Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19- school closure: An
exploration of teachers’ experiences.
By
Siphesihle Mbali Khaba
Student No: 217001428
An Independent Research Project submitted towards the partial fulfilment of the
Bachelor of Education Honours Degree in Educational Psychology, School of
Education University of KwaZulu-Natal South Africa
Supervisor: Dr. Visvaranie Jairam
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SECTION 1: PERSONAL DETAILS
1.1
Full Name & Surname of Applicant
: Siphesihle Mbali
1.2
Title (Ms/ Mr/ Mrs/ Dr/ Professor etc.)
: Ms
1.3
1.4
Applicants gender
: Female
Applicants Race (African/
: African
Coloured/Indian/White/Other)
1.5
Student Number (where applicable)
: 217001428
1.6
School
: School of Education
1.7
College
: College of humanities
1.8
Campus
: Edgewood Campus
1.9
Existing Qualifications
: Bachelor of Education
1.10
2.
Proposed Qualification for Project
Contact Details
: Bachelor of Education
honours
in
Educational
Psychology
Cell. No
: 0834110894
E-mail
: 217001428@stu.ukzn.ac.za
Postal address
:9WitchfieldGroove, Newlands
West
Proposal for:
PhD Thesis:
100% 100 000 words 384 credits
□
Dissertation
100% 40 000 words
192 credits □
Coursework Dissertation
66.6% 28 000 words
128 credits □
Short Dissertation
50%) 20 000 words
96 credits
□
Treatise
33.3% 14 000 words
64 credits
□
IRP (Honours)
8 000 words 32 credits
□
In the case of coursework degree, provide a brief description of the degree
programme:
(e.g., nature of degree, number and names of modules passed)
Each research proposal should be submitted together with a fully completed

Contract between Supervisor and Candidate.
2|Page
We are satisfied with the academic merit and viability of the proposal and
research project, subject to ethical clearance:
1
Supervisor:
Name: ………………………………….. Signature: ......................................Date:
2.
Academic Leader (Research):
Name:………………………………
Signature:
.....................Date:
....................................
3.
SUPERVISOR/ PROJECT LEADER DETAILS
NAME
TELEPHON
EMAIL
E NO.
DEPARTMENT
QUALIF
/ INSTITUTION
ICATIO
NS
Dr V. Jairam
Jairam@ukzn.ac.za
Humanities
PhD
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DECLARATION
I, Siphesihle Mbali Khaba, declare that the entirety of the work submitted for this
Independent Research Project is my own, and that all the sources and views of
authorities used throughout the research have been acknowledged respectively. This
work has not been previously submitted for any degree or examination at this or any
other university.
Siphesihle Mbali Khaba ___________________________ Date: _____________
Dr. V Jairam: _______________________________ Date: ________________
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My utmost and most heartfelt gratitude the Almighty God for blessing me in
abundance and for his protection that has kept me thus far. Baba zincane izibongo
zami nokubonga kwami akwanele ngakonke osungibusise ngakho, Ebenza Nkosi.
To my late grandfather Mkhemelele Vincent Mkhwanazi, thank you for your
unconditional love that you have shown us, and it is unfortunate that you did not get
the opportunity to witness us flourish. I dedicate this degree to you, siyabonga
Nkwaliyenkosi, Mthendeleka, Shamase, Ndonga.
A special thank you to my family: My late father, Mr. Dumisani Khaba thank you for
all the unconditional love you gave us till the day that God called you to rest. I will
forever be grateful Mlotshwa.
Mrs. Tholiwe Khaba for all the love, support, and encouragement. For always
understanding why I am always not home because you understood the vision from
day one, ngiyabonga Shamase omkhulu. To my brother Simangaliso Welcome
Mkhwanazi, thank you for always being the dad that every girl deserves. You
fossilized a stone into an Ember Gem. Lastly, ngiyabonga Ndonga omhlophe for all
the e-wallets that kept me going. My utmost appreciation to my sister, Sibahle
Sinethemba Khaba ngiyabonga Thembalamlotshwa for always being my day one.
For always willing to prepare me your heart-warming meals and for always being
able to grant me emotional support. To my niece, Simangenhle Mkhwanazi thank
you nana for being my sunshine through the rain. To Baneliswe Mvelase, thank your
support and encouragement does not unnoticed, ngiyabonga Ntombi
yaseBathenjeni,Mnisi wevula ilanga libalele.
A huge thank you to my grandmother, Mrs Phambekile Mkhwanazi for your
unconditional love, support and for your endless calls that followed with words of
encouragement. Ngiyabonga Khumbuza, Nombedu bese ngithi nje TWO Ndosi. To
my aunt Zibuyile Mkhwanazi, ngiswele amazwi okubonga Mthendeleka omkhulu.
You have been a mother and a nurturer. Without you, I wouldn’t have made it thus
far, your encouragement and unconditional love does not go unnoticed. Another
thank you to my uncle, Nqobile Gladwell Mkhwanazi for always believing in me and
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for always being my place of confinement. Ngiyabonga Veyane, Mpangezitha
Mpandeyamadoda.
Thank you to all my friends for the support and encouragement that you have shown
me throughout my academic career. I would like to thank Khwezi Ngubane, Sthah
Madela, Nhlanhla Dondi, Zodwa Nzimande, Mandisa Maphumulo, Nipho Mchunu,
Mbali Mthembu, Amanda Ngcobo, Malibongwe Majola, Noluthando Ngcobo,
Nothando Nkomo, Siduduzo Qwabe, Mbalenhle Mayoyo,Philani Shezi, Denzi
Nkabinde and Hlobisile Sibiya. Your love and support are invaluable.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
(I)
DECLARATION
(II)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(III)
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY (1-2)
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
2.3. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.3.2. WHAT ARE THEACHERS’ EXPRIENCES OF ONLINE TEACHING DURING
THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC?
2.3.3. HOW DO THEY NAVIGATE ONLINE TEACHING DURING THE COVID-19
PANDEMIC?
2.3.4. WHY DO THEY NAVIGATE IT IN THE WAY THEY THAT THEY DO?
CHAPTER THREE: THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
3.1. INTRODUCTION
3.2. OVERVIEW OF THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
3.3. LEARNING AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION
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3.4. ASSUMPTIONS OF THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY
3.5. LEARNERS ARE ACTIVE CO-CONSTRUCTORS OF MEANING AND
KNOWLEDGE
3.6. CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLODY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 List of sources (Articles and books)
CHAPTER 5:
5.1.DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDING
CHAPTER 6:
Concluding discussion and recommendations
a) A summary of the key findings is presented, and a conclusion of the overall
research is discussed.
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SECTION 2: PROJECT TITLE
Project title (60 words)
Adapting to online teaching during covid -19school closure: An exploration
of teachers’ experience.
Keywords: Exploration, Covid 19, Pandemic, Lockdown, Remote Learning, Quarantine,
Anxiety, Social Distancing.
2.1 Rationale
Research Objectives

To explore teachers’ experiences of teaching and learning during COVID-19
school closure.

To explore teachers adapting to online teaching during COVID-19 school
closure.

To explore how teachers experienced adapting to online teaching during
COVID-19 school closure.
2.2
2.3 Questions to be asked?

To explore what were the teachers' experiences of teaching and learning during
the COVID-19 school closure.

To explore how teachers adapted to online teaching during COVID-19 school
closure.

To explore how teachers experienced adapting to online teaching during
COVID-19 school closure.
2.2
Location of the Study (Desktop Research)
Desktop research can also be referred to as secondary data or data acquired without
fieldwork; therefore, it is called desktop research. To most people, it conjures up an
image of published reports and statistics, which are valuable. In this context of this
chapter, the term is broadened to include all the necessary sources of information that
is not based on field survey, alluded by Lake (2019).
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2.3.
Review of Literature
Adapting to online teaching during covid-19 school closure: An exploration of
teachers’ experience.
2.3.1 Introduction
The South African education system is afflicted with huge issues twenty years after
democracy, such as poor teaching quality in many black township and rural schools.
A lack of equipment and physical infrastructure, resources, textbook delivery delays
or non-delivery and vandalism at schools, hence, these are all the issues that need to
be addressed, (Reitzes,2009. p18). Education is the means through which societies
reproduce themselves and both the inputs and outputs of an educational system may
be viewed of as a collection of ideas about how society should function. These ideas
are well- structured and should remain so in the future and as a result, education will
always be important Modisaotsile (2012, p,19) stated.
Firstly, we need to acknowledge that there is enormous educational inequality in South
Africa provided in the different spheres of the country. Moreover, covid-19 declared
remote learning as an official instrument utilized in schools to ensure no contact
learning. When the Minister of Basic Education announced the termination of schools,
the cabinet had to establish different strategies to counteract the time lost during the
lockdown, Hoadley (2020) stated. Policies were created to ensure relevant
stakeholders' continued adherence to educational and preventive procedures,
particularly those directed to teachers and students, such as providing alternative
delivery modes of education and quarantine requirements stated by Talidong &
Toquero (2021).
Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19 school closure created stressful
experiences that educators encountered led to low performance in the classroom
established by the low self-esteem and burnout that prevented educators from
performing to the expected standards. (Buric & Kim, 2020; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010)
The closure of schools and the implementation of home quarantine set worldwide
created a surge of anxiety, especially amongst the Department of Education. Hence,
different strategies had to be developed to complete the academic year.
Therefore, the results of anxiety that the pandemic initiated led teachers to engage in
virtual learning, communicate with the professional community, and follow quarantine
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guidelines, according to the findings. Moreover, the pandemic has brought the country
due to the suspension of national school-related events and finding purposeful ways
to deal with anxiety.
2.3.2What are teachers' experiences of online teaching during the COVID-19
pandemic?
The Covid-19 has implemented many changes within the society, especially within
the Department of education, and these changes have taxed many educators
emotionally and psychologically. Remote learning has been of the demanding
experiences that educators have ever encountered. Moreover, the author has also
highlighted that the same teachers who were over-burdened with admin are also
parents to their children. They also need to attend to their children's educational
needs and family responsibilities. These duties do not correlate with remote teaching
and learning, and it does not provide a conducive teaching environment and a stable
mental state for educators.
At the beginning of March 2020, South Africa faced a rapid spread of the Covid 19
virus. Moreover, on the 15th of March, President Ramaphosa announced the country's
tragedy, and on the 27th of March 2020, he announced the first national lockdown,
which complied educators to adapt to online learning and the closure of schools was
implemented. Furthermore, these challenges present, teachers were expected to
conduct good online teaching during the pandemic Spaull, (2020) stated. In addition,
teachers are not immune to the Covid-19 vulnerabilities because they have
discontinued teaching and learning after the lockdown announcement. Different ways
and strategies had to be utilised for example Microsoft teams, Skype and WhatsApp
groups for effective communication between teachers' parents on how teaching and
learning will occur during the pandemic.
One of the resolutions was to implement online learning as an instrument that will
assist educators in bridging the gap of the time lost in teaching and learning. The
implementation of online learning came with a list of difficulties such as poor network,
lack of resources and even insufficient funds to purchase data. Hence, most learners
cannot access the resources uploaded online due to the environments they are
situated in. Moreover, this creates a gap that is hard to bridge. Hence, learners will be
left behind because of the different socio-economic ills that the learners are facing at
home, Van der Berg (2020).
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Additional suggestions were raised by various scholars in the save the year
campaign. The second online learning methodology was used as the radio and
television broadcast. However, according to Hoadley (2020. p,18), the television and
radio broadcast were a brilliant idea to assist learners in catching up with their
academics; however, this methodology was not well coordinated and poorly
publicized, especially in the lower grades. The implementation of this program was to
assist educators and learners to cover as much content as possible.
In addition, the Covid-19 pandemic was deemed a global crisis that varies from other
emergencies that a teaching and learning environment might face. However, it is easily
predicted that most schools and educators were not fully equipped and trained to
tackle the challenges brought to the front by the pandemic. Moreover, one of the
significant dilemmas educators faced during the Covid-19 pandemic included lack of
student attendance and participation due to lack of parental support and guidance.
Secondly, another challenge that educators met was students who could not access
the internet and lacked technology facilities were the major concerns that educators
encountered. Therefore, this has affected teaching and learning because teaching and
learning were more productive during contact learning than virtual learning.
According to Van der Berg (2021) discusses that, several themes emerged concerning
the issues instructors encountered during the COVID-19 pandemic. The following
significant obstacles that educators faced were a lack of student involvement and the
second obstacle was students without access to technology or lack of parental
support. Thirdly, educators were concerned about their learners' well-being; fourthly,
no face-to-face contact with pupils; lastly, learning, work-life balance, and new
technology.
Subsequently, many educators emphasized that most students were not participating
or active during the virtual learning period. These findings conclude that students did
participate in online classes. Hence, these classes were deemed as not mandatory.
Therefore, students were not motivated to attend these online classes. Some students
were not participating in the online learning due to different circumstances that
learners faced at home.
Furthermore, some young pupils appeared to be unable to attend online classes or
meetings due to a lack of parental support. According to one primary school teacher,
some students stated that "my learners did not have any form of support and did not
12 | P a g e
attend daily classes or did any work'. These different scenarios led or have resulted in
educators feeling demotivated and discourage. The second dilemma that educators
faced during the COVID-19 pandemic were learners having insufficient access to the
internet. The majority of learners come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Therefore,
this has resulted in a large number of learners not being able to attend classes daily.
2.3.3. How do they navigate online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic?
Remote learning was implemented because of the lockdown that was caused by the
COVID-19, hence, social distancing had to be observed and the evidence produced
on teachers' classroom conditions and difficulties implementing social distancing.
According to the information on the class size in South Africa, at least half of the
students are in classes with more than 40 students. Classrooms in South Africa are
designed to accommodate a minimum of 40 learners per classroom and have 1.2
meters per learner. According to Kim (2020, p.20), this results in the prevalent
congestion, there social distancing becomes challenging to practice in most
classrooms across the country, given the high risk of death from Covid-19. When
compared to standard mortality risk, this is a low risk.
We believe the Department of Basic Education should recognize that most South
African schools cannot conduct social distancing within the classroom and are almost
non-existent for students. Other preventative measures, hand washing and maskwearing for older children should be implemented; however, social distancing should
not be enforced within the school.
Moreover, the existing studies in South Africa prevail that remote learning was poorly
conducted. Hence, learners in more inadequate schools fall increasingly below the
required level of achievement (Van der Berg, 2015). The Learning deficiencies caused
by Covid-19 are expected to worsen and widen the problem. The inequality gap in
South Africa does not allow all learners to learn remotely. However, the number of
school days remained decreased, and the Department of Education was forced to
implement remote learning.
According to Kaplan-Rakowski (2020), studies have proven that the dawn of online
learning has introduced numerous learning opportunities that have enabled people to
learn from virtually. Moreover, online learning has also helped people who are
differently abled to learn from the comfort of their homes. However, the disadvantages
and challenges of the implementation of online learning were not critically analysed.
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Burrup (2016) further states that online learning performance has repandly increased
learning opportunities for different students with different capabilities.
Moreover, the implementation of online learning also enabled students to attend their
classes despite the natural global pandemic or any relevant global disaster that
learners might face. Regardless of the benefits of the implementations of online
learning, the implementation of online learning was very challenging, especially in
South Africa. (Barbour 2016.p.4) stated that, ‘while some difficulties were inherited
through the implementation of online learning and teaching, the Covid-19 pandemic
has exacerbated some of them. Moreover, online learning has also created an
imbalance of the digital divide; mental wellbeing and access to higher education are
all concerns that fall under the banner of equity issues.
Furthermore, lack of contact interaction from the educator to the learner created a
barrier that disadvantages the educator from providing the learner with sufficient
support that enabled the learner to grow academically. Hence, this resulted in learners
suffering from anxiety and stress from the extreme change in daily routines, and lack
of support from parents was another contributing factor, Clausen (2020p,10) alluded.
2.3.4. Why do they navigate it in the way that they do?
The pandemic has far-reaching adverse consequences for the Department of
Education. These include the direct effects of the virus hence. These consequences
include the danger and exposure that educators and learners faced in terms of being
infected with the virus. According to Kim (2021.p.15) argues that remote learning was
implemented to impact education and the different circumstances that learners are
exposed to, not hindering them from being promoted to the next grade and
discouraging learners from dropping out during the pandemic.
The school year was cut short, and the curriculum had to be amended, Kim (2020)
stated. And it will be interesting to examine how successfully it was amended and
whether the new curriculum provided a sufficient foundation for succeeding grades.
Reading, writing, and math skills are acknowledged to be important in the early grades.
Therefore, Hoadly (2020) compares to other countries, the mathematical competence
of South African learners is far below compared of other international countries.
Shortening the school year will almost certainly exacerbate the problem of insufficient
preparation for the Foundation Phase's succeeding years or even the Intermediate
Phase.
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However, it is unclear the consequences of the abbreviated school year's insufficient
curriculum coverage. Different questions arose during the process of amending the
school curricula. The first question was, how comprehensively can a condensed
curriculum be covered? Will the changes in the curriculum have an impact on the
subsequent grades? Moreover, due to the compressed and rushed nature of the
amened curriculum, more leniencies may be offered to struggling students, Kim (2020)
alluded.
The implementation of remote learning was to prevent the high rates of repetition n of
grades. However, this has been no ordinary year, and the educational authorities
made a concrete decision on implementing the policy of repetition in the year 2020.
However, due to the pandemic's uncertainty and anxiety, some parents had different
ideologies and philosophies about allowing their children to school. Subsequently,
holding children captive would be unjust, hence, the end of the year in a situation
where there is limited opportunity to be progressed to the next grade. Thus, it also
proves that researchers investigated measures to improve teachers' preparedness for
school emergencies perceived as harmful before the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover,
Perkins (2018) alluded to the investigations towards the teachers' preparedness for
the national disaster and how educators can teach under these conditions.
In addition, although students with access to digital devices and the internet may not
constitute the majority in most countries. Therefore, assisting governments in
establishing effective forms of online education will allow the institutions to maneuver
freely in institutional capacities and resources. Hence, the implementation of online
learning will enable schools to provide alternative learning methods for those students
who do not have such opportunities. Moreover, the implementation of online learning
during the COVID-19 pandemic aims to support learners academically and requires
parents to help their children at their best fully, Van der Berg (2021), alluded.
On the other hand, the South African government and numerous different sections of
the media have established provisions for virtual teaching and learning. Moreover, this
program was led by the Ministry of Communication and Digital Technologies. The
minister announced that the communications and information technology departments
would be merging with the Department of Basic Education to ensure that virtual
learning becomes a reality. Subsequently, the other reason is that the country was
underprepared for the interruption. Bringing in the virtual classrooms was a method to
observe how technology could help manage the Covid-19 induced disruption.
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In conclusion, teachers were under tremendous pressure to cover the remaining
content in a short time. Moreover, in the implementations of remote learning, there is
a misalignment between the curricular expectation and the children's abilities.
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References
Indent subsequent lines in each reference like the two below
Hoadley, U. (2020). Schools in the Time of COVID-19: Impacts of the Pandemic on
Curriculum.
Kim, L. E., & Asbury, K. (2020). 'Like a rug had been pulled from under you': The
impact of COVID‐19 on teachers in England during the first six weeks of the UK
lockdown. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 1062-1083.
Lake, A. A., Burgoine, T., Stamp, E., & Grieve, R. (2012). The foodscape: classification
and field validation of secondary data sources across urban/rural and socio-economic
classifications in England. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical
Activity, 9(1), 1-12.
Spaull, N., & van der Berg, S. (2020). Counting the cost: COVID-19 school closures in
South Africa and its impact on children. South African Journal of Childhood
Education, 10(1), 13.
Smit, J. A., Mkhize, N., Ndimande-Hlongwa, N., & Ramrathan, L. Learner and Subject
at the Dawn of Digital Research-Led Teaching and Learning in the Time of COVID19.
Van der Berg, S., Van Wyk, C., & Selkirk, R. (2020). Schools in the time of COVID-19:
Possible implications for enrolment, repetition and dropout. Department of Economics,
University of Stellenbosch.
Van der Berg, S., & Spaull, N. (2020). Counting the Cost: COVID-19 school closures
in South Africa & its impacts on children. Research on Socioeconomic Policy
(RESEP). Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University.
An, Y., Kaplan-Rakowski, R., Yang, J., Conan, J., Kinard, W., & Daughrity, L. (2021).
Examining k-12 teachers’ feelings, experiences, and perspectives regarding online
teaching during the early stage of the covid-19 pandemic. Educational Technology
Research and Development, 1-25.
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CHAPTER 3
Theorical Framework
3.1. Introduction
The above-mentioned section (literature review) aimed to introduce, review and
critically discuss teacher experiences of teaching a learning during the COVID-19
pandemic. In this chapter, I will articulate the theoretical/ conceptual framework for the
affirmed, hence, the framework that I have chosen is the social constructivism.
3.2. Overview of the Social Constructivism Theory
3.2.1. What is the Social Constructivism?
Social Constructivism is the sociology and communication theory of knowledge that
looks at how people form their knowledge and understanding of the world together.
Understanding, importance, and meaning, according to this view, are formed in
collaboration with other people. The most crucial assumptions in this theory are that
humans rationalize their experiences by developing a model of the social world and
how it works, and that language is the most important method through which humans
construct reality (Leeds-Hurwitz, 2009).
According to Vygotsky (1978), cognitive development begins on a social level and then
progresses to the individual level. Learners can relate to situations through making
sense of others and constructing knowledge on such a social level, (Roth,2000).
Before knowledge is internalized, Roth claims that the foundations of the individual’s
knowledge can be discovered in their interactions with their surroundings and other
people.
Shunk (2020) suggests that social constructivism is the relevance of culture and
context in comprehending what happens in society and building knowledge based on
that understanding is emphasized by social constructivism. This viewpoint is linked to
several contemporary theories, the most prominent of which are the developmental
theories of Vygotsky and Bruner’s social cognitive theory, as well as Bandura’s.
Constructivism is believed to have advocated for teacher and students to converse
with one another and understand and construct hidden knowledge by conducting
questions. Bruner’s (1996) constructivist explanation of discovery is developed from
Piaget’s constructivist description discovery learning. Furthermore, Constructivism is
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also known as a synthesis of various theories that have been disseminated in one
form. It is the synthesis of behaviouralist and cognitive values. Learning is a process
of generating meaning, it is how people make sense of their experiences, Amineh
(2015, p10). Constructivism is extensively promoted as a method that is used for
determining a child’s level of development and to demonstrate how comprehension
can grow and evolve into higher-level thinking. As a result, constructivism relates to
the way one learns and thinks. Students’ ability to make meaning of content is
described as constructivism.
3.2.2Learning as a social construction
Social constructivism is also referred to the different learning dialogues that empower
teachers by allowing them to focus on what should be the centre of the educational
process of learning and learners, rather than on standards and performance.
Furthermore, such discussions promote educators to examine pedagogy from a
learner’s perspective. Thus, also emphasizes that, historically such analysis arouses
from behaviourist beliefs whereby learners can be programmed and reformed.
Behaviourist concepts regard the learners the learners as a tabula rasa, that are ready
to be filled with the transmission-based instruction that strengthen the stimulusresponse linkages through transmitting and imposing a set of values Adams (2006,
p265). Furthermore, learning is known to occur in such situations because of
adaptation which is known as process of forming relationships that results in changes
in the environment that exhibited that mentioned behaviour. The egalitarian nature of
behaviourism may well acknowledge that the environment has a role in determining
the scope and impact of learning and that it plays a role in determining the size and
impact of learning. However, it conversely overlooks deliberation about cognition
variations in cognition as if learning is exclusively due to the that overlooks deliberation
about cognition, rather to discuss the differences in learning as contributing factor that
solely to the reactions that individuals display.
Constructivist learning orientations aims to discover how students form their
knowledge constructions and what this means for understanding mental processes.
Thus, also shows that the fluid nature of constructivist learning and how can teachers
accept that each learner will create knowledge in their own unique way and that these
19 | P a g e
variances arise from the various ways that people collect select, interpret, and
organize information, (Adam,2006) stated.
One viewpoint, social constructivism contends that learners construct knowledge as a
result of social interaction, interpretation and comprehension (Vygotsky, 1962).
Therefore, knowledge development is inextricably linked to social interaction and
learning is considered as a process of active knowledge creation within and from social
constructivism environment in which it is created. Furthermore, knowledge
constructions are produced first on inter-psychological level (between people) before
getting internalized or existing intra-psychologically, due to the mediatory properties
of language and other types of communication (Daniels, 2001).
3.3 Assumptions of the Social Constructivism Theory
The assumptions that underpin social constructivism are specific beliefs about reality,
knowledge, and learning. It’s critical to understand and utilize social constructivistbased instructional methods by first understanding the principals that underpin them.
Reality: According to social constructivists, reality is created by human activity.
Members of a civilization collaboration to create by the world’s properties
(Kukla,2020). Reality, according to the social constructivist, cannot be discovered, it
does not exist before it is socially created.
Knowledge: Knowledge is likewise a human product, according to social
constructivists, and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest, 1999, p14).
Individuals generate meaning by interacting with one another and the world in which
they live.
Learning: Learning is viewed as a social process by social constructivists. It does not
Limit the process to a single location. It is neither an individual nor a passive evolution
of behaviours moulded by external circumstances, (McMahon,1997) stated. When
people participate in social activities, they learn more effectively.
3.3.1. Social Context for Learning
Various social constructivist alludes that, two identified components of social
environment that have a significant impact on the nature and breath of learning. As a
member of a certain culture, the learner inherits historical developments. Language,
logic and mathematical systems are all symbol systems that are taught throughout a
person’s life. How and what is taught is dictated by these symbol systems. It’s crucial
20 | P a g e
to consider the nature of the learner’s social interactions with knowledgeable members
of society. It is impossible to learn the social interaction with more informed persons
Adams (2006, p247) stated.
3.4. Learners are active co-constructors of meaning and knowledge
The concept of the mind is implicit in social constructivist principles and thus essential.
In contrast to the black box, behaviourist perspective of learning, social constructivism
demands that learning be approached as a deliberate activity tacking place in the
mind. Social constructivism is cognitive theories claims that current knowledge
systems and beliefs either support or oppose new ideas (Shepard,2000).
Secondly, it also can absorb social and cultural variables, which are critical in the
formulation of understanding. Furthermore, the social constructivist philosophy
emphasizes the importance of people in one’s life. This shows us that learning is in
the paradigm, largely a construction of knowledge and learning is also in this
paradigm, primarily a construction of knowledge the social procedure (Shepard,2000).
The belief that individuals bring is explicit here and implicit cultural conceptions and
viewpoints. Therefore, as well as the fact that inter-psychological components of
knowledge generation aid in the definition of this cultural environment, Sutherland
(2004), stated.
Additionally, thus also results to while teachers play a vital role in establishing and key
role in establishing and presenting contrasts to promote discussion and analysis,
children are also graded in this way. The notion that pupils learning is solely a reaction
to culture is considered as untenable. Instead, social constructivist theory considers
learning as a dual-agentic process in which the student and the instructor collaborate
to co-construct the social- cultural sphere, with their decisions scaffolding one another
Silcock (2003). The discursive character of social constructivist learning environments
emphasizes the importance of giving children time to speak, with the teacher’s role as
listener and observer easily incorporated.
21 | P a g e
References
Adams,
P.
(2006).
Exploring
social
constructivism:
Theories
and
practicalities. Educaton, 34(3), 243-257.
Amineh, R. J., & Asl, H. D. (2015). Review of constructivism and social
constructivism. Journal of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages, 1(1), 9-16.
Confrey, J. (1995). How compatible are radical constructivism, sociocultural approaches,
and social constructivism. Constructivism in education, 185-225.
Demeritt, D. (2005). Science, social constructivism and nature. In Remaking reality (pp.
184-204). Routledge.
Hay, C. (2015). Social constructivism. In Routledge Handbook of Interpretive Political
Science (pp. 111-124). Routledge.
Hirtle, J. S. P. (1996). Social constructivism. English Journal, 85(1), 91.
Hodson, D., & Hodson, J. (1998). From constructivism to social constructivism: A
Vygotskian perspective on teaching and learning science. School science review, 79(289),
33-41.
Ernest, P. (1998). Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics. Suny Press.
Kim, B. (2001). Social constructivism. Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and t
Law, J., & Singleton, V. (2000). Performing technology's stories: On social constructivism,
performance, and performativity. Technology and culture, 41(4), 765-775.chnology, 1(1),
16.
Risse, T. (2004). Social constructivism and European integration.
Risse, T. (2007). Social constructivism meets globalization. Globalization theory:
Approaches and controversies, 4, 126.
Watson, J. (2001). Social constructivism in the classroom. Support for learning, 16(3),
140-147.
22 | P a g e
CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
This chapter gives an outline of the list of resources (articles and books) which were
used to generate data for this study. This literature was used to explore teacher
experiences’ during the COVID-19 pandemic.
4.2 List of sources, (articles and books)
Adams, P. (2006). Exploring social constructivism: Theories and practicalities. Educaton, 34(3),
243-257.
Amineh, R. J., & Asl, H. D. (2015). Review of constructivism and social constructivism. Journal
of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages, 1(1), 9-16.
An, Y., Kaplan-Rakowski, R., Yang, J., Conan, J., Kinard, W., & Daughrity, L. (2021). Examining
k-12 teachers’ feelings, experiences, and perspectives regarding online teaching during
the early stage of the covid-19 pandemic. Educational Technology Research and
Development, 1-25.
Confrey, J. (1995). How compatible are radical constructivism, sociocultural approaches, and
social constructivism. Constructivism in education, 185-225.
Demeritt, D. (2005). Science, social constructivism and nature. In Remaking reality (pp. 184-204).
Routledge.
Hay, C. (2015). Social constructivism. In Routledge Handbook of Interpretive Political
Science (pp. 111-124). Routledge.
Hirtle, J. S. P. (1996). Social constructivism. English Journal, 85(1), 91.
Hodson, D., & Hodson, J. (1998). From constructivism to social constructivism: A Vygotskian
perspective on teaching and learning science. School science review, 79(289), 33-41.
Ernest, P. (1998). Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics. Suny Press.
Kim, B. (2001). Social constructivism. Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and t
Law, J., & Singleton, V. (2000). Performing technology's stories: On social constructivism,
performance, and performativity. Technology and culture, 41(4), 765-775.chnology, 1(1),
16.
23 | P a g e
Demeritt, D. (2005). Science, social constructivism and nature. In Remaking reality (pp. 184-204).
Routledge.
Hay, C. (2015). Social constructivism. In Routledge Handbook of Interpretive Political
Science (pp. 111-124). Routledge.
Hirtle, J. S. P. (1996). Social constructivism. English Journal, 85(1), 91.
Hodson, D., & Hodson, J. (1998). From constructivism to social constructivism: A Vygotskian
perspective on teaching and learning science. School science review, 79(289), 33-41.
Hoadley, U. (2020). Schools in the Time of COVID-19: Impacts of the Pandemic on Curriculum.
Ernest, P. (1998). Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics. Suny Press.
Kim, B. (2001). Social constructivism. Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and t
Law, J., & Singleton, V. (2000). Performing technology's stories: On social constructivism,
performance, and performativity. Technology and culture, 41(4), 765-775.chnology, 1(1),
16.
Lake, A. A., Burgoine, T., Stamp, E., & Grieve, R. (2012). The foodscape: classification and
field validation of secondary data sources across urban/rural and socio-economic
classifications in England. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical
Activity, 9(1), 1-12.
Kim, L. E., & Asbury, K. (2020). 'Like a rug had been pulled from under you': The
impact of COVID‐19 on teachers in England during the first six weeks of the UK
lockdown. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 1062-1083.
Risse, T. (2004). Social constructivism and European integration.
Risse, T. (2007). Social constructivism meets globalization. Globalization theory: Approaches
and controversies, 4, 126
Watson, J. (2001). Social constructivism in the classroom. Support for learning, 16(3), 140-147.
Spaull, N., & van der Berg, S. (2020). Counting the cost: COVID-19 school closures in South
Africa and its impact on children. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 10(1),
13.
Smit, J. A., Mkhize, N., Ndimande-Hlongwa, N., & Ramrathan, L. Learner and Subject at the
Dawn of Digital Research-Led Teaching and Learning in the Time of COVID-19.
24 | P a g e
Van der Berg, S., Van Wyk, C., & Selkirk, R. (2020). Schools in the time of COVID-19:
Possible implications for enrolment, repetition and dropout. Department of Economics,
University of Stellenbosch.
Van der Berg, S., & Spaull, N. (2020). Counting the Cost: COVID-19 school closures in South
Africa & its impacts on children. Research on Socioeconomic Policy (RESEP).
Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University.
Watson, J. (2001). Social constructivism in the classroom. Support for learning, 16(3), 140-147.
25 | P a g e
CHAPTER 5
5.1. DATA FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Introduction
Chapter five presented an interrogation of the desktop data generation to investigate of
Teachers’ experiences during COVID-19 adapting to online learning. This section will
provide a detailed analysis of the data which was collected and generated through the
desktop research to explore teachers’ experiences during COVID-19 in five themes.
The following themes emanated and were identified from the data:

The impact of lack parental support during the COVID-19 pandemic on learners
and educators.

How did the insufficient access to the internet affect learning and teaching during
COVID-19?

How did social distancing and classroom conditions create a barrier during the
COVID-19?

What were the strategies that were implemented by the Department of Basic
Education to ensure that teaching and learning continuous during the closure of
schools?
5.1.1. The impact of lack parental support during the COVID-19 pandemic on
learners and educators.
The closure of schools during the COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on the
lives of students, their families, and their teachers at large. Surprising, more than half a
billion children have been forced to become virtual-school learners within their homes,
while parents have taken up the responsibility of facilitating and teaching in the absentia
of the teachers, according to Cohen (2020). Teachers, parents, and learners were caught
off guard and were not given sufficient time to prepare for the virtual learning that was
implemented. Therefore, Cowling (2020) stated that, the sudden change that occurred
within the Department of Education that implemented engaging and attempting to aid
learners in various level types of distance learning, hence, some of the difficulties and
challenges of increased parental participation were evident.
26 | P a g e
In traditional educational systems parental involvement is an essential element in student
progress. Woofter (2019), have all found that parental support can help students succeed
in a virtual learning setting. However, when their children participate in online education,
parents must assume new and unexpected roles and obligations, as well as greater
instructional responsibility for their children’s learning. As a result, parents frequently
struggle to grasp their involvement in their children’s online learning.
Parents have conflicting feelings about remote learning. Some parents are more involved
in their children’s academic, while others perceive it as a burden Selwyn (2011). The most
problematic and beneficial parts of online learning for parents is the ability of keeping their
children on track with regards to completing their coursework and interactions with the
child’s online teachers. Furthermore, schools and instructors just lack the resources
necessary to promote parental engagement, parental engagement particular engagement
particularly through the efficient use of technology (Goodall, 2016).
Economic resources, lack of internet in using technology and low digital self-efficacy are
all challenges that may affect parental involvement in remote learning environments.
Parents became teachers for students who spend a major portion of their day in an online
setting, according to pre-pandemic research on virtual school learning environments.
Teachers have identified the following parental scaffolds as beneficial to virtual learners to
organizing and managing students.
Parents have conflicting feelings about remote learning. Some parents are more involving
in their children’s academics, while others perceive it as a burden (Selwyn, 2011). The
most challenging and favourable aspects of online learning for parents, keeping their
children on track while completing their assignment as the former and interactions with the
child’s online teachers. Furthermore, schools and instructors are merely having insufficient
direction to enhance parental engagement particularly with a good use of technology,
(Goodall, 2016).
5.2. How did Social Distancing and classroom conditions create a learning barrier
during COVID-19?
In 1994, South Africa gained independence from the rule and colonization of the British
and a large portion from the population of the people of South Africa still live-in rural
settlements. Hence, there is no universal definition of a place called the rural areas.
27 | P a g e
However, rural areas are isolated from the city which makes it very difficult to access the
internet and to have classrooms that are in good condition nor good health facilities. The
social and economic department in South Africa is still regarded as underdeveloped and
there is still a large gap of technology development that needs to fill. According to the
World Bank (2018), the South African still finds it as huge challenge to supply quality
education services in rural areas and these factors have had a negative impact on the
quality of teaching and learning in South Africa especially during the COVID- 19 pandemic.
Schools that are classified as quintal 4- 7, were already exposed to online learning prior
COVID-19 and the challenges of implementing online learning were not compatible to
schools that are classified as the under resourced schools. Teachers and learners that
were disadvantaged of access to stable network and the necessary technical equipment
found online learning a learning barrier that was caused by COVID-19.
Recognizing the preceding rational researchers demonstrate that, majority of the effective
ways to prevent the transmission of COVID-19 is to maintain social distancing, selfisolation and prevent people from congregating in big groups (Krishnakuma, 2020).
Therefore, COVID19 has been identified as a set and a learning barrier for children who
are residing in rural areas who are taught in traditional teaching methods and contact
learning was no longer permitted and new intervention strategies had to be implemented,
which unfortunately did not favour students that are in under resourced schools which led
the South African government to enforce the closure of schools which had a negative on
teacher experiences on effective teaching and learning, Dieltiens (2008,p.40).
Recognizing the preceding rationale, researchers demonstrated that the most effective
way to prevent the transmission of COVID-19 is to maintain social distancing within
classrooms
prevented
effective
teaching
and
learning
within
the
classroom
(Krishnakumar,2020). The closure of schools was prescribed as a collection of
recommendations that implemented a setback for rural students who are used to being
educated in traditional classrooms. Thus, means that students were only exposed to a
classroom setting where the educator was visible to students and oversees learning close
quarters. As a result, during the COVID-19 pandemic the usual teaching and learning
method was no longer acceptable and new methods of instruction were required such as
remote learning and Blackboard, which was unfortunate for teachers who in rural areas.
Thus, led to the fear that education will only benefit teachers and learners that are
privileged.
28 | P a g e
5.3.1Challenges that were faced by schools that were under-resourced
The transition of contact learning to remote learning has appeared to be one of the most
effective methods of learning. However, remote locations face critical challenges of
network that is not available. Even though online learning appeared to be one of the
greatest modes of learning throughout the COVID-19 era, the innovation was impeded by
the lack of connectivity in some rural contexts, according to the findings, Ebrahim (2020)
alluded. While the idea of using online learning to substitute for the loss of contact learning
is admirable, however, it does not work for all teachers. The World Bank (2020) states that
students who are already competent and knowledgeable about the usage of technology
tools to support their learning, particularly online sources, who have sufficient access to
good bandwidth and connected devices and who are supported by their families and
peers, will be able to make the best use of online learning compared to children that are
in situated in remote areas.
Secondly, it is also evident that the COVID-19 arrangement, while noble, is restrictive in
character and excludes many students from low-income communities. As a result,
according to the CER, it is unjust to create educational systems and institutions that
exclude some people because of their poverty or because they are situated in improved
communities, therefore, educators need to find different ways to overcome these barriers.
Furthermore, lack of connectedness has a negative impact not just on academic related
matters rather, it also contributes negatively on COVID-19 fighting tactics employed in
numerous contexts. In essence, lack of connectivity impedes online learning and access
to information, both of which are critical in the fight against COVID-19.
A paradigm change occurred through the process of moving away from traditional
pedagogical methods and towards technology-based teaching and learning. The period
when teachers relied on printed teaching resources has given way to a technology-driven
world in which classrooms are made up of than bricks and mortar, rather than relying on
virtual platforms, (Wikramanayake, 2014). The application of technology within the
Department of Education has investigated a lot into teaching and learning, and many
authors believe that implementing remote learning may assist and will play critical
functions in the educational process (Onwusuru,2020).
29 | P a g e
In a country like South Africa, where majority of schools are located in rural areas, learners
are less fortunate to have access to quality education, (Du Plessis,2020). Learners in
remote regions have fewer access to quality education. Rural schools are not always well
resourced, and their financial circumstances make them unappealing to the greatest
educators. Technology can be utilized to improve access to information and learning
standards in remote schools, which regarded as highly significant impact of technology.
Teachers must be taught the use of computer-based learning so that they can provide
learners with unrestricted access to information.
Learners have the ability to reconnoitre new material, acquire new knowledge and related
new information to real-life circumstances, which can lead to maximum learning
achievement. According to research, (Bester, 2020) alluded that technology can influence
teaching and learning in the following ways:

Provides teachers with access to vast resources

Provide learners with unlimited access to learning resources that are
accompanied with competence and confidence.

Educators and learners to be encouraged to conduct learning from
wherever they are currently situated without having to comply to traditional
demands of having contact classes.

To improve interaction collaboration between teachers and learners that
will boost their academic performances.

Learners need to receive their feedback of assessments is reported to
learners.
In conclusion, other measures such as blended learning, can also assist, mitigate
COVID-19 influences on education. Learners would have access to online learning
resources as well as the ability to engage with one another and their ability to engage
with one another and their teachers through blended learning. During and after the
COVID-19 era, this could be a beneficial system for curriculum support and recovery.
However, due to economic constraints of the rural areas where the schools are
located, rural schools are disadvantaged in terms of access to technology-based
learning.
30 | P a g e
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUDING DISCUSSION AND RECOMMANDATIONS
6.1. Introduction
The purpose of this study was to acquire information on an exploration on Teachers’
experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. This chapter discusses the key findings
which were charted in the previous chapter. The discussion of this chapter is delivered
and the obtainable according to limitation, recommendations, and conclusions. This
study was guided by the key original research questions.
The following are the research questions that guided this study:
1.1What are teachers' experiences of online teaching during the COVID-19
pandemic?
1.2. How do they navigate online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic?
1.3. Why do they navigate it in the way that they do?
6.2 KEY FINDINGS
The study revealed that teachers’ experiences during the Covid-19 has changed a lot
of norms within the society, especially within the Department of education, and these
changes have taxed many educators emotionally and psychologically. Remote
learning has been of the demanding experiences that educators have ever
encountered.
Moreover, this study has also highlighted that the same teachers who were overburdened with admin are also parents to their children. They also need to attend to
their children's educational needs and family responsibilities. These duties do not
correlate with remote teaching and learning, and it does not provide a conducive
teaching environment and a stable mental state for educators.
Limitations
The limitation of this study was not being able to conduct interviews for this research.
The information was obtained from researched scholarly literature which verified its
trustworthiness and validity. This research could not be broad enough because this
research depended on journals, articles, books, and electronic (online) sources. Data
31 | P a g e
could not be obtained first-hand from participants as most of the information gathered
depended on the scholarly sources.
Recommendations
There are some recommendations that can assist with effective online teaching and
learning. These recommendations were assessed based on taking into account the
problems that educators have faced with the usage of online platforms for teaching

There is a need for teacher professional development, with a focus in Computer
literacy to create, share and disseminate information as well as using online
modalities of teaching and learning.

Computer literacy integration in teaching must be a key component of teacher
education programs in order for teacher candidates to be well prepared to
facilitate teaching using technical facilities.

Our country’s department of technology and communications infrastructure
needs to be improved to allow online teaching as an alternative method of
instruction during the pandemic.

Teachers should be given a clear instruction on how to use online tools and
platforms for teaching.

Internet bandwidth must be adequate to accommodate the high resolution
video.
32 | P a g e
References
Adams, P. (2006). Exploring social constructivism: Theories and practicalities. Educaton, 34(3),
243-257.
Amineh, R. J., & Asl, H. D. (2015). Review of constructivism and social constructivism. Journal
of Social Sciences, Literature and Languages, 1(1), 9-16.
Almanthari, A., Maulina, S., & Bruce, S. (2020). Secondary school mathematics teachers’
views on e-learning implementation barriers during the COVID-19 pandemic: The
case of Indonesia. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology
Education, 16(7), em1860.
An, Y., Kaplan-Rakowski, R., Yang, J., Conan, J., Kinard, W., & Daughrity, L. (2021).
Examining k-12 teachers’ feelings, experiences, and perspectives regarding online
teaching during the early stage of the covid-19 pandemic. Educational Technology
Research and Development, 1-25.
Atmojo, A. E. P., & Nugroho, A. (2020). EFL classes must go online! Teaching activities and
challenges during COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia. Register Journal, 13(1), 49-76.
Confrey, J. (1995). How compatible are radical constructivism, sociocultural approaches, and
social constructivism. Constructivism in education, 185-225.
Dayal, H. C., & Tiko, L. (2020). When are we going to have the real school? A case study of
early childhood education and care teachers’ experiences surrounding education
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 45(4), 336347.
Demeritt, D. (2005). Science, social constructivism and nature. In Remaking reality (pp. 184204). Routledge.
Hay, C. (2015). Social constructivism. In Routledge Handbook of Interpretive Political
Science (pp. 111-124). Routledge.
Hirtle, J. S. P. (1996). Social constructivism. English Journal, 85(1), 91.
Hodson, D., & Hodson, J. (1998). From constructivism to social constructivism: A Vygotskian
perspective on teaching and learning science. School science review, 79(289), 33-41.
Ernest, P. (1998). Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics. Suny Press.
Kim, B. (2001). Social constructivism. Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and t
Law, J., & Singleton, V. (2000). Performing technology's stories: On social constructivism,
performance, and performativity. Technology and culture, 41(4), 765-775.chnology, 1(1),
16.
33 | P a g e
Demeritt, D. (2005). Science, social constructivism and nature. In Remaking reality (pp. 184204). Routledge.
Dong, C., Cao, S., & Li, H. (2020). Young children’s online learning during COVID-19
pandemic: Chinese parents’ beliefs and attitudes. Children and youth services
review, 118, 105440
Hay, C. (2015). Social constructivism. In Routledge Handbook of Interpretive Political
Science (pp. 111-124). Routledge.
Hebebci, M. T., Bertiz, Y., & Alan, S. (2020). Investigation of views of students and teachers
on distance education practices during the coronavirus (COVID-19)
pandemic. International Journal of Technology in Education and Science, 4(4), 267282.
Hirtle, J. S. P. (1996). Social constructivism. English Journal, 85(1), 91.
Hodson, D., & Hodson, J. (1998). From constructivism to social constructivism: A Vygotskian
perspective on teaching and learning science. School science review, 79(289), 33-41.
Hoadley, U. (2020). Schools in the Time of COVID-19: Impacts of the Pandemic on
Curriculum.
Ernest, P. (1998). Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics. Suny Press.
Kim, B. (2001). Social constructivism. Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching.
Law, J., & Singleton, V. (2000). Performing technology's stories: On social constructivism,
performance, and performativity. Technology and culture, 41(4), 765-775.chnology, 1(1),
16.
Lake, A. A., Burgoine, T., Stamp, E., & Grieve, R. (2012). The foodscape: classification
and field validation of secondary data sources across urban/rural and socioeconomic classifications in England. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and
Physical La Velle, L., Newman, S., Montgomery, C., & Hyatt, D. (2020). Initial
teacher education in England and the Covid-19 pandemic: Challenges and
opportunities. Journal of Education for Teaching, 46(4), 596-608.
Kim, L. E., & Asbury, K. (2020). 'Like a rug had been pulled from under you': The
impact of COVID‐19 on teachers in England during the first six weeks of the UK
Kim, J. (2020). Learning and teaching online during Covid-19: Experiences of student
teachers in an early childhood education practicum. International Journal of Early
Childhood, 52(2), 145-158.
34 | P a g e
lockdown. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(4), 1062-1083.
Kim, J., Wee, S. J., & Meacham, S. (2021). What is missing in our teacher education
practices: A collaborative self-study of teacher educators with children during the
Covid-19 pandemic. Studying Teacher Education, 17(1), 22-37.
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teaching during and after the Covid-19 crisis: Refocusing teacher presence and
learning activity. Postdigital Science and Education, 2(3), 923-945.
Risse, T. (2004). Social constructivism and European integration.
Risse, T. (2007). Social constructivism meets globalization. Globalization theory: Approaches
and controversies, 4, 126
Watson, J. (2001). Social constructivism in the classroom. Support for learning, 16(3), 140-147.
Spaull, N., & van der Berg, S. (2020). Counting the cost: COVID-19 school closures in
South Africa and its impact on children. South African Journal of Childhood
Education, 10(1), 13.
Smit, J. A., Mkhize, N., Ndimande-Hlongwa, N., & Ramrathan, L. Learner and Subject at
the Dawn of Digital Research-Led Teaching and Learning in the Time of COVID-19.
Tamah, S. M., Triwidayati, K. R., & Utami, T. S. D. (2020). Secondary school language
teachers’ online learning engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic in
Indonesia. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 19, 803-832.
Van der Berg, S., Van Wyk, C., & Selkirk, R. (2020). Schools in the time of COVID-19:
Possible implications for enrolment, repetition and dropout. Department of
Economics, University of Stellenbosch.
Van der Berg, S., & Spaull, N. (2020). Counting the Cost: COVID-19 school closures in
South Africa & its impacts on children. Research on Socioeconomic Policy (RESEP).
Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University.
Watson, J. (2001). Social constructivism in the classroom. Support for learning, 16(3), 140-147.
35 | P a g e