruction delivery, it can accelerate, enrich, and deepen basic skills in reading, writing, mathematics and the sciences, and they can motivate and engage students to learn as they become more independent and responsible for their learning. He further stated that, ICT help to relate academics to the practices of today’s work. Information and communication technologies, especially network technologies have been found to encourage active learning, support innovative teaching, reduce the isolation of teachers, and encourage teachers and students to become active researchers and learners. Anderson (2004) asserted that there are several global gateways of on-line resources to support teachers’ development. These include: ICT in Education, developed by UNESCO, 22 Paris; Education Network of Australia, developed by Education Institute, Adelaide; Institute of Education Technologies in Education, developed by UNESCO, Moscow; and so on. These portals provide opportunities for teachers and users to ask questions, post materials, and submit assignments. Also, ICT shift focus from teacher-centred to student-centred learning, where learners are active participants in the learning process, produces and share knowledge, and participate and learn in collaboration with others. Thus, teachers become learning facilitator, collaborator, coach, mentor, knowledge navigator, and co-learner and not a dispenser of knowledge (Yusuf, 2007). He maintained that ICT are multi-media for instructional delivery. Instructional contents are delivered by teachers in textual, audio, visual, and audio-visual forms. Thus, ensuring equity for all categories of learners (disabled, geographically disadvantaged, those who cannot attend regular school). In an instructor-led, lecture-based classroom, students frequently do not have the opportunity to ask questions or engage in discussion that would allow them to reflect on and refine their understanding of the material being presented (Laurillard, 2002). Under such circumstances, technology is often used only as an extension of the blackboard (Redfield & Whitworth, 2002), or for drill-and-practice and tutorials (Roblyer, 2003). Supporters of technology implementation have argued that computer technology can be effective in changing the traditional teacher-centered classroom to a more constructivist student-centered classroom, through the introduction of interactive and dynamic computer applications (Jonassen & Reeves, 1996). Within the constructivist, learner-centered framework, positive learning experiences would include feelings of effective interactions with the instructor and other students where the learner felt that he or she was in control of their own learning. Positive learning experiences are facilitated through increased opportunities for active participation and increased access to learning resources (Janassen & Reeves, 1996). Students need to develop effective learning strategies in order to promote life-long learning. Learners use a variety of strategies to learn material. More effective strategies include the use of synthesis and/or evaluation techniques where the learner can relate ideas to previous knowledge, critically evaluate material, and be more active and aware of their learning (Entwistle, 1994). These effective strategies may be enhanced when technology is 23 well integrated into courses. Using computer for instruction delivery, instructors should focus on creating learning environments that make learning possible. Instructional techniques might include the type of learning materials that are made available to the learner, the type of discourse that occurs inside and outside the class, and collaborative versus individual assignments. It is important for the learner to be able to set their own learning goals (Zimmerman, 1994). ‘‘It is the teacher’s responsibility to create the conditions in which understanding is possible, and the student’s responsibility to take advantage of that’’ (Laurillard, 2002). A study by Shuell and Farber (2001) raised the question of how student perceptions of technology implementation affect learning. Their results indicated that students view technology as beneficial in facilitating learning, as well as increasing motivation to learn. They also found, however, that when technology was considered static, such as when used in simple presentations, it was not perceived as valuable. In contrast, technology that was considered dynamic, such as when used for participating in online discussions, there was a perception of its value. Students are generally very positive about the use of technology in their classes when: its use is perceived as improving student learning; computer skills are perceived as beneficial to future careers (Shuell & Farber, 2001); or generally its use has a value-added component (Harris, 1999). ICT significantly improve students’ problem-solving skills, provide opportunities for student-constructed learning, increase students’ collaboration on projects, increase mastery of vocational and workforce skills, increase the preparation of students for most careers and vocations, and improve confidence and attitude of students (Yusuf, 2007). It must be underscored that the best predictors for achievement gain in the use of computer were prior positive attitudes towards the technology by teachers and students, consistent access to the technologies, and teacher training in the technology, among others (Maldonado, 2000). Milken Exchange on Education Technology (1999) contended that lecturers use microcomputer as an instructional delivery system. According to Miken, the most frequent uses of microcomputers by lecturers as an instructional delivery system included tutorials, drill and practice, simulations, testing/ evaluation, and word processing. Other uses included databases, statistical analysis, computer programming, interactive videotape, electronic 24 spreadsheets, or interactive videodiscs were also used for instruction. Other teachers reported that microcomputer has been used as instructional delivery system in nursing education programs for clinical topics, medical terminology, literature searches, statistical analysis, anatomy/physiology, nursing leadership, community health, and pathology. The report from others teacher according to Miken states that they used microcomputers to teach calculations, clinical decision-making, adult nursing, maternity nursing, mental health nursing, nursing process, and clinical topics. In the same view, Bolwell and Thomas (2006) supported that the availability and use of microcomputers as tools to support and deliver instruction in Southern College-based nursing programs has increased drastically to support learning activities, that is, word processing, student data records, test construction, or test scoring. In a traditional classroom, information is exchanged between the teacher and students, students and other students, and students to the teacher. Sights and sounds are used for exchanging the information. Communication is either direct between the teacher and students or mediated using various media such as overhead project transparencies, video and audio tapes (Gray, 1995). However, in distance learning information must be exchanged over a distance. Therefore, telecommunication technology is often employed. Teachers and students at different locations can no longer see and hear each other face-to-face; instead, telecommunications media such as video and audio tapes, bulletin boards, email, facsimile, chat rooms, audio and video conferencing, on-line applications over the Internet, etc., are now used to facilitate communication. Similarly, information presented by the instructors is communicated and support services are provided over various telecommunications media to the distant students. In a virtual higher institution, classrooms, student services and resources are replicated into electronic lessons, discussions, processes and documents through asynchronous and synchronous delivery systems, Skype and blogs. He maintained that asynchronous delivery system makes the students flexible, that is, make students have access to materials anytime and anyplace; allows the learner the time to think about ideas and check references; and gives the student the opportunity to integrate ideas being discussed in the course with workers on the job. Chapman (2003) maintained that Computer instructional technologies are tools, techniques, and methodologies utilized to enhance teaching and learning through a computerized system. According to Venezky (2004), instructional technology concerns using 25 computers, CD-ROMs, interactive media, modems, satellites, teleconferencing, and other technological means to support learning. Venezky (2004) asserts that instructional media are gradually finding their ways into the classroom where modern and versatile teachers are exploiting new ways of transferring learning to the younger generation through the use of prints, visuals and audios or the various combinations of these trios which make up all we have in instructional media. Thus instructional media are the information dissemination devices used in the classroom for easy transfer of learning. Ajayi (2008) opined that instructional materials creates change and progress only when the teacher is knowledgeable and knows how to make use of it thus portraying the professional attributes of the teacher and the general knowledge or his creativity in selecting, developing and using instructional materials effectively. Effective communication is the outcome of careful selection of appropriate medium or combination of media available by an effective teacher. In other word, the success of using teaching aids to meet the teaching objectives demands effective use and communication skills of the teacher to satisfy instructional delivery. Different instructional materials are available to be used in teaching any subject effectively, but not all topics require the same type and quality of materials. Cobb (2009) cited in Yusuf (2007) argued that certain instructional methods, while common to multiple media, are more efficient or potent in one medium than others. For example, in a film studies course, the effects of background music on viewer mood can be demonstrated much more effectively using video than via lecture or book. By extension, a flexible medium such as Web-Based Instruction (WBI) might be more effective if it can utilize multiple instructional methods given the nature of the learning material. These materials can be purchased, locally made, or improvised or even imported when necessary for effective instructional delivery. Adekeye (2008) listed four major categories of instructional materials; visual aid, Audiovisual aids, auditory aids and printed materials. The criteria for classifying instructional materials or teaching aids include the degree of expertise or technical skills needed for production, nature of the material, physiological parameter or sensory modality, the place the material is produced and miscellaneous characteristics. For effective instructional delivery, instructional materials are summarized under the following categories: Projected and electronic materials, Non-projected materials, and Phenomenal and manipulative materials. 26 Projected and electronic materials are forms of media which could be visual, audio and audio-visual in nature that requires projection and electricity in their use for teaching and learning situation with computer. This can be categorized into tape recorders or recording, radio, slide projectors, overhead projectors, Episcope video cassette/video disc machine and computer instructional system. The computer has been found to be the most suitable and versatile medium for individualized learning because of its immerse capacity as a data processor used for different games by children. Nwoji (2002) acknowledge three broad ways by which computer contributes to teaching and learning situation, these are mass instruction, individualized information and group learning. More so, the computer technology has made it possible for teachers and students to avail themselves of interest facilities where they can obtain needed information. Anyanwu (2003) asserted that non-projected materials are those materials that do not require any form of projection before they can be utilized. They include chalkboard or board flip chart, specimen, model, textual and non textual materials. Textual materials are the print materials such as textbooks, journals, periodicals, newspaper among others while the nontextual materials include charts, chalkboards, films, videotapes, audiotapes, realia, festivals and games. Iwu, Onoja, and Nzewuihe (2003) contended that computers are used to explain points, create reality and supply events, encourage active participation, saves the teachers time, enables students to visualize or experience something, facilitate different learning styles, arouse learners interest, provides meaningful and useful sources of information to teachers and learners, development of continuity of reasoning and coherence of thoughts, reduces verbalism or repetition of words, promotes closer and effective communication between the teacher and the learners. Application of ICT in Individualized Learning Individualized learning is a new educational technology. It is based on well designed computer-based courseware that allows students or individual to teach themselves. Learning is a core process of higher institutions. According to Farrant (1980), learning is relatively permanent influence in behaviour, knowledge and thinking skill that come about through experience. Knowledge is a major asset and product of the society, upon which continued economic well being and social development depend on. In today’s e-education, learning 27 strategies have changed. Individuals can decide on what to learn, when to learn, where to learn and how to learn. According to Ezemma (2007) a new technology has been introduce in today’s eeducation to facilitate the process of learning. This agrees with Ozoji (2003) who contended that education for new emerging society requires ICT tool to facilities self-learning (individualized learning). The most popularly used of ICT tool in education is computer. To buttress this fact, Afolabi (2001) postulated that computer as an ICT tool emerged as a source of learning which is supported by software. It is often regarded as a virtual classroom because it allows for individualized learning. Information and communication technology as tools within the school environment include applied in school administration and management, teaching and learning of ICT related skills for enhancing the presentation of classroom work, teaching and learning repetitive tasks, teaching and learning intellectual, thinking and problem solving skills, stimulating creativity and imagination; for research by teachers and students, and as communication tool by teachers and students (Moursund & Bielefeldt, 1999). Milken Exchange on Education Technology (1999) identified three major ways of using ICT for individualized learning. These are ICT assisted learning, technology as a tool and computer and information science. Information Technology assisted learning was divided into (i) computer-assisted learning, which is the interaction between a student and a computer system designed to help the students learn (drill and practice, tutorials, simulations and virtual realities), (ii) Computer assisted research implies where ICT is used as an aid to doing library and empirical research. This is enhanced through the growth of World Wide Web which has created virtual library that can only be accessed by the technologically literate, (iii) Distance learning, which is the use of telecommunications, designed to facilitate students' learning through e-mail, interactive web sites and two-way audio/video teleconferencing. Moursund and Bielefeldt (1999) maintained that ICT are computer based tools used by people to work with information and communication processing needs of an organization. Its covers computer hardware and software, the network, and other digital devices like video, audio, camera, and so on, which convert information (text, sound, motion, etc,) into digital form. Successful Application of ICT in the school system depends largely on the competence and on the attitude of teachers towards the role of modern technologies in teaching and 28 learning. Thus, experienced teachers, newly qualified, and student-teachers need to be confident in using ICT effectively in their teaching (Kyriakidou, Chrisostomou, & Bank, 2000). Therefore, technology as a tool involves the use of a large array of hardware and software: word processors, graphic packages; digital camera, presentation applications, databases, and spreadsheet, among others. These hardware and software do not have limited educational purpose, but they are designed to help people extend their abilities to do work. Digital science probes, for instance, are more specialised, Computer and information science deal with speciality in computer as an area of study for students with particular interests in technology. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) should be used as a pedagogically powerful tool for the construction and modelling of knowledge. Information and communication technologies offer several opportunities in education. First, they can be used as a means of preparing the current generation of students for future work place, that is, providing tools for tomorrow's practices. This is underscored in the foreword of the Milken Exchange on Education Technology Commissioned Report (1999). The report noted inter alia "Today's students live in a global knowledge based age, and they deserve teachers whose practice embraces the best that technology can bring to learning". However, through teachers' use of technology (ICT) students can be given the opportunities of becoming a part of the knowledge age and skills imparted to the young people in an increasingly complex world. Lecturers will need to use ICT in order to equip tomorrow's employees and customers with the requisite competence and knowledge to use ICT within their work (Davis & Tearle, 1999). Second, ICT can make the school more efficient or more productive, engendering variety of tools to support and facilitate teacher's professional activities. Finally, ICT are seen as means to reform and innovate teaching, that is, to stimulate learners to learn actively and independently in a self directed way and/or in collaboration with others (Kirschner & Woperies, 2003). It can be deduced that ICT can be used to enhance learning and teaching within a university system. Collis and Moonen (2001) made a distinction in literature between learning about ICT and learning with ICT and through ICT. These distinctions are important if lecturers are to integrate ICT in their instructional delivery process. The first stage of ICT application in 29 school is teaching about ICT which is called topicality, that is, ICT is the topic. A higher level to development is teaching with ICT or through ICT, that is, the presentation and distribution of instructional content through web environment (e-teaching) or systems offering an integrated range of tools (stand-alone computer instruction, CD ROM, among others) to support learning and communication. This can be achieved through individualized learning. In using ICT, new lecturers learn to use variety of software, particularly, software that have specific application in various disciplines. For instance, apart from word processing, data processing, spreadsheet, and so on, that are important for all lecturers, lecturers in the social sciences, statistics, education, among others, should be able to use statistical packages (e.g. SPSS) to enhance their output. Also, lecturers need to be competent in the use of design packages (e.g. AutoCAD). In the delivery of instruction, computer LCD display projector becomes relevant because the popularity of computer to generate presentation is growing daily. There is the need for new lecturers to get prepared for professional presentation ahead of time. Fundamental skills via self-learning can be possess by learning how to managing electronic files, using computerized databases and spreadsheets, sending and receiving e-mail messages, and creating documents with graphics. These skills are prerequisites for more advanced skills, such as accessing online resources, creating desktop publishing documents, developing multimedia presentations, selecting and customizing instructional software to fit students' needs, streamlining record-keeping and other administrative procedures with electronic tools, and observing the correct protocols in sharing intellectual property. All these skills can be possessed by the teachers and students through continuous used of computer for self-learning. According to Haddad (2003) lecturers used computer to perform respective computing tasks on their own, such task include; conducting entertaining activities, e.g. playing computer games; reading online newspapers; searching information on the Internet; browsing for electronic books; using to store/retrieve digital resource (that is, uploading and downloading files); using e-learning platform to conduct learning activities (revisiting lesson presentation documents). Therefore, individual learning is the ability of individuals to experience personal growth in their interaction with the world around them. 30 Application of ICT in Evaluation of Learning Information and Communication Technology programme is made up of theoretical and practical components. The theoretical aspects, include organized form, knowledge of the subject matter, while the practical aspects essentially impart, skills which allow more of muscular dexterity and coordination of the mind and muscles. The major implementer and evaluators of ICT instructions are the teachers. They provide appropriate environment and instruction which enable learners acquire the desired ICT knowledge and skills. In order to achieve the objectives of ICT integration in schools, there is need in apply ICT in evaluation of learning by teachers/lecturers. One of the uses of ICT in school is evaluation of learning. Evaluation of learning is a difficult but extremely important part of developing courses and teaching methods. It is without doubt of interest to every teacher. The motivating effect is obvious. Evaluation is equally or even more than what it is to a teacher, it is to a student to evaluate and measure their progress. Evaluation implies gathering evidence about student behaviour as a means of determining the extent to which the student is progressing towards potential goals (Asuquo, 2005). Evaluation helps to show how educational outcomes are achieved through instruction and whether they have been achieved or not. Lee (2002) remarked that no matter how elaborate a programme or how enthusiastic the staff may be, unless teaching methods result in improved learning, success has not been achieved. It is therefore necessary for the lecturers or teachers to determine to what extent objectives have been realized and the changes in behaviour that have taken place in the students through the process of evaluation. Evaluating students’ performance applying ICT helps the teacher to understand each individual student’s needs, interest and abilities. And evaluating the quality of teacher instruction will help the teacher know how well he or she has taught the lessons and this will also help to evaluate teaching methods used in the classroom or laboratory. According to Okoro (1993) teachers should always evaluate their quality of instruction in order to determine whether the objectives were met, and to improve his or her instructional methods if necessary. According to Osuala (2009) evaluation is a measure of the degree to which the student has achieved the objectives of the training and instruction. He further that the purpose of 31 evaluation is to determine whether or not the student is competent in the occupation, to verify that the learning experiences were effective in developing occupational capabilities and competencies, and to identify areas of strengths and weaknesses in order to plan further instruction. Evaluation, according to Okoro (2006) is the appraisal of the worth or value of a thing or action and the making of appropriate decision on the basis of such appraisal. It involves making assessment of the quality of an educational programme by interpreting the data collected. Evaluation is important to determine the effectiveness of the process of teaching and learning and development in order to plan wisely for the next step(s) of interaction. For teacher to know how for students are learning, students evaluation becomes an important component of the teaching/learning process. And the main purposes of evaluation are to facilitate student learning and to improve instruction. Information about the student progress assists teachers in planning or modifying their instructional programmes and assists students in identifying personal learning goals. Fakeye (2010) contended that evaluation has a strong influence on teaching and learning. He maintained that evaluation provides a framework for instructional planning. He went further to say that if evaluation is used appropriately, it can promote learning, build confidence and develop students’ understanding of themselves and their abilities. Therefore, regular classroom evaluation is necessary for the learner to realize his/her future dreams as it would enable the teacher to identify and plan remedial actions for the weak points or areas in the teaching and learning processes. According to Fakeye (2010), evaluation includes not only the process of determining what actual educational outcomes are and of comparing them with the expected outcomes, but it involves judgements about the nature and desirability of any demonstrated changes. Judgements of this kind obviously bear directly on educational objectives, but they cannot be made until some assessment has been carried out. Assessment is a preliminary phase in the evaluation process in which various techniques are used to gather information about students’ growth and development. Hence evaluation refers to as the decision making which follows assessment. Nora and Watt (2001) maintained that ICT can be applied in assessment purposes at various levels ranging from the management of the assessment information to a fully automated assessment system. In Applying ICT in management, assessment information can 32 enable information to be presented in different ways to meet the needs of different audiences (such as teachers, students, course organisers and external examiners). Not only the quality of presentation of reports but more importantly the range and scope of their content can be improved by utilising ICT for this purpose. At the other extreme, in a fully automated assessment system all aspects of the system from the assessment which the student completes to the processing and administration of the marks, including the overall management of assessment information, is computer-based. Nora and Watt (2002) furthered that the advantages of applying ICT for assessment is that more frequent formative and summative assessment are possible; teachers can be alerted sooner to adapt their teaching; they can spend less time in marking; self-assessment are necessary in the student's own time, at their own pace, when they are ready; its increases student confidence; and that students like rapid results which know other method of assessment can offer accept computer-based assessment. According to Mohammed (2004), ICT is rapidly changing the methods and scope of evaluation. As it is contended by Gibobaniye (1991), that many educational authorities in most technologically advanced nations had predicted that computer would pave way for a new era education which evaluation process would enhance the dreams of chaotic system of administering questions to students and reporting students performance restored to order. Corner (2002) postulated that both students and educators in different institutions or part of the globe uses computer with internet to access e-mail services which could be used to route assignment to students, submit completed assignment to teachers and make enquiries and receive responses for teaching and learning. Afolabi (2001) posited that there is growing interest and increasing practical experience in the use of ICT in delivery objective tests. Objective testing is often taken to imply the use of multiple choice questions (MCQs). Objective tests can incorporate a wide range of question styles in addition to standard multiple choice questions; for example multiple response, word entry, number entry, gap fill and free-format where student entry is compared to a correct solution using a keyword search. Objective tests, and MCQs according to Afolabi (2001) in particular, are generally considered to be an efficient method of testing factual knowledge, enabling a wide syllabus to be examined in a relatively short time. He affirmed that institution or examination bodies like West African Examination Council (WAEC), National Examination Council (NECO), Joint Admission and Matriculation Board 33 (JAMB) etc from different parts of the globe applied ICT in assessing and evaluating students’ performance in their examinations. Nora and Watt (2001) warn that it is important for academic staff to be aware of the limitations of objective tests (especially MCQs), particularly in their inability to indicate higher level and process skills. Objective tests can be used for both formative and summative assessments, and a variety of scoring systems can be applied, tailored to the importance of discouraging students from guessing answers. Nora and Watt (2001) explained the potentialities of applying ICT in delivery assessment and evaluation. In their words “… consider the situation where a question has been posed, but the student is unable to get started. In a traditional setting (for a summative test) this student would be forced to omit this question and try another. In an electronic setting it is possible to include an option to provide a hint for the student. Most computer based assessment packages can operate in a choice of modes, perhaps described as tutorial or exam mode. The exact number of modes available varies from package to package, but four modes are not uncommon, each offering a different level of detailed feedback for the student, to assist them in reaching the correct answer, or explaining why their response was not correct.” They further that questions can be split up into several stages, and marks can be awarded at interim stages before a final answer is determined. Marks can be deducted if hints have been provided. For students who have made a slip, the computer can identify an error and offer the possibility of going back, correcting an interim answer and hence enabling the student to successfully reach the final stages of a question. BECTA (2008) maintained that feedback from students indicates that the opportunity to work through questions is often considered to be very helpful in identifying areas of weakness in their knowledge, or in developing a confidence in their understanding of a subject. Computerised delivery from a bank of questions or of randomly generated problems, supported by automated marking and feedback to the student is a flexible and efficient method of providing formative assessment, particularly where factual knowledge is an important component of the course. Nora and Watt (2002) asserted that the most immediately obvious and most easily accessible use of technology to assist the assessment process is in the recording, analysis, general storage and management of results. A wide range of spreadsheets, statistical packages and database packages help in performing this task (e.g. Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Database, SPSS, 34 Minitab, Access), into which it is easy to enter data manually if results are not already in electronic form, though enormous care must be taken to avoid transcription errors when generating the data files. Most of these packages readily accept the transfer of electronically stored data from other applications, aiding data acquisition and increasing the potential data analysis that can be carried out. BECTA (2008) affirmed that results from several assessments, courses or modules can be collated quickly, easily and accurately for discussion at examination boards, and the volume of paper required for long term storage can be dramatically reduced. Further, any trends within the data can be fully explored, which in turn provides valuable feedback for the academic team. It is sometimes useful to record data other than how many right answers the student is able to achieve, particularly when the assessment is formative. The use of interim stages in a problem to provide feedback and guidance to students has already been mentioned. Some computer based assessment packages record all the interim responses from the students into a file, which is available to the tutor for diagnostic purposes, if required. Other packages require students to log on before using a package, so that frequency of usage of the package can be monitored. Another practice is to record the length of time which students are logged-on to the system. This can be helpful in identifying students who achieve high scores, but only when they have a lot of time to do so, compared with students who may score less highly, but who spend very little time on the test. As outlined above other information relating to the path a student followed through a package, the frequency of usage and the time taken to complete sections can be stored. Although this can provide teachers with useful information it can often cause concern to students if they have had to enter identifying information before accessing the package. Some students are anxious about the use to which such information will be put. However if students are informed when given operating instructions for the package of the use to which information will be put then this anxiety is usually alleviated and students will feel happier and more motivated to use the software particularly for formative assessment purposes. The use of electronic methods to store and manipulate data becomes pointless if the integrity of the data cannot be guaranteed. The manual entry of marks is particularly susceptible to error, time consuming and costly to check thoroughly. The application of data capture devices, such as an Optical Mark Reader (OMR) connected to a computer, can vastly 35 reduce input errors, particularly the problem of number transposition on data entry, e.g. typing 45 instead of 54. Standard pre-printed OMR forms can be a cost-effective way of collecting student responses to questions. A pencil or pen mark is made on the form by the student to indicate each selected response, i.e. their answer to a particular question. No special training is required for this just some simple instructions re entering responses clearly in the designated check areas. The completed forms can then be scanned by an OMR to detect the presence of a mark (usually by measuring reflected light levels). The pattern of marks and spaces is interpreted by the reader, following instructions provided by the operator, and is stored in a data record and sent to your computer file for storage. Thus large quantities of information can be entered onto your computer without the need to use a keyboard. Hence increasing accuracy and saving time. One example of the use of these is for students to record their answers on the preprinted OMR response sheets although the test has been presented in the form of MCQs on paper. Software packages are available which allow you to design and print customised forms using a personal computer and a laser printer. An additional feature used in some HE institutions is to allocate an individual bar-code to each student which can be attached to their form. This can be read by the OMR thus decreasing the chance of mistaken identity due to students incorrectly entering their personal identification number, e.g. due to transposing characters or checking the wrong boxes when entering their matriculation number. Once the student answers have been stored for a test, the responses can not only be scored but can be analysed in a number of different ways, e.g. by individual question, groups of questions, all questions. Thus a variety of reports can be produced such as: the results of individual students; the results of groups of students including the mean, median and modal scores; graphs of results; analysis of each question including its reliability, facility value and discrimination factor. In another development, Naro and Watt opined that one obstacle which can prevent teachers/lecturers from utilising technological solutions to administer student assessment is the worry of security. Alter (1996) suggested ways to put the teachers/lecturers mind at rest on some of the issues which may concern them. 36 Alter (1996) states that when considering delivering assessment on computer, it is possible to protect the file containing the test by password it, and also to disallow access until after a particular date. To overcome the possibility of students copying from each other's visual display screens, the possible responses to each test question can be displayed in a different order. Also databanks of questions can be used which means that each student is sitting a comparable but not identical test. There is of course the problem of obtaining access to sufficient equipment to deliver a test to all students in a class at the same time. This does require careful preplanning to book the facilities and to ensure that the test is available on all the machines simultaneously. Usually this means that additional support staff, such as computer suite managers, will be involved in assisting the course teaching staff in organising the delivery of the test. Ensuring that the person completing an assessment is who she says they are (authentication) is an issue in all examinations and is not a security issue specific to computer based assessment. However, in a computer environment impersonation may be perceived as a greater risk. The most obvious way to control this issue is to set summative assessments in exam conditions, checking identities against matriculation cards etc. and checking these against the candidates computer log-on information. Authentication of remotely sat examinations is likely to remain a problem - as it is with paper based assessments. Sometimes due to class size and the availability of equipment it is not possible to arrange for all the students to sit the test simultaneously. One solution to this problem which has been successfully used is to divide the class into two sections. The second section sits the test immediately after the first. In order to eliminate any possible transfer of answers from students in section one to section two, the first group leaves the computer cluster by a different route than that taken by the second group to enter, e.g. via the fire-escape door rather than the main entrance. However students themselves are self-motivated not to transfer any information to their peers as it may disadvantage their own showing in a test. Plagiarism should present no greater problem in an electronic environment than in a more traditional context. However, the "cut and paste" facility of word processors and information retrieval systems may tempt students to copy sections of text directly into their work. This is a potential that has to be guarded against in the same way as text manually copied from other sources - largely though the style and quality of English used. Peer group 37 assessment where each member of the group awards a share of the total marks to their group collaborators may present another practical guard against plagiarism and could appropriately be employed in some situations. Students should also be made aware of the law relating to copyright, especially when they are asked to compile portfolios or other multimedia presentations. Storing student marks on a computer file is not necessarily more prone to student access than traditional means. It is possible to password protect a file to stop unauthorised access. If the machine on which the file is stored is not networked then any potential infiltrator would require obtaining access to the room in which the computer is situated as well as cracking the password. If the file is stored on a floppy disk rather than on the computer's hard disk then this can be locked in a filing cabinet in the same way as paperbased marks but will in fact be more secure than the paper-based version as in order to view the data the person seeking access to it would require to know the name of the file, have access to appropriate hardware and software and be able to enter the correct password. There are many other ways in which computers can assist in the assessment process. A few of these are discussed. Of course, not every example will be applicable in every subject area or every course. There are a number of examples of Integrated Learning Systems (ILS), where entire course structures, lecture, practical and assignment schedules and supplementary resources are held electronically and available for student consultation whenever needed. The management of assessment schedules is just one small part of an ILS, and an equivalent benefit is available through the use of other, less holistic tools (British Educational Communications and Technology Agency, BECTA, 2004). Electronic mail offers both tutors and students an efficient and straightforward means of communication. One application is to use e-mail to remind students of impending deadlines. Even students who are absent when the message is first posted are certain to receive the message when they next access their mail. Similarly any changes, revisions to the assignment, or hints can be delivered to all students. Assignments can be submitted electronically. For distant learners this avoids the need to rely on the speed of postal services, and for all students the date and time of delivery is automatically attached, so meeting deadlines can be monitored accurately (Corner, 2002). 38 Anderson (2004) also affirmed that computers are an ideal ICT tool to track attendance or achievement records, allowing monitoring of trends, for individuals and cohorts, comparison between years or classes and early identification of problems. Encouraging or insisting that students word process assignments is now widespread. A similar strategy is to promote the use of ICT tools (e.g. PowerPoint, Freehand) to support oral presentations. In both cases students can be encouraged and assisted in the development of a professional attitude, in addition to academic considerations. Word processors are invaluable to those with poor spelling or who would produce an illegible script. If these skills are important, then perhaps use of technology should be actively discouraged. Insistence on all assignments being word processed may effectively penalise students who possess fewer keyboard skills, or those who have more difficulty in gaining access to the necessary equipment. The correct balance must be sought between the time invested in the appearance of an assignment and the time invested in consideration of its content; students, particularly early in their courses, may require clarification and assistance with these issues. There are a number of collaborative writing tools now available, at least one of which, Common Space, has been written and designed specifically for educational use. Common Space could be used by a group of individuals involved in a collaborative creative process, where each can comment on and revise the ideas of others in the group, or by tutors to give feedback on early drafts of a document. Comments can be as text or as audio recordings. It offers a number of features to promote flexibility and adaptability in integrating comments and revisions from a range of different sources. Similar annotation, comment and revision marking features are provided in most quality word processing packages (Pelgrum, 2001). A similar idea is the development of computer based portfolios where students can create multimedia packages with simple links between different resources. These could be used for the creation of portfolios where students have gathered a range of resources, such as graphics, audio and video clips in addition to text and links to relevant pages from the World Wide Web. Students could also be assessed on their ability to create a relevant and linked portfolio of World Wide Web resources, which can quite simply be created by writing Web pages in HTML (hyper text mark-up language), possibly using the conversion and editing tools provided for several standard word processing packages. The structure of the 39 package/portfolio and relationships between the links included in the materials can be a reliable indicator of the depth of learning. Electronic portfolios are plausible for a wide range of academic subject areas, and can be used for group or peer assessments (Awoleye, Siyanbola, and Oladipo, 2008). Many students will be expected to use technology in future careers, and perhaps to compare and contrast the features offered by different packages. Asking students to create a simple package or portfolios of linked resources, to evaluate each other's products and produce a critical report on their own can foster a range of transferable skills, and promote a deeper level of learning. According to Jonah (2007), simulations have been in use for many years to assess likely performance in hostile environments, particularly, but not exclusively, as a formative assessment tool. A simulated environment can never be quite like "the real thing", as assumptions, simplifications and restrictions will have been programmed into any simulation - creating problems of realism. However, assessment problems associated with experiments in the real world, which sometimes behaving unpredictably, can be avoided in a simulated environment. Simulations can be used to investigate problem solving skills, perhaps allowing the student to explore a range of options. They provide a range of flexible assessment tools, suitable for individual or group exercises, under open or closed conditions. In addition to assessment of the academic content of the simulated environment, they can be used as a tool in the assessment of group interaction processes. Evaluation helps teachers to develop their own ability to self-evaluate their own ICT teaching. During the teaching process, teachers benefit from evaluating and reflecting on how they have achieved their teaching goals. Constraints to the Application of ICT in Teaching and Learning There are complaints about the aptitude of teachers. Teachers being unfriendly and poor handling of computer in delivery of instruction are serious problem. Such problems could discourage students from studying computer related practical courses. Eze (2001) stated that the potentials of an educational system are directly related to the qualification of the teachers. FGN (2004) further asserted that the poor quality of teachers is a strong reason, enough to ruin any well planned and meaningful educational system, since no system of education can rise above the quality of its teachers. 40 Negative impact caused by lack of knowledge and competence on the selection and utilization of instructional methods or techniques were also reported by Saura and Dairo (1997). They called for choice of instructional methods that will bring about efficient skill development. Moreover, searching for materials online can be sometimes time- consuming and frustrating. Many learners find it difficult to read papers on a computer screen. Also, it is easy to become bombarded with too much information with little control over the quality and accuracy of the contents. Therefore, a certain technical expertise is required from both teachers and students. More importantly, little is know about how to make use of Internet- based materials or how to design tasks that allow the learners to explore these materials and yield expected learning outcomes. Another major constraint associated with ICT application are high student or computer ratios, computer breakdowns, and slow or inconsistent Internet connectivity. There is also lack of professional development programs for teachers to upgrade their skills on emerging technologies. There appears to be a gap between policy of the Ministry of Education on ICT integration and actual application process (Ebenezer & Francis, 2008). Archibong and Effiom (2009) observed teacher while using computer faces lack of teaching aids while explaining concepts to the class, limited space on the screen/slides to explain or elaborate a concept. More has to be said in few words that may not be easily comprehended by the students. Archibong et al. (2009) maintained that village students who do not have knowledge of computer were not actively participating during the teaching. It makes it difficult for the teacher to explain concepts and check if the students are learning or not. Teaching and learning with ICT in schools since its initiation has faced a lot of difficulties at the level of infrastructures, curriculum, teachers, content as well as teaching and learning method. According to the authors, some of these difficulties include; integrating and using different ICT tools in a single lesson, absence of access to the necessary technology at the homes of students, and infrastructure. They explained further that insufficient infrastructure is one of the serious problem the teaching and learning of ICT faces by teachers, for example the teaching of some programmes and manipulation of some application software is difficult because of lack of enough computers for practical lessons and didactic materials which can assist students out of school to learn ICT; also lack of multimedia centers to assist students and teachers to carry out research in schools and low 41 maintenance rate of the few equipment available also prevent teachers/students to develop technological and manipulating skills. Another area that teacher encountered problems is pedagogic resources. Archibong et al. (2009) contended that lack of textbooks and pamphlets to assist teachers and students to work with causes a lot of problems since almost everything taught is gotten from the internet. This may mislead one because not all material could be valuable and correct; and at the level of the teachers training, there is still lack of well-structured training programme for ICT pedagogy; this is because most the teachers teaching ICT now are not trained. Another problem is power supply. ICT equipment is electrical equipment that requires electricity for operation. Most rural areas of Nigeria do not have electricity facility and in urban area electricity supply is epileptic, and this reduces the life span of hardware and also militates against effective usage. Even enthusiastic teacher educators and students who have access to computers may be debarred from using them as a result of power outage. Most rural areas lack electricity and those that have suffer from constant current shortage which hinders the effective use of computers to do practical work; and motivation is also a problem encountered by teacher, most students do not yet know the role of computer in teaching (Archibong et al., 2009). Another major problem is that the curriculum for ICT subject is still at the initial stage and not well-defined to meet up with school programme and the time allocated for the teaching of ICT does not tie with that of the programme which makes it difficult for the teacher to fully give out what they prepare resulting to low assimilation rate of the students. Limited fund available to higher institutions have hindered the provision of needed facilities and infrastructure to promote ICT usage. Most faculties of education and schools of education in Nigeria do not have dedicated laboratory for ICT training. Classrooms are equally not equipped for ICT usage. Thus, teacher trainers and trainee teachers do not have access to ICT within their schools. The few available ones are used mostly for administrative purposes (Yusuf, 2005). Justus (2011) reported lack of training and skills as obstacle to ICT use in institutions of higher learning in Tanzania, while Agaba (2003) found lack of skills as one of the problems explaining underutilization of Makerere University Library electronic information resources by academic staff. Farrell (2007) established that, though the Faculty of Computing 42 and Information Technology at Makerere University trains staff in e-learning and support elearning in the whole university, comparatively few teachers have the skills to make pedagogical use of ICT for teaching across the curriculum. This could be due to inadequate ICT training skills, lack of time and negative attitude by teachers towards ICT application. Peansupap and Walker (2005) found lack of ICT skills as a key barrier to adopting and using ICT applications in Australian construction organizations. Hawkins (2002) established that most teachers in the developing world are intimidated by technology and are thus comfortable with their own old teaching styles. Furthermore, Mooij and Smeets (2001) in the study aimed to investigate the implementation of ICT and its support within the secondary schools in Holland. They found that teachers’ competence and confidence in their skills were one of the main factors to influence teachers’ willingness to integrate technology in their teaching-learning process. They claimed that educator’s lack of knowledge is a serious hindrance to integrate ICT into secondary schools. Educators’ must attain and maintain an assured degree of technological competence to make instructional strategies more effective. This is supported by Albirini (2006) who stated that technology competence comprises not only technology knowledge but also the skills and experience essential to put them into use. Technology competency allows the teachers to turn into most efficient individuals in dealing with daily tasks such as to communicate with the student’s parents; to keep records; to do research in their option domain; and to prepare presentations (Priscilla, Nida, Khambari and Wong, 2008). Computer competence, therefore, can be observed in terms of teachers’ beliefs concerning their knowledge, basic skill, and capability of performing essential functions using the computer. According to Albirini (2006), computer competence refers to educators’ beliefs about their computer knowledge and skills. Computers are an essential part of many work places and employers need both men and women with computers skills. Although some come to the job with computer related education, many workers need training or retraining to keep up with new computer hard ware or software. Krysa et al. (2009) in Justus (2011) stated that ICT training should not be limited to teachers who teach computing but to all teachers on the use of ICT. The need for ICT training is explained by the fact that most of the presently recruited teachers received little or no training in their formal education concerning use of ICT in teaching. It could also be a 43 reflection of the need to update teachers' knowledge in the world of fast moving technology of communication. Training teachers on the educational use of computers gains special importance when considering integrating the ICT into regular curriculum. Teachers need to know how to use computers first before they can integrate them in the curriculum. This could make ICT innovation simple to adopt and implement as the innovation becomes compatible with the current objectives of the users. Krysa et al. (2009) in Justus (2011) points to professional development and training as a solution to successful application of ICT. According to Afshari et al. (2008) in Justus (2011), when technology is introduced into teacher education programs, the emphasis is often on teaching about technology instead of teaching with technology. Hence, inadequate preparation to use technology is one of the reasons that teachers do not systematically use computers in their classes. Teachers lack the necessary skills and thus need to be given opportunities to practice using information communication technology during their teacher training programs so that they can see ways in which technology can be used to augment their classroom activities (Justus, 2011). Teachers are more likely to adopt and integrate ICT in their courses, when professional training in the use of ICT provides them time to practice with the technology and to learn, share and collaborate with colleagues. The statement suggests that training teachers to update their ICT skills may aid the integration of computers into the classroom setting. To promote ICT integration in schools, school leaders should adopt strategies that make ICT part of the daily routine or tasks of the teachers. These strategies may include using e-mail as the mode of communication among staff, accessing the intranet to download data and using a wordprocessor to complete lesson plans for submission. According to a UNESCO (2005) survey, about 35% of the already trained teachers in secondary schools in Europe, Asia and Africa have basic skills in ICT, which leaves 65% of the teaching workforce on the three continents still in need of computer skills (Auerswald & Magambo, 2007). UNESCO (2005) reported that teachers, professors, technical and administrative staff must be given training that enables them to integrate new information and communication technologies into their teaching programs. The lack of technical skills of maintaining the functionality of computers confused teachers to integrate ICT in the classroom (Priscilla et al, 2008). Numerous problems related to ICT infusion occur among 44 the teachers due to the “lack of technical skills and knowledge of maintaining the functionality of the computers”. According to Pelgrum (2001), the success of educational innovations depends largely on the skills and knowledge of teachers. The study reported that teachers’ lack of knowledge and skills is among the most inhibiting obstacles to the use of computers in schools. Similarly, in the United States, Knezek and Christensen (2000) reported that educators with higher levels of skill, knowledge, and tools would exhibit higher levels of technology integration in the classroom. Berner (2003) cited in Afshari et al. (2008) in a case study on the relationship between computer use in the classroom and two independent variables: beliefs about computer competence; and administrative support, found that the faculty’s belief not computer competence was the greatest predictor of their use of computers in the classroom. Therefore, teachers should develop their competence in ICT skills through training based on the educational goals they want to accomplish in order to use computers in teaching. Another obstacle to application of ICT in teaching is lack of computer knowledge for persons handling computers. Teo and Lim (1998) reported that competence of individual teachers handling computers is very low; most of them lack both educational and technical training. Research findings indicated that there is need to equip teachers with computer technology skills and knowledge through effective training on how to use computers in teaching. Hsin-Kai (2007) cited in Justus (2011), reported that teachers’ technological skills (e.g. technology proficiency and computer literacy) are critical for successful implementation of ICT in the classroom. Teachers should understand the enabling conditions of certain technologies in order to engage students in ICT-based learning activities successfully. Teachers who have lower ICT proficiency are usually not willing and have less confidence to use ICT for teaching. Teachers who have strong engagement towards their own professional development are more motivated to undertake activities which lead to a better understanding of the goals of an innovation. However, much as training is emphasized by Ministry of Education, ICT usage is still low. Theoretical Framework of the Study Theory in the view of Borg and Gall (1989) is a system for explaining set of phenomena by specifying constructs and the laws that relate these constructs to each other. 45 The author stated that theory explains how various factors are causally related to one another. Olaitan (2003) defined a theory as a set of related statement that are arranged systematically so as to give functional meaning to a set of series of events. The author stated that the set of related statement may take the form of descriptive or functional definitions, operational constructs, assumptions hypotheses, generalization and laws. Hornby (2005), in his view explained theory as the principle on which the subject of a study is based. This implies that a theory provides needed data about a given subject matter. With reference to this study theory means all the guiding principles or statements devised to explain fact or set of rules for the study. The theoretical framework of this study is based on the theories of constructivist, teaching and learning. Constructivist and Learning Theory Constructivism is a view of learning based on the belief that knowledge is not a thing that can be simply given by the teacher at the front of the room to students in their desks. Rather, knowledge is constructed by learners through an active, mental process of development; learners are the builders and creators of meaning and knowledge (Gray, 1995). Fosnot (1996) cited Gray (1995) defines constructivism by reference to four principles: learning, in an important way, depends on what we already know; new ideas occur as we adapt and change our old ideas; learning involves inventing ideas rather than mechanically accumulating facts; meaningful learning occurs through rethinking old ideas and coming to new conclusions about new ideas which conflict with our old ideas. A productive and constructivist classroom consists of learner-centered, active instruction. In such a classroom, the teacher provides students with experiences that allow them to hypothesize, predict, manipulate objects, pose questions, research, investigate, imagine, and invent. The teacher's role is to facilitate this process. Individuals understand learning in different ways and conceive of learning on the bases of internal and external factors. Internal factors include the learner’s previous experiences, motivation, prejudices and level of individual social and emotional development. External factors refer to the learner’s immediate learning environment such as opportunities, constraints and circumstances influencing the individual’s learning including other people (Fosnot, 1996). 46 This was backed up by the work of Papert (1980) that proved computers as useful in higher learning. Papert’s view of the importance of motivational engagement of the learner contrasts sharply with Skinner’s who although recognizing this influence, consider it unnecessary for instruction. In this view, the learners as active participants are involved in structuring their own learning experiences. Papert’s work with Piaget who emphasized the way in which knowledge is structured using computers are organized as well as how the learners’ own perception of their prior experiences perform the knowledge structure. Thus, the importance of how a learner relates new experiences to existing knowledge becomes paramount. Application of ICT in learning shifted towards a more constructivist orientation, seeing online instruction delivery, as offering more opportunities for students’ participation. To promote application of ICT in teaching and learning, teachers need to be adequately prepared to effectively apply them; teachers need to experience constructivist approach firsthand in order to better understand the value of learner-centred instruction. Application of ICT, therefore, allows teachers to places learner at the centre of learning experience and takes responsibility for their own learning. This permits learning to be learner-centred. The Andragogist Theory The constructivist theory is closely related to the Andragogist theory proposed by Knowles (1992). Knolwes posited that adult learners needs to know why they have to learn something before undertaking it; they should be ready to learn the things they need to know, they need to make use of their experience in learning, they should be motivated to learn to the extent that they perceive that it will help them perform tasks they confront in their life situations such as work. The relationship between these theories and ICT is that learners are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning. Corner (2004) argued that technology basedlearning environment are based on a constructivist approach to learning in which emphasis is on learning as a process of personal understanding and meaning making which is active and interpretative. Following from this, the characteristics of these approaches to learning are settings and activities that see learners assuming much of the responsibility for them in terms of what is learned and how it is learned, following also the andragogist view of learning. 47 Related Empirical Studies This concerned with the review of related empirical researches carried out by other researchers. A study was carried out by Angib (2008) on the extent of utilization of cybercafé in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Cross-River State. The objectives of the study include to: determine extent of utilization of Cyber-café in lesson preparation, determine the extent of utilization of cyber café in instructions delivery, find out the extent to which cyber café is used in self –learning, find out the extent to which cyber café is used in collaborative learning and determine the extent of utilization of cyber café in evaluation. The population of the study comprised two hundred and sixty (260) lecturers of three higher institutions in the state. Questionnaires were used for data collection. Data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation, z-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA). The findings revealed that lecturers in higher institutions used cyber café in lesson preparation and self learning. The study further revealed that lecturers in higher institutions rarely use cyber café in instruction delivery, collaborative learning and evaluation of learning. The findings of the study show that lecturers in higher institutions use cyber café in lesson preparation and rarely use in instructional delivery. This study is related to present study on the ground that it deals with application of ICT in preparation lesson, instruction delivery, individualized learning and evaluation of learning in higher institutions in Cross-River State; the gap created is the constraints to the application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions which the present study intend to fill in higher institution in Akwa Ibom State. Archibong, Ogbiji, and Anijaoboi-Idem (2010) carried out a study on Information and communication technology (ICT) competence among Academic Staff in Universities in Cross Rivers State, Nigeria. The objective of the study include: investigating the competency level of academic staff in the use of ICT, ascertaining how academic staff rates their ICT competency level, ascertaining the challenges to academic usage of ICT in teaching and learning. The population for the study was three hundred (300) academic staff of the two universities. Questionnaire was the instrument for data collection. Descriptive statistics (percentages) were used to analyze the data. The findings reveal that the competency level of academic staff in all the indices measured was below fifty (50%) in using ICT which show that it is still very low. The study further revealed that 53.3% of the academic staff rated their ICT competence as low. While the major challenges identified by the study on ICT usage 48 among academic staff were inadequate ICT facilities, excess work load and funding. The findings of the study show that ICT competencies are necessary for all academic staff to enable them apply ICT in teaching and learning. This study is related to the present study in the sense that ICT competence possessed by lecturers is a prerequisite to the application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Fakeye (2010) conducted a study on “Assessment of English Language Teachers’ Knowledge and Use of ICT in Ibadan Southwest Local Government of Oyo State. The study aimed at assessing the extent English Teachers Use ICT in English Language Instruction, find out the level of knowledge of English Teachers about ICT and assess ICT facilities available for teaching and learning of English language in schools. A survey research design was adopted for the study. The population for the study was ninety-four (94) teachers from thirty (30) secondary schools. Questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. Descriptive statistic of frequency counts, mean and standard deviation were used to analysed the data, while t-test was used to test the null hypothesis. The findings reveal that level of knowledge of ICT possessed by English Language teachers was poor and as such, they rarely use ICT in English Language instruction. It was also found that there was significant difference in the male and female teachers’ knowledge of ICT with the males demonstrating a higher level of knowledge than their female counterparts. This study is related to the present study in that the study focused on use of ICT for teaching and learning, a survey research design is adopted for the study, questionnaire is used to collect data, mean and standard deviation was used to analysed the data. Muhammad, Fazalur, Ullah, Khush and Tariq (2011) carried out a study on “Assessment of Usage of ICT among Graduates of Allama Iqbal Open University”. The study aimed at measuring the proficiency of graduates of Allama Iqbal Open University in using word processing, spreadsheets and presentation software, analyzing the proficiency of graduates of Allama Iqbal Open University in internet and E-mail, assessing the proficiency of graduates of Allama Iqbal Open University in using E-learning and blogs, exploring the use of ICT in work environment by Allama Iqbal Open University graduates, and finding out the obstacles faced by teachers in ICT use. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. All the graduates of Faculty of Education of Allama Iqbal Open University made up the population of the study. Sample of 132 graduates of Allama Iqbal Open University who 49 were teaching in various schools, colleges and universities were used for the study. Questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. Data was analyzed by using percentage, and mean scores. The study revealed that most of the graduates faced obstacles in the use of ICT. It was further revealed that graduates had low proficiency of using computer hardware. The study is related to the present study because its deal with assessment of usage of ICT among graduates of university in the area of application of word processor, spreadsheets and presentation software, internet and e-mail in learning, which are the components of ICT application in teaching and learning. Agbulu and Ademu (2010) conducted a study on Assessment of Agricultural Science Teachers’ Knowledge and Utilization of Information and Communication Technology in Nigerian Secondary Schools. The study aimed at examining the availability of ICT in secondary schools, knowledge of ICT possessed by agricultural science teachers, utilization of ICT by agricultural science teachers for teaching and learning, and the challenges posed by ICT to agricultural science teachers. A survey research design was adopted for the study. The population for the study was 568 agricultural science teachers. A checklist and structured questionnaire were used for data collection. Mean and Standard deviation were used for the data analysis, while t-test statistic was used to test the null hypotheses. The major finding revealed that ICT were not utilized for teaching and learning in secondary schools. This study is related to the present study because it involved the assessment of teachers’ knowledge and usage of ICT in teaching in schools prerequisite for the application of ICT in teaching and learning in schools. The study also adopted a survey research design, used questionnaire to collect data. Mean and standard deviation were also used for data analysis. Ajayi, Ekundayo & Haastrup (2009) carried out a study on “The Application of Information and Communication Technology in Nigerian Secondary Schools”. The study aimed at investigating the level of availability of ICT facilities in schools, the capacity for using ICT facilities for teaching and learning, the perceived benefits of using ICT and the problems facing the use of ICT in secondary schools. The descriptive survey design was used for the study. The population consisted of all the teachers and principals of the secondary schools in Ondo and Ekiti States. A sample of 320 teachers and 40 principals were used for the study. Questionnaire was the instruments used to collect data for the study. Frequency counts and percentage scores were used to analysed the data. The study revealed that ICT 50 facilities were lacking in schools and teachers and students were to a little extent exposed to the use of ICT. The study also revealed the perceived benefits of using ICT in schools which include making teaching and learning interesting; helping the distance learning programme; helping teachers to be up-to-date; enhancing quality of work by both the teachers and the students. The study also revealed some of the challenges facing ICT in secondary schools as: irregular power supply: inadequate computer literate teachers; high cost of purchasing computers in schools; inadequate facilities to support full application of the ICT and lack of fund. This study is related to the present study on the ground it deals with application of ICT in teaching and learning schools. It also looks into the level of ICT usage by the teachers and the constraints to the usage. Justus (2011) conducted a study on problems in ICT Implementation in Selected Institutions of Higher Learning in Kabale District, Uganda. The objective of the study were is to: investigate the influence of cost of ICT training materials on ICT implementation in selected institutions of higher learning in Kabale District; find out the influence of skills development in ICT towards ICT application in selected institutions of higher learning in Kabale District; and explore the influence of administrative support on ICT application in selected institutions of higher learning in Kabale District. A cross sectional survey design was employed. The population for the study constituted 90 teaching staff from the four institutions, 30 administrative staff and 200 undergraduate final year students and 300 diploma final year students. The sample sizes of 73, 28, and 217 respectively were randomly selected. Self Administered Questionnaires (SAQs) were used for collected data. Frequency count, descriptive statistic and ANOVA were used for data analysis. The findings revealed that cost of ICT training materials negatively influenced ICT application where as skills development in ICT and administrative support positively influenced ICT application. The study is related to the present study because it deals with problems that influence the application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions which is one of the specific objectives of this study. The gap created from this study is that the study fail to investigate the areas of application of ICT especially in preparing lesson, delivery of instruction, individualized learning, and evaluation of learning which the present study is intend to fill. 51 Summary of Review of Related Literature Application of ICT according to authors is the use of a diverse set of technological tools and resources to communicate, create, disseminate, store, retrieve and manage information. Literature on the application of ICT by lecturers in individualized learning was carried out by the researcher to guide the study. The authors identify lack of training, skills, attitude for change and competence as constraints to the application of ICT in the classroom. Authors identified key competences required of teachers or lecturer for effective application of ICT in teaching and learning to include ability to apply word processor in processing information, database and spreadsheet in preparing lesson; ability to apply multimedia presentations or electronic whiteboards; ability to use Internet and e-mail; ability to use virtual learning environments; ability to use pedagogical websites; ability to use electronic encyclopedia for information. Other areas reviewed are application of ICT in lesson preparation; in instructions delivery; in evaluation of learning; and constraints to the application of ICT by lecturers in teaching in higher institutions. The literature shows that both the students and lecturers or teachers in higher institutions rarely applied ICT in lesson preparation, instruction delivery and evaluation of learning. It is revealed that educators are constrained by inadequate ICT facilities, excess workload and lack of fund for effective application of ICT in lesson preparation, instruction delivery and evaluation. The review of literature on theoretical framework was based on constructivist, and andragogist theories. Several studies have been conducted on this study in other parts of the country. Despite the efforts of the government in providing some of the ICT facilities and training offered by lecturer in higher institutions in the State, no study known to the researcher being conducted in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom on the assessment of the application of ICT in teaching and learning process, especially in lesson preparation, instruction delivery, individualized learning and evaluation of learning, This is the gap this research study intends to fill. 52 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter presents the procedure that was used in carrying out this study. The procedure was discussed under the following subheadings: design of the study, area of the study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument for data collection, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument, method of data collection and method of data analysis. Design of the Study This study adopts a descriptive survey research design. A descriptive survey research design, according to Ali (2006) is one which uses sample of an investigation to document, describe, and explain what is in existence or non-existence on the present status of phenomena being investigated. The author further stated that in descriptive survey study views and facts are collected through questionnaire and/or interviews schedule for answering research questions. A descriptive survey research design was suitable for this study because data was collected through questionnaire from lecturers on the extent of application of information and communication technologies in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Area of the Study The area of the study is Akwa Ibom State. It covers three higher institutions in the State that have ICT facilities for lecturers to apply them in teaching and learning. These institutions include: University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State College of Education and College of Arts and Sciences. Akwa Ibom State is situated at the south-south geopolitical zone of Nigeria. The State is bordered on the east by Cross River State on the West by Rivers State and Abia State, and on the South by the Atlantic Ocean and the southern-most tip of Cross River State. The State has a population of 3,920,208 million of people. Akwa Ibom is a predominantly civil service state with Government being the main engine of growth. Population for the Study The population for the study is 1,476 lecturers currently teaching in the three higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. This comprises of 1,183 lecturers of University of Uyo, 191 lecturers of College of Education, Afaha Nsit and 102 lecturers of College of Arts and 51 53 Science, Nung Ukim. The information on population of the lecturers of the three institutions was obtained from Academic Affairs and Establishment Unit of University of these institutions. Sample and Sampling Technique The sample of 295 lecturers was used for the study. A stratified random sample of 20% of lecturers per institution was used for the study. This is obtaining by grouping the entire population of lecturers based on institution and then simple random selection was made within each institution. The adoption of stratified random sample according to Ali (2006) is to ensure that a true representative of the entire population is drawn. The choice of 20% lecturers is informed by Ali (2006) added that 20% of the total population is appropriate for population of few thousands for survey study. The information on the sampling is shown in appendix III. Instrument for Data Collection The instrument used for data collection was a structured questionnaire. The instrument is titled “ICT Application Questionnaire (ICTAQ). The questionnaire were made up of two sections, section A and B. Section A was consisted of items seeking the personal information of the respondents. Section B was consisted of five parts. Part I was made to elicit information on the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation. Part II was consisted of items to obtain information on the extent of application of ICT in instruction delivery. Part III contains items soliciting information on the extent of application of ICT in individualized learning. Part IV contains items for obtaining information on the extent of application of ICT in evaluation of learning. Part V was comprises items for gathering information on the constraints to the application of ICT in teaching and learning. The responses on the questionnaire were structured on a 5-point rating scale namely; Very Great Extent (VGE), Great Extent (GE), Moderate Extent (ME), Little Extent (LE), and Very Little Extent (VLE). Validation of the Instrument The instrument was face- validated by three lecturers from Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka – two lecturers from Computer Education Unit and one Lecturer from Industrial Education Unit. Each validate was given a copy of the 54 instrument to eliminate any irrelevant statement presented by the researcher and to make suggestions for the improvement of the instrument. The suggestions from validates were integrated into the final copy of the questionnaire that was developed. Reliability of the Instrument In order to test the reliability of the instrument, twenty (20) copies of the instruments was administered to lecturers in University of Calabar, Cross River State. The choice of Cross River State for the reliability test is informed by the number of common factors in social and educational development of the two states. The internal consistency of the instrument was established using Cronbach’s Alpha (α) method. The value of the reliability coefficient established is as follows: Part I, lesson preparation 0.67; Part II, instruction delivery 0.76; Part III, individualized learning 0.70; Part IV, evaluation of learning 0.85; and Part V, constraints to the application of ICT 0.88. Method of Data Collection To ensure a high percentage of returns, the questionnaire were administered to the respondents by the researcher with the aid of five trained research assistants, two from University of Uyo, two from College of Education, Afaha Nsit, and one from College of Arts and Science, Nung Ukim. The questionnaires were collected back from the respondents after two weeks of administration. Out of 295 questionnaires administered, 287 were duly filled by the respondents and were returned. It was this number that was analyzed to generate the data used for answering the research questions and hypotheses. The rate of return was 97%. Method of Data Analysis Data collected were computed using Mean, Standard Deviation and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The Mean and Standard Deviation were used to answer the five research questions. While ANOVA statistic was used to test the three null hypotheses at 0.05 level of probability. All computations were carried out using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The boundary limits for interpreting mean scores of the questionnaire items in order to answer the research questions are as follows; Scaling Statement Real Limit Very Great Extent (VGE) = 5 points 4.50 – 5.00 55 Great Extent (GE) = 4 points 3.50 – 4.49 Moderate Extent (ME) = 3 points 2.50 – 3.49 Little Extent (LE) 1.50 – 2.49 = 2 points Very Little Extent (VLE) = 1 point 0.50 – 1.49 From the above real limit, a mean of 4.50 – 5.00 was accepted as very great extent, 3.50 – 4.49 was accepted as great extent, 2.50 – 3.49 was accepted as moderate extent, while 1.50 – 2.49 were accepted as little extent, and 0.50 – 1.49 were accepted as very little extent. From the above, the cut-off point for moderate extent was 2.50 or above. Therefore, any item that scored a mean value of 2.50 or above was accepted and was judged according to the scale response option. While any item that scored below 2.50 were rejected. With respect to the hypotheses, the hypotheses were accepted because the calculated value and F-ratio of the items is less than the table values at 0.05 level of probability. 56 CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA In this chapter, the data for the study were presented and analyzed based on the research questions and hypotheses that guided the study. Research Question 1 To what extent are ICT applied in lesson preparation in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? In order to answer this question, the respondents were requested to respond to each statement according to the extent ICT are applied in lesson preparation activities. Respondent’s responses are presented in table 1 below. Table 1 Mean scores and standard deviation on the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation activities in higher institutions _ S/N Lesson preparation activities X SD Remarks 1 Preparing exercise sheets 4.64 0.48 VGE 2 Preparing lesson note and plan 0.47 VGE 4.68 3 Downloading or updating lecture materials 4.29 0.63 GE 4 Preparing multimedia presentation 0.49 ME 3.33 5 Preparing lesson slides 3.33 0.49 ME 6 Designing learning strategies 2.71 0.54 ME 7 Printing out materials from the Net such as journals, textbooks, magazines, standard books etc. 4.76 0.43 VGE 8 Surfing for learning experience abroad in preparing lectures 3.63 0.80 GE 9 Obtaining relevant and suitable resources for a given topic and subject available on the Net 3.48 0.53 ME 10 Locating teaching methods suitable to a particular topic on the Net 3.38 0.57 ME 11 Preparing assignment, quiz, test and examination questions 4.73 0.45 VGE The data presented in Table 1 shows that items 1, 2, 7 and 11 had recorded means that ranged from 4.64 – 4.76 which fell within the real limit of 4.50 – 5.00 indicating very great extent of application of ICT in respect of these items in lesson preparation activities; while items 3 and 8 fell within the real limit of 3.63 – 4.29 indicating great extent of application of ICT in respect of these items in lesson preparation activities. The table further shows that items 4, 5, 6, 9 and10 had mean ratings that ranged from 2.71 – 3.48, which fell within real 55 57 limits of 2.50 – 3.49, indicating moderate extent of application of ICT in respect of these items in lesson preparation activities. This means all the eleven items in the table had a mean greater than 2.50, which implies that ICT was applied by lecturers in higher institution in respect of these items in lesson preparation activities. Research Question 2 To what extent are ICT applied in instruction delivery in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? In order to answer this question, the respondents were requested to respond to each statement according to the extent ICT are applied in instruction delivery activities. Respondent’s responses are presented in table 2 below. Table 2 Mean scores and standard deviation on the extent of application of ICT in instruction delivery activities in higher institutions _ S/N Instruction delivery activities X SD Remarks 1 Projecting day’s learning objectives to students 2.12 0.34 LE 2 Managing and engaging in an online class LE discussion 1.70 0.47 3 Use of whiteboard and video projector in delivery lesson 3.03 0.39 ME 0.50 GE 4 Illustration and plotting of graphs 3.75 5 Presentation of instructional contents in textual, audio, visual and audio-visual forms 1.46 0.51 VLE 6 Involvement of students in a role play scenario 1.55 0.50 LE 7 Use of interactive media, modems, satellites 3.39 0.55 ME 8 Posting notice and course content on screen for students 1.72 0.74 LE 9 Introducing previous lesson 1.99 0.72 LE 10 In quiz, test, examination and assignment 3.52 0.58 GE 11 Publishing students result 2.22 0.85 LE 12 Retrieving students assignment or term papers 4.16 0.69 GE 13 Presenting or introducing new content 1.98 0.68 LE 14 Using synchronous online lecture delivery system 1.14 0.35 VLE 15 Using asynchronous online lecture delivery system 1.11 0.31 VLE 16 Using Skype for online instructional delivery 1.13 0.34 VLE 17 Using blogs for online instructional delivery 1.10 0.31 VLE 18 Communicating with students 4.31 0.71 GE The data presented in Table 2 shows that items 4, 10, 12 and 18 had recorded means that ranged from 3.52 – 4.31 which fell within the real limit of 3.50 – 4.49 indicating great 58 extent of application of ICT in those items; while items 3 and 7 had means that ranged from 3.03 – 3.39 which fell within the real limit of 2.50 – 3.49 indicating moderate extent of application of ICT in respect of those items. The table further shows that items 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 11 and13 had mean ratings that ranged from 1.55 – 2.22, which fell within real limits of 1.50 – 2.49, indicating little extent of application of ICT in those items; while items 5, 14, 15, 16 and 17 had mean ratings that ranged from 1.10 – 1.46, which fell within real limits of 0.50 – 1.49, which indicates very little extent of application of ICT in respect of these items in instruction delivery. This means six out of eighteen items in the table had a mean greater than 2.50, which implies that ICT was applied by lecturers in higher institution in respect of these items in instruction delivery. On the other hand, twelve of the eighteen items in the table fall below the boundary limit of 2.50 – 3.49, which implies that ICT was not applied by lecturers in higher institutions in respect of those items in instruction delivery. Research Question 3 To what extent are ICT applied in individualized learning in the higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? In order to answer this question, the respondents were requested to respond to each statement according to the extent ICT are applied in individualized learning activities. Respondent’s responses are presented in table 3 below. Table 3 Mean scores and standard deviation on the extent of application individualized learning activities in higher institutions _ S/N Individualized learning activities X SD 1 Creating word processing document or files 4.48 0.50 2 Multimedia presentations and electronic 2.52 0.57 whiteboards 3 Browsing on Net 4.63 0.48 4 Creating tables 3.47 0.55 5 Storing and retrieving information 4.71 0.46 6 Preparing slides 3.41 0.71 7 Creating desktop publishing document 3.10 0.62 8 Selecting and customizing instructional software to fit students' needs 1.41 0.52 9 Drill and practice 1.24 0.45 10 Record-keeping 4.16 0.54 11 Computing students grades 4.31 0.65 12 Generating charts 4.04 0.90 13 Entering, organizing, and sorting of data 4.58 0.49 of ICT in Remarks GE ME VGE ME VGE ME ME VLE VLE GE GE GE VGE 59 The data presented in Table 3 shows that items 3, 5 and 13 had recorded means that ranged from 4.58 – 4.71 which fell within the real limit of 4.50 – 5.00 indicating very great extent of application of ICT in respect of these items; while items 1, 10, 11 and 12 had means that ranged from 4.16 – 4.48 which fell within the real limit of 3.50 – 4.49 indicating great extent of application of ICT in respect of these items. The table further shows that items 2, 4, 6 and 7 had mean ratings that ranged from 2.52 – 3.47, which fell within real limits of 2.50 – 3.49, indicating moderate extent of application of ICT in respect of these items; while items 8 and 9 had mean ratings that ranged from 1.24 – 1.41, which fell within real limits of 0.50 – 1.49, which indicates very little extent of application of ICT in respect of these items. This means that eleven out of thirteen items in the table had a mean greater than 2.50, which implies that ICT was applied by lecturers in higher institution in respect of these items in individualized learning. On the other hand, two out of the thirteen items in the table fall below the boundary limit of 2.50, which implies that ICT was not applied by lecturers in higher institutions in respect of those items in individualized learning. Research Question 4 To what extent are ICT applied in evaluation of learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? In order to answer this question, the respondents were requested to respond to each statement according to the extent ICT are applied in evaluation of learning activities. Respondent’s responses are presented in table 4 below. Table 4 Mean scores and standard deviation on the extent of application of ICT in evaluation of learning activities in higher institutions _ S/N Evaluation of learning activities X SD Remarks 1 Disseminating information directly to students, 1.51 0.54 LE colleagues and parents. 2 Collection of information and feedback directly from students, colleagues and parents. 3.05 0.69 ME 3 Marking quiz, test, examination and assignment 1.02 0.16 VLE 4 Keeping students records. 4.56 0.50 VGE 5 Monitoring students performance 2.60 0.50 ME 6 Computing students grades 4.52 0.51 VGE 7 Comparing students grades 4.17 0.38 GE 8 Assigning students grades or scores 4.50 0.52 VGE 9 Pass wording exam, test, quiz and assignment questions files 1.63 0.50 LE 0.49 VGE 10 Enter, organize and sorting students results 4.58 60 The data presented in Table 4 shows that items 4, 6, 8 and 10 had recorded means that ranged from 4.50 – 4.58 which fell within the real limit of 4.50 – 5.00 indicating very great extent of application of ICT in respect of these items in evaluation activities; while items 7 with mean of 4.17 fall within the real limit of 3.50 – 4.49 indicating great extent of application of ICT in respect of these items in evaluation activities. The table further shows that items 2 and 5 had means ranging from 2.60 – 3.05, which fell within real limits of 2.50 – 3.49 indicating moderate extent of application of ICT in respect of these items in evaluation activities, while items 1 and 9 with means ranged of 1.51 – 1.63 fall within the real limit of 1.50 – 2.49, indicating little extent of application of ICT in respect of these items in evaluation activities, and item 3 with mean of 1.02 fall in the real limit of 0.50 – 1.49, indicating very little extent of application of ICT in respect of the item. Therefore, seven out of eleven items in the table had a mean greater than 2.50, which implies that ICT was applied by lecturers in higher institution in respect of these items in evaluation activities, while three out of eleven items fell below the real limit of 2.50, indicating that ICT was not applied by lecturers in higher institutions in respect of these three items in evaluation activities. Research Question 5 What are the constraints to the application of ICT in teaching in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State? In order to answer this question, the respondents were requested to respond to each statement according to the constraints to the application of ICT in teaching. Respondent’s responses are presented in table 5. 61 Table 5 Mean scores and standard deviation on the constraints to the application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions S/N Constraints to the application of ICT in teaching and learning 1 Difficulty in reading on a computer screen _ X SD Remarks 4.48 0.53 GE elaborate concept 4.64 0.52 VGE 3 Students lack of knowledge of using ICT tools 3.61 0.51 GE 4 Insufficient computers for practical classes 3.91 0.58 GE 5 Low maintenance rate of the few available equipment 4.47 0.57 GE 6 Lack of laboratory for effective practical sessions 3.52 0.51 GE 7 Difficulty in connecting computer with overhead projector 3.50 0.51 GE 8 Lack of technical assistant in fixing the tools 3.69 0.47 GE 9 Power outage or interruption 4.57 0.51 VGE 10 Slow or inconsistent Internet connectivity 4.51 0.50 VGE 11 Computer breakdowns 3.44 0.50 ME 12 Lack of competence in using computer for instruction delivery 3.51 0.51 GE 13 No confidence in using computer in classroom 3.11 0.70 ME 14 Lack of support by the school administration on the use of computer for teaching 3.85 0.35 GE 15 Lack of ICT training on instructional delivery 3.52 0.52 GE 16 Data security issues 4.35 0.52 GE 17 Integrating and using different ICT tools in a single lesson 3.18 0.45 ME 18 Absence of access to the necessary technology at the homes of students 4.33 0.59 GE 2 Limited space on the screen or slides to explain or The data presented in Table 5 shows that items 2, 9 and 10 had recorded means that ranged from 4.51 – 4.64 which fell within the real limit of 4.50 – 5.00 indicating very great extent of constraints to the application ICT in respect of these items; while items 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 18 had means ranged from 3.50 – 4.48, which fell within the real limit of 3.50 – 4.49 indicating great extent of constraint to the application of ICT in respect of those items. The table further shows that items 11, 13 and 17 had means ratings that ranged 62 from 3.12 – 3.44, which fell within real limits of 2.50 – 3.49, indicating moderate extent of constraints to the application of ICT in respect of those items. This means that all the eighteen items in the table had a mean greater than 2.50, which implies that lecturers faced with constraints to the application ICT in higher institutions. Hull Hypothesis 1 (Ho1) There is no significant difference among the Mean responses of lecturers in University of Uyo, College of Education and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in lesson preparation in Akwa Ibom State. Table 6 Analysis of Variance on the Mean responses of Lecturers in University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State College of Education and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in lesson preparation S/N Lesson preparation activities 1 2 Preparing exercise sheets. Preparing lesson note and plan. Downloading or updating lecture materials. Preparing multimedia presentation. Preparing lesson slides. Designing learning strategies Printing out materials from the Net such as journals, textbooks, magazines, standard books etc. 3 4 5 6 7 8 SST Df SSb SSw F.ratio P-value (sig.) F.tab Remarks 66.16 287 0.20 0.23 0.86 0.43 2.99 NS 62.25 287 0.09 0.22 0.39 0.68 2.99 NS 113.08 287 0.58 0.39 1.47 0.23 2.99 NS 70.00 67.66 83.50 287 0.04 287 0.04 287 0.06 0.25 0.24 0.29 0.18 0.16 0.20 0.84 0.85 0.82 2.99 2.99 2.99 NS NS NS 52.99 287 0.04 0.19 0.19 0.83 2.99 NS Surfing for learning experience abroad in NS 2.99 0.76 185.50 287 0.18 0.65 0.28 preparing lectures. 9 Obtaining relevant and suitable resources for a given topic and subject available on 0.33 2.99 NS 79.91 287 0.31 0.28 1.12 the Net. 10 Locating teaching methods suitable to a particular topic NS 2.99 0.53 93.99 287 0.21 0.33 0.64 on the Net. 11 Preparing assignment, quiz, test and examination questions. 56.88 287 0.01 0.20 0.03 0.97 2.99 NS Key: SST = Total Sum of Squares, df = degree of freedom, SSb = Sum of Square Between Group, SSw = Sum of Squares Within Group, NS = No Significance, F.ratio = Calculated value, F.tab = tabulated F value 63 Data in table 6 revealed that F-ratio value for the eleven items were less than the Ftable of 2.99 at 0.05 level of probability and 2 and 287 degree of freedom. This means that the hypothesis in respect of these items was accepted. This implies that respondents did not differ significantly on the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation in the three higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted. Also since the between grouped variance for all the eleven items were not substantially greater than their corresponding within group variance, this indicated that the difference between means is probably a reflection of sampling error. Therefore, the conclusion is that, there is no significance difference among the three respondents groups in respect of environment regarding their opinion on the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Hull Hypothesis 2 (Ho2) Ho2: There is no significant difference among the Mean responses of lecturers in University of Uyo, College of Education and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in instruction delivery in Akwa Ibom State. 64 Table 7 Analysis of Variance on the Mean responses of Lecturers in University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State College of Education and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in Instruction Delivery Activities S/N Instruction Delivery SST Df SSb SSw F.ratio P-value F.tab Remarks activities (sig.) 1 Projecting day’s learning objectives to students 32.75 287 0.10 0.11 0.84 0.43 2.99 NS 2 Managing and engaging in an online class discussion 64.32 287 0.22 0.22 0.96 0.39 2.99 NS 3 Use of whiteboard and video projector in delivery lesson 43.65 287 0.03 0.15 0.18 0.84 2.99 NS 4 Illustration and plotting of 0.25 1.07 0.34 2.99 NS graphs 72.50 287 0.27 5 Presentation of instructional contents in textual, audio, visual and audio-visual forms 73.58 287 0.09 0.26 0.33 0.72 2.99 NS 6 Involvement of students in a role play scenario 71.41 287 0.04 0.25 0.14 0.87 2.99 NS 7 Use of interactive media, modems, satellites 86.66 287 0.72 0.30 2.42 0.09 2.99 NS 8 Posting notice and course content on screen for students 156.22 287 0.58 0.54 1.06 0.35 2.99 NS 9 Introducing previous lesson 149.97 287 0.13 0.53 0.24 0.78 2.99 NS 10 In quiz, test, examination and 2.99 0.50 NS 95.91 287 0.23 0.34 0.70 assignment 11 Publishing students result 207.78 287 0.18 0.73 0.25 0.78 2.99 NS 12 Retrieving students assignment or term papers 137.33 287 0.46 0.48 0.96 0.39 2.99 NS 13 Presenting or introducing 0.47 0.11 0.90 2.99 NS new content 132.91 287 0.05 14 Using synchronous online lecture delivery system 34.44 287 0.12 0.12 1.01 0.37 2.99 NS 15 Using asynchronous online lecture delivery system 28.44 287 0.09 0.10 0.85 0.43 2.99 NS 16 Using Skype for online instructional delivery 32.25 287 0.06 0.11 0.50 0.61 2.99 NS 17 Using blogs for online instructional delivery 26.88 287 0.04 0.09 0.46 0.63 2.99 NS 18 Communicating with students 145.50 287 0.12 0.51 0.24 0.78 2.99 NS Key: SST = Total Sum of Squares, df = degree of freedom, SSb = Sum of Square Between Group, SSw = Sum of Squares Within Group, F.ratio = Calculated value, F.tab = tabulated F value, NS = No Significance Data in table 7 revealed that F-ratio value for the eighteen items were less than the Ftable of 2.99 at 0.05 level of probability and 2 and 287 degree of freedom. This means that 65 the hypothesis in respect of these items was accepted. This implies that respondents did not differ significantly on the extent of application of ICT in instruction delivery activities in the three higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted. Also since the between grouped variance for all the eighteen items were not substantially greater than their corresponding within group variance, this indicated that the difference between means is probably a reflection of sampling error. Therefore, the conclusion is that, there is no significance difference among the three respondents groups in respect of environment regarding their opinion on the extent of application of ICT in instruction delivery in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Hull Hypothesis 3 (Ho3) Ho3: There is no significant difference between the Mean responses of lecturers in University of Uyo, College of Education and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in individualized learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Table 8 Analysis of Variance on the Mean responses of Lecturers in University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom State College of Education and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in individualized learning activities S/N 1 2 Individualized learning activities Creating word processing document or files 3 4 Multimedia presentations and electronic whiteboards Browsing on Net Creating tables 5 Storing and retrieving information 6 7 Preparing slides Creating desktop publishing document Selecting and customizing instructional software to fit students' needs Drill and practice Record-keeping Computing students grades Generating charts 8 9 10 11 12 13 SST Df SSb SSw F.ratio P-value (sig.) F.tab Remarks 71.83 287 0.43 0.25 1.72 0.18 2.99 NS 91.88 287 0.69 0.32 2.17 0.12 2.99 NS 66.99 287 87.78 287 0.01 0.28 0.24 0.31 0.05 0.91 0.95 0.41 2.99 NS 2.99 NS 59.50 287 145.65 287 0.02 0.04 0.21 0.51 0.09 0.08 0.91 0.92 2.99 2.99 NS NS 109.28 287 0.12 0.38 0.31 0.73 2.99 NS 77.83 287 0.12 0.27 0.43 0.65 2.99 NS 0.02 0.16 0.67 0.48 0.20 0.30 0.42 0.81 0.12 0.53 1.58 0.59 0.89 0.59 0.21 0.55 2.99 2.99 2.99 2.99 NS NS NS NS 56.99 84.65 121.88 232.58 287 287 287 287 Entering, organizing, and sorting of data 70.16 287 0.22 0.25 0.90 0.41 2.99 NS Key: SST = Total Sum of Squares, df = degree of freedom, SSb = Sum of Square Between Group, SSw = Sum of Squares Within Group, F.ratio = Calculated value, F.tab = tabulated F value, NS = No Significance 66 Data in table 8 revealed that F-ratio value for the thirteen items were less than the Ftable of 2.99 at 0.05 level of probability and 2 and 287 degree of freedom. This means that the hypothesis in respect of these items was accepted. This implies that respondents did not differ significantly on the extent of application of ICT in individualized learning activities in the three higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted. Also since the between grouped variance for all the thirteen items were not substantially greater than their corresponding within group variance, this indicated that the difference between means is probably a reflection of sampling error. Therefore, the conclusion is that, there is no significance difference among the three respondents groups in respect of environment regarding their opinion on the extent of application of ICT in individualized learning activities in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Findings of the Study The following findings emerged from the study based on the research questions answered and the hypotheses tested. 1. The respondents agreed that ICT is applied by lecturers in lesson preparation activities such as preparing exercise sheets, lesson note and plan, downloading or updating lecture materials, preparing multimedia presentation, preparing lesson slides, designing learning strategies, printing out materials from the net, surfing for learning experience abroad in preparing lectures, obtaining relevant and suitable resources for a given topic and subject available on the net, locating teaching method suitable to a particular topic, and preparing assignment, quiz, test and examination questions. 2. The respondents agreed that ICT are not applied by lecturers in instruction delivery activities such as projecting day’s learning objectives to students, managing and engaging in an online class discussion, presentation of instructional contents in textual, audio, visual and audio-visual forms, involvement of students in a role play scenario, posting notice and course content on screen for students, introducing previous lesson, publishing students result, presenting or introducing new content, using synchronous online lecture delivery system, using asynchronous online lecture delivery system, using Skype for online instructional delivery, and using blogs for online instructional delivery. 67 3. The respondents agreed that ICT are not applied by lecturers in individualized learning activities such as selecting and customizing industrial software to fit students’ needs, and drill and practice activities. 4. The respondents agreed that ICT are not applied by lecturers in evaluation of learning activities such as disseminating information directly to students, colleagues and parents, marking quiz, test, examination and assignment, and pass-wording exam, test, quiz and assignment questions files. 5. Constrains to the application of ICT in teaching and learning by lecturers in higher institutions are: 1. Difficulty in reading on a computer screen 2. Limited space on the screen or slides to explain or elaborate concept 3. Students lack of knowledge of using ICT tools 4. Insufficient computers for practical classes 5. Low maintenance rate of the few available equipment 6. Lack of laboratory for effective practical sessions 7. Difficulty in connecting computer with overhead projector 8. Lack of technical assistant in fixing the tools 9. Power outage or interruption 10. Slow or inconsistent Internet connectivity 11. Computer breakdowns 12. Lack of competence in using computer for instruction delivery 13. No confidence in using computer in classroom 14. Lack of support by the school administration on the use of computer for teaching 15. Lack of ICT training on instructional delivery 16. Data security issues 17. Integrating and using different ICT tools in a single lesson 18. Absence of access to the necessary technology at the homes of students The findings from the hypotheses tested revealed that: 6. There was no significant difference among the mean responses of lecturers on the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation activities for all the items. 68 7. There was no significant difference among the mean responses of lecturers on the extent of application of ICT in instruction delivery activities for all the items. 8. There was no significant difference among the mean responses of lecturers on the extent of application of ICT in individualized learning activities for all the items. Discussion of Findings Discussion of the findings are organized and presented to correspond with research questions and hypotheses. The findings in table 1 showed lesson preparation activities in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State that lecturers applied ICT in the response option of very great extent, great extent and moderate extent. The results revealed aspect of the response options of very great extent application of ICT in lesson preparation with preparing exercise sheets, preparing lesson note and plan, printing out materials from the Net, and preparing assignment, quiz, test and examination questions. The response options of great extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation activities were downloading or updating lecture materials, and surfing for learning experience abroad in preparing lectures. Moderate extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation activities response options were preparing multimedia presentation, preparing lesson slides, designing learning strategies, obtaining relevant and suitable resources for a given topic and subject available on the Net, and locating teaching methods suitable to a particular topic on the Net. However, the findings is in line with Roblyer and Edwards (2000) that ICT are applied by lecturers for searching topics, information, and locating teaching materials on Net, word processing their lesson note, and downloading or update lecture materials such as textbook, handouts, and articles. According to BECTA (2004) application of ICT in lesson preparation of worksheet, writing students’ report and individual education plan, collating and analyzing students’ attainment information for target setting assist in reducing lecturers’ workloads. In the same vein, Turner (2008) maintained that ICT are used by teachers and lecturers to produce letters, worksheets, puzzles, problem sets, handouts, bulletin board materials, forms. The result of analysis of variance (ANOVA) in table 6 revealed that significant difference did not exist among the mean responses of lecturers in University of Uyo, College of Education, Afaha Nsit and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in lesson 69 preparation activities in Akwa Ibom State. Therefore, null hypothesis was accepted on all the eleven items on the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. This is because the calculated F-value for all the eleven items were below the table F-value. In line with this finding, Mathews (1999) maintained that every higher institution in Nigeria has her own ICT centres for effective training of staff and students the applicability of ICT in teaching and learning. The findings in table 2 shows instruction delivery activities that ICT are not been applied to by lecturers in higher institutions. These instruction delivery activities include; projecting day’s learning objectives to students; managing and engaging in an online class discussion; presentation of instructional contents in textual, audio, visual and audio-visual forms; involvement of students in a role play scenario; posting notice and course content on screen for students; introducing previous lesson; publishing students result; presenting or introducing new content; using synchronous online lecture delivery system; using asynchronous online lecture delivery system; using Skype for online instructional delivery; and using blogs for online instructional delivery. This might be due to the fact that lecturers had little or no skills for these activities or they lack enough training opportunities for applying ICT facilities in performing these activities. The findings of the study are in agreement with the study of Pelgrum (2001) that enough training opportunities were not given to lecturers in the use of ICT in classroom environment. In-service training of lecturers becomes a stepping stone in the application of ICT in delivery of instruction by lecturers in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. The table also shows instruction delivery activities that ICT are applied to by lecturers in higher institutions. These instruction delivery activities include; use of whiteboard and video projector in delivery lesson; illustration and plotting of graphs; use of interactive media, modems, satellites; in quiz, test, examination and assignment; retrieving students assignment or term papers; and communicating with students. This findings is in agreement with Afolabi (2001) that modem enable lecturers have access on e-mail, list server which provides a form of a tutorial group discussion to complement lecture presentation. Daniel (1999) stated that computer enables lecturers to deliver their instructions to students at anytime and place without geographical bounds on the Net. 70 The findings also confirms that of Shuell and Farber (2001) that multimedia involves processing, storage, generation, manipulation and retention of multimedia system, and the resources could include text files, pictures, video, audio, databases, archives, library catalogs, course notes, relevant links to various websites and easy access to search engines available on the Internet. The above study supported this current study on the importance of ICT in teaching and learning process. The finding is not different from Ogunbote and Adesoye (2006) which expressed that multimedia technology adds new dimension to learning experiences because concepts were easier to present and comprehend when the words are complemented with images and animations. The result of analysis of variance (ANOVA) in table 7 revealed that significant difference did not exist among the mean responses of lecturers in University of Uyo, College of Education, Afaha Nsit and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in instruction delivery activities in Akwa Ibom State. Therefore, null hypothesis was accepted in all the eighteen items on the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. This is because the calculated F-value for all the eighteen items were below the table F-value. The results from the data in table 3 indicated individualized learning activities lecturers applied ICT for in higher institutions. These include creating word processing document or files; multimedia and electronic whiteboards presentations; browsing on Net, creating tables; storing and retrieving information; preparing slides; creating desktop publishing document; record keeping; communicating with students’ grades; generating charts; and entering, organizing, and sorting of data. This findings confirms with that of Haddad (2003) that lecturers applied ICT to perform respective computing tasks on their own, such task include; conducting entertaining activities, playing computer games; reading online newspapers; searching information on the Net; browsing for electronic books; storing and retrieving digital resource; using e-learning platform to conduct learning activities (revisiting lesson presentation documents). The findings is also in agreement with Ezemma (2007) that through the application of ICT for individualized learning that lecturers possessed different ICT competences ranging from simple to advance ones. Individualized learning through ICT facilities serve as leisure activities to lecturers and exposed them to hidden skill in using ICT in teaching and learning process. 71 The table also reveals that two individualized learning activities recorded very little extent of application of ICT to those items, which means lecturers do not applied ICT in individualized learning in those two items. This is reaffirm by the study of Lau and Sim (2008) where the lecturers reported making frequent application of ICT, either daily or weekly for teaching and instructional support at 75%, with less frequently use of ICT for communication with peers at 26%. In the similar study, Ajayi, Ekundayo & Haastrup (2009) contended that lecturers applied ICT in individualized learning activities for searching information and reaching out to learning experiences on the Net. The result of analysis of variance (ANOVA) in table 8 revealed that significant difference did not exist among the mean responses of lecturers in University of Uyo, College of Education, Afaha Nsit and College of Arts and Science on the application of ICT in individualized learning activities in Akwa Ibom State. Therefore, null hypothesis was accepted in all the thirteen items on the extent of application of ICT in individualized learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. This is because the calculated F-value for all thirteen items were below the F-table value at 0.05 level of probability. Results from table 4 revealed that ICT was applied by lecturers in six evaluation of learning activities in higher institutions with response option ranging from moderate extent to very great extent. This evaluation of learning activities include: collection of information and feedback directly from students, colleagues and parents; keeping students records; monitoring students’ performance; computing students grades; comparing students grades; assigning students grades or scores; and entering, organizing and sorting students results. The findings is in agreement with that of Corner (2004) that lecturers in different institution or part of the globe applied ICT to access e-mail service which could be used to route assignment to students, submit completed assignment to lecturers and make enquiries and receive feedback for teaching and learning. However, application of ICT in evaluation of learning help in reducing examination malpractice, enable lecturers to keep students records, monitor students progress and retrieved and update student result if need be, also solved the problem of retyping the entire result. The finding also revealed that three activities for evaluation of learning through ICT are stated little extent and very little extent application of ICT by lecturers in higher institutions. This finding of the study oppose the view of Afolabi (2001) that lecturers applied 72 ICT in disseminating information directly to students, colleagues and parents; marking quiz, test, examination and assignment; and in pass-wording exam, test, quiz and assignment questions files. Data in table 5 revealed the constraints to the application of ICT in teaching and learning by lecturers in higher institutions with the response options ranging from moderate extent very great extent constraints. These constraints includes: difficulty in reading on a computer screen, limited space on the screen or slides to explain or elaborate concept, students lack of knowledge of using ICT tools, insufficient computers for practical classes, low maintenance rate of the few available equipment, lack of laboratory for effective practical sessions, difficulty in connecting computer with overhead projector, lack of technical assistant in fixing the tools, power outage or interruption, slow or inconsistent internet connectivity, computer breakdowns, lack of competence in using computer for instruction delivery, no confidence in using computer in classroom, lack of support by the school administration on the use of computer for teaching, lack of ICT training on instructional delivery, data security issues, integrating and using of different ICT tools in a single lesson, and absence of access to the necessary technology at homes by students. However, application of ICT in teaching and learning is dependent upon availability facilities needed by the lecturers and the training offered by those concerned. The results of the findings shown that availability of ICT facilities are poor, thus application in teaching and learning is hindered. This agrees with the observation of Ozoji (2003) that non-availability greatly hinders access and the use of ICT is also hindered by the inability of the teachers to teach constructively using ICT due to lack of its technical knowledge and qualification on their part. This is also backed by a study of Adomi & Anie (2006) that the causes of low application ICT in teaching and learning are due to limited infrastructure facilities, frequent electricity interruption, inadequate ICT facilities, inadequate ICT manpower, and high cost of ICT facilities. He confirms that ICT development and application are not well established in Nigeria higher institution because of poor ICT infrastructure. 73 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Re-statement of the Problem Higher institutions main focus is the training and development of Nation’s manpower that should be enterprising and self-reliant. It is in these institutions that students are helped to acquire skills that will sustain them for life so as to meet with the modern society of information and communication technology. Application of ICT in teaching and learning is an aspect that will reform and innovate teaching, that is, it will stimulate learners to learn actively and independently in a self-directed way and/or in collaboration with others. It will equip tomorrow’s employees and customers with the requisite competence and knowledge to use ICT within their work as well as being self-reliant. However, it is discovered that most of the level of application of ICT by lecturers of higher institutions are in administrative and personal activities. A higher level to which ICT is being applied by lecturers is teaching with ICT or through ICT, that is, the presentation and distribution of instructional content through web environment (e-teaching) or systems are not achieved. Perhaps, this may have been responsible for the inability of the higher institutions graduates to secure employment in the industries or be self-employed as pointed out by NABTEB. Consequently, many of these higher institutions graduates are found in the streets without job because their training is inadequate for societal needs. Though higher institutions lecturers are faced with constraint to the Application of ICT in teaching of limited space on the screen, difficulty in reading on a computer screen, slow internet connectivity, problem of data security, lack of confidence in using computer in classroom, lack of training on instructional delivery, computer breakdown, lack of technical assistants, inadequate computers, and students lack of knowledge of using ICT tools. The task still remained that lecturers should apply ICT to enhance teaching and learning in personal, subject and teaching competencies where skills, knowledge and understanding of when, when not and how to apply ICT effectively in teaching a particular course is paramount. Despite the important of ICT in teaching and learning process, it is still one of the neglected areas in higher institutions. It is receiving very little attention in most tertiary institutions. Hence the purpose of this study is to assess the extent of application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. 72 74 Summary of Procedures Used The study is a descriptive survey designed to assess the application of information and communication technology in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. The specific objectives of the study were to assess the: (1) application of ICT in lesson preparation in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. (2) application of ICT in instruction delivery in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. (3) application of ICT in individualized learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. (4) application of ICT in evaluation of learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. (5) constraints to the application of ICT in teaching in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. In order to achieve these objectives, five research questions were formulated to achieve the study. The population was one thousand four hundred and seventy-six (1476). A sample of two hundred and ninety-five (295) respondents was used for the study. A 5-point rating scale made up of 70 structured questionnaire items were used for the purpose of collecting data for the study. The questionnaire was face-validated by three lecturers and tested using Cronbach Alpha reliability techniques to determine the internal consistency which yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.67, 0.76, 0.70, 0.85, and 0.88 in respect of section B, part I to V items of the instrument. The data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistic was used to test three null hypotheses at 0.05 level of probability. Principal Findings Based on the data analysed, it was found out that, 1. ICT was applied by lecturers in lesson preparation activities in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. 2. ICT was applied in very little extent by lecturers in delivery of instruction in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. 3. ICT was applied by lecturers in a great extent in individualized learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. 75 4. ICT was applied in a moderate extent by lecturers in evaluation of learning activities in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. 5. Lecturer experience very great extent of constraints to the application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. 6. There was no significant difference among the mean responses of the lecturers on the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation in the three higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. 7. There was no significant difference among the mean response of the lecturers on the extent of application of ICT in instruction delivery in the three higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. 8. There was no significant difference among the mean response of the lecturers on the extent of application of ICT in individualized learning in the three higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Conclusion On the basis of the findings it can be deduced that ICT was applied by lecturers to a great extent in lesson preparation activities, individualized learning but moderation extent in evaluation of learning activities in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. To this extent, the stated objective on the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparation and individualized learning was achieved. While application of ICT in instruction delivery was not achieved because of very little extent of application of ICT by lecturers in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. Based on the study, constraints were encountered lecturers in applying ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. These constraints included difficulty in reading on a computer screen, limited space on the screen or slides to explain or elaborate concept, students lack of knowledge of using ICT tools, insufficient computers for practical classes, low maintenance rate of the few available equipment, lack of laboratory for effective practical sessions, difficulty in connecting computer with overhead projector, lack of technical assistant in fixing the tools, power outage or interruption, slow or inconsistent internet connectivity, computer breakdowns, lack of competence in using computer for instruction delivery, no confidence in using computer in classroom, lack of support by the 76 school administration on the use of computer for teaching, lack of ICT training on instructional delivery, data security issues, integrating and using of different ICT tools in a single lesson, and absence of access to the necessary technology at homes by students. Therefore, ICT facilities and training of staff be made adequate and accessible to enhance its application in teaching and learning process. Implication for the Study The study has implications for Government (Federal and State), higher institutions administrators and the ministry of education, higher institutions lecturers. The results revealed moderate extent and very little extent application of ICT in evaluation of learning activities, instruction delivery, and a very great extent of constraints encountered by lecturers in application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. The lecturers have important roles to play for updating their knowledge through seminars, workshops and retraining on the current pedagogic of delivery of instructions and evaluation of students learning. Government should sponsor lecturers to attend seminars and workshops so as to increase their exposure on the application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions. The findings have implications for government, ICT policy cannot be achieved without the government providing adequate ICT facilities that can be used by lecturers in teaching and learning not only on administration purposes to higher institutions. However, both government and education administrators should study and understand the factors responsible for poor application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions with a view to make budgetary provision to incorporate such needs as the provision of infrastructural facilities, in-service training, curriculum review to accommodate ICT application in teaching and learning in education setting. Ministry of education should through federal and state government procured ICT equipment/facilities to lecturers at subsidized rate to enable them apply it for individualized learning so as to motivate and give them confidence in applying them in teaching and learning in higher institutions. 77 Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: 1. Government should always provide fund for procurement of ICT equipment in the higher institutions so as to curb the constraints of inadequacy of ICT facilities 2. The government through the ministry of education should conduct periodic review of ICT facilities with a view to update them in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. 3. Higher institutions administrators should collaborate with non-governmental organisations to establish a good ICT centres in all the faculties of higher institutions. 4. The Federal Government should make the development of lecturers’ ICT competencies a priority and set targets when all long serving and newly qualified teachers are expected to become ICT literate to mandatory standards. 5. The universities should form a consortium to purchase bandwidth. This will enable them purchase a greater volume which will lower the marginal cost of that bandwidth. 6. The university administration in conjunction with the government should put in place modalities to enable undergraduate students to acquire their personal computers. This will not only alleviate the problem of computer literacy, but also enhance students’ access and use. Suggestions for Further Studies The following suggestions are made for further studies. 1. Strategies for improving the application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Nigeria. 2. Maintenance Culture of ICT Laboratory for improving teaching and learning through ICT in Higher Institutions in Nigeria. 3. 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Dear Sir/Madam, Request for Validation of Research Instrument I am a postgraduate student of the above Department and University, currently undertaking a research project on Assessment of the Application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Teaching and Learning in Higher Institutions in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The study aims at assess the extent of application of ICT in lesson preparing; instruction delivery; individualized learning, evaluation of learning, and constraints to the application of ICT by lecturers in higher institution in Akwa Ibom State. Thanks for your cooperation. Yours faithfully, Edem Solomon Sunday PG/M.ED/09/50616 (Researcher) 89 90 91 Appendix III Faculty of Education Department of Vocational Teacher Education, Computer Education Unit, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Date: …………………………………. …………………………………. …………………………………. Dear Respondents, REQUEST FOR COMPLETION OF RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE I am a postgraduate student of the above-named University carrying out a research project on the topic: Assessment of the Application of ICT in teaching and learning in higher institutions in Akwa Ibom State. You are pleased requested to respond to the attached questionnaire instrument. Any information supplied is for academic purpose only and will be treated as confidential please. Yours sincerely, Edem Solomon S. 92 Appendix IV ICT APPLICATION QUESTIONNAIRE FOR LECTURERS TOPIC: Assessment of the Application of Information and Communication Technology in Teaching and Learning in Higher Institutions in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. SECTION A Personal Data 1. Name of Institution:……………………………………………………………… 2. Sex: Male [ ], Female [ ] 3. Education Qualification: (a) B.Sc/B.Ed [ ], (b) M.Sc/Med [ 4. Years of Experience: (a) 1 - 5 years [ ], (b) 6 – 10 years [ ], (c) PhD [ ] ], (c) 11 or above [ ] SECTION B Key: Very Great Extent (VGE) – 5 Great Extent (GE) –4 Moderate Extent (ME) – 3 Little Extent (LE) Very Little Extent (VLE) – 1 –2 Part I Please indicate extent of application of ICT in the following lesson preparation activities in your higher Institution S/N Item Statements 1 Preparing exercise sheets 2 Preparing lesson note and plan 3 Downloading or updating lecture materials 4 Preparing multimedia presentation 5 Preparing lesson slides 6 Designing learning strategies 7 Printing out materials from the Net such as journals, textbooks, magazines, standard books etc. Surfing for learning experience abroad in preparing lectures 8 VGE GE ME LE VLE 93 9 Obtaining relevant and suitable resources for a given topic and subject available on the Net 10 Locating teaching methods suitable to a particular topic on the Net 11 Preparing assignment, quiz, test and examination questions Part II Please indicate extent of application of ICT in the following instruction delivery activities in your higher Institution S/N Item Statements 12 Projecting day’s learning objectives to students 13 Managing and engaging in an online class discussion 14 Use of whiteboard and video projector in delivery lesson 15 Illustration and plotting of graphs 16 Presentation of instructional contents in textual, audio, visual and audio-visual forms 17 Involvement of students in a role play scenario 18 Use of interactive media, modems, satellites 19 Posting notice and course content on screen for students 20 Introducing previous lesson 21 In quiz, test, examination and assignment 22 Publishing students result 23 Retrieving students assignment or term papers 24 Presenting or introducing new content 25 Using synchronous online lecture delivery system 26 Using asynchronous online lecture delivery system 27 Using Skype for online instructional delivery 28 Using blogs for online instructional delivery 29 Communicating with students VGE GE ME LE VLE 94 Part III Please indicate extent of application of ICT in the following individualized learning activities in your higher institution S/N Item Statements 30 Creating word processing document or files 31 Multimedia presentations and electronic whiteboards 32 Browsing on Net 33 Creating tables 34 Storing and retrieving information 35 Preparing slides 36 Creating desktop publishing document 37 Selecting and customizing instructional software to fit students' needs 38 Drill and practice 39 Record-keeping 40 Computing students grades 41 Generating charts 42 Entering, organizing, and sorting of data VGE GE ME LE VLE Part IV Please indicate extent of application of ICT in the following evaluation of learning activities in your higher Institution S/N 43 Item Statements Disseminating information directly to students, colleagues and parents. 44 Collection of information and feedback directly from students, colleagues and parents. 45 Marking quiz, test, examination and assignment 46 Keeping students records. 47 Monitoring students performance 48 Computing students grades 49 Comparing students grades 50 Assigning students grades or scores VGE GE ME LE VLE 95 51 Pass wording exam, test, quiz and assignment questions files 52 Enter, organize and sorting students results Part IV Please indicate constraints to the application of ICT in teaching and learning in your higher institution S/N Item Statements 53 Difficulty in reading on a computer screen 54 Limited space on the screen or slides to explain or elaborate concept 55 Students lack of knowledge of using ICT tools 56 Insufficient computers for practical classes 57 Low maintenance rate of the few available equipment 58 Lack of laboratory for effective practical sessions 59 Difficulty in connecting computer with overhead projector 60 Lack of technical assistant in fixing the tools 61 Power outage or interruption 62 Slow or inconsistent Internet connectivity 63 Computer breakdowns 64 Lack of competence in using computer for instruction delivery 65 No confidence in using computer in classroom 66 Lack of support by the school administration on the use of computer for teaching 67 Lack of ICT training on instructional delivery 68 Data security issues 69 Integrating and using different ICT tools in a single lesson 70 Absence of access to the necessary technology at the homes of students VGE GE ME LE VLE 96 Appendix V Table 1: Population Distribution of Respondents according to institutions S/N Institutions No. of 20% of Lecturers Lecturers Sampled 1 University of Uyo 1183 237 2 Akwa Ibom State College of Education 191 38 3 College of Arts and Science, Nung Ukim 102 20 1476 295 Total Source: Academic Affairs and Establishment Unit of the institutions as at September, 2011 97 Appendix VI Results of Data Analysed Part I Reliability Case Processing Summary N Cases % Valid 20 100.0 0 .0 20 100.0 Excludeda Total a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Based on Cronbach's Standardized Alpha Items .671 N of Items .668 11 Summary Item Statistics Mean Item Means Minimum Maximum Range Maximum / Minimum Variance N of Items 4.359 3.850 4.800 .950 1.247 .075 11 Item Variances .506 .274 1.503 1.229 5.490 .125 11 Inter-Item Covariances .079 -.116 .453 .568 -3.909 .018 11 Scale Statistics Mean 47.9500 Variance 14.261 Std. Deviation 3.77631 N of Items 11 98 Part II Reliability Case Processing Summary N Cases Valid Excludeda Total % 20 100.0 0 .0 20 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Based on Cronbach's Standardized Alpha Items N of Items .760 .795 18 Summary Item Statistics Mean Minimum Maximum Range Item Means 2.864 1.050 4.950 3.900 4.714 1.846 18 .347 .050 .989 .939 19.789 .057 18 Item Variances Scale Statistics Mean 51.5500 Maximum / Minimum Variance N of Items Variance 22.155 Std. Deviation 4.70694 N of Items 18 99 Part III Reliability Case Processing Summary N Cases Valid Excludeda Total % 20 100.0 0 .0 20 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Based on Cronbach's Standardized Alpha Items .696 N of Items .651 11 Summary Item Statistics Mean Minimum Maximum Range Item Means 3.964 1.750 4.950 3.200 2.829 1.114 11 .416 .050 .892 .842 17.842 .097 11 Item Variances Scale Statistics Mean 43.6000 Maximum / Minimum Variance N of Items Variance 12.463 Std. Deviation 3.53032 N of Items 11 100 Part IV Reliability Case Processing Summary N Cases Valid Excludeda Total % 20 100.0 0 .0 20 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items Cronbach's Alpha .846 .888 10 Summary Item Statistics Mean Item Means Maximum Minimum Maximum Range / Minimum Variance N of Items 1.724 1.019 2.746 1.728 2.696 .498 10 Item Variances .975 .019 2.184 2.166 117.990 .631 10 Inter-Item Covariances .325 -.485 1.688 2.173 -3.477 .203 10 Scale Statistics Mean 18.9671 Variance 46.494 Std. Deviation 6.81867 N of Items 10 101 Part IV Reliability Case Processing Summary N Cases Valid Excludeda Total % 20 100.0 0 .0 20 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items Cronbach's Alpha .877 N of Items .875 18 Summary Item Statistics Mean Item Means Minimum Maximum Range Maximum / Minimum Variance N of Items 4.779 4.577 4.981 .404 1.088 .019 18 Item Variances .155 .019 .245 .227 13.242 .007 18 Inter-Item Covariances .046 -.027 .234 .262 -8.558 .003 18 Scale Statistics Mean 81.2488 Variance 15.093 Std. Deviation 3.88503 N of Items 18 102 Appendix VI Result of Data Analysed PART I: LESSON PREPARATION ACTIVITIES Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Variance LPIT1 288 4.00 5.00 4.6424 .48014 .231 LPIT2 288 4.00 5.00 4.6840 .46571 .217 LPIT3 288 3.00 5.00 4.2882 .62770 .394 LPIT4 288 2.00 4.00 3.3333 .49386 .244 LPIT5 288 3.00 5.00 3.3299 .48555 .236 LPIT6 288 2.00 4.00 2.7083 .53939 .291 LPIT7 288 4.00 5.00 4.7569 .42967 .185 LPIT8 288 2.00 5.00 3.6250 .80395 .646 LPIT9 288 3.00 5.00 3.4826 .52768 .278 LPIT10 288 2.00 4.00 3.3819 .57226 .327 LPIT11 288 4.00 5.00 4.7292 .44516 .198 Valid N (listwise) 288 PART II: INSTRUCTION DELIVERY ACTIVITIES Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Variance INDIT12 288 2.00 4.00 2.1215 .33779 .114 INDIT13 288 1.00 3.00 1.7014 .47340 .224 INDIT14 288 2.00 4.00 3.0347 .39000 .152 INDIT15 288 3.00 5.00 3.7465 .50259 .253 INDIT16 288 1.00 3.00 1.4618 .50634 .256 INDIT17 288 1.00 2.00 1.5451 .49883 .249 INDIT18 288 3.00 5.00 3.3924 .54951 .302 INDIT19 288 1.00 4.00 1.7188 .73778 .544 INDIT20 288 1.00 3.00 1.9931 .72291 .523 INDIT21 288 2.00 5.00 3.5174 .57809 .334 INDIT22 288 1.00 4.00 2.2222 .85086 .724 INDIT23 288 3.00 5.00 4.1632 .69174 .479 103 INDIT24 288 1.00 3.00 1.9826 .68052 .463 INDIT25 288 1.00 2.00 1.1389 .34643 .120 INDIT26 288 1.00 2.00 1.1111 .31482 .099 INDIT27 288 1.00 2.00 1.1285 .33520 .112 INDIT28 288 1.00 2.00 1.1042 .30601 .094 INDIT29 288 3.00 5.00 4.3090 .71201 .507 Valid N (listwise) 288 PART III: INDIVIDUALIZED LEARNING ACTIVITIES Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Variance INDLT30 288 4.00 5.00 4.4757 .50028 .250 INDLT31 288 2.00 4.00 2.5208 .56579 .320 INDLT32 288 4.00 5.00 4.6319 .48312 .233 INDLT33 288 3.00 5.00 3.4722 .55303 .306 INDLT34 288 4.00 5.00 4.7083 .45532 .207 INDLT35 288 2.00 4.00 3.4097 .71239 .508 INDLT36 288 2.00 4.00 3.0972 .61706 .381 INDLT37 288 1.00 3.00 1.4132 .52075 .271 INDLT38 288 1.00 3.00 1.2431 .44560 .199 INDLT39 288 3.00 5.00 4.1597 .54310 .295 INDLT40 288 3.00 5.00 4.3125 .65165 .425 INDLT41 288 2.00 5.00 4.0382 .90021 .810 INDLT42 288 4.00 5.00 4.5799 .49444 .244 Valid N (listwise) 288 PART IV: EVALUATION OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Variance EVLIT43 288 1.00 3.00 1.5069 .54096 .293 EVLIT44 288 2.00 4.00 3.0486 .68666 .471 EVLIT45 288 1.00 3.00 1.0174 .15520 .024 EVLIT46 288 4.00 5.00 4.5590 .49737 .247 104 EVLIT47 288 2.00 4.00 2.6042 .49694 .247 EVLIT48 288 3.00 5.00 4.5243 .50720 .257 EVLIT49 288 4.00 5.00 4.1736 .37943 .144 EVLIT50 288 2.00 5.00 4.5035 .52131 .272 EVLIT51 288 1.00 3.00 1.6319 .50429 .254 EVLIT52 288 4.00 5.00 4.5799 .49444 .244 Valid N (listwise) 288 PART V: CONSTRAINTS TO THE APPLICATION OF ICT Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Variance CONIT53 288 3.00 5.00 4.4757 .53397 .285 CONIT54 288 3.00 5.00 4.6424 .51515 .265 CONIT55 288 3.00 5.00 3.6076 .51005 .260 CONIT56 288 3.00 5.00 3.9063 .57977 .336 CONIT57 288 3.00 5.00 4.4722 .56549 .320 CONIT58 288 3.00 5.00 3.5243 .50720 .257 CONIT59 288 2.00 4.00 3.5035 .50777 .258 CONIT60 288 3.00 5.00 3.6944 .46893 .220 CONIT61 288 3.00 5.00 4.5729 .50938 .259 CONIT62 288 4.00 5.00 4.5069 .50082 .251 CONIT63 288 3.00 5.00 3.4444 .50472 .255 CONIT64 288 2.00 4.00 3.5139 .51441 .265 CONIT65 288 2.00 4.00 3.1181 .69840 .488 CONIT66 288 3.00 4.00 3.8542 .35355 .125 CONIT67 288 2.00 4.00 3.5243 .52075 .271 CONIT68 288 2.00 5.00 4.3542 .52090 .271 CONIT69 288 2.00 5.00 3.1806 .45191 .204 CONIT70 288 2.00 5.00 4.3333 .59028 .348 Valid N (listwise) 288 105 ANOVA ON LESSON PREPARATION ACTIVITIES Sum of Squares LPIT1 LPIT2 LPIT3 LPIT4 LPIT5 LPIT6 LPIT7 LPIT8 LPIT9 Between Groups df Mean Square .395 2 .197 Within Groups 65.769 285 .231 Total 66.163 287 .170 2 .085 Within Groups 62.077 285 .218 Total 62.247 287 1.151 2 .576 Within Groups 111.928 285 .393 Total 113.080 287 .086 2 .043 Within Groups 69.914 285 .245 Total 70.000 287 .078 2 .039 Within Groups 67.586 285 .237 Total 67.663 287 .117 2 .058 Within Groups 83.383 285 .293 Total 83.500 287 Between Groups Between Groups Between Groups Between Groups Between Groups Between Groups .070 2 .035 Within Groups 52.916 285 .186 Total 52.986 287 .360 2 .180 Within Groups 185.140 285 .650 Total 185.500 287 .625 2 .313 Within Groups 79.288 285 .278 Total 79.913 287 .420 2 .210 Within Groups 93.566 285 .328 Total 93.986 287 .013 56.862 2 285 56.875 287 Between Groups Between Groups LPIT10 Between Groups LPIT11 Between Groups Within Groups Total .007 .200 F Sig. .855 .426 .390 .677 1.466 .233 .176 .839 .164 .849 .200 .819 .188 .829 .277 .758 1.124 .326 .640 .528 .033 .968 106 ANOVA ON INSTRUCTION DELIVERY ACTIVITIES Sum of Squares INDIT12 Between Groups df Mean Square .192 2 .096 Within Groups 32.554 285 .114 Total 32.747 287 .430 2 .215 Within Groups 63.890 285 .224 Total 64.319 287 .055 2 .027 Within Groups 43.598 285 .153 Total 43.653 287 .541 2 .271 Within Groups 71.955 285 .252 Total 72.497 287 .170 2 .085 Within Groups 73.410 285 .258 Total 73.580 287 .071 2 .035 Within Groups 71.343 285 .250 Total 71.413 287 INDIT18 Between Groups 1.447 2 .724 Within Groups 85.216 285 .299 Total 86.663 287 INDIT19 Between Groups 1.153 2 .576 Within Groups 155.066 285 .544 Total 156.219 287 .256 2 .128 Within Groups 149.730 285 .525 Total 149.986 287 .468 2 .234 Within Groups 95.445 285 .335 Total 95.913 287 .366 2 .183 Within Groups 207.411 285 .728 Total 207.778 287 .916 2 .458 Within Groups 136.414 285 .479 Total 137.330 287 .098 2 .049 132.815 285 .466 INDIT13 Between Groups INDIT14 Between Groups INDIT15 Between Groups INDIT16 Between Groups INDIT17 Between Groups INDIT20 Between Groups INDIT21 Between Groups INDIT22 Between Groups INDIT23 Between Groups INDIT24 Between Groups Within Groups F Sig. .841 .432 .958 .385 .180 .836 1.072 .344 .330 .719 .141 .868 2.420 .091 1.060 .348 .243 .784 .699 .498 .252 .778 .957 .385 .105 .900 107 Total 132.913 287 .242 2 .121 Within Groups 34.203 285 .120 Total 34.444 287 .169 2 .085 Within Groups 28.275 285 .099 Total 28.444 287 .112 2 .056 Within Groups 32.135 285 .113 Total 32.247 287 .087 2 .044 Within Groups 26.788 285 .094 Total 26.875 287 .248 2 .124 Within Groups 145.249 285 .510 Total 145.497 287 INDIT25 Between Groups INDIT26 Between Groups INDIT27 Between Groups INDIT28 Between Groups INDIT29 Between Groups 1.007 .367 .853 .427 .495 .610 .464 .629 .243 .784 ANOVA ON INDIVIDUALISED LEARNING ACTIVITIES Sum of Squares INDLT30 Between Groups df Mean Square .857 2 .429 Within Groups 70.972 285 .249 Total 71.830 287 INDLT31 Between Groups 1.379 2 .690 Within Groups 90.496 285 .318 Total 91.875 287 .022 2 .011 Within Groups 66.964 285 .235 Total 66.986 287 .555 2 .278 Within Groups 87.222 285 .306 Total 87.778 287 .039 2 .019 Within Groups 59.461 285 .209 Total 59.500 287 INDLT32 Between Groups INDLT33 Between Groups INDLT34 Between Groups F Sig. 1.722 .181 2.172 .116 .047 .954 .907 .405 .092 .912 108 INDLT35 Between Groups .080 2 .040 Within Groups 145.573 285 .511 Total 145.653 287 .238 2 .119 Within Groups 109.040 285 .383 Total 109.278 287 .235 2 .118 Within Groups 77.595 285 .272 Total 77.830 287 .046 2 .023 Within Groups 56.940 285 .200 Total 56.986 287 .310 2 .155 Within Groups 84.342 285 .296 Total 84.653 287 INDLT40 Between Groups 1.334 2 .667 Within Groups 120.541 285 .423 Total 121.875 287 .965 2 .482 Within Groups 231.615 285 .813 Total 232.580 287 .441 2 .220 Within Groups 69.723 285 .245 Total 70.163 287 INDLT36 Between Groups INDLT37 Between Groups INDLT38 Between Groups INDLT39 Between Groups INDLT41 Between Groups INDLT42 Between Groups .079 .924 .311 .733 .432 .650 .116 .890 .525 .592 1.577 .208 .594 .553 .901 .407