Define evolutionProcess of cummalitive change in heritable characteristics of a population 
What are heritable characteristics?In the form of alleles which contain genotypes that are expressed into phenotypes
Why is the change in heritable characterisitcs cummalitive?"The chnage is passed on from one generation to the next. It's cummalitive aas the big change doesn't happen overnight instead it's small changes that lead to an overall big change. "
Name the evidence for evolution1. fossils&nbsp;<div>2. selective breeding&nbsp;</div><div>3. comparative anatomy&nbsp;</div>
"What's the difference between fossils and fossil records?"fossils- petrified reamins of traces of animals and plants (eg. bone)<div>fossil record- accumulation of evidence from these remains and traces (eg. skeleton)</div>
Explain how fossils are evidence for evolutionfossils form in sedimentary rock which form layers. The dead organisms get trapped in these layers. The soft tissues decompose whilst the harder organic material keeps getting burried and pressed into the eart therfore older fuels are burried deeper in the earth. By looking at the age of rocks using radioisotpe dating palaeontologists are able to make links in the evolution of species.&nbsp;
Issues with fossils&nbsp;- fossil record is incomplete as only hard part can be preserved&nbsp;<div>- no evidence of change in every generation of species we only have records of the important links that show evolutionary (transitional fossils)</div>
Difference between macroevolution and microevolution&nbsp;macroevolution- evolution of groups larger than an individual species&nbsp;<div>microevolution- evolution within a single population&nbsp;</div>
What have we learned from fossils&nbsp;"-Animals such as bears, big cats, orcas and wolves didn't exist at the time of the dinosaurs or before&nbsp;<div>-Animals such as sharks and cockroaches that did exist at that time have no similar structure to the fossil record</div>"
Define natural selectionCauses evolution. Occurs when species have variation and certain traits are selected because they help the species reach a reproductive age and pass on their genes.&nbsp;
Define selective breeding&nbsp;A form of artificial selection in which organisms with certain characteristics are chosen by humans because they are of some benefit. These organims are bred to produce offpsring that have the same genes and, therfore, the same characterisitcs (example: dogs)
Explain how selective breeding is evidence for evolution&nbsp;"Dogs were originally wolves and they were accepted around human campsites and fed leftover food. Humans began seeing that wolves could be of benefit to them, and began breeding them so they could be trained and the domestic dog evolved. They continued breeding and different dogs have different traits. From the selective breeding of wolves to dogs, we could see evolution occur and it's evident that artifical selection has accelaerated the evolutionary process.&nbsp;"
Define breed&nbsp;Group of animals within a species that have similar characteristics&nbsp;
Explain how comparative anatomy is evidence for evolution&nbsp;Suggest that species with similar homologous structures share a common ancestor.
Define homologous structure&nbsp;"Similar in position, structure and evolutionary origin but not necessarily in function. An example is the pentadactyl limb that's found in humans, bats, dolphins, pigs, lizards, frogs, etc...&nbsp;&nbsp;"
Define divergent evolution&nbsp;When 2 separate species have similar structures, but use it in different ways because of their environment&nbsp;
Define adaptive radiationProcess in which organisms rapidly diverge from the form of the original species into several new forms specialised to make use of different environmental and new species.&nbsp;
Define analogous structure&nbsp;Preforming a similar structure but having a different evolutionary origin, such as the fins of a shark and an orca.&nbsp;
Define convergent evolution&nbsp;When organisms that are not closely related evolve similar structures that are used for similar purposes&nbsp;
Define speciation&nbsp;process by which new species form and occurs due to genetic variation&nbsp;
Define industrial melanism&nbsp;Change in the melanin producing allele frequency from light to dark due to environmental changes brought on by industry pollution&nbsp;
Define transient polymorphism&nbsp;Gradual change in the allele frequancy of a population due to the slow replacement of one gene of another&nbsp;
Define balanced polymorphism&nbsp;A balance between both forms of the allele variations within a population&nbsp;
Define variation&nbsp;Difference in DNA among individuals or the differences between populations
Causes of variation&nbsp;-mutation<div>-meiosis&nbsp;</div><div>-sexual reproduction&nbsp;</div>
Explain how mutation causes variation&nbsp;changes the DNA sequence. Only variation asexually offspring receive&nbsp;
Missene vs Nonsense mutation vs Silent mutationmissene mutation- alters the protein and creates new variations of a trait&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>nonsense mutation- harmful mutation which causes protein to not function properly or not to function at all&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>silent mutation- still codes for amino acid so no actual change occurs&nbsp;</div>
"What is ""struggle for survival"" and how does it relate to evolution?"-species produce more offspring than their environment can handle to maximize chances of offspring surviving&nbsp;<div>-due to high population, there is a competition for food, water and sunlight&nbsp;</div><div>-some animals have special adaptations which allow them to protect their resoures&nbsp;</div><div>-this means that adapted species are more likely to survive and produce more offspring whils the less adapted die and produce fewer offspring&nbsp;</div>
Define genetic drift&nbsp;Change in allele frequency in a gene pool&nbsp;
"What is ""survival of the fittest""?""If there's a chnage in the environment, those with genes that confer characteristics that are well adapted to the new environment will survive and pass on their genes to their new offpsring. Eventually, the whole species becomes better adapted to the new environment.&nbsp;"
How does generation time affect evolution?The genetic drift takes a shorter time is the lifespan of the species is short. (eg. evolution of a fruit fly takes less time than that of elephants) Also depends on population size
How does bacteria become resistant to antibiotics?"When a new antibiotic is introduced, a high number of them aren't resistant to the antibiotic. The antibiotic ills pathogenic bacteria as well as probiotics. The antibiotic resitant bacteria now reproduced without competition and passes the antibiotic resitant gene to offspring and other bacteria via plasmids&nbsp;"
List 3 reasons why antibiotic resistance has spread so rapdily&nbsp;"-short generation times&nbsp;<div>-people don't finish a course of antibiotics which allow bacteria in ther system to develop resistance&nbsp;</div><div>-plasmids makes it easy to exchange code for resistance&nbsp;</div><div>-high selective pressure on bacteria as high doses are given to patients with severe infections&nbsp;</div>"
Define genus&nbsp;A group of species that share common characteristics but may not be able to interbreed&nbsp;
Define species&nbsp;A group of organisms in the same genus that are able to interbreed to prodce fertile offspring&nbsp;
"How are species' names written?""Genus name starts with a capital letter and it's&nbsp; written before the species name. Species name is lowercse and entire scientific name is in itallic or underlined&nbsp;"
Taxa for eukaryotes&nbsp;<div>Domain</div>Kingdom&nbsp;<div>Phylum&nbsp;</div><div>Class&nbsp;</div><div>Order&nbsp;</div><div>Family</div><div>Genus&nbsp;</div><div>Species&nbsp;</div><div>(<b>D</b>ad&nbsp;<b>K</b>aty <b>P</b>erry <b>c</b>ame&nbsp;<b>o</b>ver <b>f</b>or <b>g</b>rape <b>s</b>oda)</div>
What is a domain and what are the 3 types?Highest classification of a species&nbsp;<div><br></div><div>bacteria- no histones, peptidoglycan cell wall and cell membrane made of glycerol-esters of lipids and D-form of glycerol&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>archae- histones present in some species, has a cell wall not mde of peptidoglycan and cell membrane made of glycerol-ether lipids and L-form of glycerol</div><div><br></div><div>eukaryota- histones are present and cell wall is sometimes absent and not made of peptidoglycan and cell membrane is made of glycerol ester lipids and D-form of glycerol</div>
"What's an archaea?"Unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus and live in extreme habitats such as lakes with high water salt concentrations
Artificial vs natural vs phylogenetic classification&nbsp;"artificial classification- ordering of organisms into groups on the basis of non-evolutionary features (Eg. organims with wings would be classified together)<div><br></div><div>natural classification- based on multiple characteristics and one taxa consisits of all species that have evolved from a common ancestor (used when new species has been discovered eg. whales and sharks due to habitats and common characterisitcs such as fins which is false)</div><div><br></div><div>phylogenetic classification- classification that can be confirmed by DNA and protein analysis meaning it's more accurate than artifical/ natural classification&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>"
What is a dichotomous key?"A series of paired opposing statements which guide the suer to the identity of an organism&nbsp;<div><br></div><div><img src=""196487-004-5BEAFF2A.jpg""><br></div>"
Name the phyla of the plant kingdom-bryophytes<div>-filicinophytes&nbsp;</div><div>-coniferophytes</div><div>-angiospermophytes</div>
Bryophytes"-mosses&nbsp;<div>-non-flowering&nbsp;</div><div>-1-10cm</div><div>-no vascular tissue (xylem/phloem) instead they absorb water from their surrondings which why they live in damp/ shady locations&nbsp;</div><div>-produce spore capsules that are released and form a gameophytes. Gametes are produced and combined to form a zygote which develops into sporangia&nbsp;</div><div>-don't have roots but rhizoids (small root like strcutres that help it attach to soil)</div><div>-have leaves but aren't considered true lleaves as they don't contain vascular tissue but could photosynthesize&nbsp;</div><div>-bryophytes help make soil fertile, prevent flooding and are pioneer species&nbsp;&nbsp;</div>"
Filicinophytes-ferns&nbsp;<div>-shallow roots, leaves develop in fronds</div><div>-have primitve vascular system&nbsp;</div><div>-spores are produced in clusters on the underside of fronds. The clusters burt and release spores to the soil. Spores produce gametophyte which contains gametes which fertilize and create a zygote&nbsp;</div>
Coniferophytes-cone bearing seed trees&nbsp;<div>-gymnosperms (seeds are not enclosed in ovary)</div><div>-they have vascular tissue</div><div>-needle like leaves with a waxy cuticle&nbsp;</div><div>-reproduce sexaully&nbsp;</div><div>-provide shelter and are essential as prodcucers&nbsp;</div><div><br></div>
Angiospermophytes&nbsp;-flowering plants&nbsp;<div>-have vascular tissues, roots, stems and leaves&nbsp;</div><div>-can be further classified as monocotyledons and dicotylendons&nbsp;</div><div>-pollen grains from anthers to stigma of carpels which then fertilized the ovules. This then develops into a fruit which then disperse the seeds once they ripen and fall to the ground to reproduce&nbsp;</div><div>-have mutualistic relationships with other organisms&nbsp;</div><div><br></div>
Phyla of animal kingdom&nbsp;-arthropoda&nbsp;<div>-porifera&nbsp;</div><div>-cnidaria</div><div>-chordata&nbsp;</div><div>-platyhelminthes&nbsp;</div><div>-annelida&nbsp;</div><div>-mollusca</div>
Porifera&nbsp;<div>sea sponge</div>symmetry: none&nbsp;<div>segmentation: none&nbsp;</div><div>features: use spicules for support&nbsp;</div><div>gut openings: 0&nbsp;</div><div><br></div>
Cnidaria&nbsp;jellyfish/ corals&nbsp;<div>symmetry: radial&nbsp;</div><div>segmentation: none&nbsp;</div><div>features: stinging&nbsp;</div><div>gut openings: 1&nbsp;</div><div><br></div>
Platyhelmintha&nbsp;<div>tapeworm&nbsp;</div>symmetry: bilateral&nbsp;<div>segmentation: none&nbsp;</div><div>features: flattened body&nbsp;</div><div>gut openings: 1</div>
Annelida&nbsp;earthworm&nbsp;<div>segmentation: yes</div><div>features: use peristals for moving&nbsp;</div><div>gut openings: 2&nbsp;</div>
Molluscasnails, octapus, slug&nbsp;<div>symmetry: bilateral&nbsp;</div><div>segmentation: non-visible&nbsp;</div><div>features: some have shells made of mantle&nbsp;</div><div>gut openings: 2</div>
Arthropoda&nbsp;Spider, crabs&nbsp;<div>symmetry: bilateral&nbsp;</div><div>segmentation: yes</div><div>features: exoskeleton made of chitin&nbsp;</div><div>gut openings: 2</div>
Chordatamammals, fish, amphibia, etc...&nbsp;<div>symmetry: bilateral&nbsp;</div><div>segmentation: yes&nbsp;</div><div>features: have a notochord to support the body and sophisticated digestive system&nbsp;</div><div>gut openings:2</div>
Classes of vertebrates"1. amphibia (frogs)<div>- skin's moist and exposed&nbsp;</div><div>-habitat on land and in water&nbsp;</div><div>- cold blooded and lay eggs&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>2. aves (birds)</div><div>-habitat on land&nbsp;</div><div>-warm blooded and lay eggs&nbsp;</div><div>-fly and some swim&nbsp;</div><div>-breathe through lungs&nbsp;</div><div>-feathers which insulate the body&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>3. mammalia&nbsp;</div><div>- skin covered in hair/ fur and contains sweat glands&nbsp;</div><div>-warm blooded and live birth&nbsp;</div><div>-habitat on land and in water&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>4. reptilia&nbsp;</div><div>-habitat on land&nbsp;</div><div>-teeth are sharp and cone shaped&nbsp;</div><div>-dry skin with scales&nbsp;</div><div>-cold blooded and most lay eggs&nbsp;</div><div><br></div><div>5. fish&nbsp;</div><div>-coldblooded and lay eggs&nbsp;</div><div>-habitat in salt/fresh water with fins and tails to swim and balance&nbsp;</div><div>-covered in slimy scales&nbsp;</div><div>-breathe using gills&nbsp;</div>"
Define clade&nbsp;group of organims that have evolved from a common ancestor&nbsp;
What are clades based on?Used to be based on anatomy but are now based on moecular similarity of DNA&nbsp;
Define molecular clock&nbsp;Mutation rate of biomolecules to deduce the time in prehistory when two or more life forms diverged&nbsp;
Define outgroup&nbsp;most distantly related organism on a cladogram&nbsp;