Modern Ticuna Swidden-Fallow Management in the Colombian Amazon: Ecologically
Integrating Market Strategies and Subsistence-Driven Economies?
Author(s): D. S. Hammond, P. M. Dolman and A. R. Watkinson
Source: Human Ecology, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Sep., 1995), pp. 335-356
Published by: Springer
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Human Ecology, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1995
Modern Ticuna Swidden-Fallow Management in
the Colombian Amazon: Ecologically Integrating
Market Strategies and Subsistence-Driven
Economies?
D. S. Hammond,",2P. M. Dolman,3 and A. R. Watkinson3
Thepast failure of large-scale,ruraldevelopmentin Amazonia has emphasized
the value of small-scale, swidden-fallow management practices. The
management strategiesused by indigenous cultivatorsare well-documented,but
few studies have examined how absorption by market-based economies may
affect the economic and ecological stability of the agriculturalsystem. In this
study, we provide a detailed account of swidden-fallow management as it is
practiced at Las Palmeras, Amazonas, Colombia; moreover,we assessed the
effect of a shift from subsistence to market-directedproduction. A total of 68
species were selectively managed in the swidden/fallow system. Seventy-seven
percent of species at the site were managed for subsistence only, 22% were
managed with a view to selling surplus at market. Only one species, Cedrela
odorata, was managed solely for marketproduction. A shift from subsistencebased to market-directedproduction may lower the ecological and economic
stability of the system at Las Palmeras. Nonperishableproduction strategies,
such as for timber production, appear to provide the most secure approach
toward market integration.
KEY WORDS: rain forest; management; market; Colombia; stability.
1Schoolof EnvironmentalSciences,Universityof East Anglia,NorwichNR4 7TJ, UK.
2Presentaddress:Departmentof PureandAppliedBiology,ImperialCollegeat SilwoodPark,
Ascot, Berks SL5 7PY, UK.
3Schoolof BiologicalSciences,Universityof East Anglia,NorwichNR4 7TJ, England.
335
0300-7839/95/0900-0335$07.50/0 X 1995 Plenum Publishing Corporation
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336
Hammond, Dolman, and Watkinson
INTRODUCTION
Most attemptsat largercommercialagriculturaldevelopmentin Amazonia have yielded few economicbenefits at great cost to the environment
(Moran, 1983; Uhl and Buschbacher,1985; Hecht et al., 1988; Kohlhepp,
1989; Eden, 1990; Weisechtand Caviedes, 1993). Eden (1990) concluded
that "unstableexploitationis often inherentin the agrosystemsemployed."
In contrast,traditionalsubsistenceagriculturehas been proposed as one
of the few ways in which the nutrient-poorsoils of the Amazon Basin can
be used while preventingthe long-termdegradationof the naturalforest
resource(Posey, 1983;Swift and Sanchez,1984;Richards,1985;Eden and
Andrade, 1987). Swidden-fallowagriculturalpracticesof the native populationsof SouthAmericaare often consideredto be modeledon the natural
successionalprocesseswhich maintainthe surroundingforest system (Uhl
and Murphy,1981;Stocks,1983;Eden, 1987;Weisechtand Caviedes,1993).
Cultivatedfields, or swiddens,are cleared from matureforest, and planted
with a mixtureof crops, generallydominatedby manioc or yuca, Manihot
esculenta.Burningof plant debris duringclearancereleases nutrientsand
providesan area temporarilyfree of insect pests and weed plants;further
nutrients become available as timber decomposes (Seubert et al., 1977;
Eden and Andrade,1987;Eden, 1990).Productivitythen declines,primarily
due to weed invasionwhile leachingof nutrientsmaybe a secondaryfactor,
so that cultivationof labor intensivecrops generallyceases after 2-5 years
(Eden and Andrade, 1987; Eden, 1990; Weischet and Caviedes, 1993).
However,these "abandoned"fields continue to be exploited;harvestingof
longer-cyclecrops such as plantain,Musa spp., may continue in the initial
phase of abandonmentand fruit trees selectivelyestablishedin the fields
become productive.The regenerationof secondaryforest graduallyrestores
nutrientsin the forest biomassand shadesout agriculturalweeds;clearance
and re-cultivationthen occursafter an extendedfallowperiod (Eden, 1990;
Weischetand Caviedes,1993).
The apparent success of traditionalagriculturaltechniques suggests
that transferringindigenousswidden-fallowmanagementtheory to smallscale commercialfarmingmay providea sustainablebasis for development.
However, some believe it difficult to determinewhether sustainabilityin
these systems is achievedthroughthe knowledgeof the indigenouscultivator or as a result of the small scale at which this knowledgeis applied
(Wilken, 1989). Examplesillustratingthe successfultransferof traditional
technologyto market-scaleagriculturalproductionare few (Andersonand
loris, 1992). Yet the absorptionof native societyby non-indigenouseconomies along the Amazon and its tributariescontinuesto alter dramatically
the conditions under which traditionalswidden-fallowsocieties manage
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Ticuna Swidden-Fallow Management
337
their livelihood.Expandingpopulations,externalculturalinfluence,the introductionof exotic crop varieties (Salick, 1989) and the developmentof
regional, market-orientedcash economies (Padoch et al., 1985; Behrens,
1992) have all influencedthe objectives,and thus the process,of swiddenfallow management.Given these circumstances,it may be most practical
to examine how swidden-fallowmanagement,as practicedby traditional
agriculturalcommunities,is modified as a result of recent absorptionby
nontraditional,market-basedeconomies (see also Eden and Andrade,
1988).
The study reportedin this paper describesthe traditionalstrategyof
swidden-fallowmanagementin one village in the ColombianAmazon and
how a recent desire to adapt to a modern, market-orientedapproachto
agriculturalproductionhas changed this system. In order to understand
the way in which modernizationaffects swidden-fallowmanagementwe
focussed on several questions,namely:(1) What are the characteristicsof
traditionalmanagement?(2) How is the system organized?(3) In what
ways does market-orientedproductionalter the characteristicsand organization of swidden-fallowmanagement?and (4) Do market-orientedobjectives alter traditionalself-relianceand long-termstabilityof the system?
THE STUDY SITE
The communityof Las Palmeras(4?2'S,70?8'W)is one of manyvillages
located along the stretchof the Amazon River between Iquitos,Peru and
Tabatinga,Brazil.It is c. 50 km northwestof the main Colombianmarket
center at Leticia (Fig. 1). Local rainfallaveragesabout 3150 mm per year
with the mean monthly temperaturefluctuatingbetween 25?C and 29?C.
the majorityof rain falls from OctoberthroughJune, with relativelylittle
precipitationfrom July-September(Fig. 2). Dry conditionsat the site in
combinationwith similarlylow rainfallupriveralong the eastern slopes of
the Andes results in a substantialdrop in riverlevel duringthe July-September interlude (see Fig. 2). Terrafirne, or upland, soils at the site are
predominantlyUltisols (low pH, high Al saturation),while the more fertile
soils coveringthe seasonallyinundatedvarzeawould generallybe classified
as Inceptisols.Both uplandand riverinesoils are cultivatedat Las Palmeras,
a practicewhich is consistentwith practicesdescribedfor other villages in
western Amazonia (Balee and Gely, 1989;Salick, 1989).
The settlementwas establishedin the early 1950s by several families
of the Ticuna tribe, havingmigratedupriverfrom the BrazilianAmazon.
The Ticunahave traditionallyinhabiteda largeareabetweenthe Putamayo,
Jandiatuba,and Yavaririversand are the second largesttribe livingin the
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338
Hammond, Dolman, and Watkinson
PERU
::
SAN
M~~~
0
AT~~AOSATO_
_H
SNT
SOFOMIA
~~
:
BRAZIL
T
BRAZRIG
InternationalMBoundaryA\SO0
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-TABATINGA
Fig. 1. The studysite and its vicinity.The main marketfor produceis downstreamfrom Las
Palmerasat Leticia.Most of the other villagesalong this stretchof the Amazon River are
engagedin similaragrarianpractices.
ColombianAmazon.Bates (1863) gives a detailed accountof their skill in
using traditionalfarmingand fishing techniques.Like many other villages
establishedalongthe AmazonRiver,the traditionalcustomsof the approximately 110 residentsof Las Palmerashave been deeply eroded by non-indigenousattitudesand perceptions.Over the past 20 years, the region has
undergoneseveralturbulentperiodsof heightenedsocial and economicactivity,includingcattle ranchingand cocaine processing.Priorto this, activities associated with rubber extractionand border conflicts between the
neighboringcountriesalso had a majorimpactupon the region. Rural extension units have, in the more recent past, visited Las Palmerasand recommendedcash-earningcrops suitablefor marketing.The village is now
part of the recentlycreated300,000ha AmacayacuNationalpark. Despite
considerablecontactwith non-indigenousvalues,the currentframeworkon
whichnaturalresourcemanagementat Las Palmerasis based still compares
to traditionalpracticesreportedfor other, more isolated, villages (Posey,
1985; Eden and Andrade, 1987; Walschburger
and von Hildebrand,1988;
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339
Ticuna Swidden-Fallow Management
a.
12 -
i
10
subsistence only
full/partial market
Z 806
CL
0
2-
4 -
0
500 -
300 -9
.2 400
.,
b.
\
200-
-
fi100
100
0
100
98
E
94
x
992
~
~
~
~
90
Fig. 2. Seasonality of crop production (a) and its
relationship with rainfall and river depth (b).
Salick, 1989; Stocks, 1983). Modificationsto this system are primarilythe
result of a recent desire to sell agriculturalproduceat the main marketin
Leticia.
The inhabitantsof Las Palmerasheavily subsidize agriculturalfood
production,which is poor in protein, throughhunting and, in particular,
fishing,as do other Amazonianforest groups(Eden, 1990). Small tributaries, ox-bowlakes, and varzeaadjacentto the Amazonprovidean abundance
of fish, from July to October in particular,when the river is at its lowest
(see Fig. 2) and many fish are restrictedto small pockets of deep water.
Subsistencehuntingfor tapir,peccary,monkeys,armadillo,paca, and deer
is most importantduringthe rainyseason when the yield from fishingcan
diminish.In addition,small numbersof domesticatedlivestock,especially
pigs and chickens,also subsidizetheir protein economy.
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Hammond, Dolman, and Watkinson
340
FIELD METHODS
We collected informationon the swidden-fallowmanagementsystem
at Las Palmerasthroughindirectand directmethodsduringthe dryseasons
(July-August)of 1990-91.
Indirectmethodsconsistedprimarilyof consultationswith the farmers
and on-site descriptionsof each plot by the proprietorsor village curaca,
or chief. Informationgathered duringthese sessions included details concerning:(1) swidden/fallowpatternsand processes,such as age and history
of plot, stewardship,field managementtechniques,and managementdecisions, particularlyas they related to significantchanges in productionpatterns of marketand subsistencecrops,and (2) swidden/fallowcompositions,
which includecrop preferences,crop use, crop success,harvestperiod, and
fruit availability.The entire village swidden/fallowsystem, a total of 88
separateplots, was examined.
The plots couldbe divideda prioriinto five distinctmanagementstages
based on the informationreceivedduringinterview:(1) new chagras(<5 y
since forest cover), (2) recycledchagras(<2 y since fallow cover), (3) continuous chagras(mostly fertile varzeaplots, >5 y since fallow), (4) cyclic
rostrojos(currentlyin fallowwith or withoutfruit productionbut returning
to chagras),and (5) permanentrostrojos(>5 y since abandonment;no plans
to returnto chagrasproduction).Here, chagrasrefersto individualfields or
swiddenplots while rostrojosrefers to fields that have been left fallow and
are regeneratingsecondaryforest. Managementstages presented here are
a categoricalrepresentationof what is in fact a more continuoustransition.
Direct measurementson these plots providedus with data concerning
pot size, crop density,crop richness,and stand structure.Plot size was estimated by measuringtwo sides of a plot. Once a size continuumwas established, the size of later fields was sight-estimated.Crop density and
richnesswere estimatedin each of 18 plots (six new chagras,six recycled
chagras,and six rostrojosplots) using four belt transects(belt = 4 m x 30
m) laid out along the longest plot dimension.
RESULTS
Plot Composition
Crops found in the fields at Las Palmerasare listed in Appendix A.
A total of 68 species are selectivelymanagedin the swidden/fallowsystem.
The list of species utilizedis dominatedby membersof the Palmae (17.2%
of all species), Leguminosae(12.6%),and Sterculiaceae(6.3%),while most
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Ticuna Swidden-Fallow Management
341
other families are representedby only 1-3 species each. These plants are
used primarilyfor their edible fruits (55.4%), seeds (8.8%), roots (3%),
and shoots (1.5%). The remainingswidden/fallowplant species are used
for construction(19.1%), as medicinalremedies (10.3%), and to a lesser
extent,for animalmanagement(2.9%)and handicraftmanufacture(1.5%).
Chagrasdedicated to continuous(seasonal) productionoccur almost
entirelyin areas of fertile varzeaor riversidelevees, with only one continuously cultivatedplot in an upland area. The area of seasonallyinundated
land suitable for cultivationwas relativelysmall. Beans and lowland rice
appearexclusivelyin continuouslycultivated,seasonallyinundatedchagras.
Such chagrasalso frequentlycontainmaize and sweet yuca (AppendixB),
both of which requiremore fertile soils.
New chagras,in uplandareasand nearthe forestperimeter,most often
contain yuca, plantain, pineapple, maize, and sugar cane (Appendix B).
Some perennialforest palms (e.g., acai, chontoduro)and trees (e.g., epintania,arbol de quacho) are selectivelyreservedduringfelling while others
are interplanted(e.g., cacao, tropicalcedar, caimo) for use at later stages.
Recycledchagrasalso most commonlycontainthe five principlestaple
crops found in new chagras.Plantain,yuca, and pineapple, however,become more frequent at the expense of maize and sugar cane (Appendix
B). Many palms and trees (in particularchontaduroand tropical cedar)
show a higher frequencyof occurrencein these plots.
The "working"fallow plots, or rostrojos,which are designated for
noncyclicalperennialproduction,have the most species occurringin more
than a single plot (AppendixB). These plots most often contain cacao,
and to a lesser extent, caimo, chontaduro,and cedar. Cedar, chontaduro,
guamo, and uvo are most frequentlyfound in cyclicalrostrojos-those destined for clearanceand replantingwith staple crops. Overall,the variation
in crop occurrencebetweenplots belongingto differentmanagementstages
shows that noncyclicalrostrojosplots are significantlymore (crop) species
rich than other managementstages (ANOVA;F4,81= 2.76,p < 0.05;Tukey
HSD, p < 0.05) (TableI).
The most commonlyoccurringspecies amongplots are also managed
at the highest densitieswithineach plot (AppendixC). In pooled samples
of new chagrascrops, the mean densityof yuca (5258 ? 408 stems ha-')
was much higher than other common staple corps (see above). It was 10
x greater than plantain and pineapple and more than 50 x greater than
maize and sugarcane. Tropicalcedaris managedin these plots at a density
16 x lower than yuca. In recycledchagras,the density of yuca increased
(6017 ? 458 stems ha-1) as did that of pineapple.In contrastthe density
of plantainremainedstale, while sugarcane, maize, and tropicalcedar decreased in their densitiesrelativeto yuca (AppendixC). Overall,the mean
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Hammond,Dolman,and Watkinson
342
Table I. Crop Species Richness.Values Representthe Mean (? 1 StandardError)
Numberof Crop Speciesin Plots of a ParticularManagementStage. DifferentLetters
IndicateSignificantDifferencesBetween Means at P < .05 (TukeyHSD Test)
Rostrojos
Chagras
Continuous
(10 plots)
2.9 ? O.4a
New
(26 plots)
4.3 ? 0.5a
Recycled
(26 plots)
5.9 ? 0.4a
Cyclical
(15 plots)
4.1 ? 0.9a
Permanent
(11 plots)
8.3 ? 2.2"
density of crop stems in sampled plots is greater in recycled chagras than
either new chagras or rostrojos plots. Cacao, caimo, guamo, and tropical
cedar are found in the highest densities in rostrojos (combining the data
from both cyclical and permanent rostrojos) (between 104-367 stems ha-1).
Residual specimens of plantain, yuca, and pineapple are also found, but at
far lower densities than in chagras.
Annual forbs and grasses predominate in continuous chagras, reflecting
the limitations imposed upon longer-lived species by seasonal inundation
of the varzea. However, the influence of herbaceous species declines steadily through new and recycled chagras and into rostrojos (Fig. 3). The contribution of woody shrubs to species richness remains constant in all chagras
plots, due to the ubiquity of yuca, but drops dramatically in fallow rostrojos.
Meanwhile, trees steadily increase from 23% of all species in continuous
chagras to approximately 98% in noncyclic, or permanent, rostrojos.
The vast majority of trees are cultivated. However, many utilitarian timber, fiber, and fruit trees are selectively spared during clearance, either from
primary forest or secondary fallow. The relative contribution of remnant
trees is much higher in management stages following clearance, accounting
for approximately 25% of the established species in noncontinuous chagras
(Table II). Trees colonizing plots spontaneously are also often managed. The
relative frequency of these species becomes most important in fallow plots
not recently affected by clearance, accounting for approximately 20% of species in cycled and permanent rostrojos. Useful shrubs, herbs, and vines are
almost exclusively cultivated in chagras (Table II). Very few colonizing shrubs
or herbs are indicated as useful species, Ortigo and Hoja de Santa Maria
being the exceptions.
Market vs. Subsistence Objectives
Species managed in the swidden/fallow system at Las Palmeras can be
separated into "subsistence-directed" and "market-directed" categories
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343
Ticuna Swidden-Fallow Management
100 *
90
vines
herbs
shrubs
80-
70 -
E
trees
605040 -
3020
continuous
Ist cycle
chagras
recycled
cycled
permanent
rostrojos
* includesarborescentmonocots
Fig. 3. The relative occurrence of trees, shrubs, herbs, and vines with management regime.
The gradient from continuous chagras to permanent rostrojos represents a decline in the
intensity of management.
based on informationcollected during interviewsin the field. Approximately77% of all selectivelymanagedspecies are subsistence-directedspecies managedsolely for use within the village or family.Another 22% of
but managedwith the intent of marketing
species are subsistence-directed
any surplus harvest outside the village, for example, cacao, acai, chontaduro,yuca, plantain,and pineapple.Only one species, tropicalcedar, is
currentlybeing managedsolely for sale outside the village.
Subsistence-directed
crops accountfor the majorityof species in continuous chagrasand cyclicalrostrojos(Table III). In contrast,permanent
rostrojosshow the highest relative occurrenceof market-directedspecies,
primarilydue to standsof cacao, togetherwith acai and chontaduro.Market-directedspecies are also dominantin new and recycledchagrasplots.
Pure stands or simplified polyculturesof yuca, plantain, and pineapple
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Hammond,Dolman,and Watkinson
344
Table II. The RelativeOccurrenceof SpeciesUsed at Las PalmerasAccordingto Their Life
Form (Tree, Shrub, Herb, Vine) and Origin (Cultivation, Selective Conservation, or
Colonization)in Relation to ManagementStage (ChagrasType, RostrojosType). Values in
Brackets Represent the Pooled Number of Species from All Plots in Each Management
Category.TallyingSpecies Numberby Plot Takes into Account Those Species Which May
Originatefrom More than One Source
Relativefrequency(%)
Rostrojos
Chagras
Continuous
Trees
cultivation
conservation
colonization
Shrubs
cultivation
conservation
colonization
Herbs
cultivation
conservation
colonization
Vines
cultivation
conservation
colonization
New
Recycled
100.0 (8)
0.0
0.0
77.6 (38)
22.4 (11)
0.0
55.2 (48)
36.8 (32)
8.0 (7)
100.0 (7)
0.0
0.0
92.0 (23)
0.0
8.0 (2)
89.3 (25)
3.6 (1)
7.1 (2)
100.0 (13)
0.0
0.0
71.7 (33)
23.9 (11)
4.3 (2)
100.0 (34)
0.0
0.0
100.0 (2)
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
100.0 (3)
0.0
0.0
Cyclical
68.3 (41)
11.7 (7)
20.0 (12)
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
85.7 (6)
14.3 (1)
0.0
0.0
0.0
Permanent
68.7 (57)
9.6 (8)
21.7 (18)
0.0
50.0 (1)
50.0 (1)
0.0
87.5 (7)
12.5 (1)
50.0 (1)
0.0
50.0 (1)
largelyaccountfor the high relativeoccurrenceof market-directedspecies
in these plots.
Plot Age, History,and Stewardship
The mean age (since forest) of new chagrasplots, havingbeen recently
formed from the surroundingforest, was significantlyless than under all
other managementstages (TableIV) (ANOVA on log transformeddata;
F4,81= 106.59,p < 0.001;TukeyHSD, p < 0.05). However,pairwisecomparisonsfrom the TukeyHSD test did not indicate significantdifferences
between the ages of the other four managementstages. Mean plot size
also varied significantly according to management stage (Table IV)
(ANOVA on log transformed data; F4,81= 2.96, p = 0.025), but the mul-
tiple comparisonstest indicated that this difference was solely due to a
significantlysmalleraveragesize of permanentchagrasplots relativeto all
other managementtypes (TukeyHSD).
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Ticuna Swidden-Fallow
Management
345
Table Ill. The Age, Size and Frequencyof the Plots in the DifferentManagementStages
of the Swidden-FallowSystemat Las Palmeras.Values Representthe Mean (? Standard
Error)Contributionto All Speciesin Plots of a ParticularManagementStage
Chagras
Continuous
New
Rostrojos
Recycled
63.7? 13.1 23.5? 4.9 17.5? 3.5
Cropssubsistence(%)
Cropsmarket-surplus (%) 30.7? 12.0 32.1? 7.5 3.8 ? 7.5
Cropsmarket-directed (%) 2.0 ? 2.0 45.3? 8.8 44.5? 8.6
Cyclical Permanent
56.1? 10.7 29.7 ? 7.8
30.3? 8.4 28.3 ? 8.5
13.5? 6.7 44.7 ? 14.7
The distribution of plot area according to stewardship is highly skewed.
Of eight extended families, one group manages 47% of the total area. In
fact, this is the largest group and the amount of land managed within a
group is highly dependent on the number of its working members (r2adj=
0.97, n = 8; F1,6 = 264.2, p < 0.001). Without considering clanship, roughly
one-third of a hectare of land is managed for each person at Las Palmeras.
The area of plots allocated for market-directed production by a family
shows a proportional increase with the total area of its holdings (r2adj =
0.65, n = 8; F1,6 = 14.23, p = 0.009). The best-fit linear model estimates
that one-fifth of every additional hectare of land acquired by a family will
be consigned to market-directed crop species (model: y = 1.095 + 0.219x,
where x is total area of holding and y is area of land within the holding
dedicated to market-directed species).
Harvest and Production
Three-quarters of all species managed for their edible parts can be
classified as seasonally productive. The bulk of seasonal crops are trees
(71%), producing either fruits or seeds once per year. A small fraction of
Table IV. The Age, Size and Frequencyof the Plots in the DifferentManagementStages
of the Swidden-Fallow
Systemat Las Palmeras.Values Representthe Mean (? 1 Standard
Error)Contributionto All Speciesin Plots of a ParticularManagementStage
Chagras
No. of plots
Est. plot age (yrs)
Est. plot size (ha)
Total area (ha)
Rostrojos
New
Recycled
Cyclical
Permanent
10
26
23.1 ? 4.7 1.1 ? 0.2
0.4 ? 0.1 0.7 ? 0.1
4.1
17.1
25
26.2 ? 1.1
0.5 ? 0.1
11.4
15
23.9 ? 3.0
0.7 ? 0.1
9.6
11
21.6 ? 3.5
0.7 ? 0.2
7.4
Continuous
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346
Hammond, Dolman, and Watkinson
seasonal crops are perennialvines, annualgrasses,or forbs whose production is related to seasonal climaticfluctuations(9%) or controlledby the
frequencywith which they are planted (20%). Most seasonal species are
ready for harvestshortlyafter the peak of the rainyseason or duringthe
troughof the dry season, when riverdepth is at its lowest (Fig. 2). Important rainy season species include agai, bacaba, chontaduro,sugar cane,
mango, sapote, and uvo. Important dry season species include guamo,
guava, guayaba,and maize.
The remaining25% of species are continuouslyproductive,either via
natural patterns of staggered reproduction (55%), vegetative regrowth
(9%), or throughstaggeredplanting(36%). Continuouslyproductivespecies, such as yuca, plantain,cacao, and coconut can be harvestedthroughout the year, though production often peaks during favorable months.
Because production in these species can be more easily manipulated
throughplantingfrequency,continuouscrops account for the majorityof
species being harvestedduringany given month, from ca. 30-50% of species duringthe wet months to >90% duringthe dry season.
Harvestedspecies richnessthroughoutthe year is principallydependent upon low-level productionby a large number of subsistence-directed
species (Fig. 2). Market-directedor market-surpluscrops, on average,account for a small numberof the total numberof species availablefor harvest monthly (29.5 ? 10.2%). Market species account for 54.5% of
continuouslyproductivecrops.
DISCUSSION
The viabilityof market-scaleagriculturalproductionin the Amazon is
highlydebated,yet lackscomparativestudiesdetailingattemptsto integrate
market strategiesinto subsistence-driveneconomies. The study presented
here is highlyrelevantto native communitiesthroughoutAmazonia,which
share the same underlyingmanagementstrategy,despite varyinglevels of
acculturation(Amuesha:Salick,1989;Andoke,Witoto:Eden and Andrade,
1987; Bari: Beckerman,1983; Bora: Denevan et al., 1984; Candoshi and
Cocamilla: Stocks, 1983; Kayapo: Posey, 1985; Shipibo: Behrens, 1992;
and von HildeYanesha:Staver,1989;Yucunaand Tanimuka:Walschburger
brand, 1988).
The agriculturalsystem of Las Palmerasmaintainscharacteristicsof
indigenousswidden/fallowsubsistenceagriculture,such as: short chagraslong rostrojoscycles, a high diversity of crop species, and productive
agrosilviculture(Eden and Andrade, 1987) or agroforestry(Weisechtand
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Ticuna Swidden-Fallow Management
347
Caviedes,1993) practicedduringfallow stages. However,it is being modified by marketforces and is in a state of transition.Currently23% of the
species are managed to produce at least some marketablesurplus,while
about 20% of the swidden/fallowarea is managedprimarilyfor market-directed crop production.This has led to specializedcrop compositionin a
few chagras,which consist of virtualmonoculturesof manioc or plantain,
suggestinga transitiontowardnon-indigenousColombianColonos agricultural practice (Eden and Andrade, 1988). Integrationof market-oriented
productionat Las Palmerascould potentiallyyield many benefits to the
community, viz. greater external spending power (Anderson and loris,
1992). The consequencesof modifyingthe traditionalswidden/fallowagrosystem towardmarketdirectedproductionare consideredbelow.
Plot Composition
At Las Palmeras,the gradual transitionfrom low-lying,short-lived,
herbs (e.g., maize, sugarcane, pineapple)and perennialshrubs(e.g., yuca,
plantain) to long-lived perennial trees and palms (e.g., cacao, aqai,
chonaduro,guamo)is centralto the efficiencyof the system.As yields from
annuallycultivatedcrops diminishdue to decreasedsoil fertilityand weed
competition, planted and colonizing trees grow to maturity,maintaining
productivityof the plot. Many trees selectivelyconservedduringplot formation not only can provideuseful products,but also act as regeneration
foci for their own offspringand those dispersedby perchingbirds (Unruh,
1990), thus invigoratingsuccession.
The high crop richnessfound in subsistence-directed
plots is indicative
of productionsystemsthat buffer the effects of environmentuncertainties
(Humphries,1993). Plot managementtechniquesthat focus on market-directed crop productionincreasethe risk of catastrophiclosses due to pestilence and disease because they often involve:(1) the use of clonal stock
or faster-growing,but less-resistant,varieties,(2) plantingat high densities,
and (3) replantingover long, continuousperiods.
Though we did not directlycollect informationconcerninglosses under market-directedmanagement,villagersfrequentlyindicatedproblems
with pests and disease of their market-directedstock duringthe course of
interviews.Yuca, for example, is a common host for the leaf-cuttingant,
Atta cephalotes,which is well-adaptedto life in the swiddenenvironment
(Cherrettand Peregrine,1976). High plant densitiesact to attractforagers
which can often defoliate the entire crop overnight(D. S. Hammond,pers.
obs.; Holldoblerand Wilson,1990). Cacaomanagedin some plots for mar-
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348
Hammond, Dolman, and Watkinson
ket-directedchocolate production,is heavily attackedby the fungi Phytophthorasp. (black pod disease) and Marasimuspemiciosus (witch'sbroom
disease). Pest attack on cacao under traditionalswidden/fallowmanagement was said to be less, due to intercroppingand mixingof a variety of
sterculiaceouswild types (e.g., Herraniaspp., Theobromabicolor).Plantain
is highly susceptible to the fungus, Fusariumoxysporumand the weevil,
Cosmopolitessordidus,both of whichwere describedat reducingfruit production and being highly infectious. Pests were the main reason why
Yanesha farmers in a Peruvianvillage thought plantain production declined (Staver, 1989). Traditionalplots at Las Palmerascontained many
more varietiesof plantainthan were found in market-directedplots (pers.
obs.), primarilybecause many of the varietieswere describedas being unwanted at the marketplace(e.g., Musa x var. "bildero,""mico").Tropical
cedar is frequentlyattackedby a shoot-borerof the genus Hypipsyla.Villagers indicated that the species of tropical cedar (Cedrelaodorata) recently planted at high densities in order to stimulate a market economy
was introducedto them by a rural developmentextension team and was
not the same varietyas that which they traditionallymanaged.They mentioned that the introducedvariety grew faster but was less resistent to
borer attack and often failed to establish.
Harvest and Production
The seasonalityof productioncan also be altered by a shift to market-directedproduction.Fewerspecies are availablefor harvestin the transition periods before (April-June)and after (October-November)the dry
season. Manysubsistence-directed
species are eliminatedfrom the cropping
regime in plots where market-directedspecies are intensivelymanaged.A
focus on market-orientedproductionover the entire system would eliminate on average70% of the species traditionallyavailablefor harvesteach
month (see Fig. 2). Yet a diversesource of productioneach month reduces
the riskassociatedwith dependenceon a few market-directedproductsduring peak harvest months and maintainssubsistencelevels during periods
of naturallylow resourceavailability.Andersonand Ioris (1992) found that
while specializingin the marketproductionof agai duringthe dry season
provided a very high income, a diverse array of less marketablespecies
maintainedthe familyduringthe wet season. A market-orientedsystem of
swidden/fallowcultivationin Tamshiyacu,Peru, provides each family, on
average, with 84% of its annual income. Yet here productionis spread
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Ticuna Swidden-Fallow Management
349
among 17 species, which increases the likelihood of a steady harvest
throughoutthe year (Padochet al., 1985).
Self-Relianceand Long-TermStability
Self-reliance,defined here as the abilityto not only provide for the
caloricrequirementsof self and kin but the capacityto implementthe adjustmentsnecessaryin order to ensuresustainedavailability,can be deeply
erodedby market-orientedswidden/fallowmanagement.Clearly,a decrease
in the diversityof sourcesfrom which to harvestedible productsincreases
the risk that nonmarketproductionwill not meet subsistenceneeds as a
result of crop failure.A managementsystembased on maintaininghabitat,
crop, and seasonalharvestdiversitywithinthe swidden-fallowis more likely
to ensure predictableproductionlevels.
Abundantproductionof market-directedgoods at the cost of fewer
subsistence-directedspecies can lead to high economic return (Padoch et
al., 1985; Anderson & Ioris, 1992; Behrens, 1992; Humphries,1993). Yet
short-termstabilityachievedthroughthis higherincomecan be dramatically
offset by the inherentinstabilityof marketprice and demandfor perishable
goods (Humphries,1993). A crash in the value of swidden-fallowor nontimberforest products,whichoften cannotbe reservedfor sale duringmore
lucrativeperiods in the future, can deny the income necessaryto sustain
the community.But a more predictabledilemmaalso affects market-oriented producersof perishablegoods in the Leticia region. Most fruits are
producedby trees accordingto naturalenvironmentalcues such as levels
of rainfall or hours of sunshine (Foster, 1973; ter Steege and Persand,
1991). Productionof fruit and other items is highlyseasonal at the study
site (see Fig. 3). At Las Palmeras,farmersindicatedthat prices received
for produce at market were very low because peak productionin these
species is roughlysynchronizedfor all of the producersin the region (see
Fig. 1). As the market is flooded with perishableproduce, the price decreasesbelow the coupledreal costs of rivertransportand opportunitycosts
of time allocatedto their management.In the long term, focusingon market-directedproductionof perishablefood items at Las Palmerasis probably no more beneficial than maintainingthe diverse subsistence-driven
economywhich clearlyprovidesa stable means of subsistencewithout loss
of any self-reliance.
In contrast,tropicalcedar presentsgreat prospectfor successfulmarket-orientedproduction,despite its susceptibilityto pest attack. In swidden-fallowsystemsat Las Palmerasand elsewhere(Denevan et al., 1984),
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350
Hammond, Dolman, and Watkinson
many timbertrees are managedwithin fallow plots at low densities simply
as a matterof convenience.Marketproductionof tropicalcedar integrates
well into the traditionalcycle of gradualabandonmentof chagras;management of subsistence-directedcrops sustainsproductivityof the field until
cedar growsto a harvestablesize. Incrementalgrowthcan be optimizedby
manipulatingthe type and densityof intercroppedspecies within the plots.
Villages indicatedthat felling and extractionfrom rostrojosrequiresmuch
less time and effort than removingtrees from the surroundingforest. Thus,
multicroppingwith timbertrees wouldreleasesome of the growingpressure
on the intact forest ecosystem.Moreover,the removalprocess fulfills the
first step in preparingthe rostrojossite for recycling.Finally, the product
is nonperishableand may more easily be stockpiledor transportedfurther
until a favorableprice is obtained, unlike seasonal harvestsof fruits. Because the demandfor high qualityconstructiontimberis relativelyinelastic
(Repetto and Gillis, 1988), steadymarketsshouldprovidereasonablelongterm stability.Continueduse of the plots for subsistenceproductionmaintains self-reliancebetween successivetimbercrops.
The dilemma presented to many small-scaleswidden agriculturalists
in Amazoniais apparentat Las Palmeras.Traditionalsubsistencepractices
of complexmulticropping,balancedseasonal food production,and succession management are being modified by modern, market-orientedapproaches. Though successes have been reported (Padoch et al., 1985;
Anderson and Tiori, 1992), the inherentdecrease in stabilitydue to wider
risk at productionand marketingstages makes the managementof swidden-fallowsystemsfor perishablemarketproductsunfavorable.Integration
of nonperishableproductionstrategies,such as timber,appear to provide
a more secure solution to integratingmarket strategieswith subsistencedriven economies at Las Palmeras.
APPENDIX A. LIST OF PLANTS SELECTIVELYMANAGED WITHIN
THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM AT LAS PALMERAS, AMAZONAS,
COLOMBIA. THE FORM, ORIGIN, AND USE OF THE PLANTS ARE
ALSO INDICATED
Las Palmeras
Name/English
Bogaboga
Anacardiaceae
Mango/Mango
Scientificname
Forme Originb Usec
undet. sp.
T
2
2
Mangifera indica L.
T
1
2
Annonaceae
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351
Ticuna Swidden-Fallow Management
Espintania
Guanabana/Soursop
Areaceae
Chonque
Bignoniaceae
Palo de Arco
Cola de colubre
Bombacaceae
Topa/Balsa
Bromeliaceae
Pinia/Pineapple
Caricaceae
Papaya/Paw-paw
Cecropiaceae
Uvo/Uvilla
Cucurbitaceae
Pepino/Cucumber
Sandia/Watermelon
Dioscoreaceae
Name/Yam
Erythroxylaceae
Coca/Coca
Euphorbiaceae
Arbol de Quacho
Chiringarana
Yuca/Manioc
Guttiferae
Charichuela
Icacinaceae
Umari
Lauraceae
Aguacate/Avocado
Lecythidaceae
Castafio
Matamata
Leguminosae
Barbasco
Chiclayo/Bean
Copal
Guamo
Haje
Mani/Peanut
Matapasto
Melastomataceae
Mullaca
Meliaceae
Cedro/Tropical cedar
Moraceae
Arbol de Pan/Breadfruit
Musaceae
Banano/Banana
Platano/Plantain
Guatteria sp.
Annonamuricata L.
T
T
2
1
1
2
Xanthosoma sp.
H
1/3
5
Tabebuia serratifolia (G.Don)Nichols.
undet. sp.
T
V
2
2
3
3
Ochroma lagopus Sw.
T
2
1
Ananas comosus L.
H
1
2
Carica papaya L.
T
1
2
Pourouma sapida Aubl.
T
1/2/3
2
Cucumis anguria L.
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.)Matsum.
& Nakai
V
V
1
1
2
2
Dioscoreatrifida L.f.
V
1
2
Erythroxyloncoca Plowman
S
1
3
Hevea guianensis Aubl.
Micrandrarossiana
Manihotesculanta Crantz.
T
S
2
2
1
1
1
2
Platoniainsignis (Arruda) R&S.
T
2
2
PoraqueibasericeaTul.
T
1
2
Perseaamericana Miller
T
1
2
Chytroma sp.
Eschweileriagigantica= E.matamata
Huber
T
T
2
2
1
1
Lonchocarpus sp.
Vignaunguiculata(L.)Walp.
Hymenaea courbaril L.
Inga edulis Mart.
undet. sp.
Arachis hypogaea L.
Cassia sp.
V
V
T
T
T
V
T
2/3
1
2
1/2
2
1
3
5
2
1
2
3
2
3
Miconiaspp.
S
3
?
Cedrela odorata L.
T
1/2
1
Artocarpus altilis (Z)Fosb.
T
1
2
Musa x var.
Musaparadiasica x var.
T
T
1
1
2
2
T
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352
Hammond, Dolman, and Watkinson
Myrtaceae
Psidium littorale Raddi
Guava/Guava
Psidium guajava L.
Guayaba/Guava
Palillo
Campomanesia lineatifolia Pers.
Palmae
Acai
Euterpe oleracea Mart.
Bacaba
Oenocarpus distichus Mart.
Canangueho
MauritiaflexuosaL.f.
Chambira
Astrocaryum vulgare Mart.
Scheelea sp.
Chapaha
Chontaduro/Peach palm Bactris gasipaes H.B.K.
Cocos nucifera L.
Coco/Coconut
Huicungo
Astrocaryumhuicongo Dammer ex.
Burret
Jesseniabataua (C. Martius) Burr.
Ungurahui
IriarteadeltoideaRuiz&Pav.
Pona Barracuda
Yarina
PhytelephasmacrocarpaRuiz&Pav.
Passifloraceae
Badea/Granadilla
PassifloraquadrangularisL.
MaracuyA/Passionfruit
Passifloraedulis Sims
Piperaceae
Huja de S.Maria
Lepianthespeltata (L.)Miq.
Poaceae
Arroz/Rice
OryzasativaL.
Saccharum officinarum L.
Cania de azu'car/Sugar
cane
Zea mays L.
Maiz/Maize
Rutaceae
Citrus limonia Osbeck
Lim6n/Lime
CitrusreticulataBlanco
Mandarina/Mandarin
orange
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck
Naranja/Orange
Sapotaceae
Pouteriacaimito Radlk.
Caimo/Sapote
Sapote/Sapote
Pouteriasapota (Jacq.) H.Moore
Solanaceae
Aji/Chilli pepper
Capsicum annum L.
Lulo
Solanum sessiliflorum Dunal.
Lycopersicon sp.
Tomate/Tomato
Sterculiaceae
Theobromacacao L.
Cacao/Cocoa
Theobroma bicolor Bonpl.
Cacao silvestre
Cacao de monte
HerraniacamargoanaR. Schultes
Theobromagrandiflorum (G.Don.f.)
Cupuacu
Schumann
Urticaceae
Ortigo
Urerabaccifera(L.) Wedd.
Verbenaceae
Aceituna
Viter orinocensis H.B.K
T
T
T
1
1
2
2
2
2
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
1/2
1/2
2
1/2
2
1/2
1
1/2
2
2
2
4
1
2
2
1
T
T
T
1/2
2
1/2
2
1
1
V
V
1
1/3
2
2
H
3
3
H
H
1
1
2
2
H
1
2
T
T
1
1
2
2
T
1
2
T
T
1
1
2
2
S
S
H
1
1/3
1
2
2
2
T
T
T
T
1
1
1/2
1
2
2
2
H
3
3
T
2
1
aForm: T-tree (including arborescent monocots), S-shrub, H-herb, V-vine.
bOrigin: 1-cultivated, 2-managed remnant forest plant, 3-managed secondary colonizer.
cUse: 1-timber, construction, and thatching, 2-food and beverage, 3-medicine, 4-textiles, dyes
and handicrafts, 5-fodder, fishing, and hunting.
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Ticuna Swidden-Fallow
Management
353
OF CROP SPECIESIN
APPENDIXB. THE PRESENCE/ABSENCE
THE PLOTSOF A SWIDDEN/FALLOW
SYSTEMAT LASPALMIERAS
AS A % OF TOTALPLOTS.ONLYSPECIESOCCURRINGIN >1
PLOT IN EACHMANAGEMENT
STAGEARE INCLUDED
Field type
Chagrasmanagement
stage
Plantain
Yuca
Pineapple
Maiz
Sugar Cane
Rice
Hoja de S. Maria
Tomato
Chonque
Chontaduro
Cedro
Cacao
Aqai
Papaya
Guamo
Uvo
Cupua9u
Guayaba
Bacaba
Coca
Lime
Sapote
Pona Barracuda
Topa
Caimo
Umari
Canangucho
Chiringirana
Banana
Mango
Avocado
Guanabana
Rostrojos
management stage
Continuous
(10 plots)
New
(28 plots)
Recycled
(26 plots)
Cyclical
(13 plots)
Permanent
(11 plots)
40.0
70.0
20.0
70.0
20.0
-
75.0
82.1
57.1
35.7
28.6
100.0
92.3
84.6
26.9
15.4
46.2
30.8
-
36.4
-
-
-
-
10.7
7.1
7.1
21.4
14.3
14.3
14.3
17.9
-
7.1
10.7
-
-
-
7.7
-
7.7
34.6
38.5
15.4
7.7
15.4
15.4
11.5
-
7.7
-
-
76.9
53.8
23.1
30.8
-
53.8
46.2
15.4
30.8
-
-
45.5
45.5
81.8
36.4
-
36.4
36.4
36.4
-
36.4
-
-
18.2
36.4
46.2
-
18.2
54.5
36.4
18.2
18.2
-
11.5
-
11.5
7.7
-
-
-
-
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-
27.3
18.2
18.2
Hammond, Dolman, and Watkinson
354
APPENDIX C. DENSITY OF CROP SPECIES IN MANAGED PLOTS.
PLOTS UNDER CYCLICALAND PERMANENT ROSTROJOSWERE
COMBINED DURING DATA COLLECTION. CONTINUOUSLY
CULTIVATEDCH4GR4S WERE NOT INCLUDED
Crop density (stems ha-1 ? SE)
Rostrojos
Chagras
Management stage
New = 24 (n)
Plantain
Yuca
Pineapple
Maiz
Sugar Cane
Rice
Hoja de S. Maria
Tomato
Conque
Chontaduro
Cedro
Cacao
Aqai
Papaya
Guamo
Uvo
Cupuaqu
Guayaba
Bacaba
Coca
Chilli pepper
Lulo
Mandarin orange
Mullaca
Bogaboga
Lime
Sapote
Pona Barracuda
Topa
Caimo
Umari
Canangucho
Chiringirana
Banana
Mango
Avocado
Guanabana
Haje
Recycled = 24 (n)
24
Mean
SE
Mean
400
5258
542
117
408
250
658
6017
1225
117
458
358
192a
217a
292a
36
167
127
50
8
3
3
3a
3
8
3
3
25
50
25
17
42
17
42
7
7
3
17
33
25
8
25
8
42
7
7
8
8
300
267
33
8
17
6
8
25
3
3
3
3
8
17
3
3
3
3
SE
Mean
SE
17
8
8
7
8
4
93
104
367
76
27
39
193
52
137
76
38
4
7
47
31
24
3
4
10
10
4
6
3
4
9
106
10
7
7
5
36
6
6
4
7
4
6
3
10
7
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355
Ticuna Swidden-Fallow
Management
Huicungo
Ortigo
Palillo
Yarina
Barbasco
Cacao silvestre
Cacao de monte
Chapaha
Charichuela
Cola de colubre
Espintana
9
3
3
11
3
4
3
7
4
7
6
6
3
3
9
3
3
3
7
3
6
5
aResidualspecimensfrom chagrasmanagementstage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanksto the BritishEcologicalSocietyand Universityof East Anglia
for financial support.We should like to thank Pedro PacayuBastos and
Eugenio Jorden for their hospitalityand invaluableassistancein carrying
out the fieldworkat Las Palmeras,Antonio Villa, park, and INDERENA
staff for providingexcellentfacilitiesat AmacayacuNational Park.Special
thanksgo to MartinKelseyand Pete Cottonfor theirhelp with the logistics
and providingus with meteorologicaldata. All of the above and manyothers have contributedto the projectthroughstimulatingdiscussion.Finally,
we are indebted to John Barkham,whose idea it was for us to go to Colombia, for all his help and encouragementduringthe project.
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