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Instructional design for situated learning
Article in Educational Technology Research and Development · March 1993
DOI: 10.1007/BF02297091
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lnstructional Design for Situated Learning
□
Michael F Young
The design of situated learning must be
e/ose/y linked to the ecological psychology of
"situated cognition," as exemplified In; problem solving in a complex situated context,
the Jasper Series. The extreme view of situated learning contends that all thinking
must be viewed as situated, and is therefore
better explained by concepts of perception
and action than by the concepts of infarmation processing psychology. In this article,
ideas of ecological psychology provide the
background for describing four broad tasks far
the design of situated learning: selecting the
situations, providing scaffolding, determining and supporting the role of the teacher,
and assessing situated learning. Further,
three metrics for evaluating situated learning
are suggested: affording transfer, providing
meaning, and providing an anchor far crosscurricular investigation.
O Brown, Collins, and Duguid
(1989) have
suggested that learning should take place in
the context of realistic settings in which the
reasons for learning sometimes repetitive or
tedious procedures are made clear-an idea
with roots tracing back to experiential learning (Dewey, 1938). Using what Brown et al.
(1989) called "authentic tasks" enables students
to immerse themselves in the culture of an academic domain, much like an apprentice tailor can be immersed in the culture of tailoring
while only being responsible for ironing the
garments finished by the master tailor. Brown
et al. suggested that cognitive apprenticeships
can be designed that immerse students i:1 the
culture of traditional academic domains such
as mathematics, science, history, art, music,
and languages. By being immersed in such
realistic contexts, the need to learn certain
repetitive or tedious skills is made evident,
thus requiring less direct explanation by the
teacher. The Cognition and Technology Group
at Vanderbilt (1990, 1992) extended the ideas
of cognitive apprenticeships by proposing
macro-contexts (complex situations) that can
"anchor" instruction in subjects across the currículum. A recent commission designed to
implement the nation's educational goals
summarizes:
We believe, after exarnining the fíndings of cognitive science, that the rnost effective way of
learning skills is "in context," placing learning
objectives within a real environrnent rather than
ETR&D. Vol. 41. No. 1. pp. 43-58 ISSN 1042-1629
43
44
45
im;istinr, !'hat studP!)f.;, fb:;r le."l;'1~ in (r,c a~tnlC~
t ~C<J 1, iJI be cxpcctcd ~c. a pplv. (SCA2'15,
:,·ha!t
1991, p.~)
.
Hut if wt• are ab;c to lum iu our tc•"thll(.!<s i<.w
rcalis~k situr1t~o:1s; él nl;nber o( issues m~1sr
fir:-;t be i'lddre~.:.0C:. 1 lo\v shou k! che ~ituaiion.~
l~ selected or de5,ig ned? How f.Jn w (: td! gond
5huali0f'I.:; fm:n :>ad on~!.? '.-•Vhat khid~ o f ~ests
will wt>u~e?
lllc NATliRC Oí S111.,AJ[D•_::A?NNG.'\!\D
SmJP..TEC COGNl:IGN
The r:aost ext're11le po!.ition on sítuatcd lcaming t\.mtt.>nd~ tha7not on~y learning bul ~hin k111g ] :",t:l{ ir. :.'. ttJ<1t:"<j mu! lll'f~¡·¡ • mu-:.t t_,.,_. vit"¼~.•d
frc.)ff, ?J. ccologirnl p sychological pc ri;pec tive.
·:·h;s fr;im("\'\·u:·k <lraws lleavi.lv frotn lhe work
of J,1~.-~ C1b.,;o,: (197\)il9Nh), ,~~11ph,1..,izia1r, pc·r•
C<:pfrm r.:ith(;r tba n n,emc-ry as the m ea ns ~y
w h1ch wc ¡t~ar-n _ In con trast to sche n1¡¡ tlwori~ in \vhich ¡ne~1:1in~ 1!; ~lored a11d relri1:wd
tmrr. mf'•nory, mc,,ninr ¡.., situi'ltC'd ::og:niti<.m
i~• .50n c·ratcd on the spr,t th ro u gh pcrcl~lv ing
a lid al'.ting (e.3 ., Clancey & Ro!tch e lle , i1,
p:vss). Jn. tht' sítua~ed robnition modet the
~~rocc-s!;cs of percciv1,,g and nch ~g ere-ate
rnt·a nin;:; "on the fly," rather tha n read i.n g it
~,ck fnJ111 s<.tm l'thing (1epresenta tion o l" sLhemJlicJ :;torcd m thc hc~d. From :his vic w,
n: n·,~~mbcring a1~ses throug h in teractions with
the cnvi.,.-on mc-:, t, an d thc conctpt of r:1€'!11ory
bt.-com1!~ none:ici~tent O?' 1m.•levant to ar. explano tiun -:.>f k.nowlcdg<' c>nd Jcarn:ng, rt>placed
by .'.'! n emph,¡,si~ of thc: tt;11ing of 2ttenhon .and
ptn:eption; ~·hat i ~;, pC"rceptual learning.
From thc p c rspccti"~ of !:ijtuatcd cognjtion,
t hcre Me alway~ t wo ~OOl?()r,ents to ll~'1ming:
d'·:e ager;. L and lhe con.le-xi. Knowl4?dge and
intcl li gcncc must be vicwcd as th~ rcl.:i tionsilip t:.ehveen the ai:tor (effectivit;cs/a bili:iesJ
and !be envu·únn,eol (m!orma:io1~ r.pecifying
pc.1rtic~1'.tr ,1ttúd,'.H1(cs}-<l syrr.mNry ot <Kau:;,ll
i1ueractiú1\s (Sh~i"-', Turvey, & :\face, 1982). lt
wo~tld be fl'\t5Je.1ding 11t best to asse1t that ·the
prnp..: rtit::; of tht~domain, thc prnblcm spacc,
or th,~ le-,,rning conte.xt mere ly in!luence thinkin~. For ex..;1npie, il is the rek.tlonship tietween
th,- ilfJ'nt :mrl th(' prohlcn, thilt ,s prohl,"'m 501\'hg. lt ~-.:mlld not be f':'\eulingful to charactcr-
ize thc problem soh-ing o f an in dividu~l apart
from tht.· context in w hich th'1t problem soh:.
i11g occurs. A situaled rng11itive .:rnalysis ,,t
thir,ki n¡; m(1 ~t dL-....:ritic búth tlH~ n.bilitics oí· the
pr1'\b)em solv~r and ali the celevant attríbutcs
Vit="Nt'd Ji,: ~ g...-omr-trii: figutc, thc ant's p~lh
is i;-rPy,Jl.tr, nrr.1pli.:x, ami h,; rd to JeSt..-ribe. But
ils wmplPx¡ty is rL•J.11)' a conplcx)tv ~n tht'
1>L:rf,1<.'e of t f'lr:- hc,1ch, 1·.·:>t 11 .::úmplcxi:y ,if the
ant. (¡.,. 64)
of the envircn.:ner.t pexe1v~d :)y :·he probh~m
solver, i.nch:Uing dinwns ions o f tlH~ prnhlNn
<'lnd p1u:..,Jt-m space thnt ,,tford (Crtain .::it-iions.
ln the equal emphasis o f cn.virm':ment and
agent, ~it~1a::ed co¡;nitiun reprt-~t'n~ mm!:! than
Ski11n~r·~ ('1()87) im povcri~hc-d cmp hasis on th._:_,
cont'~xt, ~ntecedc·n ts, and c\msec L!ences of
acti<>r.ti. Situated cognition assc.·rts that ootJust
anvlhingi 11 tl1~'.l-'rwinmmer,t thí'lt :::a.u:,,Í.~ a rc,ac
tion l':1 a stimulu s, b u t r:.üh~r lt i$ t h<~ ir.formatinn pkked up from the enviro;)ment that
mw.i under..tJrHI ;md USI-' mstm<iiLrn11Jy.
c.:n.,'TV..1; Smth, aad Moore (1n p re~s) ,1ddr(•~s
the interactiw maure of cognbon as thcv
underlake lü d\ar.lt~l:.:!ril'.f~ trn1;,..fvr Í!lnn ;i 1.,;in~in:; i.it:J.ltion tu ~ J;ovd :,ituation, using the
simated learni!'lg modei. Th~y writé th~t an
activity like prnble~l.1 rn1ving
'A'e
. . jointly deµend,> o r. p ropcrth.·5 af th:ngs and
ma t.-ri:1ls in th ::- $ifuation <.nd on chnrac:tt,•ristks
of th<,~ f)€rson or grou¡>. foEÓ'\ving Gibson (l97Yi
1986) and 5haw et al. {1982). , . .:1ffmdan;:es ;uid
abilitit'S are l'i>l.:ili~ to ead1 ~1thcr: ;.1 ~ituc:1tion c:iln
.afford i.1?1 iJCtivity r,~,· ;in 11een • -.·,.'hO hJ 'S a ;,prO•
pnate abili.til''-, .and an <lgent can h,we a:\ ability
for an a<:tivify m <1 fiitu.ation t:litl has ¿pproorialt? ,l fÍúrd,m ces. (p. 4)
·
Th u.'., from tf\c pcrspcchvc of situaled cogbe, just as ac<u ratP. (or inaccurnte} tu dassify envinmme11ls as giftcd nr
re tard(id a:-; it :s to r.h .:i r-1 rtf'ri1.r rhc•;1r,{·11ts v,áw
opt'rnl~ in those environmenl" in those tcrm~.
1íowcvcr, d itssifymg individuah; or e,.virol!menls in :,uch Letms i~ irnipprnp ri;1tt' trom íl
s it-.Jül:t:d cognition per.;pective, ,;ir.ce the e n tire
interact1on is always dyn:1mic. Students inleracl differen lJy in difi(!renl sihrntr(ms, a nd l'Vl 'TI
in simiJur 1.;nvin.mrnt:ms students· chang ing
goals and intentions make thc situa tion~ dif~ renl. In fact il Ls onty Lhe intf•rJt"!'inr, l>1➔v.,,.-~1
an ag1.~nt ilnd an cnvirunmen~ that can tru!v
be said to X i. ntc lligcnt
~
Vicei,le and Harwor:d (1991)) 1!x1, L1i ?11-<I tl1c•
r ol(• of rontcxt by rderring to Simon's (1981)
nllegory regarding an an: on a ~ ach:
nition, it wouJd
Tht: ant'~ b1::h;1vi0f 1s co n::.traim:d ~iy ~h,-'. land:;car,l~ of the bcnch mci re than by i~1t1:rn.:I
orz.i m~;11ic fon::es. v...·hen the ,,nt is phiced o n
a difforent pac of the be<-Kh or wht>n externa}
d i:;tutb;inces (í'.g., ~v ind,. earth mov c!ment,
O('.C:Ul', d itierL·nt 11.:"1vigatio11actions a re requircC
:;e, rc-:..:h rhf! sanw goa! Difh:-rt"nt ..mlS may havc
differ~nt s trotí'gk~, fvr n~·.:igation that me t1sed
J epi::nd~n~ u pon tht' ty:1e of disturbance~)(per ienct-d. Vicente ¡u-·:d H uw()od (1990) sug·
gestcd that ,rnderst.nnding c;u crl a situated
.1-::tivity ro!q•.ú cs thl:"' dclerrntnation vt (,,) !'eg~1L:trit1t:s ic_ the Wíl)'!t th1.• la;1dscnpe c;1ffects the
ant, nnd :-:!lnult<H'\eoul':-l)' (b) thf-' psychologi~
cal im•:niancc of th,· dflt rKros::,c differcnl l.u-ks.
F(ir ~iluatcd c(,gnitirn1 which has sodat/cultu r"I cLm1¡K,tH:'nts, potential itw,iriants of the
agent indude t:nals a nd intentit1ns, ar.d
pott.'11lial reguJ,,tim, i11cludcs informa tion <'Ont;,ii cwd in lhe environmcnt, e5peci~1ny other
peupl<' v,.'ho pruvide n1uti.1,,I affordancc~ for
each o thc r {t>.g., cognith1e 11ppre n h(.."e:Ship.
Hrov.•11 el a!. .. 1989; rcc1procaJ teachir,5, Hrrwvn
& P;dir·,~~car, l9.S8; dis~ribtih-!d U;tetligence, f ('n,
198h; t.'xlC'ma] ntenv>ry, V·leg:n1~r, 1987).
Situ;,ted cogr.11to:1 r~quires a ra.dical redefinitinn úf le.irning, th i:1king, anó wh,1t it
m ean!. to bP inlé !igent. \Vith ~l1e emph asi~ n ot
on rr:emory bu! nn ~ cc~ption, know!edg~ is
111, loni,:-r simply somt>thing i,.tored in t1u: ht!Jd ;
rathcr, ,~ i ~ an ir.ternction i!1 a !:ipeciík contcxt
in v..•hid1 ''ln h ~lligcn ~" activity Ü:i m t:.'atlingful
;111d ¡,ppmprir.t(•. L1vt-'s (H88) wor k tm CWI)'·
d é:}' ,:,gnilton h igh;ights tf1.:! importance ot ror1.H:xt (:;ituahllns) to a Jescriptitm ( tÍ thü,kíng
LaH· dt>~cribes !10w '' just pla:n folks {JPFs)"'
u•>C"'. mathematics, think d iííer~ndy. and :;olv~
problcmt• i11 evcryday 5€'ttin~~ that th cy cansolv e in dasi;rnom s t:ttin~':i - Co~1 text
broadly includt:s pc.>oplt:, mach.inl~S. d t•sign ¡,u-ti~
fac.s. <.•11vironrnen::s. amJ úlher objectS and
agcnts th;it ~l kl)' ir:tewct to cstablis h t.'COlogiral p1-obkrn-solvin ~ rdation sh ips. H11t conte xt
a\50 h11 lude,, " shar;;.•d c:ulhlre, undt:.:rst.:1nding, c,nd rnotivation:-. In ordt'r to even d e te,."1
,~xpl:l't k nowlcdgi:-, iet a lone m~tru<:l or teach
;.\Ot
it, it is n ecessary tu l1ave ci stud t:.:ni act~vdv
engciged in some impo,t ,111t complex rcalistic
{authentic) achv1ty. b 1)11~ import.1111 1ns~;mce
whcn th 1": stud~u t' s ~n•J iron;neri.t iru:ludes
other peoplc (teach1:'r:(I, kr.~'\'lt>dge is tit!ct~
ooni=:truc::eC: t.hr-.>ugll n,mmml!v.ition (Creeno,
1~?). A situated lct:rt,ing re<h·fin1l10n of
knowl~dgc, tb-•n , con tend s tbát kr.,.l\vlc:dge is
;J1\ active rdati.on:;.fr.p between an agent n11d
thl· l~rwi.ronmem, and J.car:uag must takc piafe
during the timl~ thestudent is ,\ctiv;•I: er.§l~d
¼ith 3 .::on,pJex, n~ li:; t:-: in,;tn.:.ctinrn~ I cor.tEx l·
THE DE~'K.,N Of SITUATFC L::.ARNING
il<'yond siraply t1.!ii.ng authl'-atic tr1sks occac:;1om11lv in d ;J~~rocms, some l·,.'lv<' argut."'<i lhat
ni! lea;ning m u st 1::e ~nder!-it;,od ílS sb1;1h~d
in :'t!alistic context::; (c.g., lforeitec l'J9l; G retTO
e t ¡il_, !ri press). But if all h:'<lTrüng l!:i ~i!uatcc!,
then ?ar: ot the atttibutt:S oí thL: s:tuatiw1 for
r.\O:it t raditionfl~ ins tnH:lton is a ,:h1ssmom,
wheri::' l~<H11ing is competitivt.~ a múñA ir~divjd ual~. thc -.ubject and naturc- of r:rotilt>rr.S
change on thc hcur in II predic:abl~ ~1H'l.'t!:sinn, and th l~ n1:1jür, if r.ol' rmly, snurct: of lr.fcr'mation is une pcrscn: the t"t>é:!d"!er. Th:s is n ot
a oontcx.t that lrdns.te:S to many "iitualiu:1soutsió.-t the educatiuna! system. lr- rr,ust othH e ontl":x.l~ in which acrcdr:mic s:.;l.,jects are élp plkd,
tht-ri.': is ll5l:illly one biK proº::,11:il: :.o solve (such
os NASAs problem of how a1 put 1nen an
Mars) and m11riy rC'lat~d Smclller prnbkrrv; i:1
~·rvice '.'.J th.ii; s·..iperordin~h-· goal (~ucb íl~ e:ngi ·
nt!:ering thl:' rcxkt::t, :ssues ot hum~11 phy-siology o n a long ~pace fhs:;h1 , ph:n nint, t:ir food
and fue! , and the ph~ics of traje(.torit>s and
:-endCZ\·"~ms). Further, foe inbrmat:on for solv
ing th~se pruhlc1:Tu is di~hibu~ ac.mss a~c"!r:y
11,dividual~ and only tltrough col1;.1bou,ti~ir, ,,nd
coo rd i 11<1Uon ,1.n ::olutíu11r, bt:': found. To mcN
the te st of " authentitity, " s llu:1ru n1s 1T,1..1st 31
least have some of lht> importan! att:ibukc;
of n:ic1l -lif1::? prublern solving, indudjng il!Strllí:turc•d con: piex go•)lr.. ar. opp orn..cn~ty for
the ddection of relevan: \ie.-sus im:lt•,-ant infi.w•
mdhon, achvc1gent"mt1v~ cngagcme:it in findiog and deíming p:-tibkm!: a~- \'-'el: as in suiving
thcm, in v11lvement d tht $h.dic'n t's ~ lit:fs and
wlueti, a1,d :rn oppo:t,.mity to eng.if,(' in (Ol1.:iborativt> ir;ter?f'rson,1! a.:tivitit':t (Yvung .~
47
46
Md'-feese, i:1 pn.:ss). Thi~ i~ th,:,; ni.1 t urc o(
k,nning th<H takes pino: i n C.'\.'('1-y·.:l,1y :-ih :<lti1m!:;
(Lave, l 988).
Cons'.der thn:·e l-'x¡1111pk-s ni rr:<.-J -\\'arld
pr,: :·1,J¡•m ->:)h-ing: the s'..lrgcon (iuring ,m opc:-.:1t,cr·•, .'In .A.ir Fnn::c p!'.ol acqt;iring targets whilc
I1ying a,1 F-15 fíghter :e:., ::.nd a design tearn
dr.ve!..-,ping
2.
n_,,..,.,. idc,1 \Yith the .=!id d com-
puh:~- dc.:.ig_:'I l<>ols. The kr,ü\.vlcdgc i:, the:;r.
situatiuns i~ nnt sla:i:: r.nd not soldy rnn
tJined ~vithin tht: '.r,d-i vidu,1l(s} Jm,olvc ~1.. Th1;
"kN),vledge'' i':i d i:;: tnh, rt'd t hY0111:'.;l1fn1 l ihe
(:nvircnmenl, ii , coinpL1'. NS, boo.:.~k~, p;1ti<:nt
mo!1itor~, c:u(kpit im,tn1111t~t 1l~, and t.:"spe..::ially
otk:r ~".:o ple: ·•.vhrlt R -':il (1 %q) r.al:ó:d ' 'dis-
trihut,:.,d intt; lli!,';ence.'' The he.::r! monüor.:;, a1.:-plc,ne ,:;vionic~. ,md ...:o,nputer c~esign program~
for thes~ real-h'ürU prúblcin ::e,)!vers all provide inforr:1aiion whíle c-;:mh r:ta.-'/ly .;:grca Jir,g
n•..'"l• : p •·o·:::1cms (anci. subprubkm::;) nml c:!l.:ing ·
ing ~onditicns. Therc is a::,o te,ur.wvork mvclveti .- 1,,,Jh t:Xpt;?~·t!:'- in di;f.:!rt~nl d t1:n,ün~
colbt:-or~iting to ~;ol','l' ,~ :.11ohl f:'m tilat r-,e one
spt•c'.:1: j~:t c.1.ll:td ..;.nh:eakne: what [;n.;,wn ,rnd
Cir11pionL~ ~ [99,J) !·,ave r'::'&,•;i:cd
ton~ "the wcia!
const~·t1t.:ticn oEkr:owledge.'' ln ¡idditior:, í.'ach
ir:.~lividua.'.'s µ,0Jl s .. v;.,Jue:: : , and br::Jjeh i:nt(~r..-.::t
v,,ith fh,:::se distt·~bul~d ti-Ource;; o! informa:;on,
so that ccirl': ::.)f: rson's experit'J"'i."(' i •, thP silu.:i:::ion i.s uotque.
Th<•r( ,,re '.o ur crit:c<il t;isb Íiivolvcd in
~nstruch0n<1l dc~ig,1 lur si', ll í.".led 14:'"a'·n•;r.r . T hr.
fir.:;t h1•;k Í'; lhc- r,elec,"i o:1 1)f the si!ua.tlon or
set ef <:1h1;1t10:1 •; lJ\al ,•..-_il! afbrd the :.1cq1.lisi':io11 of knowl<:"df;E:> rh.::i~ tht~ teacher ,,_,,· isheseach
~t;_ldt:>nt ~º <HXJl-i::e-sd?(tio:, of the prnper
''g_ene,alor ~-t:>t-" ('~Inw N ,::tL, 198I J. T .he sefond
'.·;:.\;k w tn ~-n~·.-ide :he nC;('SSMY " ::;caffolding,..
fof noviccs to op(.:;c.a te within thc co,nplex 1ea.lis tk conte;~ a ,1d sti!I permit exp,at::; tu w~-rk
wLhin t:,c s<.~me situa l"ion (see fr-r example,
Bn :n er.- 1986; Vygüts ky, 11J!8). With H1l' n:k
cf the t<~n..;hr:r reco:"lCt':,.-,tu~1lized ir.to m0:e the
ro:e c,i :.:oach {_Collins, l!nl .l, tl1c third :a::.k oí
Ccsign for si•uf.ltt' ~ k<HT:.in3 :.5 lo p,-ovlde supports: ~hM c1Ht.)le !ea:-ht.· rs to tr;:1ck p rng ress,
a~3~s.s product:>, ~1~:t:-1..·:;.s d islri!Ju tt>d sm;rcp;.:, of
kr.O'.•ikdg.e, int,~i-;u:t k"HJw l,:dg(·J.bl r and C:J1!abur:i tivl'!y wi!h in dividua l st 1JJ Cnt5 .:ind/c1
cuope:nling f/l.Jll[1S ,:,f si:t:Cent':., and d evelop
th r:>1r (,l\Vn skdl:-; in ul:Lz ing spc<:ific situatio:1s
and ~;ih,ab:')llS i,1 general (te-ad·,er prcpantion
and enh,rn(ement). The fi:1al task for t!"le
drsign of ~ituatcd ;e.:rning is to defint· che ro'.t~
,:w,é nature of cissessmer.t and \\'hal it n-,e«n s
te- ''.=¡SH~ss·' si.tuated tearnin¡:;.
On :he is:;t:c of sclccting si'.·uations_. Gn-'P.lli)
et ai. (in prc :;ts) puint out thd multiple situa·
ti0n" -1,c re,,Uy 1,eed¿,d f0t s1··,1dP.nts to acqu:re
tht:> ~..,.,•,"r;_d, ,:tlistr:ac t kuow!eige tha! is cssen•
tia! lo m ,1thP.mdtifal ,, nd scitnLfic thnkir,g.
The Ccgnition and Technology Grou? r. t
VanJc,·bilt (19'90.- 1992} also aci,;.nowledged the
need te p:rov'.de ai"I. intd ligently S<:';1.. -,:·h.:d ,md
sequenced set of :;itu.il.tion& (in i~s Jas~~t>r Se1ies,
pai~s. ol related adventurt'.tó) thd provi.dc slu·
d~nts ~m 0ppor~uni;y to d ~tecr thP C"i)m¡i,11w11t~
1
of tht:·ir ti-oi1,ti()11s that nn:-irn•.-,H·i a nt f!c,·css éln
Cllhrc ci,tss oí p.roblems. ílut !itt:lr- rec;ea.L·ch is
,.v,!iL,iik~ lo gL;ide us in ~electinb th,;;~ proper
tcx.1 th:.,t provid<.: s..:<itfold:n g for r1 n ov':t'.C v.: ith111
tr1 envirnnmc:d. S(1hrway
n 99"J) p:rov idf~:
í.l
good ex :'l:n'•.ple of sc;.iffnl<l~r,g \\:ht'J1 hi5 PASCAL
prog;·,rn1n1 ing l~·a: ning w0·1 m3·'<-ci, cerLün
optiuns ta·,.¡w,liktblc to ,,o·/ices 1.11: ld 1·hcy h~ve
c,.)mp'.cx:d i ·npflr\;:;:1.t , but ?t>rh;.1ps )e~~ obvi·
0:1::; step::, -;rn·.h ;1s h0<.1i plannin g and µse ~td0
(údj'":""'lg. lbP -:o r.c<:·pt of '>et-Hn!dtí'.g i,:; dirr.ctly
rd,,tt:d :o thc ,,müLH'.Í 11) le..Hnt":r con :-rni
;iffr,r;.~ed by t"h<.: le.Jrning context. B·J.: ra '.h t>"r
:han prngwrr. cc)r.trúl ,,r advisement fr(w1 lhe
íl~-; igP:l'•· (e.s .. ·1·e t·,11yson &. Buttrcy, .l93<i )_.
5-0 f~nlding r t: k r:-: lo ,1 pm(,X'SS üt ;ni[ii!ily !imw
iting t\ novicc' ~; :~,-ress watl the fo:-;1L1res o~ tile
i::vntt:>xt a nd ':hen n::moving thúse ,:m st nü n l'!sltün as po5•;ible. The iss ue:, for insr_uctiona:
d e s)~n. th.('.n, ~re v,'hnt sc,;1ffulc]in g to prov id t.:
tor 1:::ad, sih1c1leé l~arr:i¡¡g c-::ntex: c,nd how
.1.::i-
ririnciples rnn be s·~1gge5ted, such as pruvidlng a o:mtrast set (exampk~ ";lnd 11011 cx~1r~\pli.!s)
;ind pro~r~·~.-:..in¡:, fro1n l..:irge (lifle, e1tces to finer
;.1nd Jinl:'f dJstlnctinrs. Bu t t h<~~(~ rc=;ults cor.1e
pr\rn..:;rily from useof sl:é.t!c¿ispbvs r;1tl"'1Cr than
tile rnrnpkx, inte·:p e rs\rni l e~win.mmens ot
rcc.listic problem~sdving s1tt:a¿ions. Gibson
(1979n986) suggested that our percc~..,tuat 5-~1sR
ter:,s are designcd to dctect invariance and wiJl
do so ~eadily if g iven a n o~-port:mity. The
designer·~ first :ask is to sele<t tlw gt·ne~<ltor
set of si~-ui tions (:.:om¡.:,!.;x, rcali~b.: probll'rn
spotKC.5) that afford. s tudents the be:t uppiJr•
tl:nitytvdchx:t tht: ~t<.1bk (inv¡;ria11t_) c:01tCe? l~
ot tr.:iótlonnl ';ubject dof!"lains.
On the iss,.i,;: o f prnvl-:.l ing scaffoldin g, sJu<.1tc{.~ IL'i.l.:-ning f':'com rnenrl ~ Hvt i:d'.Hh-n~s bl'
a:::tiv:..· gl·1•,c·rr1tm:; of holh prnblr.m:: ~,,d. solt.-
qu ickly it Gtn be l't:~ mowd J~ students mov1:.·
fro :T, nov\cc to expert; r1i.:· rknnan~-:e.
O n ::-he iss-.ie c,t ,;upp·: '.rLin¡.; the ccacher's role
in ;:;ilua tcd k.irdng, íi. rnus'I: firgt be cau\iont:-d
lh~1t fü:• the situd,;>d iearr:ing pcr<::ptxlive,
tf•acbng \s ¿¡ w !t> ph,yed only in p,:rt by people (likt: tl'ad1t10m.l teacb1.;rs) in th e c;túdent's
c nvin1nm1:·11l. Thc- iearni:1~ c m ' irom:wn t ¡13,,jf
play::. ,} ¡.i,nt ¡~, t1:·aCi1i11_¡.; by ,1ffnrding (o: nol
afü1rding'J ct·rtain i m p o r l;::nt actiln~s tu h t~
'.c.:-1 rnnl. So:ne tl~a chinr le; al:>ü don€ b~ otlwr
::;lud e:its, whn pr,~vid<'" in1.i::ual ~17feint,mces
l (.1 Dne i:.nother. (-\\~,n .. st·.idents invnlved in
s itu:Ht~d k•a'.·nint> te ,1ch thcnhclvc•-s ~s l.heic
1w rceptual :ó}Sl~ms det·('ct :.:ht.ngP.s, .111,1lvze
env iro nme-:1:::;, pm1..l:.1Lt' 4'Ctü.ms (..:-hane;t:s ir.
the t·n viriJ:1:nent), and ''k ,·. rr(' hf dctecting
i:n=ariancc ;in oss :-itu a tio ns Frorn the situate-d
ierir:ú-.g pE rspective, thl:n_. t~c1c.hing ca n be
ói~·ectcd by ,my of !he.· v::,iit>d sources of db
t ríbutc d knowledgl! d f :,,cribl:'d bv Pea (JQ88),
indwJifw· b;..~: not limiled m the teachcr
Lookic~g sülely at fo:: relc::: playtd. by <iH ~x-
ea ch s h1denr to ":--ris~•·n)'>S thf':
p(.•rl(:nctd adLtlt upC<ffl ~ing \\.'i lhin lhe s it-
' ' p,pnr>r~,tor !'>d' ' nf situa::ions thíl'.· wiH enilbk
:-:.luden',s to learn a lgeb::il or political theory
ü:·
any of the i"raditional d 11s~room subjects.
F~0m w ork on pdttern recognil"i<.m, y,~n(:ri"ll
tiOHS_. ,lll0\·1?in g
bndsr~¡w of ~nowledge" :-alht~r lht!n lake a
linear tl'lp dov.·n a single p(1th tlwt hi"l.:, been
pn~df~hm~d by an lnslrucüonal des.igner (Spin>,
1991) . Allo\-.·ing students t o Jdir-..e the ir lW..-n
rn".""'lsi:r.;ints on ~he leamin~ environment ,fot~s
:1ot imply CO;T:plctc frecdom or <1imless exploration. Ratli.er, !ike thti apprentice t'1 ilc,r asw
sígncd only to iror:ing fíni5hed garmen~s..
activiries can bt> defíneé wiu1in a ~Jm.ider t:-on-
1
!earnir,g .:.:-:wironment (lik.." a trad iüona.i
kcicherL t(.'"achiq~ becoines n o t C<\Siei- ·nut sig·
11ifü:antlv h nrdcJ". h, óivi,.fl:n) s1.l1dl•·11í difrer(:nct'S {eÚl,'(tivitit:s oí d:w ag.:.~n.ts t;uch n:i. be]iefs,
go,,ls, and \'<ÚLce s) must nut only be consid·
e rt:!d, b u t ar<:' ~:ssen;;ial ior ur,de:·s t,1nding sit ·
uated Je¿;ming. Thcrefon..·, a te achcr u:-.in g
Li.tl~(!
situat~ú leí'!rning m ujt Pe , on~tantly ass c~~,·
ing thl' pnception~~ctii.m i:1tcraLtio;1 of e,'lc-h
studcnt, ,:1ndicr lhe co:n binf·d aclion~ o ! coope:ahng gro11p~.. o f s t:..1d e n ~·s Of'l!r<i t ing \·.~ithlf:.
thc ~it11a'.iDn . This monumer-t;il '...1sk can only
b e <~cLomplished w ith ~·.1ppc,r l o.; '.::l:oviJc-d Oy
üthn aduits or equiva\~ntly d ever te-ehno,c:gy.
'v\iith ottl suc h a :Cs, p ra( \.ica'. im plc~entatio11~,
of "cognilw~ ~,ppr(•nlt::-.;i-sh'.µs'' (Col\ins, l.'\ro•v11,
& ~ewman, 1%9) \v d be sc:ant
/Uh o u~h lhí:'n-~ wiU h:: valuc :n ~.'.11d en t s
s~cíng rh ; ir lt~-1dwr as a11 experil·nc~d :1ovice
oper<iti11 g in a ne·w c!omc-ln , mo~,t ofren ~he
t._:.:1d-...e;- ·1.,,-ill n eed and -..vr1r,t to h~ l•:<:pe ri l:tKed
"h'ith the situatiun e\:ld, tJ, ;:n/tYe, <lhle to direct
the ~tte11tion of stu,;.il'd5 h , i;npm tHl l a~tri
hu tes of the \~nvirunm d 1l. TeflCher::- v,1~lü n w
c::n"Jltort.:: ble -.,..,jth risk ,.~ king.. a~,d 1.V:10 an.! w:lling tu : urn ;.i1.·e1: ~rn'":""'lf. rnntrnl í..lf t h.c lerm li:1~
e71vironinent to studc nt:;, ba'.'e suc:i.:L'C--;~f'd ln
working alone ,-d th st\1de nt::, a:~' 'exp1-:r'ic:r,ccd
novices'' in 111alhe,T'.aticil prob?1•m :,civir,g. But
sm::h ¡m <is-:rrnach ~r,creas...:s the rs.1rnple-xity "i
!ht.: te,1d.in.g task, cven 'Jermd ¡t,,._, t~a.::h.hg;
dwi lr•11ge associ.:ited witii íoci:,;. ing on higb<:1
t('vi:'l thinkin g skills in l~l.P- (O:n:•xt o f n :clh:>..-il."
pmbleni solvi!'lg . Frl.'n the perspcdive o f ~it
uated rngnition , tbe t~J ch er's mil:.· 5hPuld be
w ''tune tlw J",te::ibon" úf ~tuc i(:nls ~i.l the
import'1. nt i"lsp~~ds of the sitti<.tti.011 , 1r prob'.~~msol•Jine, .-,,tiv ity, specitically those ;1 ttrl\:icti:::s
that ctr~: ;nvarü1nt acros~ ¡1 r~u·tge oEsimilc,r pnJb
kms ,"tnd theri.:fore v,,¡IJ lra n.;;fer to Mai,y nc,vp·
s:tu ,i tions. lhis cJn lw <Jchie ved i:5 te¡:i-:_:h ~r.::.
w.-11·k along ,-vi t'..1 students cm a nov'::'l prob'Pni.
(.J rf.COr:1'.'T'.e!tdcd JST'}fa:l of (og nfüve app l'enLcesh ip; see ( \.)1E1i s et ,d., ·t98:J), bu\ i~ prob~ól v bec;t adüev1,1 d wh cn k o:1ch1=r-; are ve:y
fa~ilii.'.:r wlth th1~pmiJ!ern.15oluti ,n1• :;pace b:.::ing
used tor in ~tr~•ctit'm.
Onc iudi;d sdudon . thP1:, wol:ld be 10 r
te~cher tr¡1ini11g itself te lJe situated , i ncli1d
ing bnth don;a;n-~pi.'(iC..- tralní-ng {1r nth, ~..-1.
e nce, l..:,n.guagl!. soóiJI s~udies; .!I S -.Ncll sn;
t-e chn Jques of pedagot; y. d¡:isgn,om 1:1 ,1nae,~1r .e;i.~. and (s.ltu<':tt'{i) instrncliona\. d r s1g:1. Si~u;'l.led tEacher tr~lining w,iu ld ü ·.\·llÍVf.' us'.ng
dc1ssroom :;ítu,1 ticmii in \•,; bich st1;dC!i1l5 nce
e;.1gt,ge:d i.n silua:·c::'.', k a rni;i¡,;, .:1.nd ¡K':ivd y
e:1g:.:i g ing pres~~r·vicc te.:.d1L•r:. 1:'l. rn'. ving thc
prnC-k ms ordes igningand in1 p!e111r.,~ling si t·
u;:1ted. k,·, rning {e.~- , Cu:H1f1i·, k. Í~:'ü h' ñ , 1%8)
Anothe1 possibi€ solution is to provide " 1nh
48
'i9
;lid s·· Xlr h:!achc ~ implecKnting !:.lh.1a~ed leam-
ing_ Such techm.1k1g:y wou ld ~t lca::t r:<..~{:J to
pn..wid.:;' ~tura!;t ' ;111 d w trif:vi.11 t 1f 1.: n:·11 n1on mi::--
a p::irtnt>r or ''knt.1•,._.J.,dgp na\ 'ff-itor'-, i:1 th¡., pmCC$oS ni leuning. In ~hort, design technig ues
T~-.·h11 ologf·r:ch ~il~ated lea.rnin::; m1w
for :.iluatt-d learmng mLlSI er, Cüu rJ~t' thc cunstructioc. ~i instr~tctioi; eind a,;se.ssment as c :1e
{see Sn01-v & Mandi;1L>c-h, J99 l ).
A;!'lessme;.1(· mus': not only bl:' in tt:·gr,1!t>d
wi rh in~ti-ucticm, b1.li nust foc1,;.s cm thc lcarn-•
ing }'COCt:ss as Wt!II as the learaJn~ produc.1s
(C.,~c, 1985). When karning cltans~ frcm
"llflh' continuo"J::i ¿:~scssrnc-r:l of ~~udentlgro~\~1
din~c:t in~;rrudi un to ~;it:nttJd i¡.,;nn inr,, t'rw
pmgre~,:1; tluough ~he solu tion c;pace of z. given
síh;atior., freeing th~ tl."achc;· to :-crve ü: :J , ._.
role of n-11.·nhJ'r.!:;-oac'." rather th an lectur~r'
grade-g!ver. Firmlly, t\11: u .m1hína '.'in,1 of d.:d,~bases of t-0!1in1or, crrnr~ and embed.ded a~scssmc1, t may, in tht> long run, ,1ffu~d !he
developmt-11t 1.J t intelligent sugges!t:>n; kir P"l'-
ilSSC:,Sm :,::nt of $11CfCSSful and les:=. .SuCC:l!SSfu1
Je-atnt~rs (e•• e:\p~:is tif\ci. ,,cwiC'e!-. w:thm ~
dom1\ir:) must cha1~ge from .11~ empbasi:'li o n
figl-..Uw~un gr~spon::.es tO\Val'd ¡;.¡~ ::T:1pha~b 011
the information that each (¡fu der,t pe:-ceives
in lht 51ft:.arion(s). Toe ¿ ffurdar:C"~s :-ha! ec?ch
sh¡d et:t perc~ive; can be t"':.etected by tht: lypes
of i.nfun na tion :o •,,vhi<.:h th~}' ;:ittt.:nd (c.g., video
sccncs rcpl•~~~d ), th.:- palh5 takcn t!.J\\.':\l'C. ~olution (sciction !:!paces), tJ-,t" type.s ot anillOgics
.1n:::t trnn:,Jcr ~híl~ ec-::ur, .ind the tvpe~ c)f L•rrcr~;
(mi;co:1,.:epti1.:.ns <..~r maln :lt:~) tl~-,~t .1rc: rnt'ldc.
' 1'11<'-.:• Et~' :muríf"S of d.!L:1 wil! rcquire new
and mort> elat-orate (nr,1;tiVHr.~te. noniincar)
psyd1u1111;1ric ,,,c,dc-b . ln shrirl, a!'c ic,sll'L:clil1r1al
design 1:10...1els cu-e;• ad;iph:;J tor -;ih:;,t.:'tf lc•;1m:r,~ with ted,nology, the .1~~s;;menl compo-
::cncephon.~, "bu!!,s, ., rr.aJF.Jles." ar.d pr\!oonet.·ptiur.~ (p prlms; r'.i:t~ diSer,:t;;t, lYS]) be1n5
ust:.-d by !itt:.Gent~ in (l pncicular sitt1 <-,tion. and
po~~ibly tht-> d1,;rM:h·:ri~ lic enr,r~ t~: p lann in ¡?¡
pat h:,; that are indic~t>V\.~ ot such misoonce¡>f H::i~.
licukr :>kuajons l'h~H <.:im 11ndtJ~h1k,~ .::nme <''lÍ
the mm:i!Oring and roac::hing required to hmC
tht· ;1ttP11tio11 d sLudenLs ~ngagt>d m situated
learning.
Assessment of Situctm1 ! :1tJr:1.n~1 o '.·ld
Anc .ored lrdruction
As the niture ~,i i:1structio11 changes to be
ffilm: c:oil;~b1>rat!vl~, situa led, and cfü,; tribott·d
i:i ils sources of infoIT!'lO:tion, : raditicnal means
of 3sses-,m('11t will quickly p rm:e inM.ie(':vi>te.
Muliple-choi.ce i:ems thai osses:'li th.e s tatic fac!t:al knL\Wlt:>dt,~: of s !L:d~nls i:ms t be rep J¡¡ced
by cognitive ~sks and ~sse,;s:nents that cr.n
focus or. tht' pn.l('P.S_(¡¡f"S of Jeaming, perception,
and µrublem soh,.i~1g. In i:idd itlon, :i.ssessment
(',rn ; 11) lnn)2¡er be vJ~\\·Cd as an add-on to c:in
:r.stru~tic,no! de!ó: ign or simply JS s.éparate
~t.igt~~ in a linear process of pretesl, instruction, posttl'~t; rafrter, i'iS~<;;~mr:.-nt m u !;ót b :, rm11i
,m iat.t~gra\(~d, on~ning, ¡:¡nd S\~amless part oí
the !earr.in1; cnvi'."()nmcnt. M on:> th:m fo rmativi;- ;rnc1 su,nm,:liive evaiua:h1n, the entirt"
inst ructiorrni Lksign pn.1cc:.s must h!:' d 1,n¿td
fn;tr,.:1 ~rial stage model in whic:h a.,;se-s~ment
cnters anC: Leo.ves, h.1\..,,ml a rnodel in which
the p.alCt>S:>1.;•s rha; sc :-ve as instrurtional stimu li J l.:,o servé' to p ruvidL· d,1t<1 to ¿1 psychom e t•
ric cnoáeL Se~mlcss as!.essment· could then
nc o ts w:11 nec.•d to be rac.Jk.:illy d;fftirt-nt.
Assessment should be .a sl..'.iimlcss, t'Cntinu O'.lS
pt!rt o t thc acti\'i1y (.-i leilr:1in~•"~se~!.;rJ'lt-;it t;Jtuaholl), e,12bled by tech.nolo¡,;)' .,;nd ro,:1p!emt:'nfL-.J h)· irmov,.1tiv•• l,..;~:hntnt'::lric te-.:h!'iiquc-5
mcani"'lg ior l(-;1rf11ng,, ;,:1t.i (e~ the ability to ac -
lm:neriia:ely ,1ftN a tnp to the :1..00, :,tudents
t:om1 nnd;:it\' ·'andn)rtd l i;:;1ti.1c:-ion.''
typ;cally have litdc ':roubh: ;111~,1...'€1i 1,g thr qucs-
lrcrsle1
H tíw :.1 ~~~·,ig,n t,,sk :C::- i;itu..ilcd li·<trning ic; to
st:lcct the propcr f,"'"t1cra~or ii-et <•i ~itu.::H1011;
th;i'.'" will prcc1M:ly aftord .,t\ld~nts ~he bt>st
o;;,¡,ort1.:ni~v tu l ld~ t the:r a.ttcntion t l l th e
i1~1porli nl i/wari;·,nt~ ot a :,ubje<.:t area (,\S sug
~i:=.teJ abovt>). then the tr ue test for sao.::c-¡¡sfal h•ctrni:1g is trr1nstcr uf lt:'arncrs' ~kills trfw.1
t he s itu.ttiüns in w~ü:.:h th~y rm· lean,~j tu
11ovc! sitwit:ions in ,.vhid; lhl! r elev,rnt knuwl-
~d~·, ould .:\I~◊ ~ .:pplieí'. !'Je:n ami fur !ran~p
fer :-;;ituz¡tions a:- wt-!I ;.is ~ituaticn~ thzt ,ifloíd
the \IS! ' llf:Y1:_1th dom~,in-spcci:irk111wvl~dge tind
higl··eN>der s~;¡h (pfonning, d iscrimi1mti1~g
th~ rt!l•·vallt iTOm the irrdc•va1\t, me taoognifü·c
múnituring oi prn~n::ss. e-te:.) v;ou lti constitute
lb:> rnnge ot t:·on.c::ler :; ú :ations :1(:ed~d to
dt'lerminc SlKt'l"•;sful :t.~ar:,~ng. In foct, 11s disCu!>f:\!d in thc next ,"Ctio1:. ~u::h a detc:nú.rution
n111ld he· inad..: c:>ntin um.1stv u."'.:I'~ C.ynamk
:.~ssess m~r1t tc-::hr·, iq ue:::; tha-~ ~!'e ~·0 11;pll:'tely
intt•g.rat~ into tite initi..11 ~Piter.:itor set of ~it•
uation.:;. In tl1;1l Cil~C., thc g~ncr;:itor set w1.•uld
rw~~d Lo 'x rnr.stitl:led liroadly enou gh to i.J~;:m powt~ :1ear MH.i for trnnsíer oppor hrni:ies.
tion, ·'V~t,y ~?·,~rou l~in,i\ngabc.ut t'Vi.1l;Jl!nn?' 1
The iJ:lSYvet·-;,; 2ri:o -: den, "Sü] (<~!"': :.'lt:>('<)!l1e a
iw k('epPr' or ·To unde: :::t....rnd hlr.v :·r.::gs wc
saw yt::;!edny c,1 r:,e t 1J b,: the ,,•:,y lhty are:·
H11t ra~·~ly di¿ 1 get sud, m0.a:1intful ,l :'15\'\'t: !'S
whcn l nsk1•U sludcn~ in r:1y tr;idi.tionally
t.mght Algebra Il d ass wh? thry \<\.'efe icar~0
ing lognrith:·n~; th.;."ir answ<•r~ t€ndcct ti..1v,,;:-rd,
"Becali;.::- t"'é' have to" c)r ,~·¡~-, get a gnod grcde. "
/\s desii r•(:rs lx-gin lo (Onstrnct \t •.ir:"l!t:.~ :;ituations -.,,..-jd• tlvt r.ic: d ted:r.ology, une es,cn
ti.11 ~t:rncfard shouk be the :r1•aning !:.h:c.: ents
Mtach to th~ir J('hvi:ie!; and in teractic)¡'\S \vithin
those cnvironments. Stude nt!'i s!u"lu ld be abk:
t~1 prov:d~ ml!:m'.n.~ful goa}s whcn askc•cl,
yo·..i pe~·túrnüng that actioo?'-' or " \.'Vhy i;:, 'r'f luf
p,rou? rescnrchln~ tlial issac?''
;i.,¡ ·chor Situctions
"Arn:hoced ln:;troctiGn' · is a tem1 i·oined by
thc Cop 1ition ¡¡nd Technology ( ;rnt1p at V,rn·
der':.,iit {1?90) to d t->S4 r ibe a ~?ecial type ot :.;i~1.1,1tion fur lcarriing. Cons1der thal ,t :s possible
to situate IN1mir.g in two •vays. Th~ firsl is.
<':-.f:1:l.plitied by n,any lílW E-ci1nol ,::u11rses on
tort law, ·.vhere ~, separate real-world cas¿ is
Hsed to exp!ain eéKh 11ew dirnension o í law.
ln th.is :rndilion, it i~ possibk tn
MCTRIC5 roR Sll\JAlD ENVRONMEN""S
Not i ll ~iiuations aitord leamíng tu the smn.e
de-gre-e. For f>x,-:,mpl,·, _,:.-ifüng .i.lon?. in a l°!C?~et
is certainly ;;. situation, b-.1: it is n ot a >Íl ua-
En!1 Lhat afford!:i l~arlling rnu("h ctb<.)ut illgeha
or ch<::1-r,lstry. nf)r does it a.ffcnd leHning ~ucb
ahou l ph1yiag lenni!> or ridi,g a bicy~h.:. 0;,cc
a propcr gencrator sel of situatioas h as beer,
d l~h~rmiru:-L"·~J Lhe leac her or ins tructio11,1) <le~
signe m ust f.'ldopt ~omc- critcria for dcterm!nmg whctht:r lhey afford the con~ptud
or proct"'durnJ lcarning d c:;ircd. rt,r~ :.ugge~ticms for the type vf evidence one sh ou ld
look for in él ~nia;ion for lt:.m1 i,1t; •m•: (;.1)
pJ"O\-'ide impor1.1n~ fc-1.•d°cxn-k to b, 1Ci1 tea<:!1e:· and
the ability
stwdL~r.l, and perhaps even be instami~t{:d as
cepts or pron·dt')'l:'~, {h) Hl(• ;1hfüty 7o prnvide
;0
affor<l t!"ansfer to targeted. ron -
el:
~:t'1y point, why-qu~~sho:,~; ~ud1 as, "Why ;i.re
\\'he:1 13rown et :tl (;939) d1scussed :,1luated
cognit!nn <!n d \.'\.>gnitivc .i.ppn~nt.ceshi?S, tht>y
:·d;ed h(~av\ lv r,n ¡cJ!-,.,·odd ¡1p~:-!:'n'."i(esh ips
(e
apprc~ticc ::."\il1.1r~) as tn~ ·~odel tor their
analy:.-is. Whilr- ret:l-worló expcrien•\~ are perha?.,- the bt~st sttuati,;,nr., classroom~ (os :urrQ!'dv cn21 ~t1: uled) c;::in n út -,nwid e or u tiEzt::
mar)• su~h siUJatiuns. Soo;e dasst'':> ,1re for-:-m:atc c-n ¡,:111gl1 ~o be able to ta ke bstruchon;il
n-,
~dv.:rntag(' of trip:; to :t.úos., mus(~um~, nquan um,;;, ;1~KI re~~ar<·h in:-:t:ir_1:ion-;, but f,~--. - ~rt~ ablilo (c'! ke cid\'a;,tage cí nta!lf !iuCh t•w11L"i d uring tht: :c.chool y~M. Thc- h.11'. mark o t st1d1
event~ is be rr,1:Mdng they pn:iviL1e tl1studcnts
tor ·.1h';f..gucnt shidy ot biolog:,-·, hi.stmy, ch ernistry, and mathC':uatcs. c h: (~:<:, for example,
n,gntt1ve a ppr~Flht..-esh i¡~; Collir,. t:: ni., 1989).
enwunter
:-;ever.:1l cases in -1 single cot:rse icctun.· . S uc:h
sit uat011-. ,-.:in "Jt: considert.>d nücro-cor~.texts
for each ~pcciflc topic to be lea:ned In r:onln1st., LI is also possiblt> to seliect " n1ocrooom:ext'ó" th;,t are s uifidently ric.h rtn d ff:m? le.x
:o 1~ meaningíully viewt>:I from severa! perspectives. ·n 1e Vanderbilt GR.,._1;-1dt>~•·rll.Jes the
use cf c1 feature-kn glh fi lm, Yc•rnR Si1er/1:1:k
Hc!nJt:'.;, to .ir\chor a semt.·~h•r-·\on t; i:1.vestigahon c,f V:ct(lnan em histt.\ry; scienhfic c.x~,te<:pt-..
su(h ;:i~ •.\,,.~2.lhe,·, gecigr.:i p hy, ,'ind ,~wentior:~;
c:1 nd H:eratu rC', lnd udíng sto:-y gnn1ma r~,
v~k.:J::·.1!.ary, and rea~tinr,s relal'~d to th(• con •
:ext. The u~c of a single film fo,· ;ff, e ntirc
:;;•1:1ester mi¡.;ht, at ti~~t h iush, in voke )nngt-::r
úi sn1dent,;,; bCi:€d to r~at·s whcn vit'w ing th~
film fo~ tht.' tenth (ir lhi rtieth timé. But leaming nc•w p1'r1ipl.'Ct'Nes o{ mnt,•rit1l thilt studcnls
31
50
initüdly t hou~i'lt they u1 ,Jerstood. con1pletely
prov(!d -:o be challenging ,:r::d mottvating t o
stl:d.entt-. T".' 1-'.'<1:~ liu~ d1M\ges in undE:rsta11d-
lflat prnved r.10ti-~·ati:1g, r ,:::it the original
pn.·sem::1tio)1 nf 1~1.e situation. This ls the ev1cienct' of a si1ccessful sihmt1:d J~•;,mi nf, l'Vt•r1tit SC!"\'C"S :i:; ::-111 ;im-bir ti:ir '. nulliple p~tspe-clives,
~:1f"·.:1u.11!y valid an<l folly j\~stihabl1:; within the
conJext of. the ;:;ituaü o n .
i11 g
THE J/1.SPER SER[$: O~I[ [XA"1PU OF
S!UAlc'.) l Et-R'llNG
Th, • J.-~c;pe(· Series" \.vas dt:Sisned as an instructional 1..~nvir0í,menl in \•ihic ~ to investiga~e
the emergi11g issce; oÍ s i tt;.att'd 1ca rn111g .
Bridly, i ns.truction ,1~rng tlw Jaspe!' n:1.acrocont1:>xt in vol ves v!t.·'\•ving a seri€S o f 15,,m)nute
,,-¡Jeodisc-b.=ised StC!"Ü,:!.:; i.n ·,vhich ~he m .'.'IJOr
dlrir~cte r, J1;sper \-\'oo;füu ry. C:'1.c ounter~ 3 pr:)h1em :iL<( h a ~ th1.: d iscoverv o í ;i w . -.: :m:kd eagle
fon oul Jn ihe w ,:_)()(~f;. AlÍ t1f the data r ~C;uired
te d,t~in a qttanfrative ¡;olu~íon to the r1:·-:;cu1..·
of the t'"ag.le h a.ve been emheJ.Jcd in du.:> stoI"y:
Stud(:11t<; a'.·c ch.allengeci to '.ist all of the things
they muot co nsider to deve1up ,, workable :es{ue pla n (t:> .g ., time , payload uf tlu: re,ruf•
plant', tucl . cte.). Thcy a re tlw n ;1s~t~..:l ln gene ra.te and d o::u ni e1~t d w ir soluL~o r.s . Tb.roug hout l·his t·,nw, the v id.ec•di~(' j,:: 1:1.ad e available
for studenb to retri('ve rell:vant facts .'.'l nd infor
mation o n request, uttr:H a..::ces:>in.g lhe disr
themse]Vl'~ u~ing t1 Hn"ler(,:irdw interface o r
h,111d··lu=ld conlroHer
Each t:pisodc i n the series presenl~ a corn:;,lex muhi-ster problem tha~stud(.•1ib typiG1lly
~equirc more than <l wee-k nf tradi lional 40minute c1,~:-~t:';; tt, ~n:vc:, either ind ividualiy, in
small f:1'0u pe;, or a-; a .;.fass. There are currt;ntly
fc-ur episo~kt: ;1vai~able, \Vith pl,ms for si:x. ep.iscdcs in thE ClllTlpkt.: s-:.:.·riE.•s. Tht> r,rndom•
acceti~ cc1p<1hility L1f lh~ videü1,ii.s,c mc.kes the
rnmpl ~:xi'.y d th t'51.:' problems rr.an .'.lgcade.
sin,c.: c.¡ u,mtit;itivc fod~ ,1•; vvdl as slor:-- evenl5
C.H1 bE' rp1ickiy ;i nd Paa;,i ly revi('Wt~d. Evt:n
thou,:;h the mathematics req ui:t:d to so lvc t he
physics distanceirate .'time prl)blems ot thc ]<:spe~· q:,itói.,dc•s an: imp1.,rt,irn i11 J rcal··',W)l'ld
sc:1se, lhe compu t.'l.ti~ms tbc1w::ic lves a re n(it
romplex, and ~lu dents a re ofti::r: chíl HCn.~ed
n,on~ by thc pr-J..::css o t dcating with the md.tistep n~t-Jre of th~ prohlflrn n tlwr tfo.111 by lhe
m;dhernatics im'nlved (for d iscuss:on of su.::h
diffkulties s~e Camplo!'l.e, B!own, & Conneil,
19SS). Pracf:i.:t: in de.:iling \VÍt h i:.:0:1·.ple:x:ty ca n
ücve:lo p ü1 :;Ud.e n.Is a n ,~p pn:>•hl·ion nf th<~
need to pkn, thf: <.:bility to !'etrieve reievan,
iniorma~ion ·w hen needed, skllls in meta..::ognitive n1.onih.1ring of progress towa '.·i I sol11h,,;1_.
,;1:nd an app:-~:,; i,.1tin11 tl1i1t nol ::l!I fft<üht:matics
problen,s can be ::-nlved. quickiy, c v~n ',vhen
thl~ requ~red comp·.1!2.tion::. art not in t.,c tn•
sc lvc:~ ,:;:~m 1p lex (sud~ skilis ue o fleri c~Ue-d
higher-on~e r lh-in k:ng -:;kill.:.).
Thc Cognkion and Teórnoiu gy Gr<)up ;it
v~nderbiit (J992) h ave d~c;cd'oed :,;even <lesig,n
princi?kti •-1rnkrlfr>g t'h c: J;1c;pc"·r Si·!rit~f; . 'fhey
im:l ud ~ il viden-based JOrmal. a narr.:1tive .5 h-:JCture _. genen1tive prob lem solving by the ~::ET.
all t he data n eeded ~cr q u¡rntihirivc sulutiom
being embed dt'>d w:th in n·,r. :;to:y. p u rpost:·
id c:nmplf:xüy, pairing of s'.ories t:J ,dfurd n:,ms •
fer, an d l:!nhiln<.'Cment úf t he narra live 1sith
!inks across !he cuniculum. Th ~:~c pnn..:ip lt.!!-;
:-r,Jnd t!r'
oi m id -levc l w nn·pi:;
bdwe1::r. p~iJ'!; ; i f vicieodiscs. and f;ir t:..~f'.sfor
ot lii_gh~r-;<:vel p lann i1'!g :m d m!·orn1~tio!l-
llnd• r~g :;kals acrosc; p<ÚJ'S of <:ld eod isc::;.
Scoffolc:rg tor t he jo$p cr Sedes
Al ly perCud~1:;, •~tack dcsigncd lo ilt-~l:::t j¡1~.pcr
prublc:t~ a;,Pl ·~ers has be-e n d c•vr:lnpeá ;.\ n d :s
rn rrenl:l y üu: focus ot i~1!.i1Tu1:licn al ff,d ass~s.sm c-~nt rescarch (Figu re ·! ). ThcJasper [' la nni1\~
Assistant (1!'A) prnvid€'::i vidt!odisc t·o11tro!, a
t:a lcula tor. ,:1 nd a pkice to 1'.:-con l rdc. ted fact s
[Y:Ju nb & Kuliko·wk h _. 199/..b). Perha~s rn~)tt2
importantly, thc 1.PA Jlso provides s;,:¡,1f1old ~J1~
for :'l<!vigati nt; lhn n:gh 'che comp lcx ~.o luhne
:;p<iCL' for the Jc1~per prc-b]em. Studcnt rnkufaho11:,; ú1nnc t bi::: recm·d1~-::( Dn thc sys k m -~•.·ith <mt a rdakL~ 9bm1'.r:g q u[~sti un first b1:in g,
}:;\~fü~1·ntcd. "i '11 1:> JPA provides íl rr:.enu ·:;elect~on
?ª~e Lo ".~·.r,;í,;.;t prubl.e :r-. s.0lvr~ ~:, in ~.eve~~¡.)lr;g
',he n•'qu1red plan nmg qw:~tton~ ,_ see . 1gure
2;. ¡n tú!s way, pliuT•ing i s prom?ted thrcut;h·
-::iut prO~"llern ..,ú\ving, and riov kc prob'.pm snlvers ·Ht: ¡-dfofded aód i ticmal (dorn,alion for
p lann ing. The n~sul•.i 1g planning qi..;(;St :·.,1Y;
also e:-i:tcr~1ah:t..e t"lw probkm-s0J ving ~o.::il s of
thc f,tudents, s01:\ethin3 oltc11 ,nii:~.ing M <.1:il;
irn:?iicd by 1;erb::'li tb in k dútid ·;)rotocols uf
probltm ~oivinri.
0
Tec:::::h.rg ._,., .¡-,r•, Ju:;per
! h12 Cogn it ion and l'ech:io ,ogy Croup ri:
VanderbJ t ('J ')o/.:'.) c.k:,~:riUed 1·h h~e r:.10dcls iur
teac hin g w {~h the Jc1.spl:' r m<1t-=-rials they d t •.,::,J
c-ped : (r1) ·:,as:cs first. i:n1"ttdiaH.' t(~t:d bí-1•::-k,
ci)n ·..::1i n-;1r1.1d ion; (b) strn-::turcc.~¡..1 r1:"?blfrn s olvin g; ¡~nd (e ) ''gu :d c: l ~;':l" n~r<Lilir .. ·' In üú s
de~cri-;;:rtion, th P. a ulho~·s support fb.e gt1id c•-..l
gcncrat5on 111ndel a ::i i.:,eing :nC>:€- po\"'crful than
the ,f ht:r lwo, t-.'ithot1t outrir,H 1:1·,c':.on;.e:r.e:1::
nf this approach. 'fh f:' g u!d €d K::!:1er;i tion
a pproach ~1s descrihcd by tllt· Va:\dE·rbil: Cr~rup
inv0ivs:s te;i 1~ht'rs prc-vlding ::;c,lfb !di nt, tn aid
th,~ more p c,v ke p'.'obk :i-~ :1o hf:>r5 2r.11)n g thcü·
students. l~ut in~!Tt:ciiona! desi.g rh fo !' s i:u
a ted Jcami11 g m usl :1út nnly pr1widi;' sc;.li(old ic.g for st:1de:1t~; fr1t'y m ut i;l:-.1i prnvi d c
sc,~•fuld in~ (or teachers_. U ;1 ul them i:1 m)dt!l'-
i:ddrc:;:;: th~ tir•;t n( thC:: four design lBi~k-. o ur-
lincd above, selecting (,.ksigning) <\ situation.
H CJ\.,·evcr, th ey G.o nú~ sugges!· th1:· o th1..'r hrcc
d es ign tasks .i:or situMed Jear!1ing: ._,.,hat sca ftoldi;1 g tD p rov1de to pn.:b:Prr• snlvNs nf di f n'rt>nt ;1h ility. lrnw to s uppnr'. ami develap thc
teacher as coach an d men tor, or the iss.ues of
asscs:c; ir:g studen ts.' problem ~olvíng.
Jasper os o Genercbr Set
As d ('ScribeLi by l"he Cug;ni tion nnd Tl··d mol·
ogy Group iit v~m1..fr·d,ill ( 1992), lhe Jasper epis{xlc~ l1ave been de5igned. to afford. p(:rreption
1"11~ ")Js per S..::ics:·· is ,'.'( )m,r.e rda lh · ~,;ni;nbl(• fr;;m
Op!,:J'. U<tt;t. C~•rp·;};-;il,ün. 1 ;,"" S E:'Iit"> ,.• ,a, ér-,•r1npcd by
tht: Lt-arni11g ·t,~.hr:n l,:ie,y Ce.ik1, f ..-;;,t~-d)' C(J:!c;,¡<::, V;H1dt!rbil: !Jr,i,,,,.s l\', ]t>h ·· Jrand u~<: and S u~f.n G,.;U mfin,
t ,) ditc·,tor._;.
~
hiniiic::; for rie,1 r
of im-ariance ín the forf!l of physícs and nnthcreatical "mid-levcl' ' ror:n;?~ (~iiSc~&l, 1988).s uch o:;: J ist,1!u.:e/r,·1le/time .;.wd ;:i:n:'~ivo fu m.::•
Tlu:.· episodes are sr-qurnu~d t0prnv id e oppor-
i~□
~~~
ru
-¡c.,icu tnt ingj
1
53
52
H::;Ul{I:: 2
r:
Menu Selection Page of the JFA.
Question
1
!~-
How far is __
!~om Cedar Cree!< to Willi&'s
c:1bility t :) m a p time onto et ~p,üial ,::i:-r,c:;y (to use1 videodbr map conh·DUer) , tl1r: Jbihly tv 1na:hematically Dpera.tion<ili:.tl::' lh~ pr,)hlem, and the
.~bility tn verbaiize :11,ültcn,,1 H,. ,1l operaticns
sur-e thl'y Cé:tn gel· th c: 1njured 't<-1gle to thc vs:~t.
T!le ~ mshot ½1ocrid w ill be bleedlngan¿ tr.cy
~t ud0.-1t' ,; Pw~r y'-~ªY experienCl'. ::i cn J !c, tes
tn~ t p roblem su·:vtng in thc Jaspl'r c·:) :11!:.x ~ i:;
How m·.Jch
lrnm J a~~er's t1ome lluGk
to Larry' s
Wh010 cn n cJasper
How fast
hava enoL.Qh
fue 1
docs ,.Ji)5p,; r h.1vr
rema in ing
.rnd rcsults o t cakul;1ti(l(1·-, (Lo p-1-1 rtici paa: in
c.o llabor;:,t:ve ?rnldePH:i n lvir.g g:ruups). Ali
thcse tc:c!iniqut"~, ~1.H1tc lf.'•hn1,logy-supported,
oth1.:rs t:111p(r¡cal, ~avt~yieldcd info::,r ,c:l ticm to
aid teach ing in lhi s one particulnr situ,r.1 hlm,
lhe Jasper probiL'm. Tt i-..argued hc-rE thc:it sim.-·
llar eftorts will hP r,':q llíred for each TIC-\\' design
How fnr
: lo1t: lo-,g
mr..n;iy
1ime
g?.t :1101"P.
can f;c go
ot ..:.thwtcd l earn i nt:,
can he bu~•
~;an t1e gel
Choos~ ! frnm P.nr.h cnlumn to HUILO A QUE5TiON:
Will Jasper
How far ;s ~t
cc~Q~~
i_Q to Willie's
'.rcm Ccdar Crcek
from Willie's
~
to hnrne
is needed
nced to •NorTy abot..a :nfec:i-::,:1 " This u ,;t· of
k.J iowledr;~ w hi(h is t t.a~k )rtunalt:·ly:~p~1rt of ¡:·1is
,icth:ating e v-e-ryciay wgnition. ,1s 0PFC'if~d tn
traditivnai '' inert" school !<nuwle Jg(· (fr,r c1 cii,;c.1ssi:..1n of inert knm--.dc¡_"tg e .. ~I::'~ v\-' l'ii lti·1ead,
!929). l!l. this case thr rn,1thcm,~ti,·s i.<; :-r,eaningfol, nct sir:ipiy sorndlw1g d:.:,ne f.:1r a grade
;::,: bcciLse a tcc1c hcr reque~:t!-. it-
Ja;por ond TrGmfer
c;;"uP. {lllestion )
! R~lurn lo F<ld¡¡
taX. ing the guidf:d gencra ti on ,:ppn~<.H:h to
tt·uchlJ":g.
'.''./hile no intelli~ir,t Lec:hnolo?,y il:1plementiti1"1n..; nnnT,tly e:xist, a nurnlw ·,- o f prfJ"liminaoy st-?ps h ave beer, ta.ken lnwa rd facilitaling
lhe roie of Jasper te,\cher ai; c-:,ach. Fir'>t,
1'.vp{:rC<C.rd@nmt:·ollcr~ havc bccn dtv,.Juped
to facil:tate rf::'triev<l l <.1Í infunnalic-n frum the
vid eod is.:. Tht:-se con!":-o!ler~ map thr2 tirr-,('
sr,:p.1e>-nce ot sto:·y events or.tn " sp,,tial :;,1~¡:;,
uf the loc;itions <Jt whkh 1.;vi.mts ú{"Cuu~O . Th~
~cmtrollers free leachers fro~n controlli1:1!, the
vidcodisc and aHo·,.,- th,~m to conc~ntTate o:,
, h.1,:c1~t :hir.kir1g .c1nd pru blcm ~oh+,.~ Stt·-
ond, Yideodisc-based segments o( Jaspe~ classroom:; afford firs t-ti cne Josp~r teachers a:,
orpurtur:üy tu t:xpi.::rifnci.: t;O:nc uf the misccn,:eptions.ar:.d e r rors lhat s":udents. typically
mc:ke in s.olvir.g :he Jasper problems. Third,
:st rategit•::; .:nd idE"as Gg1 be dissc:11inüted
am-:)~lh teachers, th:<mgh j.(Jrh online telecomm u nicc.tions an<.~. more conventJcnal me.'lns,
a Ja~p~r nc,,,vslc:ttl'r. Fourth, tl1r<.1ugh tek·rnm munic2.t:ons links with pa:rtidpa tin¡.; uni \'ersifü~s, ít is ,:rw isloned that Jo$per teachers and
stude:1i:,- cvuld cont<H.:t '·Ja~p;.,•:•'' din,:ctiy~ \-Vi th
th(~ si mulilh'cl ''Jnspe.-" responSL':á suppliNl by
preservke leache1:-: enrollt~d iri ..:n 11rs~:s f:)<,'11~ing on. slh.;ate-ó le2.núni;
Fin;itly, c1 micrc,él:r1t1Jvljc érn c1lv·;i·:. 1)f. J~15;~1..·r
pmblcin soJ\,¡ng, a d,1p~1':: frorn 'ct11 t~ Koe~ke
(1981), Siim~nh~lt.i (f-).0 ., ShoPnf-ekl, 5rn!lh, &
Arcavi. in pres!::) and diSessa ( ¡y.:;;_1). ~1~v::,Jrid
in d•!fait the nat u ,-e (~Í 1'0 "'llmnn m i<;ron c,:>ptinnc, ,H;..;;ociatrd wüh th1•· Ja<:,?f:'1· s ill1,ltic,n, In
ti,is m itw,;111¡:¡lysls, v ideolapes, in \r.rview-.,
think-aloud protocols, and tr~1dihm;:; 1 i"t>':it:>
, ...·ere us.ed to don:nwr.t thf-' ¿:;...,ne•:d s oí concept;.rnl ch¡1nges d uring:pr<)blem solvi:1g wilJ1
the fin>t tv.·c, Jai;per e piso-des. f".or e x,~mpk, ¡~
was re vealed that sr,r.,c J.ispcr p :·ublem .sulvl~l'!:i assumcd thut lt,r~e boats traveled at the
samt' rateas smallerboa.t.,;, e vtn ,.,.,¡li.~n :r,w d-,
in~ with c1 C.t!'rent r.1thcr t ha n il~J inst ir
Another misconccpton fÍJl' fifth-g_Tad~ s1udent:;
in this an;: lysis was !hat a mil e was short-er if
traveled at a fast speed and lnngr.-r whcn t taveled s!owly (Cúnfoslng time w itb actu;il d istilncc travded). ln Gddition to ciocumenting
common errors, the microa:1alysi<; highligh h.: d
so1ne- o f tho.; stud c :it ,1bili tks (dfer:tivifies)
tapped by the Jr.sp-er pmblen'., induding: the
lf, .i,:,, :.ug?r"'t..~d ab-:,.ivc, ~he t i!"St Lnl' tri1· of S~tccessf;.ii sfürntions i::; trar.sfe1: tlu.'n llw Jil:,;per
Seri4~t;, •.v\iile yet u nprove,;_1, h:i~ bqf,L.::1 to coilL'd t he ,'lppmpriak evidt:no.!. Jnitial a~sea:d:
on j<.1:>per t-"J gg,estcd tha t tw11s(er rh,1~~~ tXCt:. r
to completely isomorpnic problc-1c1s in ~ difíercnt r-ontext (c.g. _. fl.fary goi:s 1·0 the grocery
~ton.e! VE'l'~U f> Jaspc-r go~s k ) l>uy a boat). Furllwr evide11ce of ~n1nsfer ha!-. ~,!so l~~n d emonstrc?tl~d fro::n situ.atcd J<tSper pinblem solviíig
to tradibi.rnai •~me - and t wo-step word p rnblt>:ns (Va n H::meghan et al., 1992·1. A final piccc
ül f>'-'iJr.1"cce i ~ providc.:d by 1·h e demonstrati..m
nf \r;i n~foc from lh<:' m,itlien":.:dcal dom~in of
tlv.:!ja::.per prnbkm Lo r¡,,,1di:1g rnmp:-ehension
for passages -..vith i.mdúfp'.1~ conte~: (Yoims
& K'...iEkmv;cr., 1992.:1). Th:.!5e p rd im i;1c1 r y
results h.ave t~tke:1 con"id12rabk rest«:rd1 dk1rl
tú <Kquiri::, sut,i(•.:;ling, ti1at ev¡i,lua linri: ~itu,,;l()r::=. for !cami11g w iil nüt be ,, si:r:ph- nr
qukk ta3k.
Jo:;;per e;; Meor ,ngfu! Le ·:.m rng
Tht? mic:roJn;;lys:s af Jaspt>r problem .:;oh·lng
men tkm L'd o:1bovt~ reve<1led t hat, wbf;n asked
wh~¡ thev .'ln: workin~ in class_. 5trnh•n.Ls often
rd~rrL·tÍ Lo 1·ht~;nea~ir'.gful ni.tltEfl:' nf the j élSP
pe!" cunlf:Xl tu j\lstify tbeir r.,;;them;itit.ai opc,.,
atitinr. For exainp1€, whcn 3t-k•x.! w hy he wa::;
pr.::dorming foe c~1cd:::bon 65 X 2 (65 mlles
frorri tite vet€'nnaün1's to thl:' tnjurl"d e-<lgle,
hw.e~ 2 h)r a round ttip), one lo\'1-¡ichieving,
=treei. -v..·~~e Hfth··grad(,'T n:·spondeci, ''To m.ak¡_•
A r(:(en.t l:nµkmi'.; \;.alinn ut the Jaspl'r ~E ~~es
in a ::;uburl,an Conr:eóctt midJle schoo:.1i dcm •
ons:ra~ed the--:,,?;:;hili7of thl:' jasp.::rsitu.:.titm:-.
tú nnchm ilistrucUon .¡icro;s th1.:: ( u-:-ricu]u :"'1
Stud c.:nls enr:,:igt·)d in s~ú·in~ t"be tirs ~ _l,1s;:: e,1
ep isuck , :·,itua ted as a riv(•~ t~:p, u sc<i: ¿Jtc ~ilG1tion;is;.i-:-, ,,r.chor for scien.<:t :i:-id i..:,.x :1al •: l11d il; j, as w~ll ,1 s the cen';-r~l :natf.(.!m.i tics L,iohli> ·,r .
f',1 ir;; uf ~,luden ts desi)-;:,ed ri'.:~'J'-rd<.u:.d s::IJ:>nn·
qui1: sticms, such <l.s: ]-h,_)1,\-" mud-. l nm t~·.t:1lc iT'.<J ttcr c;:in hr. ob :;erved i n tht.: CL)11rn~c!ict:! river?
Wliat m ino ~coptcorgani~.ms ¡·;1 11 lJ\~ob::.crvt~d
in w~tf!r ~ampies? Wh,1-:- types of hirds L~n be
;:,•h5c~rv~d on :he C.: n n cd ii..:uL{ ver? Th,.:-:.1 tk·
studtr.ts Wt:"re t.1ken on ;1 0 11t": -ho1u ri ver trip
m, vvhich they p~rk:!":acd thPl r science cxperllw.:nts. Stu d enb ,-vrni:c (''.; ,;;ays abúm ~ht:ir
results ar.d prc;c11:ed tlwi:· finding .;,. Orn.:· pJir
of st udc-nls WJS SlJ c•winced of the im;;o "·
tar:.ce ut the1r findiI::2,:- ,,1 ]~)ttt l"l~t> numerou:;
~,uttles a m~, can~ fl~~:-1lir ·, g i21 t he ri\'t' l' hat th cy
subl':útted thc·ir e~~~,:iy to tl1c cxecu ti\A"• :.:o rnr:1ittce responsibh: ior runnhg :ht' kx:;.il ;__r;athlor., \.vh id~ incL!ded ti sv.'lmm!ng 1·1H."P in
the ávt;r. In :;.xi;i\ .,;tudies, sLtdei-,b ür-:.:•. v,· -rap-;
to loca~e th1· 1'!(¡L1iv.:ifcnt i oc,.it1ons on t! u.:·ir k :r.,it
rin~r (e.g. , rHk:: 132.6 on !he Conn~ctin Jl l·fr.·er)
tor rnilt..· 1rtMk•~rs mer,tior1ed i:1 t\tt• .1~1~pn p rnb'.crn. ·nwsa m.~ ~roupüt ~tudt.' nts .-.lttdied fli_4 11
1
<.m d pa rridpi,ted in ll h .il:~<1 -..ve<cd pl,1-r.e co;;1p l·ticion when solvlng : he :;(•(·on<l J:-;spt r ep ísork i1r.:dving ih e n~sCL:~ ,.,fa 1--.· o u nd cd l~r': g.:e
usin e; é:l?i ·..1'.tr,1li~bt ¡\irrd,uH:> . T!w se se-k:•ted
t•x;.m 1ple~ sugg:¡:st tlvit, ic: t·.dd i;·i nn te ¿-,ffr,d lng_ transfer and provid·r·y n1eani,,y,, :he _l;,1s-
rm&í)_\N r..t
54
per :..it11.:itiu11s c;,n also s1:rve as an{.+:ors for
instruction <:cross trn,li tin,1,·1I S ü l 1 jc(~ areM.
Situoted Jasper As.sessme-ní
ln :ht: u)nlex •: of Jaspcr -;,rob\en, :.o) i,7ing,
Kulikn'.vich and Yo\mg {1991) have outlired
the r,dv;mt;i~i•s n !' using an autmnc1téd c_fata
retri.n'.il svstern, tht· J;1s¡)(' ~ Plannir ig A.~;sist.Jnt, to .:-0111;:,ll..~mcnt ver bal protornl am1lysis.
{í-or íl dc-.:cripri0n of verbnl p ro t(>eol cm.:Jysi:,
in tlw Ja ~per con!i:'xt. se(• Van H anegha~, d
al., 1Y92..j Tl1c Ji.1tt1r.1<1ted ~y.:;tem provides both
<.;c.:Üfoldqg fr,r insl!'u.:.:ling ~,ovice prnble1n ~olvt~rs (,'.",la nnin¡.-;, q1wsti()11i;1g, ~:ak.;J.lalmg, and
retrieving dM;1; :5t"'C- r1gurc: l) and prouc:ss t:lata
th~t can ser\iir.e a psycho;nt'~::-f't-()¡1r.-l, inc\uding plí.1n:1ing :-;tateme11ts, opcrJting fact5, intor
mdi t)n re'tríe v-2d from ':he problem,. l~tend~s.
for eJcil ú Í t!1CSL~ a ciivilies, ;md at:itude and
int~re>st· mt~<Viure~; (St't' Fig:u n: 3, p ,~:·llcularly
data SLU~un,11ry at hnttnrn)
Your:g and Kultkmvich (.1992.b) r ivc tfoLJ:ih>
uf thc j PA in t~se a::: búttl SG:.ffoióng for p\;inning: d uring instrnction ¡\nd collector ot in~or:n.1t0n for ast;essment 5t.1dent.,; u se· fru-. WA
lndividu¡¡Jly or in pairs. At ffrst, ]PA p ~e~ents
r. h:-toria: arn:l sevetal Likert-type ite:rt". 1~) as~ss
~n~f'-f> C:t .:1r.d _•; elf-d;icaty. r<ex L _fPA dí:i-plays
th e Jaiper s tory ,1r,ii ;-¡f;,:;(-";st•i; seledi.:'d infor-,
mation pc~ú •ived by ihe ~tudcnt :1Si:"lt, ,: series
uf rn>-1ltip lt -ch oice questions. ]PA then requires
tht' ~t ud er1 i ~e initially cn..~att foL1r piannin g
rp: f'stio n!; before c1tt~1Hp'.ing ,o solve the Ja s~
pe, pr~lble:11 (ttllls p~nvidi;1 ~ _c;caffo]ding fe;
planning). Students are thcn \~1Kouraged ln
en ter all thc facts they can recall fmm the video
or s u h~eq•..tently ret:·)(•v;;~ by re-viE'.-,:ing thc
vide-o. JPA incL1de::: Dn i nte' rface tu tlw video ..
disc th<lt c·nabh·s i'. lo corclm l the vde o up<m
r equl'St, nnd to _,; rore tlw b·a;nt• riumbers o f
,,idt'O SCgn'!Ents re-viEwtd by the studcnt. Output d~hl fro m :he J.PA cnables interpn::·t¡ltic~n
nf various probi~'nH;o lving e1:ents . ¡_1~ vv(']I a s
~;p-~dfü: a11.-1ly:-.t•:'> of time spent on ph~n:tlng,
q ut.>Stion)ne,, n~vicwing tad~ , \-v.:: t(.hin.g lhe
video, an d mGkin):; c.i; ln:btions. LIPA output
fmd illter?re taticn J rc shm•vn in Flgtuc· 3.)
The JPA s ys:t·m (¡)Jl COl!lplernc nt t) th¿, r
3i;:;e~;~;ment ted111i<;ues b sever<J l \'\',1'.'5 (Kt11i ~
55
M:-,.1
kowich & 'k1ung, l '}Jl}. Tlú1k-aloud p r0tocols
('.Jn be suppurted by dr1t~l ('Oll~cted dudng
p1·oblem s oh.-ing by the JPA, or fPA uutput can
serve ;,u;; lhe s l1m u lu s íor probkm s o h;ers to
f"'xplain wh,i;t they <liG r.1s thcy wúrked lhmugh
the pruhkm (a.:. in hgun~ 3 ), Thi.s later ap•
rn.13ch has p~:lw ed v<1.hia:1bk· fo r c1~s1~s:;in~ ihe
pro-::>lem :::olving of both in divfrkals and p;:rirtl:1forrr:ation collected. d uring pr:.1blc:n solv ing
through the JPA can also he!p to i nterpret
lnu, sft'l uf s)t·.;atcd k:<nning from the Jasper
n.mtl'xi to ~malego;.1s conlent in rr~ding pi'!.~~
:xlgt•s. ~~set;sed by :n,ditic:111,il _;J~1pf~hand -penCll
t¡:sks (Yo1103 &. Ku1ikowich, 1992.b).
'fhe ecological psycholügy ~rom w hi r.ll sil"··
uated l,err.ming d raw:> much of ~ts theorebrnl
b asis suggcsts th íl t],~sper assessrnent mu st be
t;.:rgeted Ji. d ete::-hn~ Lhe aftur dances that eac h
stud ent pt::!Teive::; while ,..vo rking b the Jas per(untl·xt. ·1,t11s n:<Jy be possible w i th the aid
o f scve:-al types of JPA output, im:luding llu~
ty pes of info rm,-1tion to v.·!'Lich students r.ttend
(Ja sper "·üJ.eo s.:eP.es replayed), the p aths loken
tO½'Md s clution (so~u:iun sp.:1:ct'S:), the types
nf analop;ies ar:.d transfor th.c.lt occu: (assessed
bv ltansfEr tas ks). ,md the typ es of etrors (mis(OIH:evtion~ v r rnalrule .s) thdi are madt (as SC'SSC'rl hy ,~nr.m.analysis, intt:1rvit:1½'~, ,md video
reco:-ds ) . These new ~ou rrf's of cJ~ tJ n~~y
require inrer pn:hitiün thre~1gh the nonline a. r
d vn c;mics nwd cls currentiy employed by e colugical ~,p¡;ro,Khes lo dl!'ect p erception ami
HGJf<E .3
n
Sa"flple JPA Ot:tput •llith lr-rtcrrxe Krion
~
,
l . f ;ilotiill
lr,~1ru r.tion~
l~·t.-l!·07 !'t.!
1,!;')15:2~- ? 1-,1
(8,'.;(S
',ói<;l~e-
F~cts
A-:id ffrlC1: ' rn,:r. 129 lo 1~? 1i :07:~6 PM
12:')7:·a P M
c.:,,~:;,tin<J
Ca e; 157
12.07:S I F~
1Z9 •
23
1~:0tJ.: 3S Pr.4
12:06:36 PM
12 .n&: • 7 PI-J.
.6.NSWCíl How 1ar f rom C,..~•1 c,,.~k 1o ~Dn'.&? "" 26 m.1!1&
?l11nfl tl!,;
F"u,~
f~ini.r,g
¡:,. ,~!$
'2:iJ',1:Qt; :='"4
'li~rn
12:09:1&
12:-:IJ:1E :,i.4
Có!k.c1:l~\i:i~
ClO.lc
~r. .
Ct;:c· ~ 10
7):, •
I
Ca lc u4t1in;¡ (li':'>•J
;.:\O
60 " 3.:!.
f,>11n ·>ir11.¡
12:'1:!lt PM
Owi.tioni1>g
12 :12 .5,6 PM
P'ta n.n~
12.12 5!\ !'.>r.t
Q: H ;-w Ju is il '100". Clld¡.1 C~• ,;k lo :'Kltr.•? 1:t:1 J ·2"1 PI.\
~NSWE:A. H,.,... fflr P!. i: 1,om 03<:IA• Gttiek 1-:J horNI? • 3.S mirutln.
?l~r'>llirtq
C:-i■n9■ A nswflr F. l o 3. :) ~
11:14:21 PM
12': H:2:J PM
Vi~"º
.. V: Mt1p
.. V: Bo1l L11~vl'lg
Facts
li!:\6 :.32 P'-1
',2: l i :~9 f>'-1
Ad,j Fa~t· ~u ruo! is al 7;52
SUMMA:lY At\D CONCU~ON
12:'0'.02 ? M
vid. o
.V :
Thcrc· is a growiny. co 11H~11:-.11.:: th,H c,ign.ifírnnl
educariona l ch~m gcs are require<l h1 u rder to
meet the r.atio n's educationaJ gL~ill to makc
American students number.:me in mathematics ,rnd scier~ce. In con..:ert, there is a growinr, awJrenes~ that situ.:itiJ1g iean1ing !n real.islic
contexts -:..·nn p rnvidf: much of what is iacking
in trndii:ional approach es ro in':itruction ,1nd
Í.11.sh·uctior:.J l des.ign , These in sights rely heavily vn L!--.e concept::- of sítu.1ted c:ogrdtion fa r
ltwir jus t;.fka.hon, w}llc.:!t, tn turn., rely heavily on tht' c;::.1h1~ical p·>ydtfllo~y of James Gibson (1979/1986). Once tht.· irnpurta ,,t m l c~
:>J,J
1 Mii& T &S!
Fa<;::1, 12 :•: :1~ Pt.4
,.V:
F1:I~
, ;dii)I\.
C .aek.1.d~•i.~il ~d:M af"\Ge)
(ólf.":>r;
J a.tplilf Triink$
1'1,~I~
M-ci r.,,r:· M ,~ tlllldy 10 lee.w .&1 2:)5
12:18 :1::l pt,j
12:Ul :29 PM
G~k:t:l~t;r,g
1:z-: 10:34 ? 1,4
1-~<=?,
1~:19:42" f'II-I
12 , 20:2 ~ P:..4
ca·cula:'r>s¡
Ca r,:
.'i.l! •
S:2
0111po.r, Conli,ve$ .,
Sumrnar, D~la,
lu[1,I Ttffi<'l Pl~nr.ll'lg !1/0.
To~al .,.HT'e c;,1.:ullfn~: ~IJ1,
To\cl Tim• o..,.,,,11iof'ltP9: JSi.
v;~....ng: 104,;,
R~l■d
Elfü:.o:cy: 78,
A.,\tld tlori;& lnt1 ,;1,i;I: 2 6
t'\11htd Ri...ef ln"'n,:,.!· 52,
At.,Ud ('..:,n t1d,i,r,«1 ifl Solv1><111: 84
Rolod ~ti!'! EffK:•!;'f: 77,
icit,1 Tirruii
~
!•,
57
56
' '.-iuthent.ic" cDntc·x:--::= ( ;)n pi;:iy in tlw future of
~'dU(.a hc;1 ts i'lcknov.:k,dgc~d, thf> nt=-x~ s teps o f
~ele<:ting ,1 nd d~,,~~gnmg sltlution~ that a fford
:;t·.1d.enb the cpportunity t,J ::H.:yuir!::' tlil: iw:..Jo,~
Unt conct:·vts of :"J1a them::1t~cs :md :.üen1.J:' must
begll1. An eco:;)e:ic;1l apprn.1ch that :2mphn~i:lcs
pen:epljcu1 anci JCtion rather lhan memo:y ~1nd
rt>\"ricva! l~ads to a ,-c..:ty ddfcr~~n.t conc:ep'.·ual¡¡:arion of instructiuJwi :J~•sig,i
(h;,ne:C':.; mu~;t be made to complenwr:t the
ne'-·v situateci cognition ,1pprr.1r)th t:) instruclior; ,,-,.·i-:i1 c: m·w ,~rnfotcc:l appr•:.i«:::h to i:,stn,cti<mal <.~esi¡:;:-1. Thcrt i5 ,~ htsLory of ch;mges
in instcJC:i.:mal design nwde:s that ~l<.:umµ.i,1y
(:r1anges in psycholi:1r,ic.:"!l thC'nry. Rei;e:uch on
progr:lrn:ned in5tr·.1ction J11 -i11~ '.he 1960s
show~J tlK· lin1ila j~)ns of instn:-: tional designs
b.1:,ed sol-2ly on bchnvionst ptinciµlc:;: (Cagné,
;cJ6:'I; Giascr, 1963). Bci1aviorü-,t t1:.•;,_'lrnit:¡L1t'S
n:shicted cog,nitivf ('(m('C'pt~ to theirovcrt manJfos tali üns (e.3. , recitíltion rathe r tha n nnde-r~
stamiing), ;:1r1J tein:on: en1t~nt was shu1,.n1: to
be ,1:c ithcr nc-cc~;:;ary :1or ::iuffü..-it nl for J.eatning (Cas e 8.- \k•:f'HN, 1984). Gagné' s (J.965} hie:'"
~1rchic:al a:1:1ty::is o~pn1ach imp1-ov1:{1 th<' rlc::;ign
of if:sln..1cl:onal objcctives by includ,ng cog~
!ÜtiVC <1.S v,.,1;,J ; as bduv ic r.::tl p i":ndples, but
C.:lg'"l(~· s ,ipprnílc:h ha~; provet~ limited in add res-:,mg iU-sm.1ct·~1fed dom.iins ;md thf• i-,s.ucs
e;( l1ansfe1~ <1:1d in ~Kcúmn:odatir.g ,h1: m~iq11.f'
¡)t,j]j t('S an<..! :earnirig ~trdeg:t:s of both i;:.·xperts
r1n:l novi'"c~; . .Jnd beth chiidrcn ,1nd adults
fResnic.k, JtJ76). Re:geluth {1983. 1987) sum:~·,anz ed u n1.;nal, cr of .::cmpe ring cog,~i~1w• rhf'-
Lnies of lnslructional design , each ,.vith its
;.miquc chrir.1cterbtic.1;_, stn.'.ogl.h.s. and '\.Veaknesses. h ;~\l r,1se.s, the r.wdcls are .1'.·omi•_;tic
rather ·;han húst:c Me lil1ec:rratí"lrr th,1r. inl:r.·
gralc<l, sep.:1.:·ate a::isc s s :-:~ent from instrutLon,
imd_. U.CC-:.) r dir:_g tu Sm.!',v c:nd Ma:1dinach
domaln ut ülti::re~t 111us1 b,~ .:,elected, Sel"ond,
scaf-fdding that dlow:i-1H.:ivices and experb \-o
p,~rt~1rm ,1kmr;s id c ;)ne an:.)thc·r ir: lhe !e;irHing si~uath1n m u s.t be d(•~it,1"H.,.d. Th'.:-d , th:
in.str;.t<:tion¿,l d..e;i;;ign task must : ndude '..:·,t!ning tec,~hcrs lú ur~dersiand a n d perfonn ,.i:,;ir:g
tht.· situation as wcll ai.; ~;u?purt bt.•ir role in
the d a ~::;1'(H) T"il with h~,-hnc/ogy ti-·,,,~G i :1 fJci1·
itate gc1id"in~ and a -;i,essing st:1dt:MS .,1~ ihcy
~v01k within an insh·ucl:ional ~.Jluatior, Fuc.,rtl\
a5scssrn~nt mu~t :>e inh::gr~1t(:d wilh lnstr~tc
tion so that thí:~ sHuation provídcs both in;;h'U<.:tiun nl íl nd ;;,ss2:=.snient oppartu=-i!tics .ind
i.nforn1ation. i\n ecologirnl app:ua~·h to in:-.tn.1c:tional d ~::.;j~n I\I USt lr1d ud e a ncw app~o;1d1
to ~sse~•~:mtnt, moving :;iw ¡1y frorn slalic a~st:•:;,smf'11t to ::.ituated asscssmcr.t ;·ha\" incm porates
both the affordances of the c:·nvircutr1fnl as
well as thc abilities brought to the s1h..::ation
by the stud<m!. In fact, iL is the inte racho n of
t'l1e two that con::-titutc-s knowledge trom the
situated :emning p •~r:;p<'cti•lf', ,ind !'ht:!eb re
it is this interaction tlut:in1.1~t Lx- ~,s~.:-c;sed ,1nd
r«tt:d t-lS intelltgeni Ol' lm d e~·cKhleving . l'\k:w
psychomt'tric models can be antidpate<l_. models that <u~knowkd¡:e the complexity and
dynamic mih",rc of t h 1~ ar:r•nt-~twironcu~nt·
4
intcr.'.t(!ion ~1.nd drnw
u ;1 ne:-ilinc•,ir
m<:Cds tfi
chílract12rizc thcm
An eco!Dgical J.pj)roJch to in:;tru~::ion al
design a.lso suggests thi1t 1H~W m~L·ic;; :"iH' t hc
cvJlua t inn of s iluatio;1 s mu~t be C'.d0pted
\:Vheu insln1clion lakes p la ce in J comp'.cx,
realistic, ami "authcntjc" ror:text, then n~,t> a-
sures oi succt·ss of the ins trnrtio n r~rnsl' inr:lud e
n·.ansfer, the meaningfulnt:ss of b:i.rning, M'.d
c;:-1.pcJ.city to ancho:· inslrllci.ion acwss tht: n;::riculum. Perhaps the mü~t lmpo:·tant cor.cern
t":
with situatint'l, kn rn ing in
.1
<;Ír:gle rnntr.xt (or
in a fev.; context-s) l::; the d;.rnger :h,ü t he
'.1991),
a c<.iuin-.· d k11ov-.tledge W!ll be :-ied te only thusL·
contexh-: in \Vhich it W¿'IS learned (e.g., m-.e ~tu-
1rnNe h)O tpickly te prPXriplii'm wi:hout
-::.or:·:iftµ¡ to grip ::-; v,:ith t he psyd-:ologv of lnshuctlonai var'..il::le:; and pt:)rforn.)ance, a nd t.~f dfag-
dent in :he mio.uin;1!ysis rr~p0rt0.d th,11 he liked.
problem ,:;olving with tht· jas¡wr e."i~lf' rrnh-
no~tic .'l ~'.;~.S.'in1enl for !.n :-tmctional adnptation.
(p 8)
A situated cognition perspcclive :=, uggests
that m, )T:shH'ti1)n;1\ dP<:igner í•; facetl w ith four
h\sic ~a.sks: first, t h ;~ proper generato:;: set of
!iit u,: lions d1c1l v,:ill affoni l c-arning in the
lem, bu t l1c w<1s r,e allyonly intetes ted in .:.·¡;irsignoring the tnm ::i f~r of dis ~..:1nc.:! irale/Lirne
C'nnc:e.pts ar.ro~s the two topics}. Thci:-cfore, it
is c&sential thal leun ing in contcx t f.H~ rlf'm-
onstrated to trnntifer to both d osely relaled sit~
untions í.".' nd te sítuations \vhcn.:· 01dy the m.úsl
r1hstrílrt nr hi g he:-levt:; th ü ú.ing skill::: nrr.
invr1riant ,1.cross thc- :.:ituatlons. l.t )s impor tar.t
:h;.1 t studen t~ :e;-1rn in~ ir1 tr.-nli;;tic i."():''ltc:xi:s be
Gw.:m~ of the mez:ning pw,...-ided by the sl t':..1atíu1·, <111([ <.Kcess Llw 1r own everyday know l-
edge (induding bdiets, gual s, ami inhmtio-ns)
relatt:·d :o thc- contr.xt. Fina!ly. it will be im pvrtanl th a l' thc si tuatic1s ::.t:"lec:e-d afford in tr:
~r<tlecl instrucl"ion, ;mLhon~1g in.~~mction acros.s
t r a dit ional s:..ibjiect boi; nd.:i.ries .
L
M i<:h 11t"l F Ye,: ,1::; is with the EdurntÍO!Hll
Vsycholn ;;~· :J1..· parln1en1 .~t thl' Univ(;!r,;it? o f
Conncctku :.
19(6}, 2-1 o.
Cr._;,;:-, itinn ;rnd Tf:'(;hnoh::gv C n.m;, M v~n dc·rbi lt
:1992). Tht- J.is:,;il!rcxpc:;l;rnmt
1.:xplorarinn :;f
;\n
iss t1c-s in icarnin g und '.ns tr·.1c tinnal d csii n. Fc'uU!f iom1i ! i'Clm:)!og,.. lfr:,r,~r,:h r;,•:d fJ,'l't'l11.m1,..:•1i. -UJ{'i}
65-80.
Colli n,:;, A . (1991, S:::pt.). T hcmk: ,_,r, comput.::r teLh
rio lo¡; y m rt:>)ITt:ctt.1:·ing schcx1b . i 'hi Odr.-11<uprl!ln,
29- 36
Cüllin~;. A., & 1:kc,wn, J. $, (1988) . The comi)Ute:· J~
el l;,,71fnr 10'.'; ;irnmg t":i.iough ret11:'Ction . In 1: 1\1 ;,ndl
&. A. . L~sgcl..l (Eds. ), Lcam h:x i;;~:,u:.~ fvr int,,i/1~0.·111
turori ng sy::f,:ms. ?-J.~N Yol'k : Spr'.ngcr.
Cr.llin c;, A . D.'.'own, ] S ..•~ N F-v:m.an, ~-;· E. ( '.98(1)
Cog:d i~·t! appr~nlices i1 ip: Tt-,,d ,i11g tlw c:,dt-,.; u{
r 2-~d;.n g, ,_,,.,flting , .c;:1d m athcrniltic:> . In l. B.
~~:;=~ :~~/~~:};:[;;:~'.~i~;-~;\;;~::.:!~¡í1:~:1::.' ~~/
:-::-r,c~ Eríb i:. l•~"i
0\:'1-1.'l':,', J. ,; ~~(l:i~ ::.ri1..•1·1r::,:.i•11n-i \ d;i\!l/r.m
Rerf'1I C'1, C. {19·;-1¡. In:plic~tion$ of c-mnectionism
;";_,~ tl ,i;ú:i :··.); ,.~iot;t ni ::e~. fd11 r:nl itmal !fr-;.curchr.Y,
2()(3), 10-1 6.
Grn-.·.,n, A. L. & C1mpionc, J. C:. (h90). C::-;n rn a nib t"~ ol 1€,H:·.:n(:, ,,nJ thmki1~g c r A -: :untl'xt by
<.ff;' o th0r name. Jn '.) . K·.thr. :,EU.), Oe\.eloprncnta l puspcdívt;-s (m tf'cl,hing .ind l.('~ming t h inking ::,kili~ I5pe,~Í<11 h,:,;ue[. Co11trihutro:1s te i-/w111111
D1.•,.i.:lo¡;m~iit. 21. 108 -1 26
füown, A. L .. & P ;1 li11(,;::ir. A. S . (1<;;88~. Ctüded,
cocpcri1r\•_;e l~a'.·nlng aml iwli\•idu,11 knawledg:"'
nr<1ubitiun. Ir. L. 1-!E'~;'."'.ick {Ed. ), 1<.r1c,:,..:ing . lrnrn-
iu,;:. ,;_•·! d u:s 1 nrct:on: Í:-:h'l_1!S in Jtmim o.f RoCert Gi',1?n·. l·'.i '.!sd,"lle..\F: Lawrcnct' E rll:-aum
Rrmvn . ]. S. , Coi:ins . ;\ ., & Du guíd. P. :bt\9,
J;,,n-l·eb) . Sit·u,,tecl 01:;n iii-::in t\ rHi the culture of
]c¡_¡rning. [rl1:cr. !i.;-1m! .i i.:'!>::urd1.:1~ 32--42.
Bruicn, J. (198,6) ,1r lu:;,i mi1rfis, ;m:;~ibieW<Jtld~. C aml;r;di!,t~, /dA: H;ir vard U n! ver:=:i~y r,rc-s:s
C ampio ne, J. C., 1;3rnwn, A. L., & C::i:111eil.. M . L.
(_)YBH). IVktocc,gn ih ú1,: On :he impon-:l'i •~e úf
cdl"rs1andi1\C, \"•/hat yo1.1 a re do:ing lr- R. l.
C h a rles & E. /\ . Silv,:!r (Eds, ), Tire tit ir.:hi;;g a,d
ri::',.,..-.i''>.~ÍJ;S e~.• m ,1/l,·,·m,1iiln1:m--in~m ~olvh,g (p?- 93-114;,.
Ri.'~tC:-J'., VA: .\Jatton,ii C(•l1w; il ai "l"e,,.,<::her~ (':f
C::tst". R. (1%'":'¡- i 11!r .1ir"t.' f rmi tit!~~h¡mrcn!: Birtf: to ,1d11h
',1ex:d. Orlandu, FL: At:i1dl!1:1it. Pre:si;.
Cfl~f', R.. ~ '.k r 0.!ittr, C. (19!-,4) . From bei1avimism
lw cw5i·1i\ivt" Lt>h,wlorisrr, to cognitive dcvl:" :0 p nwnt:
S:r- ?,; i:1 thc cvo!utiun ;;,_Jf instructia n;il dt>s igr,
5c"1e1,, ,~, ·1 3 _ 14 1-f.~tl,
Clmu:y, \ V ,l., & Ros..::hclk•, J. (i1, pre;;~). Sil natcd
fn c;tr1i,~lin!iai
r:(15niticn: How rep res~n:.dti1~ns ar~ cn .' ated an :.i
g iv,;>n m ee nin¡:;. Ed,,,:-:;t:'miíli Ps_yd io!-Jgi:oi
Chi. M . ":. I!,. & Kú€::>ke. R. C. ('1%3). Nchvork rept·r-sc-nta::ion ot c. .::hil<l's dino:.¡¡;,,_1: :<1',cr,vl~db'l.:". i.k1>é'l(l¡.m:,nl¡1f />,;yd·:,;i.11u. 1~("1), 7:9-.::9,
Co~nilion :1:id Te:::h nülugy C ~oup at V,'ff,de,·b il t.
(: 990) . Anchml~d instrnctüm s:nd ils rc l.1tle11ship
lo ~ Ü ll~Ü:•d .C(•lnllion . i:dr;.cat_;,p,n/ l<,oc;rf'_•·die~,
1
{ ~ : ~~
l\'~ w \ (: r·-: ·
Colfü::-- \ fat:mill<u-.
diSessa . A./\ . ( 1983). \'hcn-rr crn)kl,~'.•-' ,,nJ :t-,cev,)
lu tion (~f intaitinn . In D. ;·;.~nt nn ,l., A. Sl<·vcns
(Et\~.), Mnli,d morh:h' (pp. ·is-:n i. H il lsd;:Jr,_. ~( j
1 ;:iv:rcnn: J:-:rb,1 um.
diSe::,,,SE! . A.. A. () Y88). W hat h'\L i t :-re;i.n r::i be
' ';.:t;.u G11"l'J'' in 2:,207 '.1) R. S. T\ic:~~,1son & P. P.
7.nd h iatc:;; (Ed s.), T~fimr.'rgy ;:1 ~d:ffr •ivw t-:"11,';kms
to:,V1rd W10. HiLsd3k, )\J Lw,•ro;> r:l<:' frlf_,,mm .
Ga¡:;m'.-_. R. !Vf. ("1':if,5). ·r'h~: cmi;:,:.·f1m 5 c.f lc·t:nlÍ!''.< (h ·.
Pd.) . Ne\v Y,;,) :k H olt, füneh<1 r\, & W in ~lrn.
G ihson . /. J. (1986;,. 2,1,l' xoh::,;ii·oi .1ppm,1r.ii in ; :i.'-:1,;/
¡xn'<7;t:ón. Hi l\ ;.dc:l-e·, :-,._1J: L.a\-vrt:ncl' Erlb,;u111. \01ig i1ml work p1,b lishcd 1.979)
Gbsc r, R (196~!- b·,sh"":Krion.al tt)d 1n oln~y 11rH.f thenH..'<;:mrcm ~nt o f leam ing sysL•n1;::; . .-1mbia;11 Psy·
cno!ogi;;.J, ~8.. ::O] :,- C:::i:·.~
Grc~110. j. G. ~1992). ~fathem:o.ti:: a;1c ~::.~·:---t-fic thi nki ng in ch~s:·o :n·,.:, and úthcr s\cua tillr.s. Jn ~). i~.
H alpt-rn (Ed .~, r !ii1r1;d 1:g !hi11ki11g d{,/!.; ,:11 !hr Hcie•tet!S 1;.•1d math..:11:·1~Í!C~ - '-. lill dd,._., NJ· l .aw ri''.lce
E!lbaum.
G ,·eeno. J. G. , '.),'1 il'h , O. R., & Moc-rc, j. L. (il; pr~s~).
l"ransfl<'r o f sHu,1:t~
!carni r.[~· To 21 p :)e.M i n
n
Dette:m.=c i~ & R. Stcrn bHg :Ed~.;. "f,.-i ,:~_{,?1 0:1 lr:i11.
Kltá owich, J. \1., & Yu11r-r,, M . F. tl99'J: C,-;mp.1,: mer1tmi 1•a b,Jl re¡'JGI"! h•cl:n;',pi .:-~ w.ir/; otfra moú:.~ o_(
r1'~5,·~:<:mfti l . P.:ipcr ?re.:>t:mtcd to ;;.i·,nuJ mt•1::, i; ·.)s(lí
Nm·the¡¡stern Educí'ltiCJn fll lk '.;.~.:m.:'l' ,:i.::-;{K'.:uti,"l n. El•
len villé, NY.
L;1vl:", J. '. l9SS) . Cog t!;li;m ;,:t mcii,:e: },/1 /nt/ , :;ui!/,,,H_•ti!ir:> ii:1d rnt!urr in r::r.r_!fJ{q \ ír. (mTibrit':gt', J\.·[A :
Cam·::,ridge Uni\.'L'rSily Pn.'":i~
PP,i_. R. 0 . {1')88 , ;\ u g u!.I}. ! )i~r.•·1L1df .i Í nfi,i/i_,{''ncr _;r ;
ie'f.l!'_'!;.-ig 11_,,,J re·,;s-1ni118 ;,..•roc!'5:-<',~- Paµc r pn:!;;.;>1',l~t.i
at ~'.w 1~e~ting wí lhc ·'._'ot,niti v,? !:,ó.:::r.ce S(,c1,:•ty.
,;\,'lon trt>~I
Rei&e!uth, C. M . (Ed.) . !_!<JR'i) . i1;:;.•nictic·11a,' de.,:.;"_~n tnc
dJ';°i?3C<mi m rJflr.b: A11 t.'i'c'; :•u:-:,, :!/ /ln·1r r.·•,;-r,.·11/ _c:;,1f,1s.
Hi1!:;ri n lr, t,;J-, L¡;,,-.,nmcc Erlb1Hrn1.
Reiw~lu~\1, C. J\I: . (~d ). {!9-'F). hrs,'rlt'C111n:::i i h~vrif::
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