ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Effective communication – Means the message is understood, stimulating the recipients to
take an appropriate action or affect the way the recipient thinks. In some ways effective
communication is very essential for the smooth running of the organization.
BENEFITS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
✓ Through effective communication system, there is effective relations and good
human relations and high morale in an organization is maintained.
✓ Effective communication is an element in business
✓ Good communication will make it easy to implement
✓ Effective communication ensures the business is coordinate and employee work
together the same.
✓ Helps smooth running in an organization – people at all levels works in harmony
– employers & employees.
✓ Problem solving is easy
✓ Strong decisions are made
✓ Workers are more organized because they know what they should do
✓ Managers work effectively and efficiently
✓ Successful feedback
✓ Good communication can have positive impact on employees motivation
✓ With effective communication the customers communicate what they want
✓ With effective communication with supplies there is production.
ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. Consider the objective/purpose/aim
2. Know why you want to communicate
3. Select the channel, medium of communication wisely i.e., cost, confidentiality,
distance, time of the day, receiver, subject/content, accuracy.
4. Select the encoding techniques – choose at the manner in which to send the
message. e.g, a sender can decide to use words, signals, gestures e.t.c.
5. Consider barriers
6. Send the message
7. Check for understanding
8. Obtain feedback – information sender gets from receiver
9. Consider language- use the language the sender can understand
10. Message should be brief- long messages bore people
11. Use correct tone
12. Time your communication
13. Be polite
14. Use appropriate mannerism
15. Use logic communication – making some sense.
PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
1. One is able to exchange views/ideas with other people
2. For better understanding between two parties or more
3. For greater efficiency – communication systems enable the management to instruct
supervisors and subordinates staff.
4. Effective co-ordination – The employers will co-ordinate each other for the
purpose of running of the organization.
5. Avoid Losses – If the employers and employees are in good terms, the employees
can report any breakdowns.
6. The organization can inform customers the goods and services they have.
ENCODING
-
The sender expresses his ideas into words symbols, signs or gestures to convey the
message.
-
He decides what outcomes he wants from the communication and this will help
him whether he will use gestures, signals, visual or words.
MESSAGE
-
The encoded information is known as the message. It’s the subject matter. It
contains words, symbols, signs, pictures, gestures or some other form which will
make the receiver understand the message.
-
The message can take a form of a letter, a smile, a memo, a telephone call shrug
of the shoulder e.t.c.
MEDIUM
A larger group of ways of communicating within which a particular communication can
be classed. The following are media of communication.
-
Oral communication
-
Written communication
-
Non-verbal communication
-
Electronic communication
-
Visual communication
CHANNEL
The media through which the message passes from sender to the receiver. It may be
formal, (Procedure), or Informal (grapevine)
Oral – (meetings, interviews), written (letters, Memos,, Notices).
RECEIVER
The persons who receives the message. The message is directed to receiver, and the
process cannot be complete without the receiver. He is the one responsible for decoding
process.
DECODING
-
Interpreting the meaning of the message. i.e. he/she interprets meaning of the
smile, reads the letter and interprets the message encodes.
-
If the message is not carefully encoded by the sender may be mis-interpreted by its
receiver.
FEEDBACK
The name given to the information which the sender receives from the receiver. It refers
to the receivers immediate reaction to the message it can be a smile, a node, flown, shrug
e.g. In a meeting the audience may smile or node to understanding or response.
STEPS/STAGES OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Encoding
Information
Sender
(Idea)
Message
Encoded
Information
Medium
Channel
Transmitted
Receiver,
Receives
message
decoded
Receiver sends for
the sender
(Idea)
Complete Cycle of Communication Process.
FUNCTIONS OF THE FEEDBACK
1. Helps the sender to know the receiver, has received its message
2. Helps communication to continue
3. Completes communication process
It shows how the message was understood
4. Indicates communication barriers
5. Shows the effectiveness of the medium (Channel used).
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Barrier – Anything causing communication to be ineffective
-
Barrier changes the message
-
Barriers are going to interfere the process of sending and receiving of a message.
The following are barriers to effective communication and their solution
1. Age Difference – Age gap between the sender and the receiver should be
considered.
➢ If the sender does not consider the age of his audience he may create a barrier he
may. He may create a barrier; he may give content beyond understanding.
➢ If the sender mixes the young people and the other people, he may not be
comfortable to listen to the same content.
➢ The young people may not be put together for communication with small
children because children can be a nuisance.
SOLUTIONS
-
For effective communication people should be grouped according to their age.
-
You should not mix the audience and give contend suitable for the ages.
2. Social Economic Factors.
➢ May create a barrier during communication, high class people may look down,
the low call people.
For this reason there may be a barrier if one group
communicates with the other.
➢ The high class may feel low class have nothing to offer.
➢ The low class may feel the high class people are too proud and hence not ready to
listen to them.
SOLUTION
-
The rich should treat the poor kindly and take them as people
-
The rich should create a friendly atmosphere
-
The poor should appreciate their status and should not undermine themselves
-
There must be mutual understanding between the poor and the rich.
3. Language Barrier
➢ If the sender uses a language that the receiver cannot understand he/she creates a
language barrier e.g. kimeru vs. Kimasai
➢ If the sender uses language full of technical jargon – A language that cannot be
understood within a given context.
➢ Where language is beyond recipients understanding (complicated).
SOLUTION
-
Use common language for effective communication
-
Consider education level of the recipients
-
Simplify the vocabularies for your audience – use simpler language for easy
understanding.
4. Competition for Attention
➢ If there are some factors acting against receivers’ attention, the receiver cannot
really concentrate on the communication. They Include:- Distractors, Receivers,
health, fatigue, having some other his in mind, difficult information, very deep
information, receiving information from different sources.
SOLUTION
-
Getting information from one source
-
Do not give information when one is sick
-
Giving brief information and not too detailed.
5. Noise
➢ It’s the name given to features of selling in which communication takes place
which interferes with accurate transmission of information. E.g.
(a) Physical Noise – Heavy traffic, ringing telephone, people talking while one is
listening, clapping hands e.t.c
(b) Other Interference – Like poor telephone connection or unreadable
photocopy.
(c) Physical Environment – Within which communication takes place – e.g.
Arrangement of decoration of the reception before communication takes
place.
SOLUTION
-
Communication should take place where there is no heavy traffic
-
The reception should be neat and well decorated
-
Other interferences like telephone calls or unreadable photocopy can be repaired.
6. Environment
Environment is the condition in a place that can affect the reception of the
message, such condition includes:- hot conditions, too cold, rainy, congested
conditions, too shiny e.t.c.
SOLUTION
The environment should be conducive for communication to take place e.g. providing a
shelter, improvising a shadow, putting on a ceiling to reduce sound, using fans to warm a
room, using a spacious room if congested.
7. Attitude of the Sender
Attitude is the way of thinking and behaving e.g.
(a) If the sender has a negative attitude towards the receiver
(b) The sender has a negative attitude towards the message he/she has no interest
in it.
(c) Sender not confident of own self hence cannot connect with the audience.
SOLUTION
-
The sender should have a positive attitude towards the receiver of the message
-
The sender should have a positive attitude towards the message
-
The sender should be confident in order to convince the audience and should feel
at ease.
8. Attitude of the Receiver
➢ The receiver may have a negative attitude towards the sender
➢ He may feel he is not confident
➢ Prejudgment – to judge what the sender is going to say.
➢ Selective listening – listening only what you want to hear
➢ The receiver may think the sender has no interest in him and view the message in
doubt and suspicion.
SOLUTION
-
The sender should be adequately be prepared
-
The receiver should trust the sender to give sensible information
-
Do not judge sender before listening
-
The receiver should be positive
-
The receiver should listen attentively
OTHERS
The sender may pass wrong information or pass information to the wrong person
SOLUTION
-
Pass correct information
-
Message should be passed to the right receiver
-
The sender may speak too fast and not too slow- the sender should speak at the
correct pace. Sender’s accent and tone.
•
Wrong pronunciation – use correct accent and pronounce words correctly,
use correct volume.
•
Sender’s appearance – being dirty, wearing torn clothes or uncombed hair,
listeners will concentrate on your appearance and not the message.
SOLUTION
Be presentable and neat
•
Lack of logical sequence in communication- The ideas is not logically
arranged and this will cause confusion and lack of understanding.
SOLUTION
Be well organized.
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION/MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
They include:1. Written communication
2. Oral Communication
3. Visual Communication
4. Audio Visual/ written Communication
5. Non-verbal Communication
6. Audio Communication
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Communication taking place through writing e.g. letter, memos, circulars, reports,
minutes, notices, email, telex, fax.
ADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
1. Can be used for future reference (a permanent record
2. Can be accessed over and over again.
3. Accurate and precise
4. It is a legal document – can be accepted in a court of law
5. Used in assigning, responsibilities or duties
6. Written communication has a wide access – can reach many people
7. Can act as a proof – it proves communication took place
8. The sender or writer is able to take care of the attitudes, tones and control
emotions.
DISADVANTAGES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
1. Tiresome
2. Time consuming
3. Expensive
4. Its permanent hence a change is difficult and if it is changed its time consuming.
5. Written communication can be mis-interpreted at decoding stages and the
recipient can give an incorrect meaning.
6. It lacks personal touch
7. Human contact is not possible
8. Can give irrelevant information leading to waste of time and money
9. Much of written communication cannot be kept secret.
ORAL COMMUNICATION
It takes place through words from the mouth. E.g. face to face conversation, verbal
instructions, conversation on the mobile phone, live broadcasts, Interviews, meetings,
discussions, seminars, speeches etc.
ADVANTAGES
1. It saves time and money – cheaper than making a telephone call or writing a
letter.
2. With the variation of tone, the speaker can communicate – shades of meaning.
3. There is immediate feedback
4. The speaker can know how the message is being received
5. Useful when communicating with group of people
6. There is human touch
7. There is clarification on the spot (can be done)
DISADVANTAGES
1. Oral communication is not possible if the sender and the receiver are far away
apart.
2. Lengthy messages are not suitable to be broadcasted
3. These messages can be misunderstood although orally if the receiver is not
attentive.
4. Oral communication lacks privacy
5. May strike at the wrong time
NON – VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication uses signals – body language, they include;- smiling, facial
expressions, posture, eye contact, couching, shaking hands, nodding, dressing and
appearance, tone and volume.
ADVANTAGES
1. One can communicate with someone who cannot hear
2. You can communicate in a place where you need to maintain silence
3. You can communicate what you don’t want other people to listen or to hear
4. Makes communication short and brief
5. It can save time with communicating non-verbally
6. You can communicate a message that you don’t want to be held responsible.
7. It reinforces oral communication
DISADVANTAGES
1. Inability to interpret the signals used in communication
2. Difficult to understand
3. Cannot be used by everyone
4. Not everybody prefers non-verbal communication
5. It is associated with disability hence ridiculed
6. Signals maybe misinterpreted
7. One can fake using this communication.
VISUAL COMMUNICATION
This takes place through seeing e.g. it refers to the presentation of information by use of
diagrams, pictures, graphs, tables, charts, posters, photographs, maps etc.
ADVANTAGES
1. It enables quicker understanding
2. Complex figures and facts can also be easily absorbed
3. Visual presentation adds impact to the information
4. Enables comparisons to be made
5. Audience is more likely to be interested in a chart or charts than in a raw
representation.
6. It catches the attention of the audience
7. Easy to remember information communication through visual aids.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Some visual aids require a lot of skills to understand them e.g. graphs
2. They are time consuming
3. Heavy information can be not well interpreted e,g, graphs
4. They are expensive
5. Not possible to interpret the signals or signals used.
AUDIO-VISUAL COMMUNICATION
This is the form of communication that takes place through hearing and seeing.
Audio
This takes place through hearing. Hearing can take place while doing something else.
Examples of audio aids – Radio Programs, Radio Cassettes, tape recorders, record
players, CD, Flash disks.
ADVANTAGES
1. Information can reach many people at the same time
2. It can cover a wide area
3. It is cheap to buy, e.g. radio cassettes
4. Easy to operate
5. Can be accessed by many people
6. It is portable
7. Gives information in an organized manner
8. Can be used for Educational purposes e.g. a radio can be used through
educational broadcasts
9. Information can be kept for future reference
10. Can be adaptable to individual instructions
11. It may transmit information that is not readily available
DISADVANTAGES
1. Require electricity which may not be available in most places.
2. Encourages passive listening
3. The sender may not get feedback from the receiver
4. The radio waves may not reach all areas
5. A flash disk may corrupt and lose documents i.e get spoilt.
6. Virus in a computer may delete information in a flash disk
7. It is expensive in transmission
8. There can be minimal participation in a lesson
9. There can be no power during transmission
10. Cannot be completely accurate
AUDIO VISUAL
Takes place through hearing and seeing. The information is presented through hearing
and seeing. E.g through slides, video tapes, TV, Films etc
ADVANTAGES
1. Information transmitted through Audio-Visual means is retained in the listeners
mind.
2. Information can be presented in a more appealing manner. Many people are
interested in looking at films rather than reading a book.
3. Can be used in entertainment
4. Can be used to educate workers and popularize the products.
5. Messages have more impact on receivers minds
6. Can be used to reinforce written messages.
7. A feedback of the impact of the message can be observed in the reactions and the
behavior of the receiver.
8. It can be very useful for Advertisement and Mass education
9. It may be used where audience Is illiterate
10. It simplifies spoken or written words
11. It can be kept for future reference
12. It catches the attention of the audience
13. Can be used to reach many people at the same time.
DISADVANTAGES
1. The preparation of the messages is time consuming
2. It is expensive to use audio-visual aids
3. It requires skills to operate audio-visual skills
4. Its coverage is limited.
5. Some of the means used are not easy to understand and interpret e.g charts and
diagrams
6. Different people may interpret the message differently e.g colour and pictures
7. There may be no feedback – the sender of the message may have use other forms
of communication to check whether the message is understood
8. Difficult to modify a message once sent
9. It is not suitable for confidential matters.
CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
The following are types of communication:1. Formal communication
2. Informal communication
3. Internal communication
4. External communication
5. Interpersonal communication
6. Intra personal communication
1. FORMAL COMMUNICATION
It takes place as per organizational policies and regulations.
It is the official
communication
There is authority in passing this communication. It follows the channels of formal
relationships of authority and responsibility organization of the formal structure.
-
Communication takes place between different levels of hierarchy strictly according
to the formal organizational relationship established by the management.
-
Within an organization, communication can flow vertically and horizontally.
-
Formal communication can refer to any message sent and received vial official
channels using established office communication channels and communication
media such as memos, reports, notice etc.
This communication follows chain of command e.g. from Juniors to Seniors.
USES OF FORMAL CMMMUNICATION
1. It can be used to communicate management plans, decisions and directives to
lower levels for implementation.
2. Through this communication, tasks are delegated; activities and duties are coordinated.
3. It promotes good relationship between Management and employees. They listen
to workers and give them feedback to their complaints.
4. Workers are instructed on what to do through memos, notices, letters and also
orders.
5. Workers are explained to, the consequences of the failure to perform
6. Workers also communicate upwards to seniors
7. Feedback Information moves from lower levels thigh levels in form of suggestions,
complaints e.t.c
8. Upward information can be used by workers to relieve their tension
9. Workers can use the suggestion boxes to forward their views concerning the
organization.
10. This communication can help in creating, harmony within an organization.
INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
-
It does not follow any procedure or chain of commands. Communication that is
not official, hence do not follow any. It’s a verbal communication.
-
It takes place through grapevine
-
Grapevine is an informal method of message transmitted which is either a rumor
or a gossip.
-
It’s an informal channel of communication, were people are working together
they talk of appointments, promotions etc.
-
It does not follow ay directions and it spreads very fast.
-
Grapevine is a channel of Horizontal communication.
-
The rumors spread include:•
Overworking
•
Unfair policies
•
Uncertainty over promotion
•
Special increment of a particular employee
•
Service
USES
1. Can speed up information within an organization – if the Information given to
one person, it spreads to others very fast.
2. Can be useful to the organization it wishes to spread the information informally to
test the reactions of workers without making an official announcement.
3. The workers can use informal communication to vent out their emotions, feelings
about promotions, retrenchment and any other problem will become lighter after
they have talked about it.
4. Informal communication takes place at workplace proving that workers have
interest for one another and promotes solidarity and cohesion.
5. It can be used as supplement to other channels – all the information in an
organization cannot be transmitted to the employee in all channels. If there is
useful information unsuitable to being transmitted through official channels can be
transmitted through Grapevine.
6. Informal Communication (Grapevine) provides feedback to the management. It
enables them to know what the subordinates are thinking about the organization
and its various activities.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
This refers to communication within the organization; between employer and
employees.
USES
1. Helps in greater understanding
2. Avoids losses – communication between employee and employer avoid losses.
3. Greater Efficiency within an organization – The supervisors are able to instruct the
subordinates in good time on what they are supposed to do hence promoting
efficiency in communicating.
4. Can be used for better co-ordination – if the departments relate well there can be
boost in production.
5. Used for creating harmony.
EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION
Refers to communicating with outsiders.
The organization communicates with other
organizations, customers, suppliers, government departments, service Institutions e.t.c
USES
1. Establishment of good reputation – A company will listen to the customers and
serve them efficiently will create a name for the company hence good reputation.
2. Improves Public Relations – A company can communicate with general public to
keep them informed about their goods and services.
3. Good External communication helps a company to attract more customers and as
a result, the sales increases leading to increase in profits.
4. A company can get information on what customers like and what they do not
like. Hence produce goods according to what the customers want.
5. The Business/Organization deal with government department like Licensing
Authority, bank and Income tax.
6. An Organization may find it very difficult to deal with such organizations and as
such, they may be able to convince them through the use of effective external
communication.
7. Public Relations Department, Marketing Department, Sales Department, May
require communication skills in order to do their work effectively. The personnel
here need effective communication skills to be able to do their job i.e. where
making speeches and conducting interviews.
INTER-PERSONAL
It is the process of understanding and sharing the meaning with atleast one other person.
There are three types of interpersonal communication.
1. Oral communication – between two people e.g. interviewing, a small group of
people – meeting
2. Written communication – writing letters & Notices.
3. Non-verbal Communication & Silent Communication
USES
1. To solve problems within an organization
2. To resolve conflicts
3. To share information
4. To improve our perception of others
5. To fulfill social needs – (being liked or loved.
INTER-PERSONAL
➢ This is the process of understanding and sharing the message with oneself. It can
occur when you evaluate or examine the interaction that occurs between
ourselves and other people.
➢ It can take place before, during or after other forms of communication. It’s more
complicated and involves our central nervous system.
➢ Involves gathering, storing and retrieving information. It involves only self and
must be understood by itself because it is the basis of all other communications.
➢ We get engaged in intra-personal communication almost every time especially
when we are alone, walking to class, driving, watching a movie, in a
overcrowded place e.g. in a lecture room or in a party.
USES
1. Internal problem solving
2. Helps in planning for the future
3. Helps in evaluation of others and ourselves
4. Helps in understanding relationships between ourselves and others.
OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCAL AND DIPLOMACY
Office etiquette means the code of behavior
Office etiquette or behavior/manner is conducting oneself respectfully and continuously
in office or workplace. Office worker should be social and well behaved. They should
have the following qualities.
➢ Should be honest, loyal to their organizations, they should show loyalty
➢ Should be well disciplined
➢ Should relate with co-workers in polite and respectful manner
➢ Should apologize whey they are wrong
➢ Treat other co-workers with respect and show loyalty
➢ Should be courteous
➢ They must be neat, clean and wear appropriate clothes
➢ They should wear correct footwear
➢ They should show appreciation if any courtesy is presented to them
DO(S) AND DONTS
THE DONTS
✓ They should not chew gum in the office especially when attending to customers
✓ Avoid Popping
✓ Shower regularly and use suitable perfume
✓ Do not cough or sneeze in another person’s direction. Use a handkerchief or
tissues to contain germs and say “excuse me”.
✓ Keep the interaction to others very minimal and always apologize when dealing
with another person’s business.
✓ Do not gossip on other workers private life
✓ Do not hang around waiting for co-workers to get off the phone
✓ Do not be know-it-all when relating to other co-workers.
✓ Never blame someone else if it is your mistake
✓ Do not criticize your boss at work
✓ Do not dominate the meeting, all the communication must take place through the
chair
✓ Do not interrupt another person speaking, pay attention to all the procedures
✓ Never attend a meeting late or leave when the meeting is not over.
DOS
1. Put off your Mobile Phone when in a meeting
2. Knock the door before entering a toilet
3. Do not smoke in an office
4. Cutting nails and clearing throat in the office.
PROTOCOL
Its established code of procedure or behavior in any group, Organization or situation.
It is the code of conduct or rules of appropriate behavior.
-
It can also be used to denote appropriate action or rules in a business e.g. business
protocol requires we arrive in a meeting prepared in time. (Well prepared.)
-
Has always been used to acknowledge hierarchical standing of all present.
DIPLOMACY/TACT
-
Means skills in dealing with people in difficult situations without offending them.
A salesman requires diplomacy when dealing with different customers. Diplomacy
deals with doing the right thing at the right time.
-
Use skills to take to various customers in order to buy you products.
Show
courtesy and good behavior to customers.
-
Speak properly; put yourself in place of customers to be able to address their
needs.
IMPORTANCE OF OFFICE ETTIQUETE
1. It helps to smoothen the daily interactions within the office
2. Enables good work outcomes and happy co-existence
3. Helps people get interested in each other’s welfare
4. Helps avoid irritation from bad habits or comments
5. Helps to avoid actions that can bring a lot of challenges.
6. It dictate how your colleagues will come to you and come to your help
7. Being punctual for an Appointment shows you respect the time for your
colleagues.
8. Dressing appropriately communicates that you respect yourself, colleagues and
your clients (clients – People you work for).
9. Gossip can cause a lot of unnecessary stress. You can get labeled company gossip.
10. Helps one to be in good terms with other colleagues. You should ask before you
borrow.
11. Helps to keep the mood of the office
12. Puts on a smile when you meet with a co-worker. It communicates warmth and
concern to each other.
13. Respect other peoples’ privacy
14. You should not read other persons emails, messages and letters.
15. Do not discuss sensitive issues in open
16. Avoid being source of odours, e.g. removing shoes.
REPORT WRITING
A Report is an orderly presentation of facts about a specific business activity or a
programme.
-
It’s a document in which a given problem is examined for the purpose of
conveying information, reporting the findings, putting forward ideas and
sometimes making recommendations.
-
A communication from someone who has some information to someone else who
want to use the information.
TYPES OF REPORTS
1. Oral Reports
2. Written Reports
3. Management Reports
4. Operations Reports
5. Production Reports
6. Breakdown Reports
7. Accident Reports
8. Entrepreneurship and Trade Reports
9. Internal Memo Reports
ROLES OF A REPORT IN AN ORGANISATION
1. Provides a basis for Decision Making and action taking – can be used as
management tools.
2. They Provide proper learning using suggestion from a given report
3. They show progress made in an organization within a given time.
4. Helps solve problems in an organization.
5. They provide feedbacks to various problems researched on.
6. They can be kept for future reference.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD REPORT
1. Must have a title
2. It must be addressed to specific leader or a group of leaders.
3. It must be signed by the writer
4. There must be a date when the other report was submitted.
5. It must be clear – Divided into sections and sentences.
6. Must be grammatical- observe tenses and spelling mistakes and punctuation marks.
7. Must be objective – separated from writers, personal feelings.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Must be clear
2. Must be stated simply (understandable)
3. Easy to be adapted
4. Should not show the writer’s opinion
5. Be logical
6. On has to be consistent
7. Use spacing when making paragraphs
8. Be concise – avoid long explanations and stick to the point
9. Check all the information is accurate and all the reasoning is valid
10. Use simple to read, easy to read style presentation.
STEPS TO FOLLOW IN PREPARING TO WRITE A REPORT
WRITING SKILLS
Reports require the following writing skills
-
The ability to record facts clearly and objectively
-
Ability to interpret information and make conclusion
-
Ability to present suggestions on ways on which situation should be improved.
STEPS
1. Know the type of report to write and write the title. Read the question.
2. State the terms of reference – states why the report is being written, who has
requested for it. What is to be investigated, who asked for it, what was one asked
to do, when was it asked.
3. Investigate the source of information- various methods of data collection
4. Procedure
5. Findings
6. Write notes
7. Analyse the data
8. Write a draft
9. Write the final reports
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Sources of Information when writing a report
(i)
Company files
(ii)
Personal Observation
(iii)
Interviews
(iv)
Letters
(v)
Library Research
(vi)
Questionnaires
(vii)
Publications of all types e.g. magazines, journals
(viii)
Previous Reports
(ix)
Mass Media – Radio, T.V e.t.c
(x)
Meetings
(xi)
Visits
(xii)
Internet
Format of Report Presentation
1. Conventional Report format
2. Memorandum Report Format
3. Letter Report Format
(i)
Conventional Report Format
Name of the Organization
Title of the Report
Question – The Traffic Police Officer has requested you to investigate on the causes of
Road Accidents and Give Recommendations. Write a report.
Title
A REPORT ON THE CAUSES OF ROAD ACCIDENTS
Terms of Reference – To Report on causes of Road Accidents and give recommendations
as requested by ………………………………… on ………………………………..
PROCEDURE/METHODS
1. Interview
2. Holding Meetings
3. Personal Observations
4. Findings or facts
➢ Facts concerning the Report
➢ Write the facts clearly
➢ Write on past tense and on a reported speech
➢ Number headings, subheadings and paragraphs
➢ Link facts with methods
5. Use correct sentence construction
6. Avoid errors
CONCLUSION
This kind of a report has a conclusion. You sum up them main ideas expressed in the
reports.
RECOMMENDATION
A recommendation gives suggestions to the problems that have come out from a report.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RECOMMENDATION
1. Must be clear
2. Must not be within a writers interest
3. Should be easy to implement
4. Should give solutions.
CLOSING SECTION
The writer signs the report and closes the Report.
Name:………………….
Designation:…………………………
Sign:…………………….
Date:…………………..
MEMORANDUM REPORT FORMAT
We use a borrowed format of memo writing:(1) Name of Organization/Company
(2) We use words:
To: whoever requested (senior)
From: writer
use fully blocked method with
Date: Day, Month, Year
open punctuations.
(3) Reference
REF SM/020/013
(4) Title of the Report
(5) Terms of Reference
(6) Procedure
(7) Findings
(8) Recommendations
(9) Initials of the writer and sign
(10)Date
LETTER REPORT FORMAT
It’s written as a letter therefore, use fully blocked method with open punctuation marks.
Write Address
Date
Reference
Recipients
Address
Salutation
Question: - You work as a personal Assistant to the General Manager of a company that
manages Rental Houses. Of late the company has been experiencing high tenant
turnover. This is causing anxiety to the Management and you had been requested to
investigate the matter and give recommendations.
Assume you have completed the
investigations and write a report. (20 Marks)
ASSIGNMENT
The company you work for has a canteen facility; however most of the employees prefer
to eat out. The management is concerned that the employees are not using the canteen
facility.
As the Assistant Public Relations Officer, you have been asked by the
management to investigate the matter and write a report. Assume you have finished the
investigation and write a report giving recommendations.
REFERENCING STYLES USED IN REPORTS
The various ways of acknowledging source of information in a report. The following
referencing styles are used in reports.
(1) Author – Date Referencing Style- (APA)
APA (American Psychology Association) This style is an Author-date system. It
involves citing publications by Author, Name and Date.
Under this style, you start with the Author Name, initials, year of publication, in
brackets, full stop, title underlined or bold, full stop, city, colon, and publisher.
Example :- Mugenda M. O and Mugenda A G (1999).
Research Methods, Quantities and Quantitative methods Nairobi Acts press
If there are more than 2 writers. Write the first one and use e.t.c
(2) Havard Referencing Style
In this style, start with the authors surname, initials, year of publication, fullstop,
the title underlined or bold style and full colon publisher.
e.g Mugenda OM and Havard G Mugenda 1988 Research Methods Quantitative
and Qualitative Aproaches. Nairobi: acts Press
(3) British Standard Style
This style uses bibliographic details. Bibliography is a list of resources cited or not
cited that have been used in writing a report.
NB: Bibliography is always given at the end of a report:
(i)
The sources are arranged in an alphabetical order.
(ii)
The List should contain relevant sources that have been read when
preparing to write a report cited or not cited.
(iii)
If the Author has published more than one book in the same year,
differentiate them with letters e.g. 2012 (a) 2012(b).
EDITING AND DISSEMMINATION OF REPORT
Edit – to correct mistakes made in reports
Disseminate – To present reports to people concerned.
It can also mean to make change to text on the screen. To edit means to take what has
been recorded and decide which parts to include and in which order.
-
Editing a report means correcting mistakes in that report and put information in it
in the correct order.
Disseminating a report
To disseminate means to spread information so that it reaches many people. It can be
done by using a computer with power point software and a projector.
-
Using a computer you prepare slides. A slide is a small piece of film held in a
frame that can be shown on a screen when you shine a light through it.
-
One can disseminate a Report using slide shows.
Slides are prepared using a
computer and later showing them to people using a projector.
HOW TO PREPARE POWERPOINT SLIDES
(1) Use a computer with a PowerPoint software
STEPS
1) Open the PowerPoint
2) Open Presentation
3) From the Presentation there are options/different types of representation
4) Use the appropriate style
5) Open the style
6) Click icon to show Title, content, numbering of points
7) Type the work when you are through
8) A page will come with graphical presentation
9) Using a projector and a computer click slide show. You will see difference
Question
You work with a company that manufactures juice. Your sales have been going down
drastically in the last one year. You have been requested by your boss to investigate the
matter. Write a report giving him recommendations.
INTERVIEWS
Definition:- An Interview is a formal consultation to evaluate the suitability of a
candidate to a certain job. It can also mean getting the view of each other or knowing
each other.
PURPOSE OF INTERVEW IN AN ORGANISATION
1. To access the personality of a candidate or applicant
2. To check if factual date in an organization
3. To give the applicant the information about the job
4. To access the applicants suitability for the Job.
5. To listen to the employees grievances
6. To select the most suitable applicant for the job
7. To allow the candidate to find out whether the job being offered by the
company/organization is suitable for him/her.
8. For promotion of staff
9. For discussion of business success or failure
10. For sales purposes
11. To access the performance of an employee
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
1. Grievance Interview – this is an interview where the Employer will give their
grievances.
2. Selection Interview- Interview held in an Organization for selection of a particular
applicant suitable for the job.
3. Exit Interview – Done when an employee is leaving an organization on their own
or through Dismissal.
4. Appraisal Interview – Also call update interview-Assessment of the performance of
the employee
ASSIGNMENT
1) Preparation of an interviewee for an Interview
2) Types of Meetings
3) Challenges of interviews in an organization
INTERVIEWS PREPARATION AS AN INTERVIWEE
Before the Interview
-
Study job Description
-
Try to show interest
-
Prepare Questions that you would like to ask during the Interview
-
Prepare questions that are likely to be asked in the Interview and provide with
answers for them
-
Watch the TV and listen to the Radio for the recent updates
-
Know the venue of the Interview and how to get there and time for the Interview
-
Prepare on your communication skills. Tape Record your speech.
-
Give consideration to your appearance and prepare the way you would like to
appear during the interview.
-
The accessories should complement the suit your wear.
-
Take with you all your certificates and your interview letter
-
Arrive at the interview venue 10-15 minutes before the time of the interview
INTERVIEW PREPARATIONS
DO’S AND DONTS
ENTERING THE INTERVIEW ROOM
-
Do not be nervous as you enter the room
-
See clearly where you are going
-
Don’t wear a stupid smile
IN THE INTERVIEW ROOM
-
Great the interviewers “Good Morning” and make eye contact
-
Do not sit down but after pausing for long time you can request for a sit
-
Sit in a natural composed manner. The feet firm on the ground and your hand on
each other on the laps.
COMMUNICATION IN THE INTERVIEW ROOM
-
When the interview starts pay attention and follow their lead
-
Do not interrupt the interviewer but respond on the right and give relevant
answers.
-
Do not cook a know-it-all in the interview
-
Do not be too abrupt in answering because you may appear to be rude
-
Do not boast about your capability, it is the duty of the interviewer to know how
capable you are
-
Do not be on airs: do not lose your temper
-
Be positive in your attitude and show them you are interested in their company
and the job.
-
Do not be ill with your previous employer or colleagues.
MANNERISM
-
Avoid anything that will lead to odd behavior e.g.
avoid fidgeting – body
movement
-
Do not keep on shifting on the seat
-
Avoid comments like “you know, you are, sure, oh…” e.t.c
-
Use correct language and avoid slang or sheng
-
Do not create dead silence in the interview. Employ gestures like nodding up and
down, smiling in agreement.
-
Avoid fixing a gaze to one interviewer or at objects
-
Avoid giggling
-
If the interviewer has not mentioned something about the job you ask
-
When the interview is over, thank the interviewer
-
If the job is offered to you, you accept it.
INTERVIEWERS PREPARATION BEFORE THE INTERVIEW
-
He/she should know the structure of the company and the Nature of the job.
-
He/she should send the interview letter in time before the interview
-
Maintain clearly in the letter the comments the candidate is supposed to bring
-
Set time for the interview for each questions
-
Should know the type of personality they are looking for the job
-
Should make proper sitting arrangements for the candidates in the waiting room.
There should be provision of newspapers in the room.
-
The interview itself should be conducted in a quiet room and well lit
-
If the candidate has to be interviewed by a committee panel or board, each
member of the panel should have a comp of candidates details e.g. certificates
-
The interviewer has to write Question and answer to be used during the interview
-
The interviewer must decide before hand which member of the committee is
going to start the Interview.
-
Interviewer must divide the interviewee according to their area of specialization
and give their questions and answers.
-
He has to decide the venue and time of the interview.
HOW INTERVIEWER CONDUCTS HIMSELF DURING THE INTERVIEW
DOS AND DON’T’S
-
The interviewer must make interviewee feel at ease (comfortable
-
Should allow the interviewee to talk most of the time
-
Should be brief in talking prompting the interviewer to talk
-
Avoid questions requiring yes or no and use open ended questions.
-
Pay attention to the interviewee and respond by using facial expressions, body
movement, expression of the body
-
Allow pauses in the conversation. But avoid lengthy ones.
-
Try to understand the applicant
-
Be clear in your communication. Let the applicant know your views. Respect
their feeling.
-
Accept what the interviewee say without arguing or disputing
-
Do not show surprise, flown or disapproval
-
Do not cut one short per change the subject abrupt.
The interviewers must
observe non-verbal ones in gestures, facial expression and voice change. They
communicate feelings.
The behavior the Interviewer should avoid
-
Avoid being subjective – (being biased)
-
Avoid personal biases
-
Avoid being unfriendly and putting airs.
HOW TO CONDUCT AN INTERVIEW (INTERVIEWER)
1. Welcome the candidate/interviewee/applicant with a warm smile. Hold a short
discussion on a familiar topic.
2. Content of the Interview
➢ Purpose of the interview (what are you looking for)
➢ Prepare questions and cross check the answers which they are being asked.
BASIC QUESTIONS DURING THE INTERVIEW
1. Technical Qualifications
2. Social Aspirations and Emotional balance
3. Character (trustworthiness)
4. Physical vigour and Energy
5. Spouse’s attitude towards the job
6. Financial stability
7. Willingness to travel and willingness to permanent move
TERMINATING THE INTERVIEW
-
When the interviewer gets the needed Information from the candidate, the
interview is terminated.
When you prolong it, you can spoil the impression that
has already been made by the candidate.
-
If you think the candidate is suitable, give him all the details of the company and
the job
PARTING OF THE INTERVIEWER AND INTERVIEWEE
1. The interviewer thanks the candidate for coming for the Interview and tells him
that he will be informed when the results are out.
CHALLENGES FOR AN INTERVIEW
1. The problem of getting a room in a quiet place with adequate space and seats of
the same colour
2. Being skilled
3. Time Management
4. Setting time for the interview and the questions
5. Dividing the questions to the interviewer
6. Selecting time for the Interview and the questions
7. Personal temperativeness
8. Authoritativeness
9. Preparing documents, accommodation and transport
10. Dressing
11. Appearance (grooming
12. Mannerism
13. Communication
14. Nervousness
15. Gathering information of the company
16. Asking about salaries
17. Results asking
18. Emotion control
19. Courage to face the interviewee
INTERVIEW SKILLS
These are the skills used during interviews
1. Briefing Skills- Detailed Information is given to an interviewee – interviewer gives
interviewee information about the job and the organization. i.e the structure.
2. Debriefing- someone asks for some information officially in order. Ask information
about the job, duties and tasks. E.g. salary, studies, promotions and overtime.
3. Conducting the interview – asking questions
4. Telling appropriate stories
MEETINGS
Conducting meetings and writing minutes.
A meeting refers to the gathering of two or more persons to discuss matters of common
concern in order to come to a decision or condition and find a solution to the problem
that has made them come together.
PURPOSE OF MEETINGS IN AN ORGANIZATION
1. Informing – to be informed about the decisions that have been released and their
consent.
2. Consult – a problem is put forward to the members and their knowledge and
experience is called to provide a solution
3. To Persuade – in this meeting, somebody floats an idea or proposal to the
gathering and then seeks to persuade the meeting to adopt it.
4. Meeting for Enquiring – this meeting tries to seek for Information from members.
The person convening it tries to bring out suggestions which are being enquired
about.
5. To get a report – this meeting seeks to report back to the members on a particular
activity. Members may have been commissioned to do some research on
something and later give a report. There can also be a report on progress made
by an organization or a company.
6. To obtain assistance from members about how to tackle a particular
issue/problem.
7. To create involvement and interest – to make members or participants in issues
being discussed to know their interest
8. To pre-forward ideas and grievances for discussion – in case of any grievances they
are sorted out in a meeting
9. To co-ordinate or arrange activities
HOW TO MAKE MEETINGS EFFECTIVE
1. There must be an objective – Must be made clear to those invited
2. The topic for discussion should be put in precise terms
3. The meeting should be given adequate notice and agenda should be provident to
facilitate
4. The time set should be convenient for all the guests invited
5. The Chairman should be adequately prepared with the information aided and
anticipate possible arguments
6. To participate one should have common points of view.
7. An individual must acquaint himself/herself with people to attend the meeting and
anticipate their possible attitude
8. The accommodation chosen must be suitable – there must be enough space,
freedom from noise and well lit.
TYPES OF MEETINGS
There are two types of meetings
➢ Informal meetings
➢ Formal meetings
Informal Meetings
These are called at short notice either by means of telephone or word of mouth or use of
Memo.
They are called to discuss sudden matters.
These meetings are not restricted to any
formal rules or regulations. They have no procedure or laid down rules.
EXAMPLES
-
Management Meetings – Meetings attended by managers. Discuss specific matters
and give reports
-
Departmental Meetings – Meetings called by Heads of Departments, can be
attended by members of staff and students.
-
Working Party’s meetings – A working party can set up a meeting to deal with a
specific project.
FORMAL MEETING
Are called for and are conducted under formal procedures. They are official meetings.
The rules of conducts of official meetings are laid down in Company’s Act (LAW),
Constituting standing orders.
These meetings are held after the people intended to attend are notified to attend.
The Notice for the Meeting can be accompanied by an agenda.
EXAMPLES OF FORMAL MEETINGS
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
(1) Annual General Meeting – a meeting called once a year. It’s a meeting for all the
shareholders.
(2) Ordinary General Meeting – Called when the Annual General Meeting cannot
discuss the matters pertaining the Organization. Attended by all the members
(3) Extra Ordinary General Meeting – This takes place when special issues are to be
discussed regarding the organization. In this meeting, matters which cannot wait
for the specific date of the next meeting are discussed.
(all members or
shareholders to discuss matters of importance for which consent of all or the
majority of the members is required.
(4) Committee Meetings – It is a meeting of a group of people who have been
selected to discuss matters that regard the daily affairs of an organization and they
pass resolutions to the shareholders or owners.
(5) Statutory meetings – Held as per the requirement of company law.
Every
company is required by law to hold meetings called to discuss issues like reports.
(6) Staff Meeting – Held by members of staff to discuss issues relating to their welfare
and other issues they feel like discussing.
PREPARING FOR A MEETING
1. Room – the room must be prepared in advance, well lit and must have enough
seats for the invited people.
2. As an ordinary member:✓ Read the notice as you prepare
✓ Read the Agenda and see the items that are not there
✓ Contribute at the best thing
✓ Prepare to ask relevant questions during the meeting
DOCUMENTS USED IN A MEETING
NOTICE – it’s a document sent to all those invited to attend a meeting to notify them.
-
All formal meetings require notice to be given to all the people supposed to
attend the meeting. Failure makes the meeting and its business invalid.
-
There must be a number of days’ notice of 5 days. The day of sending and the
reception is not counted.
-
Meetings that are held regularly do not require a formal notice. The date of
following meeting Is given in the current meeting
-
A notice is sent to the concerned.
-
The notice of a meeting have the following features:✓ The nature of the meeting – class meeting, committee meeting or second
committee meeting
✓ Date of meeting – day, month, year
✓ Time of the meeting
✓ Venue of the meeting
✓ Date when the notice was sent.
-
The notice also has the following:✓ Name of the organization
✓ Title of the document
✓ Signature, name and designation
NB: If the agenda is attached, the items should be arranged in the order of Discussion.
PURPOSES OF A NOTICE
1. To announce social event
2. To report on matters of interest to staff
3. To inform staff on new procedures
4. To advertise posts for Internal appointments
5. To call for a meeting
6. To remind staff of company procedures
AGENDA
-
It’s a document that outlines the contents of a meeting.
-
It is a guide prepared for a formal meeting – it contains all the items to be covered
in a meeting and in the order of which they will follow.
-
It is usually sent along with a notice.
consulted with the Chairman.
It is prepared by the secretary having
Sometimes the agenda is not circulated if the
Chairman and the Secretary do not want the members to know the items for
discussion.
-
Agenda can be circulated on the meeting, pinned on the notice board or read it to
members during a meeting.
-
The 1st 3 items in an agenda are called Ordinary Business and they will be included
in every meeting’s agenda. They include:✓ Apologies for absence
✓ Reading & Confirmation of the Minutes of the last meeting
✓ Matters arising
-
There will be a list of special business and those of special matters to be discussed
at this meeting only. The final 2 items are also known as Ordinary Business. They
include:✓ Any other Business
✓ Date of the next meeting
AN AGENDA
1. Apologies for Absence
2. Reading and Confirmation of minutes for the last meeting
3. Matters arising
4. Coverage of syllabus
5. Performance
Examples
6. Time Management
7. A.O.B
8. Date of the next meeting
IMPORTANCE OF AN AGENDA
1. Helps members to come prepared for the meeting
2. Helps the Chairman to conduct the meeting smoothly
3. Ensures that only relevant matters to the meeting are discussed
4. Ensures that every point is properly taken up for discussion
5. Facilitates the preparation for minutes as it is a guide.
CHAIRMAN’S AGENDA
-
It is prepared by the Secretary; it is prepared from the main agenda. It is an
expanded form of agenda. It has more information to the chairman to hold
discussions properly. The document contains extra notes for the Chairman to use
when introduce each of them.
-
The Chairman’s agenda follows the same format as the form of ordinary agenda
but on the right hand side is left blank.
This is where the chairman writes
important points on what has been discussed.
QUESTION
Write Notice of a certain meeting and draft an agenda.
SECRETARY (DUTIES) a) BEFORE THE MEETING
1. Prepare notice and an agenda with consultation with the Chairman and distribute
them to members
2. To prepare Chairman’s Agenda
3. Book a suitable room for the meeting
4. Obtain necessary statements or documents of members who will not attend the
meeting but they have strong views about the items to be discussed
5. Collect together the following items that are necessary or required for the
meeting.
(a) Stationery like writing pens, pencils, shorthand books.
(b) Spare copies of Agenda
(c) Minutes of the previous meetings
(d) Relevant papers and files of correspondence including letters of apology
received from members.
(e) Attendance registers/sheets
(f) Any books of reference
(g) Standing orders (rules and regulations)
(h) Collect motion if any received.
(i) Prepare direction signs, engaged signs
(j) Prepare table clothes, flowers e.t.c
(b) ON THE DAY OF THE MEETING
✓ Come early and take the items required to the meeting room
✓ Put direction signs showing the meeting rooms
✓ Ensure the room is well cleaned; sitting arrangements are in order, put decorations
and table clothes.
✓ See that each member is supplied with water
✓ Provide water glasses
✓ Check the members sign the attendance
✓ Read the minutes of the last meeting
✓ Assist the Chairman in getting ready
✓ Record the details of the decision list noting who proposed and seconded motion
as well as the results of a voting.
✓ Sort out the correspondence the way it should be.
After the meeting
1. Ensure that all documents have been returned to the office
2. Prepare draft minutes for the approval by the chairman.
3. When approved type the minutes in their final form for distribution to the
members.
4. Type any correspondence resulting from the meeting
5. File any papers used the meeting as well as the correspondence typed in No. 4
above.
6. If the chairman of the meeting is the employer of the secretary, see that the day of
the next meeting is put in the diary of the chairman as well as hi.
7. Notify the Chairman on the important points of action.
DUTIES OF THE CHAIRMAN OF MEETING
1. To see that meeting is validly constituted
2. To maintain order and confine the discussion to matters before the Agenda
3. Ensure equal opportunity of speech
4. Keep to the order of business unless the members agree to vary
5. To see that the standing orders are strictly adhered to
6. To observe punctuality
7. Define the purpose of a meeting – oral presentation
8. To begin the meeting with a positive approach “opening remarks”
9. Must be brief in communicating
10. To remain impartial (He should be neutral)
11. Control emotional build ups (use humour)
12. Control the meeting (one person to speak at a time)
13. To clarify contributions
14. To make frequent summaries
15. To point out the decision lists in the meeting is about to end.
16. Point out differences coming out of the meeting. (major or minor)
17. Point out the cause of action
18. To see that voting is carried out strictly according to the standing orders of the
meeting
19. Ensure the minutes of the last meeting are read or circulated for the members to
read before.
20. Sign minutes of the previous meeting having signed and seconded to the members
21. To adjourn (break it for some time for tempers to cool)
22. Ends the meeting prematurely if the quorum seizes to be there throughout the
meeting.
23. It is his duty to close the meeting on time
MINUTES
These are official records of business transacted in a meeting.
TYPES OF MINUTES
There are 3 types of minutes
-
Verbatim Minutes
-
Minutes of resolution
-
Minutes of Narration
1. VERBATIM MINUTES
These minutes record proceedings, word for word.
They are used in court
proceedings.
2. MINUTES OF RESOLUTION
These minutes only record main conductions that are reached at a meeting. These
minutes do not record discussion that took place.
The exact wording of any resolution passed must be noted.
3. MINUTES OF NARATION
These are concise summary of all discussions that took place. Reports received,
actions to be taken and decisions made
Importance of writing minutes in an organization
1. Records of attendance are kept
2. They are legal evidence of the proceedings of the meeting which they refer to.
3. Constitute authority for any action to be taken by virtue of decisions made at
the meeting (authorize action)
4. Provide an accurate permanent record of the proceedings
5. Kept for future reference
6. Those who were absent and had apologies can get informed on the
proceedings.
POINTS TO NOTE WHEN WRITING MINUTES
1. Minutes must have a title -The Minutes are headed with the nature of the meeting
concerned, its venue, date held, and the time it was held.
2. The names of attendants should be written starting with the chairman, secretary
treasurer, followed by members.
There will be an apology for absence according to the agenda to be used in an
organization.
3. Items should follow the order in the agenda
4. Minutes are not a report of a meeting and will not record arguments or
discussions that took place but only the decisions reached.
5. The minutes are written as soon as the meeting ends since it is the time the ideas
are fresh in the mind
6. They are written in past tense and on reported speech. E.g. it was agreed, it was
decided, the chairman pointed out, gave a report on e.t.c
7. There should be a space for signing he minutes (Signature Block) and date e.g.
Proposed by:…………………………
Seconded by:…………………………….. (Chairman)
Signed:…………………………………….
Date:……………………………………..
8. An agenda is used as a guide in writing minutes
9. Use block style and use heading to stand for each item in the agenda
10. Minutes are supposed to be numbered to ensure that all items are included from
the beginning thus providing an historical record. It also provides a smooth flow
from one set of minutes to the next. The numbering differ depending on the
organization.
MINUTES FORMAT
1. Title of the meeting
2. Names of present in the meeting
3. Absence with apology
4. Reading and confirmation of the previous minutes (proposed and seconded and
then signed)
5. Matters arising (if any)
6. Special business is given in order as in the agenda
7. AOB – anything the members feel like discussing other than in the agenda.
QUESTION
You are the secretary of welfare of Paran Enterprise Committee which held a meeting last
weekend and discussed business.
1. A trip taken to Naivasha for Members
2. End of Year Party for members
Write down the minutes
WRITING SKILLS – USING PUNCTUATION MARKS
They are used to bring clarity in our writing. Errors in punctuation marks can bring
confusion leading to failure in communication.
The following are the punctuation marks;
1) Full stop – it’s a dark mark put at the end of a sentence. It indicates the sentence
pause. It’s used to end a sentence except when you are to make an exclamation
mark.
USES
1. To indicate longest pause
2. After initials e.g. J.K.M. or abbreviations e.g. Adva.
3. It can be omitted on abbreviations contain in pronounceable words e.g. CPA
COMMA
-
It is the shortest pause used when you would rest a bit.
-
Used to separate two or more nouns e.g. please order some papers, envelopes
e.t.c.
-
To separate two clauses e.g. “I did not realize it was of poor cables quality,
otherwise, I would have not used it
-
To mark off words like therefore, unfortunately, however,
QUESTION MARK
Used after a direct question. E.g. what is your name?
It is never used after a reported question.
QUOTATION MARKS (OPENING AND CLOSING INVERTED COMMAS)
Used in direct speech. In the beginning, middle or end of a sentence. E.g. Mary said “I
know the answer but I will not tell you”
EXCLAMATION MARK
Used at the end of a sentence to express a strong feeling of what has happened e.g.
Congratulations!
COLON (:)
It is the most commonly used to introduce a list e.g. you are required to bring the
following items: Ruler, Rubber, Exercise books e.t.c.
Used to introduce an explanation e.g. the problem is this: we cannot attend the students
at this time
Used to separate to contracts e.g. we make plans, the insecure sabotage them
SEMI COLON (;)
It is longer than comma but shorter than full stop. If two sentences are closely related in
meaning and cannot be separated by a full stop. They can be separated with a semicolon.
APOSTROPHE (‘)
Used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters e.g. don’t to indicate singular or plural
possession
DASH (-)
A dash is normally used to show a sudden change in a thought so as an alternative to
brackets.
He might have succeeded – but why thick of that noun. The long and short of my story
is this – but do you time to listen.
HYPHEN( - )
Used to join two parts of a compound word
e.g. P.O – More words that are treated as one e.g Brother-in-law, Self-Centers,
Co-ordinator, two-way, up-to-date, Mother-in-law
COURTESY IN WRITING
-
Means using a polite language in writing by using words like please, excuse me,
apologize, sincerely for an omission, sorry, e.t.c
-
They show good behavior and respect.
DEVELOPMENT OF A PARAGRAPH
Definition – A group of sentences that expresses an idea. A sentence is made up of a
group of words that expresses a complete thought.
-
The sentences in a paragraph express the main idea in a paragraph. There are
many paragraphs that make up a story. The number of paragraphs depends on
the information that one is to give.
-
One paragraph is one idea and these ideas must be systematically joined. The
information in any document must be broken into paragraphs for one to follow
the larger development of an argument. Whatever one writes it should be able to
break-up the idea into paragraphs so that each idea forms a paragraph
-
In a paragraph there is a topic sentence and support sentences.
-
The topic sentence expresses the main idea in the paragraph.
The support
sentences support the main idea. They add details or make subsidiary points.
THE STRUCTURE OF A PARAGRAPH
Topic – sentence – Express the main idea of the paragraph support.
USES OF A PARAGRAPH
1. It helps the reader to follow the writers argument
2. Makes one to plan his work and write in an orderly manner
3. The ideas in a single paragraph are related and therefore, there is a smooth flow
of information. This technique of paragraphing helps the writer and reader to
communicate effectively and precisely.
4. It can act as formal introduction of ideas expressed in the main story
5. It can also give a formal conclusion to a set of ideas in the story.
6. It’s a means of transition from one idea to another.
BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE (FUNCTIONAL WRITING)
MEMORANDUM
Memo – it is an internal note for passing information with an organization.
TYPES/REASONS FOR WRITING A MEMO (INSTANCES)
1. To provide information of any kind
2. Seek/give information
3. To warn on lateness, duty failure
4. To remind someone on action required
5. To confirm decisions already arrived at
6. To inform on any decision or action taken
7. To issue instructions
8. To call for a meeting
Many organizations use pre-printed forms to send memos and that do not have to use a
set format.
All business letters MUST be written in fully blocked letters. Open punctuation marks
except in the body of the documents.
FORMAT OF WRITING A MEMO
1. Start with the name of the organization
2. Write ‘INTERNAL MEMO’
3. Use the words from and to e.g.
FROM: ………………………
TO:
………………………
4. Write date (Day, Month and Year)
5. Reference REF (No colon) Ref SF/12/2013
6. Title of the Memo – Subject, Topic, Heading
7. Body of the Memo
✓ Must be written in paragraphs
✓ They may be numbered, used of correct English, correct tone or show
courtesy.
8. Conclusion – The memo should be signed by the writer, he writes his initials,
designation and title. i.e.
✓ Sign
✓ Name
✓ Designation
✓ Title
STRUCTURE OF A MEMO
Title – What memo is about
Body – paragraphs
1. Opening Paragraph or introduction
It introduces the purpose of Memo, talk briefly on the topic of the Memo, if it’s a
reply to a letter make some reference to the letter e.g. in referring to a letter
dated October 30 2013, give the reason of writing e.g. I am writing to warn.
Refer to the previous communication. If any, it is important to note who is
writing the memo
2. Details (Content Message)
Give the information to the facts in logical order. Separate paragraphs where
necessary.
All the key points should be included in an orderly manner with each paragraph
with separate idea of the main topic.
3. Action or response paragraph – give an action statement. It reads what action
you want him/her take as a result of your message. You also tell the reader what
action you will take after communication.
-
You can also give a deadline, e.g. if it is don mention the action taken.
It’s an official function so you should all attend
4. Close – Give a relevant one line close e.g. for more information you can call me
on 07………………. OR Visit us on…………………………….
Your reply will be appreciated
See you there
Sign the memo, give the initials and designations.
QUESTION
The organization you work for plans to hold an end of year party.
As the
Administration officer, write a memorandum to all staff members to inform them of the
occasion.
LETTERS
BUSINESS LETTER
-
Communication which is used in buying and selling of goods and services
-
Business Letters are still ways of establishing business relations with other
organizations.
-
They represent a firm and as such the first right impression is necessary.
The
impression may be conveyed through the following ways and through the use of
letter heads (adds the prestige to their company.
The details of letter heads
✓ Company name
✓ Address of the company
✓ Telephone/fax/email e.t.c
✓ A logo
STRUCTURE
Parts of a letter
Language use – Use Polite Language
Presentation of the business letter – Must be fully blocked with open punctuation marks
PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER
There are two types of addresses
(a) Writer Address
(b) Recipient Address.
BODY
-
Must be well written and use blocked method. The lines must start at the margin
OPENING PARAGRAPH
-
You catch the attention of the reader.
Opens with gratitude of the writer
expressing happiness, referring to an action already taken. Talk about previous
communication. i.e. I am referring to your letter dated…..
Thank you very much.
-
Main Paragraph (Details)
You write the answer, give relevant information in relation with subject matter.
Use correct English
Be brief
Courteous Language
ACTION PARAGRAPH
Say what the receiver is expected to do after communication and what you will do after
the communication e.g. co-operation or failure to co-operate there is a punishment.
CLOSING PARAGRAPH
Give one relevant line close e.g. I hope to hear from you soon.
COMPLIMENTARY CLAUSE
The polite way of writing a letter i.e yours faithfully, at the margin sing and give your
name.
ENCLOSURES
Letters sometimes enclose other documents which are related to the subject matter of the
correspondence. This is indicated by the se of ENC, ENCL, or ENCLS- Reports, Price list,
catalogue, memo.
A mention of the enclosure must be in the letter so that inside or an outward clerk can
check if they are there.
COURTESY COPY (CC)
Letters sent out of the organization need to be copied to the people concerned e.g.
Senior Officials. This is done by sending a copy of the original to the officer concerned
and the receiver is sent to the original.
If a letter is copied to other people, the receiver is notified by its CC.
The CC
•
The Principal
•
The Chief
BLIND COURTESY COPY (BCC)
Written on copies only.
Of the writer does not want the receiver to know that the
other people are aware of the content.
EXAMPLES OF BUSINESS LETTERS
1. ENQUIRY/INQUIRY
Letter written to request various types of information e.g. pricing, mode of
delivery, mode of payment, dispatch.
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LETTER
Written to acknowledge reception of a letter, order or other items and even
enquires.
3. COMPLAINT LETTER
Written to criticize poor services or goods.
4. ADJUSTMENT LETTERS
Letters written to adjust or respond to a complaint.
5. COLLECTION LETTERS
To collect debts
6. SALES LETTERS
Deals with selling of goods and services in a company.
companies goods and services. They persuade the customer.
FEATURES
1. To Arouse sales Interest
2. Must be convincing
3. To create a desire
4. Encourage the reader to take action (buying)
5. Use singular rather than plural in salutation
They aim to sell
CIRCULAR LETTER
-
It is written to many people at the same time and with similar information. It is
brief but informative.
-
There is not inside address –
-
The letter is written and duplicates sent to the people concerned. The address is
left blank, fill as appropriate.
-
Make it personal by use of “you”
FEATURES OF A CIRCULAR LETTER
1. It is informative to personnel
2. It has only one type of address (No received address)
3. Has address for many
4. It is not addressed to an individual
REASONS FOR SENDING A CIRCULAR
1. To introduce new products or services
2. To announce opening of a new office, branch, hotel, show or expansion of a
store
3. When advertising special offers/advertisement
4. Inform staff on new policy matters
5. In case of change of the constitution of a firm
6. Announcing the restructuring in the organization.
7. In case of a move to a new premises
8. Retirement or death of a partner
9. In case of price reduction or clearance sales
10. Admission of a partner
CHALLENGES OF MEETINGS/ADVANTAGES
-
Helps in decision making
-
Helps in Policy Making
-
Problems are solved properly
-
Promotes co-ordinates in an organization
-
Enhance teamwork
-
Bring representative activity i.e. different members of an organization come
together.
-
Ensures efficiency i.e. Discuss on wow to work better
-
Ensure proper running
-
Give immediate feedback
-
There is sharing of ideas
-
Assistance can be sought for members
DISADVANTAGES
-
Time consuming in decision making
-
Very expensive- cooking, refreshments e.t.c
-
It can be waste of time if no decision was reached
-
Can cause inconvenience when you have to leave your work to attend
-
Conflict of ideas may lead to bitterness
-
No evidence of meeting in case will not be taken
CHALLENGES IN MINUTES WRITING
1. Language use
2. Numbering used in minutes
3. Recording of the minutes
4. Writing the title of the minutes
5. Minuting (each minutes to stand on its own time)
CHALLENGES IN CONDUCTING MINUTES
1. Favourism and question
2. Keeping order during meeting
3. Controlling speech and tempers
4. Giving frequent summaries
5. Keeping the time
NOTICES
It is a written method of communication to talk about past or future events.
-
Used to communicate to many people are well placed where they can be seen
and read
-
Can be used to remind people about important rule or practices. They provide a
fact and attractive simple means of communication.
FEATURES
1. Title
2. Address of written
3. Signed by the written
4. Date
PURPOSE OF THE NOTICE
-
To announce social events
-
To report
-
Inform staff on new procedures
-
Advertise posts for internal
-
Remind staff on company procedures
WRITING A NOTICE
✓ before you design a Notice, think about the message of the notice
✓ Design in such a way that people would like to stop and read- use words that
attract people’s attention.
✓ Do not use offensive language
✓ Keep notice and use the correct vocabulary. Use clear title
✓ Do not use “NOTICE, NOTICE, NOTICE” use 4-5 words e.g Notice on Safety
Measures”
✓ The heading must catch the attention of the lookers, use enough space and steps
and underline key points.
QUESTION
Your organization is planning to move to new premises in two weeks’ time. Write a
notice. Write a notice.
ESSAY WRITING
Types of Essays
1) Advertisements
2) Email
3) Fax Messages
4) Press Release
5) Telex Messages
ESSAYS
Essay writing involves writing a composition. You put ideas down to form a whole
thing. The ideas are put together in an orderly manner.
-
It consists of more than on paragraph. That is introduction paragraph, main body
to a conclusion paragraph.
POINTS
-
Choose a topic you can handle adequately and know how much you are
expected to write
-
Write down ideas as they come in your mind
-
Prepare outline using those points thinking about the one you start with to the
one to end with in logical order.
-
Use simple language.
VARIOUS TYPES OF ESSAYS
1. Expository/Explanation Essay
Writing explains things. It explains more on an idea or a topic.
The relationship between one part with another of something (topic). Used in
giving directions/instructions.
2. Argumentative Essay/Discursive
An essay where different kinds of views and opinions are considered and
conclusions arrived at.
Through opinions, it displays the writers mastering of the subject. In this kind of
essay you are engaged both in a proposed debate and where you are opposed.
3. Descriptive Essays
It helps one to make use of his senses. It appeals to one basic senses.
4. Narrative Essays
The skill of telling a story is called a narration.
The product of narrator is
Narrative. Events are represented in a sequential order
An organization of events is called a story.
ADVERTISEMENTS
Directly concerned with buying and selling goods and services of a company.
There are two types of advertisements:1) Goods and services
2) Press advertisement
GOODS & SERVICES
-
Advertisements are designed to persuade a customer into the belief that the
products or services being advertised will give him greater satisfaction than the
money in his pocket or any other available item to him or eve a similar item of
different brand.
THREE FUNCTIONS OF A SUCCESSFUL ADVERTISEMENT
1. Inform public/customer what goods and services a company can provide, how it
used its benefits
2. Persuade potential customers that they need the particular product/service being
advertised and it is in particular the products of the advertises that best fulfill their
need.
To seek to maintain customer loyalty.
It does this by convincing he
customer that he has made the right choice in the first place.
Talk about quality, colour, price and use slogans
FEATURES OF ADVERTISEMENT
1. Title
2. Use illustrations like pictures, Diagrams, charts etc
3. Narration – Description appeal and explanation
4. Brand trademark
5. Name and address of the manufacturer. (new if in market)
NB:- Advertisement must be brief.
These must be repetition and variation in
advertisement.
A slogan or trademark is made a permanent feature of an advertisement. e.g. National
Bank is the Bank you can bank.
QUESTION
Advertise a product that has just come out of the market. (20 Marks).
PRESS ADVERTISEMENT/CLASSIFIED ADVERTISEMENTS
These Advertisements bring two parties together.
CHARACTERISTICS
1.
Must be brief and concise to reduce cost
2. Completeness – Advertisement must be complete. Give them message in full.
3. There must be clarity e.g. type of job, qualifications and experience.
BILLBOARDS (HOARDINGS)
-
Requires the advertiser to write or paint advertising message on the brand.
-
The message is designed as very attractive.
ADVANTAGES
1. Positioned at strategic position where they can be read by many people
2. The advertising message is not
3. Can convey message for a long period of time
4. Conspicuous hence attractive to many.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Prone to vandalism
2. Expensive to make
3. Not effective when the customer needs to examine the goods.
4. They may obscure the Motorist visibility hence can cause accidents.
PUBLIC RELATIONS
It is used to describe people in general. It may mean something for people in general. It
can also refer to general public.
Public refers to a group of people internally or externally with whom an organization
communicates.
Examples of publics
1. Community Publics – People living within an organization.
2. Potential employees – These are people from other organizations. They can be
recruited from schools, universities and colleges
3. Employees – People working in an organization. They can be of different types.
Executive Officer, Lab, Management e.t.c
4. Suppliers – People who supply materials. They can be two types:✓ Those that supply in banks, hospitals, schools e.t.c
✓ Those who supply raw materials
5. Financial Publics – These Publics give finances in an organization or institution.
They range from Local Banks to stock exchange.
6. Distributers -
People who handle commodities or goods in bulk between
producers and consumers. They include wholesalers, Retailers, salesmen e.t.c
7. Consumers and Users – These are past, present and future consumers or people
who utilize goods and services produced.
8. Opinion Leaders – comprise of all those who express opinions which can either
harm or help an organization. They can be of very many types ranging from
Newspaper columnist.
9. Investors – these may be in form of shareholder’s who have invested in a
particular company in for of buying shares in a particular company.
10. Customers – is a buyer of goods and services. They are of different types and they
may buy with different motives. Customers have different means and moods and
should be treated in such a way that they need match with their moods.
TYPES OF CUSTOMERS
Those are various types of customers. May be classified on the basis of behavior, Age,
Sex, area and buying motives.
1. Behaviour
➢ Talkative type- talk endlessly
➢ Friendly type – Friendly Attitude towards the salesman
➢ Argumentative type – Argue when prices are fixed
➢ Silent type – Always calm and inactive
➢ Shy type – customers are generally nervous – avoid unnecessary
talk
➢ Hesitant type – Have undecided mind
➢ Suspicious type- Disbelieving type – don’t believe on the business
man or genuinity of products
➢ Impatient type – The like being attended to immediately and get
irritated and can create a scene.
➢ Rude type – The ill-mannered and rude. They use a rude tone
➢ Sarcastic type – make silly meaningless and insulting statement.
They find pleasure in insulting salesmen. Always talk in vice-versa
PUBLIC RELATIONS
Public relations means all the communications with all the people with whom an
organization has contact. It is the relationship between the organization and its publics.
-
The relationship exists between the firm and outside world. Its department is
headed by a Public Relations Officer.
ROLES OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN AN ORGANISATION
1. To promote rapport and good way by executing 2-way communication
programme.
2. It executes programs of communication that helps the organization and publics to
adapt to each other.
3. Through public relations there is good relationship between organization’s
4. The public relations, the publics are made aware of the effectiveness of product
prices with others
5. Good Public relations ensures good relationship between management and
internal publics.
6. Through Public relations the company is known and is able to last for long.
7. Through Public Relations, people get education.
Company employs bright
students.
ROLE OF CUSTOMER CARE IN AN ORGANISATION
Customer care – is taking care of their customer.
1. To answer enquiries from customers and direct them to their destinations
2. Give organizational information – Goods and services
3. Takes care of customer’s complaints
4. Gives direction to a customer e.g. answering a phone.
5. Receiving telephone calls
6. Give brochures if any a leaflet on courses/ products offered.
7. To create a favourable atmosphere about the organization.
ROLE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS OFFICER
1. He heads the Public Relations Department
2. Protects the company’s good name
3. Explains the organization’s policies and actions
4. He establishes and maintains the good image of an organization
5. To monitor outside opinion and convey it to the management
6. To advice the management or communication problems and give solutions and
technique to use.
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Means effective communication from seniors to juniors so that there is no
communication breakdown. People are told on what to do and at a good time
For effective Quality Management, there must be effective Quality, Communication,
good relationship with customers. Interaction with employees to promote good team
work.
INTERPERSONAL AND HUMAN RELATIONS SKILLS
Means the Relationship between people in an organization. The skills needed include:✓ Use of courtesy
✓ Observe office etiquette
✓ Promotions and career advancement
✓ Open door policy – employee can walk in the office and be listened to.
✓ Upward good communication.
✓ Free interaction at all levels.
CHALLENGES FACED IN PR AND CUSTOMER CARE
1. Not able to meet all the needs of the customers – lack of adequate information on
products.
2. Dealing with customers and clients
3. Problem when dealing with employees (prospective)
4. Language barrier – business terminologies like invoice, voucher
5. Lack of commitment in some customers
6. Trying to restore the good image of an organization.
7. It is difficult to deal with customer’s grievances
SUMMARY WRITING
It is writing in short form without changing the original meaning.
IMPORTANCE OF SUMMARY WRITING
-
Use of a little time in reading and understanding
-
It can get information very fast
STEPS IN WRITING A GOOD SUMMARY
1. Read and understand the instructions
2. Read and understand the passage
3. Read and understand the question
4. Select the information you feel answers in a rough draft,
5. Compare it with questions.
PRESS RELEASE/NEWS RELEASE
News – information not known by the recipient before.
News release – announcement sent to the press or other media about anything
considered newsworthy
Press Release – a company sending a matter for publication to a newspaper to be
published.
The press release do not bring money to the company.
Issuing it or
newspapers accepting it. It only creates publicity.
-
A press release can also refer to an announcement made to press and other media
about developments affecting a company’s new product, a service, bad publicity
etc
-
It can be a paragraph or an article put in a Newspaper or any other magazine
giving certain type of information to the public.
-
It is meant to establish an image to the organization.
REASON FOR SENDING A NEWSPAPER RELEASE
1. Relocation of offices
2. Introduction of the New Product
3. Purchase of New buildings
4. Move to New Premises.
5. Change in the personnel
FOR A PRESS RELEASE
1. Must have a title
2. Must have a opening paragraph. Opening paragraph should catch the attention
of the editor
3. The middle paragraph should have short paragraphs that are self-contained. In
case of any need the editor can short cut the edition.
4. Close
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING NEWS RELEASE TO BE TURNED INTO PRESS RELEASE
1. Use past tense
2. Write like a newspaper editor
3. Use third person
4. Don’t make it
5. Write in an interesting manner with short sentences with appropriate wording
6. Try to appeal to human interest
7. Use the style suitable to appear in the Newspaper.
8. The press should answer these questions:✓ What is happening?
✓ Who are involved?
✓ Where is it happening?
✓ Why is it newsworthy?
LAYOUT OF A PRESS RELEASE
-
Name of the organization
-
Date
-
Address
-
Logo
-
Title (poor customer service)
1ST PARAGRAPH
Our attention has been drawn to an article which appeared in the Daily Newspaper of
October 20, 2013 on the front page entitled “POOR CUSTOMER SERVICE”. This article
says that Equity Bank has been offering their services poorly
2ND PARAGRAPH (Justify the Report)
The information contained in the Article is in accurate and it is misleading. This report is
meant to spoil our good name of our organization. Our organization has been excellent
in customer care and we have been offering good services. I would like to reassure
members of the Public that Equity Bank has the Interest of Customers at Heart.
CONCLUSION
Equity Bank wishes to thank our esteemed customers their continued service
Sign………………
Title – (Public Relations Officer)
Equity Bank
EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS IN COMMUNICATION
Email – Electronically Mail Sending through computers. The user has to acquire an email
address to send a message
-
The sender types the message in the screen and then clicks send and the message is
sent electronically.
ADVANTAGES
-
Message can be sent at any time of the day
-
Message kept for further reference
-
Requires minimal trading
-
Provides evidence
-
Reduce filing
-
Message confidential and secure
-
Easy to copy message to many people at no extra cost.
DISADVANTAGES
➢ Message leads to low productivity if it is touching the part of the employee
➢ Not as private as an ordinally letter
➢ Can take days across the internet causing delays
➢ An email server can crash either locally or on the internet without the receiver
knowing.\a slight error in the address can cause delays.
SIMILARITIES
-
Both means communication
-
Can be used in official uses
-
Can bring a good image of an organization
-
Can be used for business purposes
FAX (FACSIMILE)
A latin word meaning make similar or make a copy.
-
Involves the Installation of fax machine at both the sender and reciver at business
premise connected to the telephone network.
-
To transmit the message, the sender inserts the document containing the message
through the sending machine and it is electronically scanned and signals
transmitted through the receiving machine.
-
An identical copy of the document is produced in a receiver machine.
ADVANTAGES
A fax machine has made it possible to send copies of documents like contracts,
certificates, and testimonials.
1. Very fast means of sending message.
2. Copies of messages can be sent therefore saving the time and move as typing the
message.
3. Easy to send copies of documents eg. Maps
4. Cheap to send message
DISADVANTAGES
1. It is tiring
2. Needs a specialist
3. Not easy to get the message since it is in photocopy
4. Expensive to install the machine.
TELEPRINTER
-
This is a machine like a typewriter for messages.
TELEX
The name given by professional people to a teleprinter whereby written messages can be
communicated from one place to another with the help of the machine.
It has two parts.
(1) Keyboard transmitter
(2) Receiver form transmitting coded signal and printing the message.
WRITING A TELEX MESSAGE
1. When a message is to be sent, the typist presses the button, waits for dial tone and
dials the desired number, if the number is connected. He/she types the message
and an identical typed copy is produced simultaneously at the receiving end.
-
The message is retyped by the receiving machine automatically.
-
The message as typed in the originating office is retyped on a small piece of paper
at the receiver’s office. The typed paper is called Telex Message.
ADVANTAGES
1. Fast means of communication
2. Telex service combines the message
3. You can get your message when absent
4. It can be used to send messages inland and oversees
5. They can transmit during the day or during the night
DISADVANTAGES
1. The diagrams, drawings, pictures cannot be transmitted
2. Expensive to transmit
3. Needs an expert to operate
4. Document may not be clear
5. Can only be used in urban areas