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Sustainable waste management - Asian perspectives
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Proceedings of the International Conference on Sustainable Solid Waste Management,
5 - 7 September 2007, Chennai, India. pp.15-26
Sustainable Waste Management - Asian Perspectives
P. Agamuthu, S.H. Fauziah, K.M. Khidzir and A. Noorazamimah Aiza
Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Email: agamuthu@um.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Sustainability in waste management has been discussed since the last decade. However there is
no consensus. Sustainability in one nation may not apply to another. There are many drivers
affecting sustainability and the impact varies from one country to another, depending on
political, socio-economic and environmental factors. The scenario is more complicated in Asia
due to rapid industrialization and urbanization and changing waste composition and
generation rates. Waste management technologies are generally conservative in Asia and the
need for integrated waste management is imperative. Impact of waste management could be
local, regional or global as can be seen in climate change and environmental degradation.
Keywords: Sustainability, Composting, Energy conversion, Drivers, Waste composition
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Issues on environmental sustainability have always been discussed and debated. Among the most
commonly argued is the sustainability of waste management. It becomes imperative due to the ever
increasing waste generation resulting from population expansion. Development in various sectors
such as industrialization has turned societies into “consumer” societies. With some exceptions, the
income level of a community reflects its waste generation. Figure 1 illustrates the relationship
between gross domestic product (GDP) and purchasing power in some Asian countries.
Figure 1 Relationship between GDP Per Capita and Expenditure Per Capita in Selective Asian Countries
(Waste Management Word, 2006)
15
Sustainable Waste Management - Asian Perspectives
With larger purchasing capabilities, more wastes are produced. A majority of Asian nations are
experiencing an increase in waste generation per capita due to higher consumption of resources. Table
1 illustrates per capita generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) in 1990s and the predicted
relationship in 2025 in some of Asian countries.
Table 1. Municipal Solid Waste Generation in 1990 and the Predicted Relationship in 2025 in some Asian
Countries
Country
MSW Generation
per capita
(kg/day)
GDP per capita
(US$)
Total MSW
generation
(million metric
tons)
1990
1990
2025
1990
2025
Low income economies
0.6-1.0
1050
Cambodia
0.32
130
0.18
Nepal
0.40
0.6
158
360
0.34
Bangladesh
0.6
440
Myanmar
0.6
580
Vietnam
0.7
580
Mongolia
0.9
560
India
0.7
620
Lao PDR
0.8
850
China
0.9
1500
Sri Lanka
1.0
1300
0.8-1.5
3390
Middle Income
Economies
Indonesia
0.59
1.0
2350
2400
38.38
Philippine
0.8
2500
Thailand
1.5
6650
Malaysia
0.70
1.4
5900
9400
4.87
High Income Economies
1.1-4.5
41140
Republic of Korea
1.4
17600
Singapore
0.86
1.1
14920 36000
0.94
Japan
0.91
1.3
16950 53500
41.02
Other low income
1568
1.31
4084
0.51
Other lower middle
income
Other high middle income
5691
1.84
Other upper income
17406
8.46
Source: (Beede and Bloom, 1995; United Nations 2001, 1995; Agamuthu, 2001)
2025 Urban
population
(% in total)
48.8
34.3
40.0
47.3
36.0
76.5
45.2
44.5
54.5
42.6
61.1
60.7
74.3
39.1
72.7
88.2
93.7
100
84.9
-
In developed countries, technological advances allow waste that is generated to be managed in the
16
Sustainable Solid Waste Management
most appropriate manner. However, success depends on various factors including policies and drivers
of a particular country, waste generation rates, composition and others. We will discuss past, present
and future trends in waste management in Asian countries. We will also consider impacts of waste
management on man and environment.
2.0 DRIVERS IN WASTE MANAGEMENT
There are many drivers in waste management, waste generation and waste composition, divided into
four broad categories – human, economic, environmental and institutional, all intrinsically related to
each other.
2.1 Human Drivers
2.1.1 Health and Well-Being
Elected governments stay in power by providing for the people, most importantly healthcare. This
includes waste management and disposal which reduces the threat of un-sanitary conditions and
disease. Conversely, ineffective waste management can lead to many social and public health
problems. An extreme example is a plague outbreak in Surat, India in 1994, partially attributed to poor
solid waste collection (Wilson, 2006) which led to rat proliferation, which increased the dispersal of
Yersinia pestis, bacteria that causes plague.
2.1.2 Education or Awareness
State policies require all players to co-operate, especially true of the general public. People are more
likely to co-operate if it is profitable. Waste management policies or projects must begin by informing
the people of the benefits to ensure agreement and co-operation.
Awareness drives waste management through dispersal of salient information, ensuring the people
know the objectives, strengths and weaknesses. Education will have a stronger and lasting effect as it
encourages participation. Also, education promotes creative responses to any shortcomings.
In a statistical study on factors affecting recycling activities in a Malaysian middle-class municipality,
Chenayah, et al. (2007) concluded that awareness creation should be given the most consideration. It
would increase recycling by 20% if increases in auxiliary facilities are provided. Another example is
the development of landfills within a residential area. Knowledge dispersal, simplified scientific
literature and explanation on the pros and cons of the project will spread awareness within the
communities involved. This coupled with reasonable environmental and technical rationale and
transparent site selection process (World Bank, 1999) will help ensure smooth implementation of the
project.
2.2 Economic Drivers
2.2.1 Socio-Economic Conditions of a Country
Any waste management policy or project will be limited by available financial resources.
Governments with higher revenue can spend more on waste management. The World Bank (1999)
estimated that New York, USA (1991 per capita GNP US$ 22 240) spent US$ 106 per capita (0.48%
of its per capita GNP) on solid waste management. When compared to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (1994
per capita GNP US$ 4000) spending US$ 15 spent per capita (0.38% of its per capita GNP) and Hanoi,
Vietnam (1994 per capita GNP US$ 250) spending US$ 2 spent per capita (0.80% of its per capita
17
Sustainable Waste Management - Asian Perspectives
GNP), the difference in resources for solid waste management, is seen. The gulf is in not in the
allocation, but in the actual dollars available to be utilized.
A country’s economy affects its waste composition and management policies. The World Bank (1999)
estimated that utilization of paper in 1995 were higher in countries with higher per capita GNP. USA
(per capita GNP US$ 26 980) and Japan (per capita GNP US$ 39 640) were listed as first and second
paper consumers, with consumption estimated at 313 and 225 kg/year, respectively. Indonesia (per
capita GNP US$ 980) and Vietnam (per capita GNP US$ 240) were listed 17th and 23rd, with
consumption estimated at 10 and 1 kg/year, respectively. Waste composition of poorer countries have
more organic matter from food or animal wastes. A composting project would not only be a waste
disposal option but an opportunity for profit. Recycling or waste minimization approaches are taken if
the wastes are inorganic or hazardous, consistent with economic and industrial development.
2.2.2 Profiting From Waste
Recovery is a viable and profitable option in waste management and is often part of holistic waste
management policies or projects. Modern manufacturing results in wastes and packaging that can be
recycled. Not only is this good for the environment by reducing the amount of raw materials used but
it is cheaper for manufacturers due to salvaged material being already pre-treated and requiring only
minor processing before being recycled into the manufacturing stream. Furthermore, recycling
facilitates waste sorting and maintains the integrity of the disposal system.
In Yokohama (Japan), Contreras et al. (2006) reported that excellent waste separation is practiced.
Paper and plastics are salvaged and exported as raw materials. Between 1990 and 2005, export figures
for collected paper increased from 21.9 to 3108.5 thousand tons, while collected plastic increased
from 41.4 to 1053.2 thousand tons. Target markets are developing economies like China and India,
which use recycled products as secondary raw materials for development (Wilson, 2006). In Malaysia,
many lorry owners supplement their incomes by going to residential areas, buying used paper or car
batteries from households and re-sell domestically.
2.3 Environmental Drivers
The environment functions as a major driver of waste management and disposal. Policies are
formulated based its environmental effect. Current trends in related government policies, waste
management, disposal or research are driven by environmental issues - global warming, increasing
carbon emissions and the lack of potable water. Many developing countries in Asia have incorporated
environmental considerations into their economic plans.
In Malaysia’s economic development plan (2006 – 2010), preventive measures to reduce negative
environmental impacts together with conservation efforts are emphasized (Economic Planning Unit of
the Prime Minister’s Department, Malaysia, 2007). In the guidelines for China’s economic
development plan for 2001 – 2005 (www.china.org.cn, 2007a), the increase of forest coverage and
urban green areas were two objectives, while for 2006 – 2010, sustainable development, the issues of
wastage of natural resources and environmental deterioration and its remediation have been
incorporated in the new development mode (www.china.org.cn, 2007b).
2.4 Institutional Drivers
Institutional drivers are human driven but at the business, governmental or scientific level. It has great
potential for change but is ultimately dependent on the efforts of many people.
18
Sustainable Solid Waste Management
2.4.1 Legislation
The law and its interpretation can boost or hinder any waste management policies or projects.
Legislators and politicians play a role by shoring up support for sustainable waste management laws
(Joseph, 2006). Law-makers should include local environmental experts to devise geographically and
culturally feasible and fair laws that can be quickly implemented.
Yong (2000) elaborated on the situation in Japan, where environmental ideals, government policies
and execution of legislation are aligned. While the Diet (parliament) passes laws, considerable
practical autonomy is given to municipalities. Concurrently, businesses, NGOs and private citizens
participate in environmental plans. The Japanese government encourages producer responsibility and
actively promotes recycling (Contreras et al., 2006).
2.4.2 Business Image and Profitability
Businesses are increasingly placing themselves as environmental players. Their resources place them
in a position to drive environmental projects either financially (Wilson, 2006), technically or
personnel-wise.
Businesses undertake sustainable production and waste management to reduce wastes, boost the
corporate image and ensure long-term efficiency and profitability. Through life cycle and cleaner
technology studies, redundancy and wastage can be identified. Liew and Agamuthu (2004) studied an
electroplating plant in a Malaysian industrial municipality and recommended wastewater utilization
and equipment modification to minimize heat loss. They reported a 10% reduction in power costs and
increased efficiency, contributing to an ISO 140001 certification.
2.4.3 Scientific Research
Scientific research can change our perception and policies of a waste material. Some wastes are better
utilized in other processes. MSW generated in Asia can be used in compost production, due to its
inherent moisture and organic matter content. Compost science in Asia is blooming due to the simple
technology and opportunity for direct commercialization of the end product. Blaise and Agamuthu
(2004) reported compost production from MSW obtained from a developing rural/sub-urban
municipality in Malaysia.
Biotechnological research has focused on harnessing organic wastes as the starter material for other
biological processes. Khidzir et al. (2007) studied using solid waste from a brewery as the starter
material for enzyme production and reported significant activity of xylanase and lignin peroxidase.
Ethanol production utilizing agricultural wastes is also a popular area of research.
3.0 WASTE GENERATION
The production of MSW has doubled or tripled in some industrial countries over the last two decades.
Developing countries are also producing MSW at an alarming rate. This is particularly due to the
rapid growth of urban areas, rural-urban migration and the increase in per capita income, as well as
change in consumption patterns brought on by development (Agamuthu and Khan, 1997). Waste
consists of materials that are no longer considered valuable and subsequently disposed
(Tchobanaglous et al., 1993). Inconsistent data on solid waste generation rates in some Asian
countries is the main set-back in the improvement of solid waste management.
19
Sustainable Waste Management - Asian Perspectives
Figure 2 indicates the generation of waste (tonnes per capita per year) by some Asian countries. In
most countries, the greatest portions of wastes are generated in urban areas. The urban population in
Malaysia increased from 6.05 million (1988) to 14.3 million and is about 60% of the total population.
Waste generation increased from 241 to 438 kg/capita/year. By 2000, production of domestic and
commercial waste reached 8.0 million tonnes/year, with one quarter of total solid waste generated in
the Klang Valley. In Kuala Lumpur alone, waste production exceeded 2800 tonnes/day in 1997,
reached a generation rate of 3 000 tonnes in 2001 and is expected to be approximately 3 200 tonnes in
2017. The current generation of MSW in Malaysia is estimated at more than 25, 800 tonnes/day
(Agamuthu et al., 2004).
In Nepal, 80% of total waste was generated in the city of Katmandu alone while in China, 60% of the
country's total garbage was produced in its large and medium-sized cities (Nepal State of Environment,
2001; China Daily, 2007). Current average generation of waste by each urbanite in China is 440 kg
per year. It is estimated that by 2020, approximately 0.860 billion people would occupy cities in
China (Beijing, Shanghai and Shenyang) and the urban waste disposal system could be overburdened
with 400 million tonnes (China Daily, 2007) of waste.
Poor collection systems in less urbanized areas had caused waste to be left unattended by the road side.
In the case of Jakarta, it is estimated that only 66% of the wastes were collected while in Botabek, it is
only 23% of the total waste generated by the city (World Bank, 1999). Other disposal methods
practiced in these rural areas includes burning, burying and mass dumping at isolated areas. Many
areas in the city of Phnom Penh, with a population of 1.20 million people, are still faced with
inadequate waste collection service (JICA, 2003). This resulted in wastes dumped into rivers and
ponds, burned or left uncollected. Waste is commonly scattered by animals or clogging drains,
causing other detrimental impacts to the environment. In Malaysia, although waste collection is 100%,
waste collected and disposed is only 70%, while 20 - 30% is disposed illegally into rivers or is burnt
(Agamuthu et al., 2006).
4.0 WASTE COMPOSITION
Waste composition of most countries in the world is normally dominated by organic matter followed
by paper and plastics. Waste composition in Asian countries except Japan is dominated by organic
waste, comprising approximately 75% of the total waste stream. Average organic waste composition
in the 1980s and the 1990s was approximately 50%. Current waste composition indicates a very high
percentage of putrescible waste, which mainly consists of processed kitchen waste and food waste.
The trends in MSW composition in Malaysia indicate that food, paper and plastic are the main
components of solid waste generated in most places. The paper content in China is very low compared
to the rest and a similar trend was observed with plastic and textile wastes. However, it is expected to
increase gradually due to changes in packaging material and the consumption patterns in the country.
Changes in consumption behavior had caused tremendous alteration in the waste composition
particularly among low income countries. Among the most significantly changes are the generation of
plastic waste. Nepal is a country that experienced the impact of extensive plastic use. Figure 3 lists the
composition of waste generated by several Asian countries.
5.0 CURRENT SCENARIO IN WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Various technologies have been developed to cope with the increasing amount and complexity of
20
Sustainable Solid Waste Management
MSW generated by cities or communities. In most of the Asian countries, open dumping is still the
main disposal method despite other, more systematic disposal options - composting, landfilling and
incineration. Figure 4 indicates the share of open dumping in India, Sri Lanka, Thailand and China.
Main concerns faced by authorities due to improper waste management are mostly the adverse
impacts of waste to the environment, scarcity of land and loss of recyclable resources (Shapkota et al.,
2006). In order to cope with these constraints, appropriate technology for the region needed to be
developed and brought into practice.
100%
0.7
80%
0.5
percentage (%)
India
Malaysia
Indonesia
China
Japan
Republic of Korea
Nepal
0.4
0.3
Glass
Metal
Plastics
Rubber/wood
Textile
Paper
Putrescibles
60%
40%
20%
0.2
0.1
2006
N
ep
al
Ja
pa
n
Si
ng
ap
or
e
2000
M
al
ay
si
a
1996
In
di
a
C
hi
na
0%
0
In
do
ne
si
a
tonnes per capita per year
0.6
Country
Year
Figure 2 Generation of Waste (Tonnes Per Capita
from 1996- 2006) by some Countries in Asia
Figure 3 Percentage of Waste Generated by some of
the Asian Countries (Adapted from UNESCAP, 2000)
6.0 COMPOSTING
The composition of MSW in Asia indicates a large percentage of organic and recyclable wastes which
are disposed off in landfills or open dumps. Figure 5 depicts the organic waste component of MSW in
selected Asian countries. The implementation of composting technology has great potential for
mitigating ecological imbalance due to loss of nutrients from the ecosystem and the disposal of
organic waste. Composting diverts a significant portion of organic waste, the biodegradable portion
dominating the bulk of MSW (Visvanathan, 2004), from the municipalities and the disposal site. This
enhances both economic and environmental sustainability of waste management system. In many
countries, composting would be the most appropriate technology and the composting rate in several
Asian countries is shown in Figure 6.
120
100
Organic waste in MSW in selected Asian countries (%)
Percentage
80
Others
South Korea, 31
60
Thailand, 48.6
China, 35.8
Hong Kong, 37.2
Incineration
Indonesia, 70.2
Composting
40
Singapore, 44.4
Open dumping
Philippines, 41.6
Landfill
20
Japan, 17
Myanmar (Burma),
80
0
China
India
Malaysia
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Japan
Laos, 54.3
Malaysia, 43.2
Countries
Figure 4 MSW Disposal Methods Practiced in
Selected Asian Countries (UN, 2000)
Figure 5 Generation of Organic Solid Waste in
Selected Asian Countries (Enayetullah, 2006;
Agamuthu et al., 2004; AIT, 2004)
21
Sustainable Waste Management - Asian Perspectives
Composting of organic waste in selected Asian Countries
16
14
Percentage
(% )
12
10
8
6
4
Japan
India
Vietnam
Thailand
Philippines
Malaysia
Myanmar
0
Indonesia
2
Countries
Figure 6 Composting Rate of Organic Waste in Selected Asian Countries
(Source: ENV 1997 *Draft Annual Report, the State of Pollution, Thailand B. E.2544, 2001),
Pollution Control Department 2002; (Kaigisho, 2006)
Contrasted to developed Asian countries, large-scale composting of MSW is the second preferred
method of solid waste disposal in less developed Asian countries, due to the high percentage of
organic material in the waste composition. In Dhaka, small scale composting plants (windrow
composting) have shown more success, mainly due to centralized composting plants not functioning
effectively, attributed to high operating and maintenance costs (Glawe, 2004).
7.0 RECYCLING/REUSE
In most Asian countries, scavenging of recoverable materials ultimately increases the recycling rate
from 10 to 22% between 1990 and 1998 in the Asia Pacific region (Visvanathan, 2004) through
source separation and effective collection systems. However, in developing countries, recycling is
hindered by inadequate infrastructure, poor management and lack of commitment from the
government on educating the public. Although door to door collection was practiced and recycling
centers exists in developing countries in Asia, it is ineffective due to its disorganized management
(Medina, 2000). However, in Sri Lanka, the Ministry of Forestry and Environment has encouraged
source separation in households, effectively reducing the quantity of waste collected for final disposal
(Sri Lanka Country Report, 2003). In Thailand, many privatized companies have developed recycling
centers which is involved in trading recycled waste internationally (NRI Thailand Country Report,
2003). In China, a profit of US$ 3.6 billion was recorded from recycling (NRI China Country Report,
2003). In less developed Asian countries, e.g. Cambodia, valuable wastes are sorted out prior to
collection and during the transportation. About 12% of total wastes are collected from the household
and from commercial areas by the scavengers for recycling (Glawe, 2004). Whereas, in Nepal and
Bhutan, recyclables collected from these countries are sent to India, mainly due to insufficient
recycling factories in the countries.
8.0 WASTE TO ENERGY
Waste-to-energy projects are considered controversial, in order to seek more fundamental avoidance
of environmental degradation. The principle of using solid waste to generate energy/electricity seems
practical, due to rising amounts of waste production, and over-reliance on fossil fuels. However,
incinerators are bound by local environmental regulations that specify emission levels to lessen the
environmental issues during incineration process.
22
Sustainable Solid Waste Management
8.1 Incineration
In most Asian countries except Japan, incineration is not popular due to the high capital, operation and
installation of incinerators and high moisture content in MSW, leading to low calorific value. In less
developed countries in Asia, e.g. Afghanistan and Bangladesh, clinical wastes are disposed in normal
bins due to inadequate incineration facilities, risking nearby communities contact with toxic materials.
8.2 Biomethanation
Over 842 million metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) was generated worldwide in 2000 which
contributed almost 13% to total global methane emissions (Scheehle, 2001). China represents Asian
countries which, combined with other developed countries, emit 47% of the world’s landfill methane.
Most developed countries have regulations that limit landfill methane emissions but most Asian
countries do not. China (Table 5) is projected to experience steady growth in landfill methane
harvesting due to improved waste management practices diverting more MSW into managed landfills.
Table 5. Methane Emissions from Municipal Solid Waste in China from 1990 to 2000
(Adapted from EPA, 2005)
Methane emission (MMTCO2E)
1990
40.0
1995
42.6
2000
44.6
Emissions of methane from landfills are expected to decrease in industrialized countries which are
contrast to developing countries worldwide. This is due to the expanding of recycling and reuse
programmes implemented, as well as improved LFG recovery technologies whereas in developing
countries, rapid population growth and improper waste management in landfills has become a problem
in order to decrease methane emissions.
9.0 CHALLENGES IN WASTE MANAGEMENT
9.1 The Political Challenge
In many Asian developing countries, the problem of ineffective government is common. An example
is Malaysia, where a comprehensive set of solid waste management laws and the related issues has
been debated for years but may not see the light of day anytime soon.
While it is understandable that waste management or environmental worries cannot take precedence
over housing, food or safety, but the issues must be seen as inter-related.
9.2 The Technology Challenge
It has been frequently commented upon that scientific policy or technological advancements in one
industry or country may not be suitable in another, despite geographical or cultural proximity. This
must be kept in mind when exporting waste disposal technology or incorporating waste management
policies. Local capacity development is a more sustainable alternative to technological or policy
adaptation. With the right talent, a country can develop a sustainable capacity for waste management,
unique to their economic situation and waste composition.
9.3 The Challenge of Perception and Education
How people view waste and its management determines its success. Waste is part of life and should
23
Sustainable Waste Management - Asian Perspectives
not be viewed as a problem that ceases to be once it has been removed. In Asia, lack of environmental
ethics and awareness contribute to the failure of solid waste management plans (Visvanathan and
Trankler, 2003). We must understand that change starts with us.
Education and instilling awareness on environmental issues will go a long way. Children have access
to an enormous amount of information through the internet and television. With encouragement and
nurturing, we have a chance to instill environmental-consciousness in the next internet generation, and
it is something that should be seriously considered.
10.0 CONCLUSION
Persistent increase in waste generation coupled with highly commingled waste has resulted in Asian
countries facing an uphill battle in sustaining waste management. Several drivers are responsible for
the current state and also the future direction. Technology transfer from developed nation is essential
but should be tailored according to the local conditions. There is a need for a pro-active waste
management approach in Asian countries. But the dilemma of national development priorities versus
environmental concerns seems to be another stumbling block in sustainable waste management.
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