End of the war
● war lasted 2 decades
● defeats of English armies in Normandy and Aquitaine ultimately led to French victory
● factors of French success: cannon (China first gunpowder, Mongol improve), deaths
of England’s best commanders, instability of the English government under King
Henry VI (government bureaucracies grew ever larger, who should control? →
internal conflict and instability)
● scutage: money payments substituted for military service (increasing after Black
Death)
● lord-vassal relationships became less personal and less important, new relationships
based on political advantage began to be formed, creating new avenues for political
influence—and for corruption as well
● The shift to using mercenary soldiers left monarchs perennially short of cash.
● Monarchs attempted to generate new sources of revenues, especially through taxes,
which often meant going through parliaments → parliamentary bodies to gain more
power by asking for favors first.
The growth of England’s Political Institutions
● Parliament increased in prominence and developed its basic structure and functions
during Edward III’s reign.
● Due to his constant need for money to fight the Hundred Years’ War, Edward came to
rely on Parliament to levy(부과하다) new taxes
● Edward made several concessions, including a commitment to levy no direct tax
without Parliament’s consent and to allow Parliament to examine the government
accounts to ensure that the money was being spent properly. By the end of Edward’s
reign, Parliament had become an important component of the English
governmental system.
● The Great Council of barons became the House of Lords and evolved into a body
composed of the chief bishops and abbots of the realm and aristocratic peers whose
position in Parliament was hereditary
● The representatives of the shires and boroughs, who were considered less important
than the lay and ecclesiastical lords, held collective meetings and soon came to be
regarded as the House of Commons.
● One faction, led by Henry of Lancaster, defeated Richard II’s forces and then
deposed and killed him. Henry of Lancaster became King Henry IV
The Problems of the French Kings
● the various territories that made up France still maintained their own princes,
customs, and laws - basic lack of unity
● The French parliament, known as the Estates-General and composed of
representatives of the clergy, the nobility, and the Third Estate (everyone else),
usually represented only the north of France, not the entire kingdom
● When Philip VI (1328–1350) became involved in the Hundred Years’ War with
England, he found it necessary to devise new sources of revenue, including a tax on
salt known as the gabelle (gah-BELL) and a hearth tax eventually called the taille
(TY) → weighed heavily on the French peasantry and middle class
The German Monarchy
● In Germany itself, the failure of the Hohenstaufens ended any chance of centralized
monarchical authority, and Germany became a land of hundreds of states that varied
in size and power.
● Although all of the rulers of these different states had some obligations to the
German king and Holy Roman Emperor, more and more they acted independently.
-
ELECTORAL NATURE OF THE GERMAN MONARCHY
●
Because of its unique pattern of development in the High Middle Ages, the
German monarchy had become established on an elective rather than a
hereditary basis.
Chapter 1: Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
I. Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance
Summarizing sentence (this sentence should summarize all the information
from sections A – D listed below): Meaning ‘‘rebirth,” Renaissance was a
new age that saw the revival of antiquity, the ‘‘perfecting of the individual,’’
and secularism.
∙ Within this new urban society (city states), a secular spirit
emerged as increasing wealth created new possibilities for the
enjoyment of worldly things
∙ Revival of Classical antiquity affected activities as diverse as
politics and art and led to new attempts to reconcile the pagan
philosophy of the Greco-Roman world with Christian thought, as
well as new ways of viewing human beings.
∙ A high regard for human dignity and worth and a realization of
individual potentiality created a new social ideal of the
well-rounded personality or universal person—l’uomo
universale— who was capable of achievements in many areas of
life.
II. The Making of Renaissance Society
Summarizing sentence (include all the information from sections #1 – 3
listed below): the European economy gradually recovered as the volume
of manufacturing and trade increased.
∙ Specific evidence (this is for evidence found in the introduction paragraph
immediately following the heading, not sections #1 – 3):
A. Economic Recovery
1. Expansion of Trade
Summarizing sentence: trade recovered dramatically from the economic
contraction of the fourteenth century.
i. Specific evidence : Its southern outlet in Flanders, the port city of Bruges,
became the economic crossroads of Europe in the fourteenth century,
serving as the meeting place between Hanseatic merchants and the Flanders
Fleet of Venice.
2. Industries old and new
Summarizing sentence: By the beginning of the fifteenth century the
Florentine woolen industry had begun to recover and the Italian
cities began to develop and expand luxury industries, especially
silk, glassware, and handworked items in metal and precious
stones.
i. Specific evidence: New machinery and techniques for digging
deeper mines and for separating metals from ore and purifying them were
devised, and entrepreneurs quickly developed large mining operations to
produce copper, iron, and silver.
3. Banking and the Medici
Summarizing sentence: The city of Florence regained its preeminence in
banking in the fifteenth century, due primarily to the Medici family
i. Specific evidence: In its best days (in the fifteenth century), the House of
Medici was the greatest bank in Europe, with branches in Venice, Milan,
Rome, Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons.
B. Social Changes in the Renaissance
1. The Nobility
Summarizing sentence: As a result of the reconstruction, the nobles,
old and new, managed to dominate society as they had done in the Middle
Ages, serving as military officers and holding important political posts as
well as advising the king, and pursued education as the means to maintain
their role in government.
i. Specific evidence: in The Book of the Courtier by the Italian Baldassare
Castiglione, Castiglione described the three basic attributes of the perfect
courtier.
2. Peasants and Townspeople
Summarizing sentence: more and more peasants were becoming legally free
i. Specific evidence: The contraction of the peasantry after the Black Death
simply accelerated this process, since lords found it convenient to deal with
the peasants by granting freedom and accepting rents.
3. Slavery in the Renaissance
Summarizing sentence: The slaves reappeared and had declined dramatically
by the end of the 15th century due to humanitarian reasons and a general
feeling of “domestic enemy”
i. Specific evidence: reappeared first in Spain, where both Christians and
Muslims used captured prisoners as slaves during the lengthy Reconquista.
ii. Italian merchants became involved in the transportation of slaves.
iii. The number of blacks in Europe was small, however, until their
importation as slaves.
C. The Family in Renaissance Italy
1. Marriage
Summarizing sentence: To maintain the family, parents gave careful
attention to arranging marriages, often to strengthen business or family ties.
i. Specific evidence: The important aspect of the contract was the amount of
the dowry, money presented by the wife’s family to the husband upon
marriage.
ii. The father-husband was the center of the Italian family.
2. Children
Summarizing sentence: Moreover, most wives knew that their primary
function was to bear children
i. Specific evidence:Upper-class wives were frequently pregnant; Alessandra
Strozzi of Florence, for example, who had been married at the age of
sixteen, bore eight children in ten years.
ii. Many upper-class families sought to have as many children as possible to
ensure that there would be a surviving male heir to the family fortune.
3. Sexual Norms
Summarizing sentence: The lack of emotional attachment in arranged
marriages did encourage extramarital relationships, especially among groups
whose lifestyle offered special temptations.
i. Specific evidence: In Florence in 1415, the city fathers established
communal brothels and prostitutes were required to wear a traditional
garb of ‘‘gloves on her hands and a bell on her head.’’
II. The Italian States in
the Renaissance A. The
Five Major States
1. Republic of Florence
Summarizing sentence: governed by a small merchant oligarchy that
manipulated the apparently republican government.
i. Specific evidence: Through lavish patronage and careful courting of
political allies, Cosimo (1434–1464) and later his grandson, Lorenzo the
Magnificent (1469–1492), were successful in dominating the city at a time
when Florence was the center of the cultural Renaissance
2. Papal States
Summarizing sentence: located in central Italy, lands were nominally under
the political control of the popes (some independent)
i. Specific evidence:
3. Kingdom of Naples
Summarizing sentence: Remained a backward monarchy with a population
consisting largely of poverty-stricken peasants dominated by unruly nobles.
i. fought over by the French and the Aragonese until the latter established
their domination in the mid-fifteenth century.
B. Independent City-States
1. Urbino
Summarizing sentence: Under Duke Federigo Urbino became a well known
cultural and intellectual center.
i. Although not a brilliant general, he was reliable and honest and fought well
2. The Role of Women
Summarizing sentence: Brilliant women started to rule the city states.
i. As a prominent condottiere, Federigo was frequently absent, and like th
wives of medieval lords, Battista Sforza was respected for governing the state ‘‘with
firmness and good sense.’’
C. Warfare in Italy
Summarizing sentence: The growth of powerful monarchical states led to
trouble for the Italians and the breakdown of the Italian balance of power
that encouraged the invasions and began the Italian wars.
i. Duke of Milan invited the French to intervene in Italian politics, and other Italian
states turned to the Spanish for help
D. The Birth of Modern Diplomacy
Summarizing sentence: large number of states existed that their security was easily
threatened by their neighbours and to survive the Italian states began to send resident
diplomatic agents to each other to ferret out useful information
i.could use any methods that were beneficial to the political interests of his own state.
E. Machiavelli and the New Statecraft
1. The Prince
Summarizing sentence: book by Machiavelli where his ideas on politics are
written down based on his knowledge of ancient Rome and his preoccupation with
Italy’s political problems
i. prince’s attitude toward power must be based on an understanding of
human nature, which he perceived as basically self-centered
ii. Machiavelli was among the first to abandon morality as the basis for the
analysis of political activity
IV. The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy
A. Italian Renaissance Humanism
1. The Emergence of Humanism
Summarizing sentence:Petrarch (1304–1374) has often been called the father
of Italian Renaissance humanism
i. characterized Middle Ages as a period of darkness, promoting the mistaken
belief that medieval culture was ignorant of Classical antiquity.
ii. lacked spiritual ideals
2. Humanism in Fifteenth-Century Italy
Summarizing sentence: Florentine civic spirit and pride gave rise to a new
direction of humanism - civic humanism, which reflected the values of the urban
society of the Italian Renaissance
i. An individual only ‘‘grows to maturity—both intellectually and
morally—through participation’’ in the life of the state.
3. Humanism and Philosophy
Summarizing sentence: Ficino dedicated his life to the translation of Plato
and the exposition of the Platonic philosophy known as Neoplatonism, which was
based on the Neoplatonic hierarchy of substances and a theory of spiritual love.
i. Neoplatonic hierarchy served to ascend toward the union with God that
was the true end of human existence.
ii. Ficino’s theory of spiritual or Platonic love maintained that just as all
people are bound together in their common humanity by love, so too are all parts of
the universe held together by bonds of sympathetic love.
4. Renaissance Hermeticism
Summarizing sentence: Hermeticism was another product of the Florentine
intellectual environment of the late fifteenth century.
i. Two kinds of writings: One type stressed the occult sciences, with an
emphasis on astrology, alchemy, and magic; the other focused on theological and
philosophical beliefs and speculations.
ii.Some Hermetic writings espoused pantheism, seeing divinity embodied in
all aspects of nature and in the heavenly bodies as well as in earthly objects.
B. Education in the Renaissance
Summarizing sentence: Renaissance humanists believed that human beings could be
dramatically changed by education
i. At the core of humanist schools were the ‘‘liberal studies’’ with the goal of
producing individuals who followed a path of virtue and wisdom and possessed the rhetorical
skills with which to persuade others to do the same.
ii. Its aim was not to create great scholars but rather to produce complete citizens
who could participate in the civic life of their communities
1. Was There a Renaissance for Women?
Summarizing sentence: Historians have disagreed over the benefits of the
Renaissance for women.
i. Some women were educated in the humanist fashion and went on to
establish their own literary careers.
C. Humanism and History
Humanists de-emphasized divine intervention in favor of human motives, stressing
political forces or the role of individuals in history.
1. Guicciardini
Summarizing sentence: developed the skills that enabled him to analyze
political situations precisely and critically.
i. Emphasizing political and military history, his works relied heavily on
personal examples and documentary sources
D. The Impact of Printing
Summarizing sentence: Multiple printing with movable metal type was invented.
i. encouraged the development of scholarly research and the desire to attain
knowledge
ii. facilitated cooperation among scholars and helped produce standardized and
definitive texts
iii. stimulated the development of an ever-expanding lay reading public
V. The Artistic Renaissance
Summarizing sentence: Renaissance artists considered the imitation of nature their primary
goal.
A. Art in the Early Renaissance
Summarizing sentence: Artists started to absorb and modify the new Renaissance
style: emphasizing the mathematical side of painting and the investigation of movement and
anatomical structure.
i. The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian by Antonio Pollaiuolo revels in Classical motifs
and attempts to portray the human body under stress.
ii. Like Donatello’s other statues, David also radiated a simplicity and strength that
reflected the dignity of humanity.
iii. Renaissance architects sought to reflect a human-centered world by creating a
space created to fit human, not divine, measurements. (Church of San Lorenzo)
B. The Artistic High Renaissance
Summarizing sentence: The shift to the High Renaissance was marked by the
increasing importance of Rome as a new cultural center of the Italian Renaissance.
i. Leonardo stressed the need to advance beyond realism and initiated the High
Renaissance’s preoccupation with the idealization of nature, or the attempt to generalize from realistic
portrayal to an ideal form
ii. In good Neoplatonic fashion, the beauty of these figures is meant to be a reflection
of divine beauty; the more beautiful the body, the more God-like the figure.
iii. Michelangelo’s David proudly proclaims the beauty of the human body and the
glory of human beings.
C. The Artist and Social Status
Summarizing sentence: As respect for artists grew, so did their ability to profit
economically from their work and to rise on the social scale.
i. they mingled with the political and intellectual elite of their society and became
more aware of new intellectual theories, which they then embodied in their art.
D. The Northern Artistic Renaissance
Summarizing sentence: In North, the prevalence of Gothic cathedrals with their
stained-glass windows resulted in more emphasis on illuminated manuscripts and wooden
panel painting for altarpieces
i. Jan Van Eyck - oil painting
ii. northern painters placed great emphasis on the emotional intensity of religious
feeling and created great works of devotional art, especially in their altarpieces.
E. Music in the Renaissance
Summarizing sentence: Secular songs started to gain fame in the Renaissance Era
i. Guillaume Dufay was the first to use secular tunes to replace Gregorian chants as
the fixed melody that served as the basis for the Mass.
VI. The European State in the Renaissance
Summarizing sentence: attempts were made to reestablish the centralized power of
monarchical governments.
A. The Growth of the French Monarchy
Summarizing sentence: the war had developed a strong degree of French national
feeling toward a common enemy that the kings could use to reestablish monarchical power
i. Charles established a royal army composed of cavalry and archers.
ii. By retaining the taille as a permanent tax imposed by royal authority, Louis
secured a sound, regular source of income.
iii. Many historians believe that Louis created a base for the later development of a
strong French monarchy.
B. England: Civil War and a New Monarchy
Summarizing sentence: Henry’s policies enabled him to leave England with a stable
and prosperous government and an enhanced status for the monarchy itself. (new Tudor
dynasty)
i. abolished ‘‘livery and maintenance,’’ the practice by which wealthy aristocrats
maintained private armies of followers dedicated to the service of their lord.
ii. established the Court of Star Chamber, which did not use juries and allowed
torture to be used to extract confessions.
iii. By using diplomacy to avoid wars, the king avoided having to call Parliament on
any regular basis to grant him funds, which didn’t overburden the middle class and the landed
gentry with taxes.
C. The Unification of Spain
Summarizing sentence: Under the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of
Aragon in 1469, the two rulers worked to strengthen royal control of government.
i. They secured from the pope the right to select the most important church officials
in Spain so that clergy became an instrument for the extension of royal power
ii. The monarchs used their authority over the church to institute reform
iii. Inquisition over Jews and Muslims (encouraged to convert to Christian and then
expelled)
D. The Holy Roman Empire: The Success of the Habsburgs
Summarizing sentence: Having gradually acquired a number of possessions along the
Danube, known collectively as Austria, the house of Habsburg had become one of the
wealthiest landholders in the empire and by the mid-fifteenth century began to play an
important role in European affairs.
i. dynastic marriages.
ii. The addition of these territories made the Habsburg dynasty an international power
and brought it the undying opposition of the French monarchy (surrounding French territory).
iii. Philip and Joanna produced a son, Charles, who, through a series of unexpected
deaths, became heir to all three lines, the Habsburg, Burgundian, and Spanish
E. The Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern Europe
Summarizing sentence: In eastern Europe, rulers struggled to achieve the
centralization of their territorial states but faced serious obstacles
i. Polish kings were unable to establish a strong royal authority.
ii. Ivan III annexed other Russian principalities and took advantage of dissension
among the Mongols to throw off their yoke by 1480.
F. The Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine Empire
Summarizing sentence: Eastern Europe was increasingly threatened by the steadily
advancing Ottoman Turks
i. Ottoman Turks spread rapidly, seizing the lands of the Seljuk Turks and the
Byzantine Empire.
ii. Ottoman forces defeated the Serbs
VII. The Church in the Renaissance
A. The Problems of Heresy and Reform
Summarizing sentence: two widespread movements in the fourteenth and early
fifteenth centuries—Lollardy and Hussitism—posed new threats to the church.
1. Wyclif and Lollardy
Summarizing sentence: disgust with clerical corruption led John Wyclif to
make a farranging attack on papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs and
practices.
i. alleged that there was no basis in Scripture for papal claims of temporal
authority and advocated that the popes be stripped of their authority and their
property - Bible should be a Christian’s sole authority.
ii. condemned pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, and a whole series of
rituals and rites that had developed in the medieval church.
2. Hus and the Hussites
Summarizing sentence: Lollard ideas spread to Bohemia, where they
reinforced the ideas of a group of Czech reformers led by John Hus
i. Hus urged the elimination of the worldliness and corruption of the clergy
and attacked the excessive power of the papacy within the Catholic Church.
3. Reform in the Church
Summarizing sentence: Although the papal monarchy had been maintained,
it had lost much moral prestige. Sacrosancta and Frequens provided for a legislative
system within the church superior to the popes.
i. Sacrosancta (sak-roh-SANK-tuh) stated that a general council of the church
received its authority from God; hence, every Christian, including the pope, was
subject to its authority
ii. The decree Frequens (FREE-kwens) provided for the regular holding of
general councils to ensure that church reform would continue.
B. The Renaissance Papacy
Summarizing sentence: Renaissance popes pursued their interests in the Papal States
and Italian politics using intrigue and even bloodshed, which are overshadowed by their
spiritual functions.
i. Julius II personally led armies against his enemies, much to the disgust of pious
Christians, who viewed the pope as a spiritual leader.
ii. came to rely on the practice of nepotism to promote their families’ interests (Pope
Sixtus IV, Alexander VI)
VIII. Conclusion
Summarizing sentence: the Renaissance was an era that rediscovered the culture of
ancient Greece and Rome, and a time of recovery from the difficulties of the fourteenth
century as well as a period of transition that witnessed a continuation of the economic,
political, and social trends that had begun in the High Middle Ages.
i. humanism
ii. artistic brilliance
iii. new monarchies