Medicine in Ancient China
& Ancient Greece
CHW3M
Final Project
Teacher: Ms. Cooper
Presented by Nathan Minuk
Ancient Greek
Medicine
Ancient Greek Civilization
•
Ancient Greek civilization emerged around 14th century BCE
and continued until around 600 C.E. The Greeks who called
themselves Hellenes (the name “Greek” was given to them
by Romans) lived in mainland Greece and Greek islands.
Their settlements were also found in Italy, Sicily, North Africa
and even modern France. Ancient Greek political,
philosophical, humanistic and scientific ideas had a
tremendous effect on Western civilization. Thus, Greek
political concepts have influenced modern forms of
government in Europe and North America. Ancient Greek
achievements in math are still used today through the basic
rules and terms of geometry and trigonometry proposed by
Greek mathematicians Euclid (323–283 BC) and
Pythagoras (c. 570-495 BC) respectively. Greek architecture
and art have inspired artists for centuries, while Greek
literature (such as Homer’s Iliad) still engages readers
around the world ("Ancient Greek Civilization | History, Map, Culture, Politics, Religion,
Achievements, & Facts").
Ancient Greek Medicine Teachings
•
Ancient Greek physicians used rational thinking while working with
their patients. Specifically, Greeks embraced a wellbeing concept of
“ a healthy mind in a healthy body”. This holistic approach continues
to influence medicine today. Early on Greek doctors believed that
diseases were “gods’ punishment”, but as they continued reasoning
their observations and results, doctors turned the corner from a
reliance on divine intervention for healing to natural solutions.
Specifically, ancient Greeks developed the concept of 4 humors
referred to blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. It was
suggested that the poor health is usually resulted from humors
imbalance. This concept was popular throughout Europe until 17th
century; however, it was eventually disproved. Ancient Greek
physicians also focused on development diagnosis and treatment
theories. Thus, the Greek idea of medical history (known as
anmnesis) gained by physicians for proper diagnosis became a
cornerstone of modern medicine. Another popular method used for
diagnosis purposes was the technique of linking the color of urine to
a particular disease. Modern physicians also used urine tests to
determine causes of illness ("Ancient Greek Medicine: Influences And Practice").
Ancient Greek Medicine
Medicine aryballos (ca. 480–470 BC) Louvre,
Paris, France (Department of Greek, Etruscan
and Roman Antiquities, Sully, 1st floor,
Campana Gallery, room 43) (1)
Medicine aryballos depicts a doctor
bleeding a patient. Bloodletting
procedure was common in ancient
Greece. It stemmed from four
humors imbalance concept.
Specifically, it is believed that
overabundance of blood could
cause health issues in patients So,
doctors often applied bloodletting
technique which remained popular
in Europe until the late of 1800s
(Wiki, medicine).
Sanctuaries of Asklepieion
Ancient Greeks considered god Asclepius to be the first physician who
taught human to cure diseases. Greeks dedicated temples known as
Asclepieia to their healer-god. The temples functioned as medical centers
where patients could get some support or treatment. Usually, patients
went through two steps in the treatment process while entering Asclepieia.
At first, they had to undergo a purification process through a series of
baths and controlled diet techniques. On the second stage patients went
through a dream therapy: they would sleep at the temple to be visited by
gods. Upon waking up patients revealed their dreams to priests who
would interpret the type of treatment necessary for patients. Thankful
patients donated to the temple and left models of the healed body parts at
the shrine ("Sanctuary Of Asklepios In Epidaurus, Greece | Greeka").
Sanctuaries of
Asklepieion
Statue of Asklepios (2nd century BC), Greece
Legion of Honor Museum, San Francisco, CA, USA
Asklepios statue would have had him leaning on
his rod, with a serpent wound around it. The
serpent was considered sacred since snake
venom was thought to be remedial and their
skin-shedding symbolized rebirth and renewal.
Asclepius’s rod still remains a symbol of medicine
today("Relief; Anatomical Votive | British Museum").
Sanctuaries of
Asklepieion
Relief, anatomical votive (first century CE) excavated at Shrine of
Asklepios in 1828 British Museum, London, UK
This is a healed leg model (with
inscription) that was dedicated by a man
named Tycheas as a thank-offering to
Asklepios and his daughter Hygeia ("The Art
And Science Of Healing | Medical Text").
Hippocrates
Father of Medicine
Hippocrates of Kos (460–370 B.C.E) is considered a father of modern
medicines because of his major contributions to medicine that persist
today. Hippocrates together with his disciples and colleagues wrote the
“Hippocratic Corpus,” consisted of more than 60 early ancient Greek
medical works. He promoted a systematic approach to clinical medicine
by directly examining and studying the living person. Hippocrates was the
first physician who described and properly documented different diseases
such as Hippocratic fingers referring to clubbed fingers indicating chronic
lung and heart conditions in patients. Also, Hippocrates introduced
medical terms such as acute and chronic pain, epidemic, paroxysm, etc.
He also promoted a wellbeing through proper diet and daily exercises.
Hippocrates instructed his disciples to practice medicine ethically and
honestly. So, nowadays, the Hippocratic oath is taken by doctors upon
obtaining their qualification(medical news today).
Hippocrates Father
of Modern Medicine
Asclepius arrives in Kos (2nd - 3rd
century AD) Greece;
Archaeological Museum, Kos,
Dodecanese, Greece (after
Ancient)
Mosaics excavated in
Kos, Greece, depicts
Asclepius ’arrival in
Kos, while being
greeted by Hippocrates
(left) and a citizen
(right)("File:Hsasclepiuskos
Retouched.Jpg - Wikimedia Commons")
Alexandrian School of
Anatomy
Ancient Greek physicians performed some surgical procedures
on patients such as setting a broken leg or arm, draining fluid
from lungs or even performing skull trepanation. In addition,
ancient Greek doctors made phenomenal anatomical
observations of the human body. Herophilus (325-255 BC), an
ancient Greek anatomist, was the founder of the school of
anatomy of Alexandria, Egypt. He was among the first physicians
to conduct anatomical dissections in public. Together with his
disciple Erasistratus (c310- c250 B.C.) he made important
contributions in the study and teaching of human anatomy by
connecting the nervous system to motion and sensation and
distinguishing between veins and arteries. Erasistratus also made
observations on the morphology of the heart, by describing the
pulmonary artery and the aorta (PMC Greek Anatomy).
Surgical
Instruments
Scalpels (first century CE), Rome,
Historical Collections & Services of the
Health Sciences Library, University of
Virginia
Scalpels presented together with
other surgical instruments were
recovered during Pompeii
excavation in 1947. Reproductions
of these instruments were
presented to the Claude Moore
Health Sciences Library by the
University of Virginia’s 8th
Evacuation Hospital after its
service in Italy during World War II.
Since there was relatively little
innovation in surgical technology
from the time of Hippocrates (5th
century BCE), it is thought that
this collection represents the
medical practice during Greco
Roman period("Surgical Instruments From
Ancient Rome - Ancient Roman Surgical
Instruments").
Ancient Greek
Pharmacology
Ancient Greek physicians had a direct effect on
pharmacology development. The first century
AD Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides
wrote a treatise commonly known as De
Materia Medica. His work provided a
comprehensive list of more than 1,000 medical
substances and their uses and actions.
Dioscorides also developed various medical
recipes that were used by physicians for
centuries and it formed the basis for the
Western pharmacology science ("Ancient Greek Medicine: Influences
And Practice").
Ancient Greek
Pharmacology
Papyrus of Dioscorides’ treatise On Materia Medica (first century CE)
Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
This papyrus from Dioscorides’ treatise On Materia
Medica discusses dietary recommendations to
patients suffered from constipation. Below is a
translation of this fragment:
to take the small portion of food, to drink all the
previously mentioned liquids, and to drink in addition
a little new wine, diluted until somewhat watery. To
those who have a persistent constipation hard to
clear up, much more than the quantities prescribed
are given; but to those who suffer from weakness,
less. And a moderate diet is prescribed when the
bowels have become more relaxed. The risk of injury
to the eyes has been previously mentioned…("The Art And
Science Of Healing | Medical Text").
Ancient Greek Medicine: Summary
Ancient Greeks moved from a reliance on magical intervention for healing to practical
approaches. Greek priests promoted The Cult of Asclepius, the God of healing, and made
many worshippers to believe in divine forces as a major force behind healing process.
Hippocrates and his followers, however, dismissed the notion that magic could cure
diseases; instead, they argued that the same approach could not be used for all the
patients. Doctors were required to thoroughly observe their patients and chose a proper
course of treatment after careful consideration of the symptoms. Ancient Greek physicians
developed a theory of the Four Humours (blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile) under
which the human body was made up of four main components known as Four Humours.
These four components needed to remain balanced in order for people to remain healthy.
Use of the four humors as a diagnostic tool allowed doctors to look for symptoms and
perform clinical observations. Such an approach became a cornerstone of contemporary
medicine and was used by European medieval doctors for centuries.
Ancient Greeks also made astonishing observations in anatomy. Thus, Herophilus (325-255
BC), the founder of the school of anatomy in Alexandria, Egypt, and his disciple
Erasistratus (c310- c250 B.C.) made important contributions to the study and teaching of
blood circulation and nervous system. Observations made by Alexandrian anatomists
further allowed doctors to perform elaborate surgeries including cataract removal. Finally,
ancient Greek physicians had a direct effect on pharmacology development. Thus, the first
century AD Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides wrote a famous book De Materia
Medica which provided a comprehensive list of more than 1,000 medical substances and
their uses and actions. Dioscorides also developed various medical recipes that were used
by physicians for centuries and it formed the basis for the Western pharmacology science.
Legacy of Ancient Greek
Medicine
The methods used by Hippocrates and his followers have
strongly influenced the modern medicine. Hippocrates’
practices of healthy diet and physical exercises are still
espoused to the public nowadays. Also, Hippocrates
promoted the importance of recording medical histories and
treatments. Such practices are essential to modern medicine
for proper understanding disease causes. The Father of
Medicine is also known for his ethical principles with respect
to his patients. His approach has been reflected in the famous
Hippocratic oath which is still taken by medical practitioners
prior to their graduation. By building on ancient Greek
doctors’ hard work and great ideas, we've been able to
establish the thriving medical practices that we use in the 21st
century ("Medicine In Ancient Greece | Maryville Online").
Medicine in
Ancient China
ANCIENT CIVILIZATION: CHINA
Ancient Chinese civilization emerged in the early 2nd millennium BCE and continued until the end
of the Han dynasty, in 220 CE. The civilization of ancient China first developed in the Yellow River
region of northern China, in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE, and then expanded to the great
Yangtze Valley region in the south and to Central Asia steppes in the west.
Traditionally, the history of China has been divided into dynasties or lines of emperors from a
single family, following each other on the throne from generation to generation. The Xia Dynasty
(2070–1600 BC) is regarded as the first dynasty of China, while The Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220
AD) is thought to be the most important dynasty in China's history. The latter is known for its
development of the civil service and government structure; scientific achievements in medicine
and philosophy and technological advancements such as the invention of paper and the use of
water clock and sundials for time measure. This period is also known for starting Silk Road trade
and connecting China with Central Asia and Europe. Furthermore, a famous philosopher
Confucius lived under the Han’s Rule. His ideas that focus on the importance of personal ethics
and morality are still influential in modern days.
Many scholars tend to believe that the end of ancient period in China’s history coincide with the
Han dynasty fall in 220 CE (Education Assistant Ancient China).
Ancient Chinese Medical
Teachings
Traditional Chinese medicine dates back at least 2,200 years. According
to Chinese mythology, Shennong, known as “Divine Farmer”, was a
legendary king and deity who taught humans basic medical skills. It is
also believed that Shennong tasted hundreds of herbs to carefully test
and record their therapeutic properties. He is also considered a kinsman
of the Yellow Emperor, the father of the first medical treatise Huangdi
Neijin dated circa 206 BCE. The book promotes an idea that the
universe is comprised of two major forces Yin and Yang and five
elements such as wind, damp, hot, cold, etc. Humans’ diseases are
resulted from these forces’ imbalance. So, a doctor’s role is to help a
patient to balance yin and yang. Another famous Chinese medical
writing is The Recipes for Fifty-Two Ailments, about 186 BC, known as
Mawangdui Manuscript, was discovered in 1973. It provides cures for
such conditions as warts, hemorrhoids, snake bites among others.
Chinese physicians prescribed a combination of acupuncture,
moxibustion and herbal medicines to restore their patients’ yin & yang
balance("LIU SHENG's TOMB")("Huangdi Neijing - Wikipedia")("History Of Medicine | History &
Facts").
Shennong by Guo Xu
(1456–c.1529); painting dated
1503, Shanghai Museum
This painting presents Shennong
nibbling a branch. The picture
illustrates Shennong’s role as
healer who taught humans
medical skills("Category:Guo Xu - Wikimedia
Commons")
Mawangdui Manuscript, ink on silk, 2nd
century BCE. © Hunan Province Museum
Mawangdui medical manuscripts were
written during Han dynasty. The
manuscript was discovered in 1973 during
excavations of Lady Dai Tomb (Lady Dai
was a Han dynasty aristocrat who lived in
2nd century BCE)("This Ancient Chinese Anatomical Atlas
Changes What We Know About Acupuncture And Medical History")
Traditional Chinese Medicine:
Acupuncture
1.
Acupuncture is a Chinese medical system which involves a practice of inserting needles into certain body points to
relieve pain or to treat a certain condition. Archaeological excavations revealed bronze, silver and golden needles
used by ancient physicians to treat their patients. Thus, golden and silver acupuncture needles, 2nd BCE, were
found in Liu Sheng’s tomb (Liu was an ancient Chinese prince during Han dynasty). Huangfu Mi (215-282 CE) was
the most prominent acupuncture doctor who compiled the Canon of Acupuncture between 256 and 260 CE.
Ancient Chinese physicians used statues and charts to show acupuncture points on the body. For example, Wang
Weiyi (c.987-1067), casted two statues in bronze representing a man from the front and behind. He engraved 657
acupuncture points on his statues. These models were used for medical training purposes, especially during exams.
The statues were coated in thick wax and then filled with water. While taking an exam, students would locate the
acupoint and needle into the wax covered statue. When the needle was removed a small drop of water would be
evident if the student had reached the right("Ancient Chinese Acupuncture & Acupuncture Points | Kootenay Columbia
College").
1.
Gold and silver acupuncture needles dated 2nd century BCE
The needles were discovered in Liu Sheng’s tomb in 1968
2.
("LIU SHENG's TOMB")
1.
Acupuncture chart from Shisi jing
fahui (Expression of the Fourteen
Meridians) written by Hua Shou (fl.
1340s, Ming dynasty) (Expression of
the Fourteen Meridians). ([Tokyo] :
Suharaya Heisuke kanko, Kyoho gan
[1716])("Acupuncture - Wikidoc").
Herbal Medicine
The Divine Farmer’s Materia Medica (or Shennong Ben Cao), dated around 206 BC, is thought to be the earliest Chinese
pharmacopoeia that comprises over 360 herbs classified into three groups. While the first group includes food herbs, the
other two groups are called medicinal herbs that are prescribed to each patient as an individual formula based on
person’s medical condition. Zhang Zhongjing (Chinese: 張仲景; 150–219), was one of the prominent ancient Chinese
physicians (during the later years of the Han dynasty) who worked in the field of herbal medicine. The Treatise on Cold
Injuries (the first known treatise on drug and herbal medicine) is ascribed to him. The development of herbal medicine
made it possible for doctors to perform surgeries. For example, Hua Tuo (110 to 208 AD), invented an anesthetic called
“Mafei San”, which was basically powdered cannabis, taken orally, which caused the patient to lose consciousness,
allowing doctors to use invasive surgical procedures. Herbal therapy was also used in infectious disease treatment. Thus,
a prominent doctor Ge Hong (283-364 CE) suggested a real cure for malaria – the qinghao plant, which is still one of our
main medicines against malaria("History Of Medicine - China").
1.
Ingredients of the anesthetic powder
used by Hua Tuo. From a facsimile copy
of the 1594 edition of Li Shih-Chen's
Compendium of Materia Medica; Louis
Fu personal collections (English
translation inserted by the Louis Fu
Traditional Chinese
Medicine:Moxibustion
In addition to oral herbal treatments, ancient Chinese doctors
also used herbs in moxibustion, a form of therapy that entails
the burning of mugwort leaves in combination with acupuncture
treatment. Cauterization Canon of the Eleven Vessels of the Foot
and Forearm and Cauterization Canon of the Eleven Yin and
Yang Vessels excavated from Mawangdui tomb (burial dated 168
BC) are thought to be the earliest monographs that discussed
the application of moxibustion. Most diseases mentioned in
Mawangdui manuscripts were pain-related and moxibustion was
the only remedy that was applied("LIU SHENG's TOMB").
1.
Chinese village doctor (Song Dynasty, ca. 950 AD., now in National Palace Museum, Taiwan) A picture depicts a
doctor treating a man by burning herbs on his back(Carr and Carr)
Summary
Medicine in Ancient China
Chinese medical system dates back at least 2,000 years. According to tradition, Huangdi (the
“Yellow Emperor”), wrote the canon of internal medicine known as the Huangdi neijing (Yellow
Emperor’s Inner Classic) dated circa 206 BCE. The work discusses
two major forces Yin and Yang and five elements such as wind, damp, hot, cold, etc. which
imbalance results in humans’ diseases. Another famous Chinese medical writing is The Recipes
for Fifty-Two Ailments, dated circa 186 BC, known as Mawangdui Manuscript, provides cures for
such conditions as warts, hemorrhoids, snake bites among others. Both works are essential for
Chinese medical practitioners. The treatises focus on three major techniques which are still used
by Chinese medicine: acupuncture, herbs and moxibustion. Mi (215-282 CE) was the most
prominent acupuncture doctor who compiled the Canon of Acupuncture between 256 and 260
CE. Ancient Chinese doctors used silver and golden needles to stimulate body points in order to
bring back Ying & Yang balance. Herbal therapy has been described by Zhang Zhongjing in his
work on Cold Injuries (the first known treatise on drug and herbal medicine) is ascribed to him.
His book helped Chinese doctors to explore herbal therapy further. Thus, a prominent doctor Ge
Hong (283-364 CE) suggested a real cure for malaria – the qinghao plant, which is still used
nowadays. Moxibustion, a form of therapy that entails the burning of mugwort leaves in
combination with acupuncture treatment, was discussed in Mawangdui Manuscript; it was later
transformed into a cupping therapy which is still popular in China. Chinese physicians mainly
focused on less invasive techniques. Hua Tuo was probably the most prominent ancient Chinese
surgeon who was known for anesthetics investigation, thus making it possible to perform
elaborate surgeries. Chinese medical teachings developed over 2, 000 years ago are still
popular and effective in our days.
Legacy of Chinese Medicine
The Chinese herbal therapy and acupuncture are still widely used in China and in the western
world. Thus, we can find natural therapy clinics that practice traditional Chinese medicine across
Canada. Acupuncture is mainly used to relief pain and to treat various disorders such as anxiety
and depression. Currently the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends acupuncture for
over 100 conditions. In 2003, WHO published a report - which was based on 255 clinical trials –
showing that acupuncture has a therapeutic effect for different medical conditions. That is why,
acupuncture becomes a very popular alternative medicine in our days. Herbal therapy is also still
used. For example, to treat a common cold we often turn to a traditional Chinese recipe by using
honey and lemon in our tea. Furthermore, flax seeds and flax seed oil are often used for digestive
tract problems and modern doctors tend to recommend them for mild digestive disorders. As we
can see, ancient Chinese medicines is still used in in the 21st century("Innovating Chinese Herbal Medicine:
From Traditional Health Practice To Scientific Drug Discovery").
Medicine in Ancient Greece
& China
There are many similarities between medicine in ancient Greece and that in ancient China. Thus, both
civilizations claim that humans received their medical skills through divine forces. Ancient Greek
tradition considers god-healer Asclepius to be the first doctor, while ancient Chinese regard “Divine
Farmer” Shennong as their “medical forefather”. Furthermore, both schools of medicine focused on
forces that helped keep human body free from illnesses. Thus, ancient Greeks developed a concept of
Four Humors such as blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile that can affect a patient’s health.
Ancient Chinese doctors used a similar approach while discussing a balance of yin and yang, two
major forces, that are import to human wellbeing. Finally, both medicines tried to develop practical
treatment solutions, while relying on herbal therapy and surgical treatment.
The main difference between the two schools is that ancient Greeks used more invasive surgical
procedures, whereas Chinese physicians primarily used acupuncture, herbal treatment and
moxibustion. Ancient Greeks made astonishing anatomical observations of the human body which
allowed them to perform various surgical procedures such as bloodletting, amputation, etc. There is a
strong evidence showing that ancient Greeks even performed surgeries for treating cataracts in the
3rd century BC. By contrast, Chinese physicians mainly focused on less invasive techniques. Hua Tuo
was probably the most prominent ancient Chinese surgeon who was known for removing an
arrowhead from general Kuan. He was the first doctor who invented an anesthetics making it possible
to perform elaborate surgeries. According to Chinese tradition, Hua personally tested various herbs
and found a few that made his mouth numb.This was how he supposedly figured out the anaesthetic
properties of certain herbs.
Both schools paved the way to significant advances in medicine. As a result, much of what has been
taught by both ancient Greek and Chinese physicians still persists as a basis for modern medical
studies.
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