1
Speed Training: An Investigation on
Improvement
Subject: Sports Exercise and Health Science
Word Count: 3583
2
Table of Contents
Introduction
3
Acceleration
4
Maximal Velocity
6
Speed Endurance
8
Comparing the Three: Case Studies and Analysis of Experimentation
Tale of Two Sisters: Short Sprinter versus Mid Distance (Acceleration and Max Velocity
versus Speed Endurance)
High Class Sprinters: Time Comparison in 100 meter phases
400 Meter Determinants: Comparing Different Athletes
10
Conclusion
16
References
18
10
13
15
3
Introduction
What does it mean for a person to have Speed? While many people may believe it is
indicative of how fast a person can move, being quick and agile are separate from having speed.
What is speed training then? Speed training is training with the means to develop maximum
forward velocity when sprinting.1 For track and field sprinter athletes, the speed/maximum
forward velocity is measured at which they reach a certain distance, whether it be the 60 meter
race or a 400 meter race, under a short amount of time. To achieve this goal of obtaining the
shortest amount of time, sprinter athletes would have to individually train in the three main
components of speed.2 Speed may be broken down into the starting phase, also known as
acceleration; maximal velocity, or top-end speed; and speed endurance, which should be
correctly termed as energy use efficiency. And although there are various distances at which a
sprinter athlete may compete in, all three components of speed are to be integrated in
competition for a sprinter to reach peak performance. In the acceleration phase, a sprinter must
have an explosive start, pushing their front dominant foot against the blocks in which they are set
in. By applying force against the blocks, an equal reaction occurs in the opposite direction,
making the sprinter move forward. Through the horizontal force, the body will extend straight
from head to heel and the opposite foot will follow forward, reaching flexion of the hip, knee,
and dorsiflexion of the foot. The foot will then drive back down into the ground with maximal
force output. Each step will continue similarly and quickly until the sprinter has gradually
Bidlow, Cody, director. Sprint Workouts For Speed | ATHLETE.X. YouTube, 1 Nov. 2018,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ecYcDaSo88.
1
“Chapter 4 Speed Training.” Training for Speed, Agility, and Quickness, by Vance A. Ferrigno
and Lee E. Brown, Third ed., Human Kinetics, 2015, pp. 26–36.
2
4
reached an upright position of posture allowing for top-end speed to occur. Maximal velocity has
then been reached when the athlete cannot accelerate any further, and ends as muscle fatigue
occurs and lactic acid builds up due to the metabolic processes contributing to the movement of
the body. Finally, sprinters get into the deceleration phase, where stride frequency and stride
length decrease, ground-contact increases, and lactic acid continues to build up as the sprinter
has used a majority of the ATP-PC system. The sprinter can’t do much more other than maintain
form till the end of the race. There are also various small factors in the phases that can create the
smallest yet most substantial difference in time for improving performance. The angle and
alignment of limbs will vary from each phase such as acceleration. The arms need to swing with
high intensity and full extension opposed to top-end speed and deceleration phases where the
arms should move fluidly and angled around 90 degrees. Using the same technique in different
phases will cause the inefficient use of energy, production of negative force, and risk of injury.
Different phases of the race will require different demands of coordination, force-output, muscle
tissue, and neurological demands. Because there are multiple movements and placements of the
body occurring in the three areas of speed, it is necessary for coaches and athletes to know which
aspect of speed their time and effort should be most allocated towards.
Acceleration
One of the first areas that is developed when training speed is acceleration. This is
because the acceleration stage of sprinting will precede all other phases of a race as it should
occur within the beginning. Acting as the foundation for a sprinter’s performance, acceleration
separates itself from the other trained components of speed due to the many technical aspects
targeted across a range of body parts. Subdivided within two phases, the start occurring within
5
the first 0-12 meters and the main acceleration occurring within 12-35 meters, these areas require
development as they help to increase the rate of change in speed as the body effectively
transitions from a lower position to an upright posture. Development could engage in the
position at which a sprinter sets themselves in their blocks. Generally, there is a preferred
position of start, the lower and top body bent at 40°- 45° with the “knee angles in the set position
approximating 90 and 130 degrees, respectively, and the hips held moderately high.”3 When
accelerating, the objective of the sprinter is to gradually increase the tempo, rhythm, and stride
length and frequency while reducing the ground contact time made. All of this done while still
applying maximum force output within each step. The momentum that is then created by
increasing these variables will then decide how effective the sprinter’s speed will be as suggested
by researchers Nagahara et al., (2012). In their study, on acceleration and its connection to
maximal sprinting performance, it is noted that the increased rate of change in spatiotemporal
variables such as step-length and step-frequency resulted in a positive correlation of data. In
addition to these variables, the acceleration phase is separated within different stages in itself 4,
varying among sprinters as they go from their start in blocks, leaning forward, and ending
acceleration once at an upright posture. Therefore, coaches within the process of speed training
will train and adjust acceleration as a major focal point in speed development. Performance
Coach Patrick Beith5 states, “Being able to accelerate quickly and powerfully is probably the
most important skill that needs to be improved in all athletes… to exploding out of the blocks in
Harland, M J, and Julie R Steele. “Biomechanics of the Sprint Start.” SpringerLink, 23 Oct.
2012, link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-199723010-00002.
4
Nagahara R, Matsubayashi T, Matsuo A, Zushi K. Kinematics of transition during human
accelerated sprinting. Biol Open. 2014 Jul 4;3(8):689-99. doi: 10.1242/bio.20148284. PMID:
24996923; PMCID: PMC4133722.
5
Beith, Patrick. “Pat Beith.” Athletes Acceleration Sports Performance Training, 12 Dec. 2016,
athletesacceleration.com/coach/pat-beith/.
3
6
track; each of these athletes need to be as efficient as possible to be able to generate speed in a
short period of time.” In relation to this idea, his program spends a majority of its time training
acceleration further than any other aspect of speed as looking from a time standpoint, 64% of a
sprinter’s performance in the case of a 100 meter race is spent in acceleration. And although the
time spent in acceleration changes over the extended distance at which a sprinter can compete at
(60m to 400m), application of acceleration within sprinting stands out as it utilizes the
ATP-PC/Alactic energy system, burning the initial source of energy within 7-8 second time
frame. The use of this energy system within longer distance sprint races comes as an addition to
the main energy system that is used within longer distance sprint events, the anaerobic energy
system, inable to affect performance in a negative deficit of energy. Overtime, the development
of acceleration will result in the understanding of preprogrammed neuromuscular adaptations to
help the body reach an increased rate of speed over a short period of time and a higher
improvement in momentum to develop maximal velocity.
Maximal Velocity
Alternatively compared to acceleration, maximal velocity sprint training conceptually
seems more direct in terms of making improvement in speed. This is because the very nature of
maximal velocity sprint training develops and simulates the conditions at which a sprinter is at
peak speed. Accomplished by workouts that emphasize the preservation of stability,
minimization of braking forces, and maximization of vertical propulsive forces,6 maximal
velocity training puts an emphasis on the frontside and backside mechanics that attribute to
Young, M. (2009). Maximal Velocity Sprint Mechanics. Retrieved October 15, 2020, from
http://www.scarboroughtrack.com/sprintingmechanics.pdf
6
7
developing the technical and biomotor training that increase and maintain maximal force output.
During maximal velocity, learning the biomechanics such as leg stiffness helps so that sprinters
are able to generate a release of elastic power from the tendons as maximal force as it is applied
within an upright position, the foot placed under the sprinter’s centre of mass. This then helps to
keep the sprinter in a horizontal center position, maintain momentum after acceleration, decrease
ground contact time and counteract the force of gravity. In a study looking at the differences
between acceleration and maximal velocity sprinting, there’s an apparent increase in the
variables that improve sprinting performance among maximal velocity (Cissik, 2016). All in
comparison to acceleration and existing within maximal velocity: “velocity was around 20%
greater, stride frequency showed almost 4% greater, stride length almost 13% greater, and peak
vertical force was almost 20% greater.” However results had also shown, limitations occurring
under maximal velocity compared to acceleration. All in comparison to acceleration and existing
within maximal velocity: “peak horizontal propulsive force is 2% lower and peak horizontal
braking force was almost 95% greater.” And with consideration of the goals needed to create
effective maximal velocity within training, it is suggested that improvement on decreasing the
braking forces is more vital in comparison to increasing the force produced by the lower limbs,
most prominent during the acceleration phase.7 Between acceleration and maximal velocity
training, there is a clear emphasis that acceleration promotes the rate of change in speed, while
maximal velocity exhibits an emphasis on maintaining top-end speed through the maximization
of force output and minimization of braking forces. Regardless, both forms of training correlate
with the result of an increased distance covered within a short period of time.
Yu J, Sun Y, Yang C, Wang D, Yin K, Herzog W, Liu Y. Biomechanical Insights Into
Differences Between the Mid-Acceleration and Maximum Velocity Phases of Sprinting. J
Strength Cond Res. 2016 Jul;30(7):1906-16. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001278. PMID:
27331914.
7
8
Speed Endurance
Speed endurance training (SET), also known as energy use efficiency, specializes in the
improvement of performance in a sprinter’s ability to maintain speed and intensity within a
longer distance and period of time. This improvement is done so in that speed endurance utilizes
and trains different energy systems to meet the demands required by the body to perform under
the conditions. These systems are the aerobic/anaerobic system. The anaerobic systems allow for
an athlete to utilize the breakdown of glucose to create ATP for moderate-intensity,
moderate-duration work (30–50 seconds). The aerobic energy system allows for an athlete to
incorporate oxygen in aiding varying energy substrates to generate ATP as well. While sprinter’s
within 60 meter and 100 meter events can generally compete within only the utilization of the
ATP-PC energy system, their events could extend up to the 200 meter and 400 meter event. It is
important that coaches incorporate this component of training into their speed development
programs, even among shorter distance sprinters, as a study looking at the energy contributions
among sprint events has shown the application of the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
Within the 100 meter event, “results indicated a relative aerobic-anaerobic energy system
contribution of 21%-79% and 25-75% for males and females (Duffield et al., 2004).” Within the
200 meter event, “28%-72% and 33%-67% contribution for male and female athletes” was
shown (Duffield, 2004). Within the 400 meter event, there was a 41/59% and 45/55% of
aerobic/anaerobic energy system contribution among males and females (Duffield, 2004). And
by developing these energy systems, there is a correlation in performance as training within these
systems as they come at the purported uses of maintaining speed and minimizing deceleration, an
occurring phase in all sprint events as the body is incapable of holding a desired intensity due to
fatigue and exhaustion. In addition to improving the spatio temporal variables within a race,
9
there is muscular development of strength and improvement of the lactate threshold within the
lower extremities of the body. When looking at the importance of leg stiffness8 in
high-performing sprinters, the ability to maintain vertical propulsion while outputting maximal
force is a selected determinant in performance. However, similarly to acceleration, after maximal
velocity has been reached, there is a rate of change in the decline of performance such as the
decrease of stride length, stride rate9, and force output. This can be credited to the exhaustion of
the lower extremities as little uptake of oxygen and H+ ion accumulation within our muscles
creates what many people refer to as lactate or lactic acid, substrates which identify themselves
as byproducts of the anaerobic system. When training the anaerobic work capacity associated
with speed endurance, the lactic threshold can be worked upon as the function of “lactic
anaerobic capacity defined as the maximal amount of ATP resynthesized via glycolysis and
glycogenolysis” is occurring. It helps to increase velocity and maximal power within runs, even
in comparison to power athletes who have shown lower maximal power within 400 meter runs
due to inefficient energy economy and a stronger “tolerance” for lactic buildup in the lower
extremities among athletes who do SET.10
Chelly SM, Denis C. Leg power and hopping stiffness: relationship with sprint running
performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001 Feb;33(2):326-33. doi:
10.1097/00005768-200102000-00024. PMID: 11224825.
9
Haugen T, McGhie D, Ettema G. Sprint running: from fundamental mechanics to practice-a
review. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2019 Jun;119(6):1273-1287. doi: 10.1007/s00421-019-04139-0.
Epub 2019 Apr 8. PMID: 30963240.
10
Nummela, A. Mero, J. Stray-Gundersen and H. Rusko, Important Determinants of Anaerobic
Running and Performance in Male Athletes and Non-Athletes. Int. J. Sports Med., Vol.17 (Suppl.
2), pp. S91-S96
8
10
Comparing the Three: Case Studies and Analysis of Experimentation
There are many different athletes varying with skill and talents when developing speed.
This is why there are arguments, studies, and debates on to what extent a program should modify
the main components of speed in hopes of developing high performing and improving athletes
as in many cases, training is not a “one shoe fits all” situation. By finding which area of speed
development is most optimal in enhancing performance, athletes and trainers can begin to tailor
their programs in their interests and meet desired demands in biomechanics and neuromuscular
adaptations.
Tale of Two Sisters: Short Sprinter versus Mid Distance (Acceleration and Max
Velocity versus Speed Endurance)
Barry Ross, Marion Jones highschool track and field coach who has produced Division 1
NCAA and Olympic athletes, is one of the many people who went out to find an answer. In
Barry Ross’ research in approach to speed training, “A Tale of Two Sisters: Finding Common
Ground,” he completes a study on two sisters. The two sisters are older sister Sasha and young
sister Tara. Both ran track but were different types of athletes who did contrasting types of
training. Sasha is a short sprinter who could run up
11
FIGURE 1: Sasha
FIGURE 2: Tara
(Figure 1 and 2 represents the times at which Sasha and Tara can run under specific distances.
Those values are then used in the Weyand/Bundle speed algorithm)
12
to the 400m sprints, while Tara was a middle distance runner. She competes in the 800m race but
could drop down half the distance (400m) to race her sister. This scenario is then used to help
Barry Ross to create a simulated projection to help answer author of Sports Biomechanics and
professor Anthony Blazevich question: “In a 200 meter race, who would most likely win, the
athlete with the fastest acceleration or the athlete with the highest top speed?” From the data
provided above, the anaerobic speeds Sasha exhibits are slightly increased from her younger
sister. However Tara exhibits more aerobic speed and capacity in her 1m/s over Sasha.
Presumably, Tara could possibly outrun her sister as she is able sustain her speed much longer
within a 400m race because of her speed endurance training geared towards running at longer
distances such as the 800m race. The 400m race for Tara would allow herself to decelerate
slower rate of change at top-speed compared to her sister Sasha. The algorithm then projects,
“The ASR projection had Tara at 57.7 and Sasha at 58.2 but with a 3% margin of error in the
algorithm, the results could be closer or farther apart.” Even though the simulated data was
shown with consideration of there being a marginal error, Barry Ross was still skeptical
considering the experience of one of his athletes beating an 800m runner in a race before. The
sisters would then compete against each other, 1-on-1 in the 400m event considering it was the
“common ground” of the two where they could compete against each other. “Tara ran 58.44 and
Sasha ran 58.46.” The race had gone as projected, so does that mean speed endurance is
ultimately better? This may not be the case as there are a few things to take into consideration.
Sasha’s longest distance in her training was 55 meters, with a low-average rep count of 5. As a
sprinter who has focused and emphasized the integration of more speed endurance workouts,
these results come as a surprise to me. A sprinter working at higher velocity speeds with low
volume is competing against the traditional 400m to 800m runner. And while there are many
13
factors that may take into account the performance such as age, genetics, or even the cognitive
thinking, there is a huge correlation with high velocity covering a great distance to stay with a
runner who can choose to use the energy reserves of aerobic capacity training to maintain desired
speed intensity throughout the race.
High Class Sprinters: Time Comparison in 100 meter phases
In a chart created by Jimson Lee (2017), a similar result is shown when comparing the
top performing sprinters of all time in a shorter distance, the
FIGURE 3: World Class Sprinters’ 100m Time Splits
100 meter race. Based on the splits present within the chart, it’s best to say that Usain Bolt can
run at a higher velocity as highlighted and Asafa Powell exhibits a stronger ability in speed
endurance as he is able to cover the split of 90-100m within a shorter amount of time compared
to Bolt’s drastic deceleration from 0.83 to 0.9. Maurice Green in 01’ exhibits one of the best
acceleration times compared to the two later sprinter athletes with an initial distance of the first
10 meters covered in 1.83 seconds of his 100 meter run. Yet, Usain Bolt is still the sprinter with
14
the shortest amount of time overall. To confirm my beliefs on the data on whether acceleration,
max velocity, and speed endurance was better than the other I decided to do my own analysis of
the data.
FIGURE 4: Self Analysis of World Class Sprinters’ Time Splits
By removing the times at which Usain bolt runs at maximal velocity and as such with sprinters
Asafa Powell and Maurice Green, I looked into the times at which acceleration and deceleration
combined together mostly occur, isolating the maximal velocity component. Maurice Green had
a value of 6.41, Usain Bolt at 6.4, and Asafa Powell at 6.39. Although Asafa Powell’s combined
time in acceleration and speed endurance added up to be lower than Usain’s by one-hundredth of
a second, Usain’s sheer maximal velocity is what makes the 0.08 second gap between him the
deciding factor of which component leads to the better performance within the 100 meter race.
15
400 Meter Determinants: Comparing Different Athletes
FIGURE 5: Table Chart Results of Maximal Anaerobic Running Test (MART) among
varying subject groups
Among research looking at the selected determinants of effective anaerobic running
performance (Nunmele, et al., 1996), relevant results according to the ability of the subjects were
found. However there were also distinct differences found among the varying groups. Most
significantly, a test of 20 second treadmill repeated runs with increasing determined velocities
and a 1:5 ratio of rest (100 seconds recovery) had shown interesting results among the power
athletes (ranging from short sprinters and decathonlonists) and 400 meter runners. The 400m
group had expressed a greater increase in maximal power (Pmax) and power under the same levels
of blood lactate level (P5nM and P10nM) during their repeated runs. With this data, it can be
suggested that the utilization of 400 meter training under the anaerobic conditions can help to
decrease the rate of exhaustion and allow for an increase in force output. This points to lactate
strength endurance in the lower extremities within higher yet sprint specific distances such as the
16
200m and 400m event since a higher maximal output of force was applied in comparison to the
power athletes.
Conclusion
Speed training by its true nature is intent on increasing the velocity at which a person can
move forward at. The only point in which sprinters can hit their best speed is at their maximal
velocity. While acceleration training works to teach the technical aspects of getting up to speed,
there is a point in the training where getting up to speed and the acceleration geared workouts
won’t improve maximal velocity as it doesn’t require the athlete to be at full speed. They may
run at max intensity, but they are not particularly at the highest possible speed they can be at due
to the negative forces acting upon them such as being static at start. Speed endurance for
sprinting may increase the capacity at which athletes can sprint at, but it doesn’t increase the
velocity as the training is done through lowered and near maximal velocity intensity. A sprinter
who has trained to sustain and manage their speed may decelerate slower, however if the
maximal velocity of the runner isn’t developed, the momentum and point at which the rate of
deceleration occurs may not cover a further distance. This idea can be seen relevant in many of
the world record sprint event times. Wayde Van Niekerk, world record holder of the 400m at
43.04, had displayed 11.6 m/s top end speed with a time of 10.76 at 100m, 20.54 at 200m, and
31.04 at 300m. These times are significantly faster than previous world record holder Michael
Johnson (1999), who displayed 11.10 at 100m, 21.22 at 200m, and 31.66 at 300m. Even in the
closest of races such as Usain and Asafa, the major difference in their time resides with the
average speeds of their maximal velocity. In a statement by Plainfield North High School coach
Tony Holler, he states, “Never will a 1.08 sprinter outperform a .98 sprinter if both are healthy.
17
Usain Bolt ran the fastest 10-meter segment in human history: 0.81. Enough said.” However,
further analysis and even longer experimentation over a longer span of time must be conducted
to see the progressing improvements over a season. Splits must continue to be looked at from
even the top sprinters as performances from athletes can shift the opinion of how speed can be
improved upon. As of this investigation and even within the closest of races between varying
athletes, maximal velocity training proves to be the dominating component to improving a
sprinter’s performance.
18
References
“Acceleration vs. Maximum Speed.” National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA),
NSCA, 1 June 2017,
www.nsca.com/education/articles/kinetic-select/acceleration-vs.-maximum-speed/.
Admin. (2019, March 14). Strength and Speed Endurance for Sprinting. Retrieved October 19,
2020, from https://master-athlete.com/coaching/strength-and-speed-endurance-for-sprinting/
Banta, Ryan J. Sprinter’s Compendium Vervant Publishing, 2017
Beith, P. (2019, March 07). Running Drills for Acceleration - Athletes Acceleration. Retrieved
October 19, 2020, from https://athletesacceleration.com/running-drills-acceleration/
Bidlow, Cody, director. Acceleration & Speed In Training For Sprinters. YouTube, 20 Sept.
2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZPrI7nrugLM.
Bidlow, Cody, director. Sprint Workouts For Speed | ATHLETE.X. YouTube, 1 Nov. 2018,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ecYcDaSo88.
Blazevich, Anthony J. Sports Biomechanics: the Basics: Optimising Human Performance.
Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013
19
Bompa, T., & Buzzichelli, C. (2015). Understanding energy systems training. Retrieved
October 19, 2020, from
https://us.humankinetics.com/blogs/excerpt/understanding-energy-systems-training
Bret, C., Rahmani, A., Dufour, A.B., Messonnier, L., and Lacour, J.R. (2002).
Leg strength and stiffness as ability factors in 100m sprint running. Journal of Sports
Medicine and Physical Fitness
“Chapter 4 Speed Training.” Training for Speed, Agility, and Quickness, by Vance A. Ferrigno
and Lee E. Brown, Third ed., Human Kinetics, 2015, pp. 26–36.
Chelly, S.M. and Denis, C. (2001). Leg power and hopping stiffness: relationship
with sprint running performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
Cissik, J. M. (2020, July 12). Accelerating And Top Speed: Differences – Improving Athletic
Performance: An Exercise Blog for Coaches and Athletes. Retrieved October 19, 2020, from
https://www.cissik.com/blog/2016/07/accelerating-and-top-speed-differences/
DeBarr, Derek. “The Trinity: How to Train Acceleration, Max Velocity and Speed Endurance.”
SpeedEndurance.com, 14 Jan. 2020,
speedendurance.com/2020/01/14/the-trinity-how-to-train-acceleration-max-velocity-and-speed-e
ndurance/.
20
Door, Dragon. “News.” The Holy Grail in Speed Training: A Fitness Article from Dragon Door
Publications | Dragon Door, 11 Oct. 2004,
www.dragondoor.com/articles/the-holy-grail-in-speed-training/.
Duffield R, Dawson B, Goodman C. Energy system contribution to 100-m and 200-m track
running events. J Sci Med Sport. 2004 Sep;7(3):302-13. doi: 10.1016/s1440-2440(04)80025-2.
PMID: 15518295.
Duffield R, Dawson B, Goodman C. Energy system contribution to 400-metre and
800-metre track running. J Sports Sci. 2005 Mar;23(3):299-307. doi:
10.1080/02640410410001730043. PMID: 15966348.
Harland, M J, and Julie R Steele. “Biomechanics of the Sprint Start.” SpringerLink, 23 Oct.
2012, link.springer.com/article/10.2165/00007256-199723010-00002.
Haugen T, McGhie D, Ettema G. Sprint running: from fundamental mechanics to practice-a
review. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2019 Jun;119(6):1273-1287. doi: 10.1007/s00421-019-04139-0.
Epub 2019 Apr 8. PMID: 30963240.
Haugen, T., Seiler, S., Sandbakk, Ø. et al. The Training and Development of Elite Sprint
Performance: an Integration of Scientific and Best Practice Literature. Sports Med - Open 5, 44
(2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-019-0221-0
21
Jakalski, ByKen, et al. “Debating Speed: Is Acceleration, Max Velocity, or Speed Endurance
Most Important?” SimpliFaster, 17 Apr. 2020,
simplifaster.com/articles/acceleration-max-velocity/.
Ross, Barry. “A Tale of 2 Sisters: Finding Common Ground.” Bearpowered, 2008,
www.bearpowered.com
Lee, J. (2017, July 14). 200m Splits from USA National Championships. Retrieved October 19,
2020, from
https://speedendurance.com/2017/07/14/200m-splits-from-usa-national-championships/
Maćkała, Krzysztof, et al. “Selected Determinants of Acceleration in the 100m Sprint.” Journal
of Human Kinetics, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Katowicach, 7 Apr. 2015,
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4415826/.
Maćkała K, Fostiak M, Kowalski K. Selected determinants of acceleration in the 100m sprint. J
Hum Kinet. 2015 Apr 7;45:135-48. doi: 10.1515/hukin-2015-0014. PMID: 25964817; PMCID:
PMC4415826.
Magill, Pete. “Breaking Down Maximum Velocity.” PodiumRunner, 31 Jan. 2019,
www.podiumrunner.com/training/breaking-down-maximum-velocity/.
22
Nagahara R, Matsubayashi T, Matsuo A, Zushi K. Kinematics of transition during human
accelerated sprinting. Biol Open. 2014 Jul 4;3(8):689-99. doi: 10.1242/bio.20148284. PMID:
24996923; PMCID: PMC4133722.
Nagahara R, Naito H, Morin JB, Zushi K. Association of acceleration with spatiotemporal
variables in maximal sprinting. Int J Sports Med. 2014 Aug;35(9):755-61. doi:
10.1055/s-0033-1363252. Epub 2014 Feb 27. PMID: 24577864.
Nummela, A. Mero, J. Stray-Gundersen and H. Rusko, Important Determinants of Anaerobic
Running and Performance in Male Athletes and Non-Athletes. Int. J. Sports Med., Vol.17 (Suppl.
2), pp. S91-S96 (1996)
Ross, A., Leveritt, M. Long-Term Metabolic and Skeletal Muscle Adaptations to Short-Sprint
Training. Sports Med 31, 1063–1082 (2001).
https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131150-00003
Ross, Barry. “A Tale of 2 Sisters: Finding Common Ground.” Bearpowered, 2008
Škraba View all posts by Žiga P. Škraba, Ž P. (2020, August 14). 43.03 – The Fastest 400m in
History. Retrieved October 19, 2020, from
https://zigapskraba.com/2016/08/15/43-03-the-fastest-400m-in-history/
23
Vazel, P. (2016). How van Niekerk broke the 400m world record. Retrieved October 19, 2020,
from http://www.track-stats.com/how-van-niekerk-broke-the-400m-world-record/
Von Lieres Und Wilkau HC, Irwin G, Bezodis NE, Simpson S, Bezodis IN. Phase analysis in
maximal sprinting: an investigation of step-to-step technical changes between the initial
acceleration, transition and maximal velocity phases. Sports Biomech. 2020 Apr;19(2):141-156.
doi: 10.1080/14763141.2018.1473479. Epub 2018 Jul 4. PMID: 29972337.
Young, M. (2009). Maximal Velocity Sprint Mechanics. Retrieved October 15, 2020, from
http://www.scarboroughtrack.com/sprintingmechanics.pdf
Yu J, Sun Y, Yang C, Wang D, Yin K, Herzog W, Liu Y. Biomechanical Insights Into Differences
Between the Mid-Acceleration and Maximum Velocity Phases of Sprinting. J Strength Cond Res.
2016 Jul;30(7):1906-16. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001278. PMID: 27331914.