Advanced
Grammar
A self-study reference and
for
advanced
practice
book
learners of English
Third Edition
with answers
and CD-ROM
Martin Hewings
Advanced
Grammar
in
A
self-study reference
for
advanced
Use
and
practice
book
learners of English
Third Edition
with answers
and CD-ROM
Martin Hewings
Cambridge
UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid,
Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City
Cape Town,
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh
Building,
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UK
www. cam b ri dge o rg
.
Information on this
Third edition
title:
www.cambridge.org/978l 107699892
© Cambridge
University Press, 1999,2013
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published
1999
Second edition 2005
Third edition
Printed
in Italy
A catalogue
published 2013
first
by L.E.G.O. S.p.A.
record for this publication
is
available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-107-69989-2 Paperback with answers and
and Mac
OSX
CD-ROM
for Windows XP, Vista or 7
10.6, 10.7
ISBN 978-1-107-69738-6 Paperback with answers
ISBN 978- - 07-6 378-2 Paperback without answers
1
1
1
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first printing
Thanks
vii
To the student
viii
To the teacher
ix
Tenses
1
Present continuous and present simple
2
Present continuous and present simple 2
1
3 Past simple and present perfect
4 Past continuous and past simple
5 Past perfect and past simple
6 Present perfect continuous and present perfect
7 Past perfect continuous, past perfect and past continuous
8
Present and past time: review
The future
9
Will and be going to
10
Present simple and present continuous for the future
11
Future continuous and future perfect (continuous)
be about to +
12
Be to +
13
Other ways of talking about the future
14
The future seen from the past
infinitive;
infinitive
Modals and semi-modals
15
Can, could, be able to and be allowed to
16
Will,
17
May and might
18
Must and have (got) to
Need(n t), don't need to and don't have to
19
would and used to
l
20 Should, ought to and had better
Linking verbs, passives, questions
seem; become, get,
21
Linking verbs: be, appear,
22
Forming passive sentences
1
23
Forming passive sentences
2:
24
Using passives
25
Reporting with passives;
It is
etc.
verb + -ing or to-infinitive
said that
...
26 Wh-questions with who, whom, which, how and whose
27
Negative questions; echo questions; questions with that-clauses
Verb complementation: what follows verbs
28 Verbs, objects and complements
29 Verb + two objects
30 Verb + -ing forms and infinitives 1
31 Verb + -ing forms and infinitives 2
^lf you are not sure which units you need to study, use the Study planner on page 21 oj
Reporting
32
Reporting people's words and thoughts
33
Reporting statements: that-clauses
34 Verb + wh-clause
35 Tense choice
in
reporting
36 Reporting offers, suggestions, orders, intentions, etc.
37 Modal verbs in reporting
38 Reporting what people say using nouns and adjectives
39 Should in that-clauses; the present subjunctive
Nouns
40 Agreement
41 Agreement
42 Agreement
43 Compound
between subject and verb 1
between subject and verb 2
between subject and verb 3
nouns and noun phrases
Articles,
determiners and quantifiers
44 A
an and one
45
A/
46 A
47
/
an, the and zero article
/ an,
A/
an, the and zero article 3
48 Some and any
49 No, none (of) and not any
50 Much (of), many (of), a lot
51
All (of), whole, every,
52
Few,
little, less,
Relative clauses
53
of, lots (of), etc.
each
fewer
and other types of clause
Relative pronouns
54 Other
55
1
the and zero article 2
relative words:
Prepositions
whose, when, whereby,
in relative
etc.
clauses
56 Other ways of adding information to noun phrases
Other ways of adding information to noun phrases
58 Participle clauses with adverbial meaning 1
59 Participle clauses with adverbial meaning 2
57
noun phrases,
1:
additional
2:
prepositional phrases, etc.
Pronouns, substitution and leaving out words
60
Reflexive pronouns: herself, himself, themselves, etc.
61
One and ones
So and not as substitutes for clauses, etc.
Do so; such
64 More on leaving out words after auxiliary verbs
65 Leaving out to-infinitives
62
63
\
IV
If
you are not sure which
units
you need to study, use the Study planner on page 210
J
etc.
Adjectives
66
and adverbs
Position of adjectives
67 Gradable and non-gradable adjectives
1
68 Gradable and non-gradable adjectives 2
69 Participle adjectives and compound adjectives
70 Adjectives + to-infinitive, -ing, that-clause, wh-clause
71
Adjectives and adverbs
72
Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative forms
73
Comparative phrases and clauses
74
Position of adverbs
75
Position of adverbs 2
76
Adverbs of place, direction, indefinite frequency, and time
1
77
Degree adverbs and focus adverbs
78
Comment
adverbs and viewpoint adverbs
Adverbial clauses and conjunctions
79
Adverbial clauses of time
80 Giving
reasons: as, because, etc.; for and with
order
81
Purposes and
82
Contrasts: although and though;
results: in
to,
so as to,
etc.
even though
/
if;
while, whilst and
whereas
83 If 1
84 If 2
imagine he were to win
85 If were you
86 If ... not and unless; if and whether; etc.
87 Connecting ideas in a sentence and between sentences
I
Prepositions
88 Prepositions of position and movement
89 Between and among
90 Prepositions of time
91
Talking about exceptions
92
Prepositions after verbs
93 Prepositions after nouns
94 Two- and three-word verbs: word order
Organising information
95 There
96 It 1
97
98
99
100
If
o.
It
is,
there was,
etc.
2
Focusing: it-clauses and what-clauses
Inversion
1
Inversion 2
you are not sure which
units
you need to study, use the Study planner on page 210.
V
Appendix
1
Appendix 2
Glossary
Irregular verbs
204
205
Study planner
210
Grammar reminder
222
Additional exercises
240
Key to Exercises
251
Key to Study planner
277
Key to Additional exercises
Index of grammatical items
Index of lexical items
If
202
Passive verb forms
you are not sure which
278
281
287
units
you need to study, use the Study planner on page 210.
;,
/;V
,
Thanks
I
would
Use,
in
like
to thank
all
colleagues and students
their help
and
who worked
those
particular Jeanne
with
me on the first two
McCarten and Alison Sharpe
in
for their
editions of
Advanced Grammar in
encouragement. Thanks also to
my former
the English for International Students Unit at the University of Birmingham for
interest.
For this third edition
Kevin Doherty,
I
am grateful to Colin
Andy George,
tremendous support
in
Claire Cole
McIntosh, Nora McDonald, Annabel Marriott, Sabina Sahni,
and Janet Weller.
Thanks to Sophie Joyce, Sandy Nichols, Katie Mac,
and to Kamae Design for
Press for allowing
me
Claire
and Janet
preparing the book and the accompanying
Ian Mitchell
and David
work on the finished product. would also
access to the Cambridge International Corpus.
their
in
particular have given
me
CDROM.
I
Whamond
like
for the illustrations
to thank Cambridge University
Many students and teachers sent me comments on the 2nd edition, and these have been
new edition. Thank you all for taking the trouble to contact me.
very helpful
in
writing this
Finally,
my thanks,
as ever, to Suzanne, David and Ann.
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of photographs and are grateful
for the
permissions granted.
p. 6:
WithGod/Shutterstock;
Glowimages;
p.
p. 11:
39: Thinkstock;
p.
Comstock Images/Thinkstock;
109: Thinkstock;
p.
p.
17:Thinkstock;
114: Bildagentur
p.
33:
Image Source/
RM/Glowimages.
vii
v
To the student
Who the book is for
Advanced Grammar in Use
is
for
book, but might also be used
How the
book
is
advanced students of
English.
It
was written mainly
organised
There are 100 units
in
the book, each looking at a particular area of grammar.
each unit focus on the particular use of a grammatical pattern, such as
travelling)] others explore
past events, or
as a self-study
with a teacher.
in class
when we
will
Some
be + - ing
sections within
(as in will
grammatical contrasts, such as whether to use would or used to
use except or except for. The 100 units are grouped under a
headings such as Tenses and The future, and you can find details of this
in
in
be
reporting
number of
the Contents. Each unit
pages.
On
the left-hand page are explanations and examples; on the right-hand page
are practice exercises.
The
letters next to
consists of
two
each exercise show you which section(s) of the left-hand
page you need to understand to do that exercise.
At the back of the book you
will find a
Appendices (pages 202 and 204)
verbs and passive verb forms.
number of further sections.
Two appendices
Glossary (page 205) Although terms to describe
provide further information about irregular
grammar have been
have been included, and you can find explanations of these terms
in
kept to a
minimum, some
the Glossary.
Study planner (page 210) You can use the Study planner to help you decide which units you should
study, or which parts of the Grammar reminder you should read first.
Grammar reminder (page 222) This presents examples and explanations of areas of grammar that
you are likely to have studied already at earlier stages of learning English. References on the lefthand page of each unit point you to the sections of the Grammar reminder relevant to that unit.
Read these sections to refresh your understanding before you start work on the more advanced
grammar
points
in
the
unit.
If you want further practice of grammar points, follow the
bottom of the right-hand page of a unit. These will tell you which of the
Additional exercises to do next.
Keys (pages 251, 277 and 278) You can check your answers to the practice exercises, Study planner
and Additional exercises in the keys. You will also find comments on some of the answers.
Indexes (pages 281 and 287) Use the Indexes to help you find the grammar or vocabulary you need.
Additional exercises (page 240)
references at the
How to
It is
use the book
not necessary to work through the units
difficulty with,
go
in order.
straight to the units that deal with
find the relevant unit.
When you
Grammar reminder before you
You can use the units
in
a
If
you know which grammar points you have
them, using the Contents or Indexes to help you
have found a unit to study, read through any related material
the
in
begin.
number of ways. You might study the explanations and examples
the exercises on the opposite page, check your answers
in
first,
do
the Key to Exercises, and then look again at
the explanations if you made any mistakes. If you just want to practise an area of grammar you think
you already know, you could do the exercises first and then study the explanations for any you got
wrong. You might of course simply use the book as a reference book without doing the exercises.
Corpus information
A corpus is a large collection of texts
we have worked with the Cambridge
real
made by
From these corpora we can
learn
learners. Using this information,
the book reflect real language, and
CIC to produce word boxes,
viii
In
writing
Advanced Grammar in Use
word collection of
International Corpus (CIC), a multi-million
speech and writing, and the Cambridge Learner Corpus, a collection of exam answers written by
students.
in
stored on a computer.
listing
we
more about language
we
can be sure that the
in use,
and about the
can focus on problem areas for learners.
the most
common
errors
grammar explanations and examples
common words found
in
particular
We
have also used the
grammar
patterns.
To the teacher
Advanced Grammar in Use was written as
it
a self-study
grammar book but teachers might
useful for supplementing or supporting their classroom teaching.
The book
will
also find
probably be most
useful for advanced level students for reference and practice.
No attempt
made to
has been
order the units according to level of
difficulty. Instead,
you should
you are following with your students, or as
particular difficulties arise, rather than working through from beginning to end. Alternatively, you
could ask students to do the multiple-choice test in the Study planner (page 210) and focus on units
select units as they are relevant to the syllabus that
that deal with areas of
grammar where students
are least successful.
Grammar reminder (page 222). This is a reference-only section
knowledge on a number of areas of grammar. It will be useful for students to
Don't forget to point students to the
which presents basic
read through a section before moving on to the
of each section of the
There are
many ways
Grammar reminder you
in
more advanced material
will find
in
the units. At the beginning
information about the unit(s)
which you can use the book with
a class.
You might,
it
relates to.
for example, present
the explanations on the left-hand page of a unit, and use the exercises for classroom practice.
you might want to begin with the exercises and refer to the left-hand page only when
students are having problems. You could also set particular units or groups of units (such as those on
Articles or Nouns) for self-study if individual students are having difficulties. Another possibility might
be to develop your own classroom-based activities around the explanations on the left-hand page of
Alternatively,
a unit,
and then set the exercises as consolidation material
practice of
(page 240).
for self-study.
When
students need further
number of different units, refer them to the Additional exercises
References at the bottom of the right-hand pages show where the relevant Additional
grammar
points from a
exercises can be found.
An
edition of
Advanced Grammar in Use without the answers
might prefer to use
The
is
also available, and
some teachers
with their students.
Advanced Grammar in Use has the same comprehensive grammar coverage as
but many of its exercises have been revised and its layout made more user-friendly.
third edition of
previous editions,
it
Advanced
Grammar
in
Use
MirnuAKJ
State verbs
We can
use the present continuous with
emphasise that a situation
O
Ella
is
stays with us quite often.
Ella's
some
temporary or
state verbs (e.g. attract, like, look, love,
for a period of
sound) to
time around the present. Compare:
The children love having her
and
here,
with us at the moment. The children are loving having her here.
State verbs which
Some verbs have
we
rarely use with the present continuous include believe, consist of,
different
actions.
With
'action'
meanings, they
meanings when they are used to
talk
doubt, own.
about states and when they describe
their ‘state' meanings, they usually take simple rather than continuous forms.
may take
With
their
simple or continuous forms, depending on context. Compare:
The app doesn't appear to work on my phone, (appear: state = seem) and
Carley Robb is currently appearing in a musical
O
on Broadway.
/
(appear: action
= take
Also cost, expect, feel,
:
She often appears
in
musicals.
fit,
have,
imagine, measure, think, weigh
part)
Mental state verbs
With some verbs describing mental states
(e.g. find, realise,
the present continuous to emphasise that
we have
we
are not sure about something.
I
regret that the
it)
regret, think,
understand)
we
can use
recently started to think about something or that
Compare:
company will have
to be sold. (=
I've
made the
decision and I'm sorry about
and
I'm regretting
my decision to give
her the job. (= I'm increasingly aware that
it
was the wrong
decision)
When
means
it
‘think carefully about',
consider
is
only used with the present continuous:
He's considering taking early retirement. ( not
Some
He
considers taking early retirement.)
other verbs describing preferences and mental states
(e.g.
agree, believe, conclude, know,
prefer) are rarely used with the present continuous:
I
believe you now. ( not I'm believing you now.)
Performatives
We use the
Q
present simple with verbs which perform the action they describe (= performatives):
suggest you park outside the city and
Also acknowledge, admit, advise, apologise,
get the bus to
I
the centre.
We
request that you read the terms
and conditions carefully before signing.
:
beg, confess, congratulate, declare, deny,
forbid, guarantee,
name, order, permit,
predict,
promise, refuse, remind, request, thank, warn
Some verbs
used as performatives with the present simple
in
affirmative (= positive) sentences
(apologise, deny, guarantee, promise, suggest) have a similar meaning with either the present
simple or the present continuous in negative sentences:
I
don't deny
/
I'm not
denying taking the books, but Miguel
said
it
would be okay.
Modals are often used with performatives to make what we say more tentative or
We would advise you to arrive two hours before the flight leaves.
must beg you to keep this a secret.
O
O
I
polite:
Exercises
Complete each pair of sentences using the same verb (in a question form or negative if
necessary) from the box. Use the present continuous; if this is not possible, use the present
si mple Use
to add any words outside the gap and use contracted forms where appropriate.
.
attract
have
doubt
measure
consist of
Took
like
feel
fit
sound
does
5
1
a
How X
hear you're having your house repainted.
I
U>pklng
it
? (or
HowXit
took
?)
does
b
2
3
bought
I
What
new dress today. How X
this
you doing with that
Look
it
?
a
a:
b
The garden
a
whether I'll get another chance to retake the exam.
suppose she might be at home tonight, but
it.
The new science museum currently
10,000 visitors a month.
are
ruler?
b:
the area of the kitchen,
I
12 by 20 metres.
I
b
I
I
Flowers
bees with their brightly-coloured petals.
Carlos won't work at the top of the 20-storey building because he
How's the new job?
a:
My car's
in
bought
I
moment,
Well, at the
jumper
Anna, but
for
new
made from?
shirt
only plastic sheets nailed
Their school uniform
b
10 a
b
it
back.
very well.
I
The roof of the house
Simon's
have to take
I'll
like silk.
It
won't be coming to work today.
all.
brakes.
her so
it
heights.
at
it
........
I
the garage today. They
this
What's your
I
b:
down
in a
few
places.
black trousers and a dark green jumper.
new song
quite good, but he doesn't think he's ready yet to perform
it
in public.
a:
What's that noise?
b:
Poulson
like a bird
It
treatment for
My sister
long blonde
a
knee
hair.
injury,
stuck
in
the chimney.
but should be
fit
to play on Saturday,
You're bound to recognise her.
Cross out any improbable answers.
Dear Aunt Mara,
Thanks
for your message. 1(1) apologise / 'm apologising for not getting back to you sooner, but I've
been incredibly busy. When I went into nursing, you warned me that it would be really hard work, but
I (2) admit / 'm admitting that I didn't really believe you. Don't get me wrong - I
(3) don't suggest
/
'm not suggesting that I'm not enjoying
realising
how hard the job
and go straight to bed.
considering buying a
It
car,
is.
When
I
get
it.
incredibly rewarding, but
It's
home
I
just eat (not very well,
I
doesn't help that the bus journey to the hospital
which
will
make
things easier,
I
I
(4)
now
realise / 'm
(5) confess /
is
so slow.
I
m
'
now
confessing)
(6) consider / 'm
hope.
And what about you? How (7) do you find / are you finding living in a village after so many years in
I (8) know / 'm knowing how difficult it is for you to travel such a long way, but it would be
lovely if you could come and stay with me for a weekend. I've got plenty of room in my flat. I
(9) don't
the city?
guarantee
/ 'm
not guaranteeing to cook as well as you do, but
I
(10) promise / 'm promising to find
time to show you around this lovely old town.
Hope
to see you soon.
Keep
in
touch.
Love,
Martina
- Additional exercise
1
(page 240)
3
Unit
2
Present continuous and present simple 2
We often
in
use the present simple and present continuous
in stories
fcHBHBBElAM*
and jokes
informal spoken English to create the impression that events are happening
now. This can make them more direct and exciting and hold people's attention:
She goes up to this man and looks straight into his eyes. He's not wearing
doesn’t recognise her
This man’s playing golf
grabs
his club
and
his glasses,
and he
...
when
a kangaroo
hits his ball
about
bounds up to him,
half a mile
...
The main events are usually described in sequence using the
present simple and longer background events are described
using the present continuous.
In
narratives
and anecdotes the present simple can be used
to highlight an event. Often
it is used after past tenses and
with a phrase such as suddenly or all of a sudden:
I
We also
events)
was
sitting in
when
the park, reading a newspaper,
use the present simple and present continuous
when
the report takes place at the
same time
King serves to the left-hand court and
magnificent tennis
in this
match
all
in live
of a sudden
this
commentaries
dog jumps
(for
at
me.
example, on sports
as the action:
Adams makes
a wonderful return. She's playing
...
We can use the present simple in phrases such as It says here, hear, gather, see, understand
and They say, (Someone) says, (Someone) tells me to introduce news that we have heard, read,
seen (e.g. on television), or been told. We can also use past tenses (e.g. It said here, heard):
gather you're worried about Pedro.
I
I
I
I
I
I
Sophia tells
me you're thinking of emigrating.
Professor Hendriks
The present simple
is
is
at the conference
often used
in
and
hear she's an excellent speaker.
news headlines to
SECOND QUAKE HITS JAPAN
p| RE
SCIENTISTS FIND ICE ON THE MOON
We can
I
talk
about events that have recently happened:
BREAKS OUT IN HOTEL ROOM
FOREIGN MINISTER RESIGNS
use the present simple to refer to the contents of books, films, newspapers, etc:
Thompson gives a list of the largest European companies in Chapter 6.
At the beginning of the book, three men find $4 million in a crashed plane.
In the film, Loni Baranski takes the role of a private detective.
We can
use the present continuous with adverbs such as always, constantly, continually or forever
is done so often that it is characteristic of a person, group or thing:
to emphasise that something
O
a:
I
think
I'll
stay here after
all.
b:
You're constantly changing your mind.
me with my work.
use this pattern to indicate disapproval. The past continuous is used in a similar
these adverbs (e.g. Was Olivia always asking you for money, too?).
Jacob
is
a really kind person. He's always offering to help
We often
We can
way with
use the present continuous to describe something we regularly do at a certain time:
At eight o'clock I'm usually driving to work, so phone me on my mobile.
Seven o'clock
is
a bit early.
We're generally eating then.
Exercises
Complete these sentences using the verbs
1
Rodriguez
2
A man
I
went to
brackets.
Use the present simple or present
passes
to Messi who
just over the bar. Barcelona
much more in this half ... (pass -shoot -attack)
home late one night after the office Christmas party. His wife
for him,
3
in
CEO
continuous.
this
to him
and she
a concert yesterday
in
the Town Hall.
In
...
(arrive
the middle of
man suddenly
on
his seat
-wait -say)
while the orchestra
it,
and
to
conduct them, (play -stand -start)
Complete what each person says about the news they have read or heard using the present
tense phrases
in C.
Q
1
I
Government gives health service
billions
.see......
the government's giving
tine
health
service jx lot more money.
Vegecorp are going to
2
Vegecorp to sack 1,000 workers.
3
new
President Cartman announced a
we're going to have
public holiday on his birthday, August
6th.
He made
the
announcement
...
1
Bruno's
Did you hear that Bruno's
crashed his car again?
Ed
she's
I've
got a newjob.^
Julia
they've identified
A team
of researchers claims
to have identified a gene which
v
v
causes
some people to
overeat.
Expand one of the sets of notes below to complete each dialogue.
continually
constantly
/
change
/
mind
forever
can't read this,
a:
2
a:
Can
3
a:
That was a dangerous thing to do.
4
a:
5
a:
I
b:
borrow €10?
think
I
I'll
b:
stay here after
Complete each
all.
b:
b
2 a
b
3 a
b
a:
Shall
I
b:
ask
me / money
You're
b:
You're
pair of sentences using the
phone
at six?
same verb
b:
No,
we
(in
negative form
if
necessary), Use the
X to add anv words outside the
usually
gap. f>
dinner at that time.
lamb, thanks. I'm a vegetarian.
I
Henry V
Gielman
They constantly
I
/
You're
present continuous or the present simple. Use
a
forever
You're
had a bad day at the office again,
I
moan / work
Always complAtnmg about my hawiw rdvnq
You're
1
I
/
/ criticise / driving
normally
In his
2007 book, Wall
Additional exercise
1
(page 240)
in
the latest production at the Royal Theatre.
loud music until the early hours of the morning.
the children to school at 8:30. Perhaps
we
could meet at 9:00.
a controversial view of Britain's role in the war.
Unit
3
|
Past simple and present perfect
Time expressions that refer to the present, such as this morning / week /
month and today, can be used with either past simple or present perfect verbs.
If we think of this morning (etc.) as a past, completed time period, then we use the past simple; if
we think of this morning (etc.) as a time period which includes the present moment, then we use the
present perfect. Compare:
didn't shave this morning. (= the morning is over and didn't shave) and
haven't shaved this morning. (= it is still the morning and might shave later)
O
O
In
I
I
I
I
a sentence
which includes
a
time clause with since,
time clause and a present perfect verb
in
in
we
generally prefer a past simple verb
in
the
the main clause. The time clause refers to a particular point
the past:
Mr Dodson became
become ...)
Since
O
president
unemployment has increased,
(rather than
She hasn't been able to play tennis since she broke her arm. (rather than
Note, however, that
we
use the present perfect
in
the time clause
if
as,
has
has broken
...)
the two situations described
main clause and time clause extend until the present:
Have you met any of your neighbours since you've lived here? (not
With time clauses introduced by after, when, until, as soon
expressions the minute / second / moment the past simple
...
...
...
you
lived
in
the
...)
once, by the time and the time
refers to past,
completed events and the
Compare these examples:
she had a long holiday, and
present perfect refers to future events.
After she left hospital (past),
U
O
After Lucas has left school (future), he will be spending six
I'll
In
the time clause
(e.g.
After she
leaves
...)
months
in India.
got the news about Anna (past) telephoned my parents, and
contact you the minute I've got my exam results, (future)
The minute
I
in
had
I
sentences
like this
it is
possible to use the past perfect instead of the past simple
...) and the present simple instead of the present perfect
with the same meaning (see also Unit 5).
left
(e.g.
After Lucas
In news reports, you will often read about or hear recent events introduced with the present
and then the past simple or other past tenses are used to give details:
A
Russian spacecraft has returned safely to Earth with
passengers.
US astronaut
Olga
landed
Kaleri
in
It /
This
/
That
is
/ will be the first
time
its
two
Scott Keane and Russian cosmonaut
the early hours of Wednesday.
An American woman has become the first person
to make 2 million contributions to Wikipedia.
Esther Miller began editing the site eight years ago.
After the pattern
perfect,
...
we
J
generally use the present perfect
in
the next clause:
seen Jan look embarrassed, (reporting a past event)
won't be the first time she has voted against the government, (talking about a future event)
That's the first time I've
O
It
Note that
It
after
It /
This
/
That was the
was the first time
I'd
first
time
...
we generally
talked to Dimitra outside the
use the past perfect (see Unit
office.
5):
Exercises
Complete each sentence with a verb from the box. Use the present perfect or past simple, with
form where necessary.
Q
a negative
have
1
go
oversleep
make
a:
Shall
b:
No, thanks.
I
us
some
dinner?
wear
spend
read
already eight o'clock.
It's
to the dentist this afternoon and
I
my mouth
hurts too
much
to eat
anything.
2
three lectures today and
I
was so hot today that
4 We
£200 on food
5 a: Do you want a lift home?
3
It
No,
b:
6
this
I
much
I
this
Maria
Since she
3
Since he
since
I
girl
b
4 a
b
each pair
in
Remember that
As soon as
I
clock didn't go
finish
it
off,
so
I
paid.
need to work
late.
by the weekend.
from the box. Choose the most appropriate
improve - be
work - not have
in
I
from
a
house
a
fire,
after
Q
illness.
it
at school.
by replacing the past simple with the present
you signed the contract you won't be able to change your mind,
became apparent
finished college
after he signed to play for Real Madrid.
want to
I
around Australia.
travel
I
handed
it
in
as soon as
finished
I
it.
finished.
probably have finished breakfast by the time the children got up.
recognised her the
I'll
through
on TV almost every day.
much more independent
wrong. Correct
is
river.
off
to you.
I
didn't have time to check the essay.
I'll
I
the
day
he
By the time Sarah got to work the meeting had
tell
Here
^ present
are
1
I
enormously since he
b Carlo's injury only
b
have to
last
to drive
I
perfect of the italicised verb.
3 a
my alarm
swimming since she
company she
the
One sentence
a
week to go before get
there's another
at the
6 Stefan's reading
2
I
pairs of verbs
rescue - be
lot
Since
a
month and
morning because
happen - speak
to go
1
2
1
later this afternoon.
— present perfect or past simple. (?)
be able - feel
not want - fall
5
have two more
still
of the report yet, but
Complete the sentences with the
tense
4 A
I
shorts and a T-shirt at work.
I
moment
I
heard her laugh.
you what time we're coming the moment heard from
some
I
extracts from a television
news
When
perfect or past simple - for the verbs
President Nelson
(visit)
2 The Victoria Hospital
in
drives
report.
in
(arrive) in Paris this evening,
Milltown
However, a spokesperson
problems as none of the computers
-4 Additional exercise 2 (page 241)
it
will
be the
first
time she
May.
new patients after more cases
week in the outbreak.
of
(die) last
It's
the
first
time
in
nearly
two years that
below 5%.
4 Nearly 600 laptops
years.
in
(close) to
[drop) to 4.8%.
(fait)
QSjO
brackets.
food poisoning. Three elderly patients
the rate
Choose the more appropriate tense -
Europe since her election victory
3 The rate of inflation
Emil.
(steal)
from Ministry of Defence
(insist)
staff
over the past five
that there had been no security
(hold) secret information.
7
Unit
4
Past continuous and past simple
When we talk
about two events or
period of past time,
we
activities that
went on over the same
Reminder -4 A6-A8, A13
can often use the past continuous or the past simple
for both:
Mia was reading to the children while
Ben was washing up.
(or
read
...
...
was reading
washed
read
/
up.)
.
Using the past continuous emphasises that the event or
past
was in progress during the past
period of time (‘while Ben was washing up'). Compare:
When was learning / learned to drive was living
activity (‘was reading')
I
my
with
Was
now
^
was washing up
washed up
/
I
parents.
learning emphasises that the activity was
learned emphasises completion
(‘I
When we talk about two or more
passed
in
progress
(‘I
had lessons during
this time')
and
my test during this time').
past completed events that followed one another,
we
use the past
simple, not the past continuous, for both (see also Unit 5C):
O
We
She got up when the alarm clock went
off.
usually use the past simple rather than the past continuous to talk about repeated past actions:
We went to Spain three times
G
last year.
Did you drive past her house every day?
However,
we
can use the past continuous, particularly
in
spoken English, when
we want to emphasise
went on for a limited and temporary period of past time:
When Kata was in hospital, we were visiting her twice a day. (or ... we
that repeated actions
To lose weight before the race, wasn't eating any biscuits
or to talk about something that happened surprisingly often:
I
Last
G
week was having to
I
When
We often
in
for weeks, (or
work home every night to get it all done,
was making them cups of tea all the time,
bring
the builders were here
use the past simple
visited
I
a narrative (e.g. a report or a story) to talk
...
I
...)
didn't eat
(or
...
had
(or
...
made
...)
...)
...)
about a single complete
past event and the past continuous to describe the situation that existed at the time. The event might
have interrupted the situation, or happened while the situation was
O
Erika
dropped her bag while she was getting
She was shaking with anger as she
We can
talk
progress:
left the hotel.
use either the past continuous or past simple (or past perfect; see Unit 5E) with
we
about things
O
in
into her car.
We were meaning to call
Also: consider
+
-ing,
some verbs to
intended to do but didn't:
expect
to,
in
hope
These verbs (with the exception of
and see you, but Marc wasn't feeling
to, intend to, plan
to
/
on +
-ing, think
well, (or
about
/
We meant
of + -ing,
...)
want to
mean and expect) and wonder about can also be used with the
we might do in the future. The past continuous is less
present and past continuous to report what
definite than the present continuous:
I
was thinking of going to China
next year, but
definite than I'm thinking of going
We were wondering about inviting
about
...)
it
depends how much money
I've got. (less
...)
Eva over tomorrow,
(less definite
than We're wondering
Exercises
Complete the sentences using these
continuous
in
the other.
come -show
^jet
look-see
1
2
Just as
have to
3
When
—ge^
getting
finish
live
-spend
the lights
went
hope -give
-check
start
into the bath
to go
...
Use the past simple
in
one gap and the past
QQ
play -break
was
I
I
pairs of verbs.
all
in
off.
away this weekend, but my boss
me some work that
I
by Monday.
in Paris,
I
three hours a day travelling to and from
I
work.
4 A
friendly
American couple
chatting to him as he
at the hotel
reception.
5
I
bumped
into Lena last week.
She
a lot better than
when
last
I
her.
6
My
boss
into the office just as
everyone
I
7
my holiday photos.
badminton four times
1
before
This time, use the
same
go
add -taste
I
can't
when he
remember how to answer this
11
not watch - dream
push -run
not listen - explain
off -light
teacher
10
week
tense, either past simple or past continuous, in both spaces,
8 The smoke alarm
9
a
my ankle.
I
_
a candle underneath
„
question. must confess that
I
it.
while the
I
to us.
it
more salt to the soup, and then it
it. Instead
Although the television was on,
much
She
I
better.
about
I
my
holidays.
12
open the door and
She
Look again at numbers
the past simple?
Complete
brackets.
1,
4, 7
and
11 in 4.1.
What difference
in
into the
Which
meaning,
if
of these sentences could have both verbs in
any,
would there be?
this email with either the past simple or the past
Where
room.
continuous form of the verbs
alternatives are possible, think about any difference
in
meaning.
in
Q3
0®rxj
I
(buy) a
(1)
and as
I
new alarm clock the other day in Taylor's the jewellers, when I
somebody shoplifting. I'd just finished paying for my clock
(see)
actually (2)
(turn) round, an elderly
(3)
silver plate into a
bag that she (5)
over to another part of the shop and (7)
a number of times. When she (8)
she (10)
tell
(drop)
the staff
in
them.
Additional exercise
1
(
slowly put) a
(walk)
(6)
(think) that
I
nobody
(have) a chance to
(11)
(notice) that
watch
(look),
(9)
I
(13)
(watch)
(hurry) out. Unfortunately for her, two police officers
(walk) past just at that
(15)
(4)
Then she
(pick up) an expensive-looking
into the bag. Before
the shop, she (12)
her and (14)
into
it
woman
(carry).
(page 240)
moment and she
(16)
(run) straight
Unit
5
Past perfect and past simple
When we
want to
we
give an account of a sequence of past events
put these events
in
Reminder
usually
chronological order using the past simple.
If
an event out of order - that is, an event which happened before the last event in the
have written or spoken about - we can use the past perfect. Study the use of the past
refer to
sequence
we
perfect and past simple
Order of events:
1
3
in
the text on the
right:
gave present 2 wrote email
made mistake 4
wrote £\ara an email
l
realised mistake
for the present she
Order events
1
are mentioned:
(out of order) 3 realised mistake
wrote email 2 had given present
made
4 had
When we
understand that
we
past event,
We
we
to thank her
had given me
for m>f birthday last week. £>ut as
soon as
mistake (out of order)
I
pressed the send' button,
realised that
and sent
If
A6-A8, A14-A15
we
it
had made
l
l
a mistake
to her sister instead.
are talking about events before another
don't have to continue using the past perfect:
(or
bought a new car last month. We'd driven my parents' old car
had started) to fall apart. We put (or had put) a new engine in
(or
hadn't solved) the problems
we were
for ages, but
it,
it
started
but that didn't solve
having.
the order of past events
we
clear)
is clear from the context (for example, if time expressions make the order
can often use either the past perfect or the past simple:
After Ivan had finished reading, he put out the
The two leaders agreed to meet, even though
(or
...
talks failed
The past perfect
is
light, (or
Ivan finished
...
earlier talks
had
...)
failed to reach an agreement,
...)
often used
in
reporting
what was
originally said or
thought
in
the present perfect or
past simple (see also Unit 35):
Talking about a past event
O
‘1
have met him
Reporting this past event
before.'
1
was sure that had met him
...
met him ...)
1
(not
_
‘The village hasn't
changed much.'
1
found that the village hadn't changed
much. (not
‘225 people
drowned
in
the recent floods.'
...
the village didn’t change
Police said that
stole the watch.'
...
drowned
in
...)
She admitted that she had stolen the
watch, (or
We can
...)
225 people had drowned
the recent floods, (or
‘1
before.
1
...
stole
...)
use either the past perfect or past simple (and often past continuous and past perfect
continuous; see Units 4 and 7)
now do in the future:
when we
talk
about things that
we
intended to do, but didn't or won't
had hoped to visit the gallery before left Florence, but it's closed on Mondays, (or hoped
was hoping ..., had been hoping ...)
Aron planned to retire at 60, but we have persuaded him to stay for a few more years.
(or Aron had planned ..., Aron was planning ..., Aron had been planning ...)
I
I
I
...,
10
I
I
Exercises
The events mentioned in the magazine article are listed below. Write the order in which the
events are mentioned and then the order in which they occurred (or were thought to occur).
Compare the two lists and consider why the past perfect (in italics) was used.
Q
How
When
I
bought
my dream
house
saw the old house had just moved to the area. It had been
empty for about a year and was beginning to need some repairs, but
the house was exactly what wanted. But by the time had put together
enough money learnt that a property developer had bought it and
planned to turn it into a hotel. Six months later had nearly given up hope
of finding anywhere to live in the village when heard that the house was
for sale again. The property developer had decided to invest his money
in a new housing development on the edge of the village.
bought the
house immediately and I've lived there happily ever since.
first
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
events
order events are
mentioned
moved
1
learnt
1
heard
first
1
A
2.
...
2.
...
...
saw the
old house
i
property developer bought
1
it
nearly gave up...
1
put together enough money...
1
was empty
It
|
order of events
text
...
The property developer decided
1
in
Underl ine the correct options.
In
some
cases only one
is
correct,
and
in
others both are correct.
realised that he had met / met her
had been / went to the gym every evening.
1
As Jonas was introduced to Mrs Lopez, he
2
During the previous week,
3
had taken / took the money from the office.
was the best film had seen / saw in my life.
The boy told me that he had lost / lost his train ticket and didn't know how he would get home.
At the conference, scientists reported that they had found / found a cure for malaria.
The teacher guessed that some of the children had cheated / cheated in the exam.
She said that she had made up / made up her mind who to vote for, and that couldn't persuade
He denied
4
I
5
6
7
8
thought
I
before.
that he
it
I
I
her to change.
home
9 Thomas explained that he had gone /went
10
When
11
The waiter took
I
early because he felt
ill.
asked Maria about Jakub, she admitted that she hadn't heard / didn't hear from him for
ages.
my plate away
12 Julia said she didn't
want any
before
I
had finished / finished eating.
had eaten / ate already.
dinner. Apparently, she
Q
Expand these sets of notes using the past perfect to begin each sentence.
I
/
expect / operation / painful
4 / hope / leaveV by n i ne
/ not mean / insult / her
Lara / not intend / become / dentist
He
I
1
/
not think of
I
/
hod hoped
cook rabbit
to
le&ve by nine
,
but
I
overslept and missed the train.
2
;
she always wanted to be a vet.
3
4
5
- Additional exercise 3 (page 241)
,
,
but
until Andrei told
,
I
didn't feel a thing.
me how tasty
it
was.
but Daria was very offended.
11
Unit
6
Present perfect continuous and present perfect
A
-> A9-A12. A16-A17
activity (a task, piece of work, etc.) in progress until recently or until
the time of speaking:
O
O
Have you been working
She
#
s
in the garden all day ? You look exhausted.
been writing the book since she was in her twenties and at last
it's
finished.
now
Note that we often use time expressions to say how long the
been
activity has
in
progress.
We don't use the present perfect continuous with verbs such as
belong, know, (dis)like, and
understand that describe unchanging states:
Have you known each other long? (not Have you been knowing ...)
haven't liked ice cream since ate too much and was sick, (not haven't been liking
I
I
I
When we talk about situations (general characteristics or circumstances) that exist
we can often use either the present perfect or present perfect continuous:
O
We've been looking forward to
We often
this holiday for ages, (or
the present
We've looked forward to
...)
use the present perfect or the present perfect continuous to talk about something that
has recently finished
if
we
can
still
see
its results.
However,
continuous with verbs that suggest extended or repeated
He's broken his finger and
I've
We
until
...)
is in
we
a lot of pain, (not He's
been playing squash and need
generally use the present perfect
activity.
Compare:
been breaking
use the present perfect continuous rather than the present perfect
from what we can
see, hear, etc.
We often
...)
and
a shower! (more likely than I've played
use this form to complain or
...)
when we draw
a conclusion
criticise:
Who's been messing around with my papers? They're all over the place.
You've been eating chocolate, haven't you? There's some on your shirt.
When we talk about the result of circumstances or an activity, we use the present perfect, rather than
When we focus on the process we often use either the present perfect
the present perfect continuous.
or the present perfect continuous. Compare:
have decreased by 7%. (not Prices have been decreasing by 7%.) and
have been decreasing recently, (or Prices have decreased ...)
I've used three tins of paint on the kitchen walls, (not I've been using three tins of paint on the
kitchen walls.) and
I've been using a new kind of paint on the kitchen walls, (or I've used ...)
Prices
O
Prices
The present perfect continuous emphasises that an activity is ongoing and repeated, while the present
perfect suggests the activity happened only once or on a specified number of occasions:
Miguel has been kicking a football against the wall all day. (more likely than ... has kicked ...)
He has played for the national team in 65 matches so far. (not He has been playing for the
national
team
in
65 matches so
far.)
Compare:
The workers have been calling for the chairman's resignation. (= emphasises a number of
times, probably over an extended period) and
Workers have called for management to begin negotiations on pay. (= maybe a number of
times or only once.)
Exercises
Complete each
pair of sentences using the same
verb. Use the present perfect
nd the present perfect continuous in the
other. Use negative forms
in one sentence
where appropriate.
|
disappear
give
ar* ,na
h
D
^ 0nza
^
put
read
ez
All
'
day the police
motorists to question
b Good, the noise
I
6 a
this
[.
5 a
,
_.
F
GtCher
the
still
only on page
six.
lecture t0 students for the last ten years.
nearly a million pounds to the charity this
year
m
Mr Sato
did
accident.
my work again.
same
20 lengths of the pool today.
and feel exhausted.
that far since
I
”
Buenos Aires.
them about the
can start concentrating on
any of Dickens' novels.
book on astrophysics for hours and I'm
'
6
h
b
swim
stop
n a rented flat since returning to
at this hotel a couple of times before.
We
\A/
;
a
stay
was
I
at school.
I
6
h The South African coal
b
7 a An important
b
er
increasing resources into internet marketing,
company
the Calverton Mine up for sale
my office.
from my garden
file
from
Plants and vegetables
tW ° V,eWS ° n the
since
we had new
neighbours.
g° vemment announcement that
r!*
H e ?Influent
Research Centre.
necessa
it is to cut the money it gives
to
correct th e present perfect continuous verbs
using
either the present perfect or past simple.
jgMIT.flHIftlfcl
’s
If
a
ry,
Dr Petra Adams, the Director of the Centre
remarkable to think that since 1950 influenza
(1) has been
more than 50,000 lives in this country, and in 1957 alone
around 6,000 people (2) have been dying. But over the
last 20 years
we at the Centre (3) have been making considerable progress
on
understanding the illness. We (4) have been producing
over a hundred
books and articles reporting the results of our research
and in 2012
they (5) have been awarding the Nobel Prize for
medicine to one of
It's
claiming
my colleagues.
our more recent work
we (6) have been looking
on heart disease and we (7) have also
been exploring a possible link between climate change
and the recent
In
into the effects of influenza
increase
in
the
government
number of cases of
(8) has
been making
influenza.
It is
this decision
a tragedy that the
now.
b Sabir Khan, the Opposition spokesperson
for science
The previous government
(1) has been investing huge amounts
and think it's terrible that the present
government (2) has been announcing this cut when the number
of
cases of influenza (3) has been increasing. The
Centre (4) has been
of
money
into the Centre
I
running successfully for
many years. But this decision is just typical of
has
been neglecting health research ever since
(5)
was elected, and (6) has been cutting back on spending
on science
this
it
government.
It
Although the government says that the cut is necessary
because of the recent world economic problems,
(7) have been
finding evidence that they
(8) have been planning this for some time.
(9) have been speaking to the Minister about this yesterday
and
(10) have also been writing to the Prime Minister demanding
that the
decision should be reversed.
generally.
I
I
Additional exercise 2 (page 241)
13
Past perfect continuous, past perfect and
Unit
7
past continuous
We
use the past perfect continuous to talk about something that was
progress recently before or up to a past point
perfect
when we
talk
about a finished
in
activity before a past time:
some work in the garden when Lea arrived, so didn't hear her come in.
some work in the garden when Lea arrived, so didn't hear her come in.) and
fd been finishing
(not
O
I'd
I'd
finished
finished
ironing so
I
all
I
I
the ironing so
I
started cleaning the windows. ( not
If
been finishing
all
the
had finished
now
past
I'd
I'd
started cleaning the windows.)
had been finishing
We can often
Reminder -* A14-A15, A18
in
time, and the past
now
past
use either the past perfect continuous or the past perfect with a similar meaning:
been working
/ I'd
worked hard
all
year, so
we talk about how many times something happened
I
in
felt
that
a period
I
deserved a holiday.
up to
a particular past time,
we
use
the past perfect, not the past perfect continuous:
How many times had you met
meeting
had stayed
I
him before yesterday? ( not
How many times
had you been
...)
in
the hotel twice
in
the 1990s. (not
I
had been staying
in
the hotel twice
...)
The past perfect continuous can be used to talk about a situation or activity that went on before
particular past time and (i) finished at that time, (ii) continued beyond it, or (iii) finished shortly
before
a
it:
(i)
We'd been driving
(ii)
She
felt terrible
for
about an hour when the engine suddenly stopped.
during the interview because she had been suffering from
flu
since the
previous day.
When
(iii)
If
we
I
last
are not interested
saw Omar, he'd been running and was out of breath.
how long the activity went on, we can use the past continuous
in
instead of
the past perfect continuous. Compare:
When
the merger was announced
it
became apparent
that the
two companies had been
discussing the possibility since last year, and
A
friend told
me about a
their holiday plans
I
first
conversation she'd recently overheard.
met Mateo and
Lucia
met
Lars
discussing
when they had been going out together for five years, and they
didn't get married for another three years after that,
Karin
Two women were
...
when she was going out with
and
his best friend.
j
Remember that we
don't describe states with continuous tenses (see Unit
perfect, not the past perfect continuous,
even when
we
1),
and
we
use the past
focus on the length of a situation up to a
particular past time:
We
had only owned the car for
six weeks ...)
six
weeks when the clutch broke, (not We had been owning
the car for
The past perfect continuous is mainly used in written texts and is less common in speech. Here is an
example in a newspaper article:
The body of a climber who went missing in the Alps was finally found yesterday. Carl Sims had
been climbing alone near the Harz Waterfall, which has claimed many lives in the past.
Exercises
Complete each
if
possible;
apply
1
a
pair of sentences using
work
fly
She
I
one verb from the box. Use the past perfect continuous
not, use the past perfect.
£J)
carry
so
b
if
only
was
She
management
position,
company
for the
surprised to hear that she'd
for a couple of
months,
left.
finally
her way up from trainee to a
and she celebrated her promotion with a big party.
them 500 metres down the mountain but no one was
2 a The avalanche
hurt.
b
3 a
She took a bottle from the bag she
We
all
for visas early, but
still
hadn't got
the way from home.
them by the week before the
holiday.
4
b
She
a
He
b
When the
for jobs,
all
the
without success, since leaving university.
way from New York to be
plane was diverted, shortly after take-off,
at yesterday's meeting.
from London to
it
Frankfurt.
Use the past perfect continuous form of the verb
in
brackets
if
appropriate;
if
not, use the past
perfect.
1
to have children for years, and only
Mrs Bishop
of 45.
2 This
at the age
(try)
was the
first
time
few times before,
3 She bought her
4
became pregnant
we had been
we
to the castle, even though
Prague a
(visit)
watch at the age of
first
Emma Willems
eight.
two pounds,
It
novels for ten years before she published her
(cost)
first
book.
(write)
5
For
sometime
about passing the exams and eventually decided to
Daniel
change the course he was taking, (worry)
6
My teacher was
really
school that week,
7
annoyed with me.
It
was the
third
time
late for
I
(arrive)
always
I
it
would be easy to get
a job,
and was
disappointed to be rejected, (believe)
8
We
about Sarah when, to our amazement, she walked through the door.
(talk)
In
which one of the sentences where you have used the past perfect continuous do you think
the past continuous
Study
b:
them
b:
a:
b:
likely?
If
Q
the italicised verbs are correct, write /.
If
they are wrong,
using either the past perfect (active or passive) or past perfect continuous.
How was your weekend?
been looking forward to a relaxing couple of days. But early on
phoned to say that Dad (2) had been taking ill.
Oh, no! What (3) had happened?
She (4) hadjust been hearing that he (5) had been flown by helicopter to hospital in Edinburgh
from a village called Contin where he (6) had fished with my Uncle Mark.
And is he okay? What's wrong with him?
Well, Uncle Mark said that Dad (7) had been complaining of a bad headache most of yesterday,
but he (8) hadn't been wanting to go back to the hotel and spoil the day. But then in the evening,
just as they (9) had stopped fishing for the day, he (10) had been collapsing...
Not
great, actually.
Saturday morning
a:
more
this conversation extract.
correct
a:
is
I
(1
)'d really
Mum
-¥ Additional exercise 3 (page 241)
Unit
Present and past time: review
A
Reminder -¥ Section A
Continuous and simple
When we focus on
an activity
itself,
starting before
particular point of time, rather than focusing
Ingrid can't
O
O
O
We
come to the phone.
and continuing up to (and possibly beyond) a
on actions as completed events, we use continuous forms:
She's
washing her
As you're not using your car at the moment, can
hair.
borrow
it?
was flying over the Pacific.
wearing that red dress when you saw her?
This time yesterday
Was she
I
I
use simple forms to talk about general situations, habits, and things that are or were always true:
O
O
G
We
When worked
I
as a
postman got up
at three o'clock every morning.
I
Miguel doesn't play golf very well.
These birds build their nests on the ground.
The earthquake struck the area at midday yesterday, (past simple
for
completed events)
use simple forms with verbs that describe unchanging states (that stay the same):
O
She intends to work hard at school and go on to university.
Did you understand the instructions we were given?
we
However,
can use continuous forms with these verbs
when they describe something happening
or
changing:
She was intending to
talk to
I'm understanding physics
Tony about the
much
better
idea,
but she didn't get the opportunity.
now that Mr
Davies
is
teaching
us.
Perfect
We
use perfect verb forms to describe one event or state from the point of view of a later time. The
present perfect suggests a connection between something that happened in the past and the present
time. Note, however, that the situation or event does not have to continue until the time of speaking,
only to have some connection or relevance to the present time:
I've
finished that book you wanted, so you can borrow
it
now.
Have you turned the heating off? don't like it to be on when
Your nose is bleeding. Has somebody hit you?
I
O
The past perfect
I
O
invited
is
I'm not at
home.
used to locate a past event before another past event:
him out to
By the time
I
had already eaten.
had rung off.
dinner, but he said he
picked up the phone, they
Combinations of perfect and continuous
We combine the
perfect and continuous forms
in
the present perfect continuous to describe an
activity in progress either at or recently before the
I
We can
with
time of speaking, and possibly beyond
have been following the discussions on the forum with great interest.
also use the present perfect continuous to talk about activities that have recently finished
some
result that
Look at the
can be seen, heard,
dirt
it is
O
O
etc.:
on your clothes! Have you been digging
The past perfect continuous has
(as
it:
a similar meaning.
in
the garden again?
However, the point of reference
with the present perfect continuous) but a point
in
is
not ‘now'
the past:
When we met
It
Lena and Marko, they had been riding.
had been snowing heavily for hours and when went to the door couldn't open
I
I
it.
Exercises
Amy is writing a
5
the extract
1-10 use:
In
arrive
In
©
blog for her friends and family as she
travels around Australia. Use the
present
S,mple or P ast continuous of the verbs in
the box to complete
C ° ntlnU ° US ’ P3St
feel (x2)
get
go
know
spend
text
wait
-write
11-20 use:
ask
complain
enjoy
get
(not) get
on
hear
look (x2)
seem
start
dmq
1(1)
this blog in a hotel room in Perth.
I (2)
here a couple
after a long coach journey from Adelaide.
I (3)
pretty
tired so
P
this will only be a short post before
I (4)
to sleep. As you (5)
i
‘ W
k n Adelaide with Rub
V- 1 (7)
1) her a month or so ago
ten her when
h
'f
!!
to tell
I would be arriving, and
she (8)
at the airport for me when
of hours
ago
m
J
* (
!'
'
’
12
/
there For he
fll
few da V s 1 UO)
quite jet-lagged, but
i
over that after a few days of lazing around
on the beach. Ruby
,vln 9 ln Adelaide a lot, although
she (13)
?
-
=
'*4
*’•<«>
,
—
I
for a new iob
»«h her eo,S2.
.r (16)
Apparently they constantly
about the working conditions and it
(17 >
t0 ann °V Rub V- She (18)
me to pass on her best
„
u
S
S
°' d friendS S ° n ° W 1
(19)
forward t0 exploring
Pe rth iT on
rertn.
(20)
t s a wonderful place. I'll post again
soon. Amy
-
'
j
Complete
this extract
perfect of the verbs
in
from a newspaper
brackets.
RONSON SACKED
IN
©
article using the past simple, present perfect
or past
K
UNITED CUTS
Aston United (1)
Ha&e SAck&t (sack)
manager, Neil Ronson. The former England
their
football international (2)
(hear) the news
(3)
4)
(return)
f
(
Here
Ronson
as
season they (9)
(finish) second
However, they (10)
matches so far this season. The
in
(win) only five
chairman of the club, Peter White,
when he
from a three-week holiday
(come) as a
in Spain and that it (5)
complete shock. ‘There (6)
hint of any problem when I (7)
for the holiday.’ Aston United
(8)
(appoint)
say) that he
last
the First Division.
(be)
no
(leave)
manager two years ago and
(1
commitment
(12)
last night
(accuse) Ronson of lack of
to the club. ‘Neil’s attitude
(disappoint) us recently.
Over
the
few months he (13)
(spend) more
time on Spanish beaches than working with the
last
players in Aston.’
the rest of the conversation in Exercise 7.3. If the
italicised verb is correct write
wrong, correct it using the past simple, present
perfect, past perfect, present perfect
continuous or past perfect continuous.
is
If it is
a:
b:
a:
b.
a.
b:
Did he have any health problems recently?
(2) 's been suffering from stress for some time, but we
(3) have thought a holiday in
Scotland would be relaxing for him. He
(4) worked too hard for months, and we
(5) Ve been
trying to persuade him to have a break
for ages before he agreed.
So (6) have you gone up to Scotland when you
(7) have heard?
(1)
Well he
No, Mum (8) has gone up to be with him, but
the doctors (9) have checked him over and
(10) had
been saying that it's not too serious. They
(11) gave him some medicine to bring down his blood
pressure and (12) had told him that he needs
complete rest for a couple of months So Mum's
driving him back in the car tomorrow.
Well, send him my best wishes when you
speak to him.
Thanks,
I
will do.
17
We can
use either will or be going to to talk about something that
planned, or something that
we think
is
We will study climate change
Where
O
will
you stay
in
likely
to happen
in
the future:
a later part of the course, (or
in
Berlin? (or
cmnnssa
is
Where are you going to
The south of the city won't be affected by the power cuts,
prefer be going to in informal contexts (see also D).
We are going to study
stay
(or
...
...)
...?)
isn't
going to be affected
.
.
.)
We often
We
use will rather than be going to to
make
a prediction based
Why not come over at the weekend? The children
O
We
‘Shall
I
The
sky's
gone
when we make
really dark. There's
‘What's the matter with her?'
O
O
/
I
again.
‘It
think,
I
on some present evidence:
a prediction based
going to be a storm.
looks
going to
like she's
faint.'
we often use will with bet (informal), expect, hope, imagine, reckon
wonder and I'm sure, and in questions with think and reckon:
To predict the future
(informal),
you
ask Lamar?' ‘No, she won't want to be disturbed.'
use be going to rather than will
O
on our opinion or experience:
will enjoy seeing
I
imagine the stadium will be
full
I
I
for the
I
I
match on Saturday.
That cheese smells awful. I bet nobody will eat
When do you tA7/>7/r you'll finish work?
it.
O
Do you reckon he'll say yes?
Be going to can also be used with these phrases,
We
use will
when we make
a decision at the
particularly in informal contexts.
moment of speaking and be going to for decisions about
the future that have already been made. Compare:
O
I'll
pick
him up
at eight, (an offer;
making an arrangement now) and
was previously arranged)
I'm going to collect the children at eight, (this
‘Pineapples are on special offer this week.'
When
However,
in
I've
a formal style,
been previously arranged
O
O
We can
‘In
that case,
I'll
buy two.' and
saved up enough money, I'm going to buy a smartphone.
we
use will rather than be going to to talk about future events that have
some
detail. Compare:
Are you going to talk at the meeting tonight? and
The meeting will begin at 9 am. Refreshments will be available from 8:30 onwards.
in
use will or be going to with
when we say that something
You'll / You're
little
difference
in
meaning
(often something negative)
going to knock that glass over
if
is
in
the main clause of an if-sentence
conditional on something else:
you're not careful.
When the future
not
event does not depend on the action described in the if-clause, we use be going to,
sentence is mainly found in spoken English. Compare:
I'm going to open a bottle of lemonade, if you want some. (= I'm going to open a bottle of
will. This kind of
lemonade. Do you want some?) and
I'll open a bottle of lemonade if you want some. (=
However,
and
we
use will, not be going to,
when
If
you say you want some,
I'll
open
it.)
the main clause refers to offers, requests, promises, etc.
ability:
phones, I'll let you know. (= an
you know when Erik phones')
If you look to your left, you'll see the
If
Erik
offer;
'...,
I'm going to let
you know' suggests
‘I
intend to
let
know this
lake. (= you'll
be able to see;
‘...
you're going to see
what you can see when you look to your left')
and when one thing is the logical consequence of another:
If you don't switch on the monitor first, the computer won't come on.
suggests
‘I
is
...'
Exercises
|
Correct or improve the sentences where necessary by changing the italicised will
('ll)
forms to
be going to forms.
1
Have you seen Nadia recently? She 'll have another baby, ’s going ho have
method is quite simple, and I'm sure it will be familiar to most of you already.
2 The
3
a:
can't
I
b:
I'll
come
4 Are these new
5
over during the day.
see you tomorrow evening, then.
yours? Willyou take up skiing?
skis
Wherever you go
in Brazil,
6 Jamie says he7/ be a
7
8
hear you'll sell your
11
12
13
in
What's the matter with Paula?
b:
She says
a:
She'll feel better
a:
I've
b:
When
a:
I'm not sure. Perhaps
a:
Did
she'll
be sick
tell
I
you
tell
17/
17/
some
fresh
in
air.
Munich, so
leave
Cameo.
to see him later today.
17/ try
have dinner with Karl on Thursday?
But we'll see a film with Hamid on Thursday. You've known about
a:
Sorry. In that case, 17/ sort out a different
a:
a:
15
a:
16
a:
No.
forgot
I
We've got
Shall
Yes,
I
I
What
I
'll
all
about them.
17/
medium and
small,
I'm going to
b:
it
for weeks.
Karl.
book them tomorrow.
What size do you want?
large.
have a large one, please.
give Ian
expect
another ring?
he'll
home
be
by now.
are those bricks for?
build a wall at the side of the garden.
Complete the sentences with
will
('ll)
or be going to and an appropriate verb.
be going to are possible, write them both.
you want me to,
2 If you want to help
If
U
I
us,
I
explain
both will and
Q
these trees at the bottom of the garden.
your back
give
If
how the equipment works.
we
3 You
If
day with
Did you get the theatre tickets?
b:
4
17/
your boss?
b:
b:
1
for it?
cut the grass.
.
with
been offered a new job
willyou
do you want
the garden.
a:
b:
14
How much
car.
9 You can't play football
10
five years old!
getting very humid - we'll have a thunderstorm.
It's
I
you 'll find the people very friendly.
when he grows up - and he's only
politician
if
you
try to
you the money
lift
that box.
you
-
me some oranges when
you're out?
5
6
If
I
you press the red button, the machine
Laura this weekend,
7
He's been told that
8
If
you
if
he's late
listen carefully,
Additional exercise 4 (page 242)
you
if
you'd
like
to
come too.
once more he
an owl
in
the trees over there.
19
Unit
10
Present simple and present continuous for the future
Present simple
We can often
use either the present simple or will to talk about future events that are part of
timetabled or programmed arrangement or routine. However,
we
some
prefer the present simple for fixed,
unchangeable events. Compare:
O
Does the
The sun
sale finish
rises at 5:16
on Thursday or Friday? (or Will the sale finish
tomorrow, (more likely than The sun will rise ...)
.
.
.
and
?)
We avoid the present simple when we talk about less formal or less routine arrangements, or
we use will, be going to, or the present continuous:
Are you staying in to watch TV tonight, or are you coming dancing? (not Do you stay to
watch TV tonight, or do you come...)
predictions. Instead
It's
only a problem
now, but
in Britain
it
will affect the rest of Europe soon, (not
...
but
it
affects the rest of Europe soon.)
We
use the present simple, not will, to refer to the future in time clauses with conjunctions such as after, as soon as, before, by the time, when,
while,
until:
Q
...)
When you see
tell
him he
still
owes me some money,
should be finished by the time you get back, (not
I
in
Ben,
conditional clauses with
if,
in case,
Provided the right software
I'll
bring
some sandwiches
when we talk about
is
in
...
(not
When you will see
by the time you
Ben
get back.)
will
provided, and unless:
available,
case
we
I
should be able to solve the problem.
don't find anywhere decent to eat.
possible future events with suppose, supposing, and
what
if
at the beginning of a
sentence. Note that the past simple can be used with a similar meaning:
Suppose we miss the bus — how
What if the train's
late?
Where
will
shall
we get home?
I
(or Suppose
meet you then?
(or
we missed ...)
train was
What if the
late?)
Present continuous
We can often
use either the present continuous or be going to with a similar meaning to talk about
planned future events. The present continuous indicates that we have a firm intention or have made
a
definite decision to do something, although this may not already be arranged:
Are you seeing the doctor again next week? (or Are you going to see
?)
I'm not asking Tom to the party, (or I'm not going to ask
.)
.
.
.
. .
However,
we don't
when we make
use the present continuous for the future or report predictions about activities or events over which
we have no
control (we can't
arrange these):
I
think
it's
going to rain soon.
Scientists say that the satellite
won't cause any damage when
when we talk about permanent future
it
falls
to Earth,
situations:
People are going to live / will live longer in the future.
Her new house is going to have / will have three floors.
Many people
avoid be going to +
go
/
come and
use the present continuous forms of
instead:
o
O
I'm going to town on Saturday, (rather than I'm going to go to town ...)
Are you coming home for lunch? (rather than Are you going to come ...?)
go and come
Exercises
If
possible, use the p resen t simple of a verb
use will +
infinitive.
change
accept
miss
play
1
We
2
Alex
3
I
from the box to complete each sentence.
not,
If
|
get
read
rain
go
give out
look after
lend
want
stop
start
our exam results on the 20th August.
our cats while we're away next week.
think
take an umbrella
I'll
4 There is a reading
5 The new drug
in
case
on
6 The concert
7
Provided
8
What
9
We
if
it
accompany my
to
list
raining, we'll
my
I
my
USA
at 7:30, not 7:15 as
it
go
says
it
for a
at the end.
I
next year.
walk
in
the programme.
this afternoon.
plans and decide to stay longer? Will
Mariam when she
10 Unless
which
lecture,
sale in the
leaves, but she says she'll
me some money,
parents
I
need to renew
keep
in
my visa?
touch.
won't be able to go on holiday
I
this
year.
11
Tonight France
12
It is
13
Supposing
Germany
unlikely that the
a
in
match important
government
this letter,
should be
I
Cross out any answers that are wrong or very unlikely.
1
It's
meaning,
in
b
will leave
a
if
not a deep cut, but
know
2
Did you
a
will
3
a:
I'm not sure
a
will pick
is
buy
I'll
The high-speed
I
c
for dinner.
am
b
buy
c
leaving
am
buying
We can take you. We
b:
c
are picking
c
am
you up
going to
at eight.
driving
the journey time between the
c
c
call
am going to serve
is
cities significantly,
cutting
later today.
lunch and
I
b
will serve
are possible, consider the
to York tonight,
going to cut
am
is
I
going to drive
you back
b
will call
is
two answers
week?
car next
get to the concert,
I
Don't go out now.
a
new
rail link
have to go now.
a
7
b
will cut
a
6
going to leave
b are going to pick
will drive
I
a scar.
it
am going to
b
how
If
in
gebssd
between them.
a
I
5
any,
I
4 I'm sorry can't come
a
How do do that?
New Zealand.
to upload a video to YouTube?
I
14 By the time you
difference
for both teams.
the court's decision.
am
it'll
c
calling
be cold by the time you get back,
am
serving
8 Unless help arrives within the next few days, thousands
a
b are going to starve
will starve
Complete these dialogues with
the future using the verbs
1
a:
Simon Bianchi
b:
Yes, I've read
a:
I'm sure
you
in
c
are starving
either present simple for the future or present continuous for
brackets.
If
neither of these
(Join)
(1)
some
is
correct, use will or
be going
to.
us for dinner. You know, the novelist.
of his books.
(2)
(come) out at the end of this week.
If
(like) him. His latest book
you want, I'm sure he (4)
(3)
(give
you
a signed copy.
2
BWM
a:
Have you heard that
b:
That's bad news. Supposing they (2)
(1)
(sack)
300 workers?
(close)
completely - that would be
awful.
a:
But
I've
heard that they
their website,
Additional exercise
you
(4)
4 (page 242)
(3)
(build) a
new factory
(see) a lot of information
in Ireland.
about
If
you look on
it.
21
Unit
11
Future continuous and future perfect (continuous)
Future continuous:
We can
(i)
will
I
be doing
use the future continuous to talk about:
something that
is
predicted to start before a particular point of future time, and that
may
continue
after this point (often the result of a previous decision or arrangement):
O
When
Anna
(ii)
goes into
it
orbit,
the spacecraft will be carrying 30 kilos of plutonium.
be helping us to organise the
will
a future activity that
is
party.
part of the normal course of events or that
is
one of
a repeated or regular
series of events:
O
O
Dr
Lin will
Will
We can often
activities or
be giving the same
you be
talk in
room 103
at ten next Thursday.
driving to work, as usual?
use either the future continuous or the present continuous
in the future (see also Unit 10). Compare:
when we
talk
about arranged
events
We will be
O
leaving for Istanbul at 7:00 in the evening, (timetabled; or ... are leaving ...) and
the race starts later this afternoon the drivers will be hoping for drier weather than last
year. ( not ... are hoping ...; not reporting the details of a programme or timetable)
When
When we don't want to
continuous instead of
know when they
indicate willingness, intention, invitation, etc.,
will. For
are leaving,
example,
you might
if
we
prefer to use the future
guests have stayed longer than you wanted, and you don't
ask:
Will you be staying with us again tonight? (asking about their plans) rather than
Will you stay with us again tonight? (they might think this is an invitation)
Future perfect and future perfect continuous:
I
have done and
will
I
will
have been
doing
We use the future
point
in
perfect to say that something will be ended, completed, or achieved by a particular
the future:
By the time you get home
O
I
will
have cleaned the house from top to bottom.
have been forgotten. (= passive form)
I'm sure his awful behaviour will soon
We use the future
perfect continuous to emphasise the duration of an activity
in
progress at a
particular point in the future:
Q
Nextyear will have been working
I
in
the
company
for
30 years.
With both the future perfect and future perfect continuous we usually mention the future time
(e.g. By the time you get home ..., Nextyear ...).
The future continuous, future perfect and future perfect continuous can also be used to say what
we
believe or imagine is happening around now:
We could
O
O
We
ask to borrow Joe's
Most people
car. He won't be using it today - he went to work by
have forgotten the fire by now.
have been queuing at Wimbledon all day to buy tickets.
bike.
will
Tennis fans will
can use the future perfect continuous to say what we think was happening at a point in the
past:
Motorist Vicky Hesketh will have been asking herself whether speed cameras are a good
idea
after she
was
fined
£100
last
week
for driving at
33
mph
in
a
30 mph zone.
.
Exercises
Complete both sentences in each pair with one verb from the box. Use the future continuous
(will / won't be + -ing) in one sentence and will / won't + infinitive in the other.
QEO
in
b Without
2 a
b
3 a
a:
We
b:
Well,
more cheap housing,
you
need to get
this order sent
you
I
a
He's parked his car across our drive and says he
two schools
a beginning
The weather forecast says that
the
If
act
is
making
a profit
by the end of the year then
3
4
In
1
On
.
the objective
.
I
.
for
...
.
dear
...
who
.
...
arrived early
it if
you
like.
it if you like.
Morgan next week.
call
the police?
at the beginning of
September.
Shall
I
we
set ourselves
50
years,
uw
+Am/-jrrA\A/
ig ut nj tyi tui
i
i
when we
Wa/
win ho
uv. uiy.
\ A/ill
and shows no sign of
retiring
.
the report before the end of the week.
.
for a
month, and I'm
...
it
...
there have been
some
still
late
only half way.
changes to the
conference programme.
...
The weather forecast says that the raxn
. .
that will help.
from the theatre.
read
1
if
hand with
a
of James
took over.
k\/ f Ua rAArAirirt
tf iu ii iui lit
uy
.
really
is
town.
to cook.
(either in the future perfect or future
achieve
...
Saturday
6 As delegates
is
campus
discover
difficult.
Here
(ii)
finish
confident that
5 This book on Proust
1
we
two years' time Morneau
am
1
...
...
company
packed.
in
(iii)
(ii)
(i)
trial
it.
to a single
from (i), a verb from
perfect continuous), and an ending from (iii). QJJJ
2
want to
I
next week, so you can borrow
evidence at the
Make sentences with
is
homes
know when
says he's very happy with his old typewriter.
He
a computer.
your suitcase very heavy?
the rain
sure your suitcase
over the weekend
Dr Sankey
1
make
out before Monday.
I
b
b The
so
the village and find
my car until
Is
so,
late at the office again?
My grandad
4 a
an hour or
families
I
b
5
work
use
We
a
1
move
leave
give
Have cleared by the morning
wilt
arid,
-
jdLrii
part of an email from Emily, an English teacher
in
Japan, to her friend Rosa. Underline
the correct option.
Hi
Rosa
Greetings from Osaka! Hope this finds you
for
Christmas and you (2)
already 18 and that
it's
will
all
be enjoying /
suppose by now school (1) will close / will have closed
have been enjoying a rest. It's hard to believe that Tim's
he (3) will be leaving / will have been leaving school for
well.
will
only a few months until
I
college.
My main news
is
that
my
brother, Joe,
and
his family (4) will
have been arriving /
will
be arriving next
be going / will
and New Zealand. No doubt Joe's children (6) will have been planning / will plan
it all out for months! They (7) won't be spending / won't have spent all their time with me. Joe has to go
to Tokyo on business, so I (8) will have kept/ will be keeping the rest of the family entertained while he's
away. Then they (9) will all be going / will all have been going to Kyoto
Friday as part of their big trip around the world. By the time they get here they (5)
have been
to California
...
will
.
Unit
12
Be to +
Be to +
be about to +
infinitive;
infinitive
is
commonly used
in
news reports to
talk
infinitive
about events that are
likely
to happen
in
the near future:
O
It is
home
Police officers are to visit every
J The main Rome-to-Naples
the area.
in
railway line
is
to be reopened today, (passive form)
also used to talk about formal or official arrangements, formal instructions, and to give orders:
O
You are not to leave the school without my permission.
The European Parliament is to introduce a new law on safety
make
Passive forms are often used to
orders
at work.
museum, (passive form)
and instructions more impersonal.
Children are not to be left unsupervised
in
the
Note that we only use be to + infinitive to talk about future events that can be controlled by people.
Compare:
In the next few years, thousands of speed cameras are to appear on major roads, (or ... will
appear ...) and
Q
when
Scientists say they can't predict
disease
O
O
is
where the disease
will
appear
again, (not
The President is to return to Brazil later today, (or ... will return ...) and
The comet will return to our solar system in around 500 years, (not The comet
the
movement
However, when be to +
describe
Q
or
.
.
the
to appear again; the appearance of the disease can't be controlled)
comet
of the
is
to return
...;
can't be controlled)
infinitive refers to the future
from the past (see Unit 14B), we often use
it
to
what happened to someone, whether they were able to influence events or not:
Matthew Flinders sailed past Tasmania in 1770, but it was to be a further 30 years before he
landed there.
Clare Atkins
was to write two more books about
her experiences
in
Africa before her death in
1997.
We often
use be to + infinitive
something
clause) before
//the
O
human
race
is
(in
we must
to survive,
//justice
must happen
first (in
the main
the if-clause):
is
look at environmental problems now.
to be done, (passive form)
be to + infinitive and the present simple for the future in if-clauses:
to win gold at the next Olympics, he needs to work on his fitness, and
of
If
Lopez
If
Lopez wins gold at the next Olympics, he has said that he
is
Note how the order
We
happen
else can
The law needs to be revised
Compare the use
O
if-clauses to say that something
in
of cause
Lopez
If
Lopez wins gold
is
and effects
to win gold
If
...
...
in
if-sentences
(= effect), he needs to
is
reversed with these
work
...
(= cause)
(= cause), he has said that he will retire
use be about to + infinitive mainly
in
from
will retire
...
two
athletics.
tenses:
and
(= effect)
conversation to say that something will (not) happen
in
the
very near future:
O
We're about to
LJ
Appearing on TV might make her famous, but
a:
b:
eat.
Why don't you
Yes,
I
(not Yes,
Do you want to join
switch
it
off
and turn
it
us?
it's
was about to try that when you came
I
was to
try
...)
not about to
make
her
rich.
back on again?
in.
(referring to the future
from the past)
'jut
24
Exercises
Complete these news extracts using the verbs in brackets. Use be to
+
+ infinitive if not. Use active or passive forms as necessary.
infinitive
if
possible and
will
1
Jon Stobbard has written his
first
new
5
play for 15 years.
[stage) at the
2 The
new
danger
3
performance
Its first
New Victoria Theatre.
safety system
(stop) trains automatically
if
they pass a
signal.
Stafford Boys School
form a new co-educational establishment.
4 There are
(merge) with the nearby Bicton
fears that sea levels
(rise)
catastrophically
Girls’
in
School to
the next 50
years.
The old design and technology programme
computer science course.
Now use the verbs
10
become
in
the box to do the
create
increase
same
(replace) with a
in
receive
6 to 10.
succeed
retire
6 Managing Director Lars Lindberg, 59,
this summer a year
by Christina Fontana, who joined the company last year.
7 As the temperatures fall with the onset of winter, the refugee crisis
more
early.
He
severe.
8 Production
line staff at
the Heathcote garden furniture factory
a
new posts
parent company
pay
rise
following a big
9 Seventy
the
new
The recent rapid
in
house prices
among
in
the south-east
In
some
the
demand
cases both alternatives are possible.
You need to work much harder
2
My sister is to start / is about to start a PhD
3
Mrs Patel
to
major investment by
lower-paid workers.
1
likely
Italy.
the United States.
10Underline the
correct answers.
is
Northam
at the factory following a
rise in
for higher salaries
in
new order from
if
become the
you have / are to have any chance of passing the exam.
in Physics.
Foreign Minister
if
the party wins
/ is
to win
power
at the next
election.
4
If
5
a:
6
Sorry, Ym just to go I 'm just about to go home. It'll have to wait until tomorrow.
Beckman recovers / is to recover from a foot injury, it seems certain that he will play
Saturday's match against Spain.
you enjoy / are to enjoy romantic comedies, then
Can you type this letter for me?
this
is
a film
you must
see.
b:
7
If
If
the university keeps
facilities for
/ is
to keep
its
international reputation,
it
must
first
in
invest in better
students.
8 Jonas Fischer has denied that he
9
is to resign / is about to resign as marketing manager.
started snowing an hour ago, and from the look of those clouds things are to get
/ are about to
get a lot worse.
It
If
the railway system
amounts
of
is
improved /
is
to be improved, the
government should
invest substantial
money now.
25
Unit
13
Other ways of talking about the future
Some
phrases are
be about to +
commonly used
to refer to actions or events
infinitive (see Unit 12C).
We can
in
the future with a meaning similar to
use be on the verge of
...
/
brink of
...
/
point of
...
noun) to say that something will happen soon:
People are on the verge of starvation as the drought continues.
Scientists are on the brink of making major advances in the fight against AIDS.
Exhausted, mentally and physically, she was on the point of collapse.
Be on the brink of usually refers to something important, exciting, or very bad.
(+ -ing or
O
G
We
use be due to (+ infinitive) to say that something
be sure
/
bound to
(+ infinitive) to say that
(+ infinitive) to say that
The company's
something
is
expected to happen at a particular time,
is
or certain to happen, and be set to
likely
ready to happen:
chief executive
of further losses she
‘Will there
is
is
something
is
due to
retire
next year, but following today's announcement
sure to be asked to leave sooner.
be somewhere to get a coffee at the station?' ‘Oh, yes, there's bound to
is set to be a great success.
be.'
Her new film
Note that we use due to + noun to
(e.g.
We
Due to fog,
use
all flights
some verbs with
give the reason for something, not to
from the airport have been cancelled).
a to-infinitive to talk
We guarantee to refund your money
talk
about intentions:
Also aim*, agree,
:
if
you are
dissatisfied
expect*, hope*,
with the computer.
intend*, mean,
The present simple + to-infinitive or present continuous + to-infinitive
can be used with the verbs marked * to talk about intentions:
o
aim
I
Some
to get to
was aiming
I
Bangkok by the end of June,
to get
people, particularly
in
about the future
...
is
also possible, but
speech and
in
(or I'm
more
aiming to get
plan*, promise,
propose*, resolve,
...;
undertake, want*
tentative)
journalism, use be looking
+ to-infinitive to mean
planning a course of action:
G
When
We're looking to create 3,000 jobs
in
the city over the next year.
in A and B are used with past tense forms, they are usually concerned
with future events seen from the past (see also Unit 14):
the phrases and verbs
was his 64th birthday in 2006 and he was due to retire the following year.
Nathan had resolved to become fluent in Spanish before he left university.
The new management had been looking to create 20 new jobs.
It
si
Some
people use shall (and shan't) instead of will (and won't)
and we. However,
O
U
In
He was
a
more common to use
it is
good
friend
I'm just going to
current English
although
this
is
in
and we shall miss him
buy a newspaper.
we don't
found
will (particularly
I
26
statements about the future with
contracted form
(more commonly
shan't be long, (more
...
'll)
we'll miss
commonly won't
I
and won't:
...)
...)
usually use shall / shan't with other subjects to talk about the future,
formal rules and
in
older literary styles:
The match referee shall be the sole judge of
All
greatly,
in
its
people of the world shall
live
fair play.
together as brothers.
I
Exercises
Expand the notes to complete the news extracts, using the phrases
sure -face
-become
sure -provide
-make
point -sign
^o nt — mov e
verge
The
decision of Cornico to relocate
bound
to raise
NASA’s
Mars probe
latest
due -return
due -undergo
international headquarters to Switzerland
questions about the government’s
major financial firms are also
3/4
its
S
set -launch
verge -quit
i
1/2
-go
brink
betmd -caise^
set
in
new
on the point of moving
to
is
profits tax.
their
is
seems
It
that other
headquarters out of London.
Earth later today.
A spokesperson
said that the probe would be bringing back rock samples that are
new
5/6
exciting
information about the planet.
The Countryside Conservation Society
new
a
is
the protection of endangered plant species.
for
NASA
for
It
is
million-Euro
scheme
estimated that over 200 species are
extinct in the country.
7/8
Sources
at the United Nations
have said that the governments
an agreement
agreement
they
9/10
of North
and South
Alicia are
border dispute. However, any
in
South
Alicia,
who have
said
on.
will fight
Gomez
a second operation on
is
tennis earlier this year after a
He was
EU
their long-running
resistance from rebel forces
is
Tennis star Sancho
11/12
end
to
when
out of business,’ said the
they meet
first
his injured shoulder.
was unsuccessful.
in
Brussels on Monday. ‘Many farmers are
Italian representative,
Complete the sentences with the verb
present continuous for the
operation
an important announcement on increasing
agriculture ministers are
support to farmers
first
verb.
If
pairs
‘and the matter must be decided very soon.’
from the box. Use either the present simple or
both tenses are possible, write them both.
intend -to move
took — to^e placeexpect -to finish
aim -to study
find
to
guarantee
up
give
resolve
to
deal
propose to
My computer
1
the
2
In
3
We
first
now five years
is
old,
and
™ poking
I
half of the course we'll study microbiology,
to replace.,
and
in
it
with a faster one.
the second half
I
with genetic engineering.
it
4
haven't completed the work yet, but
week.
later this
much work
now on.
haven't done
I
we
harder from
at college so
far,
but
I
eating biscuits, but by February
New Year he
5
Every
6
We can't provide the spare
he has started again.
parts ourselves, but
who can.
moment commute for over three
we
a supplier
7
At the
closer to
I
my work
in
hours a day, but
I
the next few months.
Underline the possible options.
0
on to the manager who shall / will reply
2 Sorry, but shan't / won't be able to give you a lift after all.
think your parents shall / will be very happy with your decision.
3
1
I
have passed your
letter
shortly.
I
I
4 Only people over the age of 18 shall / will be eligible to vote in the referendum.
5 You shan't / won't want to eat your dinner tonight after all that chocolate.
Unit
14
The future seen from the past
There are a number of ways of talking about an activity or
event that was in the future at a particular point in the past.
we
order to express this idea,
In
verb forms
we would
normally use to talk about
These forms are often used
in
-
can use the past te nses of the
th<e future.
|
1
past
now
reporting (see Units :32-36).
<$
Compare the following sentences:
The future from
1
now
.
The future from the past
.
much money, so
home this summer.
haven't got
stay at
think
1
Eleni
I’ll
I’m not going to say anything about the
1
1
time.
my tutor
my work.
discuss
Will you be going alone, or
is
1
The exam
o'clock, so
There
is
Louise going
At the time,
have finished by three
will
to be a meeting of ministers this
When
the school closes,
moved
As the
bell is
It
all
1
my tutor.
thought would be going
1
wanted to come.
was announced that there was to be
a
Mrs Novak heard that she was to be
about to go
moved
for the
end of the
The
your books away.
was announced
cases
the children are
to one nearby.
the future seen from the past
some
match because was
meeting of ministers that evening.
lesson, pack
In
1
me to.
The exam was so easy that most people
would have finished after 30 minutes.
see you then.
I'll
to be
It
couldn't go to the
alone, but then Jan said he
evening.
If
wasn’t going to say anything about the
having a meeting with
with you?
home
summer.
exams, but the students asked
I'm having a meeting with
tomorrow to
.
decided that she would stay at
for the
exams today, because don't have
.
this
to a post
bell
in
a nearby school.
was about to go when
all
the
children started to pack their books away.
is still
in
the future for the speaker, then either form
morning that there
is /
was to be
is
possible:
a statement this evening.
we don’t know whether the
activity or event happened or not. Compare:
phone to give him the news because we were seeing each other later. He was very
upset when told him. (= we saw each other) and
I
didn't
I
We were seeing each other later that day,
but
I
had to phone and cancel. (=
we didn't see
each other)
To talk about an
use
activity or event that
was / were to +
was
in
the future at a particular point
infinitive (for things that actually
happened) and was
/
in
the past,
we
can
were to have + past
participle (for things that were expected, but didn't happen):
At the time she was probably the best actor in the theatre company, but
colleagues were to become much better known.
in
fact
some
The boat, which was to have taken them to the island, failed to arrive.
He was to find out years later that the car he had bought was stolen.
Note, however, that
I
in less
was supposed to
formal contexts
help, but
I
was
more natural to use be supposed to:
(more natural than was to have helped
it is
ill.
I
...)
of her
.
.
.
Exercises
Write
1
/
if
the italicised parts are correct.
Vm going to do the washing,
they are wrong, correct them.
If
2 The concert tonight would be over by about 9:30.
3
When we
4
a:
Where
5 The
were passing
shall
Ivan's house,
my coat?
hang
I
|
but we'd run out of washing powder.
b:
manager of Newtown United
We could
we thought we'd
Sorry,
I
thought
said that the
6 The second half was about to start, so shall
Ella will
team
we go
drop
is
eat after that.
in
and see him.
have shown you. Over there.
to be announced at nine tomorrow.
back to our seats now?
knew that by the morning would be feeling exhausted, but just wanted to go dancing.
Where's Oliver? He is supposed to be here yesterday, and there's still no sign of him.
b: Vm about to ask the same question.
9 didn't phone Ben this morning because was going to see him when I've finished work.
7
8
I
I
I
a:
I
10
I
DNA testing was to be used by police
the search for the missing Dublin schoolboy. His parents
in
have welcomed the news.
11
12
In
We are meeting at seven in the Globe coffee bar. Can you be there, too?
We didn't expect that having a rabbit as a pet will cause so many problems.
which three cases can
we
use either a past or present tense form
Choose the more appropriate option,
1
or
(a)
(b),
in
the italicised parts?
to complete these sentences.
The meeting was to have taken place in the hall,
a but had to be cancelled at the last minute.
...
b and was well attended.
2
3
She was to have appeared with Heath Ledger
a
and was a tremendous success.
b
but the part went to her
Later, in
in his last film...
sister.
Rome, was to meet Professor Pearce ...
his knowledge of Italian
I
a
and was very impressed by
b
but he
left
before
4 The twenty police
I
culture,
got there.
officers
who were to
have gone off duty at eight
.
.
10 a went to the Christmas party.
b had to remain
5
It
in
the police station.
was to take 48 hours to get to Japan
a
and we were exhausted when
b
but
we managed
to do
it
in
we
.
.
arrived,
only a day.
6 After the war he was to teach at London University
a
but no
money was
available to
...
employ him.
b for ten years.
7 The bridge
a
was to have been completed
this
year
.
.
but a number of accidents have led to delays.
b and
is
to be opened by the president next month.
8 The new road was to have a major impact on
much
making
b
but the crowded roads continued.
life
easier for
traffic in
the busy town centre,
9 The construction of the cathedral was to have begun
in
1650
...
a
and go on for over 80 years.
b
but a shortage of labour delayed the start for a further 20 years.
We were to stay with
a
b
Rodrigo
...
commuters.
a
in
many times before he moved
but he moved to Madrid.
Lisbon
...
to Madrid,
29
Unit
15
Can, could, be able to and be allowed to
Can, could and be able to: ability
We sometimes
Reminder
use be able to instead of can and could to talk about
when we talk about something that is happening
Watch me, Mum; can stand on one leg.
(not ... I'm able to stand on one leg.)
Q
as
we
ability.
We avoid
- Cl - C7
be able to -
speak:
I
before passives:
now
Films can
are
now
be streamed online, (rather than Films
streamed ...)
‘know how to':
easily
easily able to be
when the meaning is
Can you cook? (rather than Are you
If
we talk about
able to cook?)
a single achievement, rather than a general ability in the past,
we
usually use
be able
to rather than could. Compare:
O
Sophie could play the flute quite well, (or
She
swam
heavy
F-lowever,
in
strongly and
rain,
could
is
swam
(not She
more
usually
was able to
was able to
...
...;
strongly and could cross
...;
and
was swollen by the
a general ability)
cross the river easily, even though
it
a specific achievement)
be able to -
natural than
negative sentences:
up but couldn't move.
tried to get
I
I
with verbs of the senses,
e.g. feel,
hear, see, smell, taste, and with verbs of ‘thinking', e.g. believe,
remember, understand:
could remember the crash, but nothing
decide,
I
after the phrases
All
the only thing
we could
place
/
/
after that,
time, and after
all
when
it
means
‘the only thing':
see were his feet.
to suggest that something almost didn't happen, particularly with almost, hardly, just, nearly.
could nearly touch the ceiling.
I
Can and could:
possibility
To talk about the theoretical possibility of something happening we use could, not can. However,
use can, not could, to say that something is possible and actually happens. Compare:
We
It
could be expensive to keep a
It
can be expensive to keep a
cat. (=
cat. (=
it
if
we had
use can't, not couldn't, to say that something
There can't be
many people
The doctor can't see you
We use can to
indicate that there
suggests that something
is
in
this
is
one,
can be, and
the world
is
it
it
could or
it
sometimes
may
we
not be expensive) and
is)
theoretically or actually impossible:
who
haven't watched television.
morning; he's busy at the hospital.
a very real possibility of a future event happening. Using could
less likely or that there
is
some doubt about
it.
Compare:
We can stay with Jake in Oslo. (= we will be able to stay) and
We could stay with Jake in Oslo. (= it's possible; he's there)
if
Could and be allowed
to:
permission
To say that in the past someone had general permission to do something - that is, to do it at any
time - we can use either could or was / were allowed to. However, to talk about permission for one
particular past action,
we
was / were allowed to, but not could. Compare:
fish in the lake when the council owned it. (or ... could fish
...) and
have a ticket, Ned was allowed to come in. (not ... could come in.)
use
Anyone was allowed to
Although he didn't
In
negative sentences,
we
permission was not given
I
couldn't
/
can use either couldn't or wasn't
in
/
weren't allowed to to say that
general or particular situations:
wasn't allowed to open the present
until
my
birthday.
)
Exercises
Underline the correct or more natural option (or both
1
Valuables can / are able to be
2
We could / were able to finish the
the hotel safe. Please ask at the reception desk.
left in
3 The rebels could /were able to
possible).
if
hockey match before
it started snowing too
draw on the support of over 20,000 soldiers.
4 Couldyou / Were you able to understand Professor Larsen's lecture? found
5 a: Do you want a game? b: Sorry, can't / ’m not able to play chess.
I
it
heavily.
really difficult.
I
6 Look at me,
8 The
9
1
I
can / 'm able to ride
When the firefighters
7
air
knew
I
was so polluted
in
bike without
the city centre,
any
help.
Petra had been decorating.
I
I
could hardly / was hardly able to breathe.
could /was able to smell the paint when
I
came
in.
0 Can you /Are you able to drive without your glasses?
11
No changes can /are able to
12
He could/ was able to
13
She looked
1
my
arrived they could /were able to put out the flames in a couple of minutes.
4
all
made to this
rail
ticket after purchase.
over the house, but couldn't / wasn't able to find her keys anywhere.
was very busy
I
be
untie the ropes without the guards noticing.
at work, but
I
could / was able to have a couple of days off
Complete these blog posts with can, could and be allowed to
Use negative forms where necessary.
(or
last
two forms
week.
if
possible).
a
AO0
*r
We went camping
rain a lot
in
the north of Spain last July. As you probably know,
assembled
but
it
in
(1
in
how heavy the rain
beach. We had a new tent - the advertisement for
believe
(4)
it
midsummer, and the day we arrived we (2)
was. Eventually we found a place to camp, in a
on the coast, even
field
next to a
be
said, ‘This tent (3)
it
two minutes with no previous experience.’ What a joke! Now, there
be many people who haven’t had difficulty putting up a tent at some time,
took us more than two hours. And then, just as
it
was done, a man came along and
So we had
said
camp
it was private property.
we (5)
stay here all night. Let’s go to that
down again. Then Eva just said, ‘Well, we (6)
hotel in the last village we drove through.’ Unfortunately, when we got there they were full.
camp at the end of their garden!
But they were very kind and we (7)
there -
that
It is
often said that sports coaches (1)
was
incredibly hard on
him
in
strict,
but athlete Lance Jordan's
the year before the Olympic Games. For instance, Lance
watch
stay up later than nine, although on his birthday he (3)
(2)
television until ten as
it
was
going out with his friends
finish to
in
life.
When he
lose!'
a world record time.
- by staying up until 11
two years away.'
all
Lance (4)
the evening, and he (5)
get back to a normal
in
Of course,
a special occasion!
win gold - you (6)
metres
be
to take the tent
no
hardly wait for the
complained, his coach just said, 'Trust
his
coach was
And on the night
o'clock! 'But
- Additional exercise 5 (page 242)
And
think of
right.
He won
of his victory Lance (7)
later/ said his coach. 'The
a gold
Games
me and
medal
in
was
to
you'll
the 400
celebrate
World Championships are only
31
Unit
16
.
would and used to
Will,
Will and would
We can
it
use will (for the present) and
Every day
O
it
would
(for
the past) to talk about -
characteristic behaviour or habits:
Dan
come home from work and
will
At school she would always
sit
turn on the TV.
quietly and pay attention.
things that are or were always true:
O
Cold weather will
kill
certain plants.
During the war, people would eat all kinds of things that
(For the use of will to talk about the future, see Unit 9.)
we
don't eat now.
We don't use will or would
Each time
Last night
However,
O
O
In
we can
I
I
in this way to talk about a particular occasion. Compare:
gave him a problem he would solve it for me. and
gave him a problem and he solved it for me. ( not ... he would solve
use will not (won't) and
would not (wouldn't)
in
either case.
it ...)
Compare:
He would / wouldn't walk the five miles to his place of work, (characteristic behaviour) and
She wouldn’t say what was wrong when asked her.
I
speech,
we can
stress will or
would
to criticise people's characteristic behaviour or habits:
She just won't do the washing up when ask her.
was happy when Ryan left. He would talk about people behind their backs.
can also express disapproval of something they have done using will:
I
O
We
I
feel sick.' ‘Well,
‘I
We can
if
you
will eat so
much, I'm not
surprised.'
use use will to draw conclusions or state assumptions about things that are the case
now
(see also Unit 9B):
Martina will be at home by now. Let’s go and see her.
You will know that Ewan and Lucy are engaged. (= assume you already know)
I
Would and used to
When we talk about
used to +
O
O
in the past that don’t happen now we can use either would or
However, we can use would only if the time reference is clear. Compare:
used to play in the garden, (not We would play ...; time reference not given) and
We
Whenever we went to my
We can
O
O
repeated events
infinitive.
use used to but not
uncle's house,
we would / used to
would when we talk about
use either used to or
happened,
would when we say
how long something took, or that
the garden.
past states that have changed:
exactly
a single event
We visited Switzerland four times during the
She went to Jamaica
Would / will have +
talk
in
The factory used to be over there.
Didn't you use to have red hair?
We don't
To
play
last
how many times
happened
in
total
something
at a given past time:
1990s. (not We would
month, (not She would
/
/ used to visit ...)
used to go to Jamaica last month.)
past participle
about an unreal past situation - that is, an imaginary situation or a situation that might have
in the past, but didn't - we use would have
+ past participle:
happened
I
would have been happy to see him, but
I
didn’t have time.
However, to say that we think a past situation actually happened, we use will have past participle:
+
As it was cloudy, few people will have seen last night’s lunar eclipse, (rather than ... would
have seen
...)
Exercises
Complete the doctor and patient speech bubbles using
verbs.
If
would
will or
be
cause
Most days
are not possible, use a verb
exercise
know
have
find
will or
would5 followed by one
of these
CEQ
the past simple.
in
spend
sit
Over time poor posture
I
eight hours or
more
back pain.
front of
in
my computer.
.
XT
Before computers
Yesterday
sharp pain
my
in
at college,
the
in
When
fit
When
I'm sure
I
for so long.
you
-
breaks.
days.
tried to stand
that
probably
That
I
I
the result of
couldn't
sitting badly.
straighten up.
If
still
about the need to take regular
I
gym most
I
now.
along,
rarely
v
lower back.
No, I'm not that
was
came
people
a
I
necessary, correct these sentences using
Q
correct, use a past simple verb form.
would
or used to.
If
neither
would nor used to
is
would enjoy studying Latin when was at school.
2 Orwell would spend winters in Spain and summers in England.
3 We would live in a bungalow on the south coast, and then we moved to a flat in town.
4 You used to teach at Halston University, didn't you?
5 On Saturdays and Sundays the ferry used to take tourists across to the island.
6 The committee would meet four times last week, but still no decision has been reached.
1
I
I
Complete these sentences with
Q
verbs.
buy
approve
1
will
According to
hear
official figures,
I
I
TV
last night.
I
my grandmother
it.
anyone, but was
don't think the dog
I
The
train
a:
Did you
like
something
Complete
1
a:
I
2
a: I've
3
a:
got a
I'm really
to
b:
fly.
Well, an umbrella stand isn't
myself, but
think I'm putting on weight,
when the
I
the present Justin gave you for your birthday?
responses below to
glad
the return of a popular feature to our website.
I
B's
still
about yesterday's robbery at the supermarket.
journey was quite comfortable, although
6 Regular readers
7
one of these
watch
prefer
owner took it away.
4 I'm sure by now you
5
participle of
over half the population
enjoyed the exhibition - but don't think
of
3
notice
hurt
the final of the song contest on
2
have or would have and the past
show criticism
b:
Well,
if
I
suppose
it
might be
useful.
or disapproval. (?)
you
headache, b: Well, if you
hot. b: Well, if you
Additional exercise 5 (page 242)
33
May and might often have a similar meaning when we talk about possibility.
However, we prefer may in academic or formal language to talk about
Reminder -MZ15-C19
characteristics or behaviour:
and
in
O
The seeds from the plant may grow up to 20 centimetres in length,
we prefer might to say what we will possibly do in the future:
might paint the kitchen purple.
speech
I
We don’t
use may to ask questions about the possibility of something happening. Instead
example, could(n’t) or the phrase be likely:
for
O
It is
Could it be that you don't want to leave? ( not May it be that you ...?)
Are you likely to be in Spain again this summer? (not May you be in Spain
we
use,
...?)
might in this type of question, but it is rather formal:
Might they be persuaded to change their minds?
possible to use
Note that we can use
O
May
may in formally asking for permission
Q May
now?
leave
I
Might (not 'may') + bare
past. This
I
infinitive
is
sometimes used to
and offering
help:
help you?
talk
about what was typically the case
in
the
a formal or literary use:
is
During the war, the police might arrest you for
Years ago children might be sent
We can also use could + bare
down mines
infinitive in
examples
For example, 'During the war, the police could arrest
criticising
the government.
at the age of
like this
you
...’
six.
(passive form)
to talk about past ability (see Unit 15).
that the police were legally able to
means
arrest you.
When we say that a
person or thing compensates to
having another characteristic,
or
we can
some extent for a
use a pattern with
limitation or
weakness by
may / might not + bare infinitive
...
but
may / might not have + past participle but
The painting may not be a masterpiece, but the colours are remarkable.
.
.
.
She might not have danced very gracefully, but she had a
We
use
talk
about possible events in the
Do you think Laura may
may / might
(not ‘can’)
+ have + past
past, present
participle and
and
lot
of energy and enthusiasm.
may / might (not
‘can’)
+ be +
-ing to
future:
/ might have completed the report by now? (past)
maths may / might have improved by the time the exam comes round, (future)
Marco isn’t in his office. He may / might be working at home today, (present)
When go to Vienna may / might be staying with Max, but I’m not sure yet. (future)
His
I
I
Note that could can be used in these sentences instead of may or might:
Do you think Laura could have completed the report by now?
We can
use
may / might have been + -ing to talk about
possible situations or activities that
went on
over a period of past time:
Callum didn't know where the ball was, but he thought
it before she left for school.
with
his sister
might have been playing
Exercises
^
6
IfnTitier
1
is'
"possibtule
We
So to Majorca
2 The plane, Venus
3
™
"
for our holiday this
summer.
be seen clearl In the night
y
sky
you see Yasemin this weekend?
j.
4 lfo
4
feel really sore after
playing tennis. think
this
month.
.
I
5
a:
Someone's
left their coat,
I
.„
it
b:
6 Exceeding the stated dose
d have C
IZ l ^ ,
2
T
,
1
by^hen.
9 .nth!
!
their right
10
I
Tl
^
,
|
e dancing
° f,ered a newi0b
Wh!T? C ° me an<
6
.
cause drowsiness.
Underline the correct answer.
h0
h
have
a batK
T“:
be KNadias?
”
-
YOU mi^have enjoyed /might
enjoy
ma
it
m
y^"”>vlng / ay have moved to Dubai
566 Us n MarchTThe weather
may have been tm/vowig/
'
1
'
8 ‘ 0t
° f Paia but he
'I
^
m/
hind
may have told /may tell you
may have improved
™yte™l>een exaggerating / may exaggerate
f
be Phishing / might be punished for
this before.
I
can't
not holdi,
holding a pen
in
remember.
Complete these sentences in any
appropriate way.
1
He may not be the best singer in the
Q
world, but
Hugh’s old car might not be terribly
comfortable, but
3
Her English grammar may not be
very accurate, but
Now expand these notes to complete the
sound /exciting
4
...He
may
agree /him
sentences below,
express
/ feelings
/ might not work very quickly
,
openly
but at least he's very reliable.
but his opinions on music make
'
but the
very good.
wofk/qu»ek4y
hut she
new museum
is
you
think.
really very
of fishing
is
fond of you.
actually
Additional exercise 5 (page
242)
35
Unit
18
Must and have
(got) to
We use must and must not in formal rules and
regulations and
warnings:
in
Reminder
- C20- C24
must be made at least seven days before departure.
The government must not be allowed to appoint judges.
Bookings
spoken English
In
we often
use
must and mustn't
(=
must not) to propose
a future arrangement,
such as a meeting or social event, without making detailed plans:
O
We must get together more often.
We can
also use
I
I
must
...
We
mustn't leave
it
so long next time.
to remind ourselves to do something:
must charge my phone. meant to do
it
I
yesterday, but
I
forgot.
To draw a conclusion about -
&
something that happened
in
^
we use must + have + past participle:
must have borrowed it from her parents.
the past
That's not Clara's car. She
something happening at or around the time of speaking we use must be +
can't hear a noise. You must be imagining things.
O
-ing:
I
something that
is likely to happen in the future we use must be going to or must be +
-ing:
‘What are all those workmen doing?' think they must be going to dig up the road.'
was wrong about the meeting being today. It must be happening next Friday,
O
‘I
I
we
a present situation
use
must
be, or
have
(got) to
Their goalkeeper has got to be at least
We can
be
informal speech:
in
two metres
tall!
(or
must be
...
...)
must have to to say that we conclude something based on what we know about a present
and must have had to to conclude something about a past situation:
use
situation
can't access the database. You must have to put in a password. (= a password is
necessary)
Matt wasn't at home when went round. He must have had to go out unexpectedly.
I
I
Note that we
In
can't say ‘must've (got) to' but
we can
say must've had to.
questions that hope for or expect a negative answer
must is sometimes used:
Do we have to answer ail the questions?
we
prefer
have (got)
to,
although
in
formal
contexts
We use
have to
think this
o
in
questions that imply a criticism.
rather old-fashioned.
is
Do y° u have to
Sometimes we can use
we
O
It's
have to or have got
in
We
have
I
we
to.
in
.
?;
Must we
formally
sentences
contracted
need a new
we don't
?)
some people
Must you
play
.
. .
?)
Ms °\ alwayS
rarely,
'
" ever normally
'
sometimes,
etc.
questions and negative sentences:
then
we must
...)
include got:
and they've got to be
blue, (not
...
they've to be
...)
use have got to with other modal verbs:
Motorists
wait
.
it
(e.g. I've, He's, It'd)
pair of shoes,
.
like this:
back? (not When had you got to give it back?)
didn't have to wait too long for an answer, (not We hadn't got to wait too long
is
.
However —
I
use had to especially
.
deafening! {formally
often have to work at the weekend to get
everything done.
did you have to give
.
also be used, although
have and must
I
When
Note
play your trumpet here?
either
Must can
usually stress
use have to with frequency adverbs:
with the past simple
if
We
Have we got to
(or
will
have to wait
until
next year to use the bridge, (not Motorists will have got to
...)
also that
have got to
is
often preferred
in
informal speech.
'
.
.
Exercises
Complete the sentences with one of these forms: must have + past participle; must + bare
must be + -ing; or must have (had) to. Use the verbs given.
infinitive;
When
1
my
left
I
laptop on the train
it
2
Luisa
3
a:
owns
a big car
I
thought
I'd
and handed
it
never see
in
it
incredibly rich, (be)
and a yacht. She
Everyone's going into the
hall,
b:
someone
again. But
to the lost property office, (find)
soon. Let's go.
The meeting
(start)
4 Without things
5
7
washing machines and dishwashers our grandparents
much harder in the kitchen than we do today, (work)
Rob was coming to the meeting. He
wonder how you get past security.
some form of
suppose you
thought Paul would be home.
a:
I
b:
I
a:
I
He
b:
Lotta to work.
8 Look at
all
those
birds.
He
It is
mind, (change)
(show)
ID.
said he would, (take)
thousand of them,
at least a
There
Write new sentences with a similar meaning. Use have
preferable; if not, use have / has to.
1
his
didn't think
I
6
like
(be)
has got to where possible or
/
necessary to do all of this photocopying before lunchtime.
of this photocopy wg has got to be done / has to be done before Lunchtdne
ALL
rarely necessary to ask
Is it
necessary for us to hand
It
wasn't necessary for
Was
in
to tidy her room.
me to go to the
hospital after
necessary for Ben to go alone? Did
Adam
sometimes necessary
It is
necessary to extend the college to
may be
for
.
all.
.
...
/ ...
...
to start work at 6:30.
It is
It
If
it
Hannah
the homework tomorrow? Have
Hannah
It is
Adam
accommodate the new
necessary to cancel our holiday because
my mother
necessary, correct the italicised parts of this email message.
.
.
students. The college
is
ill.
We
...
^93
Hello Maria,
Sorry
admit
I
haven’t been
I’ve
had
door’s very
you
to
in
touch
a pretty awful
stiff,
and
I
(2)
for
a while. You
week.
When
always have got
bang the door so hard?’ When
I
must have been wondering what’s been happening. Well, must
from work last Monday, the front door was wide open. The
My neighbour’s always saying, ‘(3) Have
very hard to shut
pull
I
(1
got
I
to
went
)
home
it.
it
in
I
found that the house had been burgled. They
(4)
must have
small
climbed over the fence in the back garden. None of the windows and doors were damaged, so someone very
didn’t
but
open,
it
leave
must
suppose (6)
in the kitchen.
(5) must have to squeeze through the tiny window
front door
expect anyone to be able to get in. Then they (7) must have come through the house and opened the
for the others.
Of course, the
thing
first
I
was
did
to call the police
I
I
I
and
I
(8) mustn’t wait very long for
them
to get
must be disturbed perhaps
think the burglars (9)
here. Fortunately, the only thing that was taken was my TV.
when the postman came. So now (10) I’ve to get a new lock for the front door and replace the TV, and (11 must
really
put some locks on the windows. suppose (12) may must get a burglar alarm, too. must say ve never
,
I
I
)
I
I
I
I
wanted one, but needs must!
Anyway, (13)
(15)
I’ve to go.
Hope
the family
is
well.
Jessica (14) must get ready to go back to university.
must be busy with the new school year just about
for
a weekend.
All
the best for now,
to start.
When
you have time,
we
(16)
have
to
And you
get together
Amy
Can you
find three other
- Additional exercise 5 (page 242)
common expressions with must?
37
Unit
19
Need(n
We can
bare
add
l
t)
;
don't need to and don't have to
use need as an ordinary or a modal verb (followed by a
infinitive).
As a modal verb
it
doesn't change
for the third person singular.
‘-s'
Compare:
needed to leave early, or
You needn't speak so loudly.
O
I
When
it is
O
O
modal verb need
a
I've
is
(=
needs
She's thirsty. She
most commonly used
in
It is
in
interview, but
it.
needn't have worried - got the job!
I
I
fear, involve,
mean, panic
sometimes used in questions, but we prefer to use need as an ordinary verb or have to:
Need you go so soon? (= modal verb; less common and rather formal)
Do you need to go so soon? (= ordinary verb) or
Do you have to go so soon?
rarely used in affirmative sentences (that
written English, particularly
We
In
and
negative sentences:
Other verbs often used with need not (needn't): apply, concern,
It is
a drink. (= ordinary verb)
modal verb)
already cleaned the car so you needn't bother to do
was very nervous before the
I
Reminder -» C25- C28
tense and doesn't
its
need have no
not questions or negatives), but
nobody / no one, and
it is
used
in this
way with
negative words such as hardly,
l
l
don't
want
The changes
{less formally
...)
Nobody ever need know about the money,
O
sometimes found
only:
The changes need only be small to make the proposals acceptable,
only need to be
is
fear for Nicole, she can take care of herself.
other styles of formal written English
never,
is,
in fiction:
my parents to
(less formally
Nobody
ever needs to
know
...)
know.' ‘They need never find out.' (less formally They never need
to find out.)
To give permission not to do something we can use either needn't or don't need to:
You needn't cut the grass, I'll do it later, (or You don't need to cut the grass
To
talk
...)
about a general necessity, we prefer don't need to:
You don't need to be over 18 to get into a nightclub, (ratherthan You needn't be
We can often
use either needn't or don't have to with
little
difference
...)
meaning to say that
in
it is
unnecessary to do something:
You needn't whisper. Nobody can hear
us. (or
You don't have to
...)
However, some people prefer needn't when it is the speaker who decides the lack of necessity, and
don't have to when somebody else or external rules make something unnecessary. Compare:
As you worked
late
speaker's decision)
yesterday you needn't
come
in until
ten
tomorrow morning,
(the
and
We've been told that we don't have to be
at
work
until ten
tomorrow, (reporting someone
else's decision.)
We can
use needn't (or don't have to) to say that something
mustn't
in this
way
is
not necessarily true.
We don't use
(see also Unit 18C):
Volcanoes needn't erupt constantly to be
...; not Volcanoes mustn't erupt ...)
classified as 'active', (or
Volcanoes don't have to
erupt
Nowadays
to cost
...;
needn't cost a fortune to own an e-book reader,
not Nowadays it mustn't cost ...)
it
(or
Nowadays
it
doesn't have
Exercises
Match the sentence beginnings and ends. Join them with needn't and the bare
of the verbs from the box.
change
bother
1
I'll
give
you
a
lift
concern
panic
to the station so you
2 The questions are
3 All the
Q
in
the book so you
windows have screens so you
full computer
4 Our software provides
5 The new tax laws don't come
worry
.
. .
.
.
...
...
.
one
infinitive of
the details on the form
yourself with viruses.
copy them down.
...to
.
security so
you
.
.
into force until next year so
you
.
...
about booking a
...
about being bitten by
.
taxi.
mosquitoes.
Rewrite the following
It is
1
It is
Q
remind you that the money is now due.
need hardly remind you thai the money .1s now due.
hardly necessary for us to
We
2
a formal style using need.
in
only necessary for us to look at the
3 With such a lead
in
the opinion polls
rainfall figures
it is
to see the seriousness of the problem.
hardly necessary for the Democrats to bother
campaigning before the election.
It is
5
After such a huge lottery win,
Underline the more
1
2
3
4
5
6
know who
not necessary for anyone to
4
it is
likely option.
If
paid the
ransom to the kidnappers.
not necessary for him to work again.
the options are equally
likely,
underline
them
most developed countries, people needn't / don't need to boil water before they drink
You needn't / don't need to walk. I'll give you a lift.
to take notes.
I'll email a summary of the lecture so you needn't / don't need
a police officer.
become
to
degree
university
You needn't / don't need to have a
present.
You needn't / don't need to buy me a birthday
museums.
In most cities you needn't / don't need to pay to get into the galleries and
In
Correct any mistakes
in
the extracts from a speech
O
both.
it.
made by the managing director of a
company to her employees.
You needn't to worry about
I
need hardly to
important
losing your jobs.
it is
you how
tell
that
we
get this
order.
v2
Need we make any changes
company policy?
in
You don't have to cancel your
holiday plans.
3
Changes
in
technology mustn't
be a problem, but
in
fact
provide opportunities.
I
don't have to remind you
that
we are competing with
two other companies.
- Additional exercise 5 (page 242)
We mustn't allow our rate of
production to drop.
The present
difficulties
people
financial
mustn't
mean
that
will lose their jobs.
39
Unit
20
Should, ought to and had better
We can often
use either should or ought to to talk about obligations and
Reminder -+ C29- C32
recommendations (e.g. You should / ought to finish your homework before
you go out) and probability (e.g. It should / ought to be ready by now) although in general should is
used more frequently. Ought to is used particularly in speech and most often to talk about obligation
rather than probability.
Note
also the following details
we
prefer
we
use should (or would), not ought to,
should when we say what an outside authority recommends:
The manual says that the computer should be disconnected from the power supply before
the cover is removed, (rather than ... ought to be disconnected ...)
should leave early tomorrow,
I
we
should
prefer
O
We
-
in
I
we
past and
/
when we
give advice with
were you.
I
(or
I
would
I
...:
leave
...;
or
leave
I'd
...)
questions, particularly wh-questions:
What should do
use should
if
if
I
ought to + have + past
are sorry that
it
O
have any problems?
Should
I
ring
you
at
home?
participle to talk about something that didn't happen
in
the
didn't:
We should / ought to have waited for the rain to stop. (I'm sorry we didn't)
We often use this pattern to indicate some regret or criticism and the negative forms shouldn't /
oughtn't to have are almost always used
in this
way.
We also
use should / ought to + have + past participle to talk about an expectation that
something
happened, has happened, or will happen:
If
We can
the flight was on time, he should
use should
Should
Who
Note that
in
We can
it is
a
I
sentences
‘I
like
these
we
can also use shall with a very similar meaning.
of shall and should
should'
means
‘I
in
ought
sentences such as the following, where
‘I
shall'
means
‘I
to':
script
on the
train
use had better instead of should
If
idea to
/
I'll read ...) and
tomorrow but know that I'll be too
I
ought to,
especially
in
tired.
spoken English, to say that
we
do something:
you're not well, you'd better ask Clare to go instead, (or ... you should
use it to talk about the past or to make general comments:
/
ought to
...)
we don't
You should
/
ought to have caught a later train, (not You had better have caught ...)
/ ought to give children sweets, (not ... parents had better
don't think parents should
give
We
questions that are offers or that request confirmation or advice:
in
should read the
good
I
Jakarta early this morning.
shall read the script on the train tomorrow, (or
I
although
in
phone for a taxi for you?
should pass the message to?
intend to' and
I
ought to have arrived
I
Compare the use
O
/
prefer
...)
had better
There's
if we want to express particular urgency or in
demands and threats:
someone moving about downstairs. We'd better call the police, quickly.
Note that the negative form is had better not, and in questions the subject comes
He'd better not be late again or he'll be in trouble.
Had we
better get a taxi? (or Should
we
get
...?)
after had:
think
Exercises
Complete these sentences with should / ought to + infinitive (active), should / ought to be +
past participle (passive), or should / ought to have + past participle using each of the verbs
from the box once only.
Q33
answer
1
2
go
be
arrive
Thomas is running so well
the 800 metres easily.
Where
„
remove
put
at the
moment that
the cheese?
In
the fridge?
a couple of
for the full
win
he
3 The tickets
4 Payment
wear
send
resign
weeks before we go on
amount
holiday.
with this application form.
before switching on the printer for the
5 All packaging
first
time.
6
important to look smart at the interview. You
It's
many
7 There are
people
who think the
a suit.
years ago.
President
we
8
the questions
in
English or in French?
9
10
If
I
my advice,
you want
by train rather than
I
car.
here by now.
happened to Nadia. She
can't imagine what's
which sentences can you use should or must and in which can you only use must? Where
both are possible, consider the difference between should and must. (3
In
1
2
3
A timetable
Lev isn't home yet. He
wonder how old Louis
a:
I
be set for withdrawing the army.
have been held up at work.
is?
be well over
went to school with my mother, so he
phone the emergency number.
4 If you smell gas, you
try to visit Nepal -it's a beautiful country.
5 You
b:
6
a:
b:
If
Well, he
know
I
Yes,
2
be handy
my
living
house
is
small, but
it's
very convenient for work.
so close to your office.
necessary correct these conversations using should
ought to, must,
/
shall, or
had better, or
. (3333
write
1
I'm always complaining that
it
50.
wrong with
a:
There's something
b:
He should wish
a:
The next meeting's on 3rd
b: I'd
better
make
he'd never
David's
bought
computer yet
again.
it.
April.
a note of that, or
I'll
forget.
Have you put on weight recently?
shall do more exercise, but never seem to have time.
b: Yes.
4 a: The children from next door have been throwing stones at our windows.
b: Well, they shouldn't do it again, otherwise I'll call the police.
3
a:
I
I
5
6
a:
I'm freezing.
b:
You'd better have worn a thicker coat.
a:
Businesses had better not be allowed to give
money
to political parties.
b:
7
8
9
totally agree.
When
b:
By
have
four.
I
we
got to be
in Bristol?
think we'd better get started.
a:
Do you want to go out for lunch?
b:
Well,
Well,
a: It's
b:
I
should be revising for
looked
a: I've
b:
10
I
a:
if
all
my maths exam
...
but okay.
over the house and can't find the keys.
they're not here, they
must
still
be
in
the
car.
so expensive to park here.
Yes,
I
don't think people had better pay to park at work at
Additional exercise 5 (page 242)
all.
41
Unit
21
seem; become, get,
Linking verbs: be, appear,
When
an adjective or noun phrase
subject
is,
O
used after a verb to describe the subject or say what or
the adjective or noun phrase
Clara
Other
is
is
a
complement and the verb
linking verbs:
Most of these verbs can be followed by either an adjective or
noun phrase (e.g. It sounds nice / a nice place).
'becoming' linking verbs:
When they are used as linking verbs, come and grow
(e.g. come to know, grow thoughtful) can't be followed
become, come, end up,
grow, turn out
a
‘seeming' linking verbs:
Keep
e
g.
who the
a linking verb
is
She seemed unable to concentrate.
prove, remain, stay
g.
is
a doctor.
‘being' linking verbs: e.g. be, keep,
e
etc.
appear, look, seem, sound
After the verbs
appear
{-
seems
(e.g.
true),
by
noun phrase.
only followed by a noun
kept him awake).
is
It
if
an adjective follows
look (= seem), prove, seem, and turn out
we
it
can often either
include or omit to be:
The room appears (to be) brighter than when last saw it.
However, following these verbs to be is usually included before the adjectives
and awake, and before the -ing forms of verbs:
I
I
didn’t
go
in
because she appeared to be asleep. not
(
...
alive, alone, asleep,
she appeared asleep.)
we include to be when the noun tells us what the subject is, but often leave it out
when
we give our opinion of the person or thing in the subject. We leave out to be in formal
English. Compare:
He walked into what seemed to be a cave. not ... what seemed a cave.) and
(
She seems (to be) a very efficient salesperson.
Before a noun
We use the
linking verb become to describe a process of change.
be used instead of become, including come, get, go, grow, turn
A number of other
linking verbs can
(into).
We use get rather than
become: in informal speech and writing before difficult, ill, interested,
pregnant, suspicious, unhappy, and worried; in imperatives; and
in phrases such as get changed
(clothes), get dressed, get married / divorced:
first got suspicious when he looked
Don t get upset about it!
I
We prefer become to talk about a
more
into
all
the cars. (more formally
Where
did
you
live
.
became suspicious
...)
abstract or technical process
Also with: apparent,
of change:
He became recognised as an expert.
Their bodies have become adapted to
O
.
before you got married ?
We use become,
aware, convinced,
infected, irrelevant,
high altitudes.
obvious
not get,
if
there
is
a
noun phrase
after the linking verb:
Dr Morales became an adviser to the government.
-
We use go or turn,
The
We often
not usually get or become,
traffic lights
turned
/
when we talk about
went green and pulled away.
colours changing:
I
use g o to talk about changes, particularly for unwanted situations.
For example:
go deaf / blind / bald; go mad / crazy / wild;
go bad / off / mouldy / rotten; go bust; go dead;
go missing; go wrong
O
But note: get
O
ill,
get
old,
get
The company went bust and had
to close.
My computer's gone wrong again.
tired.
Some
people get
ill
very
easily.
|
come, get, and grow (but not after
are often used to talk about gradual change:
After the verbs
grow
42
I
eventually
become) we can use
came / grew to appreciate his work,
(not
...
became
a to-infinitive
Come and
to appreciate his work.)
Exercises
Put brackets around to be
1
The job turned out to be
2
When
I
these sentences
in
far easier
than
looked through the window,
I'd
if it
can be
left out.
(?)
expected.
appeared to be alone.
Ella
What he called his ‘little cottage in
4 Hassan proved to be an excellent source of information about the town.
5 She appeared to be satisfied with the work I'd done.
10
6 I've adjusted the aerial and the television seems to be working okay now.
the country' proved to be a castle.
3
7
When
I
picked the crab up
8 With only
9
We've decided to buy
a:
He
thought
I
minutes of the match
five
a Ford,
b:
it
was dead, but
it
turned out to be alive and pinched me.
Spain look to be heading to victory.
left,
That seems to be a very good choice.
knew he must be a lot older.
only looked to be about ten years old, but
I
Complete the sentences with an appropriate form of become or
Give
1
me
a
changed, and then
few minutes to
2 The state of the railways
a
3 Research has shown that
risk
6
for
the car keys.
I've lost
interested
just couldn't
I
in
in
it.
convinced that
the house she
divorced
had just
I
b e rs e rk
was
at a zoo
to
once when an elephant
1
I
2
A few seconds
know
We soon
me
8 The company
If
c
«-
red
like
brackets and a word or
tired
and attacked its keeper, (go / turn)
and Marc put down the handset, (go / turn)
and started to swell up. (go /get)
Rachel her ankle
bit
him. (become / get)
4 He's actually quite friendly when you
5 I'll take over driving when you
7 The doctor told
to
in
went berserk
later the line
3 After the spider
was haunted.
I
dead
bust
blind
it
when met Marianne.
Complete each sentence with an appropriate form of one of the verbs
phrase from the box.
6
child's
clear at the next meeting.
annoyed with me, but
didn't finish the book.
7 After the strange events
8
during the last election campaign.
pregnant while dieting increase their
my decision will
Don't
I
women who
be ready to go.
I'll
political issue
of obesity.
4 The reasons
5
major
get. (j)
(get / go)
each other and have been great friends ever since, (become / come)
(go / turn)
that without immediate treatment might
when the bank wouldn't lend it any more money, (go /get)
•
I
necessary, correct the italicised parts of this blog.
rf
<?
The morning we were going on holiday everything seemed
to
(1)
turn wrong.
The
taxi
was due
at 8.00
When looked in on Adam at 7:00 he (2) seemed awake, so went downstairs
we couldn’t have
to make breakfast. When opened the fridge found that the milk (3) had gone off, so
upstairs and
breakfast. Then Adam (4) seemed taking a long time to come down, so at 7:30 went back
to take us to the airport.
I
I
I
I
I
he
ill
still
(5)
hadn’t
found them
It
was
dressed.
(9)
0)
in his
jacket pocket.
getting obvious that
taxi arrived
(1
become
He
said he wasn’t feeling well, but
when we’re going on holiday!’ After that the keys to the luggage
and we made
it
By 8:30 the taxi hadn’t
we were
arrived
going to miss our plane
(7)
I
got missing, but
and was
I
if
just shouted, ‘You can’t (6) get
starting (8) to
we didn’t
Adam
eventually
become worried.
leave soon. But just then the
to the airport with minutes to spare. Surprisingly, after
such a bad
start,
it
turned out to be an excellent holiday.
43
1
Unit
22
Forming passive sentences
1
Verbs such as give take both a direct object (DO) and an
indirect object (IO) in
two
V+
patterns:
IO +
Reminder
Section
D & Appendix
2
DO or V + DO +
preposition + IO. These verbs have two corresponding passives:
V + IO + DO
V + DO + prep
active
Alice gave us that vase.
passive
Also award, hand, lend,
:
+ IO
offer, send,
/
Alice gave that vase to us.
We were given that vase
S
That vase was given
The passive form you choose depends on which
specify an agent (see Appendix 2), this follows
contexts
‘to'
can be
left
out
V
+
/
(to) us (by Alice).
more appropriate
at the
teach (=
/
in a
'telling'
verbs)
particular context.
end of the clause. Note that
in
(=
read,
If
we
informal
the second passive pattern.
in
Verbs that can't be followed by IO +
active
is
by
(by Alice).
throw
‘giving' verbs); ask,
DO + prep + IO
DO
the active have only one of these passive forms:
in
passive
Also announce, demonstrate,
+-was explained the problem.
describe, introduce, mention,
:
ovnl
-Ho
iv. v^a^iuii
iv.U
i
He
mn thp
1
1
11-
Lilt-
nrnhlr^m - ^
X
LMLMJlvJiM.
explained the problem to me.
/
me.
Verbs followed by object +
V
active
+ object +
X
propose, report, suggest
The problem was explained to
/
complement
complement
(= ‘reporting' verbs)
the active have one passive form:
in
passive
Also appoint, declare, make, nominate,
:
They elected her president.
vote
She was elected
call,
president.
Some
(to do with giving a particular
name, title (= ‘naming' verbs)
verbs that are followed by object + bare infinitive (= an infinitive without
followed by a to-infinitive
active
V+
in
‘to') in
position);
the active are
the passive:
object + bare infinitive
passive
Also feel, hear, help (also +
He has been made to
object + to-infinitive), observe,
return the money.
see (see also Unit 23A)
:
They have made him return the
money.
Transitive
two- and three-word verbs
Some have
passive forms:
active
Ella
looked after him.
(see also Unit 94)
passive
Also: carry
He was looked
disapprove
after (by Ella).
down to
Some
are not used
in
up against
a problem.
Some can
(= patronise)
the passive:
active
We came
out (= put into practice),
of, hold over (= delay), talk
be only used
no passive
Also:
brush up on (=
m pfuutem-wos come up
back
(= try to
ugcJiribt.
in
revise), cast (your mind)
remember), get (something) down
(= write), take after (= resemble)
a
the passive with certain senses:
active
passive
Also: (passive possible
They put out the fire.
put out a hand to steady
The
meaning): call (someone) up (order to join
myself.
3tt_uuy
1
n
fire
was put
iTuinj v?uj
1
put
lysuu.
out.
Olll 11/
A
the army
back
/
meaning / no passive
telephone); call
(someone)
(ask to return / telephone); let in
(allow into a place / allow rain, etc.
let
44
out (allow to leave
/ let
in);
out a sound)
Exercises
Rewrite the sentences using one
1
2
3
4
5
10
6
7
8
9
or,
if
two
possible,
passive forms. Look carefully at the tense,
was Handel a. note. / A note was handecl
Someone handed me a note.
Someone offered her a second-hand bicycle.
Someone has proposed improvements to the developers.
Someone suggested some interesting changes to me.
Someone awarded him a prize.
Someone will announce the President's arrival to the waiting journalists.
Someone had mentioned the password to the thieves.
Someone has lent me some skis.
Someone is sending me a lot of spam emails.
Someone is going to explain the changes to the students.
I
to
§
me
6
first sentence with a suitable form of a verb from the box. Then complete the
second sentence using the same verb and the passive.
Complete each
QEEB
appoint
3
1
4
demonstrate
declare
helped.
Rob to his feet after the accident.
People
accdient
Rob ...was helped
5
2 Tony
me to
Mrs Rossi at
see
introduce
T»etf>^
.
his birthday party
!
6
7
3 Has anyone
Chris this morning?
Has Chris
8
?
Sven Larsen Regional Sales Director for Scandinavia.
4 They
Sven...Lorsen
5
I
am
still
....
„
certain that Sarah
have any doubt
They
1
am
company
director to those
certain that Sarah’s sutlabillty as company director
her suitability as
who
Alan Watson winner of the election after a recount.
AU^..„y/obspn
If
possible, rewrite each sentence using a passive
If
not, write ‘No passive'.
1
Q
form of the
italicised
two- or three-word verb.
Children often look up to strict teachers.
Strict teachers .(^e often looked, up
2 The
company phased out the product over
The students got the information down as
a period of three years.
fast as
The decision has deprived many people of the
they could.
right to vote.
People often brush up on a foreign language just before a holiday.
Ben called Mrs Patel back as soon as he got home.
The chairperson held over the
last
two items
until
The farmer prevented walkers from crossing the
- Additional exercise 6 (page 243)
the next committee meeting.
field after
he fenced
it
off.
Unit
Forming passive sentences
23
to-infinitive
verb + -ing or
2:
Active patterns with verb + -ing
Verbs followed by object + -ing
in
the active are
made
passive with 'be' + past participle
They saw the monkey climbing over the fence.
The monkey was seen climbing over the fence.
+
-ing:
(= active)
(= passive)
Also bring, catch, hear, find,
:
keep, notice, observe, send,
show
Some verbs that
can be followed by an -ing form can be used with a passive form being past
+
participle:
I
love being given presents.
really
The children enjoyed being taken to
Also: avoid, deny, describe, dislike, face, hate,
the zoo.
(not) imagine, like,
Verbs which
in
usually have
no
remember,
report, resent
the active are followed by an object consisting of a noun phrase and -ing
clause
passive:
dread him (or his) finding out.
(but not He is dreaded finding out)
I
Also anticipate, appreciate, dislike, forget, hate,
imagine, like, (not) mind, recall, remember
:
Active patterns with verb + to-infinitive
The active pattern verb + object + to-infinitive
infinitive. Compare:
Mr Wang has taught
Peter has
is
made
passive with 'be' + past participle
+ to-
Peter to sing for years, and
been taught to sing (by Mr Wang)
Also advise, allow, ask, believe,
:
consider, expect, feel, instruct, mean,
order, require, tell, understand
for years.
Note that in some contexts it is possible to make both verbs passive:
Changes to the taxation system are expected to be proposed. compare
the active
(
expect the government to propose changes to the taxation system.)
We
Some verbs
followed by an object + to-infinitive in the active have no
passive:
Susan liked Karl to be there, (but not Karl was liked to be there.)
_
Also (can't) bear^hate Jove, need, prefer, want, wish
(^liking' and wanting' verbs)
:
I
The active pattern verb + to-infinitive + object
is
made
passive with verb + to be
I
+ past
participle
Compare:
Q
Also
(ii)
Supermarkets started to sell fresh pasta only in the 1990s. and
Fresh pasta started to be sold by supermarkets only in the
1990s.
(i) appear, begin, come, continue,
seem, tend;
a gree, aim, arrange, attempt, hope, refuse, want
:
The verbs
the verbs
in
in
group
group
(i)
(ii)
People have
(and start) have corresponding meanings
do
not.
in
wanted to help me. (active) does not correspond to
wanted to be helped by Petra, (passive)
Petra
and passive sentences, but
come to see organic food as something only the wealthy eat. (active)
come to be seen as something only the wealthy eat. (passive)
Organic food has
I
active
Compare:
corresponds to
.
Exercises
Complete each sentence using one
pair of verbs
from the box. Use either was
participle + -ing or past simple + being + past participle.
avoid - take
leave - hold
wM
1
Inger
2
When the
3
4
deny - involve
face - expel
observe - hide
remember -
for over three hours
....kept ..waiiin.g
police first questioned him,
were + past
QED
find -
wander
send - tumble
resent - give
bite
/
when she went
for her dental appointment.
Wayne
in
the robbery.
the baby while Karen went to answer the door.
|
When woke
I
up
in hospital,
by the snake but nothing after that.
I
prisoner by pretending to be dead.
5 They
10
7
man
When the
8
Two teenagers yesterday
6 The
a suspicious package under a seat
-
bike hit her,
in
the
train.
to the ground.
Ana
from school after they were found
with over a hundred stolen mobile phones.
9 The
man was taken
to hospital
when he
lost
and alone
in
the
forest.
Tarik
had worked
orders by people
in
the
company for 30 years and he
who had been
rather
there only weeks.
Rewrite the sentences using one pair of words from the box. Use passive forms with past
participle + -ing, past participle + to-infinitive, or past simple + being + past participle.
ask -s ho w
hate - tease
hear - argue
expect - attract
catch - shoplifting
require - complete
observe - enter
mind - criticise
They wanted us to show our passports at the border.
We were askecl to show our passports aijfcJoe border
1
2 They could hear Emil and Laura shouting at each other next door.
Emil and Laura
3 The other children
made
Ollie
unhappy when they teased him.
Otlie
4 They saw the burglar getting into the
museum
through a window.
The burglar
5
They think that over 20,000 people
will
go to the pop concert.
The pop concert
6 They
criticised her
but she wasn't unhappy about
it.
She
7
They
said
I
had to
fill
in
two copies
of the
customs declaration.
/
8 They caught Mrs Dee taking things from the shop.
Mrs Dee
Make
1
passive sentences beginning with the italicised word(s).
Kay's questions
Marco
began to
irritate
Marco.
begari to be irrii^ied by
Kay s questions
,
Corresponds
2 The team captain hopes to select Omar.
3 Alastair arranged to take Kathy to the station.
4 Critics have come to recognise Galdos as one of Spain's greatest
5 The south coast continues to attract holidaymakers.
meajoing)
novelists.
6 Harris has agreed to interview the Finance Minister.
Do the sentences you have
written have a corresponding meaning to the original, or a different
meaning? Look carefully at the tense
Additional exercise 6 (page 243)
in
the sentences given.
47
Unit
24
Using passives
— r
r
w.
1
»»
V.
I
uvwivj ui
\y
II
Id
I
LIUI
I
^
an agent. Compare:
They Ve installing the new computer system next month, and
The new computer system is being installed next month, (more formal)
Note also that some verbs have related nouns which express the same meaning. These
nouns can be
used as the subject of passive sentences, with a new passive verb introduced.
Compare the example
above and:
The installation of the new computer system will be completed by next
month.
In
English
we
usually prefer to put the topic (what
sentence (or clause) and a
do
this.
of each.
is already being talked about) at the beginning
of a
that topic at the end. Choosing the passive often allows us to
texts and note where the topic (in italics) is placed in the second
sentence
comment on
Compare these two
The second text uses a passive where the emphasis
The three machines tested for the report contained
different types of safety valve.
Group in Germany manufactured all the valves.
The three machines tested for the report contained
different types of safety valve. All the
valves
were manufactured by the Boron Group
in
is
on the
(safety) valves:
The Boron
Germany.
Using the passive allows us to put long subjects at the end of a
sentence. So, for example:
was surprised by Dev’s decision to give up his job and move to Sydney,
I
is
more
natural than 'Dev's decision to give up his job
and move to Sydney surprised
me’, although the
choice can depend on considerations of style and context.
Instead of making a that-clause the subject of a passive sentence,
(see also Unit 25):
it is
normal to use an it-clause
Everybody believed (that) the plan would fail. active
(
)
was believed that the plan would fail, {passive is more natural than
)
That the plan would fail was believed by everybody.
It
Exercises
Games
Write passive sentences about the development of an Olympic
italicised
words.
1
They
built the
site starting
with the
I
main stadium
in
They are holding the rowing
under
competition on the River
three years.
Nene.
The main shxdiunn was
built w under three clears.
They had completed the
athletics track only a year
They have designed the main
after the city got the
stadium to accommodate
many different
They
will
take
Olympics.
sports.
down
They were using the handball
venue as a warehouse until a
the
temporary stands after the
t
Games.
They
They should have finished
the badminton arena by now.
have completed
will
^ year ago.
the basketball arena by the
end of May.
Rewrite these sentences beginning with a noun formed from the italicised verb (with the
if necessary). Use a passive form of the verb in brackets, and make any other necessary
changes.
1
Q
They
(^nsld^ollo
will consider
the issue at next week's meeting, {give
be .giy^ to
new
rneelmg.
^
managing director next week, {make)
2
They
3
People have accused the local council of corruption, {make)
will
appoint a
4 They demolished the building
in
only two days. ( complete )
5 They will present the trophy after the speeches, {make)
6 Local residents
will certainly resist
the proposed
Complete the text with appropriate forms
Slowly but surely the coastline of Britain (1)
sea.
Is
new
industrial area, {expect)
(active or passive) of the verbs in brackets.
bong worn a*oay
{wear away) by an advancing
The country which once 'ruled the waves' now (2)
forces threatening to destroy vast areas of human
that this is just the beginning.
in average sea levels
It
and experts
(5)
{turn into )
{use) a
method of 'managed retreat' by creating new defences
and allowing low-lying coastal farmland
the sea. However,
(11)
mud flats and
the increases in sea levels. Rather than trying to prevent the erosion, the present
marshes by
London,
cm rise
by the year 2100. According to the Department of the Environment, during the
government (7)
further inland
s last
{fear)
(4)
{estimate) that there will be a 38-55
next 50 years at least 10,000 hectares of farmland (6)
salt
by them, with huge
and wildlife habitat. Already some of Britain
{disappear),
wild, natural areas (3)
{rule)
Bristol
many
(8)
of the country's major cities could also (9)
and Cardiff
all
{destroy)
Additional exercise 6 (page 243)
(10)
by the
{abandon)
to
( affect).
( expect) severe flooding as our sea defences
rising tides.
49
Unit
25
Reporting with passives;
We often
mention
use a passive to report what people say, think,
who
etc., particularly
...
if it is
not important to
being reported:
is
People
Q
said that
It is
in
Everyone
the area have been told that they should stay indoors.
was asked
to bring
some food
to the party.
common way of reporting what is said by an unspecified group of people is to use it +
passive verb + that-clause (see Unit 33 for more on that-clauses). Using this pattern allows us to
put important information at the end of the sentence (see Unit 24C):
Another
It is reported that the damage is extensive. ( compare The damage is extensive, according to
government sources.)
It was decided that the meeting should be cancelled, (or It was decided to cancel the
meeting.)
Also allege, announce, assume, believe, calculate, claim, consider, demonstrate, discover,
establish, estimate, expect, feel, find, know, mention, recommend, reveal, say, show, suggest,
:
suppose, think, understand; agree, decide, hope, intend, plan, propose (can also be followed by
a to-infinitive clause)
Note that many other verbs connected with reporting
clause, but can be used as
O
We
in
have been informed that we have to
(but not
It
are not used with
it
+ passive verb + that-
A:
has informed us
Also encourage, persuade, reassure,
:
leave.
remind,
tell,
warn
...)
These verbs need a personal object before the that-clause
us that ...)
in
an active form
(e.g.
They have informed
An alternative to it + passive verb + that-clause is to use subject + passive verb +
want the subject to be the topic of the sentence (see Unit 24C). Compare:
O
It *s
reported that the damage
The damage
is
is
extensive,
to-infinitive
if
we
and
reported to be extensive.
Most of the verbs listed in the first white box in B can also be used
announce, decide, mention, propose, recommend, suggest.
in this
pattern except for
We can only use tell in this pattern when
but not ‘The accident was told (=
it means ‘order'. So we can say:
go with them to the railway station,
said) to have happened just after midnight'.
With some verbs we can also use
it
I
was told
(= ordered) to
+ passive verb + wh-clause to
report information given or found
out:
It has now been revealed who was responsible for the accident.
The decision to build the bridge was taken before it was established whether
it
was
actually
needed.
Also discover, explain, find, know, reveal, show, understand
:
When
a that-clause begins
that + there ..., we can make a corresponding passive form there +
to have been. Compare:
It is thought (that) there are too many obstacles to peace, and
There are thought to be too many obstacles to peace.
passive verb + to be
We can
use the
/
same verbs
in this
pattern as with subject
+ passive verb + to-infinitive
(see C).
Exercises
Which
of the verbs
in
1
It
was
2
It
has been
3
It
was
4
It
has been
5
It
has not yet been
6
It
has
brackets can complete the sentence? Underline one or both. fjJLiSl
to hold
new
negotiations next month, (agreed / announced)
that the crash
Ho would
that Mrs
to appoint Dr
was the
Ahmadi
who was
now been
result of pilot error, (proposed /
shown)
chair the meeting, (hoped / explained)
as head teacher, (decided / suggested)
responsible for the error, (claimed / explained)
that half of cancer cases are lifestyle-related.
(established / revealed)
employ 500 people
7
It is
to
8
It is
to close the library permanently from next April, (planned / recommended)
9
It is
that another
10
If
It
has been
possible, rewrite these
how
moon
in
the factory, (expected / intended)
landing will take place next year, (assumed / thought)
spiders are able to travel across the sea. (discovered / said)
newspaper headlines as passive sentences with
AGREEMENT THAT UN WILL SEND
It
IN
it. If
not, write X.
TROOPS
Has...been agreed.
PATIENTS REASSURED ABOUT HOSPITAL SAFETY
WATER DISCOVERED ON MARS
4
TERRORISTS BELIEVED TO BE OPERATING IN BERLIN
MOON ASTRONAUTS EXPECTED TO RETURN TODAY
EX-PRESIDENT JULIUS REVEALED AS SPY
WARNING GIVEN ABOUT COMPUTER VIRUS
8
KING SAID TO BE MAKING
GOOD RECOVERY
RESTAURANT ESTABLISHED AS SOURCE OF FOOD POISONING OUTBREAK
10
POLICE TOLD TO WORK LONGER HOURS
Write two
new sentences for each numbered sentence
below, using
one sentence and subject + passive verb + to-infinitive
pattern may not always be possible.)
clause
in
L>
*
in
it
+ passive verb + that-
the other. (The second
We have discovered that a mechanical fault
(2) We don't think that the
fault is serious. (3) We expect that
will take several
weeks to correct the fault. (4) We have decided to
(1)
caused the problem.
it
St?
6k>
5*
.K
1
ft
postpone the next rocket launch, and
(5)
that the next launch should take place
in
we
suggest
May.
has been discovered that a mechanical fault caused the problem. / A mechanical fault was
discovered to have caused the problem.
Additional exercise 6 (page 243)
51
Unit
Wh-questions with who, whom, which, how and
26
whose
Who
refers to people,
and can be used as subject, object or complement:
Who did you
Who owns that car?
Whom
used as a formal alternative to
is
Whom did you meet?
Which
and
is
'Which
we
can use which instead of
your brother?' ‘The one next to
is
commonly used
I've
O
is
who or what,
identify
somebody
in
a group:
about a photograph)
particular classes of people:
to ask or talk about a choice between one or
like
Who do you think
.
questions before one(s) and of, as which
in
decided to buy one of these jumpers.
use
directly after prepositions:
think earns more, a teacher or a police officer? (or
Which of you would
When we
and also
Luka.' (talking
who to talk about
usually use which, rather than
Section E
whom were you talking?
when we want to
used to refer to people
O
Which do you
We
To
who as object,
Reminder
Who was her father?
meet?
more
Who of
who or what as subjects, the verb that follows
is
.
?)
is
things:
Which one do you
to go first? (rather than
.
think
I
should choose?
...?)
usually singular, even
if
a plural answer
expected:
What is there to
not
What
see
in
the town? (expects an answer giving a number of things to see;
are there to see
However, the verb can be plural
consisting of
two
or
in
in
the town?)
echo questions (see Unit 27 E)
more noun phrases joined by and:
‘Mr Almeida and his family are here to see you.'
who
and when
after a plural subject or a subject
and what function as complements
‘Who are
here?' (or
Who's
here?)
:
Who are those people over there?
What are the
consequences of the decision?
How or what?
What
What was the journey
How
How was the journey?
O
O
like?
(asking a general opinion)
(asking a general opinion)
How is your brother?
What do you
(asking about general health)
(asking for details)
How do you
What
like
your coffee?
if
What's
'He’s a bit
We can
use
scary sometimes.’
whose to
about the job?
your plan doesn't work?
(asking about consequences)
(asking about food and drink preferences)
How / What (about)
O How / What about a swim?
like
it
called? (asking about a name)
(making a suggestion)
‘How / What do you mean?’
ask about the person that
owns
or
is
(asking for
more information)
responsible for something.
Whose can
used either before a verb (as a pronoun):
Whose are these
or before a noun
or
boots?
noun phrase
(as a determiner) introducing direct or indirect questions:
Whose boots are these?
In formal contexts we can use a preposition
In
whose desk was
it
found?
She asked
before
(less formally
whose
me whose coat was wearing.
I
(see also Unit 55B):
Whose desk was
it
found
However, in questions without a verb a preposition comes before whose:
‘We're meeting at nine.' 'In whose house?' (not Whose house in?)
in?)
be
Exercises
Underline the correct option (or both
if
possible).
whom / who should the documents be sent?
Which / Who of you is Dr Hansen? have a message for you.
To
1
2
I
3
a:
4
a: Is
7
Which / Wbo would you rather be - a
Who / Whom translated the book?
Here's a photo of our children at the fancy dress party,
your
home?
b:
Who / Which
is
Isabella?
What / Which one do you want to speak to?
5 Whom / Who do you hold responsible for the damage?
6 Who / Which will captain the team if Zeinab isn't available?
8
sister at
b:
doctor or a vet?
Complete the sentences with an appropriate present simple form of the verbs
What
1
Who
you
What
for
Maths and English? (teach)
the major decisions
The Turners are
in France,
Who
b:
in
the company? (make)
Who
in
their textbook with
Q
‘
2
What
do you
‘
if
out?'
are your parents these days?'
V
your boss
's
do you
6
8
Omar calls while you're
0
like
like?’
your new job?'
was the camping
‘
10
'It's
b
‘I'd
really boring.’
love one.’
mean you’ve got
'I
'Tell
e
‘It
him I’ll call
was great.’
f
‘Lucia Garcia.'
g
‘It's
wear a
to
suit.'
back.'
never boring.'
h
'Quite well, thanks.’
i
'We had an excellent
trip?'
your boss called?'
time.’
'She works us really hard.’
do you mean, "Smart clothes"?'
‘
1
was the camping trip
€3321 Cor rect any mistakes
in
sentence more natural.
1
a
c
‘
's
both are possible. Then choose
if
d
j
9
up. (have)
about a coffee?'
4
7
about your new job?'
how / what
1
3
5
like
France? (be)
them? Put your hands
First, complete the sentences with how, what, or
an appropriate answer for each question.
1
brackets.
(be)
there to see on the island? (be)
Who
a:
made from?
those cakes
in
the italicised words or, if necessary, suggest ways of making the
the sentence is already correct, write </.
GGEB
If
Who's caravan were you staying
2 Whose are
3
He asked
4
a:
all
in
in?
these books?
us who's car
Who live
like?'
the
flat
was parked
upstairs?
b:
in
front of his house.
The Thompson
family.
Whose going with you to Canada?
6 About whose travels in Nepal did Liam Wilson write
7 What one of the following statements is true?
5
8
Who of
9
a:
Can you post the books to us?
10
a:
Ants have got into the
us has not told a
a
book?
some time in our lives?
b: Whose address to?
fridge! b: What has got into the
lie
at
fridge?
53
Unit
Negative questions; echo questions; questions with
27
that-clauses
Negative questions
We
+
usually
make
a negative
it
or
wh-question with an
auxiliary verb (have, did, would, etc.)
we
when we want
to give
some
Did she not
realise that she'd
broken
or less
O
O
in
yes
it? (less
no
/
we
can use not after the subject
rather than wh-questions:
emphatically Didn't she realise that
...?)
We can make a suggestion with Why not + verb or Why don't / doesn't
O
Why not decorate the house yourself?
(or
Why don't you decorate
used to make a suggestion, but can show that
isn't
...
example, depending on intonation and context,
it
can be used to
Why didn't you tell me that in the first place?
Negative question forms, usually with a
O
...
(hut not
Why do
not
/
...):
Why didn't
O
...?)
...?)
nobody, nothing, nowhere:
-n't such as never, no,
Have you nowhere to go? (or Do you have nowhere to go?)
emphatically or more informally:
Why don't you ever help?
Haven't you got anywhere to go? (or Don't you have anywhere
does not
meal?
emphasis to the negative (perhaps to show
there a bit earlier? (less emphatically Can't you
Can you not get
We sometimes use negative words other than
O Why do you never help?
O
special
are angry, very surprised, or to strongly persuade someone),
negative questions. This happens particularly
O
Why don't we go out for a
be better to go tomorrow?
formal contexts, or
that
in
no
/
-n't to suggest, persuade, criticise, etc.
Wouldn't
In
yes
falling intonation, are
used
in
action
was wrong.
For
someone:
annoyed that you
(I'm
?)
. .
we think an
criticise
didn't)
exclamations giving opinions:
3
Doesn't she looklov&yi
Haven't you gro\frn^
.
Didn't
it
snowaioj!
Echo questions
we haven't understood what has been said or to check that we
because we found it very surprising. We might repeat, usually with a rising
Echo questions are used when
heard correctly, perhaps
intonation, the
O
whole of what was
‘Tala's lost
or focus on part of
O
O
We can
what was
use
F
‘I
‘
When's
what
or ‘do'
what to
‘
/
or a phrase with
how:
Leon's arriving wh#rt?'
How much d d^ou-pay? / You
paid
howjmf^i?'
focus on the verb or part of the sentence beginning with the verb:
for the painting.' ‘You
think she's having a sleep.' ‘She's
wbaf?'
wb^?'
(or ‘You didyA\ at?')
(or ‘She's
doing^h^?')
Questions with that-clauses
A wh-question can
refer to a following that-clause, particularly after verbs
reckon, say, suggest, suppose, and think.
O
When do you reckon
However, when the
clause,
O
54
wh-word
Le op^amvtng?
paid £3,000 for the painting.'
‘We paid £3,000
O
said using a stressed
‘Leon's arriving at 6:30.'
‘We
said:
her job.' ‘Tala's lost herjoo?'
we do
wh-word
We can
leave out that
in
such as expect, hope,
these questions:
(that) you'll finish the job?
is
the subject, object or complement of the verb
in
the subordinate
not use that:
What did you
think
was
in
the box? (not
What
did
you think that was
in
the box?)
Exercises
Write negative questions for B
these dialogues, using -n't with the words
me €10?
Haven’t you got any money Left?
a:
Can you lend
b:
Again?
2
a:
I'm
b:
Why?
3
a: I've
b:
Why?
4
a:
I'll
b:
But
1
in
annoyed that you
come to the
didn't
(...
brackets.
in
money left?)
meeting.
(...my email / on holiday?)
had to bring the children with me.
(.
just finish
my homework
before
(...
my
a: I've
6
a:
I'm taking the coach to Vienna.
b:
But that
bike
in
.
be supposed to / last night?)
B:The sitting room!
will
babysitter?)
the sitting room.
5
put
.
go to school.
I
(...
take ages.
(...
Use the notes to complete these dialogues with two negative questions.
In
the
outside?)
rather / plane?)
first
use
-n't; in
the second use never, no, nobody, nothing or nowhere, (j)
1
(ever / considered you might / wrong)
Haven’t you ever considered you might be wrong? / Have you never considered
you might be wrong ?
a:
b:
2
right.
(you / any interest / maths at all)
b:
3
No, I'm sure I'm
a:
No,
I
I've
always hated
spent the night
in
a:
?
it.
the railway station, (could / find anywhere else /sleep)
b:
?
4 (can/ remember anything about /accident)
a:
?
b:
5
Not
after getting into the car, no.
(why / ever do well / exams)
b:
a:
?
Perhaps you don't revise enough.
6 (there anybody /you can ask /help)
b:
I
a:
?
can't think of anyone.'
Complete the echo questions using appropriate question words or phrases,
going to Chile,
where?
He's going
1
a: Jake's
2
a:
He's leaving at the end of next week.
b:
He's leaving
3
a:
He'll
4
a: It will
5
a:
He's sold his house to pay for the
b:
He's sold
a:
He's going climbing
b:
He's going climbing
6
If
b:
cost about £15,000.
in
b:
b: It'll
?/ He's
He's doing
doing
?/ He's
be away for three months,
/
He'll
?/ He's
in
?/ He's
these sentences. Put a tick
if
they are already
not email her?
motorway?
a brilliant film!
she really wants to go rock climbing,
If
What
?
doing
Was
5
?
?
It'll
?/ He's
4
6
?
trip.
done
a:
it
what?
the Andes.
necessa ry, correct any mistakes
not
He's
?/ He'll
?/
cost
3
2
/
i
?/ He's
be away for
Mariam isn't answering her phone, b: Why do you
Who do you expect that will read your blog?
Why did they suggest that we should avoid using the
1
what?
why
not
let
her?
you say that is in these biscuits?
7 How do you think that Twitter will have changed our lives
8 Why did not you tell me you'd changed your number?
did
in
ten years' time?
?
Unit
28
complements
Verbs, objects and
Some verbs
can be either transitive or intransitive, allowing us to focus on
liSBBBMiBfli
either the person or thing performing the action, or the person or thing
affected by the action. Compare:
O
O
She closed the door,
I've
ripped
my shirt,
and
and
(transitive)
(transitive)
The door closed,
My shirt
Also: begin, bend, break, burn,
change, decrease, drop,
move, open, shut,
wake (most
Some
start, vary,
often sing (songs)
I
in
(intransitive)
finish, increase,
are 'change' verbs)
need an object when the meaning
transitive verbs don't
(intransitive)
has ripped,
is
from the context:
clear
the shower.
She plays (the saxophone)
beautifully.
Also answer, ask, change, cook, dance, drink, drive, eat,
:
fail,
park,
phone, read, smoke, study, wash, wash up, wave, win, write
some verbs we usually add a complement - a phrase which completes the meaning of a verb,
noun or adjective - which is an adverb or prepositional phrase:
The disease originated in Britain, (not The disease originated. We need to add something
about where or how it originated.)
After
(
Other verbs usually have a complement but may not. Compare:
He paused fora few moments, and He paused, (no complement needed)
Some verbs
are
commonly
followed by a particular preposition or prepositions and then an object
(see also Unit 94):
had to deal with hundreds of complaints, (not We had to deal.)
I'm sure that blue car belongs to Murad, (not I'm sure that blue car belongs.)
We
Also:
adhere
culminate
to, aspire to,
differentiate between, incline to
Some verbs
I
/
in /
are usually followed by an object
always associate pizza with
Italy,
Also: attribute
...
Some verbs
for,
...
to,
base
regard
...
...
as
/
on
/
in
+ prepositional phrase complement:
(not
I
always associate
pizza.)
(not She put the report.)
She put the report on the floor.
mistake
with, detract from,
towards, specialise
upon, equate
with, remind
are often followed by an object
...
...
with, inflict
...
on,
of
+ adjective
(or adjective
phrase) complement:
hold the government responsible.
The people
Conti pronounced herself fit for the match.
of this
Also:
country
will
assume, believe, consider, declare,
find, judge, prove, report, think.
(The object after declare, find, pronounce and prove
is
usually a reflexive pronoun.)
Sentences with an object + adjective complement after these verbs are usually rather formal. Adding
to be after the object or using a that-clause can make sentences less formal:
Dr Adams argues that house prices will fall, but other economists believe the opposite true,
(or less formally
...
believe the opposite to be true, or
...
believe that the opposite
is
true.)
Exercises
If it is
•
•
possible to omit the object (in italics) after the underlined verbs, put brackets around
Aya was
(1)
reading (a book )
when the telephone
rang.
It
was Val. She
said,
‘I
called
you
it.
earlier,
but
nobody
(2)
Tom?
eight/seven okay?' Aya (4) thanked Val and said that she'd love to come. At about seven
Is
answered the phone. Would you
Aya started to get ready. She
Val and
Tom
lived.
Val
cooking dinner, so
(12)
(3)
eat dinner tonight with
Then she
had time
I
(10) reached their house
(14) to pick
and she
is
chang ed her
(18)
enjoyed the evening very much. The food was excellent and they talked a
I'll
waved her
sister
(17) introduce you
when we go
inside.'
lot
left,
Aya helped (20) wash up the
(21) invite Val andTom for a
meal
dishes.
is
Aya
about their
holiday plans. Aya hoped to go to Canada, but wasn't sure yet that she could (19) afford
she
Kate
I
mention her when
earlier.
where
on holiday at the moment. forgot to
(16)
spoke to you
(11)
and
Val. Val said, ‘Tom's still
some flowers. By the way, my
staying with us. She's (15) studying French at university, but
I
(7)
me
After that, she (9) drove her car to Malstowe, the village
parked her car on the drive and walked over to
thought
I
come over to
to
herself and (6) brushed her hair.
was gardening when Aya
hand when saw Aya. Aya
(13)
washed
(5)
some makeup.
clothes and (8) put on
like
it.
Before
As she drove home, she decided that she must
house very soon.
at her
Complete sentences 1-4 with a correct verb + preposition + noun phrase. Complete 5-8 with
verb + noun phrase + preposition.
0
a correct
Verbs
Noun
Prepositions
phrases
(Use an appropriate form.
aspire
base
between
attribute
culminate
differentiate
mistake
in
on
inflict
the black car
for
on
in
to
his
to
specialise
a surprise defeat
her
1
Electors deserve
success
the discovery of penicillin
more from
a political party that
new
novel
fantasy and reality
seafood
a^ptres to noJtuonaJi le^uiership
2 Years of research by Fleming
3
Her mental condition makes
it
difficult for
her to
4 There's a great restaurant by the harbour which
5 The team of amateur footballers
the
6 After Lewis's victory, he
was dark and
7
It
8
Emma Janse
raining
2
She declared herself
scientific
new trainer.
a taxi.
events that took place
Complete these sentences with any appropriate
The
division leaders.
and she
has
1
first
the advice of his
evidence proved him
adjective.
in
16th-century Denmark.
I
guilhj
with the
result.
3 They considered the food
4 I'm surprised the plumber hasn't turned
5
We
believed her
Now write
1
The
less
scientific
up. I've
always found him
at school.
formal versions using either to be after the object or a that-clause.
evidence proved him to be guilty.
/
The
scientific
evidence proved that he was guilty.
57
Unit
29
Verb + two objects
Some verbs
can be followed by two objects. Usually the
object (= the indirect object (IO))
first
person or group of people and the second object (= the direct object (DO))
me
Can you bring
(= IO)
He made himself (=
(this
is
(=
may also
objects
objects,
it is
DO only
be used with a
(e.g.
I
read a story). With
possible to reverse the order of the objects
if
we
put for or
then called a prepositional object). Compare:
my daughter a doll's house, and
built a doll's house for my daughter.
Can you pass me that bandage? and
Other verbs with for + object: book, buy, catch,
I
Q
a thing:
DO) from the shops?
built
I
is
a
IO) a cup of coffee. (= DO).
Many verbs that can have two
many verbs that can have two
to before the IO
some milk
is
choose, cook, fetch, find, get, make, order,
pour, save
Can you pass that bandage to me?
Other verbs with to + object: award, give, hand,
lend, offer,
We often
use
it if
G
use this pattern
the IO
is
the
Jasmin taught music to a
DO
is
tell,
throw
focus particular attention on the object after for
DO:
large number of
/
to.
We also
a lot longer than the
number of
If
we want to
if
owe, show, teach,
children at the school, (not Jasmin taught a large
children at the school music.)
DO + preposition + IO
a pronoun, a pattern with
is
usual. Patterns
without a preposition
are avoided because they are considered to be bad style:
C
gave them to
I
We
Some verbs
there
is
bought
it
Isa.
(rather than
I
gave
for them, (rather than
Isa
We
them.
/
I
can be used with either for or to. Often there
a transfer of something to
gave them
bought them
it.
/
Isa.)
We
bought
a difference
is
in
it
them.)
meaning: to suggests that
someone, and for suggests that someone benefits from something.
Compare:
C
O
hadn't got time to
I
wrote a letter to her. and
so wrote a letter for her.
so
visit Mira,
Mira had broken her wrist,
I
I
Also: bring, leave, pay, play, post, read, sell, send, sing,
Sometimes, however, the meaning
is
take
very similar:
He played the piece to (or for) me.
Can you sing that song again to (or for) us?
Note that when object + object is used after these verbs
G
it
usually has a similar
meaning to the verb
with object + to + object. For example:
G
sold
I
him the
Some verbs that
car.
(means
are followed by
We all envied
him
I
sold the car to him, not
two objects cannot have
his lifestyle, (but
not
I
sold the car for him.)
their objects reversed with for / to:
We all envied
his lifestyle for
/to him.)
Also allow, ask, cost, deny, forgive, guarantee, permit, refuse
:
Some verbs,
such as describe and
fix,
can only have a second object
if
this
is
a prepositional object
-
with to (see also Unit 22A). Compare:
O
She described the situation (to me), (but not
She described me the situation.) and
She told this joke (to me), or She told me this
announce, demonstrate,
explain, introduce, mention, point out,
prove, report, say, suggest
Also: admit,
joke.
with for. Compare:
O
He fixed the tap (for me), (but not He fixed me the
booked a room (for her), or booked her a room.
I
I
tap.)
and
Also: collect,
mend,
repair
Exercises
Complete each sentence with
appropriate place. Write to
choose
offer
/
a suitable
for
pass
if
form of
a verb
^>ay
post
from the box and
insert to or for in
an
CEO
either can be used.
read
save
take
sell
teach
for
got any
money
1
Elias hasn't
2
Kaspar hates going shopping.
so
I'll
I
pay
have to
the bill/ him.
have to
his clothes
him.
3 You're staying with Dimitra at the weekend, aren't you? Can you
4
can't reach the salt. Could
I
10
When Mr Durand
5
you
it
7
haven't got
I
8
J
9
ane
all
If
the carpets him as well.
sports disabled children.
my glasses. Can you
these instructions me, please?
the letter me on her way to work because had flu and couldn't go out.
my old bike him, but he said he wanted something more modern.
I
\
I'll
me, please?
bought the house, we
6 He's got a very rewarding job. He
this present her?
be
tonight.
in late
Can you
some
necessary, correct these sentences.
If
dinner me, please?
the sentence
is
already correct, write
S
|
He kindly collected me some library books.
2 He admitted his error for his colleagues.
1
3
have to prepare a report for the meeting.
I
4 Can
I
ask a favour to you?
5
A
6
I'd like
special ticket allows entry for people to
to introduce you to
all
the
museums
the
in
city.
my sister.
Complete these texts with obj ects c hosen from the box. Give
prepositions where necessary.
word orders and add
possible
all
|
the problem
/ our teacher
another half an hour / us
her photograph
his sister /
his
a drink /
Ben
a fortune /
a:
1
b:
2
/
me
the glass
me
broken car
/
him
a paper aeroplane /
him
him
you
Samuel phoned. He wants to come and stay with us
at the beginning of September.
But that's when my parents will be with us. I'll have to send
hum oa\ e^Tiaxl / on ernail to hum
the problem to hum
to explain
When
he described
I
didn't think
I
3 The clock on the wall was wrong.
she allowed
4
/
three bedtime stories / him
the money / me
My three-year-old
ma ^ e
nephew,
Luis,
When we
I
knew
her,
realised that
I
but
when he showed
had seen her at work.
pointed out
to finish the exam.
always keeps
me
busy when
I
babysit. Last night
I
first
men<^
insisted that
5
6
I
I
read
a:
Your new motorbike must have cost
b:
Well, actually,
I
had to
then
had to
and after that he
,
my
parents lent
poured
and gave
59
Some verbs
CBESE2Z9S!
can be followed either by an object + -ing or a possessive +
-ing with a similar meaning, although the possessive + -ing form
usually
is
considered to be rather formal:
O
Tom winning the
resented
I
prize.
Also detest, (dis)approve of, (dis)like,
:
[more formally resented Tom's winning the
I
O
prize.)
Mia recalled him buying the book.
(more formally Mia recalled his buying the book.)
hate, love, object to (=
‘(dis)liking'
verbs); forget, imagine,
remember,
think of (= 'thinking' verbs)
Note that we only use a possessive form (Tom's, his) here to talk about a person or group of people:
remember the horse winning the race, (but not ... the horse's winning ...)
O
I
Some verbs
O
can be followed by to + -ing where to
is
a preposition:
She confessed to stealing the money.
You don't object to working
Also: adapt, adjust, admit, look
do you?
late tonight,
forward,
own
up, resort
Note that these verbs can also be followed by to + noun phrase:
You don't object to the work, do you?
She confessed to the crime.
Q
O
Other verbs can be followed by
by + -ing (begin, close, end,
different prepositions
finish (off
Can you begin by cleaning the
on +
Q
-ing or
/
+
-ing. For
example:
up), open, start (off / out))
floors,
and then do the windows?
on + object + -ing (concentrate, count, depend, focus,
on (Jack ) wearing a suit to the party.
of + -ing or of + object + -ing (approve, hear, know, speak, talk,
O
insist, rely)
Clare insisted
Have you ever heard of (anyone) getting arrested
tell)
for gossiping before?
object + from + -ing (deter, discourage, keep, prevent, prohibit, stop)
O
The noise from next door prevented
Some verbs
(feel, hear, notice,
me from sleeping.
observe, overhear, see, watch) can be followed by an object and
infinitive, but the meanings may be slightly different. Compare:
saw them playing football from my window, (-ing indicates an action in progress) and
saw him smash the bottle, (bare infinitive indicates a completed action)
was able to watch them building the new car park from my office window, (-ing suggests
then either by an -ing form or bare
O
O
I
I
I
watched, but not from start to finish) and
watched him climb through the window, and then
that
I
I
suggests
I
watched the whole action from
After the verbs dare and help
O
O
When
O
Q
called the police, (bare infinitive
can use either a bare infinitive or to-infinitive:
was angry with him, but didn't dare (to) say anything.
We hope the Twitter campaign will help (to) raise awareness
I
I
dare has an object,
I
I
helped them
(to)
of the problem.
can only use a to-infinitive. Compare:
river,
(not
I
dared him cross
...)
and
pack.
make we
can use an object + bare infinitive but not to-infinitive:
might make him work harder, (not ... might make him to work
had Irena clean up her bedroom before let her go out to play.
His
I
we
dared him to cross the
After have, let and
O
we
I
start to finish)
exam
results
I
...)
.
Exercises
If
1
I
you having to be away from home so much.
hate your having to be away from home
have always detested the dog jumping up at
I
4
No one
5
It is
6
No one
I
heard the
in
man
me when
approve
adapt
In a
survey,
owned,
4
I
I
a great deal
when they were
My
visit
them.
65%
up.,
like
children.
city centre.
has a similar meaning. Use one of the
it
Q2B
own up
end
discourage
of dentists said that they
rely
had made mistakes
in
treating patients.
making
to
don't think children should wear jewellery
would
I
the crowd that day will forget Ashe fighting so hard to win the match.
remember them arguing
Rewrite the italicised part of each sentence so that
3
much.
so.
to imagine him accepting the decision without any objection.
difficult
verbs from the box and an -ing form.
2
Q
shouting for help.
8 The police investigated him stealing cars from the
1
not, write X.
We don't approve of the developer locating the factory so close to houses.
3
7
If
really hate
l.realhj
2
form of the object.
possible, rewrite these sentences using the possessive
to finish with a
in
school
summary of the main
points of
my talk.
parents said they thought I shouldn't go to university.
5 You can't trust Sophie to turn up on time.
6
I
grew up
in
the countryside, and
I
found
it
difficult
Underline the most likely verb form. Consider
why
to get used to
it is
the most
life in
a big city.
likely.
heard the tyre burst / bursting and then the lorry skidded across the road.
1
I
2
Carl noticed
3
She
felt
4 With
a
someone watch / watching him from an
upstairs
the wasp sting / stinging her just before she brushed
good telescope you can see the eagles feed / feeding
window.
it
off her arm.
their chicks in the nest.
Match the sentence beginnings and endings, adding an appropriate object where necessary
and write (to) where this might be included.
Q
1
When
2 The
3
Lana thought of going on the roller-coaster
new course
Scientists
is
intended to help
hope the new drug
will help
4
We didn't agree with the decision,
5
When
6 The
1
+b
Ethan
dial
arrives,
on the
have
left lets
...
...
When Lana thought of
- Additional exercise 7 (page 244)
it
made
...
but
.
.
we
didn't dare
...
...
a
prevent hay fever,
b
feel
c
control the speed of the fan.
qu te
i
i
ll.
my office,
d
wait outside
e
understand modern
f
protest against
art.
it.
going on the roller-coaster Lt maxie her feel guite
ill.
61
Unit
Verb + -ing forms and
After
in
some
verbs
we need
infinitives 2
to include an object before a to-infinitive
active sentences:
The
police
warned everyone to stay
inside
Also advise, allow, believe, cause,
:
with their windows closed, (not The police
warned to stay
command,
...)
enable, encourage, entitle,
force, invite, order, persuade, remind,
show, teach,
After other verbs, however,
we
tell
can't include an object before a to-infinitive:
We've decided to leave early.
(not We've decided us to leave
Also: agree, consent, fail, hope,
early.)
manage,
offer, pretend, refuse, start,
threaten, volunteer
After
some
verbs
we have
to put a preposition, usually for, immediately after the verb before an
object + to-infinitive (see also Unit 29):
Q
They arranged for Rania to stay in London.
(not They arranged Rania to stay ...)
They applied for the court appearance to be
Also advertise, campaign, long, plan,
:
wait (After apply and campaign, the
to-infinitive
is
usually passive.)
postponed.
Other verbs can be followed by different prepositions + object + to-infinitive. For example:
at + object + to-infinitive (go on [= to criticise continually], keep on [= to talk about something many
times], scream, shout, yell)
Q
shouted at the
I
on + object +
man to open
the door.
to-infinitive (call [= to officially ask
someone
to do something], count, depend, prevail,
rely)
WeVe depending on you to find a
solution soon.
to + object + to-infinitive (appeal, gesture, motion, signal)
He
closed the door and signalled to the pilot to take
A number of other to-infinitive and
7-:
off.
-ing forms can also follow verbs -
verb + negative to-infinitive and negative -ing forms
We
decided not to go to
was
their political leaders.)
Paris after
(compare The people didn't decide to go to war,
all.
my friends have considered not going to college because of the cost, (compare
going to college - don't want to go on studying after school.)
considered
haven't
Some
of
it
I
I
verb + to have + past participle
The accident seems to have happened at around
Simmons
This form
to report
is
is
alleged to have assaulted a police
often used to give an opinion (after verbs
what
is
or
was
said (after passive verbs like
1
pm yesterday.
officer.
seem and appear) about a past event, or
/ was alleged, believed, said, thought) about
like
is
past events.
verb + having + past participle
The verb + -ing and verb + having + past participle forms have a similar meaning with these
now regret having bought the car.
now regret buying the car. and
recall, regret and remember.
forget,
This form is most often used with admit, deny,
I
I
verbs:
Exercises
Complete each sentence with one of the verbs
b
My mother
My mother
a
They
a
1
2
a
me to throw away my old toys.
away my old toys.
to
Hamza
Riko
in
(allowed / offered)
hospital.
in hospital.
(managed / persuaded)
to carry the heavy boxes up the stairs.
(agreed / encouraged)
Lars to help in the garden,
b She
to help
in
the garden.
her to tidy up the house,
I
b
(threatened / told)
to carry the heavy boxes up the stairs.
I
4 a She
5 a
visit
us to visit Riko
I
b
brackets.
to throw
b They
3
in
(pretended / reminded)
to tidy up the house.
I
6 a Jonas
to study economics at university.
me to study economics at
b Jonas
Write one word that
should be.
0
is
missing from each line
in
(advised / hoped)
university.
these texts. Put a
X where the word
a
1
When
2
the job. But
3
advertised
1
X a website designer for the
business, Greta got
for
now learnt that you can't rely Greta to do anything.
her to come up with some initial ideas for the site, and
I've
waited ages
1
then
4
1
had to keep on her to do any more work on
she couldn't do
it
after
it.
Finally,
she said
all.
b
Company have appealed workers
1
Managers of the National
2
to end their strike, and have called the government to intervene
3
dispute.
Electricity
in
the
The Energy Minister said that he has arranged employers and
employees to meet next week, and he prevailed strikers to return to
4
work
in
the meantime.
Complete the sentences with the verbs in brackets using one of the patterns
opposite. Give alternatives where possible.
1
C
through a
broken window
last night, (think
-escape)
him
I
4 He
5
section
anyone Marta's new address, (agree - not tell)
I
2 The prisoners
3
in
at the conference, (not recall
- see)
any stolen property, (deny - receive)
He
as the person
who donated
the money, (ask -not name)
6 She
all
7
I
the
am
but
way back home,
sure
now
(not feel like - walk)
my purse was on the table a few
minutes ago,
it
(seem - disappear)
8 The Etruscans
in Italy in
the 8th or 9th century BC. (believe -arrive)
Additional exercise 7 (page 244)
63
Unit
32
Reporting people's words and thoughts
Quoting and reporting
When we
own
report
words.
our
in
own words
GSSSSSEEDBDI
what people think or what they have
We do this with
we
said,
often give the information using our
sentences that have a reporting clause and a reported clause (see also
Units 33-39):
reported clause
reporting clause
She explained
He
didn't tell
(that)
me
the exact words are important,
If
done
in
a quotation
O
O
'I
she couldn't take the job until January,
where to put the boxes.
we might
said. In writing this
suppose you've heard the
latest
news/ she
me.
said to
the English used
in stories
end of the quotation.
at the
and novels, the reporting verb
(e.g.
ask, continue)
is
when the reporting clause comes after the quotation except when the
‘When will you be back?' asked Jimin. (or ... Jimin asked.)
‘And after that moved to Italy,' she continued. not ... continued she.)
the subject
C
O
I
Negatives
in
He
O
O
‘I
it
me how
a pronoun:
is
we make the
may
disagree.
It's
good
isn't a
it
be reported
in
reporting verb negative:
he would get to London.
report a negative sentence, then
‘You're right,
although
subject
reporting
didn't tell
we want to
often placed before
(
To report what somebody didn't say or think,
If
is
‘Of course,' Carter replied, ‘you'll have to pay him to do the job.'
The reporting clause can come before, within, or
In
words someone
report the actual
:
idea.'
we
usually report this
—> He agreed that
it
in
the reported clause
wasn't a good
:
idea,
the reporting clause, depending on meaning:
not a good idea at
all.'
—» He didn't agree that
However, with some verbs, to report a negative sentence
we
usually
it was a good idea.
make the verb in the
reporting
clause negative:
O
‘I
expect he won't come.'/
don't expect he will come.'
‘I
Also believe, feel, intend, plan, propose, suppose, think,
:
—> She didn't expect him to come.
want
Reporting questions
we use a reporting clause
me what the problem was.
To report a wh-question
O
She asked
When we
either
O
if
report a yes
/
no question we use
and
a clause with a
O
I
wh-word:
asked him where to go next.
a reporting clause followed by a clause beginning with
whether (but note that we can't use if + to-infinitive; see Unit 34):
Liz wanted to know if / whether we had any photos of our holiday.
or
The usual word order in a wh-, if-, or whether-clause is the one we would use in a statement:
‘Have you seen Paul recently?' — » She wanted to know if / had seen Paul recently.
However, if the original question begins what, which, or who followed by be + complement, we can
put the complement before or after be in the report:
‘Who was the winner?' —> asked who the winner was. (or ... who was the winner.)
O
O
I
Note that we don't use a form of do
She asked me where found
O
I
However,
O
if
we
in
the wh-,
it.
not
(
...
if-,
are reporting a negative question,
He asked (me) why
I
didn't
or whether-clause:
where did
we
want anything to
I
find
it.
/ ...
where
I
did find
can use a negative form of do:
eat.
it.)
m
,
Exercises
Report what was
said,
quoting the speaker's exact words using one of the reporting verbs from
the box. Put the reporting clause after the quotation and give alternative word orders where
possible.
boast
Come
1
command
chorus
in
'Come
5
Georgia,
I
(he)
is
it's
8 Have
I
right thing?
announce -go
(/)
expect -be
mean
‘I
didn't
‘I
won't give you the
-could
think
money back
if
Q
from the box. Make one of the verbs negative.
4ntend
—hurt-
threaten - repay
-would
dxdo\t intend to hurt
you keep on
her feelings.
—> He
at me.'
the
she kept on at him.
l
l
feel
—» He
to upset Astrid.'
1
2
3
a pair of verbs
promise -would
insist-be
if
them. (Lena)
Miss Novak, (the children)
done the
Complete each sentence using
money
losing
raining again. (Matt)
Good morning,
7
coffee? (she)
was me.
it
more exciting than a Dan Brown thriller, (she)
always carry two umbrellas with me because I'm always
novel
6 Oh, no,
wonder
suggest
’
right,
My
4
grumble
explain
out of the rain now. (her mother)
In out of the raw now
com oundedL her mother / Her mother commanded.
Why don't we stop for a
2
3 All
confess
can't ask
my
me
parents to help
again.'
—> He
that he
ask his
^ He
that he
parents to help him again.
4
‘I
wasn't anywhere near the school at the time of the break-in.'
anywhere near the school
5
‘I'm
not going back to college.'
She
was surprised that Mum was angry.'
7 ‘Adam won't mind waiting.' -» She
6
8
‘I
‘I
won't be
late again.'
at the time of the break-in.
that she
—> He
-» She
his
Adam
angry.
mind
that she
waiting.
be late again.
Complete the email by reporting these questions using
1
back to college.
mother
a wh-,
if-
or whether-clause.
Q
-^How-dkf you hear a bout the job?'
-
4
‘What are your long-term career plans?'
‘How many languages do you speak?'
‘Where did you learn Chinese?'
5
‘Can you use a spreadsheet?'
2
3
6
‘Have you organised international conferences before?'
7
‘Would you be
8
‘When can you
willing to live overseas for periods of time?'
start work?'
ftOO
CD
Hi Karim,
The interview went
b.Qw
(1)
.
\
A
well, although it was long and they asked lots of questions.
heard about the job t and then they asked me (2)
They were very interested
and they wondered (4)
in
experience. They wanted to
the travelling
know
.
later
and
tell
me
(5)
(3)
,
,
.
phone
done. They asked
they wondered
There were questions about
(6)
I'll
I'd
First,
When
I
previous
and they asked
me
At the end they asked (7)
said 'Yes', they asked
you more about
my
me
(8)
!
it.
Emily
65
Unit
33
Reporting statements: that-clauses
When we
report statements,
we
often use a that-clause
in
the reported
clause (see Unit 32):
O
He said (that) he was enjoying his work.
The members of the Security Council warned that further action may be taken.
more common
After the
reporting verbs such as agree, mention, notice, promise, say, and think,
often leave out that, particularly
after less
after the
in
informal speech. However,
not usually
it is
common reporting verbs such as complain, confide,
common reporting verbs answer, argue, and reply)
left
we
out -
deny, grumble, speculate, warn (and
formal writing
in
the that-clause doesn't immediately follow the verb:
if
She agreed with her parents and brothers that
{rather than
Some
and brothers
...
it
would be
safer
it
would be
safer to
buy a car than a motorbike.
...)
reporting verbs which are followed by a that-clause have an alternative with an object
to-infinitive (often to be), although the alternatives are often rather formal.
I
felt
that the results were satisfactory, and
I
felt
the results to be
+
Compare:
Also acknowledge, assume, believe,
:
satisfactory.
consider, declare, expect, find, presume,
report, think, understand
If
we
use a that-clause after an active form of
some
verbs,
we must
include an object
verb and the that-clause. This object can't be a prepositional object (see
I
notified the
the bank that
bank that had changed
I
I
my address,
{but not
I
D
between the
below):
notified that
I
...
/
I
notified to
...)
Also assure, convince, inform, persuade, reassure, remind, tell
:
However, after some other verbs an object before a that-clause
O
They promised (me) that they would come to the
Also advise, show, teach,
:
After
some verbs we can
However,
it
if
we do
is
not always necessary:
party.
warn
use a that-clause with or without a personal object before the that-clause.
include an object,
we
put a preposition before
some verbs we use to:
She admitted (to me) that she was
it.
After
I
some verbs we
We
announce, complain, confess,
ill.
pointed out (to the driver) that he had parked
across the entrance.
After
Also:
seriously
explain, indicate, mention, propose,
recommend,
report, say, suggest
use with:
agreed (with Ella) that the information should go no further.
Also argue, check, disagree, joke
:
demand and require we use of:
The club asks (of its members) that they pay their fees by 31st December.
The company demands (of its staff) that they should be at work by 8:30.
This pattern is usually used in formal contexts. Less formally we can use a to-infinitive clause after
ask and require (e.g. The club asks its members to pay their fees by 31st December). However, we
can't use a to-infinitive clause after demand {not The company demands its staff to ...).
After the verbs ask,
.
Exercises
Underline the correct verb.
both are possible, underline them both.
If
|
The doctors advised / persuaded that should rest for three months.
2 The police assured / promised residents that everything possible was being done to catch the
1
I
thieves.
3
A spokesperson for the company reminded / warned that there may be
summer due to major engineering work.
4
We should inform / teach children that diet
5
Russian scientists have shown
7
Katarina told / promised that she would be
is
delays on the railways this
of vital importance to health.
have convinced that honey can prevent the growth of bacteria.
6 The company has reassured / has advised customers that cars ordered before 1st August would be
delivered by the end of the month.
If
/
possible, rewrite these sentences in a
write
X
.
O
home
more formal way with
Two days after the launch Houston reported
Two ...4<wjs o/fter the ..(Awnch... Hasten
1
before midnight.
that the satellite
in
was
If
not,
missing.
the sodteUpte
.
2 The employees argued that the reduction
a to-infinitive clause.
ip be rm,ssmg.
wages was unlawful.
3 The judge thought that his explanation was unconvincing.
4
expected that her plans would fail.
She stressed that her stories were aimed primarily at children.
6 Lucas acknowledged that his chances of winning the race were
I
5
7
We found that the
slim.
rugby supporters were very well behaved.
8 The president's spokesman
commented
that the election result
was
a victory for
Complete each sentence with an appropriate form of a verb from the box +
More than one verb may be possible, but use each verb at least once.
Q
announce
1
complain
Martina
her neighbours that their dog
He
I
was keeping her awake
at night.
the lottery and was going to Barbados.
its
Mr Jacobs
forgot to
that the students were lazy.
Chris that
Suggest corrections to the
PIK
require
shocked journalists that she was to resign immediately.
students that they attend all classes.
The college
61
7
won
his friends that he'd
4 The minister
5
mention
joke
to, with, or of.
the shop assistant that the laptop she'd bought there was faulty.
2 She
3
disagree
democracy.
italicised
be
I’d
words
home
in this
I
thought they were very enthusiastic.
late.
news
article.
TO CUT WORKFORCE
PIK, the toy manufacturer,
(1)
has warned they are to make over 100 employees redundant over the next
month. Managing Director Beth Edwards yesterday
for traditional toys is to
the downturn, but she
blame. She
(4)
(2)
explained employees that a national
fall in
demand
confessed her audience that management had been surprised by
denied management had been incompetent. When asked whether staff would
(3)
Ms Edwards (5) replied an announcement would be made within a few days, but
reassured that they would receive financial compensation. She (7) went on to complain government
help for small businesses was insufficient and (8) demanded ministers that they provide
more support.
She (9) asked staff that they continue to work as normal until details of the redundancies were given. She
receive redundancy pay,
(6)
(1
0)
reassured that the company would not close completely.
Additional exercise 8 (page 245)
67
Unit
34
Verb + wh-clause
Some verbs
can be followed by a clause beginning with a
wh-word (how, what, when, where, which,
who, or why):
That might explain why he's unhappy.
Also arrange, calculate, check, choose,
:
couldn't decide which train to catch.
I
debate, determine, discover, discuss,
Let's consider how we can solve the problem.
Many of these verbs can also be followed by -
if
a
imagine, know, learn, notice, plan,
that-clause (see Unit 33):
Cj
a
establish, find out, forget, guess,
realise,
decided that ought to
I
I
wh-clause (except ‘why') +
leave,
remember,
say, see, talk about,
think (about), understand,
wonder
to-infinitive:
Did you find out where to go?
Note that
O
we add
if
a subject in the
what he
can't imagine
I
Some verbs must have
a to-infinitive:
about jazz.
an object before the wh-clause:
She reminded me what
O
wh-clause we don't use
likes
(I
had) to do.
Also advise, inform, instruct, teach,
:
how to get to my house.
The verbs ask and show often have an object before a wh-clause, but
asked (him) how could get to the station, and he told me.
warn
told Linda
I
not always:
I
I
These verbs can also be followed by object + wh-word + to-infinitive:
me how to play chess.
showed her where to put her coat.
She taught
I
way instead of how referring to either the route or the means:
way (that / by which) you came, [or informally Go back how you came.)
noticed how he spins
Have you noticed the way (that / in which) he spins the ball? (or
We can often
Go
use the
back the
...
Note that we don't use
‘the
way
how',
(e.g.
not
Go
back the
...?)
way how you came.)
Whether
We can
use
whether
as the
wh-word
in
a
wh-clause when we want to show possible choices.
Whether has a similar meaning to ‘if' (see Unit 86):
Q He couldn't remember whether / if he had turned
Some verbs
the computer
off.
can be followed by whether + to-infinitive to talk about the choice between two or more
Note that ‘if' is never used before a to-infinitive:
You have 1 4 days to decide whether to keep it or not.
possibilities.
Also:
choose, consider, debate, determine, discuss,
think about, wonder
Some
other
‘talking'
(= ‘talking' or ‘thinking
know
(not
(in
...
to decide
if
to keep
it
or not.)
questions and negatives),
about choices' verbs)
and ‘thinking about choices' verbs are not used with whether +
to-infinitive,
including ask, conclude, explain, imagine, realise, speculate, think.
Note the difference between these sentences. The
first
has a wh-clause with
whether and the second
has a that-clause (see Unit 33):
O
In
I
didn't
I
didn't
know whether the shop was shut. (= if the shop was shut or not)
know that the shop was shut, (suggests that the shop was shut)
rather formal contexts, particularly
in
writing,
we
can use as to with a meaning similar to ‘about' or
most common before whether:
whether
the findings from the study were representative
Opinion was divided as to
population as a whole, (or less formally ... divided whether ...)
‘concerning' before a wh-clause. This
68
is
of the
Exercises
Match sentence beginnings 1-10 to endings a-j and choose an appropriate wh-word to
connect them. If necessary, add an appropriate object.
Q
1
Before the meeting finished they arranged
2
He took my hands and showed
3
I
...
...
explained carefully so that the students
understood
...
4 Anna was new
in
the office and
had to keep
I
10 reminding...
5
6
7
8
9
saw Sarah leave the building, but didn't notice ...
When saw Hugo alone at the party wondered ...
As we walked over the hills the guide warned ...
After I'd dismantled the motor couldn't remember
To win a prize you had to guess ...
I
I
I
I
I
As the guests came
1+d
in
Diego told
...
the parts back together.
a
...
to
b
...
she went after that.
fit
c
...
to put their coats.
d
...
to
e
...
Helen wasn't with him.
f
...
many sweets were
g
...
they had to do
h
...
the path was dangerous.
i
...
everyone was.
...
to hold the golf club properly.
j
m eet ne xt.
in
the
in
the
jar.
test.
...
Before the meeting finished they arranged when / where to meet next.
Underline the correct or more appropriate verb.
1
She was thinking
2 The council
is
/
debating whether to invite Jeremy over for dinner.
meeting
morning to discuss
this
3 Apparently Louis and Eva are considering
4
5
I
have to imagine
Scientists will
/
/
/
ask whether to increase local taxes.
speculating whether to emigrate to Australia.
choose whether to get a job or apply to go to college.
have to decide
/
conclude soon whether to start testing the new drugs on people.
Zak Miles has written a book about mountain climbing
in
the Andes. Correct any mistakes
in
these extracts.
me
warned X what the conditions were like at higher altitudes, and
advised to take enough food for a week. There was some discussion through the day
as whether the snow would arrive before my descent from the mountain, but I never
imagined how hard the conditions would be. In the morning they showed me the way
how to get to the track up the mountain.
The
villagers
When
the
snow started
falling
it
or go back down. Soon, however,
I
wondered
I
decided whether
if
to retrace
I
my
was very
I
and
where
light,
couldn’t see
I
couldn’t decide
if to
carry on
to go.
steps and try to find the track again, but by the time
should go back, the track had disappeared.
As the snow got heavier I began to realise whether my life was in danger. Fortunately,
my years in the Andes had taught what to do in extreme conditions. I knew that
there was a shepherd’s hut somewhere on this side of the mountain that I could
shelter in, but I didn’t know that it was nearby or miles away.
69
Unit
35
Tense choice
reporting
in
-4
Verb tense
the reported clause
in
When the situation described in the reported clause (see Unit
we use a past tense (past simple, past continuous, etc.):
32)
the past
is in
when we
are reporting
it,
— Yusuf said that he didn't want anything to eat.
O don't want anything to
O Tm leaving!' — Lamar announced that she was leaving.
eat.'
‘I
>
»
When the
situation described in the reported clause
originally,
we often
use the past perfect to report
‘We have found the missing
However,
clear that
if it is
girl.'
—»
‘I've
is
sent out the invitations.
I
did
we
we
are reporting
use a present tense for the verb
O
O
it,
then
we
is
a
we
not be necessary to
(or...
—»
had sent
She reassured
me that she
...)
,
still
use a present tense (or present perfect)
five
if
exists or
we
also
minutes on a typical appointment with a patient.
Note that the present perfect focuses attention on the
However, when
may
permanent / habitual situation or
claim that they have developed a
scientists
it
girl.
the reporting clause:
in
Dr Weir thinks that he spends about
US
was spoken about
it
had found the missing
well before the wedding.'
it
when
use the past simple instead:
situation described in the reported clause
relevant at the time
the past
it:
Police said that they
sent out the invitations well before the wedding,
When the
in
one event took place before another, then
indicate this by using the past perfect and
O
was already
use a past tense
in
new vaccine
against malaria.
result of the action, not the action itself.
the reporting clause
we
can use either a present or past tense
(or present perfect or past perfect) in the reported clause:
O
O
She argued that Carl is / was the best person for the job.
They noted that the rate of inflation has / had slowed down.
Choosing a present tense
being reported
still
(or present perfect) in the reported clause
exists or
is still
relevant
when we
report
If we are not sure that what we are reporting is necessarily true,
we prefer a past rather than a present tense. Compare:
O
O
Yasemin told
Yasemin told
in
or a situation
may
not
still
exist
me that she has two houses. (= might suggest that this is true) and
me that she had two houses. (= might suggest either that this is perhaps
true, or that she
Verb tense
emphasises that the situation
it.
now,
not
once had two houses but doesn't have two houses now)
the reporting clause
To report something said or thought
in
the past, the verb
in
the reporting clause
is
often
in
a past
tense:
O
Just before her wedding, she revealed that she had
When we
clause. In
some
She says that
We often
she'll
I
v:
still
relevant
is
when we
report
we
we
in
what
is
said by
some
it:
...
said
-
have been told or heard, but don't
know whether
it is
true:
authority:
The law says that no one under the age of 16 can buy a lottery
what many people say:
I've spoken to
Every teacher
tells
the reporting
prefer a present tense to
hear you're unhappy with your job.
to report
O
true or
prefer a present rather than a past tense
to report
O
is
possible, although
have to close the shop unless business improves, {or
to report information that
O
can use a present tense for the verb
cases, either a present or past tense
emphasise that what was said
O
we
report current news, opinions, etc.
been married before.
ticket.
me that standards of spelling are
in decline.
...)
>
Exercises
Report these sentences using the verbs from the box
past simple or past perfect (or both
3
alleged
conceded
denied^
estimated
4
5
1
‘I
have never been
in
love with Oliver.'
6
2
‘I
think the vase
told
‘I've
‘Well,
‘I
you once.
I've
perhaps you're
seem
to
my
around 250 years
is
house.'
old.'
already seen the
right.
Maybe
the reporting clauses and either the
w
—»
repeated
ever
m
love, wiih
—> She
film.'
—> She
—> She
remember that Wilma's great-grandmother was from
Complete the sentences with
a verb
Oliver,
She
did treat Lara unkindly.'
I
Q
recalled
—
ever been /
‘Markus has stolen jewellery from
in
possible) in the that-clause.
if
chosen from a suitable
Spain.'
pair.
If
—» She
both verbs
in
the pair are
possible, write both.
has
/
had
is /
was
1
/ looked
understood
/
Engineers hope that they
supports have been
built,
the problems with the bridge
and they plan to reopen
2 The current law
3 Simon
is
solved / have solved
looks
understand
states / stated
it
now that new
next week.
that an employee has the right to appeal against dismissal.
already a good tennis player, but he accepts that he
a lot to
still
learn.
4
I
5
Health
may
officials
that you want to buy
warn that anyone who
put their sight at
a
second-hand
car.
Your brother just told me.
directly at the sun during an eclipse
risk.
6 They reassured us that the path
perfectly safe.
Jamie Barnes and Daniel Nokes have been interviewed by the police in connection with a
robbery last week. If necessary, correct the tenses in the that-clauses in these extracts from
the interview reports. If not, write S Suggest possible alternatives.
.
When I mentioned
to Nokes that he had
been seen in a local shop last Monday,
he protested that he is at home all day.
He swears that he didn’t own a blue
Ford Focus. He claimed that he had
been to the paint factory two weeks ago
to look for work.
Nokes alleges that he
is a good friend of Jamie Barnes. He
insisted that he didn’t telephone Barnes
last
Monday morning. When
I
pointed
out to Nokes that a large quantity of
paint had been found in his house, he
replied that he
is
storing
- Additional exercise 8 (page 245)
it
for
a
At
the
beginning
of
the
interview
I
reminded Barnes that he is entitled to
have a lawyer present. He denied that
he knew anyone by the name of Daniel
Nokes. Barnes confirmed that he is in
the area of the paint factory last Monday,
but said that he
is visiting
admitted that he
is
his mother.
walking along
Street at around ten.
He
He
New
maintains that
he was a very honest person and would
never be involved in anything illegal.
friend.
71
>
Reporting offers, suggestions, orders, intentions, etc.
Verb + (object) + to-infinitive clause
When we
verbs
in
report offers, suggestions, orders, intentions, promises, requests, etc.
the reporting clause (see Unit 33) with -
we
can follow
some
a to-infinitive clause
town hall.'—> They propose to build the theatre next to
They propose them to build ...)
‘The theatre will be built next to the
the town
Also, agree,
hall,
[not
demand, guarantee,
offer,
promise, swear, threaten, volunteer
an object + to-infinitive clause
O
‘You should take the job, Fran.'
Also: advise, ask, call on,
command,
—
She encouraged Fran to take the job.
instruct, invite, order,
persuade, recommend, remind, request, urge, warn,
The object usually
who
refers to the
performs the action
Compare the use
in
person
who the
offer,
tell
suggestion, etc.
is
made to;
that
is,
the person
the reported clause.
of ask with and without an object before a to-infinitive clause:
We asked
to leave our bags outside the
exam room. (= this is something we wanted) and
exam room. (= this is something they wanted)
They asked us to leave our bags outside the
B
Verb + that-clause or verb + to-infinitive clause
After
some verbs we can use a that-clause instead
He promised to arrive on time, or
He promised that he would arrive on time.
of a to-infinitive clause:
Also agree,
O
With
a that-clause the person promising, etc.
:
demand, expect, guarantee,
hope, propose, request,
and the person referred to
in
vow
the reported clause
may
be different:
He promised
that he wouldn't be late. (‘He
After the verbs insist, order, say and suggest
we
...'
and
‘...
he
...'
may
refer to different people)
use a that-clause but not a to-infinitive clause:
There were cheers when he suggested that
we went home
early.
(
not
...
suggested to go
Advise and order can be used with an object + to-infinitive clause (see A) or a that-clause.
advised that she should accept, (or advised her to accept.) but not advised to accept
I
I
I
...)
...)
Verb + to-infinitive clause ( not verb + that-clause)
After
some verbs we
O
use a to-infinitive clause but not a that-clause:
Carolyn intends to return to Dublin after a year
(not Carolyn intends that she should return
When we
else
report a suggestion, either
might do,
we
in
Canada.
Also: long, offer, refuse,
...)
volunteer,
want
what the person reported might do themselves, or what someone
can use a reporting clause with advise, propose,
recommend
or suggest followed
by an -ing clause rather than a that-clause:
lecturer recommended reading a number of books before the exam, (or ...
recommended that the students should read a number of books before the exam.)
The
>
Exercises
Report each sentence using a verb from the box and a to-infinitive clause. Use each verb once
If necessary, add an appropriate object after the verb.
Q
only.
agree
advise^
1
‘If
were you,
I
I'd
He ddyised
2
‘Okay,
3
‘Be quiet!'
I'll
ask
to
from
school.'
the ban on smoking
‘I
will fight
6
‘I
imagine
7
‘Can you lend
I'll
order
urge
vow
—> He
...
...
4 ‘Please stay for a few more days.'
5
hope
expect
exam questions very carefully/ —
read tkie excum questions very carefully,
collect Declan
>
on
read the
us-
— He
call
in
—» He
He
see Olivia at the party.'
me ten
...
public places.'
pounds?' —> He
—» He
...
...
...
8 ‘The government should do more to help the homeless.'
9 ‘If leave early, I'll avoid the heavy traffic.' —> He ...
—» He
Replace any incorrect verbs with ones from the boxes.
boxed verbs.)
may
...
I
(It
not be necessary to use
all
the
I
expected
promised
refused
In
a
major speech today, the Health Minister
suggested to improve the country's health
care. She (2) guaranteed to reduce waiting
(1)
5
times for operations, and
(3) in tended that
be done without raising taxes. She
said that she (4) insisted to see significant
this could
improvements within a
hoped
ordered
proposed
The President of Guwandi has
(5)
year.
volunteered
demanded Narian troops
to
withdraw from the border area between the two countries, and said
that he (6) wanted that the Narian president would act now to prevent
war. In a separate development, the UN Secretary General has
(7)
agreed to meet the leaders of both countries and has (8) offered that a
peace conference should be held in New York early next week.
Complete the sentences
a verb.
Q
in
any appropriate way using a clause beginning with the -ing form of
To avoid the road works, police have advised
laying the ..rootorway
2 To encourage people to use public transport the council proposed
1
.
3
Ricardo said the play was very entertaining and he
4 To find
I'd
my way around
6 The capital urgently needs a new
I've
8
It
been putting on weight and
was
a lovely
3
recommended
London, Reza suggested
been feeling unwell for a few days and
7
Junction
airport,
my mother advised
and the government proposes
my doctor has recommended
morning and Nina suggested
Can any of these sentences be rewritten with
Additional exercise 8 (page 245)
a to-infinitive clause without an object?
73
Unit
Modal verbs
When
there
report
what was
is
in
modal verb
a
reporting
in
the original statement, suggestion,
said or thought.
The changes are summarised
etc.,
it
sometimes changes when we
here:
modal verb in original
modal verb in report
could, would, should, might,
could, would, should, might,
B
C
needn't, ought to, used to,
needn't, ought to, used to,
could have, should have, etc.
could have, should have, etc.
O
may
will, can,
may
present tense verb
(existing or future situations
reporting clause)
in
would, can or could,
will or
(existing or future situations
reporting clause)
D
shall
must
must
E
(talking
should
(offers,
must
(= conclude; see Unit 18B)
must©
mustn't
or
mustn't
had
and
©
may or might
and past tense verb
in
0
would
(= necessity)
©-©
no change)
©&©
would, could, might
will, can,
(/.e.
about the future)
©
©
requests for advice, etc.)
to©
©
Q
could meet you at the airport.' —> He said that he could meet us at the airport.
‘We might drop in if we have time.' —> They said they might drop in if they have time.
‘You should have contacted me earlier.' —> She said should have contacted her earlier.
‘I
0
I
‘She
If
may
we
the situation
have already
O
O
If
we
in Paris
the situation
still
exists or
use will, can, and
‘Careful! You'll fall
Til be
—» He thought she might have already left. ©
left.'
are reporting
has a present tense,
0
through the
is still in
may
ice!'
in
—> warned
I
She tells
at Christmas.'
the future and the verb
the reporting clause
in
the reported clause (see Unit 32). Compare:
him he would
me she'll
be
in Paris
fall
through the
at Christmas.
ice.
©
0 and
we are reporting still exists or is still in the future and the verb in the reporting clause
we can use either would or will, can or could, or may or might in the reported
has a past tense,
clause
:
‘The problem can be solved.'
‘I
O
shall
(I'll)
call
said the problem can
/
could be solved.
0
—> She told me she would call me on Monday.
He asked where he should put the box.
you on Monday.'
‘Where shall put
I
-»They
this box?'
—»
Q
©
©
must be home by 9 o'clock.' —> She said must / had to be home by 9 o'clock.
is more natural in speech)
didn't hear the phone. must be going deaf.' —» Alex thought he must be going deaf.
‘You mustn't tell my brother.' —> He warned me that mustn't tell his brother.
‘You
I
(had to
‘I
I
©
I
Note that we sometimes use a modal verb
in
when
a reported sentence
there
is
no modal verb
©
in
the
original:
‘You're not allowed to
O
‘My advice
is
—> She told me that
new job now.' —> She said that
smoke
to look for a
here.'
mustn't smoke
I
I
should look
there.
for a
new job now.
)
>
>
>
Exercises
Underline the more appropriate verb.
1
The doctor says that he
2
In
3
Maxim
her
If
both are possible, underline them both.
would see you
Elizabeth revealed that she
letter,
me that
tells
will /
he can
4 Inge promised that she
/
could
20 minutes.
may / might be getting married soon.
come
would be
in
for dinner with us tonight after
home
all.
phoned her shortly after that.
5 The mechanic admitted that he can't / couldn't repair the radiator and had to replace it instead.
6 Olivia reckons that she can / could save enough money to go on holiday to Canada.
7 Mario explained that he will / would be living in Austria for the next six months.
will /
Complete the reported sentences using
1
‘If
goes to plan,
all
instead he
‘I
‘Perhaps
4
‘I
5
‘I'll
study medicine.'
a vet.
late.'
She promised
won't be
2
3
I'll
became
we
at
by nine, so
I
a that-clause with a
—
>
modal verb.
th<d he would study medicine but
He hoped
and she kept her word.
—» He suggested
can go to Paris for the weekend.'
but
can get you there
in
good
time.'
—
>
but
pay for the meal.'
—> He
and
insisted
was
busy.
I
didn't believe her.
accepted, of course.
I
Complete this message left on an answering machine by reporting what Chloe
modal verbs in the reports.
3
I
She guaranteed
said, using
Q30
4
5 ‘You
mustn't forget to
6 your student discount
7
Where
shall
c
we meet?'
M
J
‘Hi,
turning up last
week - she
things and that she
,
I
Mia. I've just spoken to Chloe and she's keen to
-4-fnust
begetti ng old.'
But she promised
J
said she
and she
,
She
^
shall
Oh, and she said
I
said she
suggested meeting
and
I
Remember yours,
be there thistime.'
so
(4)
just by the pool entrance.
/r
Complete the reported sentences using appropriate modal
where possible.
forgetting
getting old'
(2)
(3)
at 10:30.
was always
must be
(1)
She's meeting Jack for lunch,
‘I
come
to the pool with us tomorrow. She apologised for not
Hope
that's
I
said
okay for you.
(5)
too. See
you
there. Bye.'
verbs. Give alternative
modal verbs
you attend the meeting.' —
said that
had bo / must (rttericL Jhe, meeting.
2 ‘If you want to travel with us, that's fine.' —> She said that
1
‘It's
vital that
She.
‘I'm
I
not prepared to answer
‘Karl's likely
to be back soon.'
‘There's a possibility that
‘I
I'll
refuse to accept that Jason
‘Maria
is
She said that
his questions.'
—
She said that
have to
is
move to
Milan.'
—> She said that
dishonest.' -> She said that
sure to be disappointed
if
you leave without seeing
her.'
—
She said that
...
75
Unit
Reporting what people say using nouns
38
and adjectives
We sometimes
noun in the reporting clause followed by a
wh-word. Most of these nouns are related to
reporting verbs (acknowledgement - acknowledge, statement - state, etc.). Note that when we report
using nouns and adjectives (see C) the exact original words are not necessarily reported. Instead we
might use our own words, or report that something was said without reporting what was said.
it Noun + that-clause
The claim is often made that smoking causes heart disease.
The jury came to the conclusion that the woman was guilty.
report people's words and thoughts using a
reported clause beginning with that, a to-infinitive-, or
Also
:
acknowledgement, advice, allegation, announcement, answer, argument,
comment,
decision, explanation, forecast, guarantee, indication, observation, promise,
recommendation,
reply, speculation,
statement, suggestion, threat, warning
Note that we don't usually leave out that
Noun + to-infinitive clause
in
sentences
like this
(see Unit 33).
if
Q
Q
accepted Luisa's invitation to
I
He gave
me
every
visit
her
encouragement
Also: decision, instruction, order,
in
Rome.
to take up painting again.
promise, recommendation, refusal, threat, warning
Note that some of these nouns can be followed by a that-clause:
They carried out their threat to dismiss workers on strike, (or
dismiss workers on strike.)
it
...
their threat that they
Noun + wh-clause
would
Also explanation,
:
money would be collected.
issue of how to increase income.
Juan raised the question of when the
Our previous meeting looked
We
usually use of after these nouns
After
many of the nouns
listed in
at the
in
A we
discussion,
problem
reporting.
can use as to + wh-clause or as to +
wh-word + to-infinitive
to introduce the subject of a question or topic discussed or thought about (see also Unit 34F). Note
that an alternative preposition can usually be used instead of as to:
my advice
on
as to what subject she should study at university, (or
...
advice
There was some discussion as to whetherthe price included tax or not. (or
...
discussion of
She asked
Before
we
left
we gave them
strict instructions
as to
howto cook
it.
(or
...
about how to
Reporting using adjectives
Some
adjectives used to report a speaker's feelings or opinion are followed by a that-clause:
The builders are certain that they'll be finished by the end of next week.
Also:
adamant, agreed, angry, annoyed, grateful,
insistent, sure
Adjectives expressing uncertainty are usually followed by a wh-clause:
O
Also:
Some
Scientists aren't sure
where the remains of the
satellite will land.
doubtful (usually + whether), uncertain, not certain, unsure
adjectives are usually followed by a preposition
+ noun
phrase:
Today's newspapers are very critical of the President's decision to appoint
Also: apologetic,
complimentary, insulting, tactful (+ about);
of); abusive, sympathetic (+ to / towards)
dismissive, scornful (+
Mr Walters.
...)
...)
...)
.
.
Exercises
Complete the sentences with the nouns from the box and the notes
where possible.
in
1
brackets.
Use
a that-,
to-infinitive or wh-clause. Suggest alternatives
announcement
invitation
encouragement
decision
observation
issue
promise
explanation
question
warning
The turning point in his life came when he took the
decision bo become on actor, /
that he wouUt become an acbor
(become - actor)
(who -pay repairs - building)
...
He
I
I
failed to
address the
...
was delighted to get an ...
it was Aristotle who made the
think
(spend the holidays - them - Scotland)
.
Amazingly the police accepted Rudi's
On the webinar they debated the ...
The
letter
from the company gave a
8 The government has broken
its
(no such thing - bad publicity)
.
(taken - wallet - mistake)
...
(assisted suicide
final
(reduce -rate- income tax)
...
9 The positive reaction to my work gave me considerable
10 Waiting passengers were angry when they heard the ...
Complete the rewritten sentences using
then a wh-word.
1
- criminal offence)
(pay - bill by - end of- week)
...
Q
a
(take
...
noun formed from the
up photography - career)
(flight - cancelled)
verb + as to and
italicised
At the end the writers suggest when it is appropriate to correct students' grammar mistakes.
The writers end with
suQqestiOYxs os to wHew.lt
appropriate to correct students grammar mistakes
1
2
People have argued a great deal about
There has been
3
For
how to
define poverty.
...
months people have speculated about whether President Malik would stand
There have been months
again.
...
4 Scientists might conclude something about what their results imply.
Scientists might ...
5
We
have
There
still
not explained definitely
why the
dinosaurs disappeared.
is still ...
Complete each sentence using an adjective from the box with that, a wh-word, or
preposition.
Q
adamant
abusive
not certain
The climbers were
My
boss
is
agreed
angry
complimentary
apologetic
^oubtfuT
dismissive
doubtful whether
a
the clothes would be
unsure
warm enough
at high altitudes.
my complaints about the new
very unsympathetic and was
software.
The company
Mona
the child car seats are safe.
is
tried to pick
up the
She was very
Rachel
Karim
is
rabbit, but
was
the
to hold
window had been
normally very reliable and was extremely
New York in September but he was
turning up
left for
8 The court heard that Hughes became
9 Judi doesn't normally like spicy food, but was quite
10 All the players are
- Additional exercise 8 (page 245)
it.
broken.
late.
he would return.
a police officer
and was arrested.
my fish curry.
the
game
should go on despite the weather.
77
Unit
39
Should
We can
in
that-clauses; the present subjunctive
advice, orders, requests, suggestions, etc. about things that need to be
sometimes report
done
or are desirable using a that-clause with should + bare infinitive:
O
O
They have proposed that
Felix
should move to their Munich
We advised that the company should
not
office.
raise its prices.
we often use be + past participle (passive) or be + adjective:
They directed that the building should be pulled down.
We insist that the money should be available to all students in financial
After should
O
In
formal contexts, particularly
base form of the verb (that
subjunctive (see Unit
expressed
O
85A
for the past subjunctive)
To make a negative form,
and
formal contexts
We can
in
a dictionary). This
form
is
the present
used to describe bringing about the situation
advise, ask, beg,
we
we
request, require, stipulate, suggest, urge,
prices.
can use ordinary forms of the verb instead of the subjunctive. Compare:
I
suggested that he give up
golf,
suggested that he gives up
also use that-clauses with
B
warn
use not ( not ‘do not') before the verb:
suggested that he should give up
related to the verbs in
command, demand, insist,
recommend,
instruct, intend, order, prefer,
I
I
is
Other verbs used with the present subjunctive:
We advised that the company not raise its
O
can often leave out should and use only the
the that-clause:
in
They directed that the building
be pulled down.
O
we
written English,
They have proposed that Felix
move to their Munich office.
O
In less
in
the form you would look up
is,
difficulties.
(e g.
golf.
(
negative
...
that he shouldn't give up
...)
that he not give up
...)
(more formal) ( negative
:
golf, (less formal) (negative:
...
...
that he doesn't give up
...)
should or the subjunctive after reporting clauses with nouns
advice, order, proposal, warning):
The police issued an order that all weapons (should) be handed in immediately.
The weather forecast gave a warning that people (should) prepare for heavy snow.
O
We can also
O
use should or sometimes the subjunctive
It is
in
a that-clause after
inappropriate that he (should) receive the award again, (or
it
+ be + adjective:
that he receives
...
...)
Also advisable, appalling, appropriate, (in)conceivable, crucial, essential,
:
imperative, important, obligatory, (un)necessary, urgent, vital
We can
use should
in a
that-clause when
reporting, particularly after
O
Also:
we
talk
about our own reaction to something we are
be + adjective. Compare:
lam concerned that she should think
I
stole the
money
(or
...
that she thinks
...)
amazed, amused, anxious, astounded, disappointed, shocked, surprised, upset
Note that when we leave out should
in
sentences
like this (= less
formal)
we
use an ordinary tense,
not a subjunctive.
We can
O
in a that-clause to talk about a situation that exists now:
not surprising that they should be seen together - they're brothers,
use should
It's
may exist
or one that
O
If
we
We believe
the future:
important that she should take the exam next year.
are talking about an intention or plan,
I've
...
78
in
it is
arranged that she
that she
comes
...
we
can often use a subjunctive rather than should:
come to the first part of the
for her to come ...)
/
...
meeting, (or
...
that she should
come
...
/
Exercises
Report these statements from a Spanit Engineering
Company board
meeting. Use a that-clause
with should (should + bare infinitive or should + be + past participle).
|
think it's important to expand business in South America.'
Lee felt that business
South ArYierix^L shouUi be expanded.
Lee said:
1
‘I
m
Lee said: 'Mara Bianchi would
2
make an
excellent export manager. Let's
promote
her.'
Lee urged
3 Alice said:
Alice
4 Alice
would be valuable
‘It
for us to
send a sales representative to South
Africa.'
recommended
Delaware Bridge project ought to be completed by August next
said: ‘The
year.'
Alice reported
Simon said: ‘It is vital to keep to our work schedules.'
Simon insisted
106 Simon said: ‘I'd like all
monthly reports sent to me directly.'
Simon instructed
5
7 Alina
said:
‘Perhaps
we could
use
web
conferencing for meetings to save
money on
air fares.'
Alina suggested
3
8 Alina said: ‘Our head office must remain
4
in
London.'
Alina declared
5
9 Nathan
6
7
8
said:
‘It's
okay
for us to
Nathan said: ‘In future,
Nathan announced
all
claims for travel expenses are to be
Look again at your answers for
be correct? Write ‘yes' if it
still
Expand the notes using
amused
i
/
It is ...
I
am
It is ...
I
I
possible and 'no'
a that-clause with
if
not.
made
in
US
dollars.'
|
should and an adjective from the box to make
may be possible, but use each once only.
adjective
astounded
shocked
upset
E
imperative
urgent
she / marry Ben.
mconceivaile that she should marry Ben.
behave so badly.
.../ Kristina /
lam...
is
appalling
ncon ceivable-
It Is
2
years.'
Can any of the sentences be written without should and
39.1.
More than one
reporting sentences.
1
sponsor the European chess league for the next three
Nathan agreed
/
anyone
he
/
/
...
/
he
am
...
/
they
It is ...
/we
/
home
immediately.
take his appearance so seriously.
/
they
/
vote for him.
return
am
It is ...
/
/
/
think
I
had cheated them.
allowed to go
act
now to
free.
avoid war.
79
Unit
40
Agreement between subject and verb
a sentence has a singular subject,
If
has a plural subject,
it is
followed by a singular verb, and
followed by a plural verb; that
it is
1
if it
the verb agrees
is,
with the subject. Compare:
She
lives in
When the subject of the sentence
subject. In the
Q
and
China,
is
More people
live in Asia
than
in
any other continent.
complex the following verb must agree with the main noun in the
is underlined and the main noun is circled. Note how the
examples below the subject
verb, in italics, agrees with the
main noun:
Many leading(members of the
The only^xcus^that he gave
opposition party have criticised the delay.
for his actions
was that he was
tired.
The verb must agree with the subject when the subject follows the verb (see Units 99 & 100):
Displayed on the board were the exam results, (compare The exam results were displayed
O
the subject
If
Q
O
is
a clause,
we
usually use a singular verb:
To keep these young people
in
prison
is
inhuman.
Having overall responsibility for the course means that
Whoever took them remains
However,
if
main noun
we
is
and either a singular or a
(although a plural verb
O
O
is
preferred
I
have a
in
plural verb
meetings.
we
more formal
use a singular verb
if
the following
the following main noun
if
is
plural
contexts):
What worries us is the poor selection process.
What is needed are additional resources, (or more colloquially
Some nouns with
lot of
a mystery.
use a what-clause as subject (see Unit 98B),
singular,
...)
a singular form, referring to groups of
some
kind,
...
needed
is ...)
can be used with either a singular
sometimes called collective nouns:
council
The
has (or have) postponed a decision on the new road.
or plural form of the verb. These nouns are
O
We
use a singular verb
verb
if
the focus
on
is
meaning, although
in
if
the focus
is
on the
institution or organisation as a
a collection of individuals.
whole
unit,
Often you can use either with very
formal contexts (such as academic writing)
it is
common
and a
little
plural
difference
in
to use a singular verb.
Also army, association, audience, class, club, college, commission, committee,
:
community,
company, crew, crowd, department, electorate, enemy, family, federation, generation,
government, group, institute, jury, opposition, orchestra, population, press, public, school, team,
university; the Bank of England, the BBC, IBM, Sony, the United Nations (specific organisations)
In
some contexts we have
to use a singular or a plural form of the verb.
The committee usually raise their hands to
vote ‘Yes', (not The committee usually raises
its
O
hands
is something the individuals
committee as a whole.
This
do, not the
...)
The school
is
to close next year, (not The
school are to close
This
is
something that
will
happen to the
school as a building or institution, not to the
...)
individuals in the school.
When names and
titles
ending
in -s refer
to a single unit
we
use a singular verb. Examples include
words or phrases:
one hour ahead of the UK.
countries; newspapers; titles of books, films, etc.; and quoted plural
O
Q
O
At this time of the year the Netherlands
The Machine Gunners
‘
Daps’
is
was one
the word used
in
is
of Robert Westall's
most successful books.
the south-west of the country for sports shoes.
Exercises
Correct ten mistakes
in
the italicised verbs
in this
museum
review.
Houses
The
historic sites
The Rivers Museum
Open: 9
Rivers
Museum on
the corner of Corn Street and
New
]
Road -house a
fascinating collection of art and other objects which begins as soon as you
step through the door. Among the most eye-catching pieces in the whole
collection 2 /s the marble animal sculptures under two arches on the left
Museums and
am - 5 pm.
Mon - Sat
of the entrance hall.
Entrance: Free
mystery, but the
Whoever created these
skill
of the craftspeople
figures apparently
3
who worked on them
4
remain a
is
obvious.
Hanging on the wall directly opposite the carvings 5 /s over a hundred
swords from the 1 7th century. The narrow doorway between the arches
6
let you into a series of smaller rooms where paintings from the 1 8th and
9th centuries
7
are
on
paintings aren't your thing, the museum's
and fossils in the final room s are sure to
be of interest. Perhaps what is most surprising about the building itself 9 are
the bell tower in the small courtyard. Only since the restoration work was
completed in 201 1 ™have the tower been open, and climbing the 150
steps to the top to take in the view over the city n /s well worth the effort.
Over 50 full-time staff and volunteers 12 /s employed and having so many
of them available to answer questions about the collection u add to the
1
display.
If
incredible collection of seashells
pleasure of this must-see
Complete each sentence with
a
noun from the box and an appropriate form of the verb
brackets (singular, plural or both).
audience
class
4earrv
1
The
jury
Q
orchestra
the United Nations
team
volleyball
p(Ay / ptays
twice a week
in
I
the summer, (play)
just don't
know where we
will
be able
(refuse)
3 The worldwide television
200
press
to host the conference,
it.
in
university
2 lfthe
to hold
museum.
for
tomorrow's cup
expected to be
final
million, (be)
4 The
classical concerts
-
throughout the year, (perform)
105 The Waterman's Junior Book Prize
three adults and three children.
(include)
6 The
all
7 The
passed the end-of-year exam, (have)
a picture of chaos in our schools, but
it's
just not like that at
all.
(present)
®
ordered an investigation into the capture of
keeping force
If
in
members
of
its
nec essary, correct the mistakes
in
these sentences or write
if
they are already correct.
The United States come top of the list of countries ranked by economic performance.
2 The people know who have seen the film say that it's really good.
3 The New Straits Times report that tourism is booming in Malaysia.
4 Northern Lights are one of Suzanne's favourite books.
1
I
5
The
stairs leading to
6 Chequers
7
Whoever
peace-
eastern Africa, (have)
the first floor were steep and poorly lit.
the country house of the British Prime Minister.
made all the mess in the kitchen have to clear it up.
is
8 The phrase ‘men
in white coats' are used to talk about psychiatrists.
9 The public needs to be kept informed about progress in the peace talks.
Musical chairs are a party game where everyone dashes for a seat when the music stops.
Additional exercise 9 (page 245)
Unit
41
Agreement between subject and verb 2
With any of, each of, either of, neither of, or
none of and a plural noun / pronoun we can
(We use
use a singular or plural verb.
1
O
a singular
won
verb for careful written English.)
With a
/
the majority
plenty
of,
noun
pronoun we use
/
number of,
some (of) and
of, a
of, all (of), or
a plural verb.
singular verb with the
number of.)
one of and
noun
After
a plural
/
O
a lot
(We use
noun
pronoun +
/
(or
know)
(or have)
this year.
refugees have been turned
back at the border.
O
a
any of them knows
A number of
a plural
The number of books
in
the library has
risen to over five million.
One of the
pronoun we
who we can
reasons
took the job was that
1
1
could work from home.
use a singular verb. However, after one of +
plural
don't think
where the money is hidden.
Neither of the French athletes has
O
often use
either a singular or plural verb. (A plural verb
He's
one of those teachers who
insists
is
on pupils
insist /
sitting silently in class.
more grammatical.)
With any
none
of,
of,
the majority
lot of, plenty of, all (of),
some
uncountable noun we use
(of)
O
of, a
each
of,
a subject has
Ingrid
fire.
be
Every room looks over the harbour.
O
O
see above.)
Every boy and
takes part
girl
in
the
activity.
drawn a picture, but
The children have each drawn a picture.
Each
child has
everyone
Practically
thinks that Phil should
be given the job.
two or more items joined by and, we
usually use a plural verb:
and Tobias are moving back to Australia.
However, phrases connected by and can also be followed by singular verbs
making up
a single item:
O
lorry, its
The
When
a subject
is
English),
and a
cargo and passengers weighs around 35 tonnes,
made up
use a singular verb
if
the
of
last
plural verb
if
two
item
the
O
The President or
the last item
is
or
is
last
Either the station or the
more items joined by
there + be
item
is
and a
plural
/
have
...
cinema
is
if
[or
or
...
...
weigh
as
...)
or (neither)
sometimes used
is
good place to meet,
a
[or
...
are
in
...
nor
...
we
informal
...
in
informal English)
his representatives are to attend the meeting.
(see Unit 95)
we
plural nouns.
is
we
can use a singular or plural verb:
to blame for the accident, [or
...
are to blame
...)
use a singular verb form with singular and uncountable nouns
However,
in
informal speech
we
often use a shortened singular
form of be or have (= There's) with plural nouns:
Over the last few years there have been many improvements in car
There's been lots of good films on lately, (or There Ve been ...)
O
O
we think of them
plural:
singular and previous item plural,
form with
(either)
singular (although a plural verb
Either the teachers or the principal
In
the
use a singular verb.
When
If
in
damaged.
a singular verb.
With everyone, everybody, everything (and
similar words beginning any-, some- and no-)
we
was destroyed
None of the equipment appears to
With every or each and a singular noun or
coordinated noun (x and y) we use a singular
verb. (For
All the furniture
and an
safety.
Exercises
Complete each set of sentences using nouns or phrases from
verb forms (active or passive) from
Q
both.
0)
his early paintings
00
remain
1
a
I'd
b
It's
if
unlikely that
and appropriate present simple
Dr Jones's acquaintances
children remember / remembers
any of
the food
know
taste
my
any of
(i)
singular and plural verb forms are possible, write
my chHdfen
remember
be surprised
(ii). If
_
my
It
birthday.
seems that he destroyed
most of the work he produced during the 1930s.
c
I
don't think any of
restaurant
An
d
investigation
where he
is
underway to discover whether any of
is.
0)
vegetarians
00
exceed
2 a
particularly good. In fact, the
rather disappointing,
is
other
victims
charge
expect
museums
medicines
relieve
Mainly because of recent health scares involving beef and chicken, the number of
to
b
A number of
c
It is
rise
dramatically
the
in
the next
symptoms
five years.
of influenza, but none can cure
estimated that the number of
100 000
,
d You can
still
go
into the National
(0
player
O')
last
these factors
test
.
Museum
for free, although a
number of
the capital
in
people for entry.
the cars
influence
it.
of the flooding
the pieces
try
The whole concert includes twenty short items from young musicians. Each of
about five minutes.
b The aim of the game is quite simple. Each
to buy as many
properties on the board as possible.
3 a
Each of
c
for safety, fuel
economy and
d There are four major influences on exchange rates: price levels,
goods, and productivity. Here
exchange
we
investigate
how each
Complete the sentences with present simple forms of the verb
forms are possible, write both.
preference for imported
the
in
brackets.
If
both singular and
Q0
Plenty of jobs
paid, (be /
tariffs,
of
rate.
plural verb
1
reliability.
available, but
no one
them because
they're so poorly
want)
2 The majority of those questioned
that the government's economic policies have
although neither the Prime Minister nor the Education Minister
indicated
that these policies will change, (think / have)
failed,
3
It's
the
first
time that either of us
been to China, but everyone we've met here
been very welcoming and
4 Professor Smith and Dr Peters
helpful, (have / have)
that the wreck of the ship and
its
cargo
a danger to local people fishing near the island, (claim / constitute)
5
a:
Oh, good, sausages and chips
b:
Sorry, all the sausages
want some,
my favourite.
gone, but there
plenty of chips
left
if
you
(be / have / be)
“ Additional exercise 9 (page 245)
83
Unit
42
Agreement between subject and verb 3
Plural
nouns
Some nouns
are usually plural and take a
Also: belongings, clothes, congratulations,
goods,
plural verb:
O
outskirts, overheads, particulars
The company's earnings have
(= information),
increased for the last five years.
premises (=
building), riches, savings,
stairs, surroundings, thanks
Note that whereabouts can be used with
either a singular or plural verb, police
and people always
take a plural verb, and staff usually does:
Thomas is in Brazil, although his exact whereabouts are/ is unknown.
new computer system has led to greater levels of stress in their work.
Police believe that
O
Plural
Staff say that the
nouns used with singular verbs
Although the words data and media (= newspaper,
television, etc.) are plural (singular
and medium), they are commonly used with a singular verb. However,
as
academic writing a
phenomena
O
O
All
I
plural verb
(singular criterion
the data
is
is
preferred.
...
datum
formal contexts such
similar plurals such as criteria
and phenomenon) are always used with
available for public inspection, (or
are available
agree that the criteria are not of equal importance, (not
Uncountable nouns ending
...
plural verbs.
...)
and
Compare:
and
the criteria
is
not
...)
in -s
Some uncountable nouns always end in -s
if they are plural, but when we
and look as
them
Note that other
in
Also:
use
as the subject they have a singular verb:
The news from the Middle East seems
means
(= ‘method' or ‘money'); economics,
mathematics, phonetics, physics;
statistics; athletics, gymnastics;
linguistics,
politics,
diabetes, measles, rabies
very encouraging.
However, compare:
academic subject
general use
O
O
Politics
is
popular at this university.
Her politics are bordering on the
fascist.
(= political belief)
Statistics
was always
my worst subject.
Statistics are able to prove anything
want them
to. (=
you
numerical information)
Economics has only recently been
The economics behind
recognised as a scientific study.
unreasonable. (= the financial system)
Agrement with measurements, percentages,
their policies are
etc.
measurement, amount or quantity we usually prefer a singular verb:
in first and second places, (rather than ... separate ...)
and a singular verb must be used when the complement is a singular noun phrase (e.g. a long time):
Three hours seems a long time to take on the homework, (not Three hours seem ...)
With
a phrase referring to a
Only three metres separates the runners
in a complex subject is a percentage or a fraction the verb agrees with the noun
Compare:
An inflation rate of only 2% makes a difference to exports, (verb agrees with main noun) and
About 50% / half of the houses need major repairs, (verb agrees with closest noun)
When the first noun
closest to the verb.
Where we use
a singular
noun that can be thought of as
either a
we can use either a singular or plural verb:
Some 80% of the electorate is expected to vote,
whole unit or
a collection of
individuals,
(or
...
are expected
...)
Exercises
necessary, correct the italicised verbs.
Dr Darsee's present whereabouts
Phenomena such
unknown.
is
as sun spots have puzzled scientists for centuries.
Over the last decade the company's overheads has increased dramatically.
The research data was collected during the period 12th-29th July 2012.
Congratulations goes to Ricky Branch for his excellent
The coastal surroundings of the village is particularly
He feels that the media have criticised him unfairly.
Further particulars about the house
People says the house
is
is
available
1
Modern
I
3
If
from the owner.
athletics
extremely right-wing.
neglected
4 Measles
5
verbs.
often said to have begun at the start of the 20th century.
linguistics
think the Senator's politics
in
killed a large
Contact us by whatever means
6 Recent
results.
haunted.
Complete the sentences using suitable present simple
2
exam
attractive.
schools, this will have a big impact
evidence of a rapid increase
statistics
on future national teams.
number of children in the Nagola region.
most convenient for you: phone, email
in living
standards
or fax.
in Asia.
Complete these extracts from news articles with a singular or plural form of the verbs
brackets. If both singular and plural forms are possible, write both.
nmsm
in
e
The
outskirts of our cities
(have) recently been
population regularly
On
average, 25
litres
new out-of-town
Around a third of the
(have) benefited from the
shopping centres that
built.
(shop) out of town.
of water
population
(be)
used each day per household and as the
(expect) higher living standards, this figure
will rise.
3
Some 30%
of the office space in
Department
for
London
(be) presently
Employment
empty and the
(blame) high property prices.
4
Three centimetres
(be)
all
that separated the first
10,000 metres and the sports club
two runners
in
last night's
(have) declared the race a dead-heat.
5
The research group now
(admit) that the criteria they used
not totally reliable, and that the figure of 85%
{he) exaggerated.
(be)
6
Following
last
week’s major art theft from the Arcon Art Gallery, the premises
searched by police last night and the owner’s belongings
(be)
(have)
been taken away for further inspection.
7
A survey
of the opinions of students
(show) that economics
(be) the least popular university subject. However,
(believe) that their
90%
of the
economics students surveyed
courses are well taught.
8
Sufferers
from diabetes
combat the
to be put
disease.
The company
(have)
welcomed the launch by Federex of
(say) that earnings from the drug
a
new drug
to
(he)
back into further research.
Additional exercise 9 (page 245)
85
Unit
43
Compound nouns and noun
In
a
compound
phrases
noun + noun, often the second noun gives
compound belongs and the first
consisting of
C&luMCIit'Biihi
the general class of things to which the
noun
The
indicates the type within this class.
first
noun usually has a
singular form:
an address book (= a book
an addresses book)
for addresses; not
However, there are a number of exceptions. These include -
when the first noun
only has a plural form:
a clothes shop (compare a shoe shop)
a customs officer
the arms trade (arms = weapons)
a glasses case (glasses = spectacles. Compare ‘a glass
an arts festival (arts = music, drama, film, dance, painting,
case' = a case made of glass)
a savings account
etc.
Compare
when we
O
refer to
=
‘an art festival'; art
an institution (an industry, department,
the building materials industry
such as
activity (different types of building material,
forms of publication).
Note that to make
O
etc.),
the publications department
which deals with more than one kind of item or
different
drawing and sculpture)
painting,
a
compound noun
coal mine(s)
plural
office-worker(s)
we
usually
tea leaf
make the second noun
/
plural:
leaves
Sometimes a noun + noun is not appropriate and instead we use noun + -'s + noun (possessive form)
noun + preposition + noun. In general, we prefer noun + -'s + noun when the first noun is the user (a person or animal) of the item in the second noun:
birds' nests
a girls' school
a women's clinic
a lion's den
a baby's bedroom
or
O
when the item
in
goat's cheese
when we
things.
O
We
a
talk
the second noun
is
produced by the thing (often an animal)
in
the
first:
cow's milk (but note lamb chops and chicken drumsticks)
duck's eggs
about parts of people or animals; but
we
usually use
noun + noun
to talk about parts of
Compare:
woman's face
a boy's
arm
but
a
pen top
a
computer keyboard
noun + preposition + noun when we talk about some kind of container together with its contents. Compare:
and
a tea cup (= a cup for drinking tea from)
a cup of tea (= a cup with tea in it)
prefer
when the combination of nouns does not refer to a well-known class of items. Compare:
a tax on children's clothes (rather than
and
income tax (a recognised class of tax)
‘a
children's clothes tax')
Some compound nouns are made up of verbs and prepositions or adverbs, and may be related to a
two- or three-word verb (see Unit 94). Compare:
Mansen broke out of the prison by dressing as a woman. (= escaped) and
G
last night. (= prisoners
There was a major break-out from the prison
Countable compound nouns
read-out(s)
like this
have a plural form ending
push-up(s)
intake(s)
We can form other kinds of hyphenated
O
in -s:
outcome(s)
However, there are exceptions. For example:
runner(s)-up
looker(s)-on (or onlooker[s])
what the noun
escaped)
passer(s)-by
hanger(s)-on
phrases that are placed before nouns to say
refers to:
a state-of-the-art (= very
modern) tablet PC
up-to-date information
more
precisely
Exercises
If
1
necessary, correct the italicised words.
worked
Ali
he's (b) a
2
I
for a long
time
was waiting
door
I
wants to be
a films star!
(c)
is
morning when a cyclist on her way to the (b) girl school up
Someone got out of a car without looking and (c) the car's
She was very lucky not to be badly
hit her.
really
at (a) the bus stop this
the road got knocked off her bike.
3
now
the parks department, but a few years ago he retrained, and
in (a)
computers programmer. Of course, what he
shouldn't be long at
(a)
the corner shop.
milk bottle, (d) a biscuit packet, and
(e)
hurt,
although she did have
got three things on
I've just
some teethpaste.
I'll
my
also look for
(d)
(b)
(f)
a
head cut.
list -
shopping
(c)
a
some goat's cheese,
but don't think they'll have any.
4 The tracks on his latest CD range from (a) love songs to (b) pollution songs.
5 Marta hated going into her grandfather's old (a) tools shed. It was full of (b) spiderwebs.
6 When Jake was cleaning his (a) armschair, he found a lot of things that had slipped down the
back. There was an old (b) pen top, a piece from (c) the 500-pieces jigsaw puzzle that his daughter
had been doing, and his (d) glass case with his sunglasses inside.
I
Underline the two-word verbs in sentences 1-4, then complete sentences 5-8 with the
corresponding compound nouns.
Q
1
Nathan
2
It is
tried to cover
up the fact that he had gambled and
reported that cholera has broken out
in
3
I'm flying to Sydney, but I'm stopping over
4
On
the
first
Friday of each
5
The minister was taken
6
We didn't have a
7
Allegations of a
month,
in
ill
a
most of
lost
money.
in Singapore for a few days on the way.
few of us get together and go ten-pin bowling.
Iceland during a short
big party for Jo's
his
the refugee camp.
on
his
way back to Canada.
50th birthday, just a family
of a major leak of radioactive waste from the nuclear power plant
have been strongly denied by the Energy Ministry.
8 Only two years ago there was a serious
of malaria
in
the town.
Match the halves of these phrases, then use them to complete the sentences below.
The meaning of the correct phrase is given in brackets.
^
day-to-
down-to-
once-in-a-
^ay
clock
1
middle-of-the-
earth
life
lifetime
round-the
road
step
Although the Managing Director of Transcom was involved
dAy-tp-day
voters that
it
has
rid itself
in
street
major decisions, she
company to her staff. routine
power unless it can persuade
running of the
2 The party will never regain
3
man / woman-in-the-
larger-than-
step-by-
(
left
the
)
of corruption, (not politically extreme)
Since the attempt to assassinate him last year, the Defence Minister has been given
protection by the police,
(all
day and all night)
4 The bookcase came with simple,
assemble it. (progressing from one stage to the next)
5
When
6
Eleni
instructions
the comet passes close to Earth next week, scientists will have a
opportunity to study
less
on how to
its
has a refreshing,
effects
on our atmosphere, (very rare)
approach to management. She's much
concerned with theory than with getting things done
in
the most efficient
way
possible.
(practical)
^
isn't
They just want to know
8 Her father was a
policy.
the village for his eccentric
Additional exercise 9 (page 245)
if
interested
in
the finer points of the government's tax
home more or less pay. (ordinary person)
character who was well known throughout
they are going to take
way of dressing and outspoken
views, (more exaggerated than usual)
87
.
Unit
44
A /an
We use a
If
and one
before nouns and noun phrases that begin with a consonant sound.
the noun or noun phrase starts with a vowel letter but begins with a
consonant sound, we also use
a un iversity
We
(/a ju:n
a:
a Eur opean (/a juar
.../)
one -parent family
a
.../)
use an before words that begin with a vowel sound, including a silent letter
O
an
an orange
and abbreviations said as individual
an
MP
em
(/an
letters that begin
an
pi:/)
with A,
FBI agent (/an ef bi: ai
WAn
.../)
‘h':
an honour
an hour
an umbrella
Italian
(/a
H,
E, F,
I,
L,
M, N, O,
R,
S or X:
an IOU (/an ai au
.../)
ju: /)
But compare abbreviations said as words:
O
NATO
a
general (/a neitau
aupek ...
Note that we say:
O
We
...
/)
a FIFA
official (/a fiifa
I)
...
but an
OPEC
meeting (/an
I)
a history (book) but an (or a) historical (novel)
an (not one) to
use a
/
Q
really
I
You never see a police
We also
use a
about a particular but unspecified person, thing or event:
talk
need a cup of coffee.
/
an, not one,
officer in this part of
town, do you?
number and quantity expressions such
in
as:
a day or so (= 'about a day')
50 cents a (= each) litre (note we can also say ‘50 cents for one litre')
a week or two (= between one and two weeks; note we can also say 'one or two weeks')
a huge number of
a little
a few
three times a year
half
an hour
a quarter of
an hour
..
We use a
O
Q
rather than
one
the pattern a
in
...
of
...
with possessives, as
in:
She's a colleague of mine.
That's a friend of Gabriel's.
one and a / an both refer to one
one year, (or ... a year.)
Before a singular countable noun
O
O
We'll be
Australia for
in
thing:
one minute, and I'll be with you. (or ... a minute ...)
Using one gives a little more emphasis to the length of time, quantity, amount, etc.:
He weighs one hundred and twenty kilos! Would you believe it! (using one emphasises the
weight more than using a)
Wait here
for
O
However,
we
use
one
rather than a
thing or person rather than
O
O
Q
We
two
/
an
if
we want to emphasise that we
or more:
Do you want one sandwich
or
two?
Are you staying only one night?
I
just took
one look
use one, not a
Close
one
an,
/
eye,
in
at her
and she started
the pattern one
...
crying.
other
/
another:
and then the other.
Bees carry pollen from one plant to another.
We also
one
use
one
in
spring, etc. to
evening, spring,
O
phrases such as one day, one evening,
mean
Hope to see you
One
a particular, but unspecified, day,
etc.:
again
one day.
evening, while he was working late at the office
...
are talking about only
one
Exercises
Write a ° r an
»n
the spaces.
1
unpaid
2
DIY shop
3
MP3
4
Euro
Q
bill
player
8
U-turn
9
heirloom
10
NASA
11
UN
12
SOS message
5
MiG
6
Olympic medal
13
F
7
AGM
14
hero
If
fighter plane
necessary, correct a / an or
and one both possible?
1
one
in
space launch
decision
grade
these sentences, or write /.
In
which sentences are a
/
an
Q30
gym four times one week.
more than one way to solve the problem.
phoned the council to complain, but just got passed on from a person to another.
The rate of pay is really good here. You can earn over £20 one hour.
Maybe we could go skiing one winter.
The apples are 90 cents one kilo.
Are you hungry? Would you like one piece of cake?
The rules say that there is only one vote per member.
You can get seven hours of recording on one disc.
a: What would Moritz like for his birthday?
b: Why don't you ask Leah? She's one good friend of his and will have some ideas.
There's one pen on the floor. Is it yours?
The library books are due back in one month.
Do you want some of my chips? There are too many here for a person.
I'm going to London for one day or two.
Either I'll work late tonight or I'll come in early tomorrow, but the report's got to be
lunchtime a way or another.
It will take more than one morning to finish the decorating.
usually go to the
I
2 There's
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
I
Which
is
oia
more
appropriate, a / an or
one?
If
both a
/
an and one are possible, write them both.
you wait
second I'll get my coat and come too.
want to see the river
last time before leave.
3 The President is visiting the city
day in November.
4 It was announced that the plane would be approximately
1
2
5
If
I
I
I
could hear the sound of
6
I'd
7
Misaki's
just like to say
baby
thing before
8 Dinner should be ready
11
12
I've
to
last
wall already and
make
large
I
in
hour
late.
the distance.
go.
hour or
in
evening
painted
I'd like
helicopter
year old already.
is
9 Hugo came over
10
finished by
so.
week.
I'll
do the other tomorrow.
point here, Carlos,
if
I
number of people had gathered
Additional exercise 10 (page 246)
may.
in
the square.
89
We
when we
usually use the
Q
the world
there
is,
the
the horizon
the travel industry
O
them
one
(or
set of them):
the ground
the sun
human
the environment
race
the Internet
general geographical areas with the as
the town
the beach
only one of
is
the atmosphere
the sky
the climate
(ZS0EE23S9
about -
talk
things which are unique; that
in:
the sea(side)
the country(side)
the land
(where ‘the country' or ‘the countryside' means ‘the area where there are no towns')
O
the present
the past
Note, however, that
concept
O
O
in
Climate
we want to
O
like this
is
one of the many factors involved
in
no
article) to refer to a
in
changing farming methods, (or The climate
.
.
.)
soil
describe a particular instance of these
I
What
We can
(i.e.
(or
...
the land and
...)
When woke up there was
O
sandy
could see the plane high up
I
can be used with zero article
and sun. (= sunshine)
autumn the temperature difference between land and sea decreases,
the sea
If
some nouns
general:
These flowers grow best
In
the future
in
we
can use a
/
an.
Compare:
the sky. and
a bright blue sky.
are your plans for the future?
and
She dreamt of a future where she could spend more time painting.
when we make generalisations about classes of things using singular countable nouns.
Compare the use of the and a / an in these sentences:
The computer has revolutionised publishing, (this refers to computers in general) but not
A computer has revolutionised publishing, (computers in general have done this, not an
use the
(See also Unit 47A.)
individual
O
O
computer)
The computer is an important research tool, and
A computer is an important research tool, (this statement
is
true of both the general class
and the individual item)
As an alternative to the + singular countable noun we can use a
plural countable
noun to
talk
about
a class of things:
O
Computers
Note that
O
O
if
the
is
are an important research tool.
used with plural and uncountable nouns
/
O
refer to a specific thing or group:
I
I
When we define something or say what
use a
we
The computers have arrived. Where shall put them?
The music was wonderful. could have listened to the
an rather than the:
A corkscrew is a gadget
A garden
is
is
orchestra
all
night.
typical of a particular class of people or things,
we
generally
for getting corks out of bottles.
there to give you pleasure, not to be a constant worry.
Some nouns can be used uncountably when we talk about the whole substance or idea, but countably
when we talk about an instance or more than one instance of it. When these nouns are used countably
we
can use a
O
O
I
/
an (and
He shook with
There are
plurals).
don't drink coffee,
many
fear,
other nouns
shampoo, sound. Some
Compare:
Would you like a coffee?
and
He has a fear of heights.
and
O
O
like this,
including conversation,
of these nouns
used countably and uncountably.
(e.g.
grammar,
iron)
(= a
cup of coffee)
grammar, importance,
iron, pleasure,
have different meanings when they are
Exercises
Complete both sentences
in
each pair using one word from the box. Add the or a / an
in
an
appropriate place.
beach
a
1
I
future
world
past
think the best Australian wine
is
as
good as any
in
b As a child, Dariya would often daydream about travelling forward
very different from the one she lived in.
in
time to
we
are elected, we will build our policies on the simple belief that our purpose is to create
for our children rather than achieving short-term goals for ourselves,
g ht
b Although our current financial position is worrying, we have many new orders for our products
and
is looking very positive.
2 a
If
t> ri
3 a As
b
4 a
I
get older,
I
remember
better than things that happened recently,
Many tourists come to the village
If
you want to get away from
looking for
it all,
you can take
that never really existed.
a small boat to deserted
on one
of the islands.
b
Dear Mum and Dad, We're having a great holiday. The weather's wonderful and we're
spending most of our time on
Underline the correct or more likely answer.
We get some strange
1
who wanted
requests
in
our shop.
If
both answers are possible, underline them both.
We
had the customer/ a customer
in
the other day
to buy chocolate-covered ants.
It often seems that the individual
/ an individual can have little impact on government policy.
The invention of a car / the car is normally attributed to the German engineer
Gottlieb
2
3
Daimler.
4 The television
/
A
changed the way we think more than any other modern
television has
invention.
The campaign against smoking
5
in
public places argues that
its
harmful effects are not confined
to the smoker / a smoker.
Complete the sentences using the nouns from the box. Use each noun
a / an
in
grammar
conversation
My sisters were clearly
It now gives me great
1
2
iron
/
failure to
teach
Most red meat
6
is
pleasure
necessary, insert
sound
conyers^h so didn't like to disturb them.
to introduce that marvellous ventriloquist, Marco Lutman.
serious
we walked through the rainforest
mobile phone.
4 The
If
CL
having
3 As
5
twice.
the correct place,
j
we
I
we weren't
heard
expecting - the ring of a
n schools has affected people's ability to write well.
relatively high in
travels at different speeds,
7
It:
8
1
s rea
have
^
depending on the temperature of the air.
Sweden. The trains are clean and punctual.
of English printed in 1890 on very thin paper.
t0 travel by
9 Although he's got
10 As she walked into the party,
rail in
he never seems to use
it.
His shirts are always creased.
ceased and everyone
in
the crowded
room
stared at
her.
Additional exercise 10 (page 246)
91
Unit
46
A / an,
We
use a
O
the and zero article 2
an to say what a person's job
/
iflWrflflElMEl
was, or will be:
is,
She was a company director when she
retired.
Against her parents' wishes, she wants to be a journalist.
we
However, when
no
(i.e.
O
give a person's job
or their unique position,
title,
I'm a
/
use the or zero article
an.
production manager at
Fino. (= there
After the position of, the post of, or the role of
O
we
Compare:
She's been appointed (the) head of the company, and
not a
article),
may be more than one
we
production manager)
use zero article before a job
title:
Dr Simons has taken on the position of Head of Department.
We
usually use zero article
we
use the -
(i.e.
no
article)
before the
of an individual person or place. However,
name
two people with the same name to specify which one we mean:
That's not the Stephen Fraser went to school with,
but compare ‘There was a Stephen Fraser in my class.' (= a person named Stephen
when
there are
I
it
when we want to emphasise
name. Used
O
it
this
way, the
Do they mean the
is
we
that the person
are referring to
the most famous person with that
stressed and pronounced /di:/:
Neil Armstrong, or
someone
else?
with an adjective to describe a person, or another noun which
O
O
is
Fraser)
the late Michael Jackson
(the) artist Joseph Turner
('the'
sometimes
is
tells
us their job:
left out, particularly in
journalism)
when we talk about a family as a whole:
The Robinsons are away this weekend.
C
Note that a
excellent qualities
O
sometimes zero article,
of the person named:
an, or
/
Majid plays tennis well, but
he'll
used with a
is
name when
referring to the particular
never be (a) Roger Federer.
refer to an individual example of a product made by a particular
a Mercedes) or a work by a particular artist (e.g. Do you think
bought
I've just
We also use a / an when we
manufacturer
(e.g
could be a Van
You can use a
O
/
Dr Lee
Gogh
/
a Rembrandt?).
an before a person's name
is
here for you. (=
There's a Dr
I
if
know Dr
Amy Lee on the
you don't know the person
and
yourself.
Compare:
Lee)
phone. (=
I
haven't heard of her before)
Do you want to talk to
a new
in conversation, this is commonly used instead of a / an to introduce
is to come next:
what
of
topic
the
as
thing
or
person
the
highlights
this
Using
person or thing.
As was walking along, this spider (= a spider) landed on my head, and ...
In stories
and jokes
Q
I
man
This
We
(= a
man) goes
into a chemist
and he says
However,
is
we
a:
can often leave out the, particularly
Why did you
b: It
when the
is followed by a noun
the finest young player around at the moment.
defining phrase after the superlative adjective.
C
etc.)
or defining phrase:
superlative adjective
He
...
most expensive,
use the before a superlative adjective (the biggest, the
O
was
(the)
it
decide to stay
cheapest, and
in this
It
in
an informal
style,
Compare:
hotel?
was the cheapest could
I
find.
when
there
is
no noun or
her?
Exercises
If
necessary, correct any mistakes
in
these sentences.
If
they are already correct, write /.
QQ
She was determined to be author one day.
2 She recently became the minister in the new government.
3 a: What make is your computer? b: It's Mac.
4 found myself talking to George Clooney! Not George Clooney, of course, but someone with the
same name.
1
I
5
I
6
didn't even
know
Clara
was
interested
in art until
heard that she owns Van Gogh.
I
been offered the position of Director of Personnel.
7 We're going on holiday with Nielsens.
I've
8 He's really keen on athletics. He
Put a / an, the or zero article
likes
(-) in
to think of himself as the Usain Bolt.
the spaces. Give
I'm
2
Leon's
manager of
his local football
3 She has been appointed
me
Let
6
We met our good friend
When
Lucia
8
1.
2
the best ice-cream
It's
Eliza
Borg
left
I've
Rodrigo's boat wasn't the
when we were
Malta.
in
Picasso.
Do you want to
outside.
is
the italicised the can be
McMurphy.
Georgia Rossi.
was young she knew
Linda Green
team.
novelist Ian
introduce you to
7
If
possible answers.
Minister for Industry.
4 A special award was given to
5
all
marketing adviser at Unifleet.
1
see her?
out of these sentences, put brackets around
most elegant
in
the harbour, but
it
was
certainly the biggest.
thought the second competitor was the best, even though he didn't win a
4 This is by far the most valuable painting in the collection.
3
5
I
A:
Why did you
6 Sapphires occur
7
The
8
It's
Pacific
is
ask Martina to go
in
first?
B:
the biggest ocean
in
ones are the most valuable.
the world.
supposed to be the oldest post
Additional exercise 10 (page 246)
prize.
Because she's the oldest.
a variety of colours, but blue
Complete the email with a
it.
ever tasted.
office in the country.
/ an, the,
zero article or this. Give alternatives where possible
93
Unit
47
w\
A / an, the and
With
and uncountable nouns, zero article
plural
without definite people or things
talk generally,
assume the
or
in
the noun phrase
no
(i.e.
in
who
make the
article)
mind. The
is
what we
or
igSBffit.kJflJIMlA
used to
is
used
when we
are referring to,
reference specific. Compare:
The government has promised not to tax books. (= books generally) and
The books have arrived. (= the books you ordered)
Music played an important part in his life. (= music generally) and
thought the music used
I
We often
the
understand
listener or reader will
when other words
Q
O
O
C
zero article 3
in
the film was the best part. (= that particular music)
names of holidays, special times of the year, months, and days
Ramadan, New Year's Day. But compare:
use zero article with the
week
including Easter,
of
see you on Saturday. (= next Saturday)
I'll
We
met on Saturday. (= last Saturday)
They came on a Saturday as far as can remember, (we are only interested in the day of the
week, not which particular Saturday)
They came on the Saturday after our party, (a particular Saturday, specifying which one)
I
O
With winter, summer, spring, autumn, and
New Year (meaning the
holiday period),
we
can use
either zero article or the:
O
(the)
In
summer
We use the when
O
G
I'd like
first
I
it is
I
to go skiing
went
try to
spend as much time as can in the garden.
we go on to specify which summer, spring,
I
understood or
etc.
we mean:
the autumn. (= this year)
the spring of 2002.
in
skiing in
We say ‘in the New Year' to mean near the beginning of next year:
Q see you again in the New Year.
I'll
When we want to describe the features of a
particular holiday, season, or other period of time
and say
was somehow special when compared with others, we can use It / That was ... + a / an + noun
+ modifying phrase. Compare:
That was a winter I'll never forget. (= compared to other winters it was unforgettable) and
That was the winter we went to Norway. (= a statement about a particular winter)
that
We
it
noon:
use zero article with times of the day and night such as midnight, midday, and
possible,
If
I'd like it
finished by
midday.
Midnight couldn't come quickly enough.
But note that we can say either the dawn or dawn:
He got back into bed and waited for (the) dawn.
We
use the +
G
morning
/
afternoon
enjoyed the morning, but
I
/
evening
in
for a
day which
is
understood or already specified:
the afternoon the course was boring.
But compare:
work best. (= mornings in general; The morning ... is also possible)
(but ... by the afternoon, not ... by afternoon)
I'll be there by (the) morning / evening,
waited all morning, (more usual than all the morning / afternoon, etc.)
mornings)
‘You look upset.' ‘Yes, I've had a terrible morning.' (= compared to other
Morning
O
O
the time
I
I
We often
I
Also:
is
go
Compare:
use by + zero article to talk about means of transport and communication.
work.
to
bus
the
take
generally
and
work,
bus
to
by
generally go
O
/
by car / taxi / bus / plane / train / air /
communicate by post / email / phone
travel
sea; contact
/
I
Exercises
Complete both sentences
agriculture
in
each pair using one word from the box. Add the where necessary,
children
a
young
as
holidays
fire
as ten are working
b While you're painting the sitting room,
As the
2 a
soil quality deteriorated,
money
islands
in
rain
the clothing industry.
take
I'll
parents
over to the park.
so too did
on which the region
depended.
8
Around
b
60% of the
labour force
in
the county
Around the world
3 a
b
supported by
is
are being threatened by rising sea levels.
off the east coast of Malaysia are beautiful.
4 a
been
I've
really
busy at work, so I'm
in
t>
Farmers
a
will
be hoping for
Last night
I've left
It is
I
isn't
the root of
all evil.
be able to use this software to check their
of Paul
It
popular with travellers,
was torrential.
owe you on your desk.
is
b
forward to
now becoming
the next few weeks.
in
said that
will
a
really looking
the Brazilian rainforests are
Thomas claimed
known how
that he
was
at
home
child's
use of the Internet.
at the time of the robbery.
started.
b Animals fear
more than anything
else.
Complete the dialogues with a / an, the or zero article (-), whichever is more
more than one answer is possible, consider any difference in meaning.
likely.
Where
039
What's the matter?
101
a:
b:
I've
2
a:
3
a:
Can you remember when we last saw Alex?
It was
Sunday in June, think.
When did you get your laptop?
b:
July 15th last year.
b:
been working
the garden
in
afternoon and
all
my
back aches.
I
4
a:
5
a: I've
remember because
I
haven't seen Subin for months,
I
b:
it
was
day
also
away
He's been
spent
afternoon on the phone to
go out walking on
Sunday?
my
in
I
passed
South Africa
mother,
b:
my driving test.
for
Why?
winter.
Is
there a problem?
we
b: No, I'm busy this weekend.
Do you remember when Mateo did all the cooking?
Of course. It was
Christmas the rest of us had flu.
6
a:
7
a:
8
a:
9
a:
That old coat of yours won't be
b:
You're right.
Shall
b:
I'll
see you again after
I
Christmas,
Okay. Have a good holiday.
for
winter.
need a new one.
a:
Remember when
b:
How could
Lars
and
forget? That
I
b:
warm enough
Ella
had that
was
terrible
row?
day wouldn't want to go through again.
I
Complete the sentences using the words from the box (more than once). Add any other
necessary words.
A:
email
car
air
1
post
8 0t
The
from Carla yesterday,
train
How
is
she
now?
I
Research has found that living plants are
The application forms came in
The exam results will be sent
It's
b:
was cancelled so had to come
raining so
I
think
I'll
I
“ Additional exercise 10 (page 246)
absorbing pollutants
this
in
morning.
on 24th August.
take
a: Shall
send Coran a letter?
8 Thailand - Getting there
Suvarnabhumi Airport
efficient at
...
b:
No, the quickest
:
way to
get
in
touch with him
The main international
is
airport in Thailand
is
Some
we sometimes
Before plural and uncountable nouns
difference
little
O
O
in
use
some
or zero article
no
(i.e.
article)
with very
meaning:
‘Where were you
last
week?'
was visiting (some)
‘I
friends.'
Before serving, pour (some) yoghurt over the top.
With both some and zero
way. When
it is
used
we are
some is
article
in this
way,
referring to particular people or things but in an indefinite
usually pronounced /sam/.
We don't use some to make general statements about whole classes of things or people:
O
O
Machinery can be dangerous unless used
Babies need a
Some
used before a number to
is
Some
eighty per cent of
mean
it is
When we
used
in this
way,
some
suggests a more precise figure)
...'
usually pronounced /saiti/.
is
can't say exactly which person or thing
remember, or want to emphasise that
singular noun.
When
He was
We
‘approximately':
residents took part in the vote. (= approximately eighty per cent;
all
beginning ‘Eighty per cent
When
it is
used
some
it is
we
are talking about because
not important,
way, some is
some troublemaker
we
can use
some
we
don't know, can't
instead of a
/
an with
a
usually pronounced /sAm/.
(thing) or other
bought them from
I
in this
interrupted twice by
use the phrase
properly.
lot of attention.
some shop
in
the audience.
in
a similar way:
or other
New Street,
in
(not
from
...
a
shop or other
...)
Any
We usually use any not some
non-affirmative contexts; that
in
v:
someone, something,
(and anyone, anything, etc. not
is,
etc.)
-
lacking positive, affirmative meaning.
to refer to non-specific, unspecified things.
For example,
O
Q
O
O
we
generally use
any
in
sentences with a negative meaning:
any sugar left.
windows to prevent any
There's hardly
closed the
I
It
was impossible
to see anything
in
flies
getting
in.
the dark.
We got to the airport without any difficulty.
barely, never, rarely, scarcely,
seldom
(= negative adverbs); deny,
Also
when sentences include:
fail,
adjectives)
forbid, prohibit, refuse (= negative verbs); reluctant, unable, unlikel y (= negative
However,
we
use
negative words-
some with these
when some (pronounced /SAm/) has the implication ‘not all':
talk to colleagues before make some decisions, but had to make
I
I
this
one on
my own.
I
when the
O
basic
meaning
Somebody
is
positive:
isn't telling
the truth. (= There
is
some person [who
when we are talking about a particular but unspecified person
was reluctant to repeat something so critical of Paul.
G
the truth])
or thing:
(= a specific criticism)
I
We often
use any
in
clauses that begin with before, and with comparisons:
mess before anyone saw it. ('... before someone saw
particular person in mind who might see it)
The material felt softer than anything she had ever touched before.
I
O
isn't telling
cleared up the
it
suggests that
I
have a
Exercises
some in an a ppropriate
A & Reminder 110-114
If
necessary, correct these sentences by writing
If
the sentence
1
If
is
already correct, write /.
you're going to the
library,
I
could you take back books that
some coffee is at an all-time low.
Tony knows more about some jazz than anyone
I've
place or crossing
it
out.
finished reading?
2 The price of
3
4 The door kept
open
flying
in
the wind so
I
tied
it
I've
ever met.
up with
string.
Sports are dangerous.
5
6
I
need to get some bread from the supermarket.
Money
7
buy you some happiness.
can't
8 Children are
taller
than expected at a given age.
Rewrite these news headlines as
full
sentences using
some to mean
‘approximately'. (?)
250 people charged with assault following Molton
Some
riots
Have been charged wiiH assault following the Molton
2.50 people
riots.
30% OF ALL CITY BUSES FOUND TO BE UNSAFE
3
Unexploded bomb found 5 miles from Newham centre
4
25% OF ELECTRICITY FROM WIND BY 2025
200 jobs to be
Complete the sentences
101
I
2
I
3
I
4
I
5
I
in
noun + or other.
singular
Encon steelworks
lost at
any appropriate way using some + singular noun or some +
13
know where got the information from.
on some xoAjuo programme (or other).
don't
I
I
must have heard
know where Jakub is. He's probably
know where the book is. Maybe lent it
know where Zuzanna works. think it's in
know why Nika is still at work. Perhaps she's got
don't
don't
it
I
don't
I
don't
to
Complete these sentences with some, someone, something, any, anyone or anything.
/ thing) or any(one / thing) are possible, write both and consider any
Where both some(one
difference
in
meaning. f
worked hard at
was unable to eat
1
Elias
2
I
3
I
6
He denied
I
make
is
I
that he had done
is
When
I
last lent
me to do.
tickets left for tonight's performance.
could,
seem
my laptop out
Additional exercise 10 (page 246)
for
else.
we
parents never
9
seldom
wrong.
unlikely to have
8 Despite rowing as hard as
is
rarely see these days.
always get to work before
7 The theatre
real progress.
of the food.
always offer to help organise school concerts, but there
4 Fiona Jones
5
learning Japanese but failed to
it
we had gone
to have time to
barely
sit
down and
distance from the shore.
talk to their children.
got damaged, so I'm reluctant to lend
it
to
else.
Unit
49
No, none
We can
and not any
(of)
use no and none (of) instead of not a or not any for particular
C33BB3B3ESE3I
emphasis. Compare:
There
isn't a train until
tomorrow. anc/There's no
tomorrow, (more emphatic)
train until
any left, and Sorry, there's none left.
any of the usual symptoms, and He had none of the usual symptoms.
Sorry, there isn't
He
didn't have
We use other pairs of negative words and
phrases
in
a similar way:
anyone / anybody here, and There's no one / nobody here, (more emphatic)
She wasn't anywhere to be seen, and She was nowhere to be seen.
Why don't you ever call me? and Why do you never call me?
There
isn't
We don't usually use
straight after and,
In
not a / any, not anyone, etc. in initial position in a sentence or clause, or
but or that at the beginning of a clause. Instead we use no, none of, no one,
Q
No force was
O
I'm sure that
needed to make them move, (not Not any force was needed ...)
Most players are under 16 and none of them is over 20. (not ... and not any of them
nothing can go wrong, (not
a formal or literary style
we
can use not a
...
that not anything can
in initial
etc.:
...)
...)
position or after and, but or that (see also
Unit 100):
Not
a sound
came from the room,
She kept so quiet that not a soul
we
After no,
(less formally
in
the house
There wasn't a sound from the room.)
knew she was
can often use either a singular or a plural noun with
there.
little
noun is usually more formal:
No answers could be found, (or more formally No answer
We want to go to the island but there are no boats to take
difference in meaning, although
a singular
no
...)
us. (or more formally
...
there
is
boat.)
we use a singular noun in situations where we would expect one of something, and a plural
noun where we would expect more than one. Compare:
phoned Sarah at home, but there was no answer, (not ... but there were no answers.) and
He seems very lonely at school, and has no friends, (not ... no friend.)
However,
I
We can give special emphasis to no or none of using phrases like no amount of with
nouns, not one
O
Some
/
not a single
phrases with no are
No
idea (=
I
commonly used
don't know);
emphatic ways of saying
No
problem,
O
No
bother
(=
‘no',
it
in
It's
‘Thanks for the
I
(=
I
uncountable
with plural nouns:
isn't /
wasn't
difficult
in!'
‘No problem.
had to go past the station anyway.'
it
successful.
No wonder (= it's not
say); No way, No chance
have nothing to
particularly to express refusal to
not plugged
lift.'
informal spoken English:
No comment
‘The computer's not working again.'
‘No wonder.
O
...
...
The company is so badly managed that no amount of investment will make
Not one person remembered my birthday, (or Not a single person ...)
Not one of the families affected by the noise wants to move.
surprising);
(=
...
with singular countable nouns, and not one of
do or believe something);
to do something):
Exercises
Complete the sentences with a word or phrase from
Use each word or phrase once only.
followed by a word or phrase from
(i)
(ii).
|
(i)
no
none of
H^one
no one
nowhere
nothing
never
not
00
drop
a
1
Where
2
We
left
wrong
point
hone
are the biscuits? There are
in
the oxpb oard.
the house as quietly as possible and
3
4 She was determined to leave and
5 The door was locked and he had
6
the hotels
heard
going to get
else
m the cupboard
I
us.
was
knew there was
spilt as
in
7 Liam's so
lazy.
protesting.
the city centre had any rooms
in
Is
he
left.
a job?
8 The doctors reassured Emily that they could find
Look again at the sentences in
(n't) any / anyone, etc.?
49.1.
Which
of
with her.
them can you
make
rewrite to
less
emphatic using
Q30
not
If
flask.
to go.
found that
I
she poured the liquid into the
necessary, correct the italicised parts of this email.
#00
CJ
5
Hi.
Just back from a
really
bad way.
to hire
week on
the island of
Lumos -
A lot of people just sit around
all
but
I
recommend
certainly wouldn’t
day - there
(1
is
)
no job
it!
Their
economy
is in
be found outside the main town.
to
I
a
had
a car because there (2) is no train or bus on the island. But it was incredibly old - it’s ages since I’ve seen a
And then when had a puncture discovered there (4) were no spare tyres either. It was in
car with (3) no seatbelt.
I
I
phoned the car hire company and had to wait
and there (6) was no shade as there (7) is no tree in that part of the island.
- even though it showed one on its website! There
(8) were no swimming pools
(9) were no televisions in my room, and on the first night there (10) was no hot water. But when phoned down
to reception to complain, there (11) were no replies. The food was awful at the hotel, but as there (12) were no
restaurants for miles around there (13) were no choices - had to eat there. But don’t think
be going back!
the
the north, and as there (5) were no people around to help,
hills in
someone to turn up. was
The hotel wasn’t much better. There
hours
for
I
hot
It
I
I
I’ll
I
Speak soon,
Karl
Complete these sentences
1
2
in
any appropriate way beginning not one
no amount
of.
of the children Liked them
made lots of cakes for the party but not
Mr Carlson didn't want to sell the painting, and ...
I
sent job applications to over a hundred companies, but
4 Smallpox used to be common all over the world but since 1978
5 The floor had dirty black marks all over it, and
3
(of) or
I
.
.
Choose one of the No
Can you give
1
a:
2
a: I've
3
a:
4
a:
me
a
phrases from section
lift
to the station?
F
...
.
opposite to complete these dialogues.
b:
I'll
pick
you up
at eight.
got a headache.
b:
.
Do you
think
Kim
b:
You've been
will
.
in
front of that
computer screen
for hours.
pass her maths?
She just doesn't work hard enough.
Where's Stefan?
Last time
b:
a:
...
.
I'm
I
saw him he was
in
the kitchen.
from News World, Dr James. Do you have anything to say about
the accusation that you stole from your patients?
b:
Goodbye.
99
Unit
50
Much
In
(of),
many
we
affirmative sentences
much
are a
tr
and
(of)
many
(of),
a lot of, lots
(of), etc.
generally use a lot of and lots (of) rather than
(of), particularly in
CSEB5SEIS2IDESI
informal contexts. However, there
number of exceptions -
In
much
formal contexts, such as academic writing,
also use phrases such as a large
/
considerable
/
(of)
many
and
substantial
(of) are often preferred.
amount of
number of (with plural
Much debate has been heard about Thornton's new book.
a large
/
considerable
/
great
/
substantial
We can
(with uncountable nouns), or
nouns):
many explanations for this.
Much of her fiction describes women in unhappy marriages.
A large amount of the food was inedible, (or Much of ...)
The book contains a large number of pictures, many in colour,
There could be
C
O
O
In
formal contexts
O
O
O
we
is
Many
(=
Not once
We can
many
...)
much and many as pronouns:
will recover. Much depends on how well she responds to treatment.
can use
many
did
I
people) have argued that she
see a tiger
is
the finest poet of our generation.
the jungle, although
in
weeks, years) and number + of
We
...
no guarantee she
There
We usually use many rather than
0
(or
I
heard many, (referring back to
'tiger(s)')
a lot of or lots of with time expressions (days, minutes, months,
(e.g.
thousands of voters, millions of pounds):
many hours driving to Melbourne and back.
He was the founder of a company now worth many millions of pounds.
used to spend
many following the, my, its, his, her, etc. and plural countable nouns:
Among the many unknowns after the earthquake is the extent of damage to the foundations
use
of buildings.
The gallery
We can
is
exhibiting
use the phrase
many a
some
of his
many famous paintings of ships.
with a singular noun to talk about a repeated event or a large number
of people or things:
Many
a pupil at the school will be pleased that Latin
To emphasise that
we
are talking about a large
is
no longer compulsory.
number we can use
many with
a
good
/
great
a
good
/
great deal of with a
a plural
noun:
O
She has a good
To emphasise that
we
/
great
many friends
in
are talking about a large
New Zealand.
amount we can use
singular or uncountable noun:
O
We
A good
/
great deal of the exhibition was devoted to her recent work.
use far (not 'much' or 'many') before too
many +
a plural countable
noun
or too
much + an
uncountable noun:
Far too many students failed the end-of-year maths exam. ( not Much / Many too many
Far too much time is wasted filling in forms, (not Much / Many too much time ...)
O
O
We often
use plenty of instead of a lot of or lots of with uncountable and plural countable nouns.
However, plenty of means ‘enough, or more than enough' and
is
therefore not likely
contexts. Compare:
0
0
100
...)
We took
lots of
/
Nina doesn't look
plenty of food and drink on our walk through the
well. She's lost a lot
of weight, (‘plenty
of'
is
hills,
and
unlikely here)
in
certain
Exercises
Make
corrections or improvements to these extracts from conversations (1-3) and from
academic writing (4-6).
A lot have claimed that Professor Dowmans
study on current attitudes to politics
One criticism
is
that
much
too
is
questioned in the survey were under
A
lot
flawed.
many people
18.
of research has been conducted on the
effects of diet on health, with a lot of studies
focusing on the link between fat intake and
heart disease. However, a lot remains to be done.
While
were
it
true that a lot of thousands of jobs
is
lost
with the decline of the northern
coal and steel industries, a lot of advantages
have also followed.
Much
too
lung disease were recorded
many
cases of
in the region, but
with lower levels of pollution the number has
declined. In addition, a great deal of hi-tech
companies have moved
the
Complete the sentences with either the
item from the box.
coffee shops
emails
1
2
She went to stay
in
sunny afternoon
teacher
Munich with one of
Her ...many
golf courses
German relives
sitting
spent
I
advantage of
my / its / his / her many or many a / an and one
G e rman relatives^
expeditions
ship
/
in to take
newly available workforce.
has been lost
3
.
on the terrace looking out over the hills.
in the dangerous waters off the south
coast of the island.
4 The area
all
5
is
most famous
that attract players from
for
over the world.
Since the end of last year he has refused to speak to
me on
the phone or answer
6 Oliver Svensson accompanied Colonel Colombo on
to the Himalayas and the Andes.
7
will
be looking forward to the start of the school
holidays.
8
I
went
along
into the first of
New Street and
ordered an
espresso.
If
1
possible,
It
will
complete these sentences using plenty
not, use a lot of.
drinking water.
bring
a mysterious
illness.
money, so he decided to catch the bus rather than take
3
He
4
We were surprised when
5
I'm looking forward to a relaxing holiday,
didn't have
If
make sure you
have come down with
be very hot on the journey, so
staff at the hospital
2
of.
a taxi.
students failed to attend the lecture.
and I'm taking
books to read.
101
Unit
51
All (of), whole, every,
each
All (of)
We sometimes
use all after the noun
it
refers to:
His songs all sound
much
We
working too hard,
all think Kushi's
the
same to me.
(or All [of] his
(or All of us think
songs sound
...)
...)
Note that we usually put all after the verb be and after the first auxiliary verb if there is one:
They are all going to Athens during the vacation, (not They all are going ...)
You should all have three question papers, (not You all should have ...; however, note that we
can say ‘You
aii
should have
To make negative sentences with
all
not
...
O
is
sometimes used
Not
all (of)
in
...'
emphasis
for particular
we
all (of)
in
spoken English)
usually use not all (of) rather than all
...
not (although
informal spoken English):
the seats were taken, or The seats were not
all taken.
and none of have a different meaning. Compare:
Not all (of) my cousins were at the wedding. (= some of them were there) and
None of my cousins were at the wedding. (= not one of them was there)
Note that not
All
all (of)
and whole
Before singular countable nouns
we
They weren't able to stay
However,
2001
we
/ 21st
can say
May,
all
whole
rather than all the:
the whole concert, (rather than
...
for all the concert.)
/ week / night / month / winter, etc. (but not usually all October /
Monday / Tuesday, etc. are only usually used in informal contexts); all the
informal speech we can use all the with things that we see as being made up
+ day
etc.; all
time, all the way; and
usually use the
for
in
world / house / city / country / department, etc ):
After the fire the whole city was covered in dust, (or ... all the
of parts (all the
Note that we can use entire instead of whole immediately before
The whole / entire building has recently been renovated.
Before plural nouns
we
can use
all (of) or
city
...
in
informal speech)
a noun:
whole, but they have different meanings. Compare:
towns had their electricity cut off. (= every town in an area) and
After the storm, whole towns were left without electricity. (= some towns were completely
All (of) the
O
affected; note that
D
we
don't say
‘...
whole the towns
...')
Every and each
Often
we can
use every or each with
little
difference
with almost, virtually, etc. + noun to emphasise
'fc
in
we
meaning. However,
go to the dentist every
six
use every -
are talking about a group as a whole:
Almost every visitor stopped and stared, (not Almost each
with a plural noun when every is followed by a number:
I
we
months, (rather than
...
each
visitor
six
...)
months.)
with abstract uncountable nouns such as chance, confidence, hope, reason, and
what we are saying. Here every means ‘complete' or
She has every chance of success in her application for the job.
positive attitude to
&
O
in
phrases referring to regular or repeated events such
every so often, every few (months), and every
We
use each -
v
before a noun or
r
I
'fc
only had
one
two
as:
to
asked
in a pair:
each one weighed over 20
many people and each gave the same
a
every other (kilometre), every single (day),
again (= occasionally).
kilos.
as a pronoun:
I
show
‘total':
now and
to talk about both people or things
suitcases, but
sympathy
answer, (or
...
each
/
every one gave
...)
Exercises
Put
the more appropriate space
all in
1
They
2
You
3
It
4
We
were
6
stay for dinner
happened so
had
been
have
All the process /
quickly,
involved
Underline the more appropriate answer.
1
you want.
if
remember much about
couldn't
1
we
it.
don't hurry.
started to speak at once.
the children
We
if
going to be late
are
I
around the table waiting for me.
sitting
can
5
each sentence.
in
If
the decision.
in
both are possible, underline them both.
Q
The whole process takes only a few minutes.
2 All areas of the country
/
Whole areas of the country have been devastated by the
floods, although
others haven't had rain for months.
3 All the
trip /
4 The new
5
When
I
The whole
rail
network
trip
picked up the book
wasn't a single one
me
cost
links all
I
than $1,000.
less
of the towns
found that
all
/
whole towns
left.
new heating system makes all the building /
All the room / The whole room was full of books.
6 The
7
the whole building warmer.
10
Complete these sentences with every or each, whichever
either every or each, write
1
I
them
reason to believe that she would keep
had
We've discussed the problem
In
a rugby league
Antibiotics
8 The two
place he
game
walked
single part of the engine
child in
the country
in
You should take two tablets
Find any mistakes
(1
in
Each so often
)
families
them
- over
(3)
the
I
like
is
a
bouquet of flowers.
my entire
blog post and suggest corrections.
family-
on Saturday evening.
It's
quite a lot of
My
my
parents,
work and
of them. Fortunately,
six
brothers and their
parents are quite old now, so
I
usually
and cooking. Some of my family are fussy about what they
different things for (5) every
first aid.
four hours.
to invite (2)
each few weeks.
it.
to be sent a booklet giving advice on
italicised parts of this
for dinner
and clean
the school as a precaution.
one carrying
in,
household
9
for the last year.
visits.
side has 13 players.
were given to
girls
you can use
my secret.
meeting
in virtually
6 They had to take out
7
If
receive £1,000.
4 Hugh sends us a postcard from
5
more appropriate.
is
both.
2 The ten lucky winners will
3
the region.
in
of the pages / whole pages had been ripped out. There
(6) all
spend
eat, so
I
(4) all Friday
I
like
to see
shopping
generally have to cook
the food doesn't usually get eaten,
None of my brothers always come, but the
ones who live locally usually do. Last Saturday (8) Neil and his family all were on holiday so
Anyway, (9) the rest of us had all a great time and we spent
they couldn't make
talking about when we were children.
whole
evening
(1 0) the
so
I
have plenty
left
for the rest of the
week.
(7)
it.
103
Unit
52
Few,
We often
them
little, less,
use
(a)
few and
fewer
(a) little
with nouns. However,
we
can also use
as pronouns:
It is
G
O
a part of the
world visited by few. (= few people)
Do you want a chocolate? There's still a few left. (= a few chocolates)
Little is known about the painter's early life.
‘Do you know anything about car engines?' ‘A little.' (= know a little about
I
car engines)
Note that quite a few means ‘quite a large number':
She's been away from work for quite a few weeks.
O
We can
few and the little followed by a noun to suggest
when we talk about a group of things or people (with few)
of a group or amount (with little):
It's one of the few shops in the city centre where you can buy food.
We should use the little time we have available to discuss Jon's proposal.
use the
‘not enough'
or part
O
C
we
can use what few / little to mean ‘the small (number / amount)':
money she had in her purse to the man. (or ... the little money ...)
What few visitors we have are always made welcome, (or The few visitors ...)
Note that we can also say ‘She gave what / the little she had ...' and ‘What / The few we have ...'
when it is clear from the context what is being referred to.
few
Instead of the
/ little
She gave what
We can
use
few
little
(but rarely little) after personal pronouns (my, her, etc.) and these and those:
my few days off during the summer.
These few miles of motorway have taken over ten years to build.
I
In
learned to play golf during
O
amount
Sorry
I
I
or number, and
I
won't be long.
Want
In
we use not many / much or only / just ... a few / little to talk about
we often use a bit (of) instead of a little:
haven't finished, haven't had much time today, (rather than ... had little time ...)
speech and informal writing,
a small
I've
I
only got a few things to
a bit of chocolate? (rather than
...
get. (rather than
...
I've
got few things
...)
a little chocolate?)
more formal contexts, such as academic writing, we generally prefer few and little:
The results take little account of personal preference, (rather than ... don't take much
...)
Less (than) and fewer (than)
We
use less with uncountable nouns and fewer with plural countable nouns:
You should eat less pasta.
O
Less
is
There are fewer cars on the road today.
sometimes used with a plural countable noun
conversation. However, this
We
is
use less than with a noun phrase indicating an
referring to a
(e.g.
...
less cars
...),
particularly in
grammatically incorrect.
amount and fewer than with
a
noun phrase
group of things or people:
used to earn less than a pound a week when first started work.
There were fewer than 20 students at the lecture, (or informally ... less than
some people think this use of ‘less than' is incorrect)
I
I
When we talk about
The beach
is
a distance or a
less
than
sum
of
money we
...;
but note that
use less than, not fewer than:
a mile away.
is surprisingly large we can use no less than or no fewer than:
The team has had no fewer than ten managers in just five years, (or ... no less than
Note that we prefer no less than with percentages, periods of time and quantities:
To emphasise that a number
Profits
have increased by no less than
95%
in
the
last year, (rather
than
...
...)
no fewer than
...)
Exercises
Complete the sentences with (a) few,
where possible.
(a) little,
the few, the
little,
what few or what
little,
giving alternatives
1
Thomas was named sportsperson
4 Simpson
a:
Has
among
is
foreign journalists allowed into the country.
my explanation
helped?
b:
,
yes.
belongings she had were packed into a small suitcase.
6
7
Maya
8
a:
hasn’t been looking well recently, and I'm
Have there been many applications for the job?
9 The children weren't well so had to take
worried about her.
Yes, quite
b:
days
I
I
don't have
much money,
Q
a:
Did you do
^Dk^y
anything
^Tak e ^some sweets
t0
^
^
It is
if
in
I
B:
ightT)
(
I
just
watched a
you want, although there are few left.
t^ ere S
*
Seethat old car over there? There's few
had many female
have.
these examples from conversations (1-4) and from
ni;
^ er>
5 The country hasn't
6
last
off.
but I'm happy to lend you
Suggest changes to the italicised text
academic writing (5-8).
1
disagree.
remaining relatives together and told them she was leaving.
3 She called her
10
5
would
of the year, and
remains of the old castle walls except the Black Gate.
2
little
TV and then went
^
Can
like that left
now.
^
independence.
politicians since
thought that the two leaders didn't exchange many words on their
7 Teachers were found to be a bit
to bed.
more confident after the
first
meeting.
extra training.
8 There doesn't seem to be much prospect of ever recovering the missing manuscript.
A survey of
British university
results are given below.
students was conducted
Comment on them
in
in
2000 and
recently repeated.
Some of the
sentences using fewer (than) or less (than).
Proportion with part-time jobs (%)
Proportion
who walk to
lectures (%)
|2000
69
62
|
Now
55
27
18
Male
Female
Proportion of
Female
Male
Total
money spent on books (%)
Total
Time spent online per week (hours)
|2000
30
\
Now
25
Male
Female
Total
1
Proportion with part-time jobs (%)
2
Proportion of
3
Proportion
Fewer students
<l
part-toe job
m\ZOOO
than ..now...
money spent on books (%)
who walk to lectures (%)
4 Time spent online per week (hours)
Are there any results that surprise you?
Comment on them
using no less than or
no fewer than.
Unit
53
Relative pronouns
mmum
Defining and non-defining relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun,
which can sometimes be omitted:
Q
We went to a
Here the
I
pronoun
know
man who / that
where the
In this
beach (which
relative
a
relative
/
that)
ran
in
the
had recommended to
Ali
and the subject of the
refers to ‘a beach',
New York Marathon
refers to ‘a man', and the subject of the
pronoun can't be omitted.
Relative pronouns are used to
add information
relative clause
is ‘Ali'.
Compare:
last year,
pronoun
case, the relative
us.
relative clause
is
also
‘a
man'.
defining relative clauses as follows:
in
adding information about things
subject
which
that
object
which
that
no
relative
pronoun
no
relative
pronoun
we
can use that (or no relative pronoun) as object
adding information about people
subject
who
that
object
who
that
it
When we
add information about things,
conversation and which
in
more formal
Decorating's a job (that)
When we add
in
whom
is
hate, (rather than
‘...
which
we generally
who or whom:
(that)
I
met
whom
...'in this
prefer that (or
atAisha's party (rather than
very formal and rarely used
The boy
We
man
in
...
informal context)
no
pronoun) as object
relative
who /whom met
I
...)
spoken English:
Elena had shouted at smiled, (less formally that,
use that as subject after: something and anything; words such as
no
relative
all, little,
pronoun or who)
much, and none
used as pronouns; and noun phrases that include superlatives. Which is also used as subject
something and anything, but less commonly:
These walls are all that remain of the city, (not ... which remain of the city.)
Note that we can use that (or no relative pronoun) as object
and noun phrases with superlatives. For example:
She's
one of the kindest people (that)
Relative pronouns are used to
in
contexts:
information about people,
informal contexts rather than
He's the
it
I
whom
I
add information
know, (not
in
.
.
.
after
something
/
anything;
one of the kindest people who
after
all, etc.;
I
know.)
non-defining relative clauses
as follows:
adding information about things
adding information about people
subject
which
that
subject
who
object
which
that
object
who
it
Note that we must include
a relative
i?
We can
as object, although
use
who or whom
Professor Johnson,
ic
When we
pronoun
who(m) have
I
add information about things,
in
a non-defining relative clause.
whom
I
:
in
very formal:
is
to
visit
the university next week.
can use which as subject or object. That
used instead of which, but some people think this
The Master's course, which took
is
long admired,
we
whom
2001,
is
is
is
sometimes
incorrect:
no longer taught,
(or
...
that
I
took
...)
.
Exercises
Put brackets around the italicised relative pronoun
1
We talked
if it
can be omitted.
about the party which Natalia wants to organise for
my
Q
birthday.
2 To get to Maxim's house, take the main road that bypasses the village.
3 The paintings which
4
Mr Flowers has
in his
house are worth around £100,000.
go through the main points that he made in his lecture.
his essay, which was only one page
Let's
10
5 He received a low mark for
6 Mrs Yang,
who
is
long.
42, has three children.
who we stayed with in Australia.
window there's a sign that says ‘10% off'.
5
9 The couple who live next to us have 16 grandchildren.
6 There was little that we could do to help her.
7
3
Dev
4
8
In
a friend
is
the shop
7
Rewrite these sentences including the information in brackets as relative clauses (defining or
8
non-defining). Give alternative relative pronouns if possible. (Use (-) to indicate ‘no relative
9
pronoun'.)
1
Oliver said something.
2
(I
couldn't hear
it
clearly)
Oliver soul something that / which /
couldn’t hear clearly
I
Eva's father has just
come back from
a skiing holiday, (he
The problems faced by the company are being
resolved.
is
(I'll
over 80)
look at these
in detail in
a
moment)
She was greatly influenced by her father, (she adored him)
He pointed
to the
(they led
stairs,
down
These drugs have been withdrawn from
to the cellar)
used to treat stomach ulcers)
sale, (they are
The singer had to cancel her concert, (she was recovering from
flu)
10
The minister talked about the plans
I
If
have two older
necessary, correct or
write /.
1
sisters.
make improvements to these
whom
Ingrid
I
should
4 There
isn't
5
Thieves
6
It
may
tell
I
they are already correct,
whom
you.
can remember.
much can go wrong with
stole paintings
the machine.
from Notford
art gallery
be the most important decision which you
7 The boy took the photograph
9
If
went to see was very thorough.
3 Yesterday was the hottest day
heard
many different
He just
said anything
I
sentences.
(29
There's something which
2 The doctor
8
them next month)
them very much)
love
(I
for tax reform, (he will reveal
There's this
was
accents
in
Additional exercise 11 (page 247)
have been arrested
in Paris.
ever take.
paid £100.
the room, but none which
which came into his head.
dream which have every night about
I
will
I
could identify as Polish.
falling downstairs.
107
Unit
54
Other
We
relative words:
whose, when, whereby,
use a relative clause beginning with the relative pronoun
English,
when we
whose + noun,
particularly in written
about something belonging to or associated with a person, animal or
an architect whose designs have won international praise.
talk
Stevenson
is
O
Suzy was taking care of a dog whose ears were badly damaged
can use whose in both defining and non-defining relative clauses.
We
We generally avoid
O
etc.
using
whose
plant:
a fight with a cat.
in
to talk about something belonging to or associated with a thing
:
made me think it was written by a child. more natural
than received a letter, whose poor spelling made me think ...)
However, we sometimes use whose when we talk about towns, countries, or organisations:
O The film was made in Botswana, whose wildlife parks are larger than those in Kenya.
Q We need to learn from companies whose trading is healthier than our own.
received a letter, and
I
its
poor spelling
(
I
In
academic writing whose
Q
is
used to talk about a wide variety of ‘belonging
Students have to solve problems
whose
Clauses with when, whereby, where and
We can
begin relative and other clauses with
used mainly
in
to' relationships:
solutions require a knowledge of calculus.
why
when
(referring to time),
formal contexts), and where (location).
whereby (method
formal English
In
in particular,
or means;
a phrase with
preposition + which can often be used instead of these:
The camera records the time when the photo
Do you know the date when we have to hand
is
taken, (or
...
the time at which
the date on
...)
by which ...)
We need to develop a system whereby workers and management can communicate more
effectively, (or ... the system in / by which workers ...)
This was the place where we first met. (or ... the place at / in which we ...)
the essay? (or
in
...
In academic English, we can also use where to refer to features other than
words such as case, condition, example, situation, system:
Later
We can
/
we
will
introduce cases
the law. (or more formally
the reason
didn't get a
Clauses with
Some
in
also use a
I
chapter
in this
changes
pay
rise,
why or a
/
...
/
location, particularly after
where consumer complaints have
which ...)
resulted
in
cases in
the reason that or just a
but this wasn't the reason
why
I
left,
/
the reason:
(or
...
the reason (that)
I
left.)
who and what; whatever, whoever and whichever
clauses beginning with a
wh-word
are used like a
sometimes called nominal relative clauses
Can you give me a list of who's been
noun phrase
in
a sentence. These are
:
invited? (= the people
who have been
invited)
know what should do next. (= the thing that should do next)
Note that we can't use what in this way after a noun:
managed to get all the books that you asked for. (not ... all the books what you asked
I
O
didn't
I
I
We use clauses beginning with
person
I
group
who
whatever
or any person
(= anything or
it
doesn't matter what),
whoever
for.)
(= the
group who), or whichever (= one thing or person from a limited
number), to talk about things or people that are indefinite or unknown:
U
/
I'm sure
I'll
/
enjoy eating whatever you cook.
Whoever wins will go on
Whichever one
of
to play Barcelona
you broke the window
in
will
the
final.
have to pay for
it.
Exercises
Combine
a sentence
from
(i)
with a sentence from
all her own typing.
owned by the Mears
Dr Rowan has had to do
1
2 The newspaper
is
group.
Parents are being asked to take part
3
in
the
My aunt
5
6
I
i
in
now CEO
is
chairperson
Missjiu Kim.
Its
b
Their diets contain high levels of protein,
c
Their flowers are attractive to bees,
d
H er secretary re s gned two wee ks a go.
is
-
i
Her
job
first
was
filling
shelves
in
a
supermarket.
examinations.
of a department store.
Their children are between four and
f
six.
enjoy growing plants.
whos^
pr Rowan,.,
+d
Define the words using
resigned two weeks
whose
2
A lexicographer is a person
A widow is a woman
3
An actuary
4 A furnace
5
make new sentences with whose,
a
e
survey.
4 Children do better
1
to
(ii)
(0
1
(ii)
6 Polo
is
and
in
whose job
which
is to
(4-6).
has Hdut.to do
You may need to use
ail Her
own
a dictionary.
wrote dictionaries
a person
is
a container
is
A gazebo
(1-3)
ago.,
a small garden building
is
Complete these sentences using phrases from the box and when, whereby, where or why.
an agreement
the area
1
Sunset
is
defined
a condition
method
a
the
the reason
the whole of the sun's disc
astronomy as
in
moment
disappears below the horizon.
2
In
1951, China and the Soviet Union signed
uranium ore
3 The coastline
4 The
river
is
the land meets the sea or ocean.
is
its
Freeze-drying
water
is
6 Hypoglycaemia
think whatever
I
2
Do they
3
4
5
6
I
really
I
rapidly evaporated
the level of sugar
is
is
correct, write /.
from frozen food
in
was responsible
for
If
in
not, suggest another word.
damaging the
the blood drops suddenly.
|
trees should be fined or sent to prison.
understand that they are doing?
don't envy whoever buys that house.
Now that
is
it.
the italicised word
1
there are no major
is
banks.
order to preserve
If
China provided
for technical assistance.
prone to sudden flooding which
towns along
5
exchange
in
It's in
a terrible condition.
no longer have to wear a school uniform, I'll be able to wear which want.
think the government should improve the health service, whichever the cost.
It's
I
I
a question that I've been asking for
7 The clock makes a noise what keeps
8 I'm sure that Rashid
will
- Additional exercise 11 (page 247)
do well
many years.
me awake at
night.
at university, which
one he goes
to.
109
Unit
55
Prepositions
In
formal styles noun + of which
is
whose + noun:
A huge amount of oil was
ft
are
still
being
clauses
in relative
often preferred to -
spilled,
the effects of
gaj.'.iiwj.ciiiidi
which
are
still
being
felt,
[or
...
whose
effects
felt.)
/ which ... of in relative clauses:
The school of which she is head is
that
ft
of
After
is
closing, [less formally
The school (that
/
which) she
is
head
closing.)
both we can use of which and of whose, but not usually which or whose
Lotta was able to switch between German and
Also after: all, each, many, most,
Russian, both of which she spoke fluently.
neither, none, part, some, a number
[not ... both which she spoke fluently.)
(one, two, etc.; the
first,
etc.; half, a third, etc.),
the second,
and superlatives
(the best, the biggest, etc.)
In
whose
formal, mainly written, English
I
now turn to Freud,
whose work the
Freud,
When
a preposition
is
the relative pronoun
come
after a preposition in a relative clause. Putting the
The
we
After a preposition
Is it
following quotation
is
pronouns which and
relative
.
.
taken from.)
whom we
usually put
it
before
formal styles:
which
rate at
is
needed with the
in
a material heats
There are 80 teachers
O
can
more natural in informal and spoken English:
from whose work the following quotation is taken, [less formally
preposition at the end of the clause
up depends on
whom
usually use
right that politicians should
whom they are accountable?
who
rather than
make important
[rather than
chemical composition.
its
among whom
the Physics Department,
in
in
formal
24 professors.
styles:
decisions without consulting the public to
the public to
...
are
who they are
accountable.)
and we don't use that or no relative pronoun:
which the town lies is heavily polluted, [not The valley
heavily polluted.; not The valley in the town lies is heavily polluted.)
The valley
In less
formal English
The
office
took us
and
If
in
we
usually put the preposition later
that Juan took us to was
filled
town
lies is
the relative clause:
...)
who
whom
prefer
O
The playground wasn't used by the children
in
that the
with books, [rather than The office to which Juan
we
the verb
in
in
(or that) rather
the relative clause
is
a
than
(see also Unit 26A):
two-word verb
who
(e.g.
it
was
come
built for.
across,
fill in,
look after, take on)
we
don't usually put the preposition before the relative pronoun:
The Roman
coins,
which
National Museum, [not
came
a local farmer
...
coins, across
across
which the
in
local
With three-word verbs, we only put the preposition before the
literary style, and many people avoid this pattern:
She
is
one of the few people to
whom
I
a field, are
now on
farmer came, are
relative
pronoun
look up. [or less formally
...
in
the
a very formal or
in
who
display
...)
I
look up
to.)
Exercises
Rewrite these sentences so that they are more appropriate for formal written English. Use
preposition + which or preposition + whose, as appropriate.
Fleming's discovery of penicillin, which he
1
influence on the lives of people
which he was
CEO
was awarded the Nobel
the 20th century.
cuoardeA the. Nobel Prize, had.
Prize for,
had a major
Fleming s discovery of penlctlltn, for
in
a
rocypr
lives
of
people in the 2.0 th certiu ry.
He was the
Anne Boleyn, whose execution in 1536 he lost power after.
It is her unmarried name which she is better known by.
Mr Wang, whose land the road will be built across, is unhappy about the plans.
The election result, which there can be no doubt about, is a great disappointment.
The building which Marcus emerged from was little more than a ruin.
It is a medieval palace, whose tower the king hid in during the civil war.
am grateful to Aarav Basu, whose book on the history of the bicycle this information comes
2
3
4
5
3
6
4
7
5
68
uncle of
I
from.
7
8
Complete the sentences using the endings from the box and which or
whom after an
appropriate preposition.
1
she was divorced in 2005.
he had shown
was named.
the printer was supplied,
most world trade was conducted.
you should be aware.
the furniture
to be delivered.
is
44rad grea t resp ect.
his novel.
it
was someone for whom
pound sterling was the currency
1
My Maths teacher, Mr
2
Until 1914 the
Kato,
hod
I
great respect.
They have changed the date
Pasteurisation
was discovered by the French chemist
He was persuaded
to stay
in
Louis Pasteur,
England by Charles Dickens,
There are a number of safety procedures
Details are in the instruction
Ms
Park
was
left
the
manual
money by
Rewrite the sentences from 55.2
relative clause.
My
^22)
If
Ma^
Q
her former husband,
in
a less formal way, putting the preposition at the
was. ...someone .MhP,../..f^.<M<.../...r.....l.. had. great
necessary, suggest corre ctions or improvements to these sentences or write
S
end of the
respect for
if
they are
already correct.
1
The house
into
which the thieves broke
is
owned by Caleb
Cruz.
2 The school has been given 20 laptops, half of which are brand new.
3 JKL Motorbikes sells six different models, the
4 The party, to which
I've
been looking forward
first
all
which they started making
week,
is
in
1985.
at Maxine's house.
The water that she fell into was freezing cold.
have heard her on the violin and clarinet, both which she plays extremely well.
7 The film was made atTulloch Castle, part which dates back to 1466.
8 The college is home to 30 students from Nepal, almost all of who are studying economics.
5
6
I
Additional exercise 11 (page 247)
111
Unit
56
Other ways of adding information to noun phrases
additional noun phrases, etc.
We sometimes add
information about a person or thing referred to
about the same person or thing
O
in
a different
way
in
a following
one noun phrase by
in
A hooded cobra, one of the world's most dangerous snakes, has escaped from Dudley Zoo.
Dr Alex Parr, director of the State Museum, is to become the government's arts adviser.
In writing,
it is
O
O
the items are usually separated by a
usually a
name, there
My friend Mia
has
comma, and
The current champion
...
usually no punctuation
is
moved
Farina, (rather than
We can
is
to Sweden, (rather than
in
speech they are often separated by a
is
like
a defining relative clause,
writing or intonation break
My friend,
Mia,
in
speech:
...)
Italian Silvia
Italian, Silvia Farina.)
add information to a noun phrase with
(= her teacher
in
expected to survive her first-round match with the
the
Kurt Svensson, her teacher
O
talking
noun phrase:
pause or other intonation break. However, when the second item acts
when
1:
a conjunction such as
and well-known concert pianist,
and or
or:
thinks that she has great talent.
also a well-known concert pianist)
Phonetics or the study of speech sounds
is
a
common component on
courses
in
teaching
English as a foreign language.
The adverb namely and the phrase that
O
are used to add details about a
is
This side effect of the treatment,
namely weight gain,
The main cause of global warming, that
is
is
noun phrase:
counteracted with other drugs.
the burning of fossil fuels,
is
to be the focus of
negotiations at the international conference.
We can
also
add information to a noun phrase using a
participle clause beginning with an -ing, -ed or
being + -ed verb form. These are often similar to defining relative clauses
O
O
The people living next door come from Italy, (or The people who are living next door ...)
The weapon used in the murder has now been found, (or The weapon that was used ...)
The prisoners being released are all women, (or The prisoners who are being released ...)
Note that -ing
participle clauses
correspond to defining relative clauses with an active verb, while -ed
and being + -ed clauses correspond to defining
We can also use a to-infinitive clause,
O
Have you brought
My decision
O
In
I
a
as
relative clauses with a passive verb.
in:
book to read?
to resign from the company was
thought that the management's
written English, particularly
in
offer,
made
after a great deal of thought.
to increase staff holidays, was a good one.
newspapers, -ing and -ed clauses are also used instead of non-
defining relative clauses. These are usually written
between commas or dashes
Q
The men, wearing anoraks and hats, made
O
The proposals - expected to be agreed by ministers - are
feared.
off in a stolen
(-):
Volvo estate.
less radical
than
many employers had
Exercises
Add the information
the examples
in
in
A and
brackets to the sentences and rewrite
Gofast Technology has launched
1
them
in
an appropriate way, using
B as models.
its
new generation
of high-speed trains. (Gofast Technology is
part of the Maddison Enterprises Group)
Qofasb Technology, part of the
new generation of high-speed brains.
went on an
2
I
3
Rubella
IT training
a
is still
course with
common
Group,..
Has launched
dbs
my colleague. (My colleague is Mateo)
childhood disease
many
in
countries. (Another name for rubella
is
German measles)
4 Four
kilos of
Beluga caviar has been ordered for the reception. (Beluga caviar is among the most
in the world)
expensive foods
One of the most
5
popular modern writers for children
6 Tonya's father was
in
is John Marsden. (John Marsden is Australian)
the crowd to watch her victory. (Tonya's father has also been her trainer for
the last ten years)
Dr Sofia Lopez has
7
criticised
government plans to cut health funding.
(Sofia
Lopez is head of
Down lands Hospital)
8 Klaus Schmidt
is
running
champion) (The German
£§£1
the Stockholm Marathon. (Klaus Schmidt is the current European
in
10,
000 metres record holder is also
Make sentences by matching the beginnings (in
iii) after namely or that is.
to the endings
(in
00
(0
1
25% of households.
Leo Tolstoy's most
a
are found
b
covers over 2 million square
in
c
with the USA,
students
dogs and rabbits
V/arand Peace
Mexico and Canada
Greenland
cats,
should have ways of
complaining about poor
3 The three most
and adding appropriate
Tallinn
kilometres.
having land borders
popular pets
ii)
(iii)
celebrated novel,
2 The two countries
teaching.
d
in Britain,
4 The capital of Estonia,
5 The largest island in
have complained to the
President about the new
customs regulations.
the world,
6 The ‘consumers' of
e
was published4rv1869.
f
is
education,
1
i)
Q
information (from
the current European champion)
situated on the Gulf of
Finland.
+ e Leo Tolstoy’s most celebrated novel, namely War and Peace, was published
In1&>?.
Complete the sentences with an
-ing, -ed or being + -ed form of the verbs from the box. Then
rewrite each sentence using a relative clause instead of the participle clause,
drive
1
The man
educate
flow
ddvlng
the bus
introduce
is
my brother.
need
say
print
The man who
tell off
driving the bus
us
us
my
brother,
2
I
went to
a reunion for students
—
in
the physics department during the
1990s.
3 As
my aunt told me what she thought,
I
felt like a
schoolboy
by
his
headteacher.
4 There
5
is
a sign
on the gate
Across the river were
6 Rivers
7 The booklets
8 Anyone
some
‘Entry forbidden'.
of the deer
into the park in the 19th century.
into the Baltic Sea are
as
we
speak
much
will
cleaner
now than
ten years ago.
be on sale later this afternoon.
further information can see
me
in
my office.
113
Unit
Other ways of adding information to noun phrases 2
57
prepositional phrases, etc.
We commonly add
a
meaning
O
O
some
O
O
information about a thing or person using a prepositional phrase. Often these have
similar to a relative clause:
What's the name of the
man by the window?
the cupboard under the
It's in
She
In
lives in
stairs, (or
...
(or
...
the
man who's
by the window?)
the cupboard that's under the
the house with the red door, (or
...
There
is
likely
stairs.)
the house which has the red door.)
cases, however, these prepositional phrases do not have a corresponding
You need to keep a careful record of what you spend.
We often
:
relative clause:
to be an increase in temperature tomorrow.
prefer a relative clause rather than a prepositional phrase
in
non-defining relative clauses
with be + preposition or with have as a main verb:
Mr Chen, who was
(rather than
...
Davide Gallo,
in
the store at the time of the robbery, was able to identify two of the men.
Mr Chen,
who
in
the store
has a farm near
than Davide Gallo, with a farm near
In
written English, particularly
clauses
is
in
academic
...)
Pisa,
has decided to grow only organic vegetables, (rather
Pisa,
has
...)
writing, a series of prepositional phrases
and
relative
often used to add information about a previous noun phrase. Note that prepositional
phrases can also be used with an adverbial function
(e.g.
*...
taken the drug
in
the last six months'
in
the
sentence below):
U
Doctors are contacting patientsjwith diabetes)(who have taken the drug
Scjentists([n Spain)(who
used
in
have developed the technique)are optimistic that
the
it
last six months.^)
will
be widely
laboratories within the next decade.
We can
also use participle clauses and noun phrases (see Unit 56)
add information to the preceding noun phrase:
O
in
The waxwing
MTjtobT^
is
the only bird(found
in Britainj(with
in
a series of clauses / phrases
yellow and red
,
which
t*
tail feathers.)
the Democratic Party))(MP forThreeoaks)
has announced his resignation.
Note that adding a series of prepositional phrases can often lead to ambiguity. For example:
The protesters were demonstrating against the mistreatment of animals on farms,
O
could
mean
were demonstrating was ‘on farms' or that the animals
unambiguous with, for example:
The protesters were demonstrating on farms against the mistreatment of animals, or
The protesters were demonstrating against the mistreatment of animals kept on farms.
were ‘on
either that the place the protesters
farms'.
We could make the sentence
o
.
.
.
)
.
Exercises
Match the sentence halves (there may be more than one possible answer), adding an
appropriate preposition.
1
Maja's the
2
She's
3
in
girl
...
the photograph
plan to cut
I
4 There's
1
a
down
team
...
the tree
of people
We took the footpath
5
|
.
Go
along the lane
...
.
.
...
8 Nico's a boy...
9 Follow the main road
.
.
10 She's a teacher...
41 +
c
...
green
b
...
the back garden.
shirts.
c
.
...
6 The children can't get over the fence
7
a
d
...
the canal.
e
...
the piano.
f
...
Paris to Lyons.
g
...
the houses.
h
...
New
i
...
the pool.
...
a quick temper.
j
Zealand.
with blonde hoar.
....
Rewrite the sentences
in 57.1
using defining relative clauses.
5
Majds the
girl
who
Hcls
blonde hair.
6
Complete the sentences by adding the information in brackets. Use relative clauses (Unit 53),
noun phrases and participle clauses (Unit 56) and prepositional phrases (Unit 57).
additional
Police are questioning
1
to
between
men
2.5
and $0
living in
the vidAge, who are known
have a crummaL record.
(The men are between 25 and 30. They
3
2 Teachers
live in
the village. They are
(The teachers work at Queen's College. Queen's College
strike last week.
They have appointed Kristina Borg as
is
in
known
to have a criminal record.)
the city centre. The teachers went on
their spokesperson.
She is the head of English.)
Marge Scott
3
(Marge Scott has died. She was aged 95. She was educated at Marston College. She was the first
woman to be educated there. Marston College is in south Wales.)
The conference
(The conference was held in Singapore. It approved the world trade agreement. The agreement was
drawn up by European and Asian states. The conference has now ended.
A book
(The book is on gardening.
in
the library.)
A
painting
It is
called All about Plants.
Anna wanted to borrow it.
It
wasn't available
(The painting was found in a second-hand shop.
dealer.
It was found by Lara Gruber. She is an antique
She is from Austria. The painting is thought to bebyJ.M.W. Turner. Turner was a British
landscape artist.)
Why are these sentences ambiguous? Can you
1
2
rewrite them to remove the ambiguity?
A man was talking with a grey suit
A lorry was stopped by a police officer carrying thousands of stolen cigarettes.
I
discussed
my plan to decorate the room with my parents.
115
Unit
58
meaning
Participle clauses with adverbial
We can
1
use present participle (-ing) and past participle (-ed) clauses with
an adverbial meaning. (See also Unit 59.) They often give information about
the timing, causes, and results of the events described:
O
O
Opening her eyes, the baby began to
Faced with a
bill for
Looked after carefully, the plant can
O
O
O
she opened her eyes
.
through the winter. (=
live
.
.)
is
faced
...)
looked after
If it is
...)
= When / Because had finished ...)
The fruit was expensive, being imported, (simple passive; = ... because it was imported)
Having been hunted close to extinction, the rhino is once again common in this area, (perfect
passive; = Although it had been hunted close to extinction ...)
Having finished the book,
The implied subject of
usually the
O
same
had a holiday,
I
a participle clause (that
main
as the subject of the
we saw
Arriving at the party,
Q
Having wanted to drive a
careful speech
O
and writing
we
is,
(perfect;
a subject
I
known but not
is
directly
mentioned)
is
clause:
Ruth standing alone. (=
However, sometimes the implied subject
In
When
cry. (=
£10,000, Ivan has taken an extra job. (= Because he
not referred to
train all his
life,
this
in
When we
arrived
the main
clause:
...
we saw
...)
was an opportunity not to be missed.
avoid different subjects for the participle and main clause:
Turning round quickly, the door
hit
me
the face,
in
(first
implied subject
=
T; second subject
=
‘the door')
would be better
O
In
When
I
as:
turned round quickly, the door
hit
me
in
formal English, the participle clause sometimes has
the face.
its
own
subject,
which
is
often a pronoun or
includes one:
is priceless, some being over 2000 years old.
Her voice breaking with emotion, Vasiliki spoke about her father's illness.
The collection of vases
We
use the present participle (-ing) clause to talk about something happening at the
event
in
the main clause, or to give information about
When we
use not
in a participle
clause
it
usually
the facts given in the
comes before the
main
participle.
same time
as an
clause.
However,
it
can follow
the participle, depending on meaning:
O
Not understanding the
rules,
found the cricket match boring. (= because didn't understand
I
I
the rules)
Hoping not to be recognised,
chose a seat
I
in
a dark corner. (=
I
hoped that wouldn't be
I
recognised)
We use a clause
in
beginning with having + past participle rather than a present participle
the main clause
is
the consequence of the event
Having broken her
trip this year, (or
leg the last
in
if
the action
the participle clause:
time she went, Giorgia decided not to go on the school skiing
After breaking her leg
...;
not Breaking her leg
...)
We can
use either a present participle (-ing) clause or a having + past participle clause with a
similar meaning when the action in the participle clause is complete before the action in the main
clause begins. Compare:
O
Taking off
his shoes,
and
Running across the
would suggest that
116
Ram walked
field,
I
fell
I
and hurt
fell
after
into the house. (Having taken off
I
my ankle.
had run across the
(=
...
has a similar meaning)
While was running
field)
I
...;
‘Having run
...'
Exercises
•
•
Rewrite the sentences beginning with one of the clause forms from sections
A and D
opposite.
When
Seetng the dog
she saw the dog coming towards her, she quickly crossed the road.
com mg towards b
e^L
the
^
ty
c^ps
road.
s
h
2 As she was dressed all in black, she was almost invisible in the starless night.
3 As don't have a credit card, found it difficult to book an airline ticket online.
4 Antonio spent a lot of time filling in job application forms because he was unemployed.
1
>
.
.5?
I
I
10
5 Because
was walking
soon caught up with her.
wood, so it was clearly a fire risk.
was eager to catch the bus in good time because had been
I
6 The house was
7
I
quickly,
I
built of
I
told off the
day before
for arriving
late.
8 She didn't know where the theatre was, so she asked for directions at the hotel reception.
9 As she was a nurse, she knew what to do after the accident.
He had spent
If
his
childhood
in
Oslo, so he
the implied subject of the two clauses
D sentences to make them more
the
is
knew the
city well.
the same write S and
if it is
different write D. Rewrite
acceptable.
1
Waiting for the bus, a car went through a puddle and splashed water
2
Known mainly
3
Keeping a careful eye on the spider, Suzanne hurried out of the bathroom.
as a writer of novels, Rashid has
4 Looking down from the
5
hill,
now written
Write not
in
in
the Andes, the plant
2
my
lost
determined
4
feeling
bothering
6
trying
to be beaten, she put
3
I
4
I
looked over
I
6
I
7
I
recently.
a
my shoulder.
b
weeks
d
for the
washing machine to be
8
I
e
suffered from depression myself as a teenager.
parked the car about a kilometre from the stadium.
reached
learned
my mid-thirties.
some
f
g
Swahili as a child.
+
d
on looking on
Haying. ..TOpyed...house
out.
rec^Uy,
I
I
I
I
I
first verb.
Which
decided to cancel the order,
felt
I
needed to change
my life,
could see Ida running after me.
dofr't yet-ha ve nt e rnet access.
was able to understand most of
i
what she said.
banged my head on the low roof,
could understand how Nathan was
I
I
feeling.
h
1
carried
her energy into the serve.
G
c
six
I
+ past participle or the -ing form of the
delivered.
5
all
walked through the tunnel.
waited
Q
went home early.
to put on his coat, he left the house.
to cry, she waved to Harun as the train pulled
sentences can have either form?
moved house
each sentence.
lens.
Join these sentences using having
I
in
well, she
5
I
used by local people to treat skin diseases.
to notice that people were staring at me,
contact
3
1
huge waves.
to boast, she said nothing about her success.
pretending
the floor for
2
is
the more appropriate place
wishing
1
over me.
the town spread out before us towards the coast.
Feeling rather sick, the boat ploughed through the
6 Found only
all
a successful biography.
I
walked the
rest of the
way.
14^
117
Unit
59
meaning 2
Participle clauses with adverbial
We can
use prepositions such as after, before, besides, by,
through, while, with, and without
on, since,
in,
present participle (-ing) clause
in a
with an adverbial meaning (see also Unit 58):
Q
O
An
While understanding her problem, don't know how can help. (= Although understand
After spending so much money on the car, can't afford a holiday.
Before being changed last year, the speed limit was 70 kph. (passive form)
I
alternative
G
is
by, in,
on +
we moved to
we
London,
haven't had time to go to the theatre, and
we
haven't had time to go to the theatre, (less formal)
-ing
By working hard, she passed her maths exam.
They only survived by eating roots and berries
On
returning from
Josh was the
O
O
...)
first
Beijing,
person
in
the forest.
= the -ing clause
he wrote to the Chinese embassy.
1
knew would offend
1
1
indicates
'when'
= the -ing clause
her.
choosing Marco, the People's Party has moved to the
We can often
= the -ing clause indicates
‘the method or means used'
saw on leaving hospital.
In criticising the painting,
In
Compare:
a clause with a verb that can change according to tense and subject.
Since moving to London,
Since
O
I
I
I
indicates
‘cause'
left.
use by + -ing or in + -ing with a similar meaning, although by + -ing
is
preferred
in
informal contexts:
Q
By writing about Spanish culture, came to understand the country better. (‘In writing
= the consequence of writing was to understand ...; ‘By writing ...' = the method used to
understand the country better was to write...)
In /
I
...'
I
But compare:
By telephoning every
the method
with
-ing;
With +
is
hour, she
managed
to speak to the doctor, (not
In
telephoning
without -ing
-ing often introduces a reason for something
Note that a subject has to come between with and
in
the main clause. This use
is
We can
fairly informal.
-ing:
With Louise living in Spain, we don't see her often. (= Because Louise lives
With and what with can also be used with a noun phrase to introduce a reason:
With my bad back won't be able to lift a heavy suitcase.
What with the traffic and the heavy rain, it's no wonder you were late.
O
O
...;
the focus here, not the consequence)
in
Spain
...)
I
use without + -ing to say that a second action doesn't happen:
went to work without eating breakfast.
They left without paying.
Often, however, it has a similar meaning to ‘although
I
O
...
not' or ‘unless':
Without meaning to, seem to have offended her. (= Although didn't mean to
Without using the app, can't judge how good it is. (= Unless use the app ...)
I
I
...)
I
I
Adverbial meanings can also be added by a clause beginning with a conjunction or adjective but with
no verb. This kind of clause has the same meaning as a clause beginning with a conjunction + subject
+ be and is used in fairly formal English (more informal alternatives are given in brackets):
While in Poland, they will play two concerts in Warsaw, (or While they are in Poland ...)
Although just two feet apart, they didn't speak, (or Although they were just ...)
I
try to use public transport
whenever
possible, (or
Unhappy with the decision, Johnson swore
...
whenever
at the referee, (or
it is
possible.)
Because he was unhappy
...)
.
Exercises
Complete these sentences using a preposition from (i) and the -ing form or being + past
form of a verb from (ii). You may use the words from (i) more than once,
participle
(i)
00
before
after
through
Suice
1
come
since
while
comwg
interview
out of hospital,
I
have been to the
on TV
2
last night,
overthrow
leave
welcome
take
sell
gym
work
every day.
the minister mentioned that she would be
retiring soon.
3
make
the back off the computer,
4
new
the government's
1
policy,
sure
think
I
it is
it
unplugged.
should have been
introduced months ago.
5
in
26
with young children for the
a military takeover, the king has
last
been under house
arrest.
40 years, she has come
to
understand their behaviour better than most.
3
to the public, most milk
7
4
8
Oxford University
in
is
pasteurised.
1983, Painter spent three years teaching at a
local school.
Join the sentences, beginning
them with by +
-ing,
on +
-ing, or in
+
-ing.
Q
1
She returned home.
a
2
She gave up sugar.
3
She turned down the job.
c
4 She moved to a smaller flat.
She entered the classroom.
a month.
She knew that she might offend him.
d - Sh e foun d D a ve wa t ng outs de her front door.
e
She gave up the
6 She
f
She was surprised when
i
5
+d
criticised her father.
On
returning Home, she -found,
Rewrite these sentences beginning With
1
We couldn't go on
I
I
holiday because
Dcue
...
-ing or
I
section
D
Although from
a
in
opposite), and
i
all
huge
salary.
the children stood up.
outside her front door.
Without
...
-ing.
Q
flu.
solved the problem, although he didn't realise
Revise this biography by replacing six
i
possibility of a
have more information.
couldn't wait for Andrei any longer as time
examples
watfctng
Maryam had
won't be able to advise you unless
He had
She soon began to lose weight.
She saved over a hundred pounds
b
more
it.
was running out before the
full
train left.
clauses with reduced clauses (as
making any other necessary changes.
0
in
the
poor bouckqround,
Althoug h^heAvasTrom a poor b a ckgrewcf,
Paula Regis gained a place at
Southam
She was always fascinated by the stars and she took a first degree in
astrophysics. Once she was at university she also became interested in student
politics and, because she was popular with her fellow students, was elected University
President in her second year. This didn't distract her from her studies, however,
and while she was in the final year of her degree, she won the International Young
Scientist of the Year award for her work on star classification. When she was asked
what was the secret of her success she said, 'Just hard work and a little luck.' She is
determined to continue her research and she has recently begun work on her PhD.
University.
119
Unit
Reflexive pronouns: herself, himself,
themselves,
In
etc.
some
addition to the usual reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, etc.)
people use themselves to refer to the person who is the subject of the
sentence, to avoid saying whether the subject is male or female:
The author of the letter de scribes themselves as 'a senior government
Who wants to go through life by themselves, without friends?
O
O
Oneself
O
(or less formally yourself)
is
used to refer to people
in
general:
think one has to have the courage to be oneself and say whatever
I
formally thinkyou have to have the courage to be yourself
I
We can
use reflexive pronouns for emphasis
in
various ways.
official'.
comes
naturally.
(
less
...)
We also use
reflexive
pronouns to
emphasise that the subject caused a certain action. Compare
O
Q
Salma worked hard and got promoted.
Salma worked hard and got herself promoted, (emphasises that
was through her own
it
efforts)
Q
If
Salma encouraged me to apply for the senior manager
(emphasises that Salma got promoted, not me)
same person
the object of a transitive verb refers to the
must be
O
a reflexive pronoun.
He walked around
it.
the golf course to familiarise
and
...
We walked around to familiarise the children
with
their
new
/
surroundings.
With some verbs we can use a
O
or thing as the subject, then that object
Compare:
absent
Also:
himself with
O
position, but she got promoted herself,
with, pride
trouble
pronoun or leave
reflexive
We are confident that
both sets of fans
behave (themselves)
at the match.
it
include the reflexive pronoun
subject
if
from, avail
...
out with
...
/
of,
...
busy
... by
with, occupy
on, tear
about
little
...
away from,
...
with
difference
in
meaning:
will
Also: acclimatise, adapt, (un)dress,
hide,
We
...
with, concern
we want to emphasise that the
move, prepare, shave, wash
person or thing referred to
in
the
affected by the action:
is
Although she helped other athletes
found
When the
it
difficult
in their
preparations for competing at high altitudes, she
to acclimatise herself.
subject and object after a preposition refer to the
same person
or thing
we
use a reflexive
pronoun after the preposition:
O
If
He was
pleased with himself. ( not
the verb has a direct object
I
use a personal pronoun, not a reflexive pronoun:
closing the door behind
is
sometimes used
use incorrect and avoid
O
O
me. ( not
...
closing the door behind myself.)
if
She bought the bracelet for
Myself
pleased with him.)
we need to make it clear that the subject and prepositional
or thing, we use a reflexive pronoun after the preposition:
However,
person
remember
we
...
I
believe that
after
herself.
(‘...
for her' suggests
and and or rather than
‘I'
it
phrase refer to the same
was bought
or ‘me', although
for
someone
some people
else)
consider this
it:
Lizi
and myself have done a pretty good job.
the job can you send the bill either to Mrs Petrov or myself?
When you've finished
Using myself reduces focus on the speaker or writer and so sounds
less forceful or
more
polite.
Exercises
Complete each sentence with a suitable form of a verb from the box followed by a reflexive
pronoun and, if necessary, a preposition. If the reflexive pronoun can be omitted, put brackets
1
around
it.
8
absent
adapt
She works
occupy
dress
for a charity
concerns itself with
which
2 She
prepare
the welfare of children.
for the interview by reading the job description again,
It is a town that
4 While was working, the children
being welcoming to
3
It
will
take you
some time
to
filling in
When Jade
computer games.
to the pace of
6 Jack just expects to be given a job without making any
7
visitors.
playing
I
5
trouble
pride
effort.
life in
Tokyo.
He won't even
any application forms.
broke her arm she couldn't
properly, so
I
had to go round
each morning to help.
8 Peter arranged to
the
could spend time with his father
Underline the correct option.
1
Can you post
this letter for
my friends were
If
company for the
first
time
in his life
so that he
in hospital.
both options are possible, note the difference
in
meaning.
myself/ me, please?
was bored, and just didn't know what to do with myself/ me.
3 We put the voice recorder on the table between ourselves / us.
4 They dragged the tree behind themselves / them all the way to the trailer.
5 Now that you're a famous actor, you must hear a lot about yourself /you in the media.
6 He ought to be ashamed of himself / him, being rude to his parents like that.
2 All
7
8
2|
If
away,
I
I
She should take care of herself / her better. She's looking really ill.
opened the window in front of myself/ me and took a deep breath of fresh
I
necessary, correct the italicised parts of this email or write
S
.
air.
Give alternatives where
possible.
AAA
Hi
Dana,
Yes, Jan's a lot better, thanks.
We
(1)
got vaccinated ourselves against hepatitis
we went to West Africa, so Jan was just unlucky to get it. He went into work
after we got back although he was feeling bad, and some of his colleagues were
worried about (2) getting it themselves I know that some of them (3) had checked
before
.
themselves by their doctors. By coincidence, his boss said that (4) he'd caught
himself hepatitis when he was in Africa a few years ago. When he's completely
recovered, (5) Jan and myself are off to Paris for a few days - if I can get Jan
(6) to tear him away from his office! - and (7) we're going to occupy us with
looking at the galleries and having a rest.
Must go now. The children have just shouted that they want some juice and
(8) they can't reach it themself.
Will
be
in
touch, Nika
cn
H
121
We can
use one instead of repeating a singular countable noun and ones instead of repeating a plural
noun when
C
I
clear
it is
'Can
we are talking about:
from the context what
get you a drink?'
I
poems
think his best
We don't use one / ones
'It's
okay,
I've
already got one.' (= a drink)
are his early ones. (=
poems)
instead of an uncountable noun:
you need any more paper, I'll bring you some, (not ... I'll bring you one / ones.)
asked him to get apple juice, but he got orange, (not ... but he got orange one / ones.)
If
I
We can't
we
use ones without defining precisely which group of things
are talking about. Instead,
we
use some. Compare:
‘We need new
...
Instead of using
one
/
ones
in
my trouser pocket,
really like a
but
was
it
in
smartphone
like
+ one
yours, (or
ones
/
'...
like
is
often heard
your one'
in
in
more
is
likely
to be used
in
also that
we
use ones to refer to people
(= usually close family),
We can
leave out
one
/
my coat
we
pocket.
prefer mine, yours,
informal speech:
(not
...
ask those ones
in
the
little
ones
...
than younger students.)
(= small children), (your)
loved ones
(one of) the lucky ones.
ones -
after which:
When we buy
medicines,
we have no way of knowing which
(ones) contain sugar,
after superlatives:
O
Look at that pumpkin!
after this, that, these,
The
O
last test
I
did
It's
the biggest (one)
seen this year.
easy, but
some
parts of this (one) are really difficult.
Help yourself to grapes. These (ones) are the sweetest, but those (ones) taste best.
(Note that some people think ‘those
after either, neither, another, each,
Karl pointed to the paintings
O
I've
and those:
was quite
/
these ones'
the
first /
and said
is
incorrect, particularly in formal English.)
second
/
last, (etc
):
could take either (one), (or
I
...
either of them.)
She cleared away the cups, washed each (one) thoroughly, and put them on the
shelf.
We don't leave out one / ones after the,
the only, the main, and every:
When you cook
O
'ir
After
I
clams you shouldn't eat the ones that have broken
got the glasses home,
I
shells.
found that every one was broken.
after adjectives:
My shoes were so
uncomfortable that
However, after colour adjectives
O
we
...)
comparative sentences to refer to groups of people:
Older students seem to work harder than younger ones, (or
Note
...
informal speech)
We usually use ones to refer to things rather than people:
We need two people to help. We could ask those men over there,
However, ones
/
buy ones.)
let's
after possessive determiners (my, your, her, etc.)
hers, etc. However, a possessive determiner
I'd
ones with flowers on
...
used as adjectives:
my memory stick was
my coat one.)
thought
(not
buy some.' (not Okay,
curtains.' ‘Okay, let's
We don't use one / ones after nouns
I
this time. /
and
‘We need new
O
buy green ones
curtains.' ‘Okay, let's
those ones.'
I
had to go out today and buy some new ones.
can often leave out one
‘Have you decided which jumper to buy?'
‘Yes,
I
/
think
ones
I'll
in
answers:
take the blue (one).'
.
.
Exercises
necessary, correct these sentences.
If
brought
the
1.
Bilal
2
Normally don't
in
put ones on the
wearing a
y
they are already correct, write
I
fire.
was so cold put one on.
a: We've run out of potatoes,
b: I'll get ones when
go to the shops.
We haven't got lemon tea, but you could have mint one instead.
Those aren't your gloves. You must have picked up the wrong ones.
a: What kind of cakes do you like best?
b: Ones with cream inside.
I
3
like
scarf,
but
it
I
I
4
5
6
7
couldn't
I
fit all
the boxes
8 Most of the trees
If
wood and
If
in
in
the
car,
our garden are
so
less
I
had to leave ones behind and pick
than ten years old but ones are
appropriate, replace the italicised words or phrases with
unlikely, write ‘No' after
the sentence.
it
much
one or ones.
up
later.
older than that.
If it is
not possible or
WlMA
answered most of the questions, but had to miss out some very difficult questions.
102 The female violinists in the orchestra outnumber the male violinists by about three to one.
3 He used to work for a finance company, but he's moved to an insurance company.
4 The issue discussed at the meeting was an extremely complicated issue.
1
I
Many people are happy about the new road being built, but there are some angry people,
Was it these earrings you wanted? b: No, the earrings on the left of those, please.
5
1
6
2
Diana
7
3
in
4
8
9
10
If
is
really
good
at taking photos of old buildings. There's an excellent
photo of
a local church
her office.
Are you picking Jo up at the train station? b: No, she's arriving at the bus station.
channel was a war film and on the other was a horror film, so turned the TV
There are lots of gloves here. Are these your gloves?
a:
On one
I
the italicised one or ones can be omitted
write
1
too.
a:
in
these sentences, put brackets around
off.
it. If
not,
y HIMwm
.
The children had eaten all the pizza and were still hungry so had to make them another (one)
drove around the houses, looking for the ones with ‘For Sale' notices outside, y
I
2
3
4
I
I'm not keen
I
like
on those ones with the cherry on
both of these jackets.
I
don't
top.
know which one
I
think
I'll
have a chocolate biscuit instead.
to choose.
5 The vases are all handmade and every one looks different.
6 Each winter seemed to be colder than the last one.
7 There are many excellent food markets in town but the main one is near the port.
8 She tried on lots of pairs of shoes and finally chose the purple ones.
9 The books were so disorganised that soon lost track of which ones had already counted.
I
Can you remember where you bought
I
this
one?
I'd like
to get one myself.
Complete these sentences with one or ones followed by an ending of your own.
Carmen drove to the restaurant because she was the only ...
To help keep
fit,
go to shops you can walk or cycle to rather than
A number of causes
Camera
tripods
.
.
of climate change have been suggested, but the main
come
in
a variety of sizes
...
and materials, but the most convenient
...
123
Unit
So and not
We can
Q
O
G
as substitutes for clauses, etc.
mssnasssm
use so instead of repeating an adjective, adverb, or a whole clause:
The workers were angry and they had every
right to
be so. (= angry)
Joe took the work seriously and Petra perhaps even more so. (= took the work seriously)
Usman's giving us a
We often
lift.
At least
presume
I
so. (= that he's giving us a
lift)
use so instead of a clause after verbs concerned with thinking
and speaking:
O
Lewis going back to Scotland to see
‘Is
Also be afraid (expressing regret), appear
/
:
his
parents this summer?'
but
O
imagine
I'd
found
I
it
after
‘tell'
and said
so. (= that
we
idea,
seem
He goes most years.'
ridiculous,
and told them
Note that
so.
no
‘I've
so. /
assume, believe, expect,
'it'),
guess, hope, presume, suppose, suspect,
...
think
found
I
(after
it
ridiculous)
include an indirect object.
We don't use so after certain other verbs:
O
‘Will Stefan
know how to mend
it?'
Also accept, admit, agree, be certain,
:
‘I
doubt
it.
/
doubt
I
(that) he
will.'
know, promise, suggest, be sure
hear,
(not
Note that
In
I
doubt
so.)
informal English, particularly
in
negative sentences,
G
O
We can
Is
We
...
can use
...
not
...
so'.
new
in its
statement?
would appear not.
It
directly.
so with appear, seem, suppose:
don't suppose there'll be any seats
‘Will
know
‘I
so:
the Socialist Party offering anything
use either not or not
prefer
O
use not or not
we
They want to buy the house, although they didn't say so
‘I
We
we
an argument,
in
left.'
‘No,
I
don't suppose
so.' (or
...
so with believe, expect, imagine, think. With these verbs, not
we need
to
show our
passports?'
‘I
don't think
so.' (rather
use not with be afraid (expressing regret), assume, guess
(in
than
I
the phrase
suppose not.)
I
is
rather formal:
think not.)
‘I
guess
...',
=
‘I
think
...'),
hope, presume, suspect:
O
‘You'd better
Compare the use
Q
do
yourself. Eva
it
of not (to) and not
we have to do
‘Do
all
...
won't
We can
we have to do
we
should do
use so
in
all
not.' (not
to.' (= the teacher said that
ten questions?' ‘The teacher didn't say
ten, but perhaps
is
guess
No,
I
don't guess so.)
ten questions?' ‘The teacher said not.' (= the teacher said that
we
true
we
so.' (=
didn't
the teacher didn't say that
answer with
now that we have been
‘Yes,
...',
told, particularly
when we want to say that we
if
we
are surprised.
pronoun + auxiliary verb (be, can, etc.):
‘Lisa and Sara are here.' ‘So they are.' (or Yes, they are.) (= can now see
Compare:
However, if we already know something we use ‘Yes, ...', not ‘So
‘Your bike's been moved.' ‘So it has. / Yes, it has. wonder who did it.' (=
like this
we
shouldn't)
should)
a short answer, instead of a short
can see that something
we
all
I
so with say:
have to) or ‘The teacher said not
‘Do
help.' ‘No,
In
answers
use so +
I
that, too)
...'.
Q
I
me) and
bike's
been moved.'
‘Your
told me; not So it has.)
you
We can
use so
in a
hear, say, seem,
implies
O
‘I
‘I
I
didn't
know
before
told
similar
tell (e.g.
knew before you
way
in
So she
‘Yes,
it
has. Philip borrowed
it
this morning.' (=
short answers with verbs such as appear (after
tells me.),
I
knew before you
‘it'),
believe, gather,
understand. However, with these verbs, the pattern
told me':
found that lecture
really boring.' ‘So
I
gather (=
I
knew that). saw you
I
sleeping.'
Exercises
If
^*231
possible,
Zak
1
a: Is
2
a:
Will
3
a:
Will
4
a:
complete the dialogues with
again?
ill
we need
b:
b:
not, use an appropriate that-clause.
If
come to
Well, he hasn't
to pay to get in?
so.
work, so
we.
doubt
I
5
a:
you be able to come over this weekend?
Can you give me a lift to work? b: suppose
Is this one by Van Gogh, too?
b:
think
6
a:
Apparently Carol's getting married again,
7
a:
The weather's awful, so
8
a:
Will the decorator be finished this
9
a:
You
10
a:
2
3
I
will
hope
remember to
I'll
all
pick
No,
a:
Did
b:
I
b:
a:
b:
I
I
b:
Yes,
need to take a
me
week?
taxi,
He
b:
I
hear
b:
I
guess
says
up at one, won't you?
ticket,
b:
b:
I
promise
I'm sure
ill
haven't had time to do much housework.
suppose not / don't suppose / don't suppose so.
leave
my handbag
I
in
your car yesterday?
don't think / don't think so / think not.
I'm sure the bank has charged
a:
a:
hope
the correct B responses.
With the children being
\
we'll
be able to get a
b:
4
will..
I
a:
5
I
Q
so
I
Underline
1
b:
assume
I
me too much. Will they
refund the
money?
don't suspect / suspect not / don't suspect so.
hearyou? b: It doesn't appear so / appears not / doesn't appear.
you think of Sadia's work?
Well, thought it was pretty awful, although didn't say so / said not / said so.
Didn't Alice
What
did
I
Complete
I
B's
responses with short
answers beginning Yes, ... If possible,
give an alternative response
with So ....
.
Q
1
a:
b:
2
a:
3
a:
4
a:
b:
That horse is walking with a limp.
y es , it is / So it is.
Perhaps
.
we
should
tell
the owner.
The children from next door are taking the apples from our trees.
said they could come round and get them.
The DVD player's gone again, b:
Dr Adams has probably borrowed
told you I'd be late for work today.
.
I
.
it.
I
b:
I
agree. But
you
didn't say
how late -
it's
nearly two.
Choose any appropriate short answer beginning So ... to respond to A's comments below,
knew what is being said. Use the verbs in E opposite.
to say that B already
1
a:
My
2
a:
Maria's not very well,
The
car won't start again,
3
a:
4
a:
5
a: Fred's
I
class has
b:
So
been cancelled again,
see income tax
moving to
is
going up.
Berlin,
Additional exercise 12 (page 248)
I
hear
b:
b:
b:
b:
125
Unit
63
Do
so;
such
Do so
We use do so
follows
it
G
O
O
(or
does
to complete
She won
so, did so,
its
doing
2012 and seems
in
Dr Lawson
so, etc.) instead of repeating a verb phrase (a verb
we
meaning) when the context makes clear what
said, ‘Sit
likely
do so
to
and what
are talking about:
(= win) again this year.
down.' Katia did so (= sat down), and explained her problem.
The climbers will try again today to reach the summit of the mountain. Their chances of doing
so (= reaching the summit of the mountain) are better than they were last week. (In very
formal English we can also use so doing.)
When he was asked to check the figures, he claimed that he had already done so. (= checked
the figures)
Do
so
most often used
is
do that
O
in
formal spoken and written English.
Mrs Chen waved as she walked
Ricardo told
me to
put
in a
tenses (see also
informal English
we
can use do
it
or
battery.
do so
I
did so
in less
/ it /
/ it /
that every morning.
that, but the radio
still
doesn't work.
formal English, especially after modals or perfect
B):
program work on your computer?' ‘It should do.'
you that I'd finish the work by today, and have done,
‘Will this
told
I
We can
states
She does so
past.
new
We can also use do alone rather than
Q
In
instead:
use
I
do so
instead of verbs that describe actions, but
we
(‘have'
avoid
is
stressed here)
do so with verbs
that describe
and habitual actions. Compare:
O
65% of the members voted for
C
Kenyon confessed to the murder, although he only did so after a number of witnesses had
identified
G
O
O
O
I
him as the
He earned
I
Brown
I
take
Facebook but
full
Emma
whereas
84%
did so last year.
responsibility for
doing
so.
and
does.
more than did.
swimming every
a lot
this time,
killer.
gave her the medicine, and
Lars doesn't like
Katie
I
don't have time to go
day, but
I
usually do.
Such
We can
use such + (a
‘of this /
that kind'.
/
We
noun when the noun
is
noun to refer back to something mentioned before, with the meaning
noun when the noun is uncountable or plural, and such + a / an +
countable and singular. Such is used in this way mainly in formal speech and
an) +
use such +
writing:
O
The students
refer to teachers
by their
prepared lessons. Such behaviour
Behaviour
When
is
first
names and will often criticise them for badly
in most schools, (more informally
unacceptable
like this ...)
asked about rumours that the
company
is
preparing to lose
more than 200 jobs,
a
no plans of this kind.)
spokeswoman said: know of no such plans.' (more informally
They needed someone who was both an excellent administrator and manager. Such a person
...
‘I
was not easy to
find,
(more informally A person
We allow both men and women to
like this ...)
have time off work to look after children.
department to introduce such a scheme, (more informally
...
a
scheme
We were the first
like this.)
Exercises
Join each pair of sentences with either and or but, replacing the repeated verb
3
complement with a form of do followed
by
so.
4
+ object
Q
/
Johnson never won an Olympic medal. He twice came close to winning an Olympic medal.
Johnson never won an
bw t
doing so.
5
2 She was asked to teach more classes. She was happy to teach more classes.
6
1
..
My
French hosts gave
me
snails to eat.
The company wanted to build a new
dam
All
I
ate
them very
dam on
the
site.
reluctantly.
They were prevented from building the
by local opposition.
EU countries agreed to implement the new regulations on
Finland and Austria have implemented the
new
The water freezes
it
in
the cracks
Complete these sentences with
in rocks.
a
As
form of do
recycling plastic.
freezes,
(+ so
if
it
only
far
expands.
possible). (?)
you have not already handed in the form, then please
2 Olav drives much faster than you
1
So
regulations.
If
without delay.
He jumped down from the window, but in
twisted his ankle.
know that many people don't enjoy Felipe's blog, but
5 Anyone crossing the railway
at their own risk.
6 thought Julie was joking when she said these apples smell like oranges. But they
7 When we play tennis Leyla usually wins, and she gets upset if
3
4
I
I
I
!
I
8 She pointed to the old box, her hand shaking as she
Complete the sentences with such or such
a /
„
an followed by a word from the box
in
the
singular or plural. (J)
claim
1
d ev ice
destruction
project
research
Manufacturers often claim that their washing machines have
device ?
computer in such
tactic
built-in
computers, but
is
there
really a
Sharma spoke about her work on climate change, she called on the government
more money into
3 Television is sometimes said to harm children's social development, yet the evidence for
2 After Professor
to put
is
4 Building
a
often lacking.
new power station would undoubtedly
impact of
5
been considered
The earthquake demolished thousands of
create
new jobs,
but has the environmental
fully?
buildings.
The country has
rarely seen
before.
-
6 United played very defensively
in
the second
half,
but
were
criticised
by the
team's supporters.
^239
Rewrite the sentences
1
in
63.3 to
there reMly
Additional exercise 12 (page 248)
&
m
make them
less formal.
cl
device...M
thaiT
127
Unit
64
More on leaving out words
after auxiliary verbs
To avoid repeating words from a previous clause or sentence
will,
would,
O
etc.) instead of a
She says she's
If
there
more than one
is
verbs except the
first
use an auxiliary verb (be, have, can,
whole verb group or instead of a verb and what follows
finished, but
‘Would any of you
we
like
I
don't think she has. (instead of
to go to Paris?'
‘I
...
would.' (instead of would
I
auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence,
instead of repeating the main verb. Alternatively,
it:
has finished.)
we
like
we
to go to
leave out
Paris.)
all
the auxiliary
can use two (or more)
auxiliary verbs:
‘They could have been delayed by the snow.'
If
there
no
is
‘Yes,
they could.' (or
auxiliary verb in the previous clause or sentence, or
if
...
could have (been).)
the auxiliary
is
a
form of do, we can
do instead of repeating the main verb. We use do when the main verb is a present simple
form and did when it is a past simple form:
Mona plays golf on Saturdays, and do too. (instead of ... and play golf on Saturdays too.;
'... and so do
is also possible)
use a form of
O
I
I
I'
didn't steal the money.' ‘No one thinks that you did.' (instead of
‘I
‘No one thinks
If
be
is
the main verb
in
so'
is
thinks that
...
you
stole
it.;
also possible.)
the previous clause or sentence,
we
repeat a form of the verb be:
‘The children are noisy again.' ‘They always are.'
have or have got is the main verb in the previous clause or sentence, we can usually use a form of
either do or have:
‘Do you think have a chance of winning?' ‘Yes, think you have.' (or ... you do.; ‘Yes, think
If
Q
I
I
I
so'
also possible.)
is
map himself, he may know someone who has. (or ... who does.)
noun in the previous clause or sentence to talk about actions (have a
shower, have a shave, have a good time, etc.) we prefer do:
wasn't expecting to have a good time at the party, but did.
Even
However,
O
if
if
we
he hasn't got a
use have +
I
I
Note that sometimes we can use
I
either do,
be or have with a similar meaning (see also
asked Clara to tidy her room, and she has
/ did. (‘has' replaces ‘has tidied
C):
her room';
'did'
replaces ‘tidied her room'.)
If
we
use have as an auxiliary verb,
verb. This
O
‘She's never
However,
O
happens particularly
this
is
made
in
we
can often follow
spoken
it
with
done
instead of repeating the main
English:
a mistake before.' ‘Well, she has (done) this time.'
usually not possible
'They've already gone.'
‘I
when
the verb being substituted
don't think Daniel has.' (not
...
is
intransitive:
Daniel has done.)
Similarly, after a modal auxiliary verb (can, could, may, might, must, ought
would) we can use do, particularly in spoken English:
might (do).'
‘Will you be seeing David today?'
to, shall, should, will,
‘I
Sometimes we can use be instead of do with a similar meaning (see also D):
might (do / be).' (‘do' replaces ‘see
‘Will you be seeing Felix today?'
‘I
Felix today'; ‘be'
replaces ‘be seeing Felix today'.)
If
we
use be as an auxiliary verb
Ella
‘Is
However,
passive,
if
we
be
is
the previous clause or sentence,
used as a main verb
in
I
think she will (be).' (or
‘I
...
we
can use be after a modal:
she
will do.)
the previous clause or sentence, or as an auxiliary verb within a
can usually leave out be after a modal
‘Lina's late again.'
It
in
staying for lunch?' ‘Yes,
thought she might
has been found that the comet
is
in
(be).'
made
informal contexts only. Compare:
and
entirely of gas, as
it
was predicted
it
would
be.
Exercises
Make
B's replies
Q
possible.
a:
2
a:
3
a:
4
a: All
5
a:
6
a:
7
a:
8
a:
9
a:
b:
b:
)
some
of the words
in italics.
Give alternatives
if
Have you ever played squash before? b: Yes, have played squash beforesuppose we should have booked tickets, b: Yes, we should have booked tickets.
Will you be staying in Brazil permanently? b: Yes, we will be staying in Brazil permanently.
1
b:
shorter by crossing out
I
I
the parking places will probably have been taken by now.
have been taken by now.
Have you had dinner yet? b: No, haven't had dinneryet.
Are you going to Katalin's party? b: Yes, am going to Katalin's party.
If Diane hadn't given you a lift, you would have missed the train.
Yes, would have missed the train.
Can you see Joe anywhere? b: No, can't see him anywhere.
Did you see that cyclist go through the red light? He couldn't have been
No, he couldn't have been looking.
Yes, I'm sure they will
I
I
I
I
looking.
Complete the sentences with an appropriate form of do, be or have (plus any alternatives). Put
brackets around the word if it can be omitted, and write (done) after forms of have where this
might be added. fJjJB
1
2
haven't finished doing the translation yet, but
I
As a child
I
(done)
will
I
always enjoyed watching cartoons on TV, and
I
by tomorrow morning.
still
a: Has the post arrived yet?
b: No,
don't think it
4 Have a shower if you want, but take a towel from the cupboard when you
5 a: It costs a fortune to rent a flat in the city centre, b: I'm sure it must
6 was hoping Ryan had an electric drill that could borrow, but he
3
I
I
7
8
I
I'm not a
I
member of the tennis
told the class that they had to
9
a:
10
a:
club myself, but
hand
in
Have you got a copy of Great Expectations ?
I've got £100 with me. Will that be enough?
Complete the sentences with might, should,
necessary, write be after the modal, or (be)
I
know someone who
books by nine and they
their
b:
Yes,
b: It
will or
if it is
I
think
all
I
should
would, (plus any alternatives).
possible to omit
If
it.
wUL/. rnlght (be)
it
was cleaning the house when got home, as hoped he
3 a: Are they staying for lunch? b: They
I'll ask them.
4 a: Are you revising a lot for the exams? b: Not as much as
5 The company has not been as successful as it was claimed it
not snowing at the moment, but they say
1
It's
2
Chris
I
I
.
I
6 Natalie says she's very sorry - as she
7 The book
8
a:
My
is
a bestseller, as
we hoped
photograph was awarded
Additional exercise 12 (page 248)
it
first prize,
b:
I
thought
it
129
.
Unit
65
Leaving out to-infinitives
We can sometimes use to
context what
O
O
we
instead of a clause beginning with a to-infinitive
wanted to come with you, but won't be able
I
I
It
might have been better
my
chose not to ask for
we
However, when
repeated
O
After
in
when
it is
clear
from the
are talking about:
to. (instead of
my
to
come with you.)
...
the previous sentence or clause the to-infinitive form of be
is
Rosa had asked for
if
...
help, but she chose not to. (instead of
help.)
use the verb be
in
the next clause or sentence:
Leon
was frightened - or maybe he just pretended to
most nouns and
be. (not
.
.
just pretended to.)
adjectives that can be followed by a to-infinitive clause,
we can
leave out the
to-infinitive clause or use to:
O
book -
I'm not going to write another
don't have any plans (to), (or
I
...
at least
Also: chance, idea, opportunity,
plans to
promise, suggestion; afraid,
write another book.)
O
Tom
‘Could you and
We can
O
O
and
I'll
house?'
ask Tom.'
some verbs:
He promised (to).
also leave out a to-infinitive or use to with
Alex will collect us by 10
o'clock.
‘You were supposed to buy
forgot
some
sugar.' ‘Sorry,
Also: agree, ask, begin, refuse,
I
start, try
(to).'
After verbs which
we
me move
help
‘Well, I'm willing (to),
delighted, determined
must have
a
complement
(i.e.
which completes the meaning of the verb)
a phrase
can't leave out to:
admit that took her watch, but didn't
I
O
I
I
Have
cholera before going there?
After
mean
to.
Also: afford,
you thought about getting vaccinated against
want and would
I'd
certainly advise
like in if-clauses
you
be able, choose,
deserve, expect,
to.
fail,
hate,
hope, intend, love, need, prefer
and wh-clauses we can often leave out
a to-infinitive or use
to:
O
In
welcome
to dance //you'd like (to).
O
You can do whatever you would
Call me Ben if you want (to).
Q
Come and
I
I
if-
(to).
and wh-clauses) we include
to:
was planning to see you tomorrow, and would
I
offered to clean your car because
if-clauses and wh-clauses
O
like (to).
when you want
see us
other clauses (not
O
Q
In
You're
we
I
really
still
like to.
want to, not because hope to be
I
usually leave out to after like.
Compare:
you like, and You can have one if you'd like (to).
Leave whenever you like, and Leave whenever you'd like (to).
However, we include to with negative forms of want, would like, and like, including
You can have one
paid.
if
3
in
if-clauses and
wh-clauses:
O
O
Q
‘Shall
I
we go and
visit
Laura?'
should have phoned Jo
‘I
don't
last night,
really
but
‘He won't mind you asking him for a
it
want to.'
was so
late
loan.' ‘Oh, no,
I
when got home
I
wouldn't
like to.'
I
didn't like to.
.
Exercises
Rewrite the italicised part of each sentence so that
box (use each verb twice) followed by to or to be.
expected
claimed
1
Was
Lucia
much
less
important role
The
6
My family enjoyed my singing,
7
The Pantheon
government
last
in
the
company than she
did before.
in
thinner than he was before.
Rome
or at least they
wasn't anything
like
I
o
if it is
always wanted to go white-water
it
said that it did.
made believe that they did.
imagined it.
didn't get an interview for the job although
I've
cloirned to be
didn't represent the majority of people, although
10Complete the sentences. Write to
1
much
lost a lot of weight. He's
5
I
used
was frightened - or maybe she just acted as if she was.
4 Dan has
8
has a similar meaning. Use a verb from the
she really as good at tennis as she said she was?
2 She occupies a
3
pretended
it
thought that I would.
I
necessary; write (to)
but
rafting,
I've
if it
can be included or omitted.
never had the opportunity
before.
2
Luka had to admit that he'd
3
When the
4
5
10
6
7
8
9
even though he obviously hated
failed,
crowd to leave the square they refused
do it because choose
We didn't want Alina to leave college, but she was determined
Spain won 3-0, and deserved
after a fine performance.
a: Shall we ask Dad before we borrow the car?
b: Yes, it might be a good
a: Would you present the prizes for the competition?
b: I'd be delighted
a: Would you like to travel first class?
b: Well, yes, I'd certainly prefer
was hoping to go to Russia this year, but can't afford
I
police officer told the
don't have to walk to work.
I
I
,
I
If
)
idea
I
necessary, correct B's responses.
Can
have a biscuit?
If
they are already correct, write
Take more than one
you
S
1
a:
2
a:
When
3
a:
Will Sara be able to play?
4
a:
5
a:
6
a:
7
a:
Emma, b: She can join us, if she'd like to.
you going to in Norway? b: haven't decided yet. I'll just go where want.
don't think I'll go after all. b: That's okay. You don't have to if you don't want.
Can the children come too? b: Yes, of course, if they want.
8
a:
Shall
9
a:
Could
a:
Did you ask Dr Mori to help you?
I
I
shall
we
b:
start playing the
come out tonight,
can't
Where
b:
I
music?
b:
if
like to.
Whenever you'd
like.
asked her, but she says she doesn't want.
I'm seeing
are
I
I
I
we go
I
out walking tomorrow?
ask you a personal question?
- Additional exercise 12 (page 248)
b:
b:
Yes,
b:
Of
I'd like
very much.
course. Ask anything
No, he was very busy, so
I
you
didn't
like to.
like.
131
Some
adjectives are
seldom or never used before the noun they describe. These include -
some ‘a-' adjectives:
The horse was alone in the field.
(but not The alone horse ...)
Some have
some
A
:
noun or
related adjectives that can be used before a
and A living animal.
animal. / The animal was living.)
The animal was
(or
Also afraid, alike, alive,
live
alive,
ashamed, asleep, awake, aware
after a linking verb.
Also afraid - frightened, alike - similar,
alone - lone, asleep - sleeping
:
adjectives used to describe health and feelings:
Also content, fine, glad,
ill
health'), sorry, (un)sure,
upset (but
:
My son felt unwell,
(but not
My
ui
iwell
son
...)
These are sometimes used between an adverb
and noun
e.g. ‘a
terminally
(but
‘ill
‘an
upset stomach'), well (but ‘He's really
patient'.
ill
Compare:
not a well man')
Emphasising adjectives are used to emphasise your feelings about something. Compare:
C
felt
I
and
a fool,
Some emphasising
seldom or never used
utter) are
was
It
I
felt a
complete
fool, (for
emphasis)
adjectives (such as complete, and also absolute, entire, mere, sheer, total,
a total
after a linking verb:
failure, (but
not usually The failure was
total.)
something is of a particular type. Like emphasising
seldom or never used after a linking verb:
Classifying adjectives are used to say that
adjectives, classifying adjectives are
Q
nuclear explosion (but not usually
a
Also: atomic, chemical, digital,
was nuclear', unless we
want to emphasise a
‘The explosion
particularly
domestic,
environmental, medical; general, occasional,
northern (etc ), maximum, minimum, underlying
contrast with other kinds of explosion)
Qualitative adjectives are used to give the quality that a thing or person has.
directly before a
Q
noun or
after a linking verb.
a beautiful sunset
O
different
meanings as qualitative
Also:
G
academic, conscious,
educational,
(il)legal, scientific
adjectives can be used immediately after a noun, at the beginning of a reduced relative clause
(see Unit 69B). For
t:
either
The sunset was beautiful.
Note that some classifying adjectives can also be used with
adjectives and placed after a linking verb. Compare:
The country's economic reforms, and
The process isn't economic. (= not profitable)
Many
We use them
Compare:
example -
adjectives before a to-infinitive, or a prepositional phrase as part of the adjective phrase:
It
was
a speech calculated to appeal to the unions.
Q
He is a manager capable of making difficult decisions.
some -ible and -able adjectives such as available, imaginable, possible, suitable. However, we use
these adjectives immediately after a noun only when the noun follows the or when the noun is made
what follows in a relative clause:
This was the most difficult decision imaginable.
definite by
'it
It is a treatment suitable for all children with asthma.
the adjectives concerned, involved, opposite, present, proper, responsible. These words have
different
All
I
meanings when they are used before
the people present (=
was asked
for
a
noun and immediately
who were there) approved
my present address.
(=
after
of the decision,
my address now)
it.
Compare:
and
Exercises
If
S
necessary, correct these sentences, or write
1
After the accident
2
In
I
I
comfort the upset driver of the car.
tried to comfort the driver of the car r ..wh o...wa5...upset.
I
could see an alone figure walking towards me.
wasn't a great surprise when Rahim died as he hadn't been a
remember her as a glad person who was always smiling.
10
5 He stood at the bedroom door, looking at his asleep daughter.
3
It
4
I
6 The
7
fire
on the ship
under control, but there are
is
She spent most of her
nursing seriously
life
8 The two children were of an
9
We were
unsure which
The sorry
necessary.)
in
a
2 a
pair of sentences using
in
passengers on board.
the hospital.
Owen
of the
it
one
in
from the box.
pair of adjectives
both;
if
not, write
it
only
in
If
an adjective
one. (Use a dictionary
if
educational - entertaining
serious - underlying
legal - stupid
The experiment was a
None
many afraid
for years.
go.
Q
b After Dr
still
children
man
alike age.
way to
both sentences, write
domestic - unsafe
inevitable - utter
1
ill
well
apologised to their teacher for their behaviour.
girls
Complete each
can be used
O
they are already correct.
tried to
After the acxudwt
the distance
if
/
an
the project,
left
failure.
its
failure
was
equipment
in the warehouse is
The shop doesn't sell
equipment.
3 a The trip to the wildlife park was a / an
experience.
b The toys were
and the children played with them for hours.
4 a The computer fault was
enough to disrupt all the work in the
b
b The
5
a
office,
problem has not yet been solved.
He was
involved
argument with
in a
his
neighbour over a tree
in
the
garden.
b
It's
completely
Write the word
noun
1
(or both
in
if
The party was
to charge a fee for entry into the
brackets
in
one of the spaces
possible). (Use a dictionary
excellent,
and
I'd like
if
to thank
in
museum.
each sentence, either before or after the
necessary.)
all
the
people
(concerned)
2 As the
minister
for the health service,
I
think he should resign.
(responsible)
3 The
new machinery was intended
effect
to increase output, but
it
seems to have had the
(opposite)
4 Children are only admitted when accompanied by a
/
an
adult
(responsible)
5
It's
room
the only
6 The pond on the village green was
in
filled in
the hotel that night, (available)
with the
approval
of local
residents, (apparent)
7
Cars drive too fast past the school and
parents
have complained to
the police, (concerned)
8 For those
who need
it,
- Additional exercise 13 (page 248)
there
is
financial advice
.
(available)
Gradable adjectives can be used with grading adverbs such as very or extremely to say that a thing or
person has more or less of a particular quality. Here are some examples of adjectives used as gradable
in
their
most common meanings:
a
Grading
bit,
angry, big, busy, clever,
dreadfully, extremely,
hugely, immensely, intensely,
adverbs
rather, reasonably, slightly, very
different, fast, friendly, happy,
Gradable
important, low, popular, quiet,
adjectives
rich,
She was extremely
O
It's
common,
strong, weak,
young
The people there are reasonably friendly.
rich.
They're slightly different.
hugely popular.
Non-gradable adjectives are not used with adverbs such as very or extremely because these
adjectives do not refer to qualities which have different degrees. With non-gradable adjectives
we
can use non-grading adverbs which emphasise their extreme or absolute nature, such as absolutely,
completely, etc. Many classifying adjectives (see Unit 66) are usually non-gradable. Adverbs such as
almost, exclusively,
adjectives.
Non-
etc.,
which indicate the extent of the
quality, are
Here are some examples of non-gradable adjectives
commonly used with
in their
classifying
most common meanings:
absolutely, completely, entirely,
awful, excellent, huge,
perfectly, practically, simply,
impossible, superb, terrible,
Non-
unique, unknown, wrong;
gradable
domestic, environmental,
adjectives
grading
totally, utterly, virtually;
adverbs
almost, exclusively,
+
fully,
agricultural (see Unit 66C)
largely, mainly, nearly, primarily
She's completely
was absolutely superb.
The region is largely agricultural,
wrong.
It
He was practically unknown
to
the public.
Gradable adjectives are sometimes used with non-grading adverbs, and non-gradable adjectives with
grading adverbs to give special emphasis or to be humorous:
O
What you're
asking
isn't just difficult
-
it's
extremely impossible! [grading adverb +
non-gradable adjective)
You've
won
a
hundred pounds? Wow, you're
virtually rich! [non-grading
adverb + gradable
adjective)
Note that not
example,
particular
we
all
the adverbs can go with
all
can say ‘absolutely huge', but
the adjectives given
we wouldn't
in
each of the tables above. For
usually say ‘completely huge' unless
it
was
emphasis or for humour.
The adverbs
fairly (= to quite a large degree, but usually less
pretty (= similar to
‘fairly';
used
in
informal contexts) are
than
‘very'),
really (= ‘very [much]') and
commonly used with both
gradable and
non-gradable adjectives:
She's fairly popular at school.
O
O
busy at the moment.
pretty important exam.
I'm really
It's
a
However, note that
that something
O
O
is
we
It
O
was
a fairly
awful
film.
The flooding was really terrible.
The bill was pretty huge.
don't generally use fairly (or very) with gradable adjectives which indicate
very good or necessary:
Experience
is
really /pretty essential for the job. [not
The weather was
really / pretty perfect, [not
Also invaluable, superb, tremendous, wonderful
:
for
...
...
fairly essential
fairly perfect.)
...)
.
Exercises
Complete the four sentences which contain gradable adjectives using very. Complete the
remaining sentences with the adverbs from the box. Try to use a different one each time. (
almost
absolutely
The bridge
1
completely
now
is
2 The material
complete.
excellent.
clear.
illegal.
popular.
permanent state of suspense,
I
attractive.
I
last
year the club was
male.
10 Small black cars are not
visible.
Answer the questions using an adverb +
had just
won
How would you feel
^ bfc absolutely delighted,
adjective.
if ...
pounds?
1
...
a friend said s/he
2
...
your best friend told you s/he was emigrating to Australia?
3
...
4
...
5
...
if
practically
cotton.
is
3 The food was
4 Her explanation was
5 Their actions were
6 The new restaurant is
7
was in a / an
8 thought she was
9 Until
mainly
exclusively
a million
I
someone broke
a window in your house or flat?
complete stranger told you that you were very beautiful
you lost some airline tickets you had just bought?
a
necessary, correct the italicised parts of this email.
If
handsome?
/
they are already correct, write /. fJJ
Dear Nathan,
my new
I’m writing this email in
renovated
(3)
last year. Fortunately,
hugely useless
in this
my
at
DIY so
room
is (7)
I
Stratford.
didn’t
was
(4)
have
to
It’s in
an
(1)
absolutely
simply superb. The
flat’s (8)
was (2) totally
As you know, I’m
absolutely old building which
do much decorating when
I
moved
in.
happy about that. The building is (5) reasonably unique
(6) rather modern and the view across the river from
most others around are
part of Stratford, as
sitting
I
flat in
,
simply small but
,
(9)
completely comfortable
for
me.
My
neighbours are (10) very friendly and usually (11 ) fully quiet. The only problem is that the woman
upstairs plays the trumpet and find it (12) a bit impossible to read when she’s playing. get (13) slightly
I
angry10about
this,
but
she doesn’t play
I
for
long each time, so
it’s
not an (14) extremely terrible problem.
know that the weather has been (15) dreadfully awful recently, so it’s been difficult for you to get here, but
you must come over one evening. There’s an (16) absolutely marvellous restaurant nearby that we could
I
go
to.
Hope
all is
well,
Lea
|
Cross out any incorrect or unlikely alternatives.
1
Her advice was fairly / really invaluable.
2
Our neighbours
3
I
thought
his
Q
are really / fairly friendly.
performance as Hamlet was fairly / really tremendous.
4 The children kept pretty / very quiet during the concert.
5 The view from the
window was
6 Their cooperation
is
7 The weather
8
In this
was
very /pretty wonderful.
pretty / very essential
if
we want the
project to
go ahead.
really / fairly perfect for a long walk.
photograph she looked really /very young.
9 The workmanship
The disease
is
in
the furniture was pretty / very superb.
fairly/ pretty
common
in this
part of the country.
135
Unit
68
Gradable and non-gradable adjectives 2
Some
(i)
adjectives have both gradable and non-gradable senses.
Some
3
Q
Q
O
Also
:
adjectives have different senses
Smith
We
is
a very
have a
The house
civil,
empty,
are gradable and non-gradable.
Compare:
common name. (= frequently found; gradable) and
common interests. (= shared; non-gradable; not very)
lot of
very old. (= existed
is
met my old
I
when they
politics professor
many years;
clean, critical, electric (= ‘exciting'
false, late,
gradable) and
the other day. (= former; non-gradable; not very)
when
gradable),
odd, original, particular, straight
Some adjectives have similar meanings when they are gradable and non-gradable. However,
when they are gradable we talk about the quality that a person or thing has (i.e. they are qualitative
adjectives and therefore can be used with an adverb), and when they are non-gradable we talk about
(ii)
the category or type they belong to
O
don't
I
(i.e.
know where he came
they are classifying adjectives). Compare:
from, but he sounded slightly foreign. (= not from this country;
gradable) and
She
is
now
advising on the government's foreign policy. (= concerning other countries; non-
gradable)
They had a very public argument.
He was forced to resign by public
(= seen
/
lot of people; gradable)
heard by a
pressure. (=
from many people
and
the community; non-
in
gradable)
Also academic, adult, average, diplomatic, genuine, guilty,
:
human,
individual,
innocent, mobile, private, professional, scientific, technical, true, wild
In
spoken English
another gradable adjective
3
we
in particular,
in
If
you're
It's
nice
all
O
We can
feeling
colloquially
lovely and
we
/
relaxed
/
sunny
warm
clean
/
in
/
warm
(
after the break, let's get
...
followed by
strong (but not usually
/
-
good
get
some
in
/
empty
/ short):
here. Freezing outside, though.
cold
/
comfortable
/
/
early
/
handsome
fresh
the adjective.
We use
/
quiet
/
simple
/
soft
/
tidy
/
/ exciting):
strawberries?' ‘Yes, they look nice
also link comparative adjectives (see Unit 72) with
the quality described
on with the meeting,
but not usually lovely and decent
(but not usually nice and interesting
‘Shall
and nice and
...,
adjective. Possible patterns include
good and proper
good and relaxed
soft /
/
and bright
warm
lovely and
/ rich / tall):
lovely and dry
O
...,
order to emphasise the second
good and ready and more
and beautiful
can use good and
and
and to
more and more +
fresh.'
talk
about an increasing degree of
adjective
in
a similar
way:
As she got more and more excited, her voice got higher and higher and louder and louder.
The taxi driver just drove faster and faster and faster until told him to stop, and got out.
I
I
Exercises
Complete the sentences using each of the adjectives from the box twice, once with
sense (adding very) and once with a non-gradable sense. (Use a dictionary
false
critical
1
late
again.
is
3 The report was
4
10
5
had a
I
/
for
I
very original
its
wonder
if
use of language.
the bad weather has delayed
of the police officers involved
She was accused of giving
information during the
6 The driver of the overturned lorry was
in
a
/
an
it.
the investigation.
in
my father and
choice between working for
an
O
straight
original
The novel was praised by the judges
2 The train
a gradable
necessary.)
if
having no job at
all.
trial.
condition
in
hospital last night.
was given the oil painting by my
uncle Simon.
8 The
fireplaces had been removed and replaced by more modern ones.
9 The path to the summit of the hill was
and steep.
Many of the people met were quite sincere, but some seemed
so that could
never be sure if they meant what they said.
7
I
I
I
,
Complete each
adjective
(largely)
(very)
1
pair of sentences using the adverb + adjective pairs from the box. Use the
both sentences, but include the adverb in only one.
in
|
academic
human
^fai rly) a v erag e
(intensely) private
ayemge
a
The
b
Brecston
is
a
(extremely) diplomatic
(highly) technical
temperature on the island is a pleasant 23.4 °C.
fairly average
town in the south of England.
/ -aa-
2 a The instructions were
b
3 a
and
Fiona got a job providing
Being frightened
ashamed
in this
clearly
meant
for an expert.
support for people having computer problems.
situation
is
response and nothing to be
a
of.
b Near the top of the mountain there were signs of
habitation, perhaps
centuries old.
4 a
I
found
it
difficult to
understand the
b The
5 a
talk that Professor
Downs
He worked hard
b She was a
/
6 a After Mara
to afford a
education for
an
left
his three children.
person and had few close friends.
university she
worked
in
the
service for a
number of
years.
b
When
he was asked to
comment on
the French President's decision he gave a
answer, not wanting to appear
1
Now that the room
2
I've
put you
in
Q
is
painted yellow,
the spare
room
it
looks
/
an
critical.
Complete the sentences with phrases beginning with good
appropriate adjective.
/ lovely / nice
+ and + an
!?Pyely...and ...bright.
at the back of the house, so
it'll
be
Have you felt the material my new coat's made of? b: Oh, it's
4 The oranges looked quite old, but when cut into them they were
5 There's no point in trying to persuade Gustavo. He won't make up
3
gave,
standards at the school are very high.
a:
I
his
mind
until he's
Unit
69
and compound adjectives
Participle adjectives
Some
-ing
adjectives.
forms (present participles) and -ed forms (past participles) of verbs can be used as
Most of these participle adjectives can be used before the noun they describe or following
linking verbs (see Unit 21):
O
O
O
O
We can
The hotel had a welcoming atmosphere.
found this broken plate in the kitchen cupboard.
The students' tests results were pleasing.
My mother seemed delighted with the present.
I
use
This use
O
is
many
We
immediately after nouns when they identify or define the noun.
and they are often called ‘reduced
had to pay for the rooms used, (or
Some of these
Q
participle adjectives
similar to defining relative clauses
...
are rarely used before the noun:
My watch was among the
(but not
...
Also: applying, caused,
In
found, included, provided
things taken.
the taken things.
Others can be used before or immediately after nouns:
O
relatives':
the rooms that were used.)
The crowd watching grew
The watching crowd grew
Also: affected, alleged, allocated, broken,
restless, or
chosen, identified, infected, interested,
restless.
remaining, resulting, stolen
formal English, that and those can be used as pronouns before a participle
adjective:
The
flour
which
Q
is
is
of a higher quality than that
The touchscreens perform less well than those manufactured elsewhere.
which are manufactured elsewhere)
Here is some advice for those (= people) preparing to go on holiday.
Compound
-ec/ participle
include a participle adjective.
C
adverb + -ing participle
adjective
adjective
+ -ed participle
+ -ing participle
noun + -ed participle
noun + - ing participle
-ed participle + particle
We can
use
only
adjective
we
some
can't say
making
(= the flour
(= the touchscreens
adjectives
Many compound adjectives
adverb +
in
produced by other varieties of wheat.
produced)
'...
They are well-behaved
Social networking
O
Q
Q
G
O
She seems to
live
is
a
patterns are:
fast-growing
on ready-made
employee
activity.
meals.
He's the longest-serving
in
the company.
The public square was tree-lined.
hope it will be a money-making enterprise.
Did it really happen, or was it a made-up story? (from two-word
I
participle adjectives
compounds. For example,
behaved children' or
*...
Also:
New York-based,
verbs)
Paris-born, brick-built,
easy-going, peace-keeping, long-lasting, good-
a
looking,
enterprise' as the sense
Common
children.
home-made,
hair-raising, far-reaching,
is
incomplete without the adverb or noun.
well-resourced, sweet-smelling, strange-sounding,
soft-spoken, sour-tasting, nerve-wracking
Note that many other compound adjectives do not include participle adjectives:
It was just a small-scale project.
The problem is short-term.
Q
,
.
Exercises
Replace the italicised parts of these sentences with present or past participle adjectives formed
from the verbs
cause
in
the box. Give alternative positions for the adjective
include
identify
offered to pay for any
damage
provide
interest
that
was the
result,
possible, (j)
if
remain
caused
not
result
any caused damage.)
1
I
2
Steps are being taken by telephone engineers to solve the problems which have been noticed.
3
Visitors
who want to find out more can buy
(
.
.
a booklet with further information.
4 Please answer the questions on the sheet that has been given to you.
The holiday cost £1,200, with flights which were part of the total.
6 didn't want to be on TV but the publicity that was the consequence was good
7 Just before serving the pasta, sprinkle over any cheese that is left over.
5
I
for business.
Write a sentence to describe each set of information using either that or those followed by one
of the participle adjectives from the box.
grown
found
earned
manufactured
recorded
4
Average temperatures
in
June and July ZOOZ.
June and July Z01Z were Higher than those recorded
in the corresponding months in ZOOZ.
(or
).
Complete each second sentence using
information
1
in
each
The company
is
first
organised from
it
compound
New York.
D to
replace the italicised
will
It is
a
Nevo York-based
company
,
is
with sufficient books and computers.
found that the whole experience made
The proposed changes
changes will be
adjective from
needs with sufficient books and computers. The school
,
I
a
sentence.
2 The school has all the things
3
in
....
me tense and worried.
I
found the whole experience
have a major influence on a large number of people. The proposed
Match the words to form compound adjectives and use them to rewrite the
italicised parts of
these sentences.
eye
clean
1
AWr
wide
catching
equipped
ranging
shaven
At the age of 16 children do not have the ability or experience to take on the role of parents.
cure Ill-equipped
2 The discussions dealt with a great variety of topics
When last saw him he had a beard, but now he has no beard.
4 The advertisements for the new car are very noticeable.
3
I
- Additional exercise 13 (page 248)
139
Unit
Adjective + to-infinitive, -ing, that-clause,
70
wh-clause
an adjective comes after a linking verb (e.g. appear, be, become, seem; see Unit 21) we can use
number of patterns after the adjective including a to-infinitive, -ing, that-clause, and wh-clause.
When
a
(For
It
+ linking verb + adjective, see
adjective
i
B.)
+
example adjectives used in
to-infinitive
(un)able, careful, crazy, curious, difficult, easy,
You're free to leave at any time
foolish, free, good, hard, impossible, inclined,
you want.
nice, prepared, ready, stupid,
mad,
welcome, willing
busy, crazy, foolish, mad, stupid; (after the verb
He was busy doing
his
homework.
feel) awful,
that-clause
iii
pattern
O
-ing
ii
this
afraid,
He became worried
might
fall
guilty, terrible
alarmed, amazed, angry, annoyed, ashamed,
astonished, aware, concerned, disappointed, glad,
she
(that)
awkward, bad, good,
(un)happy, pleased, shocked, sorry, upset, worried;
down.
certain, confident, positive, sure
wh-clause
iv
O
afraid,
V
why
money
to-infinitive or that-clause
the adjectives
O
O
and positive
She was afraid to say anything.
1
was afraid
that
1
would be
O
O
in
(iii)
above, except aware, confident
crazy, foolish,
mad, stupid
He'd be stupid to leave now.
He'd be stupid giving up the job.
(after the verb feel) awful,
-ing or that-clause
vii
unaware, not certain /
/ unsure, worried
late.
to-infinitive or -ing
vi
/
uncertain, doubtful, not sure
I'm not certain (of / about)
he wants to borrow the
not aware
She
felt
awful leaving him with
awkward, bad, good,
guilty, terrible
all
the clearing up.
She
It
felt
awful that she was
late.
+ linking verb + adjective
We can
sometimes use it + linking verb + adjective + to-infinitive as an alternative to subject +
+ adjective + to-infinitive (see also Units 96 and 97):
The fireworks were amazing to watch, or
Also annoying, awkward, easy, good,
It was amazing to watch the fireworks.
interesting, lovely, simple, terrific, wonderful
linking verb
O
O
In
:
informal speech
It is
We can
we
can use an -ing form instead of a to-infinitive:
easy understanding
It
use a similar pattern with adjective +
It is
not clear
why he
After certain adjectives
Q
O
her.
we
did
wh-
the fireworks.
or that-clause (see Unit 96A):
It
it.
was amazing watching
was odd
that she left so suddenly.
often include of + subject between the adjective and a to-infinitive:
was rude (of them) to criticise
They were rude to criticise her.
It
When we talk about how somebody
her.
or
Also brave, generous, kind,
:
mean,
thoughtful, unprofessional, unreasonable
reacts to a situation
we
can use
it
+ make with an adjective and
to-infinitive, -ing or that-clause:
O
It
made me angry
(to discover) that so
much money was wasted,
me angry discovering that
angry to discover that
...)
(or
...
made
It
or
I
was
Also
:
ashamed,
furious, glad, happy,
miserable, nervous, sad, tired, uncomfortable
Exercises
Complete the sentences with
cheat
know
resign
talk
1
I'm afraid
Kenzo was stupid
I
Anyone
reduce
panic
much. Would you be prepared
the
in the exam. He was bound to get caught.
that he had helped solve the problem.
can't afford that
trying to climb the
6 People said
I
mountain would be
was crazy
7
She was too busy
8
It's
9
Some
I
a shop
at
price
if
I
pay cash?
any time.
the challenge facing them.
foolish
it's been a success so far.
on the phone to notice that Roya had come into the room.
in
the village, but
moment you'd
so difficult to get a job at the
felt
the box.
underestimate
3 He felt good
10
4 Don't feel that you need to stay to the very end. You're free
5
in
I
open
leave
turn
2
an -ing form of the verbs
a to-infinitive or
Give alternatives where possible.
people would be inclined
if
mad
be
they smelt smoke
in
the house.
people away from the concert, but there just wasn't any more room.
awful
Correct any mistakes
in
the italicised parts of this email about a holiday
in
Thailand.
CD
...
After a couple of days Mark
announced that he was going walking
in the hills near the hotel. I
1
thought he was
(1) stupid that
(2) confident not to get lost .
sure
when
he'd be back.
way back to the hotel
I
We ended up
got talking to a local
I
was dangerous. But he said that he was
it
arguing and finally he stormed
went into town, but
I
cold in the hills at night.
certain
he would go alone and that
I felt
a bit (4) guilty to
woman and
(5)
shop
off,
saying he (3) wasn't
all day.
On the bus on the
was concerned learning that
started (6) to get worried that he might be in danger, but
what to do. But when
I
I
it
got very
(7) wasn't
got back to the hotel, there was Mark (8) busy to drink orange juice
by the pool. He'd decided not to go walking after
all! He said he (9) was sorry upsetting me. At first
was angry and said he was stubborn and that he just (10) wasn't prepared admitting that I'd been
right. But really I was just (11) pleased that he was safe ...
I
Rewrite these sentences using
after the adjective.
1
Q
It
+ be + adjective.
She was brave to spend the night
the night w
in
If
possible, use of
+ a personal pronoun
of her
the old house alone.
to
2 Such a magnificent performance was wonderful to hear.
3 You were mean to eat all the cake and not leave any for me.
4 They were unreasonable to complain about the exam results.
5 The top of the jar was awkward to get off.
6 The shelves were simple to put up.
7 He was unprofessional to criticise the headteacher in front of the
8 You were kind to give birthday presents to the children.
Complete these sentences with
It
made me
angry
It
to hear
staff.
made me + any appropriate adjective.
how she had been
2
listening to his
3
that
4
to learn
3
hearing the dentist's
insulted.
lies.
we wouldn't be working together again.
how badly we treated immigrants in
drill
as
I
the 1950s.
sat in the waiting room.
spend
Unit
Adjectives and adverbs
Some
adverbs of manner (saying
adjective +
already ends
to
it
to
Most
in
-ly (e.g.
how something
done) are formed from an
is
—> suddenly, happy —» happily, etc. When an
sudden
-ly:
fMFHPHJIl
adjective
lively, lonely, lovely)
cowardly, elderly, friendly, kindly,
we
don't add -ly
make an adverb. Instead we
He smiled at me in a friendly way.
She waved her hands around in a lively fashion.
can use a prepositional phrase with fashion, manner, or way:
ending
participle adjectives
in
-ed (see Unit 69) don't have an adverb form and so
we
use a
prepositional phrase instead:
They rose to greet
or
we
me
in
subdued manner,
a
use a preposition and a related noun
She looked at
me in amazement,
there
if
(not
However, some do have an adverb form with
The storm was unexpected, and
The weather turned unexpectedly
(not
subduedly.)
...
one:
amazedly.)
...
-ly.
is
Compare:
O
O
Also: agitatedly, allegedly, deservedly,
determinedly, disappointedly, excitedly,
stormy.
hurriedly, pointedly, repeatedly, reportedly,
reputedly, supposedly, worriedly
Some
adverbs have two forms, one ending
in -ly
and the other
without changing the meaning, although the form ending
C
She ran quick
and must be used
if
/
not.
-ly
in
is
quickly towards the door,
We can sometimes use either form
grammatically correct and more formal:
Also: cheap(ly), clean(ly), clear(ly),
the adverb comes immediately
fine(ly), loud(ly), thin(ly), slow(ly)
before the verb:
She quickly ran towards the door, (not She quick ran
Some
adverbs have different meanings with and without
She gave her time
Compare
on time) and haven't seen
He wandered deep
(= a long
into the forest
Amy lately.
direct. (=
trains.
You can go
O
members was
I'll
be with you directly. (= very soon)
He saw Hassan
without stopping)
O
sounded awful - one of the choir
This time
1
directly ahead. (= straight)
flatly refused to lend
singing flat.
kicked the ball high over the goal.
O
Emil here yet?' ‘He's just arrived.'
She looks just
Which
like
Everyone thinks highly of her teaching.
do you
like
most?
is
very good)
You can be justly proud of your musical
achievements. (=
her mother.
of these cheeses
him any
money. (= definitely; completely)
(= they think her teaching
‘Is
(= recently)
He felt deeply hurt by her criticisms. (= very)
They loved each other deeply (= very much)
and got
way)
You don't have to change
He
I
willingly)
also:
lost.
It
Compare:
no money) and She gave her time freely. (=
arrived late for the concert. (= not
I
O
free. (= for
-ly.
...)
rightly; justifiably)
Her novels are now mostly out of
(=
most
print.
of them)
We mostly go on
holiday to France.
(= usually)
They cut short their holiday when
Lina fell ill. (= went home early)
The door was wide open so
straight
in.
(= completely)
1
just
went
The speaker will be
arriving shortly
(= soon). Please take your seats.
You won't have any problems getting the
book. It's widely available. (= in many places)
Exercises
Rewrite the italicised words using a -ly form of the participles
possible, use a prepositional phrase or a preposition
agitated
anticipated
organised
determined
despaired
repeated
relaxed
in
the box.
+ related noun.
reputed
a -ly
If
Q
form
isn't
disappointed
satisfied
warned him again and again of the dangers on the mountain, but he insisted on going on.
2 The class was out of control and he put his head in his hands feeling that he could do nothing.
3 As his mother took the roast chicken out of the oven, Rod licked his lips because he was looking
1
I
forward to eating
10
4
It is
5
‘Still
it.
said to be, although no one
no news from Paul/ she
knows for certain, the smallest post
said in a
office in the country.
sad way.
6 He ran the company
7
in a calm way and rarely let anything annoy him.
She shook her head as if she had made a firm decision.
8
When
he had finished the painting, he looked at
it
in
a
way that showed he was happy.
1
9 Vicky runs the office carefully and tidily, so
Sofia paced
^2Q|
about
in
don't think
we
Complete the sentences with suitable
a
What
b
We don't go out much
in
pairs of adverbs
was having to get up
she hated
in
from
watch
4 a
b
5
I
one
were to blame,
my office at the moment,
I'll
get back to
.
I
got very
French
little
sleep on the flight, but
spoken
is
a
She
b
We could just see the
is
in
rise in
car crime
in
regarded researchers
the area
is
I
arrived in Tokyo.
Africa.
plane flying
in
the university.
overhead.
these sentences.
in
awake when
felt
I
North
one of the most
Correct any mistakes
The
-ly in
television.
of admitting they
but if you leave your name and number
[Message on a telephone answering machine]
used to have to change in Amsterdam to get to Moscow, but now can fly
I'm not in
you
I
Use the form with
at 5:30 every morning,
We
the evening.
The firm paid compensation, but stopped
b The book is due to be published
b
C.
the other.
2 a
3 a
should change things now.
an anxious way as she waited to go into the interview.
sentence and the form without -ly
1
I
If
there are no mistakes, write
QQ
deeply worrying.
10
2
She waved
friendlily to
me.
3 Cut the onions up finely and fry
4
5
I
I
asked the boys to
move
couldn't understand
them with
what he was
saying.
6 He was accused of behaving cowardlily
7
8
garlic.
their bicycles off the football pitch but they flat refused.
in
He
didn't speak very clearly.
the battle.
Evene manufactured the glass for which the town became just renowned.
called Elena and she slow turned to face me.
Pierre
I
9 Spread some butter on the bread as thin as possible.
The prime minister was loud applauded by her audience.
143
Unit
Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and
72
superlative forms
Comparatives: -er vs more
when we
O
are comparing
two
Although the paint
We can
Q
'...
qualities:
‘I
think he
Blue',
thought
I
adjectives with
two
fair,
rough, soft, true.
syllables are
most commonly used with more
/ less, particularly:
participle adjectives (e.g. worried, boring)
adjectives ending
in -ful
and -less
afraid, alert, alike, alone,
O
some other adjectives,
(e.g.
careful, careless)
ashamed, aware
including active, cautious, certain, complex, direct, eager, exact,
formal, frequent, modern, special, recent
Most two-syllable adjectives ending -y, -ow, -er and -ure can take
adjective form, although the -er form is more frequently used.
Some
green'.
sometimes use more as an alternative to the -er form to emphasise the comparison:
You might think it's dark here but it's more dark in the cellar, (or ... darker ...)
:
O
O
than
swim across?'
was called ‘Sky
Also clear, cold, deep,
Some
...
was more mad than brave.'
it was more green than blue.
*... it was blue rather than
and
as
mad'
brave
much
he wasn't so
‘Wasn't he brave to
We can also use
/ less
adjectives
superlative
(e.g.
complete, equal, favourite,
meaning so are not often used with -er
ideal, perfect,
/
more
/
either an -er or the
more +
unique) have a comparative or
less or -est
/
most /
least.
However,
we
can use comparative or superlative forms for special emphasis:
The weather today was good, but less perfect than yesterday.
Q
Superlatives
We
usually use the, a possessive
or adverb.
In
informal contexts
form (with
»'s),
we sometimes
or a possessive pronoun before a superlative adjective
leave out the before an -est or
most +
adjective
superlative after a linking verb, particularly at the end of a sentence:
O
Q
‘Why did you go by bus?' ‘It was (the) cheapest.'
Which was (the) most expensive?
However, we can't leave out the when we go on to say what group of things is being compared:
‘Why did you buy these oranges?' ‘They were the cheapest ones / could find.' (not They were
cheapest ones
...)
is used without the, most means something like 'very':
checked the form most carefully (= very carefully) but didn't notice the mistake.
When most + adjective / adverb
O
I
After a superlative
we
use of + a plural
Adam's the oldest of
noun phrase to name the
objects being compared:
my three brothers.
Note that we can put the of-phrase at the beginning to emphasise
Of my three brothers, Adam's the oldest.
it:
O
When we give the
singular
Q
location or context within which the comparison
noun phrase:
was the tallest tree
It
in
the forest, (not
.
.
is
made we
the tallest tree of the forest.)
usually use in
+a
Exercises
Complete the sentences with
adjective form. Use both
deep
hard
as
It
3
I
4
think
Sam
5
I'd
bought
I
if
We
bad boy
really.
expected so
we were
true
of
it.
decided to turn back.
I
than beautiful.
because
it's
than dishonest.
He's
than
need to take responsibility
1
8
I
describe her as
isn't a
strong
of us than
than
this tennis racket
from the box, using an -er or more +
scared
pretty
the wolf was
6 The exam was
7
Q
naughty
long
was almost
2 The river was
1
a comparative adjective
possible.
if
I
thought
it
would be.
and in a cold winter
for elderly neighbours,
like this
it is
than ever.
We took the
path up the
hill
as the other
one was very steep.
10
If
necessary, correct or improve the comparative adjectives,
fj)
I
may
much
not be
of a cook, but Nina
is
even uselesser
in
the kitchen than
I
am.
more useless
2
When
3
a:
The painting
b:
Really?
4 The
I
took the washing out of the machine
It
is
it
looked
dirtier
than
when
it
went
in.
from the 17th century.
looks recenter than that.
film starts slowly, but gets excitinger after the first half hour.
5
Louis
6
All of us are unique,
is
already
but his aim
rich,
but
some
in life
seems to be to become even more wealthy.
more unique than others.
of us are
Most research in this area uses simple interviews, but we used a complexer methodology.
didn't do well at school, and my fellow students all seemed cleverer than me.
9 For an extra $500 you could buy a much powerfuler motorbike.
7
8
I
Curiously,
many people
Put brackets around the
say they feel mentally alerter
if it
can be omitted
was the sweetest orange
I'd
2 Anna, Beth and Clara were
all
1
3
It
He's the fastest runner
4
We get lots of birds
5
a:
Shall
b:
Well, going by bus
we go
by
in
train,
is
The building
is
little
for a day.
these sentences.
eaten for ages.
excellent musicians, but Clara
was the most
our garden, but blackbirds are the most
creative.
common.
bus or car?
actually the easiest.
in
or of.
said to be the highest
2 The Democrats are the smallest
Europe.
the four main political parties.
Parmesan is perhaps the most famous
4 For many people, it is the most important day
5 She's without doubt the best swimmer
3
they eat very
in his class.
Complete the sentences with
1
in
if
all Italian
cheeses.
the whole year.
my school.
145
Unit
73
-
-
*
Comparative phrases and clauses
^
A
We
use as + adjective
else, or that
/ adverb + as to say that something or someone
one situation is like another:
Was the film
as funny as his
Negative forms of sentences
more common to use
like this
If
we
something or someone
came round as quickly as
1
can use either not as or not so.
+ than:
not as / so wide as
like
In
1
could.
formal speech and writing
it is
less + adjective
The gap between the sides
B
one?
last
is
is
it
was. (or
...
is
wide than
less
put a singular countable noun between an adjective and the second as,
we
use a
/
it
an
was.)
in
front of
the noun:
Despite his disability, he tried to lead as normal a
as possible, (not
life
...
as normal
life
as
...)
The negative form of sentences like this can use either not as or sometimes not such:
It's not as quiet a place (or
not such a quiet place ...) as it used to be.
...
Note that we use not as + adjective + a
We can
use so, too and
It's
We also
by an adjective
might at
it
an + adjective + noun.
first
seem.
How big a
perhaps too strong a word.
is
/
a similar way:
in
not quite so straightforward a problem as
‘Conspiracy'
C
how followed
an + noun but not such a
/
piece do you want?
much / many as or as little / few as to say that a quantity or amount is larger or
expected. Many and few are preferred before numbers; much and little are preferred
use as
smaller than
with amounts
(e.g. $5,
20%) and
distances
(e.g.
3 metres):
There are a small number of people involved, possibly as few as twenty.
O
We can
Prices
have increased by as
use not + adjective
/
much
as
300%.
adverb + enough + to-infinitive to mean that there
isn't
as
much
as
is
necessary to do something:
O
We can
enough
I'm not tall
He
to reach.
didn't speak loudly
enough
to be heard.
use sufficiently before adjectives to express a similar meaning to enough. Sufficiently
often preferred
in
more formal
is
contexts:
She didn't play sufficiently well to
qualify, (or
...
well enough to
qualify.)
We can
use too + adjective / adverb + to-infinitive to mean ‘more than necessary, possible,
do something:
They arrived too late to get seats.
It moved too fast to see it clearly.
The suitcase was too small (for him) to get all his clothes in.
etc.'
to
O
In
rather formal English
O
(In
I
use too + adjective + a
hope you haven't had too
a less formal style
We can
we can
we might
use so + adjective
/
say
tiring a day. (not
‘I
...
/
an + noun:
a too tiring day.)
hope your day hasn't been too
tiring.')
adverb + that-clause to say that something existed or happened to such
a degree that a specified result occurred (see also Unit 81):
It's
We can
we
I
use so + adjective
can do
it.
He came
in
so quietly that didn't hear him.
I
adverb + as + to-infinitive with a similar meaning. Compare:
The difference was so small that it wasn't worth arguing about, and
The difference was so small as to not be worth arguing about. (= Because the difference was
so small, it wasn't worth arguing about)
Less often
O
so simple that even
use go so
One
/
/
as far as + to-infinitive to talk about actions that are surprising or extreme:
furious
woman went so
/
as far as to throw tomatoes at the minister.
.
Exercises
Complete these sentences with as ... as or not as / such ... as
words in brackets and add any other necessary words. (?)
1
polluted
It's
ctfcy
now as / not as
(or
a
polluted,
both
if
possible).
.a^..now...jfiU3....
Use the
was
it
ten years ago. (not / polluted / city now)
Downtown Hotel
2 The
Strand Hotel.
is
(not / pleasant / place to stay)
3 The President's address to the nation
he
is
ever
make
to
in his career,
is
(important
/
speech)
was
4
It
5
Theresa's
I
likely
first
I've
thought, (not / big / problem)
dog
is
ever seen, (ferocious / animal)
6 She's
she claims to be. (not / fluent / Greek speaker)
Complete these sentences with as much
1
When
it
was
hot
really
I
as, as
many as,
as little as, or as
was having
may soon
2 The elephant population
few
as.
Q
four showers a day.
fall
1,000 from 5,000 ten years ago.
to
3 At the end of the 200-metre race there
was
50 metres between the
first
and second runners.
4
5
5,000 people phoned
Lit
continuously, the
life
in
TV programme.
two weeks to three
to complain about last night's
of a light bulb varies from
months.
6
Some
7
We don't
days there were
use
much
three or four students at his lectures.
electricity.
Sometimes our
£40
bill is
25% of its income on
8 The country spends
Join the sentences using so + adjective + as + to-infinitive.
1
2
The noise from the factory was
Her handwriting was untidy.
3 The bookcase
4 The
CD was
loud.
was heavy.
badly scratched.
The plot of the novel was complicated.
6 The difference between the results was
5
1
+d
The noise
'from
Correct any mistakes
Interviewer:
(1)
Well,
a
It
b
It
was nearly illegible.
was insignificant.
was unplayable.
c
It
d
k-pre vent e d
e
It
f
It
me sleep
i
ng.
was almost impossible to move it.
was completely incomprehensible.
me
.
sleeping
the italicised parts of this interview with a football manager.
it? Is
it
(2)
soseriousas has been claimed
people are saying Franz Kahn
it's
I
the factory was so Loud as to prevent
How serious injury is
Some
Manager:
in
small.
month.
a
defence.
certainly (3)
will
in
I
the newspapers?
never play international football again.
enough bad to keep him out of football
for at least six
months.
He's obviously (4) not so fit as he used to be and even he would admit that he's (5)
not such good player as he was
he'll
in his
twenties. But
never play for the national team again.
I
I
wouldn't
know him
(6)
go so far to say that
(7) sufficiently
well
enough
to say that he will consider his future carefully before making any major decisions.
Interviewer:
Well,
we
all
wish him
(8) as
speedy recovery as possible
...
147
Unit
74
Position of adverbs
1
There are three main positions for adverbs which modify a verb: end, front and mid position In
end position, the adverb comes
verb - either immediately after
it
after the
They played quietly
or later
He tried to leave quietly.
He sat in the corner quietly.
in
the clause.
In
front position the adverb
comes before
mid position the adverb comes between
main
/
She
is
longer.
this.
usually here by ten.
They would usually come by
verb, or after the first auxiliary verb.
no
feel like leaving.
He usually plays better than
the subject and verb, immediately after be as
a
day.
Finally he could stand the noise
Sometimes
the subject.
In
all
car.
Many adverbs can go in any of these positions, depending on context or style. For example:
He turned round slowly, (end)
Slowly he turned round, (front)
Q He slowly turned round, (mid)
End position
end
In
G
position,
we
usually put an adverb after an object rather than immediately after the verb:
We considered
However,
if
an object
is
We considered
We avoid
the problem briefly, (not
We considered
briefly
the problem.)
very long other positions are possible:
briefly the long-term solution to the problem, (or
We briefly considered
...)
putting an adverb between a main verb and a following -ing form or to-infinitive:
He began running
quickly, or
He quickly began
running, (not
He began
quickly running.)
She tried to leave quietly, or She quietly tried to leave, (not She tried quietly to leave.)
The position of the adverb can change the meaning of the sentence (see Unit 75A). Compare:
recall telling him clearly that he had won. (= told him clearly; ‘clearly' modifies ‘telling
I
I
him')
I
‘I
and
clearly recall telling him that he had won. (=
recall clearly telling
him that he had won'
the two meanings given above.
When there
of
manner
In
is
more than one
(= saying
In
I
clearly recall
also possible, but
is
speech, the meaning intended
adverbial
how something
is
in
end
is
is
it;
'clearly'
ambiguous;
it
modifies
‘recall'.)
can have either of
usually signalled by intonation.
position, the usual order in written English
is
adverbial
done), place, and then time:
the accident she was thrown violently forwards. (= manner + place)
We arrived
here on Saturday. (= place + time)
we can move an adverbial to the end:
For special emphasis
In
If
the accident she was thrown forwards, violently.
one adverbial is much longer than another then it is usually placed last:
They left at three with a great deal of noise. (= time + manner)
An adverb
usually
comes before
a prepositional phrase
when
these have the
same function
(i.e.
they both describe manner, or place, or time):
O
She went downstairs to the
cellar. (= place
+
place)
is usual for many adverbials of place, definite frequency, and definite time:
They live upstairs, (not They upstairs live.)
She goes weekly, (not She weekly goes.)
Have you heard the good news? Eva had a baby in May. (not Eva in May had a baby.)
However, adverbs of indefinite time usually go in mid position (see Unit 75).
End position
Q
Note that
in
journalism, other adverbs of time are often used
normally place them
in
end
in
mid
position,
where we would
(or front) position:
The government yesterday announced an increase
in
education spending.
when
,
)
.
Exercises
Put the adverb
in
brackets
in
an appropriate position
in
each sentence.
some
In
cases both
positions are possible.
expect Catalina to win the race
1
I
2
He
3
(easily)
regretted missing the concert
(greatly
hated playing the piano
1
,
although
my parents thought
I
loved
it.
(secretly)
4 He
5 She
started to walk
10
offered to
6 Bruno
7
don't
We
remember
putting
it
down
tried to ignore
don't
(hurriedly)
(simply)
look forward to hearing from you
9 They
I
(kindly)
and sat down,
finished speaking
I
8
across the bridge over the gorge. ( calmly )
do the work
(soon)
me
(deliberately)
pretend to understand the instructions
(completely)
1
Complete
f*
email using the words and phrases from the box below
this
in
the correct order.
oO
* J
?.
We
v>?
£.
top*
^
>
-
.
R*JS#V Al;
^i
rornard
,
Km
T:
had a great time driving (1) ....^pwjwi
.
.
(2)
.
We
we
flew into Zurich and hired
drove (3)
and stayed (4)
we
and went down
nearby lake for a swim - freezing, but wonderful! The next week we drove east and stayed
to the
(
Every morning
got up (5)
6)
It's in
of the country, but
Finally,
We
we had
we drove back
a spectacular part
to drive (7)
to Zurich and caught (8)
enjoyed (9)
and we're looking forward to
going back (10)
kvJulyV around Switzerland
2 a car / at the airport
south
4 in a beautiful cottage belonging to some friends of Kim's mother / for a week
5 early /at about six o'clock
6 in the village where Kim had spent some time when she was a student / briefly
3 towards the lakes
7 carefully
9
If
in
/
/
on the narrow winding roads
/ enormously / ourselves
8
Switzerland
necessary, rewrite these sentences putting the italicised
™~
If the sentence is already correct, write %/. r
I
word or phrase
in a
/
there
more appropriate
1
position.
1
home / the train
10 before too long
try to visit every week
my parents.
Lky
to visit
my parents every week
/
£v
2
Next, beat the eggs vigorously
3
I
4
5
I
thought
I'd
a small bowl.
stopped regularly playing tennis after
was easily beaten in the final.
I
broke
my wrist.
Lee
6 Matias never eats
7
in
locked securely the luggage.
a:
Do the
in
the canteen at work.
Patel family
still live
next door?
He always
b:
brings from
No, they moved
8 The local residents welcomed the decision to introduce a
the nearby town warmly
home sandwiches.
last
new bus
year away.
service
from their village into
.
9
We
have to hand the homework
“ Additional exercise 13 (page 248)
in
on Tuesday.
149
Unit
75
Position of adverbs 2
Front position
Most types of adverb commonly go
connecting adverbs, which
in
-
front position in a clause (see Unit 74A). In particular
O
make immediately
clear the logical relation to the previous
The value of the yen has
Japan faces a
fallen.
As
a result,
crisis.
sentence.
time and place adverbs, which give more
The
information about a previous reference to a
the weather will be
last
few days have been
much
hot.
Tomorrow
cooler.
time or place.
comment and
viewpoint adverbs, which
highlight the speaker's attitude to
She has just heard that her
what they
Presumably, she
will
sister
is
ill.
want to go home.
are about to say (see Unit 78).
Note, however, that other positions are possible for these adverbs.
adverbs or adverbs of manner. As comment adverbs they
go in other positions) and relate to the whole of the clause; as
adverbs of manner they usually go in end position and modify the verb. Compare:
Naturally, I'll do all can to help, and
comment
Some words
can be used both as
usually go
front position (but can
in
O
I
Also clearly, curiously, frankly,
:
The radioactive gas occurs naturally
Note that
for special
in
many
areas.
honestly, oddly, plainly, seriously
emphasis or focus, adverbs that usually go
mid position (see
in
B)
and end
and 76) can sometimes be put in front position:
Regularly, Helena works on several paintings at once.
May, Maxine had a baby.
position (see also Units 74
In
O
Mid position
The following types of adverb usually go
tV
degree adverbs
O
(e g.
in
mid position (see Unit 74A) -
almost, hardly, nearly, quite, rather, scarcely):
was so bad that we almost missed the turning.
although some (e g. completely, enormously, entirely, greatly, slightly) can go in end position:
admire your work greatly, (or greatly admire your work.)
Note that some degree adverbs are not usually used in mid position with some verbs. For
example, enormously is not usually used in mid position with develop, differ, go up or vary;
greatly is not normally used in mid position with care or suffer.
O
The
street lighting
I
I
adverbs which indicate the order of events, such as
position, but
O
I
first
if
met
there
her
is
in
a phrase giving the
1997. (or
We don't usually put these
O
in
I
met
first, last
and next. These can also go
time of an event they usually go before
her first
often, rarely, regularly,
in 1997.)
front position, except to
list
actions (see also Unit 76B):
We
in
seldom
an indefinite way
how often something happens,
(see also Unit 76B);
and
hardly ever see Kaspar nowadays, he's so busy at the
from time to time, every so often)
As a rule, go every six months,
I
usually
(or
...
go
in
every
always and never:
office.
(e.g.
as a rule, on
many occasions,
end position:
months, as a rule; not as a
front or
six
rarely put long adverbials (including clauses; see Units
O
including hardly ever,
also the frequency adverbs
Note, however, that adverbial phrases of indefinite frequency
phrases
end
Next, add three teaspoons of sugar.
adverbs offrequency which say
We
in
this:
I
58 and
59),
rule
go
and prepositional and noun
mid position. Usually they go in end position or front position for emphasis:
She phoned home, anxious for news, (or Anxious for news, she phoned home.)
He picked up the vase with great care, (or With great care he picked up the vase.)
in
I'd
seen Tarik the day before, (or The day before,
I'd
seen
...)
Tarik.)
Exercises
Complete each
in
one adverb from the box. Put the adverb in front
one sentence, and in end position (as an adverb of manner)
pair of sentences using
comment
position (as a
adverb)
in
the other.
cur iou s ly
clearly
CwrlowsUj
a
1
honestly
frankly
the house has two chimneys
,
seriously
plainly
,
although there's only one
fireplace.
b
,
curiously
Esther looked at him
trying to
#
work out whether he was being
serious or not.
2 a
,1
b
was brought up to earn money
not to steal
,
,
I'm perfectly capable of putting up the shelf myself
3 a
,
she admitted
b
,
I
4 a
a:
Thanks
b:
That's okay.
a:
...
that she felt she wasn't doing a
went to sleep during
his lecture
don't
,1
know what
I'd
it
was so
from others,
good job.
boring.
me.
for looking after the children for
....
,
it
have done
if
you hadn't been around
to help.
b
5
,1 tried to speak
to him about his bad behaviour, but he kept
making me laugh.
The chief executive of Eclom has phoned me every day this week to ask whether I've made
mind up
he wants me to take the job
a
my
,
b
,
6 a
Lucas fidgeted
feeling
ill
had very
I'd
in his
was having
sleep and
little
she always dressed
at
Cross out any adverbs or adverbials that are incorrect
Asthma
2
Now that
3
4
5
I
rates in cities
them
work
in
a white blouse
/ unlikely in
he was
to Kuala Lumpur,
I
and grey
skirt.
these sentences. liF.VJfliK.IT
do not enormously / significantly differ from those
moved
Lorna has
could see
,
at ease
b
1
difficulty thinking
seat and kept looking nervously at the door.
in rural
from time to time / rarely see
areas.
her.
easily /scarcely in the bright sunshine.
It was snowing and
was almost / by an hour late for the interview.
Carmen had often / on many occasions spoken at meetings before, so
I
it
was no
surprise
when she
stood up.
6
I
play chess with Lorenzo hardly ever / every week.
7 Although he had to
8
I
Which
1
2
3
lift
of the positions
^ He ^ moved
to
[1], [2]
New
in
the factory, he greatly / rarely suffered from backache.
or
[3]
Zealand
5
6
M ^ meet ^ Emma
I
I
2l
complained to
agree with you
his physics
boss was really angry with me.
in
brackets go in?
Q9
(the following year)
^ walked along the road
hi We ^
see Alex ^ any more, (seldom)
t
my
can the adverb or adverbial
The children
^ He
N ^
4
heavy boxes
forgot about the meeting nearly/ entirely and
teacher
(in
^
.
single file)
(unhappy with the
result)
(entirely)
at school, (often)
Additional exercise 13 (page 248)
151
Adverbs of place, direction, indefinite frequency,
Unit
76
,
and time
Adverbs of place and direction
position, but
we
can put them
what comes
highlight
at the
(or adverbials, particularly prepositional phrases) usually
in
end
front position to emphasise the location.
(e.g. 'a
body'
in
The
the example below). This order
go
in
may also
effect
end
be to
found mainly
is
in
formal descriptive writing and reports. Compare:
O
If
we
The money was eventually found under the floorboards. (= end) and
The police searched the house. Under the floorboards they found a body.
put an adverb of place
Q
front position
Next to the bookshelf was
we
put the subject after the verb be (see also Unit 99A):
a fireplace, [or less formally
Next to the bookshelf there was
also put the subject after the verb with intransitive verbs (except with a
to indicate being
a
not Next to the bookshelf a fireplace was.)
fireplace;
We can
in
(= front)
in
a position or
movement to
pronoun subject) used
a position:
Beyond the houses lay open fields, but
O
Also hang,
live, sit,
go, march,
roll,
:
Beyond the houses they lay. (not ... lay they)
open fields lay' might be used in
Note that
stand; come,
fly,
swim, walk
run,
‘...
a literary style.
However,
we
don't usually put the subject after the verb
intransitive verbs
is
when we
talk
about actions:
if
one of these
followed by an adverb of manner; with other intransitive verbs; or with transitive
verbs:
Q
O
O
Through the waves the boy
(rather than
Outside the church the choir sang, (rather than
In
When we
a
swam powerfully,
sang the
...
the garden Nik built a playhouse for the children, (not
put certain adverbs of time
in
...
front position the subject
In
swam
the boy powerfully.)
choir.)
the garden built Nik
must come
...)
after an auxiliary verb or
main verb be (see also Unit 100):
At no time would he admit that his team played badly, (not At no time he would admit
Not once was she at home when phoned, (not Not once she was ...)
O
If
...)
I
the main verb
is
not be and there
is
no
we
auxiliary,
use do, although inversion
is
not necessary
in
this case:
O
Adverbs
Only
like this
later, rarely,
and seldom. Note also that
intonation break
Q
O
include negative time adverbials such as at
come to
the verb
how much damage had been
later did she realise
At
first
At
first
introduce a
in
speech)
was
there was
there
is
new
event,
used after
we
can put
when the
first (etc.)
caused, (or Only later she realised
...)
no time, hardly ever, not once, only
now and then in front position with
next,
first,
subject follows the verb. But
if
a
comma
(or
an
the verb follows the subject. Compare:
silence.
Then came
silence.
Then, a voice came that
a voice that
knew, (not Then a voice came
I
I
...)
and
knew.
Adverbs of time which indicate a definite point or period in time or a definite frequency usually go in
end position, or front position for emphasis, but not in mid position. Note that when these adverbs are
in
front position there
I
O
is
no inversion of subject and verb:
went to Paris yesterday, (or Yesterday went to Paris.)
We meet for lunch once a week, (or Once a week we meet
I
for lunch.)
The adverbs daily, hourly, monthly, weekly, annually, quarterly (= four times a year),
in end position:
pay rny subscription annually, (not Annually pay ...; not annually pay ...)
O
I
I
I
etc.
only go
Exercises
Rewrite the sentences putting the italicised adverbs of place or direction at the front of the
clause.
A
1
If
dark
and verb.
possible, invert the order of subject
Q
wood was at the bottom of the garden.
At the bottom of the
<iark ..wood,...
2 The car stopped suddenly and Daniel jumped out.
Two
3
small children stood outside the door.
4 The boys were playing
10
A jade
5
6 The
cricket in the park, despite the
muddy
conditions.
necklace hung around her neck.
man
released the
monkey and
it
climbed up the
tree.
7 The door burst open and a delegation from the striking workers marched
8 While Marko was looking around for
his net
the
fish
swam
9 Most of the furniture was modern, but a very old grandfather clock was
Lea found
If
difficult
more
to concentrate in the office, but she worked
in
the corner.
efficiently at
home.
possible, rewrite the italicised parts of these sentences putting the time adverbial in front
position.
1
Where you
trusted
I
I
2
it
in.
away.
can, invert subject
Dan completely, and
trustee!
Don
Professor Coulson
first
realised only later that
all
was to
he had tricked me.
did
corripletely^ arid
After working so hard
3
/
and verb, and make any other necessary changes.
I
re^se
thcit
he heui tricked
nne.
summer, / had a holiday last week.
give the
initial
paper at the conference, but a welcoming address came
by the head of the organising team.
4 The area was cleared before the explosion, and members of the public were in danger at no time.
5 I've got high blood pressure and / have to take tablets daily for it.
6 When it became clear that he was in danger of losing the election, a politician can seldom have
changed his views so quickly as Beckett.
After a few days of relative calm, a blizzard came next, preventing us from leaving the hut.
8 It's hard to imagine that we'll be in Japan by next Friday.
9 You won't have long to wait as trains for Rome leave hourly.
7
My grandfather was
1
If
a gentle
necessary, correct the
man, and / hardly ever heard him raise his voice in anger.
word order
in
walk to work for the exercise, and
1
I
2
If
3
Down
I
these sentences.
twice a
you take the job, monthly your salary
the
hill
will
week
play squash.
be paid into your bank account.
the horse ran quickly.
4 Through the window Megan watched sadly.
5 Around the town drove she for hours looking
for the gallery, until she spotted in a side street the
place.
6
I
tripped over the cat, dropped the tray, and across the
room flew
it.
153
Unit
77
Degree adverbs and focus adverbs
Degree adverbs can be used before
adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs to give information
about the
extent or level of something:
O
verb,
O
They're extremely happy.
Some degree
I
O
really hate coffee.
He almost always
arrived late.
adverbs, such as almost, largely, really and virtually, are usually used before the main
and others, such as altogether, enormously, somewhat, and tremendously, are usually used
main
after the
verb.
Degree adverbs are rarely used
in
front position (see Unit 75B).
Focus adverbs draw attention to the most important part of what
O
There
and others
Many
likely
is
(e.g.
we
even, mainly, mostly, particularly, specifically)
(e g. especially,
to be
snow today,
particularly
in
me
we
say to one thing or person:
money, but only trusted
invest the
specific:
the north,
alone, just, only, simply, solely) limit what
people offered to help
Some
are talking about.
make what we say more
Rick.
I
Much and very much
In
much
affirmative sentences in formal contexts,
can be used as a degree adverb before the verbs
admire, appreciate, enjoy, prefer and regret to emphasise how we feel about things:
Their music is much admired.
much enjoyed having you stay with us.
O
I
Much
used
is
questions
We can
hope,
in this
(e.g.
particularly after
not Did you
use very
like
way
much
in
mvch
enjoy
a similar
way
and we. Note that we don't usually use
I
this pattern in
...?).
before the verbs above and also before agree, doubt, fear,
we don't
and want. Note, however, that
use
much
before this last group of verbs. Compare:
much prefer seeing films at the cinema than on DVD. (or very much prefer ...)and
We very much agree with the decision, (or We agree very much ...; but not much agree
I
I
...)
...
much before a past participle which is part of a passive:
The new by-pass was (very) much needed.
We don't use much but can use very much before past participle adjectives (see Unit 69A):
was very much surprised by her news, (or was surprised ...; but not was much surprised
and we don't use either much or very much before present participle adjectives:
We can
also use
much
or very
I
I
...)
I
The hotel was
In
negative sentences
enjoy,
like,
I
(very)
in
welcoming, (but not The hotel was (very)
informal contexts
we
can use (very)
much
much welcoming.)
before verbs such as appreciate,
and look forward to to emphasise a negative feeling about something:
didn't (very)
much
enjoy the
film.
Very and too
Before an adjective or another adverb
mean
In
we
when we mean
‘to a
high degree', and too
I'm not
when we
is
...
too hot
...
very hot
in informal spoken English we can use not too to mean
too bothered about who wins, (or I'm not very bothered ...)
negative sentences
C
use very
wanted or needed'. Compare:
Majorca
- perfect for swimming, (not
in
very
hot
The weather was
let's find somewhere cooler, (not
It's too hot to stay in this room
‘more than enough' or ‘more than
...)
and
...)
‘not very':
Even and only
Even and only usually go in mid position (see Unit 75), but if they refer to the subject they usually
come before it. Compare:
My mother has only brought some food. (= She hasn't brought anything else) and
Only my mother has brought some food. (= My mother and nobody else)
Aya can even speak French. (= in addition to everything else she can do) and
Even Aya can speak French. (= you might not expea her to) (rather than Aya even ...)
O
O
Exercises
Cross out any incorrect answers.
We very / much / very much hope that the striking workers will now resume
1
2 Thanks for organising the quiz night. Your help
negotiations.
was very / much / very much appreciated.
very / much / very much intimidated by some of the questions in the interview.
had always very / much / very much admired her work, and it was great to meet her.
5 As a child, very / much / very much wanted to be an artist.
10
6 would very / much / very much prefer to be remembered as kind rather than wealthy.
3
felt
I
4
I
I
I
was very / much / very much thrilling to get Marie's news.
in India
became very/ much / very much interested in regional foods.
9 Kristof says that he wants to go into politics, but very / much / very much doubt that he's
7
It
8
When was travelling
I
I
I
serious.
very / much / very much regret not being able to hear Dr Greco
I
Write very, too, or very
1
Leo was
2
Ellie
/
too
if
a wheelchair as he
in
has agreed to start work
either
was
was
her lecture.
possible.
weak to walk
still
earlier,
3 The instructions are
is
when she gave
but she's not
easy. You'll have
far.
enthusiastic about
it.
no trouble understanding them.
4
It
5
We'll be at the cinema well before the film starts.
alarming to learn that one of the plane's engines had stopped.
won't take
It
long to get there.
was snowing
heavily for us to climb further up the mountain.
7 He revised
hard and did well in his exams.
8 The old bridge in town was
narrow for the coach to drive across, so we had to go an
extra 50 miles to the new one.
6
It
Put even or only
1
Ben offered to
to pick
2
me
-----
in
let
the most appropriate place
me stay with him
while
I
in
was
each sentence.
in
(3
Glasgow, and
he
offered
up from the station.
I
will
be
in
my office on Monday next week as
I'm going to Poland for a
business meeting on Tuesday.
3
Every penny the charity raises helps the homeless, and
«...
can make a
4 Jan seems to have invited everyone to the party
they haven't spoken to each other for years.
5
6
Louis
I
don't get
the smallest donation
vital difference.
home from work
he has
knew where the keys were
until late, so
I
kept,
and nobody
asked Ann, and
else.
cook at the weekend.
155
Unit
78
Comment
We
use
adverbs and viewpoint adverbs
some adverbs
make
to
a
comment on what we
some comment adverbs:
TV
indicate
how
something
likely
are saying.
examples
we
apparently, certainly, clearly, definitely, obviously,
think
presumably, probably, undoubtedly
is
indicate our attitude to or
astonishingly, frankly, generally, honestly, interestingly,
opinion of what
luckily, naturally, sadly, seriously, surprisingly,
is
said
unbelievably
show our judgement of
bravely, carelessly, foolishly, generously, kindly, rightly,
someone's actions
stupidly, wisely,
Comment
wrongly
adverbs often apply to the whole sentence and are most frequently used in front position
end of the sentence and in other positions.
(see Unit 75A), although they can also be used at the
we
At the beginning and end of sentences
comma
O
O
O
usually separate
writing or by intonation in speech:
Presumably, he didn't hear me when
them from the
rest of the
sentence by a
in
I
called.
The book was based on his experience in China, apparently.
If you practise continuously, you will undoubtedly get better.
Comment
adverbs which show judgement usually follow the subject, although they can be put
in
front position for emphasis:
He kindly
If
comment
Q
Q
offered to give
me
a
lift,
(or Kindly,
She did astonishingly well
in
in
the exam. (=
to emphasise 'Kindly')
know this
When
already)
he stood up
was
I
in
other positions. Compare:
surprised that she did well)
and
the exam. (= she did extremely well)
You've had a major operation. Obviously,
Some
...
adverbs apply to only part of the sentence they can be used
Astonishingly, she did well
O
he offered
and
it was obviously very
it
be very painful for a while. (=
will
painful. (= the pain
adverbs are used to make clear what viewpoint
we
was
I
expect you to
clear to see)
are speaking from; that
is,
identifying
what
features of something are being talked about:
O
O
Financially, the accident has been a disaster for the
The brothers may be
Also: biologically,
alike physically,
owners of the tunnel.
but they have very different personalities.
environmentally, financially, ideologically, industrially, logically, medically,
morally, outwardly, politically, technically, visually
A number of
Q
phrases are used
in
Politically / In political
Also: politically speaking, in
a similar way:
terms, this
terms of
summer
politics,
is
from a
a crucial time for the government.
political
point of view, as far as politics
are concerned
Some
O
adverbs or phrases are used to say whose viewpoint we are expressing:
The head of National Bank is to receive, according to reports, a £1 million bonus.
In
my view, the foreign
my / his / her
my / his / her (etc.)
minister should resign immediately.
knowledge, from
Also: to
(etc.)
in
opinion
my / his / her (etc.)
perspective, personally,
is /
>•
Exercises
Rewrite the italicised words using an adverb from the box. Choose the most
the adverb.
astomsWngly
bravely
interestingly
obviously
It
1
Q
likely position for
generously
carelessly
presumably
rightly
was very surprising indeed that no paintings were destroyed by the fire in the gallery.
As
were destroyed, by the fire in the gallery
.
2 As you drive off the
It
ferry,
there are lots of different flags flying by the side of the road.
seems likely that the idea
is
to
welcome
visitors
from other countries.
3 Acting more kindly than they needed to, the builders agreed to plant
new trees to
replace the ones
they had dug up.
4 Most people believe
5
It
in
a correct
way that the
prisoners should be released.
was easy to see that she knew more about the robbery than she told the
police.
6 He broke the window when he was painting because he wasn't paying attention to what he was
doing.
jJjP
7
She picked up the spider and put
8
I
found it strange that the road
it
no fear.
outside, showing
didn't appear
on the SATNAV.
Complete the sentences with an appropriate viewpoint adverb from
O
environmentally
we'd be much better off
financially
medteoUy
industrially
outwardly
it is
...
relatively undeveloped.
no longer the problem
he claims to be a socialist.
it is
Thomas
says that he is still getting severe headaches, although
medically the doctors cant find (Anything wrong
2 As she stepped onto the stage she
Now that
felt terrified,
but
7
Hansen
8
Julie
is
is
once was.
...
is
one of the
likely
it
...
no longer added to most petrol, ...
4 The country earns most of its income from agriculture and ...
5 The band didn't play terribly well, and the singing was awful, but
6 The cost of living is much lower in the north, so ...
lead
we moved there.
if
she looked remarkably calm.
she could be sent to prison.
visually
...
^29)
(ii).
the performance was stunning.
politically
technically
3
and an ending from
(ii)
(0
1
(i)
richest
men
in
the country, although
to be fined for failing to pay her gas
bill,
.
.
...
although
...
Complete the sentences using the phrases from B either with the words from the box
formed from them) or your own words.
(or
adjectives or adverbs
democracy
architecture
1
Hi^stortoUdj
speaking
,
grammar
geology
in
h is tory
what ways has disease affected the development of Western
civilisation?
2
limestone
3 The building
is
similar to the opera
house
in
is
a relatively
new
rock.
Milan m
4
5
the essay was well written, but its style was inappropriate.
The election was clearly rigged and the result is a severe blow to the country
157
Unit
79
Adverbial clauses of time
As,
when and
We can often
while
use as,
Reminder
when
happens when something
As
We
When
/
when
use
/
mean
or while to
'during the time that', to talk about
While Miguel was
eating, the doorbell rang.
(not as or while) to introduce a clause which talks about -
They were playing
the circumstances
'm
O
O
We
when
when
if
the main clause happens:
When the
first
one event happens immediately
after another, particularly
cross the bridge.
(‘...
as
house on the
went
lights
sentence,
likely
/
O
right
I
lit
when you
some
periods of our
lives:
time, although while
...').
In
its
flavour improves, (rather than
'as'
or ‘while' would be very
When
same
the cheese
particularly with a continuous tense: ‘While the cheese
We use while or when
time:
...)
is
maturing
when) to talk about two longer actions that go on
more common than as in informal speech:
(rather than
is
went shopping while Liam cleaned the house,
I
and the continuous would be
that'
the second sentence
thing changes, another thing changes at the
when one
...',
one causes the other:
go out instantaneously.
As the cheese matures,
also use ‘While
if
candles.
would suggest ‘during the time
while you are crossing
We prefer while or as
O
out,
or ‘while'
‘as'
prefer as to say that
We can
be over two metres long.
my
unlikely because lights usually
We
the main clause):
mean
to
I
Q
more
in
(in
heard a scream.
I
prefer
the
which the event
in
when they
the garden
‘every time', and we prefer when to talk about past
when
wake up in the morning. (= ‘every time')
still feel tired
His mother called him Robbie when he was a baby. (= a past period)
use
You'll see
In
in
When they are fully grown these snakes can
We also
something that
else takes place:
an event that takes place at the same time as some longer event
O
4M1& M8
(or
...
as Liam cleaned
at the
same
...)
where ‘as' could mean ‘because':
went to the cinema. (As you were playing ... = Because
(rather than as) to avoid ambiguity
While you were playing
golf,
I
...)
Before, after and until
We
use before or after to talk about an event happening earlier or later than another event:
O
O
put on
I
The message
We can often
in
my coat
before
I
went
arrived after
out.
I'd left.
use either until or before
when
a situation continues to
happen up to
a time indicated
the adverbial clause:
had to wait
I
However,
we
six
weeks
until
/
before the parcel arrived.
use until to talk about an action that continues to a particular time and then stops:
on the beach until the sun sank below the horizon, and then they went home,
and when the adverbial clause describes the result of an action in the main clause:
He cleaned his shoes until they shone, (‘shining' is the result of 'cleaning'.)
They
sat
Hardly, no sooner, scarcely
say that one event happened immediately after another we can use sentences with hardly,
no sooner, and scarcely (see also Unit 100). After hardly and scarcely the second clause begins with
When we
when
Q
O
or before; after
it
begins with than or
The concert had hardly begun before all the
had no sooner lit the barbecue than /when
use a past perfect
the other.
in
when:
went
lights
I
We often
in
no sooner
the clause with hardly
it
out.
started to rain.
(etc.),
no sooner
or scarcely and a past simple
.
.
Exercises
Complete these sentences with as, when or while.
notice any differences in meaning,
She
1
fell
over
she kicked the
we were younger our
2
3
speak Spanish,
I
4
packed
I
She stayed
5
at
all
I
parents had to pay for our music lessons.
talk slowly to help people understand
made
the books away, Lana
me.
on her laptop.
a note of their titles
her brother
you got married?
come in, it became
live
answers and
ball.
home watching television
6 Where did you
the results started to
7
possible, give alternative
If
was
at school.
clear that President
Como
had
lost the
election.
8 The humidity started to increase
the day wore on.
9 The snow was getting deeper and deeper
10
*H»
.f
the paint dries
it
we waited
changes colour from a
light to a
for the train to arrive.
deep
red.
necessary, correct or improve these sentences.
1
As I'm older
2
When the boy watched
I'd
love to be a dancer.
in
up the dead beetle and carried
fascination, the ants picked
it
off to
their nest.
3 The disk drive makes a buzzing sound while
I
switch
my
PlayStation on.
4 As the car went by, someone waved to me from the back seat.
35 While Kasem had finished, he tidied up the room and left.
46 was in the shower as the phone rang.
I
5
Complete
6
possible.
this talk
Q
He continued
1
to
he
2
3
It
about the
work
and work of
a professor
London University
at
left his
life
with before or until or both
he retired
in
if
2007.
native country, he learned English by listening to the radio.
he was appointed Professor of Chemistry.
wasn't long
4 He married Martha
he
5
he moved to England in 1960.
came to England he worked in his father's grocery
6 He applied for research positions
He was almost unknown
7
8 He would work
Complete the sentences
1
2
outside his
in his lab for
in
he was awarded the Nobel
field
days at a time
any appropriate way.
I
.
Martin had no sooner recovered from a broken ankle
hardly put
down
the phone
We
had no sooner eaten
Lisa
had hardly finished speaking
I
.
tit.
...
...
...
.
.
had scarcely driven to the end of the street
Additional exercise 14 (page 249)
Prize.
he had completed an experiment.
The paint on the sitting room wall had scarcely dried
before my daughter put her dirty hands ail over
He had
shop.
he was appointed to a post at London University.
...
159
.
Unit
Giving reasons: as, because,
We can
for and with
etc.;
begin a clause with as, because, seeing that, seeing as, or since to give a reason for a
particular situation:
was getting late, decided should go home.
must be near the beach, because lean hear the waves.
Since he was going to be away on his birthday, we celebrated before he left.
We could go and visit Natalia, seeing that we have to drive past her house anyway
As
it
I
I
We
O
Note that -
common
it is
and acceptable
for
because to begin
Because everything looked different,
to give reasons
similar
spoken English,
in
meaning
I
a sentence, as
in:
had no idea where to go.
we most often
use because. So
is
also
commonly used
won't be able to come, (‘because' introduces the
Because my mother's
My mother's so won't be able to come, (‘so' introduces the result.)
ill,
ill,
when
I
Q
means ‘because', since is
way in academic writing:
coverage
will
remain continuous, (more
used
is
in
informal English.
Some
Joel just had to apologise, seeing that
formal or literary written English
or, less
It is
I
results of this analysis can be easily
seeing that
In
rather formal.
uncommon
had to go outside because was feeling awful,
The
O
I
reason) and
I
it
in this
commonly, inasmuch
as.
introduce clauses which clarify
we
For
('since'
likely
than ‘because'
as he
knew
made
he'd
in
informal speech:
a mistake.
a clause beginning for, in that,
in
a formal alternative to ‘because'; in that and
what has been said by adding
film
unusual
is
Clara and
I
in
that
it features
have quite an easy
quite a lot of money, (or
The prepositions because
of,
life,
to,
inasmuch as
detail:
only four actors, (or In that
...
#
the film
(not For the
is ...)
inasmuch as neither of us has to work too hard but we earn
Inasmuch as
due
satellite
formal context.)
in this
must begin planning now, for the future may bring unexpected changes,
future ..., we must ...)
The
frequently used
unlikely in an informal context)
is
people also use seeing as
/
is
compared to future observations since
can also introduce a reason
is
conversation, but
in
We
G
to express a
Compare:
(see also Unit 81).
Clara and
I
...)
and owing to can also be used before a noun or noun phrase to
give a reason for something:
We were delayed
O
O
because of an accident.
She was unable to run owing to / due to a leg injury. (= because of a leg injury.)
We have less money to spend owing to / due to budget cuts. (= because of budget
Note that we don't use because alone before a noun or noun
We were delayed because there was an accident, (not
cuts.)
phrase:
Q
In
current English
we
...
owing to directly after a form
due to the new director, (not
usually avoid
because an accident.)
of be:
is owing to ...)
largely, mainly, partly:
entirely,
as
such
adverb
However, owing to is used after be + a degree
weather.
bad
The low election turnout was partly due to / owing to the
The company's success
We can often
use either
It was owing to
We can
it
is
...
was due to
his
...
that or
it
was owing to
encouragement that she applied
...
that:
for the job. (or It
was due to
use for and with followed by a noun phrase to give a reason (compare B above):
She was looking
With so
all
the better for her stay
many people
ill,
in hospital.
(= ‘as a result of')
the meeting was cancelled. (=
‘as a result of
there being')
that)
•]
Exercises
•
n Complete the sentences by putting an item from
and one from
(ii),
in
the correct order.
(ii)
(0
were g ven a full refun d
1
-pas s e ng ers -
2
Andrea agreed to book tickets
3
I'll
4
I've
5
we were recommended
i
for us all
buy you lunch
given up dairy products
a
it's
b
it
c
Dr
to buy the
your birthday
was her
idea to
go to the theatre
Gomez spoke about
his research instead
new copy would be very expensive
suggested we all go on holiday together
-th e- if a n was
elayed for more than an hour
d
a
e
textbook second-hand
I
f
i
-
6
the guest lecturer was late
g
it's
7
we
h
I'm trying to lose weight
get on so well
8 you should never walk under
1
(i)
+
the traxn
Since
f
supposed to be unlucky
a ladder
was delayed for m ore than an HoWj passenger^ were
&
given
full refund,
2
as
Seeing as
3
4 Because
5
since
6 As
seeing that
7
8
because
...
Complete the sentences using due to or owing to with one of the phrases from the box.
due to and owing to are possible, write both.
Q
lack of interest
She claims her
1
heavy cloud
illness
due
entirely
is
2 The cancellation of the competition
3 The popularity of the restaurant
4
It's
5
We couldn't see last
likely
that the mistake
age
his
6
I
7
I
had to drive
in
10
..
was
there
moon
using because or because of + a phrase from the box.
(g)
was
a fly in
local opposition
it
dark glasses
couldn't speak to Jacob
8 The council had to withdraw
9
error
largely
is
mobile was switched off
the bright sunlight
human
central location
both
owing to stress at work
is
night's eclipse of the
Now complete these sentences
his
to.../
its
If
My grandfather couldn't do a
He
its
swimming pool
plan to close the
sponsored parachute jump
sent the soup back
Rewrite these sentences using for or with instead of because
(of).
Give alternatives where
possible.
1
I
got a job as a street sweeper because
WiiTi my money running out,
my money was
running out.
peeper /
I
street sweeper, with
2
I
3
Olivia
4
5
I
.
my money running
I
got
a.
job
^
put.
what Isabella was saying because of the noise.
went to stay with her aunt because her father was in hospital.
couldn't hear
felt
a lot fitter because of
all
the exercise
Because the train drivers are on
Additional exercise 14 (page 249)
strike
I
was
doing.
tomorrow, don't think
I
I'll
go to town
after
all.
161
Unit
81
Purposes and
In
order
To
talk
etc.
so as + to-infinitive
about the purpose of an action
O
O
In
/
order to, so as to,
results: in
He took the course
we
can use
order to get
in
order
in
so as + to-infinitive:
/
a better job.
Trees are being planted by the roadside so as to reduce traffic noise.
spoken English
in
particular
it is
much more common
simply to use a to-infinitive without
‘in
order'
same meaning:
He took the course to get a better job.
or ‘so as' to express the
O
We
rarely use just
He
vague not to commit himself
in
contrastive sentences
came
I
to see you not
Note that we can put
In
in
...)
wrote down her name so as not to forget
I
However,
O
...
so as not to or in order not to:
himself to one side or the other.
commit
not
order
to
to-infinitive, but instead use
kept the speech vague
(not
O
not +
in
(in
order
we
it.
(not
...
name
order / so as) to complain, but
so as before the to-infinitives
/
not to forget
...)
can use not + to-infinitive, but + to-infinitive as
(in
in
in:
order/ so as) to apologise.
sentences
like this.
order that and so that
We also use in order that and
H
so that to talk about a purpose. Compare:
so as to complete the report, and
She stayed at work
late in
order
She stayed at work
late in
order that
/
/
so that she could complete the report, (not
...in
order
that / so that to complete the report.)
So that
is
informally
A
more common than
we
in
order that, and
can leave out that after so, but
present tense verb
the main clause
in
is
tense verb
in
the main clause
after in
O
O
O
O
etc.) in
order that
Advice
is
in less
formal situations. Note that
include
in
it
the clause beginning
after in order.
in
order that
usually followed by a past tense verb (or a
the clause beginning in order that
/
/
modal with
so that. A past
modal with past reference
so that. Modal verbs are very often used
so that:
Regular checks are
made
in
order that safety standards are maintained.
given in order that students can choose the best course.
Did you give up your job so that you could take care of your mother?
hid the presents so that Marianna wouldn't find them.
I
Such that and
In
/
is
used
usually followed by a present tense verb (or a
present or future reference - can, will, etc.)
- could, would,
is
we always
in
such a
way that / as to; such
...
that
formal contexts, such as academic writing, we can use such that to introduce a result:
The model was designed such that the value of x could be calculated. (= ‘in a way that has the
result that
Less formally
we
or
...
in
can also use
order that
in
such a
...;
or
...
so that
way that or
in
...)
such a
way as + to-infinitive with
a similar
meaning:
Q
We can
The advertisement is printed in such a way that two very different pictures can be seen
depending on how you look at it.
Our business is managed in such a way as to minimise its environmental impact.
such + noun phrase + that to introduce a result:
such a popular play that all the performances were sold out
(For so + adjective / adverb + that, see Unit 73.)
also use
It is
162
after the first day.
Exercises
>•
Combine the two sentences
so as (not) + to-infinitive.
the most appropriate
had to borrow money from the bank.
1
I
2
He packed
1
in
Q
4
We crept quietly towards the deer.
5
I
in
walked around the outside of the
6
We put up a fence.
7
She looked down at the book
c
d
field.
front of
I
+ d
....
set,
up
:
want
didn't
to
damage the growing
crops,
up th e bus ness.
They didn't want to disrupt traffic too much,
We didn't want to frighten them away,
She wanted to avoid his gaze,
He didn't want to crush his clothes.
h
had. to borrow money from the
so as to
people walking across
i
g
8 The roadworks were carried out at night.
(or
was done to encourage people to use
4-dtd-th s to s et
f
her.
I
order (not) + to-infinitive or
the grass.
e
in
in
We wanted to prevent
b
the city were being cut.
Bus fares
using
public transport.
the bottom.
3
1
This
a
with the books at
his suitcase
way
In orcler bo
i
set up the business.
...
)
Look again at the sentences you wrote in
in order or so as? Write / or X.
I
81.1. Is it
Q
without
hod
to borrow
money from the bank
also possible to use only a to-infinitive,
to set
up the business.
/
Complete the sentences with the correct versions of the phrases from the box.
new channels
it
will /would receive
it
won't / wouldn't take up a lot of computer
the
memory
mosquitoes can't /couldn't get in
nobody
people can / cou/<dw alk around the gardens
1
2
They have an open day
gardens.
I
at their
know it was there
we can / could see the view over the city
will /would
house each year so that
people can walk
around the
put a rug over the stain on the carpet so that
3 There were screens on
4 The software
is
all
the windows so that
designed so that
5 We went up to the top floor so that
6 The TV needs to be retuned so that
Rewrite each sentence less formally
in
two ways; once
using in such a
way that and once
using
way as to.
in
such a
1
The factory demolition was planned such that any risk to the public was avoided.
The factory demolition ..was planned In such a way that any risk to
w&s avoided. / The factory demoUtoon was planned in. such a way as
pubUc
to
avoid
^y.ri^kto
room
2 The meeting
is
designed such that everyone's voice can be heard without the use of
microphones
3 The website
4
If
the dial
is
is
organised such that
rotated such that the
Additional exercise 14 (page 249)
it is
easy to navigate.
number
1 is
at the top, the valve opens.
163
Unit
Contrasts: although and though;
82
while, whilst and
even though
/
if;
whereas
Although and though
We
use although or (less formally) though to say that there
is
a surprising contrast
between what
happened in the main clause and what happened in
Although / Though Reid failed to score himself, he helped Jones to score two goals.
With a similar meaning, we can use despite the fact that / in spite of the fact that (e g. Despite the
fact that / In spite of the fact that Reid failed to score ...), despite / in spite of + -ing (e.g. Despite
the adverbial clause:
O
spite of Reid failing to score
/ In
of his failure to score
...),
or despite
/ in
spite of his
/
her + noun
(e g.
Despite
/ In
spite
...).
Note that we can use though, but not although, at the end of a clause:
eat most dairy products. I'm not keen on yogurt, though.
O
I
adjective by putting it before though in the pattern adjective
verb
(usually a linking verb such as appear, be, become, feel, look,
pronoun
+
/
seem, sound, prove, etc.). As (but not although) can be used instead of though. Compare:
Hot though (or as) the night air was, they slept soundly, and
Although / Though the night air was hot, they slept soundly.
We can give special emphasis to an
+ though + noun
C
O
Even though and even
We can
use even though (but not ‘even although') to
‘whether or
O
if
not'.
1
‘despite the fact that'
= Despite the
think he should
fact that
Even
1
if
if
to
mean
i.e.
still visit
the speaker knows
that Matt doesn't speak
he doesn't speak Spanish
Spanish
Madrid.
O
and even
Compare:
Even though Matt doesn't speak
Spanish,
mean
Matt doesn't speak Spanish,
think he should
still visit
= Whether
or not he
i.e.
Madrid.
the speaker doesn't
know definitely whether
speaks Spanish
Matt speaks Spanish or not
While, whilst and whereas
In
formal contexts
In
can use while or whilst with a meaning similar to ‘although' to introduce
main clause or something that may seem to conflict with
after it:
this case, the while / whilst clause comes before or within the main clause, but not
While / Whilst there is no evidence that Rob cheated, we were all astonished that he passed
something that
it.
we
qualifies
what
is
said in the
O
the exam, (not We were
O
The
diesel
Note that whilst
model
is
all
astonished that he passed the exam, while ...)
/ whilst more expensive, is better value for money.
of the car, while
a rather literary
word and some people avoid using
it.
use while or whereas (or less often whilst) to say that something contrasts with something
the main clause. The while / whereas clause may come before or after the main clause:
Juan gets lots of homework from school, while / whereas Mia gets very little.
We can
in
While
/
Whereas always felt would
I
I
We don't use whereas
if
what
is
pass the exam,
said in the subordinate clause
I
never thought
makes what
is
I
would get an A grade.
said in the
main clause
unexpected:
Although
/
While Sophie's father
is
from Spain, she doesn't speak Spanish, (not Whereas
...)
use -ing and past participle (-ed) clauses after although, though, while and whilst, and also
clauses with the subject and verb left out (see Unit 59D).
We can
Exercises
Join the sentence halves
and give special emphasis to the adjective by moving
it
to the front of
the sentence. Use either though or as.
may seem amazing
1
it
2
she was frightened
1
became
3 food
a
scarce
the instructions
first
appeared
confusing
6
it
7
she
looked disgusting
felt
confident
8 their new products have proved
I
them
at
in
b
she forced herself to pick up the snake
c
they had never faced such severe conditions before
company
d
the
e
they always found enough to share with
f
she knew the examination would not be easy
g
my bfothep johan -bas just won the lott e ry
h
it
was
is still
in
financial difficulties
me
actually quite tasty
successful
1
Amazing though ct may seem v my. brother Johan has just won the
Amazing as
mc^ seem
)
+g
Lottery.
.
(or
Expand the notes
in
spite of his / her +
1
when looked
detail
4 the climbers were experienced
5
they were very useful
brackets and rewrite the sentences using In spite of + -ing
noun
in
4-6.
Q
Although she has to cope with three small children,
In spite of hayrng to cope wliki t^r^
^
MBA
...
(taking -part-time
in
1-3 and In
MBA course)
course.
2 Although he
was much younger than the
others,
.
.
.
(was - most outstanding rider - team)
Although he ate a big lunch, ... (had -three-course meal -evening)
4 Although he was frightened, ... (allowed -huge spider -placed in his hands)
5 Although she is obviously intelligent,
(finds - it difficult - express - ideas in
3
.
.
.
6 Although she was
ill,
...
Now rewrite the sentences you
Despcte.
writing)
(went -walking holiday -Nepal)
have written beginning Despite the fact that
...
the fact that she has to cope with three small chiUlren, she
a paH-t^e MBA
is
taking
a>urse.
Underline the correct phrase.
The
on more passengers even though / even if the bus was already
you where Mariam lives even though / even if knew.
3 Even though / Even if only play one match for my country, I'll be happy.
4 Even though / Even if he had just had lunch, Thomas bought a hamburger.
1
2
I
driver stopped to let
wouldn't
tell
full.
I
I
5
He
plays for France even though / even
6 You won't see
all
the animals
7 Even though / Even
8
I
still
if
in
if
he was born
in
Algeria.
the zoo even though / even
I'm quite old,
I
still
miss
my
if you
stay for the whole day.
parents.
couldn't afford to go to Taipei, even though / even
if
I
took the cheapest route.
Rewrite these sentences with a similar meaning. Begin the sentence with
and While
1
if
Whereas
if
possible
not.
Horse riding is an expensive pastime, but more and more people are taking
While Horse ruling Is an expensive
more and. more people
c,s. not possible
(Whereas
it
up.
are-
taking
it
up.
)
2
A decade ago
only
5% of students dropped
out of college, but the figure today
is
25%.
3 The temperature is below freezing, but it actually feels quite warm when the sun is out.
4 The cost of rail travel has increased, but the number of train passengers has grown.
5 I've always wanted to visit Australia, but I've never had any wish to go to Canada.
Additional exercise 14 (page 249)
165
.
Unit
83
In real
conditionals
O
If
However,
O
O
we
usually use a present tense verb
you leave now,
If
in
we
conversation
more
chairs
When we make offers, and
O
We can
if
I'll
give instructions or advice
many
is
we
people to the performance.
can use an imperative
turned
in
the main clause:
off.
use if-clauses with a present tense verb to introduce certain conditions under which
is
true. In this case,
‘if'
has a meaning similar to ‘when':
The video pauses if you click on this button.
If age-related changes are taken into account, the conclusion remains the same.
We can talk about possible future events with
(will,
...)
have to leave now.
we're going to invite so
Take another sandwich if you're hungry.
If you have a mobile phone, check that it
something
O
O
youVe leaving now
If
can use be going to instead of a present tense verb:
I'm going to catch the train,
We'll need
the if-clause to talk about the future:
in
you'll be able to catch the 5 o'clock train, (or
present continuous, or be going to)
in
a present perfect verb in the if-clause
and a future form
the main clause. Sometimes present perfect or present
simple can be used with a similar meaning:
War and Peace
lend you
17/
if
I've
finished
it
before you go on holiday, (or
...
if
I
finish
...)
If you haven't paid the bill by Friday, we're taking the carpets back, (or If you don't pay ...)
However, to focus on the future consequences of a past event, we use the present perfect. Compare:
If
I've failed
my exam
again, I'm giving
exam; don't know the
I
If
fail
I
my exam
result)
up the course, (suggests
I
have already taken the
and
again, I'm giving up the course.
(I
may or may
not have taken the exam)
Unreal conditionals
In
unreal conditionals
we
can use
if
...were
happen (see also Unit
O
If
like,
to-infinitive rather than
it is
we
were to become
available,
we would
We sometimes use this pattern to make a suggestion
use
if it
it
talk
about
be able to expand the business.
I
Would
+ past simple to
don't usually use this pattern with verbs such as belong, doubt, enjoy,
remember, and understand when they describe a state:
knew they were honest, I'd gladly lend them the money, (not
If
O
We
if
unlikely that the situation in the if-clause will
14):
the technology
However, note that
+
when
imaginary future situations, particularly
be too early for you
if
sound more
we were to meet at
was not for + noun phrase
(or
more formally
If
I
were to know
know,
...)
polite:
5:30?
if it
were not for + noun phrase)
to say
dependent on another situation or on a person (see also Unit 85A). When we talk
also use if it had not been for + noun phrase:
we
can
past
about the
for Nina, the conference wouldn't be going ahead.
weren't
If it wasn't /
wouldn't have gone to college, (or If it wasn't / weren't for ...)
If it hadn't been for Dad,
84A):
In formal language we can also use Were it not for ... and Had it not been for ... (see Unit
that one situation
is
I
O
O
We can
Were it not for Nina ...
Had it not been for Dad
use but for +
noun with
.
.
a similar meaning, particularly in formal contexts:
would have been closed years ago but for the determination of teachers
The
and parents to keep it open. (= ... if it hadn't been for the determination ...)
village school
.
!
•
Exercises
•
Complete these sentences with an imperative
1
(1-3) or an if-clause (4-6).
fjjjj}
There have been a lot of thefts from cars in the city centre. If you leave your car there,
Locked. / don\U>ave< any valuables in it.
make sure
you have any more problems with the computer,
3 If you see Ned today,
2
If
keep well away from them.
5
_
don't hesitate to get
„
in
touch with
me again.
6
get off at the stop near the
library.
Complete the sentences using the verb
perfect
not
in
in
fill
- need
Have studied, / study
1
If
3
2
If
you
you
If
you
If
the taxi
If
you
3
from the box. Use the present simple or present
leave -
not help - go
st udy - know
not arrive - give
4
pairs
the if-clause, and give alternatives. Notice any differences
home
in
meaning.
meet
break - have to
Macbeth, you'll
before
get there,
I
know
the scene with the witches.
you
I'll
the window, you'll
pay for
at the airport.
it.
5
4
6
5
7
by 10 o'clock,
you a
I'll
an application form, you
lift
to the station.
to do so before you can
will
be considered for the job.
6
If
by the end of the week,
the antibiotics
back to the
I'll
doctor.
If
necessary, correct the italicised part of the sentence using a past simple form of the
same
verb. (£1
the house immediately
1
I'd sell
2
If
3
I'd
go back to the restaurant
4
If
were to doubt
5
There would be no cinema
6
If
if it
were to belong to me.
they were to hold an election now, the Democrats would undoubtedly win.
I
I
his
if
honesty,
in
I
were to
like sushi
wouldn't employ him.
I
if the Odeon were to close.
do the translation myself.
the town
were to understand Chinese,
I'd
Complete these rewritten sentences with
1
The weather was
not been
2
-for
His happiness
terrible.
strike
The
fight could
was
still
be going on
have got out of hand
.
.
if
if
for his anxiety over Carla. If it
were
the government hadn't intervened. Were
the police hadn't arrived.
it
Had it
quiet except for the sound of birds singing. But for
There would have been
We would
we would have gone walking this weekend. If it had
we would Have gone walking this weekend.
Otherwise,
the terrible weather,
would probably
Everything
similar meanings.
would have been complete except
The
more.
far
more wars
in
the last 50 years without the United Nations.
have been here two hours ago except for the roadworks.
If it
If it
was
had
167
Unit
84
2
if
When the first verb
can leave out
and 100
in
if
inversion).
hypothetical conditionals
happen
O
O
if
is
should, were, or had
and put the verb at the start of the clause (see Units
more on
for
a conditional if-clause
we
99
We do this particularly in formal or literary English,
and only
in
type of unreal conditional which answers the question 'What would
(a
...?'):
Should any of this cost you anything, send
me the
bill.
(=
If
would be embarrassing, were she to find out the truth.
Had they not rushed Jo to hospital, she would have died.
It
We don't usually use if
...
will in conditional clauses.
However,
we
any of this should cost
(=
...
(=
If
if
.
.
.)
she were to find out
they hadn't rushed Jo
can use
if ...
...)
...)
will -
when we talk about a result of something in the main clause. Compare:
Open a window if it will help you to sleep, (or ... if it helps you to sleep; ‘Helping you to
sleep' is the result of opening the window) and
‘Turning out that
will be angry if it turns out that you are wrong, (not ... if it will turn out
of
angry)
result
being
is
not
the
you are wrong'
ft
O
O
I
requests or with the meaning
in
If
in real
you
/
in
willing to' (or
ladies
if ...
would
to be
more
polite):
and gentlemen, we can begin the meeting.
when we want to show that we disapprove
of something.
In this
case, will
is
speech (see also Unit 16B):
I'm tired.
a:
you are
‘if
would take your seats,
conditionals
stressed
O
will
b:
Well,
if
you
will
go to bed so
not surprised.
late, I'm
Note that we can use if ... won't when we talk about a refusal to do something:
There's no point in trying to teach the class if they won't pay attention.
Q
In
a real conditional sentence,
if ...
but
should happen to to
is
not very
If
likely. If
...
we
talk
use
happen to
you happen to be
in
Note that we don't usually use
if ...
happen
to,
about something which
is
most common
our area, drop
in
should, or
if ...
may
in
and see
be possible,
spoken English:
us. (or If
you should [happen
to] be
...)
about states or events
in
the
you could walk from London to Oslo, (but probably not
If
the
this pattern in unreal conditionals talking
if-clause which the speaker perceives as highly unlikely or impossible:
O
If
the North Sea froze
in
winter,
North Sea happened to freeze
In
/
should (happen to) freeze
in
winter
...)
followed by a noun phrase, -ing clause, past participle (-ed)
comparison with a situation described in the main clause. We do
to give an explanation or to say that something appears to be the case but is not:
Magnus walked in as if nothing had happened.
comparison clauses
we
can use as
if
clause, or to-infinitive to introduce a
this
O
Q
Q
His hands
When
As
if
made
a circular motion, as
he caught the
ball,
Lee
fell
to convince herself that Luis
if
steering a bus through a sharp bend.
to the floor as
was
Note that we can use as though instead of as
if
really there,
if,
and
in
hit
by a
bullet.
she gently touched his cheek.
informal speech
some people use
same meaning:
Q
The crowd reacted as though they were watching a boxing match, (or
He walked into the room like nothing had happened, (or ... as if ...)
as
if ...)
like
with the
.
.
Exercises
•
•
Rewrite these sentences with similar meanings. Begin with the word given.
3
1
Consult your doctor again
if the symptoms remain 72 hours after starting the course of
the symptoms rernaur 7Z hours
of
medicine. Should
nnedi^ej„con$^
.
2 You would
6
Clare
know what you have to do
for
homework,
if
you had not been absent from school on
Had
Friday.
would have been able to stay with her
friends
4 The factory would not have had to shut down
if
if
they were
still
living in Brussels.
Were
the workers were prepared to accept a
...
wage
cut.
Were...
5
1
2
We shall
have to reduce the number of employees
doesn't improve
if
the financial performance of the
company
the near future. Should
in
3
4
might have considered taking the job
I
if
the salary had been higher.
Had
5
If
1
necessary, correct the italicised parts of these sentences.
If I will
2 You're
3
If he
press this button, will
bike, ifyou think
it
will
be of any use to you.
won't resign, the Prime Minister should sack him.
4
If the
5
Ifyou'll tell
6
Ifyou'll
7
If it'll
If
start to record?
it
welcome to borrow my old
disease will be untreated,
can lead to brain damage.
it
me where the vacuum cleaner is,
complain about me,
I'll
do some
get into trouble with
I'll
cleaning.
my teacher.
save money, I'm willing to go by public transport.
possible, rewrite the italicised parts of these sentences with
X after the
If I
If a
see Georgia
If I
when I'm in Rome,
I'll
to.
If it is
unlikely, write
send her your regards.
UFO landed in the centre of New York,
The plan
happen
sentence, (j)
for a
new
there would be mass panic.
airport to be built outside
London
is
bad news
you live nearby.
if
was the President, would order our nuclear weapons to be destroyed.
I
you are in
If
the south of Spain next week, there
is
a
good chance of seeing
a total eclipse of the
sun.
Complete the sentences using your own words or the notes
if
you
prefer.
(agree - everything Julia said)
(4—say - shocJdng)(it - reverse - wall)
(try - imagine - contained)
(overcome - great weariness)
1
My father
2
He
3
She stared hard at the parcel as
raised his
4 He nodded
5
eyebrows as
if
I
folded his arms on the table and
his
head slowly as
The back of the car looked as
if
.
had said
laid his
something shocking.
head on them, as if ...
.
if ...
if
.
.
169
Unit
85
If
Was
can be used instead of were with the same meaning
we
However,
O
If
Were
(i)
imagine he were to win
were you
I
is
were
prefer
were you,
I
used
I'd
way
in this
rather than
take
in
it
was when we
back to the shop.
other patterns
your mother was here
got a hole
It's
when we
(‘If
give advice with
talk
in
it.
If
I
etc.).
were you
(rather than
If
I
was you
...)
about imaginary situations -
when we use were + subject + to-infinitive or were + subject as a more formal alternative to if +
was / were (see also Unit 84A):
the election to be held today, the Liberals would win easily, (or If the election was /
Were
O
were held today ...)
O Were not in my seventies and rather unfit, might consider taking up squash, (or If wasn't
subject +
I
/
(ii)
I
I
weren't
in
my seventies and
rather unfit
...)
after wish:
O
enjoy
I
my job
Of course
about
(iii)
after
O
Q
(iv)
if
‘If
I'd
O
(or
...
only when
your job
is
I
I
wish
only wish he wasn't
we
it
were
closer to
home,
why
don't you leave?'
do accounting.
I
(or
...
I
wish
it
was
...)
only wish he weren't so boastful
...)
express our regret that a situation
so bad,
really like to
If only
I
'If only it
isn't different:
were
that simple.' (or If only
weren't so poor at maths,
(or If only
I
it
was
wasn't
('d)
...)
...)
would ('d) sooner when we talk about preferences:
feel embarrassed about what happened and would rather the event were forgotten.
(or ... was forgotten.)
'd sooner it were earlier, if possible, (or ...
‘I've arranged a meeting for the end of July.'
would
after
O
it.
enormously, but
I'm pleased that Jan has been given the award.
rather and
I
‘I
it
was
earlier.)
(v) in
sentences or clauses beginning with suppose, supposing and imagine:
Suppose were to lower the price by £100. Would you consider buying the car then?
Q
I
was to lower ...)
know it looks rather dirty now, but imagine the house were (to be) repainted.
a lot more attractive, (or ... imagine the house was (to be) repainted.)
(or Suppose
O
And
(vi)
in
I
I
comparisons
we
would look
can use were -
if and as though
remember stepping
after as
(see Unit
O
off the
I
It
84D) and even
boat
in
if:
New York as if it were yesterday.
Despite losing the election, she continues to act as though she were prime minister.
It's too late to start the work this year even if it were possible to find the money for it.
.
.
.
Exercises
Match an item from
(i)
with an ending from
(ii)
to form a sentence. Begin
(not).
...
©
(i)
(0
1
...
2
...
3
.
.
.
4
.
.
.
5
...
found guilty of
+
d
the glass would certainly break
you would be horrified
would gladly accept your invitation
there would be an outcry from students
e
the
...
a
government to increase university fees ...
anyone to lean against the window
not already busy in August
to see the conditions in which the refugees
b
libel
.
.
are living
1
Were
I
new spape r would
fa c
e huge leg a l cost s
...
Were
e
c
.
.
it to
be found guilty of
libel 3
the newspaper would face huge legal costs
Expand the notes to write a sentence to go before each question below. Use Suppose,
Supposing, or Imagine, followed by a pronoun, noun or noun phrase and then were.
I
(miss / last train)
1
2 (inherit
/
we were
Supposing
the last train
to miss
How would we get home?
.
million dollars)
How would
change your life?
you /emigrating to Canada)
How do you think you would react?
4 (Spain / win / World Cup)
How would you celebrate?
it
3
(parents /tell
5
(population of Britain
How would
its
/ all
Buddhist)
society be different?
Complete t he se ntences with either as
if
or even
if
followed by an appropriate pronoun and
then were.
as If
were
1
Muller spoke slowly
2
Every day Mrs Demir would walk around the park
3 She
knew she wouldn't be
4 Theo completely ignored
He
5
6
7
When
8
I
a great physical effort.
able to eat rabbit
snowing.
meat
starving.
me
not standing next to him.
picked Natasha up
no heavier than a two-year-old.
would have got the job
better qualified.
Martina saw that was stuck she laughed out loud
don't think
I
It
I
to offer
Complete the sentences using one of the phrases
in (i)
it
to me.
with expanded notes from
(ii).
|
00
(0
if
wish he were
'd
rather
it
were
if
'd
were you
it were
sooner she were
I
only
forgotten
not so
...
classmates
critical
Tong^ ghts
i
...
I
would be happy to
live in
the north of Sweden
going
...
friends
employees
...
w nt e r
i
breakfast before
1
a joke.
I
wouldn't accept the job
...
as easy
...
that
leave
Long nights In
if
winter
2
I'm not
3
a:
If
b:
Well,
4
5
happy about Jess going to Thailand alone.
you're unhappy with your
new
car,
I
why don't you
know you haven't got much time, but
Wearing odd shoes to school was embarrassing and
ask for your
money back?
I
6 I'm very fond of Paul, but
I
I
171
Unit
86
not and unless;
If ...
If
...
if
and whether;
etc.
not and unless
Unless
used
is
O
conditional sentences with the meaning ‘except
in
You can't
travel
on
if':
unless you have a reservation.
this train
With unless we use present tenses when we talk about the future:
Unless it rains, I'll pick you up at six. ( not Unless it will rain
O
conditional sentences,
In real
Unless the theatre
to
implies
...;
‘it
is
will
we
can often use either unless or
able to raise £100,000,
it
will
if ...
we use if ... not but not unless when we say in the main clause that an event or action
.
.)
not with a
have to close, (or
raise the
have to close only if it can't
.
If
similar meaning:
the theatre
isn't
able
money')
However,
be amazed
I'll
usually
O
in
when the
We
If it
in
the if-clause
is
unexpected:
Christie doesn't win.
questions:
you don't pass the
If
G
if
‘only
if'
test,
what
will
you do?
implication does not apply:
wasn't the best performance of Hamlet
usually use
if ...
not rather than unless
you
in
I've
seen,
it
was
certainly the strangest.
unreal conditional sentences:
a hand.
weren't so
If
However, unless can be used in unreal conditional sentences when the main clause
C She wouldn't have gone to university unless her parents had insisted.
tired, I'd give
I
is
negative:
and whether
If
We can
use
if
whether to say that two
or
possibilities
have been talked or thought about, or to say
that people are not sure about something:
O
O
They couldn't decide if / whether it was worth
Do you know if / whether Ben's at home?
Whether can
usually be followed immediately by or not.
Compare:
know if Aya was coming or not. (not ...
know whether or not Aya was coming,
or not Aya
didn't
I
didn't
I
resitting the
use
vY
after a preposition (although
rather than
if
(or
...
was coming.) and
whether Tom was coming or not
-
We
whether
if
exam.
if is
sometimes used informally) and before
We argued about whether butter or margarine was better for you.
couldn't decide whether to buy apples or bananas.
O
a to-infinitive:
(informally
...
if ...)
I
noun / adjective + as to whether to mean ‘about' or ‘concerning':
There was some disagreement as to whether he was eligible to play for France.
the pattern
in
O
Also conflict, confusion, debate, discussion, doubt, question, speculation, uncertainty;
:
concerned, indifferent, uncertain, undecided, unsure
and
we
prefer
whether
rather than
after the verbs advise,
Q
in
O
if
-
choose, consider, depend on, discuss, talk about, and think about:
You should consider whether the car you are interested
a clause acting as a subject or
in is
good
value.
complement:
Whether the minister will quit over the issue remains to be seen.
The first issue is whether he knew he was committing a crime.
...)
Exercises
Match the sentence halves and write
one with Unless ... Cl
a
new sentence with the same meaning,
beginning each
.
We'll never get to the meeting
1
a
...
2 Alternative sources of funding must be
1
found
3
town ...
4 The weather must
5
If it
start
isn't ridiculously
in
that part of
improving soon
expensive
...
tra
i
n doesn't leave with in-five
be able to find
i
I'm sure
d
or the research will not be able to continue.
e
I
f
if
I'll
I'll buy that painting.
you have been unemployed
think
for six
months.
...
Unless the train Leaves within five minutes x well never get to the meeting.
+ b
necessary, correct the italicised phrase using
if ...
not fj}
Unless she had gone to university, she would have gone into the
1
m nutes.
my way there,
c
...
6 You are only entitled to state benefit
If
b
...
the roads haven't changed
If
or the farmers will lose their crops.
.
Unless the infection
is
treated urgently, there
is
army
If
she hadn't gone
a real danger that she will die.
Unless he was so clumsy, he'd be the best person to do the work.
You won't be allowed
into the country unlessyou have a visa.
be surprising unless Anya passes her piano exam.
Unlessyou get a loan from the bank, how will you pay for the house?
They'll go on strike unless they get a pay rise.
It'll
8 Where
will
you stay unless Louise is at home?
me unless they can prove intended to steal the
10 She'd be a really good teacher unless she was so disorganised.
9 The police can't prosecute
Write whether or
if
whether
/
was wondering
2 She was undecided
I
(if
I
3
Police have refused to confirm
4
It is
5
a:
b:
both are possible)
you'd had your
1
as to
unclear
to
the
How much will the
fly
exam
in
these sentences.
ring.
GEE)
results yet.
or go by train.
or not they have arrested anyone for the theft.
new
regulations will affect
all
buildings or just
new ones.
laptop cost?
That depends on
I
get one with a 15 or 17-inch screen.
6 Danny said that he was leaving home, but
I
didn't
know
to believe him.
Have you any idea
Steve will be at the meeting?
8 Can you remember
the door was open or closed when you got to the house?
9 There was considerable debate as to
chess was a game or a sport.
7
10
I
don't
know
11
The government
12
Everyone
in
Andrea's going to wait for us or not.
is
considering
the village was very friendly.
to hold an enquiry into the accident.
It
didn't matter
you'd lived there for a
short ora longtime.
173
Unit
Connecting ideas in a sentence and
between sentences
phrases (sentence connectors) are used to connect one sentence with a previous
Some words and
sentence or sentences. Often (but not always) these go at the beginning of the sentence:
There was no heating in the building. As a result, the workers had to be sent home.
Other words and phrases (conjunctions) are used to connect clauses within a single sentence:
While was waiting, read a magazine.
O
I
I
stood up so that
I
could see better.
I
conjunctions
type of connection
sentence connectors
comparing, contrasting,
after
and indicating that a
contrast, even so,
though, whereas, while,
in
yet
main
situation (in the
clause)
although, even though,
the same, alternatively, anyway, by
however (but see C), in any case,
contrast, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary,
on the other hand
unexpected
is
all, all
one
as a consequence, as a result, consequently, for
reasons and results
because,
for, in that,
since, insofar as, so, so
(the last four are rather formal)
that
above
adding information
as,
thing, so; hence, in consequence, therefore, thus
in
all,
after
all,
also, besides,
furthermore,
addition, likewise, moreover, similarly, what's
more; as well, too (the
last
two are not used at the
beginning of a sentence)
condition
if
not,
so,
if
as long as, assuming
otherwise
(that),
on condition
if,
that, provided (that), so
long
as,
supposing
(that),
unless
time:
one event
same time
at that time, at the
at the
same
time, meanwhile
time: one event before or
after, after that, afterwards, before,
after another
earlier, later, previously,
Note that
not
expect to be promoted,
I
when, whenever, while
after, as
before that,
soon, subsequently, then
if
its
not
own
I'll
with a
comma to
connect clauses within one sentence
The building was extremely well constructed and, as a result,
You could fly via Singapore; however, this isn't the only way.
Even though
is
a conjunction used to say that a fact doesn't
(see also Unit 82B).
It
Even though
Even so
is
just said.
O
It
However
make the
difficult
if
to demolish.
rest of the
sentence untrue
it
was midday, put on the
I
light.
is
surprising in the context of
connects ideas between sentences:
was midday. Even
is
so,
I
put on the
light.
often used as a sentence connector, but
as an adverb
when
it is
it
can also be used -
followed by an adjective, adverb, or
much / many:
We just don't have the money to do the work, however necessary you think
as a conjunction
O
the clauses are
connects ideas within a sentence:
a sentence connector used to introduce a fact that
It
as, before,
leave).
However, a sentence connector can be used to connect two clauses in one sentence
joined with and, but, or, so, or a semi-colon (;), colon (:), or dash (-):
O
O
soon
since, until
before and so can be both connectors and conjunctions.
after,
We can't use a sentence connector on
(e.g.
as,
as another
when
However she
it
means
‘in
whatever way':
held the mirror, she couldn't see the back of her neck.
it is.
what was
.
Exercises
Choose items from
(i)
and from
to complete these texts
(ii)
in
an appropriate way. Note the
punctuation at the ends of the sentences and phrases already given.
Qm0
00
(0
alternatively
for
you could poison them
his face seemed familiar
otherwise
the rent was paid on time
as long as
one thing
meanwhile
it's
too expensive
so that
the street was deserted
while
the volcano continues to erupt
yet
we were on
holiday
Mara cut the cake carefully into slices s.Q that everybody HaxiJtjheir fair share.
small boy was kicking a ball against a wall;
3
couldn't remember meeting him before,
4 A mass evacuation of islanders is taking place
1
A
2
I
5
a:
Why don't you
like
that
new
French restaurant?
b:
came down with
6
Ingrid
7
My
8
One way of getting
flu
me
landlady didn't mind
rid
having parties
weeds
of
is
to dig
in
my room
them
out.
Underline the correct option.
1
Your essay
some very
is
badly organised and
full
of spelling mistakes.
Though / Nevertheless,
it
contains
interesting ideas.
2 To the east the trees were
left standing, while / in contrast to the west they were cut down.
about leaving the company even so / even though knew it was the right decision.
4 The course taught me a lot about astronomy. Even though / Even so, there is still a lot to learn.
3
5
I
I
felt guilty
expected
I
my mother to
6 Herbs are usually grown
from tropical
7
8
be happy with the news. Instead /Although she started to
in
cry.
temperate climates, whereas /on the other hand spices are mainly
areas.
We were very short of money so /as a consequence we
I
turned the ignition, but the car wouldn't
start.
had to spend the night on a park bench.
As / Meanwhile the lions were getting ever closer.
9 She wrote the questions on the whiteboard while / at the same time the students copied
into their books.
10 Previously / Before
11
12
went to Australia, I'd never seen a koala.
have to buy some ladders unless / if not can borrow a pair from Harry.
first met Connor in the 1970s. At that time / When he had long hair and a beard.
I
I'll
I
I
Use your own ideas to complete the sentences. Begin however + adjective
much.
1
She
is
determined to be a successful
artist,
However cUfflcuLt
Lb
/
adverb
,
to lose weight without cutting
down on
the
amount you
3
,
4 Professor Malcolm
is
always happy to spend time with
5
people never seem content,
Additional exercise 14 (page 249)
many /
it is
difficult
eat.
it is
important to spend
some time
apart.
his students,
it
Some
/
miqht be to achieve
2
6
them
never
fails
to impress me.
Unit
88
Prepositions of position and
movement
Across, over
We can
use across or over to talk about a position on the other side
of,
or moving to the other side of
a road, bridge, border, river, etc.:
O
O
Antonio
lives in
the house across
Once she was across / over
We use over rather than
or higher than
O
O
it is
across
over the road from ours.
/
the border, she
when we talk about
knew she would be
reaching the other side of something that
is
high,
wide. Compare:
He jumped over the fence into the
He jumped across the stream.
garden, and
When we are talking about something we think of as a flat
we prefer across rather than over:
O
O
safe.
He suddenly saw
surface, or an area such as a country or sea,
Eva across the room.
The programme was broadcast across Canada.
We prefer all over rather than
we commonly
O
all
across to
mean
‘to or in
many different
parts of an area'. However,
use across, or right across for emphasis:
The disease has now spread
all
over the world,
(or
...
(right)
across the world.)
Along, through
When we talk about following a
O
We
line of
some
They walked along the footpath
use through to emphasise that
we
kind (a road, a
until
river, etc.),
we
use along:
they came to a small bridge.
are talking about
movement
in
a three dimensional space, with
around, rather than a two dimensional space, a flat surface or area:
He pushed his way through the crowd of people to get to her.
Through often suggests movement from one side or end of the space to the other. Compare:
things
all
O
O
O
She walked through the forest to get to her grandmother's house, and
She spent a
lot of her free
time walking
in
the forest.
Above, over; below, under; beneath, underneath
We can
when we say that one thing is at a higher level than
Above / Over the door was a sign saying, ‘Mind your head'.
However, we prefer above, when one thing is not directly over the other. Compare:
use either above or over
another:
O
O
O
They lived in a village in the mountains above the lake, (not directly over) and
The bird hovered just a few metres above / over the lake, (directly over)
We use over,
O
not above,
She put a
and usually when
I
quilt
we
when something
covers something else and touches
it:
over the bed.
are talking about horizontal
saw the helicopter
fly
movement
at a higher level than something:
out over the water, near the fishing boat.
Below is the opposite of above; under is the opposite of over. The differences in the uses of below
and under are similar to those between above and over (see above):
It's hard to believe that there is a railway line below / under the building, (at a lower level)
Her head was below the level of the table so nobody noticed her. (not directly under)
She hid the presents under a blanket, (the blanket covers and touches the presents)
Zara ran under the bridge, (horizontal movement at a lower level)
O
O
O
We can
use underneath as an alternative to under as a preposition of place. Beneath
used as a more formal alternative to under or below.
is
sometimes
.
Exercises
Complete the sentences with across or over, whichever
is
correct or
more
likely. If
both are
possible, write across / over.
After
1
2 They
I
d finished work
own
a
I
walked
house
the car park to where
the river
in
Mona was waiting.
the old town.
1
3 The gate was locked so
we had to climb
the wall.
4 You're not allowed to walk
the railway line. You have to use the bridge.
5 Julie Wafaei was the first woman to row alone
the Atlantic.
6 Nuclear waste
The
7
traffic
is
transported
the country, despite objections from campaigners.
was busy on the main road so we walked
8 She leaned out
the balcony
rail
the pedestrian crossing.
and looked for Omar
Underline the correct or most appropriate option(s)
in
in
each sentence.
the square below.
(JJj
took several minutes to walk across / over / along / through the corridor
to the exit.
Across / Over / Along /Through the table could see Oliver looking
at his watch.
He fell across / over / along / through the floor into the cellar below.
could see Lisa across / over /along / through the other side of the river.
He cycles thousands of miles each year all across / over / along / through the country.
It
I
I
Hotels have been built across / over / along / through the beach for
about 25 kilometres.
CSS)
Correct the prepositions (above, over, below, under)
if
necessary, or write
S
He slept with his wallet below his pillow.
2 He broke his leg just below his knee.
1
3 The town stood at the top of the
hill, and stretching into the distance under
4 She threw a coat above her shoulders and stepped out into the
cold.
5 He lived in a first-floor flat above a greengrocer’s in Leyton.
6 When the police got to the car they found the driver slumped
above
it
were green
fields.
the steering wheel.
7
8
He always wore
a vest
below
even
in
summer.
could hear the plane flying high over the clouds.
I
A number of common idioms
their
a:
1
his shirt,
include the prepositions
in this unit.
Match the idioms
in italics
meanings below.
What's wrong?
I’m just feeling rather under the weather.
You never arrive on time. You’d be late for your own funeral,
you would!
b: That's a bit below the belt, isn't it?’
3 She already has 18 books on gardening under her belt
and she is now working on number
4 He had never played well for the club and left under a cloud.
b:
2
a:
5 She lost her temper and went completely over the
top, accusing him of cheating.
6 They received a bonus in December over and above their
monthly salary.
a
in
addition to
b successfully completed
c
ill
d cruel or unfair
some
e
with
f
extreme behaviour; indicating disapproval
people's disapproval
19.
to
Unit
89
Between and among
As prepositions of place
or separate, and
is
we
use
we use between with two or more people or things that we see as individual
among when we see the people or things as part of a group or mass. Among
only used with three or more people or things:
O
O
She held the diamond between her thumb and
Zimbabwe
is
between Zambia
situated
forefinger.
Mozambique to the
to the north,
east,
Botswana to
the west, and South Africa to the south.
O
O
He stood among
Note that amongst
is
Between and among
and
friends at the party
all his
among the
felt
very happy.
clothes
in
the drawer.
sometimes used instead of among, but
in
more
She eventually found her passport
literary contexts.
are not only used as prepositions of place. For example,
we
can use either to talk
about something divided or shared between people:
O
The money is to be divided between / among the towns in the
The prize will be shared between / among the first six finishers
area.
in
the race.
We also use between to talk about comparisons and relationships:
O
O
There should be a better balance on the committee between the various ethnic groups.
They are wrong to claim that there
is
a link
between unemployment and
crime.
Also association, comparison, connection, contrast, correlation,
:
difference, distinction, relationship
to talk about choices:
have to choose between the universities of Leeds, York and Manchester.
I
O
He
felt
torn
between
his family
and
his friends.
to talk about discussions or the results of discussions
when we
two or more people
specify the
or
groups involved:
O
O
There was a disagreement between Emma, Jade and Zoe.
The treaty was signed between Great
Britain
and France.
amount of something:
earn about €100,000 a year.
must
Between
Last year the three companies built 30,000 houses between them.
to say that people or things share an
them, Will and Alice
We also
use
among -
when we mean
O
O
Their music
when we mean
O
‘existing or
happening
in
a particular group':
among the hill tribes.
popular among teenagers.
The disease has now broken out
They
are
Among
is still
very
‘included
in
among the
a particular group':
best hockey players
in
the world.
the capital cities of South America, Quito
is
the second highest.
common expressions using between and among:
The concert features, among others, Karl Frisk and the Johnsons.
There are a number of
(= other singers / groups are
featured, too)
I
later
found out that he had been a carpenter and a plumber,
had other jobs, too)
Between ourselves
/
Between you and
honest as he should be.
178
me
among other things.
(= keep this a secret),
I
don't think Jack
(= he had
is
as
.
Exercises
•
•
Underline the correct option.
1
For a couple of days I've had a pain
2
He
3
It
4
In
would be
easier to read
the photograph Anna
if
is
my shoulder
between / among
couldn't find a microphone between / among
you put
a line space
all
blades.
the recording equipment he had with him.
between / among the paragraphs.
standing between / among her parents.
5 The lost manuscript was discovered between / among the thousands of books
in
the
cellar.
between / among the first and second class sections.
7 She carried trays of drinks and food between / among the crowd of guests in the room.
8
couldn't see Robbie between / among the audience, although he said he would be there.
9 Rebecca commutes between / among her flat in Paris and her office in Brussels.
6 The buffet
is
towards the middle of the
train
I
Complete the sentences with between or among and the most
box. If you can use either, write between / among.
likely
Q
amateur
its
my closest friends
clients
intake of refined sugar
the pupils
the striking dockers
his
words or phrases from the
cooking
remaining relatives
teenagers
between us
shared a bowl of noodles
bought four bars of chocolate and divided them
in the class.
3 The distinction
and professional athletes is becoming less clear.
4 It has become fashionable
to dye their hair in various colours.
101
2
5
I
wasn't feeling very hungry, so Daniel and
When
Malik died, his daughter inherited the house and the rest of his
6 The advertising company
7
I
I
is
Researchers have found a striking correlation
and
and washing
9 Luka and Ivan are
,
Late last night the talks
Complete
n.n
mm
Mum
so
I'll
invite
arthritis.
know which I'd prefer to do.
them to the wedding, of course.
up,
I
and their employers broke down.
_
email with between or among.
GEJO
—
—
Save Nom
IT-
Hi
this
split
very successful, numbering most of the big banks
8 Given a choice
Send
money was
Discard
I
Tj
®
|E iE
Ua
I
UJ
. Plain Text
Check Spelling e
and Dad!
Rome must be
the most fascinating cities
(1)
other places, the Foro
(2)
Romano - the
in
we visited,
Rome - and the
the world. Yesterday
centre of ancient
Vatican. There
is such an incredible contrast (3)
the old parts of the city built
2,000 years ago and the more recent parts. In the Vatican we climbed the long stairs
to the top of St Peter’s church. The view from the top must be
the most
(4)
incredible over any city in the world. But (5)
you and me, I’m a bit scared of
heights and was glad to get back to ground level. Later we went to the Pantheon, an ancient
Roman temple, which is (6)
the Vatican and the Foro Romano. The Italian king
Umberto and the artist Raphael are (7)
the people buried there. In the evening
there was a bit of an argument (8)
us over where we should eat - Jo wanted
up
to
I
pizza, but
I
wanted
to try
some
excellent pasta, (9)
other things.
The
we
only problem then
found a place that did
was choosing
many different types!
touch again when can.
the
(10)
Will
of the special local food. Eventually
be
in
I
Love, Keira
179
.
During,
in,
over,
throughout
We use during or in to talk about a
activity
period of time within which an event or activity occurs. The
may continue for the whole of the period of time:
in the summer.)
stayed at home during the summer, (or
...
I
The population of the city has actually fallen during the last decade, (or ... in the last ...)
or the event may happen at some time, or be repeated a number of times, in the period of time:
We went to Turkey during the summer, (or ... in the summer.)
O
He
suffered a
We use during,
number of
injuries
during
his career as a jockey, (or
...
in his career
...)
some time in the period of' before nouns such as illness,
holiday, meal, stay, treatment, and visit, when we refer to an event which lasts some time:
The President made the speech during a visit to Madrid,
and also with the phrase the whole (of), emphasising duration of an entire period:
No one was allowed to leave the ship during the whole of its time in port.
rather than
in,
to
mean
‘at
O
We can
use throughout to emphasise that something happens over the whole of a period of time:
We had enough firewood to keep us warm throughout the
through the winter.)
We can
winter, (or
when we talk about something that goes on
some of that period or for the whole of it:
use over or during
period of time, either for
...
warm during /
for a length of
time within a
Weather conditions have been improving over / during the past few days.
hit my head and can't remember anything that happened over / during the next hour or so.
I
happens within a period of time, we prefer during:
over the performance.)
She sneezed during the performance. (= once or a few times; not
During a pause in the conversation, she left the room, (not Over a pause ...)
However,
we talk about
if
a short event that
.
up to
Until, by,
There are a number of ways of saying
We use until (or informally till)
when something that
latest.
We
We
'ix
In
some time
stops -
will
happen either before a
particular time or at that time at
Compare:
have to be at
have to be at
informal contexts
now and
has continued for
to say that something continued or will continue to a particular time,
and by to say that something happened or
the
.
home until 2:30. (We must not leave home before 2:30) and
home by 2:30. (We must arrive home either before or at 2:30)
we
can use up to or up
till
instead of until.
We commonly use up to / till with
with then:
I've just
bought a tablet computer.
I've
always used a laptop up to now.
(or
...
up till now
use until now to talk about a situation that will not continue beyond now:
Supermarkets say that until now there has been little consumer interest in buying organic
produce. (The situation has changed or is going to change)
Note, however, that we don't use until now for a situation that will or may continue into the
We can
future. Instead
It
was
we
can use so far
certainly the best
When the
contract
is
or, in
match
signed
it
formal contexts, to date:
of the football season so far.
will
be the building company's biggest order to date.
...)
Exercises
which of the sentences can the word
and X if it can't.
In
brackets replace during? Write
in
1
I'm going to get a cup of coffee during the break,
2
She
3
He
more than 15
lost
kilos during
/
if it
can replace
it
(in)
her illness and she
was
off
work
two months,
for
(in)
twisted his ankle during the match and had to retire injured, (over)
4 The weather was
terrible here during
5 The meeting will be
some time
December,
(in)
during January, (over)
6 People no longer expect to be employed
in
the
same
place during the whole of their working
lives, (in)
7
Do you
think standards of
8 She sang
in
numeracy have
fallen during
the
last
20 years?
(over)
a choir during her childhood, (throughout)
9 The town was rebuilt during the early 16th century, (over)
was impossible to buy bananas during the war. (in)
had a phone call during the meal and had to leave early, (in)
12 My stomach ache got steadily worse during the evening, (over)
10
11
It
Karl
Complete the
other.
Q
a
was
1
b
2 a
b
3 a
b
I
pairs of sentences with
feeling really
by and
hungry
Sorry I'm
been
now.
now.
I
I've
got
the end of the
a
She was already a leading economist
b
She studied economics
I
I
month
to pay the
then
stood outside the cinema for an hour.
hope to
It
will
finish
take
me
in
the
the end of the month,
put on an extra pair of socks.
I
one sentence and until
the time dinner was served.
thought Lars would have been here
I've got to pay the money back
in
5
b
in
a meeting
late. I've
a
6 a
Use by
the time dinner was served.
We sat around the fire talking
4
b
until.
money
back.
my feet were freezing cold.
then my feet were freezing cold.
her early twenties.
her early twenties and then
the decorating
moved
into law.
the weekend.
the weekend to finish the decorating.
Underline the correct or more likely option (or both
if
possible) in this email.
Q3
181
Unit
91
Talking about exceptions
We
use except (for) to introduce the only thing(s) or person
/
people that a statement does not
include:
The
price of the holiday includes all
meals except
Everyone seemed to have been invited except
had no money to give him except
I
We
Mrs Woodford and me.
the few coins
in
my
pocket.
use except, not except for, with to-infinitives, and that-clauses:
O
We
(for)
(for) lunch.
(for)
rarely need to go into the city centre except to do some shopping.
They look just like the real thing, except that they're made of plastic.
I
usually use except before prepositions, bare infinitives, and that-clauses including those
where the word that
although this
Q
Q
We can
There
is
There
is
out (see Unit 53). However, informally except for
I
is
sometimes also used,
to be rain everywhere today except in Wales.
nothing more the doctor can do except keep an eye on him.
like
the real thing, except (that) they're
use except for, but not except, with the meaning ‘but
besides to
(for) to
mean
‘as
mean
that something
well as' or
‘in
addition
is
to'.
not included
in
made
cricket,
I
of plastic.
for' (see
C
below).
a particular statement, but
we
use
Compare:
don't enjoy watching any sports except (for) cricket. (=
Besides
0
left
likely
They look just
We use except
Q
is
grammatically incorrect:
is
I
enjoy only cricket) and
enjoy watching football and basketball. (=
I
enjoy three sports)
haven't read anything by her, except (for) one of her short stories, and
Besides her novels and poems, she published a number of short stories.
I
Apart from can be used with the same meanings as both except (for) and besides:
don't enjoy watching any sports apart from cricket. (= except for)
Apart from cricket, enjoy watching football and basketball. (= besides; as well
I
I
We can
use but with a
nobody, and nothing:
similar
meaning to except
(for), particularly after
After the operation he could see nothing but
There was no way out but
except
/
/
/
except
(for) /
as)
negative words such as no,
apart from vague shadows.
apart from upwards, towards the
light.
But for has a different meaning from except for. We use it to say what would or might have
happened if the thing introduced by but for had not happened:
The country would now be self-sufficient in food but for the drought last year. (= if there
hadn't been the drought
...)
But for the leg injury he suffered last year, he would probably have been picked for the
national
team by now.
(=
if
he hadn't injured
However, some people use except for
in
his leg
the same way
...)
as but for, particularly
in
informal spoken
English:
have got there on time except for the taxi being late, (or ... but for the taxi being late.)
Except for the problems with my computer, would have got the book finished weeks ago.
I'd
I
(or
But for the problems with
my computer
Note that we can use excepted, apart or aside
not included
O
It
in
the statement
after
...)
mentioning a person or thing to say that they are
we make:
has been, 1984 excepted
/
apart
/
aside, the hottest July for the last
1
00
years.
Exercises
Complete the sentences with except or except for. Indicate where both are
He was dressed
1
2
3
I
I
very smartly
liked everything in the
We would
meal
5
She had no choice
6 There are very few wolves
8 I'm
in
the office
9 She might have
10 The plant
12
If
all
last
the terrible weather.
left in
menu
the country
cost
drove
all
at lunchtimes.
the race
hitting the last fence.
is
the
Africa.
that he
way without stopping
was
tired.
to buy petrol.
necessary, correct these sentences with besides or except (for).
correct, write
S
1
She had never been out of the country besides a week
Besides being small,
3 The
new
4 Except
Denmark
road will increase
for his novels,
There was nothing
6 He was unhurt
Match
If
the sentence
is
already
.
2
5
the northern forests.
the ice cream, which was €4.
the time
won
in
€6
found on every continent
He gave no excuse for turning up late
I
relax.
week
to wait for the next train.
7 All the puddings on the
11
the cabbage.
by the pool and
sit
have gone walking
CEB
that his shoes were dirty.
had nothing to do
4
possible.
in
in
is
very
flat,
in
Ireland as a child.
with villages linked by country roads.
the area except for damaging an area of woodland.
Campbell wrote a number of biographies.
traffic in
the fridge besides a rather mouldy piece of cheese.
the crash except for a bruise on his forehead.
pairs of sentences
and rewrite them as single sentences beginning But for the
...
.
1
Katerina gave
me
excellent directions.
Q
a
if it
3 The charity supplied food and medicines.
b
4 The trees provided shelter.
5 The EU threatened sanctions.
6 The bank gave me a loan.
completed by now.
Without this, human rights would not have
improved in the country.
c
2 The bad weather caused interruptions.
hadn't, the building
Otherwise,
died
d
If it
up
e
f
in
many more people would have
the famine.
hadn't,
my
would have been
I
would not have been able to
set
business.
W thout these,
would have got totally lost.
Otherwise, the wind would have caused even
i
I
more damage to the house.
1
+e
But for the
excelier\t
dire^^
Kateruna gave me,
I
would Hove
got totally Lost.
183
Unit
92
Prepositions after verbs
Some verbs
are frequently followed by particular prepositions:
about
on
Of
for
y
agree
ask
care
y
y
y
/
learn
y
talk
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
know
y
/
/
/
/
argue
with
about usually means ‘concerning a particular
thing':
O
They began to learn about nutrition when they were at primary school.
use care about to talk about something we are (not) concerned about:
He doesn't seem to care about the effect a poor diet has on him.
We
O
for
is
used with ask to talk about what people want:
O
He
finished the drink quickly
and asked for another,
when we talk about giving reasons why something is true or right:
Many people are arguing for a big tax cut.
and with care to talk about doing the necessary things for someone or something
them in good health or condition:
with argue
Q
or to
mother
Jo cared for her disabled
mean
’like',
until her
death
particularly in negative sentences,
last year, (or Jo
and to mean 'want'
in
order to keep
took care of
in offers.
...)
Both of these uses of
care for are rather formal:
O
O
don't care for the theatre much.
I
Would you care for
a
cup of coffee?
of is used with talk, know, and learn to talk about discussing, having or getting information:
Mira went recently to Laos and can talk of nothing else, (or less formally ... talk about ...)
The whole country knew of Churchill's love of cigars, (or less formally ... knew about ...)
O
O
We
O
on
is
when we make
have a favour to ask of you and your
I
was asked to talk on
I
...
learnt about
...)
or talk about requests:
used with talk and agree to
G
(or less formally
have just learnt of the death of Dr Ramirez,
I
use ask of
mean
sister.
‘concerned with a particular
my research,
(or
...
to talk about
topic':
...)
We agreed on a time to
meet, (usually there has been previous discussion or disagreement.)
Note that we use agree to to say that someone allows something to happen:
Once the government agreed to the scheme it went ahead without delay.
with
is
O
We
used with argue and talk
I
used to argue
/
and to
O
accept the
offer,
and
I
opinion:
agree with him.
particular idea or action:
agree with letting children choose the clothes they wear,
or to say that
O
two people have the same
Adam thinks we should
say that we approve of a
I
to mention the person involved:
talk with Pedro for hours.
use agree with to say that
C
when we go on
two
descriptions are the same:
Stefan's story
agreed with that of
his son.
(or
I
agree about
/
on
...)
Exercises
Cross out any incorrect prepositions.
1
only advertised the car for sale on Wednesday, but by the end of the
I
phoned to ask of /for /about
We can
2
3
learn a great deal after / about / for the oceans by studying even a small piece of coral.
didn't agree
I
week ten people had
it.
4 Professor
about/ for /with
Owen
a
word of what she
said.
Romans in Lecture Hall 1.
5
had to care for / after / about my elderly parents when they both became
6 For many years we have been arguing for / on /with changes in the way the college
7 She didn't know of /about /on her stepbrother's existence until her mother died.
is
giving a talk of / with / on the
ill.
I
is
managed.
Complete the sentences using the correct or most appropriate preposition from section
Sometimes two answers are possible.
A.
Q£0
1
On the website they ask
2
I
first
learnt
his decision to resign
3 We're going to talk
4
your email address.
on the radio
last night.
the council about planting
some new trees
in
the park.
pop music at all. much prefer classical music.
5 The teacher says we've got to do the test, so there's no point in arguing
it.
6 Scientists do not agree
the origin of the universe.
7 If you know
any reasons why you should not be given medical insurance, you must
I
don't care
declare
8
them
I
here.
a:
Josh can be really stupid sometimes.
b:
You shouldn't
your brother
talk
9 She's always arguing
10
I
know
it's
like that.
her parents about
a lot to ask
what to watch on
television.
you, but would you look after the children while I'm
in
Japan on
business?
11
12
The course was brilliant. We learnt
Dan said he'll try to fix my car.
b:
13
using the Internet
in
teaching writing.
a:
I
What does he know
cars?
don't think the government cares enough
nursery education to fund
14 After days of discussion, the committee agreed
the
amount
of
it
properly.
money to
donate.
These pairs of sentences include more verbs that are commonly followed by the prepositions
in A. Can you explain the difference in meaning? Use a dictionary if necessary.
The police acted on the information very
I
couldn't be at the meeting, so
I've
been thinking a
What do you
lot
quickly.
my solicitor acted for me.
about your
idea,
think of the colour in the
and
I've
decided
I'd like
to support you.
bedroom?
Doctors have called on the Health Minister to resign.
Campaigners have called for a referendum on the issue.
They say he worked for the CIA in the 1980s.
She works with computers.
We're counting on Julia to supply the food for the
Playing exciting basketball counts for
Additional exercise 15 (page 249)
little
if
party.
the team
isn't
winning.
Unit
93
Prepositions after nouns
same prepositions as their related adjective or verb. Compare:
Are you satisfied with the way that the business is being run? and
The shareholders have expressed satisfaction with the way the business is being run.
Many nouns
C
are followed by the
A few nouns
O
are followed by different prepositions.
They became fond of each other at school, and
Their fondness for each other grew and many years
later
Also proud of
:
/
pride
in,
ashamed of / shame about
/
at
they married.
Some nouns take
O
Q
Compare:
a preposition
where their
and
I
respect Louis enormously,
I
have enormous respect for Louis.
related verb does not.
Compare:
Also admiration for, ban on, discussion about
:
on,
improvement
in,
/
influence on, interview
with, lack of, respect for
Note that many other nouns are commonly followed by of phrases which indicate possession,
a property, or classify the noun by describing what it relates to. Compare:
He described the conductor as moving his arms like a windmill, and
O
O
funny.
can be followed by of + -ing but not usually to-infinitive:
Some nouns
O
was very
His description of the conductor
He's got into the habit of biting his nails
Also cost, effect, fear, likelihood, possibility,
:
when
Some nouns
O
His
he's nervous.
probability, problem, prospect, risk, sign
can be followed by a to-infinitive but not usually of + -ing:
unhappy childhood explains
his
Also ability, attempt, concern, decision, desire,
:
reluctance to talk about
his parents.
Note that many of these nouns can
used with other prepositions + -ing
(e g.
attempt at
Some nouns
-ing,
reason for
determination, failure, inability, permission,
proposal, reason, refusal, (un)willingness
also be
-ing, etc.).
can sometimes be followed either by of + -ing or a to-infinitive with a similar meaning,
usually after the:
O
have the opportunity of taking unpaid
Also ambition, idea, option, plan.
... the opportunity to take ...)
The aim of providing clean drinking water has been achieved, (or The aim to provide ...)
Do
staff
:
leave? (or
However, some nouns, such as chance, sense and way, have more than one meaning and are
followed either by of + -ing or a to-infinitive depending on which meaning is used. Compare:
What's the chance of getting five heads when you toss a coin five times? (= likelihood; not
O
...
chance to get ...)and
Will you get the
He
visit Miki in Japan? (= opportunity; not ... of visiting ...)
sense to move away from the puddle of water as the bus went past.
chance to
didn't have the
good judgement; not ... sense of moving ...)and
Everyone was very friendly and she had a sense of belonging within
(=
Q
O
her
new
|'ve
got a
school. (= feeling; not
She has a
new way
really
to
cook
funny
way
.
.
.
sense to belong
.
.
a
few days of moving to
.)
method; or ... way of cooking ...) and
of speaking. (= manner; not ... way to speak)
rice.
(=
Note also that of + -ing usually follows no / every / the sole / the slightest / (not) any / with the +
intention, but that we can use either of + -ing or a to-infinitive in most other cases. Compare:
have no intention of lending Dan any more money, (not ... no intention to lend ...) and
I
He announced
his
intention to stand
in
the election, (or
...
intention of standing
...)
0
Exercises
Rewrite the italicised words with a similar meaning using a noun related to the underlined verb.
Add an appropriate
1
I
preposition after the noun.
greatly admire people
who work full time and
have great <*4^
2 Yasemin
Rashid
3
is still
is
in
also study for a university degree.
-for
hospital but over the last couple of days her condition has improved
very proud of his cooking, and
always eager to talk about
is
.
his recipes.
4 The website advises on how to lose weight.
5
hate it when people are cruel to animals, and would support a ban on hunting.
6 We discussed the relative merits of CDs and records fora long time.
7
had to be vaccinated against typhoid before entering the country.
I
I
8 Benny Carter significantly influenced the development of British jazz.
9 The city lacks affordable housing and many people are homeless.
There
1
widespread support for fireworks to be banned
is
.
Complete the sentences with
verb from
(ii).
Q
a
noun from
and either of + -ing or the to-infinitive form of a
(i)
00
(0
cost
ability
t
reason
acknowledge
decision
T/> ^ W
failure
cal
possibility
-fly-
remember
sign
risk
10 unwillingness
1
allow
buy
get
protect
stop
transmit
worry
My mother recently overcame her Hq* of ftymg and
snow has been falling now for two days and shows no
had a holiday
in
South
Africa.
2 The
3 The government has defended
.
coal mining
its
4 Your blood pressure is a little high, but there
She was kept in isolation to reduce the
is
the national park.
no
about
5
in
in
it.
the virus to other people
the hospital.
6 The exercise tests children's
a
7 The government has been criticised for
random sequence
of numbers.
the region from
its
flooding.
8 The
9
a
knew that there was little
It s hard to work with Nik because
new
car
Europe
in
is
expected to
fall in
the job with so
I
of his
the next year.
many
applicants.
that he ever
makes
mistakes.
Complete the sentences with an appropriate verb using either of +
both forms
1
if
both are possible.
It's
it,
she never had the slightest intention
my suggestion.
of.
2
Q
Although Mia said she would think about
-ing or a to-infinitive. Give
going to be cloudy tonight so there
is
only a
fifty-fifty
chance
the eclipse of the moon.
3
It's
pouring with
rain.
I
hope David had the sense
an umbrella
with him.
4 The head of the company repeated
his intention
on
his
65th
birthday.
5
When the
History Department closed she
was given the option
another job.
6 Katrin had a very unusual way
floor and waving her arms around her head.
Additional exercise 15 (page 249)
keeping her feet firmly on the
187
Unit
94
Two- and three-word
verbs:
word order
The meaning of some verbs commonly used with a particular preposition or adverb (or particle)
often different from the meaning of their separate parts. We can call these two-word verbs:
O
G
I'll
quickly
She had to
go over the main points of the report again. (= summarise)
let her dress out because she'd put on weight. (= make it larger)
Other three-word verbs are commonly used with an adverb + preposition.
Do you think he's really likely to go through with his threat? (= do
O
The team has
failed to live
up to
verbs.
Many two-word verbs are usually intransitive:
When she came to she found
He grew up on a farm.
O
crop up,
through, get up,
fall
move off, shop
it)
what was expected)
earlier expectations. (= achieve
These two- and three-word verbs are sometimes also called phrasal
Also:
is
herself in hospital.
around, splash out
However, some two-word verbs can be used transitively or intransitively with the same meaning:
get home.
I'll callyou back when
I'll call back later.
O
Also:
I
answer back, clear away, cover
wash up
up, help out, take over, tidy up,
and other two-word verbs can be used transitively or intransitively with a different meaning:
cut the picture out and kept
The engine cut out and the car came to a stop.
I
Also:
break
in,
hold out, look out, look up, pick up, split up, turn
in,
it.
wind up
With many transitive two-word verbs, the object can come before or after the adverb:
want to try the local food out.
want to try out the local food, or
Q
I
I
about, clean up, count out, drink up, gather up, get down, leave out,
up, mess up, shoot down, sort out, throw away, use up
Also: bring
make
However,
I
and
if
the object
is
a
pronoun
it
must come between the verb and the adverb:
won't be able to go to the party. You'll have to count
when the
me
out. ( not
...
count out me.)
Compare:
we
prefer to put the object after the adverb
O
She had to clean the kitchen up. (or clean up the kitchen.) and
clean the mess
She had to clean up the mess in the kitchen, {rather than
object
is
long.
...
...
in
the kitchen up.)
w
With some
O
Also:
transitive
two-word
verbs, the object
just couldn't tell the twins apart, {not
I
comes between the verb and the
...
tell
adverb:
apart the twins)
catch out, hear out, order about, pull to, push to, shut up (= to
silence),
stand up
With some transitive two-word verbs, the object follows the preposition:
flicked through a magazine while was waiting.
She takes after her mother.
G
Also:
account
for,
I
!
act on, approve of, call on, check into, look after, provide for, result from,
run into, take against
With most three-word
verbs, the object goes after the
preposition:
O
He
A/so;
come
in for
cut back on, look
really
looks up to
come up against,
down on, put up with
his older brother.
However, a few three-word verbs usually have the object immediately after the verb. A second noun
or noun phrase goes after the preposition:
Also: do out of, help on with, let in on,
She tried to talk me out of the plan.
put down as, put up to, take up on
Q
Exercises
possible or necessary, add an appropriate
If
noun or pronoun
The same problem kept cropping
I'm not sure how you spell it. I'll look
1
2
3
I'm busy at the
4
If
moment, but can
I
you tidy
5 The deal fell
up,
to put
it
in
or phrase
more than one
The house
1
is
up
in
place,
untidy, but
thought
I'd
fixed
it.
cleaning.
we
couldn't agree a price.
brackets should go
mark these two
each sentence with a
in
X
.
If it is
possible
possibilities.
X out now.
haven't got time to sort
I
I
the dictionary.
in
out this evening.
help
through because
Show where the word
the space, (j)
even though
up,
do the
I'll
in
{it)
2 We've introduced a training
3 The strike by airline pilots
44
I
5
I
6
scheme to bring about, (some improvement)
messed up. (the holiday I'd spent months planning)
decided to try out for a couple of months, (the
used up to buy the
a:
b:
must get
I
car. (all
my shoes
But they're so old -
diet)
my savings)
repaired again.
why don't you just throw away
Complete each sentence using a two-word verb from
word orders are possible, give both.
(0
?
(i)
(them)
and
noun phrase from
a
two
(ii). If
(ii)
get
down
leave out
make up
the general ideas
a
IU
hear out
shut up
her
ni icrfc
pliDiV
Con you push
freezing in here.
1
It's
2
When
she
sent
back to
filled
the form
in
name
me
my mind
the thing
.fte wijniow to?
she
#
it
3 The alarm started
There were so
5
so they
her.
when opened the
car door, and
I
many desserts on
the menu,
I
now
can't
I
couldn't
but the lecturer spoke so quickly
1
,
I
couldn't follow the details.
6
I
^
If
know you suspect me
of cheating, but you've got to give
me a
east
necessary, correct the
word o rder or give
a
more
likely
chance to explain myself. At
before making up your mind.
word order
in
these sentences.
If
they
are already correct, write /.
1
He was always
2
It is
ordering about everyone, getting them to do his work for him.
assumed that parents will provide their children for until they are 18.
3 She wouldn't let in me on the secret, however hard tried to persuade her.
4 The snow was so heavy that the police called motorists on to avoid unnecessary journeys.
I
5
6
7
I
I
checked into the hotel at about
took up Emre on
his offer
The government has come
four.
and stayed
in
in his flat
while
for a lot of criticism over
I
was
its
in
Ankara.
decision to increase spending on
defence.
8
9
My parents didn't approve of our engagement.
I
had always looked Mr Gao up
Additional exercise 15 (page 249)
to,
so
I
was shocked to discover what he had done.
189
Unit
95
.
There
When we
is,
there was,
new person
introduce a
etc.
or thing
- to say that
this
person or thing
exists,
happens, or
found
is
a particular place - we can use a sentence beginning There + be:
in
O
O
We
There was a loud bang from
invert this pattern in questions to ask
O
there anybody
Is
A
upstairs, (not
There's nothing to eat. (not Nothing
loud bang
was from
upstairs.)
to eat.)
is
about the existence
etc. of
people and things:
here?
in
We can also use there with auxiliary and
modal verbs with be
(e.g.
has been, can be):
O
There must be some way of contacting her.
with verb + to be (e.g. used to be, is supposed to be, tends to be, appears to be, seems to
There appears to be a major disagreement between the two presidents,
and some other verbs that indicate existence (e.g. arise, emerge, exist, remain):
be):
O
O
During the 1990s there arose a
Because
we
use there
way to introduce topics, the noun after there + be often has an indefinite
we often use a / an, zero article, any(one) (+ noun), or some(thing),
than the,
etc. rather
for organic food.
in this
or non-specific meaning. So
no(body),
demand
definite or specific meaning.
my, your
this,
name, which
(+ noun), or a
Q
There's nobody here.
Q
There was something strange about her. and
The cat was in the kitchen, (more usual than There was the cat
There was a cat
Jan
When we
is
waiting for
in
.
noun
a
more
in
the kitchen.; but compare
the kitchen.)
me outside,
use there + be + the, this
(more usual than There
is
is
Jan waiting for
me outside.)
show a change of topic. Choosing the,
already known to the listener or reader:
often done to
+ noun indicates that we think the topic is
And then there is the question of who
.
give the
Compare:
.
is
that, etc.
going to pay.
The verb be should agree with the noun that comes after it:
There is a very good reason for my decision.
There were too many people trying to get into the football stadium.
However, in informal speech we sometimes use there's before a plural noun:
‘Anything to eat?' ‘Well, there's some apples on the table.'
O
Q
If
the noun phrase consists of two or more nouns
singular or uncountable, and a plural verb
if
the
in
a
first
list,
noun
we
is
use a singular verb
if
the
first
noun
is
plural:
When opened the fridge there was only a bottle of milk, some eggs, and butter.
When opened the fridge there were only some eggs, a bottle of milk, and butter.
I
O
I
nouns followed by a that-, wh-, to-infinitive or -ing
Is there a chance (that) Kim could arrive this afternoon?
There is no reason (why) can't see you tomorrow.
There + be
O
is
also used with
I
There
is
a small stream which
/
that runs at the
There was an attempt to resolve the dispute
O
There was a
usually leave out a relative
can leave
it
out
when
it is
pronoun when
it is
the subject of the following
finite verb,
but
the object (see Unit 53).
can use a clause with there being to introduce a reason for something:
There being no evidence against him, he was released. (= Because there was no evidence).
There being no reports of adverse reactions, the drug is to be sold more widely.
formal English
Q
bottom of the garden.
at the factory.
taxi waiting outside the hotel.
We don't
In
clause:
we
Exercises
Rewrite these sentences using there only
are not likely.
Q
Coffee was
spilt
1
2 Your dinner
is in
on the
table.
the oven.
if
the answer
is
likely.
Consider
why some answers
There was coffee spilt on the table.
/is unlikely,
(A sentence with /There
...
something bothering you?
4 A barrier was across the road.
5 The doctor is free to see you now.
6 The problem of what to do with nuclear waste remains.
3
Is
7
My son
is
8 A video
is
at university.
supposed to be on the website, but
was available anywhere in the city.
10 Can anyone help me?
9
No
11
You can follow some general
12
An
art gallery
doesn't work.
space -
is
rules.
used to be around here.
The sentences below are
1
1
it
petrol
or are?
Q
all
taken from written English. Which
two pubs and
There
2 There
on the
a church
is
correct or
more
is
3 There
3
no
44 There
further rain and strong winds forecast for the next three days.
5
There
chocolate bars,
6 There
between the
crisps,
the
village green.
other possible locations for the car park, but the central one
direct rail link
likely in
preferred.
cities.
and a bottle of cola
in
the bag
if
you get hungry.
substantial evidence to suggest that the Robinsons lied to the police.
7 There
no easy answers to the problem of climate change.
and two single beds in each room.
8 There
a shower, television,
matching sentence halves using an appropriate rel ative pronou n (that, which, or who).
Write the relative pronoun in brackets if it can be left out.
C2QDZEEE9
Join the
1
There were a
lot of
2 There's a cake
in
people at the party
the kitchen
a
an election
b
are harder-working than Kristin,
3 There was never any doubt
c
I've
4 There have been suggestions
d
I
5
many people alive today
still some old houses in the village
There aren't
made
be held next month,
will
especially for your birthday,
could do to prevent him
f
hadn't been nv ted.
haven't watched TV.
7 There was absolutely nothing
g
don't have electricity,
8 There are few people
h
Bruno would get the job.
6 There are
+ e
Write
1
There were
a.
in
the
of people at the party
tot
new sentences with
As there was no food
There
in
company
similar
e
i
falling,
i
/ that hadn't been wvlte<i.
O
meanings beginning There being
the house, they went to a local restaurant.
the, ..House,.
2 There was no further business, so the meeting closed at 12:30.
The patients were sent home because there was no doctor
Because the
facilities
were inadequate
available.
at the hotel, the conference
was relocated to
a nearby
university.
191
,
Unit
96
it... i
We can
use an introductory
it
at the beginning of a sentence
-
to place long or grammatically complex sentence elements at the end (the usual place for
English).
To drive without a licence
is illegal,
without a
illegal to drive
It is
information
and
at the
end (the usual place
is
a miracle,
new or important
and
Introductory
commonly used when
it is
the subject
examples above), and also when the subject
why Diego decided
clear
It is
useless asking Sophie to help.
use introductory
it
a
is
with be + adjective
patterns with an introductory
it
is
wh-
a to-infinitive or that-clause (as in the
or -ing clause (see also Unit 25):
to leave Spain.
It is
/
noun (as in the examples above), but other
some common examples-
are possible. Here are
+ verb + to-infinitive
Tve got a terrible headache/ 'It helps to lie down /
If you want someone to help you, it doesn't do to
annoy them just before you ask. (‘[not] do' =
(not) advisable, acceptable or
means
Also: hurt,
pay
an advantage
(= give
or benefit)
enough)
+ verb + object + to-infinitive
It shocked him to see her looking so
It
for
a miracle that she wasn't hurt.
It's
it
it
Compare:
in English).
That she wasn't hurt
it
in
licence.
to focus attention on something by putting
We often
them
Compare:
Also:
ill.
cost
a lot to get a place at university.
amaze annoy astonish
,
,
,
frighten
,
hurt
,
scare
,
,
concern
,
surprise
upset, worry (most are to do with feelings)
After these verbs the object usually refers to a person.
We can also
use
it
+ take + object + to-infinitive when we say what is or was needed
Compare:
in
a particular
activity; for example, time, resources or characteristics needed.
It
it
lot
of effort to play the
flute,
To play the
and
+ verb + that-clause
O
O
it
takes a
flute takes a lot of effort.
Also appear,
:
It
It
seems that she has lost her memory.
emerged that he already had a criminal
suddenly hit
Also:
me that Sara wanted to
in this
it ...
informal contexts, particularly
It
noun as subject:
was unexpected their success.)
in
speech, this
is
quite
common
in
order to give special
emphasis to the information immediately following it ...:
It tastes really good, this new ice cream,
and also to place a longer noun phrase at the end in order to focus attention on
G
It's
to),
pattern as an alternative to a
Their success was unexpected, (not
in
bother, strike (= occur
pattern usually refers to a person.
We don't usually use an
However,
dawn on, not
turn out, and the highlighted verbs above
borrow money. ( less likely is That Sara
wanted to borrow money suddenly hit me.)
The object
about, follow,
record.
+ verb + object + that-clause
It
come
happen, transpire
ridiculous,
all
the bureaucracy involved
in
it:
running a school these days.
Exercises
Rewrite these sentences beginning It ... but only if they would be correct
written English;
otherwise write S and consider why an It ... sentence would be inappropriate.
That
we
2
How
he stared straight at
3
Francesco's excellent
1
continue to monitor the situation is important.
we continue to monitor the siiwaiion
me was
exam
result
unsettling.
was
surprising.
4 To be a qualified driver is an advantage
5 Her proposal is quite radical.
6 To put carpet on walls
7
Robin's
new
car
is
in
the job.
highly unusual.
is
a Ferrari.
8 Finding a good plumber
hard these days.
is
Complete the sentences using
€21 notes
in
(ii).
it ... followed by a verb from
Include an appropriate object where necessary.
W
astonish
not bother
hurt
concern
see
not do
criticise /
pay
strike
upset
scare
everyone / see
he / jealous
pedal / bicycle
/
carrying knives
it
discover / also / successful novelist
in
hear
/
offended
2
I
Laura fell heavily and lay completely still,
appeared, that she. Had. smpusUj (^ure<i her back
knew that
3 Since
4
I
I
Lotta
was
a journalist for the local paper, but
my ankle last year,
broke
told Peter that
My comment
I
I
didn't
mind
s
in
When he became angry ...
baldness was only meant as a joke and
his house, but ...
Amy not asking me to go on
holiday with her, but
8 Children need a lot of praise and ...
9 The boys walked towards me in a threatening
You can save money by booking
What
...
...
had invited Hugo, too.
about Ben
6 There were no curtains
1
plan your journey ahead
hadn t even told / when / going away
too much
When
1
7
and an expanded form of the
00
appear
10
5
(i)
Q
way, and
tickets in advance, so
...
...
...
personal or physical characteristics are needed to
...?
Use
It
takes
play a musical instrument well
It ...takzs
2
build
3
make
a.
Lot o-f
determination to pUxj
a,
...
in
your answers.
O
musical
your own house
a speech
4 explain the
in
front of a group of strangers
rules of cricket to
someone who
doesn’t
know the game
Now suggest completions for these sentences.
5
It
takes bravery
6
It
takes a lot of organisation to
7
It
.
.
takes a great deal of time
.
.
.
.
193
Unit
97
We can
use a pattern with
it
as the object of a verb
where
refers forward to a clause.
it
It
can
if- or when-clause after can't bear, hate, like, love,
when-clause after dislike, enjoy, prefer and understand:
hate it that you can swim so well and can't, [not hate that you can swim ...)
We always enjoy it when they stay with us. [not We always enjoy when they ...)
sometimes be followed
directly
by a that-,
resent and can't stand, and by an
if-
or
I
I
O
Some verbs
it
and
You've just got to accept
(it)
can be followed by
that-clause without
O
I
a that-clause, particularly in
spoken English, or directly by a
it:
that Emil's
gone
Also admit, deny, guarantee, mention
:
and won't be coming back.
Many other verbs that can be followed by a that-clause or wh-clause are not used with it in
can't remember when last saw her.
Also argue, discover, emphasise, notice,
remember it when
[not
O
this
way:
I
I
:
...
predict
...)
With other verbs used to indicate how we see a particular event or situation, it is followed first by an
adjective or noun phrase and then a that-clause, to-infinitive clause, or clause beginning when:
Officials said they believe it unlikely that any
Also: consider, feel, find (= discover
lasting damage to the environment has been
something from experience), think
O
unlikely that
(or...
they believe unlikely that
When we
...
use leave and
infinitive after
Q
O
they believe
done.
not
owe
it is
...;
...)
(= have a responsibility to) with
we
can use to
somebody + to-
it:
Don't bother to arrange anything. Just leave
She
it
owed
it
it
to
me to sort out.
to her parents to do well at college.
With the verbs accept, regard, see, take (= interpret something in a
+ as + noun (or adjective) + clause:
We see it as an insult to have received no reply to our letter.
particular way), or
view we use
it
O
O
It is /
I
take
it
was no
Here are some
It's
It's
when students attend all my lectures.
as encouraging
...
vs There
common
was no
is /
...
expressions including
It is /
no secret that he wants a new job.
no surprise that his latest film has
was no
O
help solve the problem.
O
they
o
It's
left
I'm afraid there's
...:
no alternative
the party at the
There's no need to explain
I'll
[or
how
it
works;
read the manual.
There's no point
in
buying an ice-cream
maker unless you plan to use it a lot.
There's no question of agreeing to his
[or accident) that
same time.
no longer necessary to have
visit
was no
There's no hope of getting more money.
O
I
o
is /
choice) but to ask her to leave.
needed to
It's no use telling me now.
know a week ago.
It's no good getting angry. That won't
no coincidence
and There
There's no denying that he's intelligent.
been so successful.
It's
...
demands.
a visa to
There's no reason to be pessimistic.
the country.
There's no chance of finding a cure
don't fund
The sentences with
is
It is /
was no
...
have alternatives
placed at the front, but the sentences with There
in
is /
more
we
research.
which the that-, -ing or to-infinitive clause
... do not. Compare:
was no
It's no secret that he wants a new job. [or That he wants a new job is no secret.) and
There's no denying that he's intelligent, [but not That he's intelligent is no denying.)
194
if
Exercises
Complete each sentence with an appropriate form of
consider
owe
leave
1
can’t bear
She
2
I
3
If
104
I
7
I
8
I
criticise
her work, and she gets very upset.
why the
film
9
was made
black and white and not colour.
in
I'll
try to rearrange
in
we
I
you dismantling your motorbike
should
it.
the match.
was on the table when left the house.
when the weather's hot like this. I'd hate to live in
that the camera
really
it.
find
to our supporters to play to the best of our ability
think
necessary, add
remember
prefer
that you can't get to the meeting on the 16th
can't stop
If
when people
it
you
I
6
from the box.
hard to understand
We
5
enjoy
discover
predict
a verb
in
the kitchen, but
a cold climate.
I'd
if
you
didn't.
to the children to do the washing up.
I
that Randa will withdraw from the course within a month.
I
a privilege to
have known Mark Jennings.
Here are some notes a managing director made for
the speech he expanded the notes beginning
Write what he said.
Q
I
his first
+ (verb) +
it
speech to the board of directors.
as
using the verbs
in
In
brackets.
1
great honour - asked to
I
take
it
as
<k
become - managing
v
director - P-e*co
great Honour to be asked, to become rnancujmg director of Rexco.
part of m>[ role - significant^ reduce P-e*co's carbon footprint - neyt
3
necessary
evil
- some people - ma'f redundant -
in
5
'(ears
(
netf ^ear
accept
[view)
important for relations with workforce - mate available information -
managers
salaries
unacceptable - modern company - exclude workforce - major decision-making
(cegarc/)
(take)
fundamental principle of company - suppliers of raw materials
- given fair price for products
Complete the sentences with an appropriate
Suggest alternatives where possible.
it
1
s no coincidence
years.
It is
that Karlsbad has
a very rich club
My contact
lens
and
must have
its
fallen
it ...
won
or there
...
phrase from section
the ice hockey tournament for the last three
training facilities are excellent.
out
in
the snow, so
that Julia and Jakub have
of finding
split up.
Everyone
know your exam result wasn't good, but
Your broken arm will take some time to mend, but
shouldn't be playing tennis again by the summer.
I
As the car ferry
isn't
in
it.
the office knows.
getting depressed about
it.
why you
running because of the high winds,
100 kilometres around the
D opposite.
but to drive
lake.
possible to buy
Bungee jumping might be dangerous, but
tickets at the theatre.
You have to buy them
that
it's
online.
very exciting.
195
Focusing with it-clauses
We can
it
+
use an it-clause with be to focus attention on the information that immediately follows
(be).
A sentence
like this is
sometimes
called a cleft sentence.
(usually a that-clause) contains information that
'Lea
G
O
I
bought the car from
Olav.' 'No,
don't mind her criticising me, but
It
We sometimes use which or who
in
Karl
was always there to help
'Ida's seriously
with
It
ill
already
was Olav
I
it
that
object to.
I
bought her the necklace.
‘But
in hospital.'
also be used, but usually only
was to him that / who she now turned for support.
was playing tennis
it was only last Sunday when / that
and
her,
after the it-clause
or considered to be less important:
that bought the car from Lea.'
how she does
for her that
The clause
known
instead of that; when and where can
how or why can't replace that:
informal English; and note that
O
it's
was to show how much cared
I
it
is
it
I
her.'
was
‘Was
it
in
Warsaw where / that the film was made.
by cutting
staff that
distribution that he
made
he managed to save the firm?' ‘No,
it
profitable.'
not
(
how he made
...
it
it
was by improving
profitable.)
Focusing with what-clauses
We can
also use a
what-clause followed by be to focus attention on certain information
common
sentence (= another form of cleft sentence). This pattern is
information we want to focus attention on is outside the what-clause. Compare:
particularly
O
O
in
in
a
conversation. The
We gave them some home-made cake, and
What we gave them was some home-made
We often do this we want to
if
introduce a
cake.
new topic; to
correct something that has been said or done.
In
give a reason, instruction or explanation; or to
the following examples, the information
in
focus
is in
italics:
O
What
I'd
O
you to work on is the revision exercise on the website.
two hours late: what had happened was that his bicycle chain had broken.
like
Isa arrived
‘We've only got this small bookcase -
will that
do?' ‘No,
what was looking for was
I
something much bigger and stronger.’
We can often
Q
O
put the what-clause either at the beginning or the end of the sentence:
What upset me most was his rudeness,
His rudeness
was what upset
or
me most.
To focus attention on an action performed by someone, we use a sentence with what + subject + do
+ be + to-infinitive clause. We can't use an it-clause to do this (see A):
Luis lost his job and was short of money, so what he did was (to) sell his flat and move in
with his brother, (not
...
so
it
was
(to) sell his flat
that he did.)
The pattern in B is only usually used with what-clauses. Instead of placing other wh-clauses
(beginning how, when, where, who, why) at the beginning of the sentence we prefer to use a noun
which has a meaning related to the wh-word (e.g. reason rather than why; place rather than where)
some examples:
The only reason (why / that) left the party early was that was feeling unwell, (rather than
Why left the party early was ...)
The place (where / that) you should play football is the playground, not the classroom.
Somebody (who / that) enjoy reading is Peter Carey.
The time (when / that) work best is early morning.
followed by a that- or wh-clause. Here are
O
I
I
O
O
I
I
I
.
[
.
.
Exercises
•
•
Complete the rewritten sentences to focus attention on the underlined information.
+ be and use an appropriate wh-word or that. 4*1
Start with
it
1
known
Mark's
me yesterday
but
2
for ages that his parents are
ii
Helena has been feeling a
bit
.
It's
not that
work to do
4
5
.
I
bit
this
so
booked
I
weekend, but he only told
,
can't
I
sports
I
hall,
find learning languages very easy,
so
I
lost
Amsterdam
to
I've
got so
much
. .
somewhere
it
weekend
...
come because
not that I don't want to have dinner with you tonight;
I
this
a holiday in
depressed for some time so
don't want to have dinner with you tonight;
It's
had my wallet when went into the
when I went into the sports hall, so ...
She doesn't
some time,
depressed for
cheer her up Helena has been feeling a
3
coming to stay with us
Mark's known forages that his parents are coming to stay with us
was only,
when he tout me,
.
in
there
.
I
had my wallet
and she improved her Spanish only bv studying
very hard She doesn't find learning languages very easy, and
.
6
have had a great deal of help from
I
this thesis to
my family
my research, and
Write
B's
notes
in
1
.
.
have had a great deal of help from
responses beginning No,
what
4
3
correcting
was going to
live in
Do you hope
in my research, and dedicate
my parents and two brothers in doing
I
what was
said
in A's
question. Use the
Austria? (holiday / Austria)
hp
a:
.
Cl
brackets.
b:
3
2
.
brothers
.
Did you say that Rudi
a:
I
my parents and two
to
sell
qn
to
Austria
your Picasso paintings? (be put into / public art gallery)
b:
Did
a:
it
annoy you that Carla came so
late? (not apologise)
b:
4
mean
Did you
a:
to give Ella your bike? (could borrow it / until
needed again)
b:
Now give similar responses which focus on the action.
5
Did you watch the football on TV last night? (get brother / record it / watch tonight)
No, wha£
duL was (to) get my brother to record it and I’ll watch lb tonight.
a:
b:
6
a:
I
This steak tastes delicious. Did
you
fry it? (put oil
and soy sauce on /
grill)
b:
7
a:
Did you buy
Megan the coat she wanted?
(give /
money towards it)
b:
8
a:
Did you
fly
from Sydney to Brisbane,
(hire a
car /drive all the way)
b:
Complete
B's
responses using one of the phrases from section C opposite and the information
and add an appropriate form of be.
in
brackets. Put the information in the right order
1
a:
b:
2
Q
suppose Paul got the job because of his qualifications, (uncle owns company)
the reason why / th ode Paul got the job was that his
Well, actually, I think
uncle owns the company.
I
b:
Do you know anyone who could mend my computer? (might be able /
don't know if she's free, but
a:
You grew up
a:
b:
in this village,
didn't
you? (between
this village
and next)
In fact
a: In
b:
help / Petra)
I
/
what period of your
life
do you think you were happiest?
(lived Australia)
suppose
197
Unit
99
Inversion
In
statements
We can
1
usual for the verb to follow the subject, but sometimes this
it is
refer to this as inversion.
the subject (inversion
is
There are two main
when the
often optional), and
of the verb phrase follows the subject (inversion
O
O
Alex stood
had
/
in
the doorway.
seen such
rarely
types of inversion:
is
auxiliary
attention on
In
Often
this
word order
is
reversed.
the verb comes before
comes before the
subject and the rest
usually necessary):
—> In the doorway stood Alex, (or
—> Rarely had seen such a view,
...
a view.
/
Inversion brings about fronting, the re-ordering of information
particular place.
when
in
Alex stood.)
(not Rarely
had seen
I
...)
a sentence to give emphasis in a
causes an element to be postponed until later
the sentence, focusing
in
it.
conversation
subject, to talk
we
use Here
about things
comes + noun and There goes + noun, with
and people moving towards or away from the
inversion of verb
and
speaker:
O
O
Here comes the bus.
There goes Per Alvin, the conductor.
Here comes ... is also used to say that something is going to happen soon, and There goes ... is used
to talk about things (particularly money) being lost and to say that something (such as a phone or
door
bell)
O
Q
is
ringing:
Here comes
My
bike's
lunch.
been stolen! There goes £100!
There goes the phone. Can you answer
We also
put the verb before the subject
away, back, down, in,
particularly in narrative, to mark
as along,
when we
use adverbs expressing direction of movement, such
up with verbs such
off, out,
a
it?
change
in
as
come,
go. This pattern
fly,
is
found
events:
The door opened and in came the doctor, (less formally ... and the doctor came in.)
As soon as let go of the string, up went the balloon, high into the sky. (less formally
balloon went up ...)
For more on inversion after adverbs of place and direction, see Unit 76A.
I
We can
It
use clauses with inversion instead of certain kinds of if-clause (see Unit 83). Compare:
would be
a serious setback,
if
the talks
you should need more information,
telephone our main
If
It
would be a serious setback, were the talks
to
were to fail.
\f
please
fail.
Should you need more information, please
telephone our main
office.
Andy had asked, would have been
1
able
Had Andy asked, would have been
1
The sentences with inversion are rather more formal than those with
with inversion,
Had
we
able to
‘if'.
Note that
in
negative clauses
don't use contracted forms:
the plane not
formal written language
O
Q
O
office.
help.
to help.
In
the
...
been diverted, they would have
we commonly
arrived early, (not Hadn't the plane
use inversion after as and than
in
...)
comparisons:
China, as was the process of printing.
Paper was invented
in
Most young people
did not vote
in
the election, as was the case
in
2010.
believed, as did my
Research shows that parents watch more television than do their children.
colleagues, that the plan would work.
I
Note that we don't
invert subject
and verb after as or than when the subject
is
a pronoun:
We now know a lot more about the universe than we did ten years ago.
ten years ago.)
(not
...
than did
we
.
.
.
Exercises
Complete the sentences with an appropriate adverb and
We'd just got to the top of the
1
2 Just
when you've bought
a
hill
when
computer that you
I
asked Ryan to get three
kilos of
After
drive.
their
hands and they
to get
been waiting for an hour, the door opened and
would be able to see me now.
hope of getting the cat out of the tree, when
6
l‘d
1
7
As soon as
lost
I'd
given Daisy
If
Kahn had not resigned as party
2
If
you do not wish to receive further
information about our products,
If
the plane were ever to be
4
If
the
ice
built,
leader,
a
...
...
...
hockey team wins again today,
...
I
.
you are not able to afford the SXL3,
9 If Charles Dickens were alive today,...
8
If
+
Had Kahn
c
kilo,
a
man with
said the
a ladder.
it
...
#
Should
or
Had
New York
would cut the journey time from
.
b
there are less expensive models
c
d
he would have been sacked.
would have no hesitation in accepting,
e
he would be writing novels about the
...
f
the range.
I
homeless
.
in
in
London.
unlikely that the electorate
it is
would have
supported the government,
.
will
g
it
h
click
i
I
be their tenth consecutive victory,
on the box below.
might have been seriously
injured.
not resigned os party leader, he would have been sacked.
Report the information
using sentence frame
in
the table. Write three sentences using sentence frame
(i)
and three
(ii).
Household expenditure (% of
total income)
Housing
Food and drink
Clothing
Transport
Recreation
Europe 1970
22
12
3
8
10
America 1970
15
14
2
6
12
Europe Today
17
8
5
12
9
America Today
16
15
3
7
13
Europeans / Americans spend /spent more /less of their income on
... today /in 1970
than
do /did Europeans / Americans
Ann means spend more of their income on food and drink today than dp Europeans.
1
(i)
(ii
so
to Tokyo by four hours,
were offered the job, ...
6 If a car had been coming the other way,
7 If there had been a referendum on the issue,
If
I
she to buy sweets.
Match the sentence halves and write new sentences beginning Were
1
who
the nurse,
some pocket money,
3
patiently until
sit
some more.
I'd
dentist
5
some
potatoes from the supermarket and he only bought one
he
5
got soaked.
think will last a lifetime,
I
4
we
the rain and
new software that needs an even bigger hard
Whenever ask the class a question,
choose one of them to answer.
3
form of either come or go. fj)
a
Europeans/ Americans spend /spent more /less of their income on
)
1970,
as
is
/was the case today /
in
...
than on
...
today /in
1970.
Rewrite these sentences with a similar meaning using as or than + be or do.
1
I
was opposed to the new
I
..
2
3
road. Everyone else in the village
.was opposed
4 Compared to
-*•
in
it,
too.
t^e yiUage.
Kamal went to Oxford University. His sister went there, too. Kamal went ...
Compared with people in developed nations, people in poorer countries consume
proportion of the earth's resources. People
5
was opposed to
^Y^rypne else
Dan
is
five
years ago, he
a keen golfer. His wife
Additional exercise 16 (page 250)
is
is
a
much
in
poorer countries
better teacher.
a keen golfer, too.
Dan is
.
a far smaller
.
He is ...
...
199
Unit
100
Inversion 2
Inversion after negative adverbials
In
formal and literary language
The subject and
it
first
in particular,
auxiliary are inverted,
we
use negative adverbials at the beginning of a clause.
and do
is
used with a simple tense verb after -
the time adverbials never (before), rarely, seldom; barely
sooner
O
...
Seldom do we have goods
hardly
/
scarcely
...
when
/
before;
no
returned to us because they are faulty.
Hardly had everybody taken
only + a time expression, as
O
/
than:
She bought
a
in
their seats
only
after,
when Dr Lee began
only
newspaper and some milk
later,
at the
only
if,
her lecture.
only once, only then, only when:
shop on the corner. Only later did she realise
wrong change.
Only when she apologises will speak to her
that she'd been given the
O
again.
/
only + other prepositional phrases beginning only by
...,
only
in
...,
only with
...,
etc.:
Only by chance had Carl discovered where the birds were nesting.
Maria had to work in the evenings. Only in this way was she able to complete the
it
report.
no way, on no account, under / in no circumstances:
At no time did they actually break the rules of the game.
Under no circumstances are passengers permitted to open the doors themselves,
expressions such as at no time, in
O
O
expressions with not
...,
such as not only, not until, not since, not for one
moment and
also not a +
noun:
Not
Not
little
until
a
August did the government order an
word had she written
since the
do they know how lucky they are
know' or ‘they don't know sufficiently')
Note that
We can
such a wonderful house. (= ‘they don't
/ if /
when
or not until:
...
that; such + be
...
that; neither
...
/
nor
first auxiliary
are inverted, and
do
is
...
When we do this,
use so + adjective at the beginning of a clause to emphasise the adjective.
used with a simple tense verb:
So successful was her business, that Lana was able to retire at the age of 50.
So dangerous did weather conditions become, that all mountain roads were
closed.
use such + be at the beginning of a clause to emphasise the extent or degree of something:
Such
We
live in
inversion can occur after a clause beginning only after
the subject and
O
Q
to
Only when the famine gets worse will world governments begin to act.
Not until the train pulled into the station did Miguel find that his coat had gone.
Inversion after so + adjective
We can
started.
with a negative meaning:
Little
O
inquiry into the accident.
exam had
is
the popularity of the play that the theatre
use inversion after neither and nor
when these words
is
likely
to be
full
every night.
begin a clause to introduce a negative
addition to a previous negative clause or sentence:
O
For
some time
after the explosion Jack couldn't hear,
The council never wanted the new supermarket to be
Note that we also use
So does Maya (etc.).
inversion in Neither
/
Nor do
I,
and neither could he
built,
Neither
/
see.
nor did local residents.
Nor does Diane
(etc.)
and
in
So do
I,
©
Exercises
Rewrite the sentences with a similar meaning beginning with a word
only
only with
barely
if
at
rarefy
no time
phrase from the box.
/
little
A new
film has not often before produced such positive reviews.
Rarety has ji new ftlrn produced, such positive reviews
1
.
was never in any danger.
He only felt entirely relaxed with close
2 The public
3
friends
4 The match won't be cancelled unless the pitch
5
I
didn't
know then
that
I
Now do the same using these words and
You must not
7
in
light
the
I
fire
moment
not for one
not only
hardly
you are alone in the house.
between the three brothers.
if
rivalry
wasn't only wet through,
Q
phrases.
on no account
only
8 There was never any
9
frozen.
is
Carmen and would be married one day.
entered the water when it became clear he couldn't swim.
6 He had only just
only once
and family.
was
I
freezing cold.
once before.
The audience had only just taken their seats when the conductor stepped onto the
12 He has only been acknowledged to be a great author in the last few years.
10
I
had only ever climbed
this high
11
Complete these sentences
dominance
the interest in Dr Lowe’s
Such
1
toJLk
that
it
will
be held
a bigger lecture theatre.
that she hasn't lost a
match
that
so
it
Correct any mistakes
NEWS >M
in this
news
article.
standing.
tell
them
apart.
computer three days to solve it.
that most of the students went to sleep.
even took
6 so
left
for over three years.
that even their parents couldn't
4 so
5
in
that few buildings were
s uc h
3
strength
interest
Such
2
Q
any appropriate way using the words from the box.
complicated
boring
alike
in
stage.
a
rnnriTiflUfr
INI
TOWN EVACUATED AS FOREST FIRES APPROACH
Sawston were evacuated yesterday as forest fires headed towards the town. Such the
heat was of the oncoming inferno that trees more than 1 00 metres ahead began to smoulder. Only once
of forest fires. A fleet
in recent years, during 2004, a town of this size has had to be evacuated because
the sick and elderly
vehicles
Into
these
morning.
early
in
the
of coaches and lorries arrived in the town
The people
of
climbed, before they headed
all
off
to safety across the
river.
Residents with cars
left
by mid morning, as
non-essential police officers did.
Hardly the evacuation had been completed
the
‘At
when
the wind changed direction and
it
became
clear that
would leave Sawston untouched. Soon after that were heard complaints from some residents.
no time the fires posed a real threat,’ said one local man. didn’t want to leave my home, and nor
fire
most
‘I
my
of
neighbours
to their
MR
at risk.
Only when the
their
But Chief
did.’
So upset some
Fire Officer
fires
Jones
elderly residents are that they are threatening to
replied, ‘Hadn’t
have moved
well
we taken this action,
away from the town
residents
lives
will
complain
would have been put
be allowed to
return to
homes.’
Additional exercise 16 (page 250)
201
Appendix
1
Irregular verbs
bare
infinitive
past simple
past participle
bare
infinitive
past simple
past participle
found
found
(-ed form)
arose
arisen
find
awake
awoke
awoken
fit
fit
fit
be
was
been
flee
fled
fled
flung
/
were
1
bear
bore
borne
fling
flung
beat
beat
beaten
fly
flew
become
became
become
forbid
forbade
1
flown
2
forbidden
begin
began
begun
forecast
forecast
forecast
bend
bent
bent
forget
forgot
forgotten
bet
bet
bet
forgive
forgave
forgiven
bind
bound
bound
freeze
froze
frozen
bite
bit
bitten
get
got
got
bleed
bled
bled
give
gave
given
blow
blew
blown
go
went
gone
break
broke
broken
grow
grew
grown
bring
brought
brought
hang
hung
hung
broadcast
broadcast
broadcast
have
had
had
build
built
built
hear
heard
heard
burn 1
burnt
burnt
hide
hid
hidden
burst
burst
burst
hit
hit
hit
buy
bought
bought
hold
held
held
cast
cast
cast
hurt
hurt
hurt
catch
caught
caught
keep
kept
kept
choose
chose
chosen
kneel 1
knelt
knelt
cling
clung
clung
knit
come
came
come
know
1
1
knit
knit
knew
known
cost
cost
cost
lay
laid
laid
creep
crept
crept
lead
led
led
cut
cut
cut
lean
1
leant
leant
deal
dealt
dealt
leap
1
dig
dug
dug
learn
dive
dived
dived
leave
left
left
do
did
done
lend
lent
lent
drew
drawn
let
let
let
dreamt
dreamt
lie
drank
drunk
light
drove
driven
lose
lost
lost
dwelt
dwelt
make
made
made
draw
dream
drink
drive
dwell
202
(-ed form)
arise
1
1
leapt
leapt
learnt
learnt
1
4
lay
lain
lit
lit
1
eat
ate
eaten
mean
meant
meant
fall
fell
fallen
meet
met
met
feed
fed
fed
mow
mowed
mown
feel
felt
felt
pay
paid
paid
fight
fought
fought
prove
proved
proven
3
Appendix
bare
past simple
infinitive
past participle
bare
infinitive
past participle
past simple
(-edform)
(-edform)
put
put
put
quit
quit
quit
read
read
5
read
5
spin
spun
spun
spit
spat
spat
split
split
spoilt
spoilt
split
1
/
span
ride
rode
ridden
spoil
ring
rang
rung
spread
spread
spread
rise
rose
risen
spring
sprang
sprung
stood
run
ran
run
stand
stood
saw 3
sawed
sawn
steal
stole
stolen
say
said
said
stick
stuck
stuck
see
saw
seen
sting
stung
stung
seek
sought
sought
stink
stank
stunk
struck
sell
sold
sold
strike
struck
send
sent
sent
strive
strove
striven
set
set
swear
swore
sworn
set
sew 3
sewed
sewn
sweep
swept
swept
swelled
swollen
swum
shook
shake
shaken
swell
3
sheared
shorn
swim
swam
shed
shed
swing
swung
swung
shed
shone
take
taken
shone
took
shine
shot
teach
taught
shot
taught
shoot
showed
shown
tear
tore
torn
show
shrunk
tell
told
shrank
told
shrink
shut
think
thought
shut
thought
shut
sung
throw
thrown
sang
threw
sing
sunk
thrust
thrust
sank
thrust
sink
trodden
sat
trod
sat
tread
sit
understand
understood
slept
slept
understood
sleep
wake
woken
slid
slid
woke
slide
slung
wear
worn
slung
wore
sling
smelt
weave
wove
woven
smelt
sown
weep
wept
wept
sowed
wet
wet
shear
3
smell
1
sow3
1
1
1
speak
spoke
spoken
wet
sped
sped
win
won
won
speed 1
spelt
wind
wound
wound
spelt
spent
wring
wrung
wrung
spent
write
written
spilt
wrote
spilt
spell
1
spend
1
spill
1
These verbs have two past simple and two past
(e.g.
2
3
burn; burnt
/
burned; burnt
/
participle forms,
is
also
4
When
5
Pronounced /red/
lie
both the ones given and regular forms
burned).
sometimes used, but is old fashioned.
given and
These verbs have two past participle forms, the one
‘forbad'
means
1
'deliberately to say
something untrue’
it is
a regular
regular (Tie
form
(e.g.
mow; mowed; mown
/
/ lied / lied’).
203
Appendix 2
Passive verb forms
an agent
If
is
mentioned,
it
goes
in a
prepositional phrase with
by
after the verb (see also Unit 24).
Present simple
Active:
tell(s)
Passive:
am
John tells
/ is /
are told
me that you're thinking of leaving.
I'm told (by John) that you're thinking of leaving.
Past simple
John told
Active:
told
Passive:
was / were told
1
was told
me that you
were
(by John) that
leaving.
you were
leaving.
Present perfect
Active:
Passive:
have
have
/
has told
/
has been told
me that you are leaving.
have been told (by John) that you are
John has told
1
leaving.
Past perfect
Active:
Passive:
had told
had been told
me that you were leaving.
had already been told (by John) that you were leaving.
John had already told
1
Present continuous
Active:
Passive :
am / is / are telling
am / is / are being told
John
1
is
always telling
am always
me that you
are leaving.
being told (by John) that you are leaving.
Past continuous
Active:
Passive:
was / were telling
was / were being told
was always telling me that you were leaving.
was always being told (by John) that you were leaving.
John
1
Future simple
Active:
will tell
Passive:
will
1
will tell John that
you are
leaving.
be told
John will be told (by me) that you are leaving.
have told
have been told
By tomorrow will have told John that you are leaving.
By tomorrow John will have been told (by me) that you are
Future perfect
Active:
will
Passive:
will
1
leaving.
Present perfect continuous (rare
Active:
has
/
Passive:
has
/
in
the passive)
have been telling
have been being told
John has been telling
1
me for ages that you
have been being told (by John)
are leaving.
for ages that
you are
leaving.
Modal verbs with passives
Active:
should
/
could
/
Passive:
should
/
could
/
Active:
should
/
could
/
Passive:
should
/
could
Active:
should
/
could
might
might
/
/
might
might
/
/
ought to
ought to
(etc.) tell
(etc.)
be told
John should be told.
ought to
ought to
(etc.)
/
(etc.)
have told
have been told
John should have been told.
might
/
ought to
(etc.)
have
You should have been
might
/
ought to
(etc.)
have been
John should have been being
/
/
been telling
Passive:
should
/
could
tell John.
You should have told John.
telling John while
being told
Other passive verb forms are very
204
You should
told while
rare.
1
was
1
was
outside.
outside.
Glossary
active
In
an active clause or active sentence, the grammatical subject
action given
in
the verb
(e.g.
Dan wrote the book). Compare
is
the person or thing that performs the
passive.
adjective
A word
that describes a noun
(e.g.
an interesting book) or a pronoun
can be used to say that a person or thing has more or
gradable adjectives can't
say that something
is
impossible.
of a particular type
we feel about something
thing has
(e.g. It's
(e.g.
(e.g.
(e.g. a
red one). Gradable adjectives
less of this quality (e.g. She's
We can't say ‘It's very impossible').
atomic,
very happy), while non-
Classifying adjectives
Emphasising adjectives
initial).
complete nonsense). Qualitative adjectives say what
stress
how
strongly
qualities a person or
See also grading adverbs and non-grading adverbs.
(e.g. big, rich).
adjective phrase
A group
of
words where the main word
is
an adjective
extremely important]
(e.g. it's
it
wasn't strong enough).
adverb
A word
more information (when, how, where,
that describes or gives
adjective
live just
(e.g.
an extremely expensive
car),
another adverb
(e.g.
across the road.). Types of adverb include: adverbs of
use to say
how something
is
done; connecting adverbs
tomorrow, already)] place adverbs
(e.g.
(e.g. upstairs, outside),
comment adverbs
(e.g.
viewpoint adverbs
(e.g. financially, politically)
etc.)
She did
manner
it
about a verb
(e.g.
He
very easily), or phrase
(e.g.
slowly, violently)
ran quickly),
(e.g.
consequently, similarly)] time adverbs
direction adverbs
(e.g.
They
which we
(e.g.
backwards, through)]
we use to make a comment on what we are saying;
which we use to make clear from what point of view we are
apparently, personally) which
speaking; adverbs of indefinite frequency
(e.g.
always, never)-, degree adverbs
(e.g.
completely, quite)
which give information about the extent or degree of something; focus adverbs (e.g. just, even) which we
use to focus on a particular word or phrase. Grading adverbs (e.g. extremely, very) are used with gradable
adjectives. Non-grading adverbs (e.g. completely, mainly) are used with non-gradable adjectives.
adverbial
words that says when, how, where,
A word
or group of
adverb
(e.g. quietly), a
adverbial clause
(e.g.
prepositional phrase
after she
(e.g.
etc.
something happens. They may consist of an
through the door), a
noun
phrase
(e.g.
next week), or an
left).
adverbial clause
A type of subordinate clause
school
this
morning,
I
did
my
that says when, how, where, etc. something happens
(e.g.
Before I went to
homework).
affirmative sentence
A statement
(i.e.
not a question) that
is
positive, not negative.
agent
The person or thing that performs the action described
and comes after ‘by
...'
in
in
a verb. Usually
it is
the subject
in
an active clause
a passive clause.
article
The word the is the definite article and the word a (an before vowels)
is no article before a noun we refer to this as the zero article.
is
the indefinite article.
When there
auxiliary verbs
The verbs
be,
have and do when they are used with a main verb to form questions, negatives, tenses, passive
forms, etc. modal verbs are also auxiliary verbs.
205
Glossary
clause
be a complete sentence or a part of a sentence. A main
clause cannot (e.g. If I see Matt at work [=
subordinate
clause can exist as a separate sentence, while a
Types of clause include: to-infinitive
clause]).
main
subordinate clause], I'll invite him over this evening [=
clause (e.g. Feeling hungry,
participle(-ing)
clause (e.g. To become a doctor takes years of study); present
the building is now in
1970s,
went into the kitchen); past participle (-ed) clause (e.g. Built during the
Tom had a lot of time on his
need of repair); being + past participle (-ed) clause (e.g. Being unemployed,
doctor, went straight home). See also
hands); having + past participle (-ed) clause (e.g. Having seen the
of words that contains a verb.
A group
A
clause
may
I
I
CONDITIONAL CLAUSE, RELATIVE CLAUSE.
cleft
sentence
in which focus
A sentence
my
who
brother
lent
given to either the subject or object using a pattern beginning
is
me the money)
or ‘What
../
(e.g.
What you need
is
‘It
...'
(e.g.
It
was
a holiday).
complement
is a lawyer) or object (e.g.
A word or phrase that follows a unking verb and describes the subject (e.g. Linda
phrase which completes
prepositional
or
found the food inedible). A complement may also be an adverbial
in Britain The disease
originated
disease
the meaning of a verb. Some verbs need a complement (e.g. The
;
originated'
would be incomplete).
compound
language school). A
A compound noun consists of two or more words together used as a noun (e.g. a
(e.g. They were welladjective
an
as
compound adjective consists of two or more words together used
behaved).
conditional
Spain
A conditional clause usually starts with ‘if, but other patterns are possible (e.g. Had it not rained,
made
can
be
distinction
A
clause.
conditional
would have won). A conditional sentence contains a
between real conditionals, which suggest that the situation is or was true, or may have been or may
become true (e.g. If she makes a promise, she keeps it) and unreal conditionals, which suggest that the
situation is imaginary or untrue (e.g. If you had asked me, would have helped).
I
conjunction
A word such
as and, but,
if,
while, after,
because which connects words, phrases, or clauses
in
a sentence.
Compare sentence connector.
countable
A countable noun can be both
plural
form
(e.g. electricity,
singular and plural (e.g. cup /cups).
but not
An uncountable noun doesn't have
a
‘electricities').
determiner
that goes in front of a noun to identify what the noun refers to (e.g. this, some, the, a / an, each,
determiners (also called possessive adjectives) are words such as my, your and their.
Possessive
my).
A word
direct
all,
speech
Speech that
is
written using the exact words of the speaker, without any changes.
Compare reported
speech.
imperative
An imperative clause uses the bare
suggestions
(e.g.
infinitive
form of a verb
for such things as giving orders
and making
Co to bed!).
infinitive
The form of a verb that usually goes
or the bare
after
‘to’.
The form can be either the to-infinitive
infinitive (e.g. sing, eat).
intransitive verb
A verb that doesn’t take an
206
object
(e.g.
She smiled). Compare transitive verb.
(e.g.
to sing, to eat)
I
Glossary
inversion
Changing the usual word order so that the verb comes before the subject
(e.g.
Up went the balloon).
linking verb
A verb
become, appear) that connects a subject with
(e.g. be,
modal verbs
A group of verbs
have (got)
better,
may, might, must, ought to,
(can, could,
about such things as
possibility, necessity,
to,
be able
to)
its
complement.
would) that give information
shall, should, will,
and obligation. Semi-modal verbs (used to, need, dare, had
have similar meanings to modal verbs.
non-affirmative
Referring to a lack of positive, affirmative meaning; for example,
in
most questions and
negatives. However,
questions which expect a positive reply are affirmative. The terms 'non-assertive' and ’assertive' are
sometimes used
noun
A word
things
for ‘non-affirmative'
and
‘affirmative'.
that refers to a person, place, thing, quality, etc.
(e.g.
A
collective
noun
refers to a
group of people or
audience, crowd, herd). See also countable noun.
noun phrase
A group of words where the main word
is
a
noun
(e.g. I've
been talking to the
woman across the road We
;
spoke to several small children).
object
The direct object
object] back
receives
is
on the
something
the person or thing affected by the action of the verb
shelf).
(e.g.
The indirect object
gave
I
my mother [=
is
the person or thing
indirect object]
some
who
(e.g.
I
put the book [= direct
benefits from the action or
flowers [= direct object]).
who
Compare
SUBJECT.
participle
The present participle is the -ing form of a verb (e.g. walking, singing, eating) used, for example, in
continuous tenses. The past participle is the -ed form of a verb (e.g. walked, sang, eaten) used, for example,
in perfect tenses. A participle adjective is one formed from the present or past participle of a verb (e.g. the
candidates applying, a broken plate). A participle clause has a present participle or past participle verb form
(e.g.
Feeling unwell, he
went to
bed; The person appointed to the post will have a difficult job to do).
particle
An adverb or preposition that follows a verb in two-word verbs and three-word verbs (e.g. What time did
you get in? [in = adverb]; flicked through the magazine [through = preposition]; She looks up to her mother
[up = adverb, to = preposition]).
I
passive
In
a passive clause or passive sentence, the
effect of the action given in the verb (e.g.
grammatical subject
is
the person or thing that experiences the
The book was written by Dan). Compare
active.
performative
A performative
promise
I'll
do
is
it
which states the action that
a verb
is
performed when a speaker uses the verb
(e.g.
I
tomorrow; apologise).
I
phrasal verb
A verb together with a following adverb and / or a preposition that has
ran across Tanya at the concert' (= met unexpectedly; a
to). Compare
‘I
a single
meaning
(e.g.
set off, look up
phrasal verb) and ‘She ran across the
road' (= a prepositional verb).
possessive
The possessive form of a noun ends
in
either
-'s (e.g.
Marta's car) or
-s' (e.g.
the
girls'
changing room).
preposition
A word such
above
my
as
in,
on, or
uncle's head,
by that comes before a noun, pronoun, noun phrase or -ing form
by
(e.g. in
March,
investing).
207
Glossary
prepositional phrase
A group
of
words that consists of a preposition and
or -ingform)
(e.g.
behind our house, across
its
prepositional object
(a
noun, pronoun, noun phrase
it).
prepositional verb
A verb and
a following preposition (e.g. believe
in,
consist of, look after).
Compare phrasal verb.
pronoun
A word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase. Pronouns include personal pronouns (e.g. she, me),
reflexive pronouns (e.g. myself, herself), possessive pronouns (e.g. mine, yours), and relative pronouns
/,
(e.g.
who, which).
quantifier
A word
little
or phrase that goes before a
many of the women
water,
in
noun or noun phrase to
talk
about the quantity of something
(e.g.
a
the room).
question
A wh-question
answered with
and asks
wh-word (e.g. Where are you going?). A yes / no question
Do you like coffee?). An echo question repeats part of a
begins with a
‘yes'
or ‘no'
(e.g.
for a repetition of all or part of
ask an indirect question by putting
whether
(e.g.
Can you
tell
me
it
it
into a
where you
moving to
(e.g. ‘I'm
‘
Alaska.' You're
is
one that can be
previous utterance
moving where?’).
We can
subordinate clause beginning with a wh-word or with
if
or
live?).
relative clause
A
kind of subordinate clause that describes a
relative clause says which person or thing
is
it in a main clause. A defining
A friend who lives in London is getting
noun that comes before
being talked about
(e.g.
more information about the noun (e.g. My bicycle, which
I've left outside your house, is over 20 years old). A nominal relative clause begins with a wh-word or
whatever, whenever, etc. and functions as a noun phrase in a sentence (e.g. What I need now is a long, hot
married).
bath).
A non-defining
A reduced
form and has a
live in
relative clause gives
relative clause usually begins with an -ing (present participle) or -ed (past participle)
meaning to
similar
new
our old house], The
relative
relative
I
met the people living in our old house [= who
1960 [= who were born before I960]).
...
...
pronoun
A pronoun such
Words
a relative clause (e.g.
rules only affect people born before
as who, which, or that
which
is
used at the beginning of a relative clause.
word
including relative
pronouns and others
(e.g.
whereby, why) that can begin a relative clause.
reported speech
Speech that
is
reported without using the exact words of the speaker. Sometimes called ‘indirect speech'.
reporting clause
& reported clause
A statement that
reports
clause
(e.g.
She said
what people think or say
is
often divided into a reporting clause and a reported
[= reporting clause] that the building
was unsafe
[= reported clause]).
reporting verb
A verb used
in
a reporting clause that describes
what people say or think
(e.g. ask,
claim, say).
sentence connector
A word
or phrase that
shows
comfortable. However,
it's
it's
a connection
between two separate sentences (e.g. My car isn't very
is large and has a beautiful garden. What's more,
very cheap to run.; The house
very close to the station.).
Compare conjunction.
state verb
A verb that
is
used to describe a state
(e.g. believe, think)
rather than an action.
subject
The person or thing that does the action of the verb
208
(e.g.
Luca went home). Compare object.
Glossary
subjunctive
The subjunctive
is
a set of verb forms used mainly in rather formal English to talk
rather than facts. The present subjunctive uses the base form of the verb
immediately) and the past subjunctive uses were
(e.g.
If
I
were you,
I'd
(e.g.
about
possibilities
We suggest that she leave
go home now).
transitive verb
A verb that takes an
object
(e.g.
She was holding a bunch of flowers). Compare intransitive verb.
two-word verbs & three-word verbs
Verbs that are commonly used with a particular particle (adverb or preposition) are referred to here as twoword verbs (e.g. She looked after her elderly parents). Verbs that are commonly used with two particular
particles (adverb + preposition) are referred to here as three-word verbs (e.g. He looked up to his older
brothers). See also prepositional verb
and phrasal verb.
verb
A finite verb has a tense (e.g. She waited She is waiting for you). Non-finite verb forms are infinitive (e.g.
He came to see me) and participle forms (e.g. Shouting loudly, was able to make myself heard; Built in
;
I
2011, the tower
is still
the tallest construction
in
Europe).
verb phrase
A group of words
consisting of
wh-words
A group of words
(who,
one or more verbs
(e.g. gives, is giving,
whom, whose, where, when, why, how)
has been giving).
that are used
in
wEi-questions.
209
Use
this
study planner
if
you need help
Grammar reminder you should
read
in
deciding which units you should study, or which part of the
first.
Which of the four multiple-choice options, A, B, C or D, completes the sentences in the correct or most likely
way? Sometimes more than one option is possible. If you are not sure which options are correct, you may
need to study any related sections of the Grammar reminder first and then the corresponding
the right
in
the table below. You
Grammar reminder or
210
in
will find
the
the unit highlighted.
full
correct version of each sentence either
in
unit(s) listed
on
the section of the
Study planner
this holiday for ages.
1.13
A We're
C We
1.14
B We've been looking forward to
looking forward to
D We've
look forward to
looked forward to
When saw the vase on the website, knew
I
I
A looked for
D have looked
it
was exactly what
I
B look for
for
1.15
phones
If
Erik
A
'm going to
you know.
I
B
let
C 'm
let
letting
‘Has anybody offered to look after the children?' ‘Sophia
it.'
A
2.4
is
The next
D
Cdoes
B's going to do
to do
train to Dublin
do
will
at 3:45. (station
announcement)
A will
2.5
B
leave
is
C
leaving
When you
Ben,
is
him he
tell
D
going to leave
still
leaves
owes me some
money.
A are going to see
2.6
We
A
2.7
're
C
B are seeing
a party next Saturday.
B
to have
're
A won't be doing
D won't to do
When the
for drier
A were
In
C
B aren't doing
see
have
'll
for a while.
don't do
race starts later this afternoon the drivers
weather than
hoping
last year.
D will
C hope
B are hoping
be hoping
the next few years, thousands of speed cameras
on major roads.
B
A are appear
D
D
any sport
After the operation you
will
Can you come?
C have
having
D
see
will
appear
C
are to appear
are appearing
to Bangkok by the end of June.
B
A aim getting
D I'm aiming to get
I
We
I'm aiming getting
each other
C aim
I
later that day, but
I
to get
had to phone and
cancel.
A see
B are seeing
C were
seeing
D saw
211
Study planner
Grammar
Modals and semi-modals
Unit
reminder
Despite yesterday's snowfalls,
An
B
A could drive
D are able to drive
She
swam
though
A
home
we
in less
than
C5
hour.
it
can
C were
can drive
strongly and
able to drive
cross the river easily, even
was swollen by the heavy
B was able to
C could
rain.
D
is
able to
me to get you some water?
B Should you like
C
A Would you like
D Will you like
We
C12
you
Shall
like
Switzerland four times during the 1990s.
A would
Bused to
visit
‘While we're
in
Moscow
shall
20 years since we
nearly
C
visit
last
we go and
saw
D
visit
visited
see Dariya?' ‘But
it's
been
Cl 7
remember
She
her.
us.'
A can't
3.6
D
C may not
B couldn't
During the war, the police
might not
you
arrest
for criticising
the government.
3.7
A may
B might
‘I'm seeing
Dr Evans next week.' ‘That
C
D
should
could
be
right. He's
C23
on holiday then.'
A
3.8
I
have got to put
C must have to put
3.11
D
Nowadays
hasn't got to
You
a password.
B must've to put in
D must put in
I'd
worked there
It's
before.
didn't
cost a fortune to
it
C
B needn't
suppose to
own an e-book reader.
D mustn't
doesn't have to
be unlucky.
D
C ought to
B should
is
supposed to
the third time she's been skating this week. She
really
enjoy
A must
it.
B should
C ought to
D had
better
Linking verbs, passives, questions
The
green and
traffic lights
A got
B became
The building
by a
C
212
C turned
I
pulled away.
D went
the earthquake but then
fire.
A was
survived
survived
C27
need to
needn't have
hasn't to
is
C
B needn't have had
Walking under a ladder
A
3.12
in
didn't have to have
have
A
in
an interview because
I
A
3.10
D
hasn't to
can't access the database.
A must
3.9
C
B can't
mustn't
...
...
destroyed
destroyed
B survived
D was
survived
...
...
was destroyed
was destroyed
C32
15
Study planner
Grammar
Unit
reminder
4.3
I'm really disappointed.
B
A wasn't picked
D wasn't got picked
4.4
When
A was
I
I
for the
I
C
didn't pick
team
D2
again.
22, 23,
24
didn't get picked
asked what was wrong,
1
22
explained the problem
me
C the problem was explained to me
D he explained me the problem
B he explained the problem to
4.5
4.6
The children
A were enjoyed taken
C were enjoyed taking
enjoyed taking
is
being installed by people
C
is
being installed
that
C
It
D
B
been
is
we have to
have informed us
I
to see
was
A What did you
C What did you
B
in
he meant?
him.
E4, El
26
How do you think
think
26
the town?
in
A What there are
D What there is
4.10
have been informed
D What do you
think
4.9
1 25
has been informed
It
He just turned away when asked
B
App.2
be installed
installed
D We
has been informed us
C What you
is
leave.
B
A Which do you think
24
next month.
A
A They
4.8
D
The new computer system
4.7
23
App.2
to the zoo.
B enjoyed being taken
What
is
C What
there
are there
the box?
B What you thought
D What you did think
think that
think
Verb complementation: what follows verbs
5.1
1
5.2
pizza
B pizza by
5.5
Italian pizza
D
pizza with Italy
29
the situation to
Stevens
me
C me the
situation
the wallet.
B
A admitted to steal
D admitted him stealing
5.4
C
Italy
She described
B
A the situation
D the situation me
5.3
28
always associate
A
j;
admitted steal
C admitted
My parents wouldn't
to the party.
B
allow me to go
A allow me go
C allow me going
D allow to go
She
A
felt
bites
the mosquito
B to bite
|
her.
C
bite
D
F5
30, 31
F9
30, 31
F13
30, 31
stealing
biting
l
iL
-
213
Study planner
Grammar
reminder
You don't object
late tonight,
A to working
Cwork
B to work
They arranged
London.
in
A for Rania to stay
D for Rania staying
do you?
D working
C by
B Rania to stay
Rania to stay
Reporting
she would be late for the meeting. She
Georgia
she was feeling
A told
that
C told me
6.2
...
that
She
her holiday
A news,' said she
D news,' she said
I
said me that
me that said me that
...
...
in Finland.
C
notified
I
me
said
about
to me.
latest
C
B news.' she said
A with the bank that
D to the bank that
6.5
told
B said about
suppose you've heard the
‘I
6.4
D
said that
...
A told me about
D told about
6.3
ill.
B told that
said that
had changed
news', she said
my address.
C
B the bank that
that
She reminded
A what to do
D me what to do
B
me what
had to do
I
Police said that they
A had
found
She encouraged
C
D were finding
find
the job.
C
Fran to take
put the box.
C
B ought to
She asked
6.9
to do
girl.
B that Fran should take
He asked where he
A shall
I
the missing
B have found
A to take the job
D to Fran to take
6.8
C what had
D
will
my advice
should
subject she should study at
university.
A on
6.10
to
what
B as to what
C on what
D
to
what
They directed that the building
A
be pulled
C
should be pulled
down
B to be pulled
down
D
down
should pull
down
Nouns
7.1
214
faulty.
The
A equipments are
B equipment was
D equipment were
C equipments were
Study planner
Grammar
Unit
reminder
7.2
The company
doing a
lot of
South
in
America.
A is
D is
73
...
businesses
...
business
them
A girl's
D girl's
74
off before
Leon's
...
Leons'
are
mud, so asked them to
in
I
car.
C
Leons'
girls'...
businesses
...
they got into
B
...
C
business
...
shoes were covered
The
take
B are
girls'...
Leon's
postponed a decision on the new road,
The council
and many leading members of the opposition party
criticised
the delay.
A
has
A
C
Neither of us
...
B has
have
75
76
C have
has
...
have
my colleagues
D A number of people
B The majority of
everyone
Practically
that
Police
A believes
D believe
...
Thomas
...
in Brazil,
is
although
his
exact
unknown.
B believe
are
...
C
are
believes
...
is
is
A new
is
A golf course
78
...
thinks that Phil should be given the job.
whereabouts
77
D have
has
...
being built outside the town.
C
Bgolfcourse
golf's
D
course
golf-course
The government has introduced
A
C
a children's clothes tax
A
David's guitar playing
B David guitar playing
C
Davids' guitar playing
D The
B a tax on children clothes
D
a children clothes tax
a tax
on
children's clothes
has improved enormously.
determiners and quantifiers
Articles,
I'll
be with you
A one
C
in
B a quarter of an hour
quarter of an hour
a quarter of
It's
A the moons
Sydney
D
one hour
Look at
8.3
guitar playing of David
B
moon
a quarter of
hour
45-47
very bright tonight.
C
the
moon
D
a
moon
45-47
is
A a beautiful city
D the beautiful cities
C the
B beautiful city
beautiful city
of the present continuous tense on page 32.
8.4
A There
are
C There
are the
45-47
B There are examples
example
examples
D There
is
example
215
Study planner
Grammar
Unit
reminder
8.5
is
one of the many factors involved
in
45
changing
farming methods.
A
8.6
B
Climate
A
‘You look upset.' ‘Yes,
We
haven't got
Aa
butter
D
last
B friends
was
‘I
...
of
has
...
phoned Sarah
there
There
49
C None
of
...
I
134,
122-28
49
has
home, but
at
answers
49
B there were no answer
D
isn't
was no answer
there
traffic
B much
C much
along the street where
I
138,
live.
122-28
A A large amount of
D A large number of
50
Many of
B
C Much
of
waiting to hear the results.
8.16
Everyone was
B
All
C Everyone were
was
Following the flood,
50
D many of
of
the food was inedible.
8.15
A
48
49-51
123
arrived yet.
was no answers
A many
>
D some friends
have
A there were no
C
48
D Any
have
...
115
butter
missing.
is
48
visiting
C Some
None
B
D some
C the friends
B Any of
114
the years
the butter
the furniture
A None
D None
8.17
C
week?'
my jewellery
8.12
D
C years
left.
‘Where were you
A Some of
8.14
morning
a terrible
B any butter
A any friends
I
47
B terrible morning
B any years
8.11
8.13
1
haven't been here for
I
A some years
8.10
46
D journalists
a journalist
had
I've
C some terrible morning
8.9
C
B journalist
A the terrible morning
8.8
climate
Against her parents' wishes, she wants to be
A the journalist
8.7
D The
C Climates
climate
in
the area
D
All
144
51
146. 122- 28
51
were
major
repair work.
A each
C
of building
every building
need
B every building
D
need
each buildings
A All they are going
B They are
C They all are going
D They are going
There
We should
all
...
...
needs
need
B few
C
a
D
few
use
51
going
all
evidence to support
is
A little of
8.20
...
to Athens during the vacation.
8.18
8.19
...
his claim.
time
we have
C
the few
available to discuss
Jon's proposal.
A the
216
little
of
B the
little
148. 122- 28
52
little
D
little
52
Study planner
Grammar
Relative clauses and other types of clause
Unit
reminder
My mother
A who is in her seventies
C which
,
She's
enjoys
B
B
I
in
her seventies,
valley
A
that
the town
C
Bin which
The prisoners
lives in
A which
C with
D which know
I
I
we have to hand
C by which
D when
lies is
in
the essay?
heavily polluted.
D which
in
are
A who being released
D who are being released
9.7
is
C who know
Bon which
The
She
her seventies,
in
,
know
Do you know the date
A which
9.6
is
one of the kindest people
I
9.5
walking.
D who
her seventies,
is in
A that know
in
,
hill
that
all
women.
C
B are being released
being released
the house
B has the red door
has the red door
D which with
the red door
the red door
58, 59
‘Wait a minute,' said Amy,
A
running through the door
C
ran through the door
B run through the door
D
runs through the door
by the boys' behaviour, she complained to the head
9.8
58, 59
teacher.
A She annoyed
D Annoying
at the party,
9.9
A
9.10
Arrived
Josh was the
A
B
we saw
We arrived
first
by leaving
C She was annoyed
B Annoyed
person
I
C
Ruth standing alone.
Arriving
saw
B on leaving
D We were
arriving
hospital.
C
in
leaving
D on to
leave
10.1
10.2
B with
A each other
D with one another
10.3
We are confident that
each other
both sets of fans
will
match.
A behave itself
D behave
10.4
‘We need new
A
B behave them
curtains.' ‘Okay, let's
ones with flowers on
B some
C behave themselves
buy
C ones
217
Study planner
10.5
The two children
for breaking the
A each blamed other
B blamed
D each blamed the other
10.6
had a racing bike when
I
A my brother did so
D did my brother
10.7
I
was young, and
B so did
my brother
don't suppose there'll be any seats
‘I
A don't suppose
D suppose not
window.
C blamed each other
other
C
B suppose
left.'
C so my
‘No,
brother
I
don't suppose so
10.8
They needed someone who was both an excellent administrator
and manager
was not easy to find.
A Such person
B A such person
C Such
D Such a person
10.9
‘They could have been delayed by the snow.'
A could
‘Yes,
they
have
10.10
11.2
11.3
Our teacher gave
problem to
us
completely impossible
Experience
for the job.
is
A really essential
D very essential
11.4
solve.
Ba
A a very impossible
C an absolutely impossible
I
B
met my
D
an extremely impossible
fairly essential
professor the other day. She
is
now
advising on the government's
A old
politics
B very old
11.5
11.6
218
...
very foreign policy
politics
...
foreign policy
C
very old politics
...
very foreign policy
D
old politics
I
drank
...
foreign policy
some
coffee.
A good very
Brazilian
B Brazilian very good
C very good
Brazilian
D
I
was
A
surprised
C
surprising
very Brazilian good
to find that the film
...
...
frightening
frightening
was quite
B surprised
D
...
surprising
frightened
...
frightened
Study planner
Grammar
Unit
reminder
11.7
11.8
My watch was among the
B taken things
A things taken
D stolen things
He was busy
A to do
11.9
It
was
as
A strange quiet
D strangely quietly
11.10
It
was the
‘Why
did
11.14
as normal
as normal as
11.17
1 70
L6
I
D
ran quickly
C
the cheapest
In
C
Eva
I 72
'
the cheapest ones
I
could find
could find
I
B a normal a
life
D
life
as
as possible.
I
May had
life
74, 75
B Eva had a baby
D
a baby.
Eva had
in
May
in
May.
a baby.
Kaspar nowadays, he's so busy at the
A We
see hardly ever
B
We
C We
hardly ever see
D
Hardly
Only
later
we
We
with the decision.
,
this
B
much
summer
is
I
1 75
ever see
how much damage had been caused.
C did she realise
did realised
B she
11.18
office.
hardly see ever
A she realised
D realised she
A agree very much
D very much agree
1 73
life
normal a
May, Eva had a baby.
in
72
ridiculousest
Have you heard the good news?
A
1 71
quickly ran
:L8
C
B ridiculous
71
strangely quiet
Despite his disability he tried to lead
11.15
11.16
C
you buy these oranges?' ‘They were
C
I
he was doing
thing to say.
A
1
into the room.
C
B ran quick
ran
B
A cheapest
D cheapest ones
11.13
we went
B strange quietly
A most ridiculous
D most ridiculousest
11.12
D
that he
towards the door.
She
A quick
11.11
C
69
|
stolen
homework.
was doing
his
B doing
C things
100
I 77
C
agree
agree
much
a crucial time for the
B Politically
A Politics speaking
view
point
of
D In a political
76, 99,
C
In political
government.
78
terms
Adverbial clauses and conjunctions
12.1
12.2
unwell
I
A felt
D feel
...
...
get up
B
when
felt
...
this
I
got up
C
feel
...
morning.
get up
got
Have something to eat before you
A leave
B
left
C
will leave
D had
left
219
Study planner
12.3
still
I
feel tired
in
A when wake
D while wake
I
I
12.4
I
forget
it.
D
in
order not to
they slept soundly.
C Hot as the night
I'll
A
If
give
is
I
you a
air
If
B
although the night
C
will rain
D
rained
how difficult the job was,
had known
a
I
air
was
was
air
rains
it.
I
C won't take
B wouldn't have taken
more
reliable car,
it
to Spain rather
I
fly.
A would
have
C had
would
If
D Hot
was
lift if it
raining
than
B Hot though the night
night air
A won't have taken
D mightn't have taken
12.10
wake up
will
C because there was
C not to
B so not to
so as not to
A Hot though was the
12.9
I
an accident.
B because of there was
12.6
12.8
C when
wake up
up
wrote down her name
A
12.7
I
the morning.
We were delayed
A because
D because of
12.5
up
B as
...
...
would
B had
drive
D would
drive
the technology
had driven
...
have had
we would
available,
expand the business.
A would become
B were become
would
...
drive
be able to
C were to become
D became
12.11
If the North Sea
London to Oslo.
A happened to freeze
D
in
winter,
you could walk from
C should
B froze
freeze
should happen to freeze
12.12
in
my seventies and
rather unfit,
I
might consider
taking up squash.
A Were
12.13
12.14
13.1
I
not
B
Was
I
C Weren't
not
They couldn't decide
exam.
A
if
It
was midday
A
Even so
it
B whether or not
He suddenly saw
was worth
D
C whether
I
,
B Although
put on the
C Even
Eva
D
I
D
if
If
I
wasn't
re-sitting the
or not
light.
Even though
the room.
He pushed
his
way
the crowd of people to get to her.
A across
D over
...
220
...
through
along
B over
...
through
C
across
...
across
Study planner
13.2
The concert
others, Karl Frisk
features,
Johnsons. Their music
A between
C among
among
...
Ain
cricket,
A Apart from
I
left
the room.
enjoy watching football and basketball.
C
D
Except for
C took
B cared for
after
Besides
C
B to get
of getting
She
five
D
care of
cared about
heads when you toss a coin
times?
D
of get
get
tried to
A talk me the plan out of
C talk me out of the plan
me the plan
me of the plan
B talk out of
D
talk
out
people trying to get into the football stadium.
14.1
A There were too much
D
C It was too many
B There were too
There was too
many
many
Sara wanted to borrow money.
14.2
A
Suddenly
C
It
hit
suddenly
me that
me that
B
It
D
hit
suddenly
hit
Suddenly
hit
you can swim so well and
I
A
14.4
among
...
her disabled mother until her death last year.
five
14.3
teenagers.
between
D By
What's the chance
A
...
the conversation, she
B Except
Jo
A cared
13.7
in
C Over
B During
13.4
13.6
D among
a pause
and the
very popular
B between
between
...
13.3
13.5
is still
B hate
hate
Luis lost his job
and move
A that
in
I
can't.
D
hate that
hate
it
and was short of money, so
with
his flat
his brother.
he did was to
C what he
C
that
it
me
B what he did was to
sell
D what
did sold
he did was
sell
sell
been diverted, they would have arrived
14.5
A Had
the plane not
B Hadn't the plane
C The
plane had not
D The
that Lana
14.6
A So successful
business,
plane not had
was able to
her business was,
C Her
business
early.
retire at
the age of 50.
B So successful was her
was so successful
D So was
her
successful business
221
Grammar reminder
The Grammar reminder summarises basic information about some important areas of grammar.
References within the main units point you to the sections of the Grammar reminder that are relevant
to those units. Read these sections to refresh your understanding before you start work on the
advanced grammar points
in
the
unit.
Tenses
Present continuous (- Units 1, 2 & 8)
‘Who are you phoning ?’ 'm trying to get through to
A1
O
‘I
We
Misaki.'
use the present continuous to talk about particular events or activities that have begun
but have not ended at the time of speaking. The event or activity
present time, but not necessarily at the
A2
O
She's doing voluntary
We
work with young
progress at the
children until she starts her university course.
use the present continuous to suggest that an event or activity
Present simple (- Units 1, 2 & 8)
Trees grow more quickly in summer than
O
in
is
or
may
be temporary.
& Unit 10.)
(For the present continuous for the future, see B 7
A3
is in
moment of speaking.
winter.
We use the present simple with verbs describing states or situations that are always true or
continue indefinitely.
A4
O
This cake tastes wonderful.
We
Where
did
you buy
it?
use the present simple with states or situations (thoughts, feelings) that exist at the
present
moment.
Verbs describing states include *agree, appreciate, attract, *desire, *doubt, expect,
hate, hope,
like, love,
and preferences)]
*know, realise,
*prefer, *regret (to do with emotions, attitudes,
anticipate, assume, *believe, consider, expect, feel, find, imagine,
understand (mental states)] ache, hear, *notice, see, *smell, sound, *taste
and perception)] *belongto, *consist of, *constitute, *contain, cost, *differ
from, have, look, *mean, measure, *own, *possess, *resemble, *seem, weigh (to do
think,
(senses
with ‘being', 'having',
The verbs marked
etc.).
* are rarely
used with continuous tenses (but can be
if
we mean
actions
rather than states).
A5
O
Do you go
to Turkey every year for your holidays?
We use the present simple to talk about habits or regular events or actions.
simple for the future, see B6 & Unit 10.)
Past simple
A6
A7
O
O
(->
Aisha
Units 3, 4, 5 & 8)
few minutes ago.
left a
Mikhail continued the course even though
it
was proving very
difficult.
We use the past simple to refer to a completed action or event
situations that existed over a period of time
when something happened,
in
when
in
the past or to talk about
the past, but not now.
using a time adverbial
that the listener or reader already knows
it
(e.g.
We can either say
a few minutes ago: A6), or
happened or can understand
context (A7).
A8
O
saw my grandparents every week as a child.
We use the past simple to talk about repeated past actions.
(For the past simple in conditionals, see M12 & M13 and Unit 83.)
I
Present perfect
A9
A10
All
222
O
O
O
(For the present
(-*
Units 3, 6
We can't have a
&
8)
meeting, because so few people have shown any interest.
My ceiling has fallen
in
and the kitchen
is
flooded.
Come quickly!
We have belonged to the tennis club since we moved
here.
assume
this
from the
Grammar reminder
A12
O
Lee has represented his country on
many
occasions, and hopes to go on to
compete
in
the
next Olympics.
We
when
use the present perfect to talk about a past action, event or state,
there
is
some
between what happened in the past, and the present time. Often we
the way something that happened in the past affects or is relevant to the
kind of connection
are interested
in
situation that exists
now
(A9).
may also
However, the connection with the present
the action happened recently with a consequence for the present (A10), that
until the present
time
(All), or that a repeated
event
in
may
the past
(or
it
may
be that
continues
happen
not)
again (A12).
Past continuous (- Units 4, 7 8c 8)
When he realised was looking
A13
O
I
We use the
at him, he turned away.
past continuous to talk about a situation
before a particular point
in
the past
(...I
was looking at him
he turned away) and was
(...
still in
...)
that started
progress at that
point.
Past perfect
A14
A15
O
O
Units
(-4
When went
I
5,
7
8c
into the
8)
bathroom,
I
found that the bath had overflowed.
By 10 o'clock most people had gone home.
We use the past perfect to talk about a
past event that took place before another past
event (A14), or before or up to a particular time
(For the past perfect in conditionals, see
M14 &
in
the past (A15).
Unit 83.)
Present perfect continuous (- Units 6 8c 8)
Since the operation two months ago, Samuel has been
already take one or two steps unaided.
Your eyes are red - have you been crying ?
A17
A16
O
learning to walk again.
He can
O
We use the present
perfect continuous to talk about an activity
period until now, which
Past perfect continuous (-* Units 7 & 8)
When saw the vase on the website,
A18
Q
in
progress
in
the past for a
progress (A16) or has recently finished (A17).
is still in
I
I
knew
it
was exactly what had been looking
I
use the past perfect continuous to talk about a situation or activity that was
We
over a period up to a particular past point
in
for.
in
progress
time.
ga»nii&lEh
The future
Will + infinitive (- Unit 9)
think 17/ go to bed now.
It's late.
B1
B2
O
O
I
I
think you'll enjoy the film.
We
B3
B4
O
O
17/
when we state a decision made at the moment of speaking
we think something is likely to happen in the future (B2).
use will
say that
make one
of
my special desserts for dinner,
if
you
I've
asked her to join us this evening, but she won't.
We
use will (or
'll)
when we
offers (B3), invitations,
unwillingness to
(B1)
and when we
like.
about willingness to do something in the future (e.g. in
requests, and orders) and will not (or won't) when we talk about
talk
do something
in
the future
(e.g.
reluctance, refusal (B4)).
Be going to +
B5
O
infinitive (-* Unit 9)
offered to look after the children?' ‘Sophia's going to do it.'
anybody
‘Has
We use be going to when we state a decision made some time before we report it. Going
to is often preferred in informal spoken English (where it is often pronounced /gana/) and
will
is
preferred
in
more formal
contexts.
223
Grammar reminder
Present simple for the future (- Unit 10)
The next train to Dublin leaves at 3.45.
B6
O
We
(
station
announcement)
some
use the present simple to talk about future events that are part of
official
arrangement such as a timetable or programme. A time expression
is
usually used with the
present simple for the future
is
already clear from
at 3.45) unless the time referred to
(...
the context.
Present continuous for the future (-* Unit 10)
B7
WeVe having a party next Saturday. Can you come?
O
We
use the present continuous to talk about future activities and events that are intended
or have already been arranged. Usually a personal pronoun
is
mentioned
Future continuous
B8
O
(...
(-»
Unit 11)
you won't be doing any sport
After the operation
We
is
used (We...) and a future time
next Saturday) or already understood.
for a while.
use the future continuous to talk about an activity or event happening at a particular
time or over a particular period
operation
in
We
the future.
usually
mention the future time (After the
...).
Modals and semi-modals
The modal verbs are:
will,
would, can, could, may, might,
Modal verbs have meanings
often followed by the bare infinitive of another verb
own
Yes
(e.g.
,
I
can).
They cannot be followed
(e.g.
-s,
in
-ing or past participle forms.
directly by a to-infinitive, an -ing form, a past
modal verb. In questions they come
negatives (e.g. He won't [= will not] help).
before the subject
(e.g.
The semi-modals are: ought to, used to, need, dare, had better, have (got)
These have meanings
like
marked
have / had [got ]
for tense (e.g.
Can, could and be able to (-* Unit 15)
A polyglot is someone who can speak
O
O
O
O
was six.
swim until she was ten.
When we say that someone or something has or doesn't have the
‘Why
isn't
Ben here yet?'
could be because
is
mother's
do something,
ill
in less
use be able to instead of can or could to talk about
talk
about a
specific
achievement
prefer
can or could rather than be able
After the trees have been cut back,
we
(particularly
Where
ability.
there
again.'
something happening or being
we were able to drive home
C5) rather than a general
We
his
a possibility of
effort;
sitting
is
ability.
if it is
We prefer be able to
difficult, requiring
a choice,
true.
than an hour.
in
speech
we
some
generally
to.
will
be able to see more of the garden from the
room.
use will be able to, not can, to say that something
condition that something
C7
‘It
not can, to say there
Despite yesterday's snowfalls,
We can
O
ability to
use can('t) (for the present; Cl) or could(n't) (for the past; C2, C3).
when we
C6
several different languages.
Olivia couldn't
We use could,
C5
be able to
Anita could speak three languages before she
we
C4
to,
Couldyou help?)
modal verbs but not the same formal features: for example, some can be
to)] some have non-modal uses (e.g. She needs a rest).
Cl
C2
C3
They are
She might go) but can also be used on
participle, or another
and before not
must
relating to ideas such as possibility, likelihood, prediction, necessity,
permission and obligation. They do not have to-infinitive,
their
shall, should,
is
done
We can l are allowed to stay up
is
possible
in
the future on
first.
late
on
Fridays
and Saturdays because we don't have to go
to school the next day.
We use can for the present or the future and
can also use be allowed to.
224
could for the past to report permission.
We
Grammar reminder
Will,
would and used to
C8
O
C9
O
O
Will l
(->
Unit 16)
Won't you have another biscuit? (‘Won't you
...?' is
a very polite
and rather formal
offer)
CIO
wants to borrow the car/ 'He will not / (a firm refusal)
now put your pens down and pay attention, (a firm instruction)
use will and will not (won't) to talk about (un)willingness (see B3-4) and also to make
'Luka
You
We
will
and to give instructions (CIO).
You would have a good chance of getting it.
We can use would to make a prediction about an imaginary situation; that
something that may or may not happen (see also M13).
offers (C8), requests, refusals (C9),
C11
C12
O
O
You should apply
Would you
We can
too,
we
O
O
Would you
like
would
like
can say
instead of
C13
C14
I
would
in
We would / used to
used to
I
To
...
requests
lend him
when we make an
...,
but not
like this,
‘I
will like
about
but this
is
offer,
../.
but not ‘Will you
We can
like
../.
use should (with
I
In
requests,
or
we)
formal.
money when he was unemployed.
live in a flat in Paris.
about things that happened repeatedly
talk
is,
me to get you some water?
like
use
for the job.
use would
used to +
or
infinitive
in
the past, but don't happen now,
(03). Used to
is
more common
in
we
can
informal English.
We
can use used to but not would to talk about permanent past states (04). Note how we
normally make questions and negatives with use to in spoken English: ‘D/d your children
use to sleep well
young.'
to
...?',
when they were
Many people
‘I
usedn't to
babies?';
avoid using used to
...')
and
in
‘I
in
question tags
when was
without do (‘Used you
didn't use to like visiting the dentist
questions and negatives
(...,
usedn't you?) because
it
I
sounds very formal
and old-fashioned.
May, might, can and could (- Units 15 & 17)
O If the drought goes on much longer, there may / might / could be
C15
a hosepipe ban before the
end of the month.
C16
Q
Her parents may / might / could have influenced her decision to resign.
negatives) we use
In affirmative sentences (that is, sentences which are not questions or
may, might, or could with a similar meaning to say that there is a possibility of something
happening or being true (C15). Can is not used in this way. We sometimes prefer could
to show that we are giving an opinion about which we are unsure. We use may / might /
could + have + past participle to say that it is possible that something happened in the
past (Cl 6).
C17
O
C18
O
‘While we're
last
I
saw
her.
definitely
In
Moscow shall we go and see Dariya?'
She may not / might not remember us.'
in
saw her go
out, so she can't / couldn't be at
negative sentences, including sentences with words
may not or might not to say
couldn't to say that
09 O
‘But
Coats
May
not
may
be
left in
(not ‘might')
is
is
it is
it is
we
home.
like
possible that something
not possible that something
been nearly 20 years since
it's
is
only, hardly, or never,
is
we
use
not true (C17), and can't or
true (08).
the cloakroom.
used
in
formal contexts to say that something
used to say that things are not allowed
(e.g.
Calculators
is
allowed.
may not be
used
May
in
the
examination.).
Must and have
C20
C21
O
O
(got) to (- Unit 18)
good news. must tell Marco straight away.
on Thursday morning?' ‘Sorry, no. have to go to the dentist at eleven.'
meet
‘Can we
When we say that it is necessary to do something, we use must or have (got) to.
Sometimes it doesn't matter which we use, although have got to is less formal than either
That's really
I
I
must or have to and is particularly common in spoken English. However, we use must
when we want to indicate that the speaker decides that something is necessary (C20)
and we use have (got) to to suggest that someone else or some outside circumstances
authority
makes something necessary
or
(C21).
225
Grammar reminder
O
C22
She was bruised quite badly
We normally use must,
in
happened or that something
C23
‘I'm seeing
the accident.
not have (got) to,
is
true
It
a lot.
(has)
.
Dr Evans next week.' ‘That can't be
When we give a
must hurt
when we conclude that something
we
negative conclusion
right. He's
rarely use
on holiday
then.'
must not or have
(got) to. Instead,
we
use can't (cannot) or couldn't.
C
C24
When my father went to school he had to learn Latin.
To say that something was necessary in the past we use had
to, not
Need(n't), don't have to and mustn't (-* Units 18 & 19)
C25
He didn’t cook the meal himself so you needn't / don't have to eat
O
must.
it all.
He won't be
offended.
O
C26
You mustn't put anything on the shelves until the glue has set hard.
We use needn't (or don't need to) or don't have to to say that something
(C25) and mustn't to say that something
Q
C27
C28
I
C
I
didn't
need to l didn't have
come to
it
was
is
not necessary
not allowed (C26).
to have an interview because
needn't have cooked dinner. Just as
they couldn't
is
I'd
worked there
ready, Pablo and Daniela
before.
phoned to say that
eat.
When we say that it was not necessary to do something in the past, and it wasn't done,
we use didn't need to or didn't have to (C27). To show that we think something that was
done was not in fact necessary we use need not (needn't) have (C28).
Should, ought to and be supposed to (- Unit 20)
You'll catch cold if you go out like that. think you should / ought to take a hat.
enjoyed her first novel, so the new one should / ought to be good.
We can often use should or ought to with little difference in meaning when we
O
O
C29
C30
I
I
talk about
making recommendations, or talking about a responsibility,
(C29) and the probability of something happening or being true (C30).
The work was supposed to start / should have started / ought to have started last week.
Walking under a ladder is supposed to be unlucky.
obligation
C31
C32
(e.g. in
giving advice,
supposed to can be used instead
(Be)
obligation than should (C31).
should
/
It is
ought to are not used
of should /
ought to to express a less strong
what many people think is true, but
also used to report
in this
way
(C32).
Passives
Passive verb forms have
are
summarised
present the
in
one of the tenses of the verb to be and a past participle. Passive verb forms
2. The choice between an active and passive sentence allows us to
Appendix
same information
in
two
different orders.
The storm damaged the
active
roof.
Compare:
passive
The roof was damaged.
The roof was damaged by the
storm.
This sentence
it
did.
is
about the storm, and says what
The subject (The storm)
the object (the roof)
is
is
the ‘agent' and
the ‘done
to'.
These sentences are about the roof and say
what happened to it (in the first sentence) and
what did it (in the second). The subject ( The
roof)
is
the ‘done
to'. If it is
agent {the storm) goes
in
mentioned, the
a prepositional phrase
with by after the verb.
D1
O
The building survived the earthquake but then was destroyed by a fire.
Verbs which take an object ( transitive verbs) can have a passive form (... was destroyed).
Verbs which do not take an object (intransitive verbs) do not have passive forms (The child
vanished
but not ‘The child was vanished ...').
...,
Grammar reminder
However, many verbs can be used at different times with and without objects - that
they can be both transitive and
airport?' (transitive)
(intransitive-,
D2
D3
O
O
and
intransitive.
Compare: ‘Are they meeting him
he being met at the
'Is
airport?' (passive );
‘When
is,
at the
shall
we meet?'
no passive possible)
I'm really disappointed.
I
didn't get picked / wasn't picked for the
team
again.
The house was owned by an elderly couple before bought it.
In spoken language we often use get + past participle (... didn't get picked ...) instead of
a passive form (... wasn't picked ...) to talk about actions or events that we see as negative
(D2). Note, however, that we can also use it to talk about positive actions and events
(e.g. Great news - got picked for the team again!). We don't normally use get + past
I
I
participle to describe states (D3).
Questions
Basic question forms
E1
If
Are they leaving soon?
a verb phrase includes an auxiliary verb,
Where
the auxiliary verb comes before the subject.
a verb phrase includes
If
more than one
comes before
O
will
you
stay?
Has she been doing her homework?
What should we have told Nina?
auxiliary verb, only the first
the subject.
Does he enjoy school?
Where did you go on holiday?
present and past simple tenses of verbs
In
we
(apart from be),
be
If
is
used
in a
use
do
or did.
verb phrase without
another verb, the form of be comes before
O
O
Are you happy
Where was
at
work?
Lars today?
the subject.
If
we
use what, which,
the subject,
in
we
a statement;
use the
i.e.
who or whose
What made that
as
same word order
noise?
Who can tell me the answer to
as
question 5?
the subject goes before
the verb phrase.
E2
O
What happened to your eye?
If
we
use what, which,
However, note that
we
who or whose as the subject, we don't
use do
can sometimes use do when what, which,
in
the question
who or whose
is
(E2).
the
we want to add emphasis, or to contrast with what has been said or implied.
Do is stressed in spoken English: ‘Come on, be honest - who did tell you?' Don't confuse
whose with who's (short for either who is or who has), which are pronounced the same.
subject
if
E4
O
O
E5
O
He just turned away when asked him. What do you think he meant?
In these questions the wh-word is the object. We prefer which when we are asking about
an identified group or range of things or people (E3), and we use what when the possible
range of reference is open (E4). Sometimes, however, we can use either which or what
with little difference in meaning (e.g. What /Which towns do we go through on the way?).
Haven't you finished your homework yet?
O
Why didn't she pay for the meal?
Who wouldn't like to own an expensive
E3
E6
E7
I've
got orange juice or apple juice. Which would you prefer?
I
We can
sports car?
/ no or wh-questions to make a suggestion, to persuade
someone, to criticise, or to show that we are surprised, etc. We make a negative yes / no or
wh-question with an auxiliary verb (have, did, would, etc.) + -n't (E5, E6, E7). We can also
use negative yes
ask a negative question using a negative statement and a positive 'tag' at the end
(e.g.
don't have to leave just yet, do we?). Negative questions can be used to sound polite
giving an opinion (e.g. Shouldn't
we
offer her a
We
when
lift?).
227
Grammar reminder
Verb complementation: what follows verbs
FI
F2
F3
O
O
O
She described the attacker to the police.
They arrived at the restaurant an hour late.
He gave me
a biscuit.
Some verbs
(e.g.
describe
in FI)
are followed
Also arrest, avoid, do, enjoy, find,
:
by an object
...
the attacker
...).
These are called
force, get, grab, hit, like, pull, report,
transitive verbs.
Some verbs
shock, take, touch, want, warn
(e.g. arrive in
F2) are not usually
Also: appear,
followed by an object. These are called
intransitive verbs.
an object,
it
Some verbs
If
a verb can't be followed
made
can't be
(e.g.
give
in
F3) are
dictionary will
list
F4-13
Many verbs can be
go, happen,
by
commonly
Also: lend, offer, pay, sell, tell,
if
transitive,
throw
in F3).
the meanings of verbs and
intransitive, transitive and,
fall,
passive.
followed by two objects (me and a biscuit
A good
come,
matter, sleep, swim, wait
whether
followed by another verb
in
tell
you whether each meaning
is
followed by one or by two objects.
it is
the form of a to-infinitive
(e.g.
refuse to
when to comes
after a verb it can be part of a to-infinitive (= to + the base form of a verb; e.g. He wants
to go, She hopes to win) or it can be a preposition followed by a noun phrase (e.g. He went
to the theatre) or by an -ing form (e.g. He admitted to having a gun). An -ing form often
eat), -ing (e.g.
behaves
like
avoid working), bare infinitive
an object
(e.g.
I
(e.g.
help carry). Note that
regret leaving).
summary of common patterns together with examples of verbs that are used in
Note that many verbs can be used in several different patterns, and that some
of the verbs given can be used just with an object, and may also be used intransitively (e.g.
He failed to stop, He failed the test, He failed).
Here
is
a
this pattern.
Verb +
O
F4
to-infinitive
They won't agree to pay for the damage.
Also: aim, ask, decline,
hurry,
manage,
demand,
fail,
hesitate, hope,
offer, plan, prepare, refuse,
want,
wish
Verb + -ing
F5
O
Stevens admitted stealing the wallet.
Also: avoid, consider, delay,
envisage, feel
risk,
Verb +
(little
to-infinitive or -ing
difference
in
F6
like, finish,
deny, detest, dread,
imagine, miss, recall, resent,
suggest
O
Before
we began eating / to eat my father
thanked everyone for coming.
meaning)
Also: c ease, continue, start
Verb +
to-infinitive or -ing
F7
O
F8
O
(difference in meaning)
news.
Also:
Verb + object + to-
F9
must be an
How did you come to buy the car?
go on, mean,
O
regret,
My parents wouldn't allow me to go to the
object)
Also: believe, cause,
command,
encourage, entitle, force,
show, teach,
228
remember, stop, try
party.
infinitive
(= there
She came hurrying up the path to bring us the
tell,
warn
consider, enable,
invite, order,
persuade,
Grammar reminder
O
would hate
Verb + (object) + to-
F10
infinitive
Also: help, like, love,
(= there
may
1
(her) to give
the job up.
need, prefer, want, wish
be an object)
Verb + object + -ing
(= there must be an object)
O
F11
The police caught him driving without a
licence.
Also discover, feel, find, hear, leave, notice, observe,
:
overhear, see, spot
Verb + (object) + -ing
(= there
may
O
F12
1
can't stand (him) wearing a suit.
Also detest, dislike, dread, envisage, hate, imagine,
be an object)
:
mind (in questions and negatives), miss,
remember, resent, risk, start, stop
like, love,
recall, regret,
O
She felt the mosquito bite / biting
Verb + object + bare
F13
infinitive or -ing
Also: hear, notice, observe, overhear, see,
her.
watch
(sometimes a difference
in
meaning)
cniMrtl-k
Reporting
When we report speech
in
a different context from the
one
in
which
was
it
originally produced,
we
changes to the original words. Of course, differences between the original
sometimes need to make
speech context and the one in which it is reported will influence whether changes are needed and
what they should be. Here are some possible changes:
She said that Dan was arriving later that day.
'Dan's arriving later today.'
Cl
He said that he was sure he'd left it there /on the table.
here.'
left
it
I'd
sure
C2
C was
He told me that he had grown those carrots himself.
grew these carrots myself.’
G3
C
G
O
O
‘I
O
‘I
The tense we choose for a report is one that is appropriate at the time that we are reporting
what was said or thought. This means that we sometimes use a different tense in the report
from the one that was used in the original statement (G1 & G3) and change pronouns,
references to time and place, and words such as this, that, and these (G1-G3).
G4
C
Georgia told me (that) she would be late for the meeting.
G5
C
G6
O
O
She said (that) she was feeling ill.
said to Ivan (that) he had to work harder.
G7
I
She told me about her holiday
in Finland.
commonly used to report statements. We use an object
say (G5). Note, however, that we can use to + object
after
not
me ..., G4), but
tell, and that we can report what topic was talked
after
to Ivan .... G6), but not
Say and tell are the verbs most
after tell
(...
say
(...
after
about using
G8
G9
O
O
‘It’s
a pity
tell
+ object + about
you can’t come
“I’m really hungry.
I
("...")
(G7).
weekend.'
fancy a cheese sandwich.”
When we quote what
double
this
people think or what they have
said,
we
put single
('...')
(G8) or
(G9) quotation marks at the beginning and end of a report of their exact
is often referred to as direct speech
spoken or written words. This
G10
Here are more examples of direct speech. Note the punctuation used:
'| think we should go to India while we have the opportunity,’ argued
'Can make an appointment to see the doctor?’ asked Maxim.
0
O
I
‘You
O
O
O
G11
O
O
O
O
Oliver.
'It
must be mad!’
yelled her brother.
tastes horrible,’ said Anna, 'but
it’s
supposed to be very good for you.’
‘You should go home,’ Maria advised. ‘You’re looking really
Daniel said, 'Put
them
all
on the top
She stood up and shouted to the
‘Why did she look
at
ill.’
shelf.’
children:
‘It’s
time to go home!’
me like that?’ wondered Julia.
is open, thought Omar.
Suddenly she thought: Could they be trying to
Perhaps the door
trick
me?
229
::
Grammar reminder
To quote what a person
thinks,
we
use the conventions shown
in
comma
separate the quotation from the reporting clause with a
the examples above, or
(or colon)
and leave out
quotation marks.
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
HI
O
The equipment was
faulty.
Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns are those which can have
the word a / an before them or be used in the plural. Uncountable nouns are not used with a
/ an or in the plural. Some nouns in English are normally uncountable (like equipment in HI),
while
in
many other
languages they are countable,
Also: applause, assistance,
courage, cutlery, dancing,
e.g.
accommodation,
advice.
baggage, camping, cash, chaos, chess, clothing, conduct,
employment, evidence, fun, furniture, harm,
homework, housing, housework, information, jewellery, leisure, litter, luck,
u gg a g e machinery, money, mud, music, news, nonsense, parking, pay, permission,
dirt,
health,
l
»
photography, poetry, pollution, produce, progress, publicity, research, rubbish,
safety, scenery, shopping, sightseeing, sunshine, transport, underwear, violence,
weather, work
H2
The company is / are doing a lot of business in South America.
Sometimes a noun is used uncountably when we are talking about the whole substance or
idea (e.g. business), but countably when we are talking about units or different kinds (e.g.
businesses).
Also: beer, coffee, water;
fruit,
toothpaste, washing
Compare
O
Three coffees and a lemonade, please. is
powder; cake, chicken, land,
(dis)agreement, difficulty,
improvement,
language,
life,
forget to buy
O
- Don't
some toothpaste.
I
chicken.
pain, protest,
have a fear of spiders. - He was trembling
I
with
thought, war
O
colourings.
The chickens have escaped. - don't eat
responsibility, success,
H3
Brazil
major producer of coffee.
Most toothpastes contain
paint, space, stone; abuse,
fear,
a
fear.
The use of recycled paper is saving thousands of trees from being cut down each year.
Some nouns (e.g. paper) usually have different meanings when they are used countably and
uncountably.
Also: competition, glass,
grammar,
iron,
jam, lace,
Compare
O
tin,
just don't understand
answer up
property, room, sight,
speech, time,
I
I
work
got held
is
grammar. - looked the
1
grammar (= a reference book)
up in a jam (= traffic jam). - This jam
in
a
really sweet.
(Note that ‘jams' can also be
mean types of jam)
She made a wonderful speech
used to
O
at the wedding.
- His speech has been affected by the
illness.
Compound nouns (-* Unit 43)
H4
How much pocket money do you give to your children?
H5
A new golf course / golf-course is being built outside the town.
A compound noun (e.g. pocket money) is an expression made up
of more than one
word, which functions as a noun in a sentence. For example, we can use a noun + noun
combination to say what something is made of, where something is, when something
happens, or what someone does.
Examples: rice pudding, a glasshouse, the kitchen cupboard,
a
230
morning
call,
a language teacher, a
window-cleaner
hill
fog, a night flight,
Grammar reminder
We sometimes make compounds from
nouns, which consist of more than two nouns.
Examples a milk chocolate bar, an air-traffic controller, a dinner-party conversation
:
Some compound nouns
separate words
are usually written as
waste
(e.g.
one word
a tablecloth),
(e.g.
paper), and others with a hyphen
(e.g.
some
as
Some
a house-sitter).
a golf course or
compound nouns can be written in more than one of these ways (e.g.
a golf-course; H5). A good dictionary will tell you how a particular compound noun
is
usually written.
H6
O
She got some chewing gum stuck on her shoe.
-ing
Examples: chewing gum, a living room,
(the -ing form usually says
drinking water,
+ noun compound nouns
what
purpose the following noun has)
(a
pack
of) playing cards, a
dressing gown, a turning-point, a working
party
noun +
compound nouns
-ing
Examples fly-fishing, film-making,
sunbathing, risk-taking, life-saving
(usually refer to actions or processes)
The possessive form of nouns
H7
O The girls' shoes were covered
mud, so asked them to take them
in
I
off before they
got into
Leon's car.
To make the possessive form of nouns
(e.g.
nouns and to
women's
we can add
O
O
and add
difficulties).
either
'
or
That old car of Zara's
It
-
referring to people or groups of people
'
's
('apostrophe
s')
to singular
car;
the college's administrators;
(an apostrophe) to regular plurals
(e.g.
the
in -s (e.g.
girls'
To make the possessive form of names ending
's (e.g. It's
is
end
Leon's
irregular plurals that don't
issues)
companies'
H8
H9
writing
in
companies), other living things, places, times, etc. - we add
Leon Jones'
[or
Leon Jones's]
new
in -s
shoes; the
pronounced
/z/
sports car).
falling apart.
belongs to a friend of his.
We can
use the pattern
noun + of +
's
(H8) or a possessive pronoun (H9) to talk about
something that someone owns, or about a
relationship.
Note that when we are
about relationships between people we can also use a noun without
's (e.g.
talking
an uncle of
Emil's (or an uncle of Emil)).
H10
O
We're going to Mona's (house)
a possessive
We don't use
when we
or the
H11
HI 2
O
O
for the evening.
The noun following
'shop'
newsagent
/
form can be
talk about, for
the chemist (but not
left
out
when we talk about someone's
example, the newsagent's
/
house.
the chemist's
‘the newsagent's shop' / ‘the chemist's shop')
where the name of the shop includes the profession of the person who works there
(compare ‘the sweet shop', but not ‘the sweet's shop').
David's guitar playing has improved enormously.
The construction of the office block was opposed by protestors.
Often we can use the possessive 's or of + noun ... with very little difference in meaning.
However, in general, we are more likely to use the possessive form of a noun when the
noun refers to a particular person or group of people (H11); and when we are talking about
time (e.g. next year's holiday prices, rather than the holiday prices of next year).
We are more likely to use the ... of + noun ... form with an inanimate noun (H12); when
we are talking about a process, or a change over time (e.g. the establishment of the
...
committee, rather than the committee's establishment); and when the noun is a long noun
phrase (e.g. She is the sister of someone used to go to school with, rather than She is
I
someone used to go
I
to school with's
sister.).
231
Grammar reminder
Articles,
determiners and quantifiers
Determiners are words such as this, her, and your which determine or specify what a noun or noun
They come before the noun and at the front of the noun phrase. Quantifiers are words
such as some, much, and few which identify the quantity of something. Some words can be both
determiners and quantifiers (e.g. sent out invitations to a few friends' [few = determiner] and
phrase refers
to.
‘I
few of my friends came to the party' [few = quantifier]) while some are determiners only (e.g. ‘This
is my friend Andrew' [my = determiner]). Many determiners and quantifiers can be pronouns, taking
the place of a noun phrase (e.g. I've invited all my friends and most are coming [most = pronoun]).
Articles (a / an and the) are determiners. They also specify what the noun refers to and come at the
‘A
beginning of the noun phrase. However, they cannot be quantifiers or pronouns.
The
(->
11
12
13
14
15
Units 45-47)
O
O
O
O
O
Lisa took a cake and some biscuits to the party, but only the biscuits were eaten.
Can you shut the door after you, please?
We had a good time on holiday. The beaches were all beautifully clean.
Give
it
man wearing the
to the
Look at the moon.
We
It's
red coat.
very bright tonight.
use the with singular, plural or uncountable nouns
reader to be able to identify the thing or person
It
may
we
are referring to
be that the thing has already been mentioned
which person or thing we mean
context which thing or person
the thing or person
or that there
is
(12);
that
we mean
identified in
what
that
it is
the following noun.
in
clear
from the situation
some other way understandable from the
‘the beaches' = ‘the beaches we went to'); that
said after the
only one of a particular thing
is
(11);
listener or
in
it is
(13;
is
when we expect the
(15
and
noun
(14;
‘wearing the red coat
1
);
example, the Great Wall of
also, for
China, the North Pole, the USA, the world).
A / an (16
17
O
O
Units 44-47)
Helen's just bought a house on Wilson Street.
Sydney
We
a beautiful
is
use a
/
city.
an with singular nouns when we don't expect the
identify the thing or person
to introduce a
new
we
are referring to
in
type of thing someone or something
when we
people or things rather than about specific people or things.
111
or about an indefinite
We
number or amount
(19).
plural and uncountable nouns, usually when we are talking about
unknown, numbers or quantities of things.
O
O
O
me some advice.
some information about the proposal been
Peter gave
Hasn't
Shall
sent out already?
I
thought
I
read about
week.
last
I
send you some details?
We generally use some:
questions)
232
(18)
about
Unit 48)
it
112
way
talk generally
might talk about a whole
and any are used with
limited, but indefinite or
110
an
it.
use zero article [-] with uncountable and plural nouns
class of things in a general
Some (-
/
There are [-] examples of the present continuous tense on page 32.
We
Some
use a
is (17).
Zero article (- Units 45-47)
18
[-] Water has got into my camera and damaged
O
O
We often
when the noun refers to a class of people
someone or something or say what
when
describe
example,
we
specific person or thing (16); or
or things generally - for
19
listener or reader to be able to
the following noun.
(110); in
in
affirmative sentences (sentences which are not negatives or
questions where
in
way some
pronounced with
is
we
expect agreement or the answer
order to sound positive, expecting the answer ‘Yes'
and requests
its
weak form /sam/.
(112).
‘Yes' (111); in offers
If it is
used
in this
Grammar reminder
113
O
Some teachers never seem to get bored with being in the classroom.
We use some to talk about particular, but unspecified, people or things with the
implication ‘some, but not all'. If it is used in this way some is pronounced with its
strong
form /sAm/.
114
O
haven't been here for
I
We use some
some years.
we mean quite a large amount of, or
number of something. Note that we can say some years, months, weeks, etc.'
(pronounced /SAm/) when
‘
months, weeks,
Any
115
116
117
Unit 48)
(-4
O
O
O
We
haven't got any butter
Do you have any better
left.
ideas?
Any student could have answered the
in
question.
sentences with a negative meaning
don't necessarily expect agreement or the answer ‘Yes'
and
119
O
O
it's
not important which'
you see any cherries
If
(115); in
questions where
when we mean
‘all
(of
we
them),
(117).
the shop, can you buy them?
...).
Anyone, someone,
121
in
(116);
Any questions should be sent to the manager.
We commonly use any: in ‘if' clauses (118; note that ‘some' is possible, but would seem
to expect that you will see cherries); when any means ‘if there is / are' (119; = If there are
questions
120
or just ‘years,
with a similar meaning.
etc.'
We generally use any:
118
a large
O
O
etc.
Isabella lives
I've
somewhere
Denmark.
in
never seen anybody that
tall
before.
words are generally the same as those given in 110-119
for some and any: the pronouns someone / anyone, somebody / anybody, something
/ anything, (note that somebody = someone, and anybody = anyone), and the adverbs
somewhere / anywhere. For example, some- words are generally used in affirmative
sentences (120), and any- words are generally used in sentences with a negative meaning
The
rules for the use of the following
(121).
Quantifiers with and without
all (of)
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
4
of':
any
(of),
some
(of),
much
(of),
many
(of),
both
(of),
each (of), none (of), few (of), little (of) (- Units 48-52)
Many of Liam's closest friends are women.
Some of my jewellery is missing.
Have you seen any of these new light bulbs in the shops yet?
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
Are you going to eat
all
( of)
that cake, or can
I
finish it?
Both of us were exhausted after flying to Japan.
I
polished each trophy with a soft cloth.
Is
there
We
much orange juice
left?
usually need to put of after quantifiers
(123) or
determiner
(124) before a
when
there
is
a possessive
noun. Note, however, that
in
form
(122),
pronoun
informal contexts after
both and all we can leave out of before the, these, those (and this or that with all;
my, your, her, his, etc.; and mine, yours, etc., but not before them, you, or us (126)
with all). We don't use of after a quantifier immediately before a noun (127 & 28).
No, none
129
130
131
132
o
o
o
o
125);
(or
it
neither (of), either (- Unit 49)
no train until tomorrow.
information was given about how the study was conducted.
(of),
There's
No
She had no shoes on.
None of my
clothes
fit
any more.
233
Grammar reminder
‘How many
133
We
children have
O
135
3
'None.'
mean
'not
or ‘not any' before a singular (129), uncountable
a'
we use the quantifier none (of) to
(131).
mean ‘not any' (132). If it is clear from the context what we mean, we can use the pronoun
none (133).
None of the furniture has arrived yet.
When we use none of with an uncountable noun the verb must be singular. However, when
we use none of with a plural noun the verb can be either singular or plural (e.g. None of
noun
(130), or plural
134
you got?'
use the determiner no to
Before the, my, this, etc.
the parcels have / has arrived yet), although the singular form
We
136
13
137
O
is
more grammatical.
Neither of his parents could drive.
use neither of instead of
none of when we
are talking about
two people or things.
in good time.
You could catch the 10:05 or the 10:32. Either train gets you there
Has either of them passed
When we
this
is
their driving test yet?
use either as a determiner (136),
the subject of the sentence,
it is
followed by a singular countable noun.
followed by a singular verb.
it is
If
We use either of with
nouns and pronouns (137). Note that either can also be used as an adverbial as in
‘We can either take the train or go by bus' and had no wish to go, and Lev didn't want to
go either'
plural
‘I
Much
(of),
138
Q
much
traffic
(- Unit 50)
along the street where
I
live.
Will
3
She didn't show much interest
Mariam offered
141
142
(of), a lot of, lots (of)
isn't
you be taking many suitcases on the trip?
Much and many are used to talk about quantities and amounts. Much is used with
uncountable nouns (138) and many with plural nouns (139). Before the, my, this, etc. we
use much of / many of. Much of can also be used with a singular countable noun to mean
‘a large part of' (e.g. Much of the national park was destroyed in the fire.). We can use much
and many without a noun if the meaning is clear (e.g. Can you get some sugar when you
go shopping? There isn't much left.). Much and many are often used after as, how, so, and
too (e.g. I'd say there were twice as many women at the meeting as men.).
139
140
many
There
O
in
what
I
said.
me a lot of money for the car.
Many of my relatives live around Auckland.
Much (of) and many (of) are used in negative sentences to emphasise that we
about small
are talking
than expected) quantities or amounts (140) and in questions to ask
about quantities or amounts (e.g. Have you got much homework to do?). In affirmative
(or smaller
we often
use a lot of, lots of or plenty of rather than much (of) and many to
about large amounts and quantities, particularly in conversation and informal writing
(141). However, many of is common in affirmative sentences in both formal and informal
sentences
talk
contexts (142).
All (of)
143
Q
(- Unit
There
We
51)
heating
is
use
in all (of)
all or all
group, or the total
144
O
Everyone was waiting to hear the
In
modern
However,
to
Each
146
/
mean
results.
we don't use all without a noun to mean 'everyone' or ‘everything'.
mean ‘everything' when it is followed by a relative clause (e.g. don't
can
all
I
that he said. (= everything that he said)).
‘the only thing' (e.g. All she
wants to do
is
We can also use all without a
noun
help.).
every (- Unit 51)
3
O
Every newspaper had the
same front page
Following the flood, every building
We can
in
story.
the area needs major repair work.
use each and every with singular countable nouns (145), and each of with plural
nouns, to
234
a
in
English
all
agree with
145
the holiday cottages.
when we are talking about the total number of things or people
amount of something. In informal contexts we can leave out of.
of
mean
all
things or people
in
a group of
two
or
more (each
(of)) or
three or
more
Grammar reminder
(every).
We
use a singular verb
needs
(...
each follows the noun or pronoun
Every student
(A)
few
147
148
There
o
o
152
/
and every
(146).
However, when
pronoun and verb are
plural (e.g.
tested twice a year. They are each given a hundred questions to do.).
is
is little
use
(a)
evidence to support
few
(of)
his claim.
with plural countable nouns (147) and
(a) little (of)
with uncountable
(148).
There's a lot less water in the lake than last year.
The holiday cost
We
151
(of)
noun
(- Unit 52)
A few of the boys were very good computer gamers.
nouns
150
each
(of), less (of), (a) little (of)
o
o
We
149
after
...)
refers to, the
it
o
o
less
than
thought
I
it
would.
use less (of) with uncountable nouns (149) or
in
a general sense (150).
got a few close friends that meet
He has few close friends and often feels lonely.
We often use a few and a little in a 'positive' way (151); for example, to suggest that a
small amount or quantity is enough, or to suggest that it is more than we would expect. We
often use few and little in a 'negative' way (152); for example, to suggest that the amount
or quantity is not enough, or is surprisingly low. Compare A few of her songs were popular
and she was very well known' (= ‘positive') and 'Few of her songs were very popular and
eventually she gave up her musical career' (= 'negative'). This use of few and little is often
I've
regularly.
I
l
rather formal.
Relative clauses and other types of clause
Relative clauses have a similar function to adjectives in that they give
someone
used
or something referred to
like relative clauses,
in a
main
more information about
clause. Participle clauses (-ing
and -ed clauses) can be
but can also have an adverbial function, giving information about time,
cause, etc.
(- Units 53-55)
Magnus stopped the police car that was driving past
My mother, who is in her seventies, enjoys hill walking.
Relative clauses
J1
J2
O
O
Defining relative clauses
or thing
we mean,
(e.g.
that was driving past] J1) are used to specify which person
...
or which type of person or thing
comma between the noun
and a defining
Non-defining relative clauses
(e.g.
who is in her seventies,
...,
information about a noun, but this information
or thing
we mean. We don't
frequently
in
use
them
we mean. Note that we don't
often
written English. Note that
put a
relative clause.
in
is
...;J2)
everyday speech, but
we often
are used to add extra
not necessary to explain which person
put a
comma
we do
use
them
before and after a non-
defining relative clause.
J3
O
The house, which is to the north of the road,
After a relative clause,
we don't
wouldn't say ‘The house which
However,
a solicitor
J4
C
J5
O
I
is
is sometimes found
- she helped me.'
He showed me
/
owned by
a rock star.
to the north of the road
this
have a friend who
is
repeat the subject with a pronoun; so, for example,
in
owned by
informal speech; for example,
that plays guitar,
the rocks (which
it is
(a friend
=
subject, plays
we
a rock star'.
‘A friend of
mine who
is
= verb, guitar = object)
= object, he = subject,
that) he had collected, (the rocks
/
had collected = verb)
When we
use a defining relative clause, the relative pronoun can be either the subject or the
object of the relative clause.
(J4).
When the
relative
When
pronoun
is
it is
the subject the word order
the object the word order
is
is
+ verb + object
+ subject + verb (J5).
subject
object
&
-ing clauses (= present participle clauses) (- Units 58
59)
Glancing over his shoulder, he could see the dog chasing him.
J6
J7
O
O
Pushing her way through the crowds, she just
managed to get on the bus
as
it
pulled away.
235
Grammar reminder
J8
O
‘Wait a minute,' said Amy, running through the door.
We can
use an -ing clause to talk about something that takes place at the
(J6) or just before
an action
(J 7)
the main clause.
We often
same time
use an -ing clause
in
as
written
when we want to say what someone was doing while they
narrative after quoted speech,
were talking
in
(J8).
Note that the understood subject of -ing and -ed
the subject of the main clause. For example, in J6,
(see J10) clauses should be the
‘he'
is
same
as
the unstated subject of ‘Glancing
over his shoulder
J9
Q
Knowing exactly what I wanted,
didn't
I
spend much time shopping.
-ing clauses can be used to talk about reasons and results. This sentence has a similar
meaning to ‘Because
I
knew
exactly
what wanted,
I
I
didn't
spend much time shopping'.
-ed clauses (= past participle clauses) (-* Units 58 & 59)
Annoyed by the boys' behaviour, she complained to the headteacher.
J10
Q
We can
main
use an -ed clause to talk about something that happened before an action
clause.
Often the event
in
the -ed clause causes the event
in
the
in
the main clause.
Pronouns, substitution and leaving out words
Reflexive pronouns (- Unit 60)
‘What did you do to your hand?'
K1
O
When the subject and
reflexive
pronoun
‘I
cut myself when
was chopping vegetables.'
same person or thing, we use a
sentence rather than a personal pronoun. The singular
I
object of a sentence refer to the
as the object of a
forms of reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, herself, himself,
itself;
the plural forms
are ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
K2
K3
K4
O
O
O
We
phoned the plumber and he came
My sister drew the
I
was given
We can
this
himself.
picture herself.
book by the author herself
use reflexive pronouns for emphasis: for example, after an intransitive verb (K2)
to emphasise the subject; after a transitive verb (K3) to emphasise that something
done
is
without help; or after a noun to emphasise that noun (K4).
Each other / one another
They tried to avoid each other / one another at the party.
K5
K6
John and Carmen first met (each other / one another) when they were working in Spain.
Some verbs, such as avoid (K5), can be used to describe actions in which two or more
people or things do the same thing to the other(s). We use each other or one another with
O
O
these.
Also: attract,
complement,
After other verbs such as
be omitted
when the
meet
subject
Also embrace, fight, kiss,
:
K7
O
face, help, repel
is
(K6),
we
can use each other or one another, but this
plural or has the
form
'...
and
../
may
.
marry
The scheme allows students from many countries to communicate with each other
/
with
one another.
K8
O
We looked at each other / one another and
started to laugh.
With some verbs (e.g. communicate) we have to use
other / one another (K7 & K8).
Also: agree, coincide, collaborate,
compete
a preposition, often with, before
each
(against), contrast, co-operate,
disagree, joke, look at, quarrel, talk to / with
K9
O
The two children each blamed the other for breaking the window.
For emphasis
two
236
children
we can separate each and other. This sentence
blamed each other
...'.
is
more emphatic than ‘The
Grammar reminder
Substitution (- Units 61-63)
K10
K11
K12
O
O
O
I
had a racing bike when was young, and so did my brother.
I
‘Emma
loves ice cream.' ‘So
didn't think
‘I
We can
much
use so
+
of the restaurant.' 'Neither did I.’
auxiliary verb + subject to say that a second person does the
as the person already
nor (‘Nor did
(K12),
(e.g. in
K12
we
do /.'
same things
& K11). The corresponding negative form uses neither
didn't either'). We often use this to avoid repetition
either
mentioned (K10
I'),
or not
(‘I
...
use ‘Neither did
I'
rather than
‘I
didn't think
much
of the restaurant either').
Adjectives and adverbs
JbJkhFMWi&iih
Gradable and non-gradable adjectives (- Units 67-68)
O
O
LI
L2
They
live in a
very large house.
Our teacher gave
us an absolutely impossible problem to solve.
Most adjectives describe
in
qualities that can
be measured or graded, and so can be used
comparative and superlative forms and with words such as
are referred to as gradable adjectives (for example, ‘large'
These
'very' or ‘extremely'.
in LI).
Some
adjectives are not
gradable because they refer to qualities that are completely present or completely absent.
These non-gradable adjectives
(e.g.
'impossible' in L2) are not usually used
and superlative forms or with words such as
‘very' or 'extremely'.
They can
in
comparative
often, however,
be used with words such as 'absolutely' or ‘completely'.
Order of adjectives
L3
drank some very good Brazilian coffee.
When we use more than one adjective before
O
I
a noun, there
is
often a preferred (although
not fixed) order for these adjectives depending on what type of adjective they
opinion + size / physical quality / shape
origin + material + type + purpose +
/
are:
age + colour + participle adjectives +
NOUN
Examples:
= age + material + noun
= quality + colour + noun
= opinion + origin + noun
= shape + purpose (for holding biscuits) + noun
= size + participle adjective + noun
= opinion + type + purpose + noun
an old plastic container
a hard red ball
a frightening Korean
mask
a round biscuit tin
a small broken plate
a useful digital
alarm clock
To help you to learn
this order,
it
can be useful to remember that gradable adjectives
(describing opinion, size, quality, shape, and age) usually precede ungradable adjectives
(participle adjective
Easily
L4
and adjectives describing
confused adjectives
was surprised to find
O
I
Some
that the film
was
origin, material,
type and purpose).
quite frightening.
adjectives that are used to describe feelings about something or
both an -ed and -ing form. Generally, the -ed form describes
how the
someone
else have
person feels
was surprised ...),
the film was quite frightening.)
(e.g.
and the -ing form gives an evaluation of the thing or other person
Also:
alarmed - alarming, amazed - amazing, bored - boring, excited -
I
(e.g.
...
exciting,
interested - interesting, pleased - pleasing, tired - tiring, worried - worrying
Adjectives and adverbs: use (- Unit 71)
L5
The staff in the shop always speak politely to customers.
L6
It was strangely quiet as we went into the room.
We use an adverb, not an adjective, to say how something happened or was done
modify adjectives (L6).
O
O
(L5),
or to
237
Grammar reminder
Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative forms
The building was bigger than I’d expected.
L7
(-»
Unit 72)
0
O
L8
It
was the most ridiculous thing to
We
say.
usually add the ending -er to one-syllable adjectives and adverbs to
comparative forms
syllables
we
and -est to make
(L7)
more
usually add
less
/
their superlative forms.
and most
/
least (L8). With
make their
With three or more
two
syllables
we
can
usually use either.
Quite
L9
L10
L11
O
O
O
I
was
quite satisfied with the result.
No, you're quite wrong!
The food here is quite superb.
Quite has two meanings: to a
large degree, or ‘very
adjectives
it
means
particular degree, but not ‘very' (=
much' (= 'completely')
When
(L10).
quite
is
and to
‘fairly') (L9);
a
used with non-gradable
‘completely' (L11).
Adverbial clauses and conjunctions
An
main clause. An adverbial clause adds
main clause about such things as time and conditions. Most adverbial clauses
begin with a conjunction that indicates their link with the main clause. Example conjunctions are
after, before, when and until (time conjunctions); and if and unless (conditional conjunctions).
adverbial clause
is
a type of subordinate clause, linked to a
extra information to the
Tenses
in
Ml
O
M2
3
adverbial and main clauses: general
Because I'm overweight,
I
felt
unwell
The verb
Ml they
in
the adverbial clause
+ past
clauses: tenses
M3
O
M5
O
O
O
refer to the future after a
As soon as you see
as the verb
perfect),
and
in
the main clause.
In
both past
/
leave.
time conjunction
have seen
her,
come and
(...
tell
before
we
...)
use present tenses.
me.
about an action
in
the adverbial clause that
we
is
completed before another action
described
in
the main clause,
or past as
in
M5), but not will or will have + -ed (the future perfect).
When saw Kim,
I
If
in
M2 they are
me after she spoke / had spoken to Carlos.
She wrote to
talk
same tense
+ present
simple).
(- Unit 79)
Have something to eat before you
To
M6
usually the
is
are both present (present simple
Time
To
a diet.
I
(past simple
M4
my doctor has put me on
when got up this morning.
the actions
in
I
can use either simple or perfect tenses (present as
M4
in
asked her over for dinner.
we
the main clause and the adverbial clause take place at the same time,
use simple, not perfect tenses.
M7
M8
O
J
While the children were swimming, their mother kept a watchful eye on them.
I
read a book while
While
is
I
waited.
mainly used with continuous tenses (M7) and also with simple tenses (M8).
Conditional clauses
(-4
Units 83-86)
& 84)
Real and unreal conditionals (-* Units 83
Some
conditional clauses beginning with
if
suggest that a situation
is
real
- that
is,
the situation
is
or
was true, or may have been or may become true (e.g. If anyone phones, tell them I'll be back at eleven;
Ifyou really want to learn Italian, you need to spend some time in Italy). Others suggest that a situation
- that is, the situation is imaginary or untrue, (e.g. What would you do ifyou won the lottery ?;
is unreal
Ifyou had started out earlier, you wouldn't have been so late).
Compare:
train. (=
If I
possibility),
someone
238
goto Berlin,
I'll
unreal conditional).
but
in
advice.
travel by train. ( =real conditional)
In
the
first,
the speaker
the second, the speaker
is
is
and
If I
went to
Berlin,
thinking of going to Berlin
(it is
I'd
travel by
a real future
not thinking of doing so. The second might be giving
Grammar reminder
M9
M10
Mil
M12
o
o
o
o
give
I'll
you
a
you leave now,
If
water freezes,
made
I
you'll
it
be
home
two
in
hours.
expands.
the wrong decision then
we
conditionals
In real
rains.
lift if it
If
If
& 84)
(- Units 83
Real conditionals: tenses
I
apologise.
use a present tense to talk about the future (M9), the present (M10)
or unchanging relationships (Mil), and past tenses to talk about the past (M12).
Unreal conditionals: tenses
M13
Q
(->
//my grandfather was
To
talk
lived out of town,
O
O
I
unreal conditionals,
would + bare
we
use a past tense (either
infinitive in the
or past perfect
in
(have) instead of
main
clause.
the main clause.
would (have)
In
(e.g.
he might have enjoyed looking after our garden;
could take up horse
riding.).
Note that
we sometimes
use
if
...
If
were
I
I
had driven a few more kilometres.).
he would have passed the exam easily.
//the doctor had been called earlier, Paula would still be alive today.
In some unreal conditionals we use mixed tenses. That is, a past tense in the if-clause and
would have + past participle in the main clause (M15), or a past perfect in the if- clause
if they
If Bruno wasn't so
lazy,
main clause (M16). We can use these patterns to talk about
were or had been different. We can also use might /
he could have passed the
the main clause instead of would (have) (e.g.
infinitive in the
possible consequences
could (have)
exam
O
in
the if-clause and
...
and would +
Ml 7
he would be a hundred today.
was (see Unit 85).
wouldn't have taken it.
If had known how difficult the job was,
When we talk about something that might have happened in the past, but didn't, then we
use if + past perfect and would have + past participle in the main clause. We can also use
might / could have instead of would have in the main clause (e.g. They might have found
if
a better hotel
M15
M16
in
my grandfather was / were still alive,
instead of
O
& 84)
still alive,
we don't use the past simple
we can also use could / might
unreal conditionals,
M14
were
unreal conditionals
In
I
/
about present or future situations
simple or continuous)
If
Units 83
If
In
I
easily.;
in
...
had a more
if
situations
...
Paula might
reliable car,
still
I'd
be
alive today.).
drive to Spain rather than
unreal conditional sentences
we don't
fly.
normally use would
in
an if-clause (but see
Unit 84).
Other adverbial clauses
Other types of adverbial clause give information about place (M18), contrast (M19 and Unit
(M20 and Unit 80), purpose (M21 and Unit 81), and result (M22 and Unit 81):
82), cause
or reason
M18
M19
M20
M21
M22
o
o
o
o
o
Can you put
My sister
is
it
back where you found it, please?
blonde, whereas
He wasn't allowed
in
my brother has dark hair.
because he was too young.
We got up early so that we could watch the sunrise.
He played
so badly that he was easily beaten.
239
Additional exercises
These additional exercises provide further practice of important areas from the book; each exercise covers
grammar from two
or
unit exercise pages.
The key can be found on p.278.
List
more
References to the relevant exercises are given at the bottom of the main
units.
of exercises:
Exercise
1
Exercise 2
Present and past; simple and continuous tenses
Units
Present perfect, past simple, and present perfect continuous
Units 3
1,
2 & 4
&6
&7
& 10
Past perfect, past perfect continuous, and past simple
Units 5
The future
Units 9
Exercise 5
Modals and semi-modals
Units 15-20
Exercise 6
Passives
Units 22-25
Exercise 7
Verb complementation: what follows verbs
Units
Exercise 8
Reporting
Units 33, 35,
Exercise 9
Nouns
Exercise 10
Articles, etc.
Exercise 3
Exercise
4
& 31
30
36
& 38
& 75
Exercise 11
Relative clauses
Exercise 12
Substitution and leaving out words
40-43
Units 44-48
Units 53-55
Units 62-65
Exercise 13
Position of adjectives, adverbs and adverbial phrases
Units 66, 69, 74
Exercise 14
Adverbial clauses and conjunctions
Exercise 15
Prepositions
Exercise 16
Inversion
79-82 & 87
92-94
Units
Units 99 & 100
Units
Units
Present and past; simple and continuous tenses
Units
1,
2
&4
Complete each pair of sentences with a positive or negative form of the same verb from the
box. Use the present simple, present continuous, past simple or past continuous. Give all
possible answers. Use X to add any words outside the gap.
prom s e
put
i
1
If
b
I'll
I
a
tell
promise
I
to help you
on Saturday, but
try to get over
made
phone
prefer
weigh
read
I'm not too busy,
a
2 a
own
expect
consider
b
They
the
Luisa to visit us in June
4 a Over
b
5
I
90% of the
grew up
I
b
Many people
b
b
find
A
10 a
b
240
I
flat.
in
the country at the moment.
married. Congratulations!
They
me that she
very
ill.
bad.
bookshop.
a
buying a
me that you're getting
is
was too
flight.
a mobile phone.
my mother twice a day when my father was
I
never leaves her house now.
it
his feet
up on the
chairs.
annoying that she constantly
It's
in hospital.
really unhygienic.
empty milk cartons back
survey has found that, surprisingly, most children
taken by
b
the questions quickly.
the theatre four times this morning, but there was no answer,
I
I
she can get a cheap
where
8 a He always
9 a
if
all
evening, but the weather
her to be the finest violinist
Leo
b Apparently Angela
7 a
through
summit by
now
my father
selling my house and
a
6 a
population
in Beijing,
letter.
I
to reach the mountain
We
the garden later today,
to be there.
cup of coffee while she
b As soon as the teacher told us to start,
3 a
in
I
swam
the fridge.
car.
across the
river,
Nathan
He
in
to walk to school than be
held the fish
but
my friends
to walk to the nearest bridge.
over 100 kilos and really needs to take more exercise.
in his
hands as
if
he
it
and then
said,
‘It's
about 3.5
kilos.'
Additional exercises
Units 3
Present perfect, past simple, and present perfect continuous
Match the beginnings and endings. Sometimes there
a
1
haven't had time to phone
1
Hugo
b
1
2
a
When
but
(i)
phone
minister,
3
4
him before leave
certainly contact
him some time
I
I'll
has often been accused of ignoring the advice
(i)
became prime
was often accused
(ii)
Mrs Perez
watched
I've
been watching
a
I'd
own
always wanted to
a
Porsche
won't know
if
1
of ignoring the advice of
her colleagues.
Mamma Mia
Mamma Mia
I've
b
1
certainly contact
of her colleagues.
a
b
possibility.
tomorrow.
she was prime minister,
Since she
I'll
but
(ii)
today,
Mrs Perez
b
more than one
work.
today,
didn't have time to
Hugo
is
&6
now
keep
humming the songs to
(i)
and
(ii)
at least ten times already.
(i)
until I've
(ii)
until
I
how much they cost.
how much they cost.
found out
found out
I
myself.
can afford a
Porsche
5
a
b
Unemployment has risen
Unemployment has been
by
(i)
58% since the
present government
came
to power.
rising
ever since the present government
(ii)
came
to
power.
6
7
the book
(i)
I'm going to have a holiday.
(ii)
I
a
As soon as
b
As soon as finished the book
a
I've
been playing squash
(i)
since
b
I've
played squash
(ii)
a couple of times before, but
I've finished
1
started writing another one.
my doctor advised me to
hang of
8
a
b
1
1
lose weight.
can't get the
it.
haven't been back to London
(i)
since
haven't eaten really good pasta
(ii)
since I've lived
I
I
lived in Italy.
in Italy.
Past perfect, past perfect continuous, and past simple
Units 5
&7
Complete each sentence (b) so that it has a similar meaning to sentence (a). Use a verb related
to the italicised word in an appropriate tense (active or passive): past perfect, past perfect
continuous or past simple. Give alternatives where possible.
1
a
The proposed new
appropriate site
library
became
had been under discussion for almost three years at the time an
available.
b At the time an appropriate site
I^PPPS^
2 a
nwjLibrary
.
became
available,
they
had. been discussing the
..
There had been a considerable improvement
in his
condition
when saw him
I
in
hospital last
night.
b His condition
3
a
b
4 a
was announced that there was a ten-minute delay to the Toulouse train.
was announced that the Toulouse train
Thomas had been on a diet for a month when he came to stay with us, and we noticed
It
It
immediately that he had already
b
—
lost a lot of weight,
Thomas
241
Additional exercises
5
There was an expectation that Victoria would win comfortably, but she finished
a
third.
b Victoria
When
When
6 a
b
7 a
I
reversed the car out of the garage,
I
reversed the car out of the garage,
did
I
some damage
to the rear
number
plate,
I
Andrei received a promotion last week.
Andrei
b
Rentpool had been under investigation by the tax authorities for a number of months when
108 a
they arrested the chairman,
b The tax authorities
9 a The Minister
made
when she
her colleagues angry
criticised
them during her speech
yesterday,
b The Minister
There had already been a suggestion from Emilia that the
a
tablet
b
computers
money should be
new
spent on
for the school.
Emilia
Units
If
necessary, correct or improve the italicised verbs
to, present
A
B
you 're going to
a:
Careful, (1)
b:
Oh, no! Too
a:
What have you
b:
(1) 17/
a:
C
in these dialogues, using
continuous for the future, or present simple for the future.
a:
late.
got
going
your coffee.
Now
(2) Vm going to
all that wood for?
have to change
my trousers.
build a bird table in the garden.
you need any help, let me know and (2) Vm going to give you a hand.
(1) Shall you be able to come over on the 3rd? We (2) have a barbecue.
If
Just a minute, (3)
b:
spill
will, shall,
9& 10
Vm going to have
a:
town that day.
Did you know that David
b:
Yes,
a look in
my diary.
No, I'm sorry.
(4)
Vm meeting some
friends in
D
a:
b:
E
a:
I
I
going to go to
(1) is
heard. I'm really sorry he (2) doesn't
wonder when we
New
come
Zealand
this
summer?
to see us.
see him again?
(3)
Well, he certainly (4) won't be back before Christmas.
(1)
I
take Aunt Lucy to the station
b:
What time
a:
It
(3) will
later.
Do you want
a
lift
into town, too?
does her train go?
(2)
be at
4:15.
It
(4) takes us
about half an hour to get there
if
there
too
isn't
much
traffic.
b:
Well you should start out
thanks for your
offer,
but
early.
I
Apparently, (5) we'll have heavy
think (6) 'm going to stay at
I
home
in
snow this
afternoon.
Modals and semi-modals
Units 15-20
Underline the best answers from each group
1
a:
I've
In fact,
the warm.
spent most of the morning trying to
in italics.
fix
my washing
machine, but
I
seem
made
to have
it
worse.
You ought to ask / may ask / ought to have asked me to come over and take a look at it. would
/ should be / would be happy to help. But
suppose it's too late now!
2 The taxi needs to / should / would be here in a couple of minutes. We'd better/ Ve better/ 'd
b:
I
have been
I
better to get ready to go.
3
My daughter wouldn't / won't / may not eat carrots.
/
would /
242
She hates the taste of them. don't have to
any way of getting her to eat them. But to tell the truth, could /
used to hate them when was young, too.
'm notable to
/
can't think of
I
I
I
Additional exercises
4
a:
We're completely
lost! I'm
notable to / can't
/
mustn't find any of the street names around
here on the map.
b:
We must have / have got to have / can have taken the wrong turning at the traffic lights about
a kilometre back.
5
6
You haven't got to / needn't / mustn't go on the beach when the tide's coming
dangerous. You can / might / would play in the playground instead.
I
very
was beginning to be concerned that won't / mustn't / wouldn't get to the station for my train.
didn't need worry / needn't have worried / needn't worry, Aisha turned up in good time to
I
But
I
me
give
7
in. It's
a
lift.
Most headteachers today
need / should / had better play a more active part in
when parents would / will / should put a lot of effort
but those days seem to have gone.
feel that parents
the running of schools. There was a time
into fundraising for schools,
8
a:
These trousers shrank the
b:
If
a:
Yes,
I
first
time
I
washed them.
can take them back.
were you, ought to
/
should
suppose they can
/
need / may give
I
I
/
me my money
9 Preliminary research suggests that the bones must
years old, but they would
/
could
/
/
back.
have got to
/
used to be at least 1 00,000
can be considerably older than that.
in the future, we will be able to / can / could to get holograms of the people we're
on our mobile phones. Of course, by the time this is common, we can / must / might
have started using other ways of communicating.
Both candidates for the job were very strong and it was hard to choose between them. certainly
couldn't / mustn't / had got to have decided which one to appoint. But fortunately, we hadn't
got to / didn't have to / mustn't make a final decision; the management found enough money to
10 Apparently,
talking to
11
I
allow us to appoint both of them.
12 You needn't
/
don't need to
who
be played by anyone
/
is
mustn't be very
reasonably
fit
to play badminton well.
fit
and
who
It
can
/ is
able to
/
could
has a good sense of timing.
Units 22-25
Some
in
news reports are given below. Rewrite them using passive forms
word is the subject of each clause. If that is italicised, use a passive
extracts from radio
which the
italicised
construction with
it
or there.
Examples:
Picasso encouraged her to paint.
—» She was encouraged to
People believe that the Prime Minister
will resign
tomorrow.
paint by Picasso.
—>
It is
believed that the Prime
Minister will resign tomorrow.
A People are encouraging the Prime Minister to sack the Environment Minister, Maria Long, after
someone revealed that she had received payments from a major oil company. However, in a
statement today, the Prime Minister said: ‘My advisors tell me that the company paid Mrs Long
the money before she joined the government. have no intention of dismissing her.'
I
B
C
A tropical storm has caused severe flooding in the city of Chittagong in southern Bangladesh.
Although we understand that there are no casualties, the floods have made many thousands of
people homeless, and people estimate the damage to property as running into millions of dollars.
Protesters have continued to block the construction of the
new
ring road
by tying themselves to
trees along the proposed route. Police say that they have given the protesters
two days to
leave
the area or they will arrest them.
D Conservation groups have demanded
station after a report
that the government should close
down
which said that investigators have found unacceptable
the nuclear power
levels
of radiation
in
the local area.
243
Additional exercises
E
The Commissioner of the Dublin police force has revealed that they have received a death threat
against the life of President Nabon, who is visiting the capital this weekend. He says that they
are taking the threat very seriously. People expect that security levels will be increased during the
President's
F
visit.
Someone found
coming down
a
Someone
injuries.
man
injured
on a Scottish
hillside this
morning. People think that he
a hillside in bad weather. Medical staff are treating
reported him missing last night
when he
him
in
fell
while
hospital for leg and head
failed to return
home
after a day's
walking.
G And now football.
People expect that there
will
be a record crowd at tonight's match between
Barcelona and Real Madrid. People report that the club will give the Barcelona players a huge
financial
much
as
bonus if they win and people have even suggested
€50,000 each.
that the club might pay
Verb complementation: what follows verbs
them
as
Units 30
& 31
Underline the correct option. Sometimes both are possible.
1
He
insisted to
pay / on paying
for the meal.
me why wanted the job.
him saying that he was meeting Sarah at eight
2 The interviewer started off to ask / by asking
3
I
can clearly
4 The
5
6
I
recall his saying /
university has arranged / appointed Dr Lopez to be
knew could ask/ count on Hannah
I
My
if
I
needed any
8 Fatima
is
visit
both the
o'clock.
head of the new Medical
Institute.
help.
parents are always going on at me to tidy / for to tidy up
7 The ticket enables you visiting / to
my
museum and
bedroom.
the art gallery.
so small that she often has to resort to wearing children's clothes / children's clothes to
get the right
9
I
size.
We objected to their cat /their cat's digging up our garden.
10 The government plans to bring
in
new
laws forcing / making parents to take more responsibility
for the education of their children.
11
I
don't approve of her wearing / wearing outdoor shoes
when he
in
the house.
12
Ramos was
13
If you have any problems with the computer, contact Simon.
arrested
failed
him to appear /to appear
in
court.
It's
best
if
you allow/ let him deal
with them.
heard a lot about Dr Lau, and I'm looking forward to hearing / to hear his talk tomorrow.
14
I've
15
Although Carmen
and she
will
16
We
17
When was
a doctor herself,
it
doesn't entitle her to / entitle for her to special treatment,
list like
everyone
waited / waited for the storm to pass before
I
and hide
18
is
have to join the waiting
it
in
the supermarket
I
noticed a
we
else.
continued.
man to take / noticed a man take
a packet off the shelf
inside his coat.
We invited / refused Lisa to come to the
party.
she was seriously ill.
20 She gave up work so that she could focus on looking / look after her children.
21 We were unhappy in England, and even discussed / talked of emigrating to New Zealand.
22 The lizard is amazingly well adapted to live / to living in very dry and windy conditions.
23 Another increase in the price of petrol would discourage me from using / from using my car.
19
244
I
overheard her
tell
/ telling Aleksi that
Additional exercises
Units 33, 35, 36
Complete each report using
a
noun from the box followed by
clause. Give both alternatives
complaint
advice
promise
1
if
a that-clause or to-infinitive
possible.
confession
conclusion
m ent
st a t e
reply
refusal
& 38
prediction
decision
warning
threat
‘The government has decreased taxation every year since
we came to power/
stated the
President.
the Presuients
Opposition leaders have challenged
h(tye ,/ Haxl
2
Karen
s taJtiwwb
cawe
.
t
said,
Tve decided not to go to
university next year.'
^
We were disappointed with
-
3 ‘The Earth will pass through the
tail
comet within the next
of a
five
years/ predicted Professor
Adams.
—
Considerable media attention has been focused on
4 ‘We
said that
we would
dismiss the strikers
if
they didn't return to work, and
we have now done
that.'
The company has
5
carried out
‘You should delegate
more
_
of your
work to your
secretary,'
Nicky was advised by her boss.
Nicky decided to follow
6 Til pick you up at
ten,'
Jason promised.
Jason didn't turn up until eleven, despite
7
‘Professor Jones doesn't
I
8 ‘My dinner
is
he's talking about,'
Rob concluded.
cold!'
We decided to
9 ‘We
I
know what
wasn't surprised by
will
ignore Dan's
not negotiate over the ownership of the land!'
was astonished by
10 ‘Small children should be kept indoors until pollution levels have decreased/ the Health Minister
has warned.
11
The Health Minister has issued
Tve never used a computer before,' she confessed.
12
‘Where's Bethany?'
I
was
surprised by
When
I
I
asked Zeb.
‘I
don't know,' he replied.
asked Zeb where Bethany was
Units
Complete each sentence with an appropriate present simple form (singular or
in brackets. If both singular and plural forms are possible, give both.
40-43
plural) of the
verb
been trying to
1
I've
2
3
A
A
4
All of
lot of
my car for ages,
The
all
students
in
is
damaging our
8
university
All of
my children
I
to buy
need to make the
it.
(want)
salad, (be)
(live)
to the conclusion that increasing use of pesticides
in
health, (point)
6 She's one of those people
7 The office staff
but nobody
the old houses near the university,
the scientific evidence
farming
5
sell
lettuce and a carrot
to appoint lecturers
who
who
already have a PhD. (prefer)
just sitting in the sun
that they have been treated badly by
to the
same
on holiday,
(love)
management,
(claim)
school, (go)
245
Additional9 exercises
A
lot of
cheaper furniture nowadays
in
pieces inside a flat box for you to build
yourself, (come)
10
In
11
Currently,
12
It's
more
media
France, the
16%
town
a really quiet
that the
14 The majority of the children
at
was caused
fire
around 10 o'clock,
(shut)
deliberately, (suspect)
under
the class
in
in Britain, (be)
jobless, (be)
at night. Everything
13 The police
15
respectful of the privacy of celebrities than
of the workforce
five
years old. (be)
Although the bracelet might be worth something, none of the other jewellery
to
be of great value, (appear)
16 The
17
how you go down,
quite steep, so be careful
stairs
What worries me about the car
(be)
the problems we've been having with the brakes, (be)
18 The United Nations
to send a
team
of doctors to investigate the outbreak of TB.
(plan)
19
One of the arguments
in
favour of the
new airport
that
it
will bring
jobs to the
area, (be)
20 Many people have speculated on the reasons
for the southern population
Indian subcontinent during the 15th century, but
none of the
movements
in
the
historical records identified so far
an answer, (provide)
21
none of the actors
a charity performance, so
It's
22 Every
letter
and parcel
a fee for taking part, (get)
carefully checked before posting to
make
sure
it
has the
correct address, (be)
23
My
24
A:
parents want to
Where
move
to Spain, but neither of
are the scissors?
B:
I
them
Spanish, (speak)
borrowed them, (have)
think either Leyla or Miguel
25 Most people would agree that the
not of equal importance, (be)
criteria
become more and more
26 The economics of nuclear power
difficult in
the
last
decade, (have)
27 Whoever had contact with the patient
to be found and vaccinated against polio.
(have)
28
a: I've
b:
got to walk
all
the
way to my
But two miles
far.
uncle's house,
and he
lives
about two miles away.
(be/ not)
29 A recent survey shows that around 10% of all cars
30 Phonetics
one of the options you can take
dangerous to
in
drive, (be)
the second year of the course, (be)
Units
Complete the sentences
^ three
sentences
b and
a,
1
a
Which one option can complete all
c?
some
one
a / an
using the words from the box.
44-48
Could you look after
the
‘zero article' (-)
my cat while
I'm
away on holiday?
It's
week.
only for
mile from school, so he can get up at eight o'clock and
b Jules lives less than
still
be at school by nine.
c
When
I
arrived, Alice
the other.
could
Eleni has arthritis,
possible in
c
3
tell
was
sitting in
corner of the
room and Jake was
sitting in
that they had been arguing.
vulture feeds primarily on dead animals.
2 a
b
I
and her doctor has suggested that she should spend as much time as
....warm climate.
Fiona has decided she wants to be
a a:
b:
How should
Well,
I
get to the
accountant.
town centre from here?
you could walk, but catching a bus is probably
quickest.
Wide Fund for Nature organised a major campaign to save
washing machine has had a huge impact on people's lives since
b The World
c
246
tiger.
it
was
invented.
Additional exercises
Rafael Nadal
b:
You mean
b
It
was hot
c
Large areas of Canada are
a
She was made
b
Do you want
sugar
c
You can buy
mobile phones for as
is
in
visiting
Rafael Nadal - the
the house, so she opened
Despite years of research,
c
It is
all
the windows to
covered by
we
in
fresh
let in
air.
forest.
in
2002.
your coffee?
little
as £10.
money buys
earthquake
I
in
political
power
the south of the country has
Wilmotts? They used to
bicycle
is
in
many
societies.
thousands homeless,
left
seaside.
love having holidays at
Do you remember
8 a
dreams,
don't understand the significance of
still
a sad fact that
7 a
b
still
Chief Executive Officer
b
c
his
500 people were at the meeting.
6 a
10
famous tennis player? Can you get
me?
autograph for
5
our school next week to talk about tennis.
a:
4 a
live
an important means of transport for
opposite
us.
many people with no
access to
public transport.
b
We only stayed
c
Juan owns a painting that he claims
9 a
I
felt fine
night, but
Oslo for
in
when woke
I
a
b
probably easiest to contact
My
history teacher at school -
I'll
just
is
evening
I
had
midday reached over 40
It's
how to improve
really liked the place.
Picasso.
up, but by
b The temperature at
c
we
me by
°C.
email.
Mrs Bullenski - was always giving us advice on
our examination
skills.
day or two
spend
a fever,
in
Singapore and then go on to Australia for three
weeks.
c
day that would remain
was
It
my memory forever.
in
Units 53-55
Rewrite each sentence including the information
possible relative pronouns, but
if
brackets
in
you can leave them
in
out, put
a relative clause. Give all
them
in
brackets.
Use commas
where necessary.
1
Later
in
the
programme we have an
Later
^
2
Carla's restaurant
New
3 The
over 100
The story
very good value,
(it
m
serves a range of Mediterranean dishes)
Zealand rugby team are clear favourites to win the match,
(all
of
its
members weigh
kilos)
4 Chloe brought
5
is
(in 2012 she became the
mtervi^w uuth
Uhe programme we k(ive
solo., rownci- the- world, sailor.,
interview with Laura Dekker.
youngest solo round-the-world sailor)
Laura Dekker, who try 2.01Z
is
home
a kitten, (she'd
about a teenage boy.
found
(his
it
in
ambition
the park)
is
to
become an
astronaut)
main product is electric light bulbs)
7 Politicians should give more consideration to the working people, (they represent them)
8 Among the group of people was Professor Fischer. (I had last seen him in Munich 20 years
6 Paul has got a job with Empirico.
(its
earlier)
9
10
I
live
a small road,
(it
leads
Monet's earlier paintings are
USA
11
on
Ian
down to the river)
new exhibition in New York, (many have
in a
never been seen
in
the
before)
Mclver has become managing director of Europe's largest food
selling vegetables in a
Kaspar has a
13
My Volkswagen
Golf
14 Bronwen Brookes
will
job was
market)
new girlfriend,
12
retailer, (his first
is
(she works
in
a very reliable car.
be present at
the
(I
library)
bought
its official
it
in
2006)
opening, (the Brookes art gallery
is
named
after her)
247
Additional exercises
Units 62-65
Substitution and leaving out words
Underline the appropriate alternatives. Sometimes both are possible.
He has
1
shave every morning, but you wouldn't think he did / had.
a
2 The developers pulled
down
the clock tower to
make way for the new
road. In doing so / so doing,
they destroyed one of the finest examples of 17th century architecture
Ben won't be coming
3
a:
4
a: It
5
a:
6
I
I
looks like Vettel
didn't
don't
know you
a:
Will
9
a:
Do you
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
cycled to work,
b: It
Yes,
b:
in
the country.
But he promised so / promised he would.
b:
going to win again,
me to
go
appears / appears so.
always do / do so.
I
them, but
fishing with
take you long to
8
weekend,
eating shellfish, and never have/ have done.
like
7 They asked
it
is
this
fix it?
b:
think Fred will be up by
Well,
now?
I
didn't
want / didn't want to.
might do /do so. I'm not sure
it
b:
I
doubt that he
will /
yet.
doubt so.
Dad won't mind us borrowing the car, will he? b: No, / don't suppose so / suppose not.
you want to /want.
a: Has Rachel arrived yet?
b: No,
don't think she has done / has.
Karl had to choose between working much longer hours and moving to another part of the
country. He had never faced such a dilemma /a such dilemma before.
He owns much more land than do so /do.
We'd like to go to Canada to see Ellie, but we can't afford to /afford.
a:
imagine the information is kept on computer somewhere, b: would expect so / expect.
don't know whether my parents want me to go to Norway, but suspect not / don't suspect.
a: Will she expect us to get the job finished by the weekend?
b:
certainly don't hope so / hope not.
a: There's no answer.
suppose she might have left home by now.
a:
Just park the car wherever
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
19
I
b:
Yes,
20 The
21
I
I
suppose she might have / might.
good condition. They told so /told me so at the garage.
want Luca to climb the mountain, but he was determined to / determined.
mother was really angry, b: But didn't you expect her to / to be?
car's in
didn't
My
22
a:
23
a: It
24
a:
doesn't look
like
the
rain's
Are the
words and phrases
italicised
or rewrite the text
I
if
b:
I
b:
I
don't guess / guess not.
might do / might be.
and adverbial phrases
Position of adjectives, adverbs
a
going to stop soon,
Are you going to the library today?
in
Units 66, 69, 74
the correct position?
my office,
in
not, suggest a
change of position
necessary.
every so often leave work early and go to a performance
to
If
& 75
in
the local concert
hall. It's
very close
the opposite building. Usually they rather are good, but yesterday's, given by a
singer and pianist,
was
a total disaster.
the pianist started to play,
it
The singer with wonderful control began to sing. But when
first thought he was badly playing, but then it
sounded awful. At
I
became obvious that the piano completely was out of tune. They stopped and discussed briefly
the problem. They couldn't continue clearly, and they left the stage unhappily. Naturally, all the
present people
felt sorry for
them. I'm sure the responsible person for tuning the piano
will
be
severely reprimanded.
b
was going out to work this morning when the postman pushed through my letterbox a
It was from Mara, who writes from time to time. The letter said that she has to come to
Bristol to visit her unwell uncle. She is one of his few remaining relatives. She wants us to meet
I
just
letter.
and asked
if
I
could suggest a time possible. Well, fora couple ofyears haven't seen her, so
really pleased.
I
We first met at university. We
about. The included photos
in
interests, so
always
we find
the letter showed that she hadn't changed since
spent so long reading the letter that
248
have alike
I
nearly
was
late for work.
I
I
was
a lot to talk
last
saw
her.
I
Additional exercises
Units 79-82
Adverbial clauses and conjunctions
Match the ideas
in
(i)
and
(ii)
or two sentences (as
in 1)
and use the word
in 2),
in
& 87
brackets to write either a single sentence (as
as appropriate. Note that you can put the
idea in
first in
(ii)
the
sentence.
(i)
1
O')
1
knew there was something wrong
a
Johan must weigh over 120
c
to prepare for the marathon
4 only about 100 people attended
d
she said she was feeling
can't afford a coat like that
e
2
3
his
5
1
wife
is
really small
6 I'm determined to
7 you'll have to walk
finish
all
the report
the
way from
the station
8
1
200 kilometres
1
a
(even though) (+ d)
the style
g
make
have to stay at work
1
a few minutes
sure you catch the last bus at 11:00
until
midnight
she hid the letter between the pages of a book
i
it
like
fine-
feave-the caffots to cool for
there had been a lot of publicity about the
j
been running about
I've
don't
1
kilos
f
h
stayed until the end
9 her husband would never find
10
10
found the film boring
1
b
prepare the remaining vegetables
meeting
week
knew there was something wrong, even though she soul she was
£ven though she said she was -feeling -fine 1. knew there was
1
something wrong
2
(meanwhile) (+
3
f)
Leave the carrots to cool
-for
a
-few
minutes
.
Meanwhile, prepare
r^
the,
(whereas)
4 (even so)
5
(besides)
6 (even
7
if)
(otherwise)
8 (although)
9 (so that)
(in
order to)
Units 92-94
Add the missing
1
Personally,
I
prepositions in the correct places after the italicised words.
with
don't agree X fox hunting, although know that you approve it.
2 There seems to be
I
little
likelihood Williamson winning
Wimbledon because
of her inability play
well on grass tennis courts.
3
Our
plan
is
to split the organisation into a
number
of small units. This will improve our prospects
competing with more specialised companies.
4 ran Danny in town the other day. He asked your email address, so
I
he'll
probably be
in
touch
with you.
5 Jack takes great pride never throwing anything.
He always
says that one day
he'll find a
use for
things.
6 Although Professor Martinez knows a great deal meteorology, even he can't account the unusual
weather we have been having over the
7
last
few weeks.
There has been a great improvement the behaviour of children
headteacher's idea involving
them
8 Even though Charlotte didn't act
in
my
in
the school. This has resulted the
decision-making.
advice and follow a career
admiration her determination train to be a vet.
in
medicine, I'm
full
of
249
Additional exercises
Units 99
Rewrite each sentence with a similar meaning starting with a word
/
& 100
phrase from the box
followed by inversion of the verb and the subject.
3
4
Hardly
Had
Seldom
Should
Not for one moment
Only if
Such
Under no circumstances
44ttle^
So
Only
in
Were
5
1
I
had called me into her office to
boss hcuL called, roe into. Her
didn't imagine that the boss
6
2 The police will only investigate the matter further
7
if
an
fire
official
me.
J-'Mle did,
complaint
is
I
iwo-guae
made.
8
The instructions were so complicated, that
it
was impossible to assemble the machine.
9
If
we had known how
ill
Rob was, we would have taken him
The wind was so strong that
10
all
the trees
in
straight to the hospital.
the park were blown down.
She didn't often regret her lack of formal education, although she was sometimes aware of gaps
in
her knowledge.
11
You should only phone
for
an ambulance
in
an emergency.
12
There was never any disagreement between
If it
were not
for financial assistance
us.
from the government, the
museum would
have closed long
ago.
They had only just
finished eating before a waiter started to clear
Children should never be allowed into the
If
250
the bridge
is
ever
built,
it
will
room without
away the
adult supervision.
be welcomed by the local community.
plates.
Key to Exercises
UNIT 4
2.3
UNIT 1
me for money.
You're constantly criticising my
You're forever asking
2
1.1
3
a 'm (am) measuring
2
driving.
b measures
3
You're continually changing your mind.
5
You're forever moaning about (your)
b doubt
4
a
is
work.
currently attracting ('attracts'
also possible)
5
doesn't
a
liking ('don’t like’
is
a
a
7
usually eat'
2
fit
a
plays
b
're (are)
b ’m (am) not
3
take*
consists of ('consists only of’
a
playing'
also possible)
is
also possible)
(’I
also possible.
is
on the way to school
also
wasn't watching (‘didn't watch'
11
possible) -
normally
It
would
is
the
a
UNIT
b has
apologise
'm apolog s ng
/
i
adm
'm
admit
3
don't suggest / 'm not suggesting
i
tting-
(both possible)
now
4
is
4.2
'was getting’ and
at 8:30.)
possible.
‘got’ are
both
The past simple suggests that
one event followed the other: got in
and then the lights went off. The past
3
continuous suggests that the
went
realise /
'm now
off as
I
was
in
lights
the process of
getting ready to get into the bath.
1
went
2
've (have)
3
wore
4
've (have)
5
overslept
‘checking
6
haven't read
which was going on as the couple
'was checking
had
in'
or ‘checked
in’
are
i
2
/
also
pushed -ran
12
3.1
1.2
1
is
(‘dreamt’
I
having
's (is)
was dreaming
also possible)
b sounds
10
also possible)
is
7
10 added -tasted
b takes
possible)
in
was playing - broke
I
is
-
living
8 went off - lit
4
9 wasn't listening (‘didn't listen' is also
possible) - was explaining ('explained'
continuous suggests that they are
sounding ('sounds'
's (is)
is
constantly playing
time they leave home. Present
b consists of
a
(‘is
suggest, however, that this
would
also be possible)
9
also possible)
I'm normally taking
a
also possible)
8
is
('constantly play'
feels
was
was checking
7
a we're (are) usually eating (‘we
b don't eat
feeling ('don’t feel’ is
started -
4
The most likely verbs are given:
also
’re (are) fitting
b doesn’t
/
2.4
possible)
6
- was spending
was looking- saw
6 came - was showing
1
like
b 'm (am) not
lived
spent
5
is
b attract
was hoping - gave
2
3
4
doubt
a
4.1
realising (both
both possible with a similar meaning.
Using the past continuous presents
spent
in'
as the background event
started to chat to him.
possible)
confess
5
6
'
m confess ngi
/
cons d er
i
do you
7
3.2
/
1
'm considering
find /
2
are you finding (both
possible)
'm know
8
know
9
don't guarantee
/
i
/
f»g-
’m not guaranteeing
3
rescued - has been
4
has happened - spoke
5
have been able - have felt
has improved - has been
6
'was playing' and ‘played’ are both
hasn't wanted - fell
has worked - hasn't had
promise
/ -hti
prom
i
sin
II
1
UNIT2
2
2.1
1
shoots, are attacking
2
arrives,
3
is
is
3
waiting, says
4
2.2
Possible answers
2
I
gather Vegecorp are going to sack a
thousand workers.
3
I
understand we're going to have a
new
4
Ed
tells
me
Bruno's crashed his car
again.
5
Julia
says she's got a
6 They say they’ve
new job.
identified a
gene
which causes some people to overeat.
'didn't
watch' and 'dreamt' are
continuous emphasises that ‘not
sign ed- 've (have) signed
b
signed
a
f i nished
b
finished
a
got
the
/
same time and seems more
likely
here.
've (have) finished
S
/
/
a
heard
b
heard- 've (have) heard
4.3
1
was buying
2
saw
3
turned
4
was slowly putting
(Past simple in 3
and past continuous
in
4 seem most
here as ‘turned round' describes
3.4
likely
The most appropriate tenses are given
a completed action and ‘was slowly
was
1
has visited
putting' describes the action that
2
has closed (or has been closed; present
going on at that time. However, past
public holiday for the President’s
birthday.
temporary rather than
watching’ and 'dreaming' went on at
a
b -get- have got
playing, stands, starts
a
also possible. However, the past
3.3
g
The past continuous suggests
was
a regular arrangement.
(both possible)
10
possible.
that this
perfect passive) - died
continuous
is
also possible in 3
3
has dropped - has fallen
past simple
is
also possible in 4.)
4
have been stolen (present perfect
passive) - insisted - held
5
was
6
walked
and
carrying
7
picked up
8
thought
9
was looking
251
.
Key to Exercises
10
dropped
11
had finished
11
had
12
had eaten (Note:
12
noticed
13
was watching
English 'ate'
8
finished
/
would also be
14
hurried
were walking
2
/
walked
9
possible.)
10
Lara hadn't intended to
written
become
...
3
had expected the operation to be
I
painful
4
5
He
He
5.1
moved...
1
hadn't
meant to
hadn't
meant
her
order
order
events are
of
mentioned
events
in
it
insult her
...
.
had only been working (‘had only
a
1
.
worked'
(or
2
...)
learnt...
UNIT 6
3
a
1
2
's
5
6
8
(has)
been staying
(‘has stayed’
had applied
a
b had been applying (‘had applied'
also possible)
developer
is
decided...
8
9
1
3
3
b
saw the
first
1
4
A property
6
a
4
7.2
7
a
been reading (‘have read'
also possible)
has been giving (‘has given'
haven't
is
5
8
a
money...
3
had been worrying (‘had worried’
put'
I
first
first
past 'point of reference'
saw the
had always believed
8
had been talking
The past continuous
(We were talking
‘point of reference'
learnt...'.
‘I
the past perfect:
‘I
had put together'
we
‘I
had nearly given
has been claim ng has claimed
2
ha v e been dying died
3
have been making
5
is
had just heard
y
had been
produced
8
hadn't wanted
have been awarding awarded
9
S (‘have looked'
had met
7
have also been exploring
S
(‘have also
explored' and ‘also explored' are also
UNIT 8
8.1
possible)
The
8
1
had been
3
had taken
4
had seen
5
had
6
had found
7
had cheated
8
had made up
9
had gone
/
/
went
2
took
3
h as be e n mak ng has
-
i
-ha s-been
/
have
made
The most likely verbs and tenses are given.
/
2
got
3
feel /
arrived
/
4
/
i
nvest ng invested
(Present simple and
i
meaning
here.)
-
has been increasing
/
(‘has increased'
4
go
5
know
6
spent
also possible)
has been running
S (’has run'
is
also
7
texted
8
was waiting
9
got
possible)
/
cheated
went
5
has been neglecting
neglected'
6
hadn't heard
is
(‘has
also possible)
has been cutting
possible)
S (‘has cut'
felt /
is
also
was feeling
(Past simple
and past
continuous have a similar meaning
here.)
7
252
am feeling
present continuous have a similar
has beon announcing has announced
is
lost
fishing
had collapsed
b
2
10
4
5
/
made
1
also
is '...
property developer had decided...'.
5.2
is
and 'looked' are also possible)
the past
up’...
/ (‘have made'
6
have been looking
8
10
-
6
(Note that ‘What happened?'
7
is
likely in
possible)
i
*1
heard that the house was for sale
again'. Events before this are in
perfect:
1
also possible)
clear by ‘By the time...'.
I
y
...
could use
third past ‘point of reference'
when
3
in
put together' here as the order of events
The
had been taken
a
is
Events before this are
‘had bought'. Notice that
made
2
had just
more
/
6.2
‘When
had been empty'.
‘It
The second past
when
‘I
is
...).
73
also possible)
is
old house'. Events before
this are in the past perfect:
moved'...
is
is
had arrived
7
also
is
1
The
visited
had been writing (‘had written'is also
106
swimming
has disappeared
disappeared'
1
also
also possible)
b have been disappearing (‘have
was empty
had cost
5
b has (or ’have') put
enough
It
had
4
also
possible)
4
put together
1
2
3
swum
6 a have been putting (‘have
up...
is
possible)
b 've (have) been
7
tried'
possible)
b has given
5
it
nearly gave
had been trying (‘had
1
possible)
developer
1
've (have)
is
old house
bought
also possible)
haven't read
a
had flown
a
b had been flying
b has stopped
heard...
1
4
have been stopping (‘have stopped'
a
is
is
b 've (have) stayed
2
is
also possible)
6.1
9
also possible)
had carried
a
also possible)
1
is
b had finally worked
to be an insult to
b had been carrying (‘had carried'
text
2
The property
wrote
7.1
...
hadn't thought of cooking rabbit
I
5
events
also
UNIT 7
meaning)
ran
UNIT
/
a
(similar
dentist
16
/ (‘have planned'
also possible)
is
5.3
15
have been planning
North American
In
Key to Exercises
6
11
got
12
enjoy
7
continuous
may suggest that
not living
Adelaide permanently.)
in
8
is
is
14
seems
15
doesn't get on
will
based on present evidence)
13
want
'U-seU
14
read (with ‘by the time')
'll
-
're
going to have (prediction
going to
're
sell
(prediction
10
(c)
be-stcfc
-
going to be sick
's
(prediction based
continuous have a similar meaning
evidence);
here, although the present continuous
on opinion
is
a
temporary
11
'll
are constantly complaining
/
(Note the word
is
18
asked
19
am
/
here.
2
you going to
tell';
something planned);
order.)
made
12
'll
at
/
tell
try
/
out
simple have a similar meaning here.)
/
13
The most likely tenses are given.
2
said (‘has said'
’ll
/
(decision
see- 're
made
definite
heard
made
had heard
/
/
15
4
returned
5
came
was
6
/
/
had returned
/
at
16
'll
had been
sort
'll
moment
at
at
left
8
appointed
9.2
moment
'll
definite
past
/
(c)
5
2
does not depend on action
12
has disappointed
clause)
13
has spent
in
'Has he had' or ‘Has he been having’
more
are
likely
2
y
3
thought
4
has worked
/
the
if-
7
7
had been trying
6
did
7
heard
8
/ (‘went' also possible)
/ (‘checked' also possible)
8
is
/
's
om coll ng
(c)
i
made
at time of
serve (planned future event).
‘I
am serving lunch’
I
’...
and
in this
I
am
not
plan to do', perhaps
irritation or
annoyance.
ore starv ing- (no control over
(c)
going to starve' have a similar meaning
going to be sacked
here.
talk
(ability)
UNIT 10
/ said
(‘have given'
have told
is
1
also possible)
However, as
about future
'will' is
facts,
it
often used to
may
express
certainty in this context.
10.3
('told' is also possible)
(prediction based
(decision
on opinion
/
i
ll
4
will give
2
made
at
moment
‘in
out
3
case')
goes
/
going
is
is
like
X like X
is
also
/ comes /
is
or*
be going
natural here]
4
starts (fixed event; ‘will start'
(will
come
also
is
giving
is
to' are
going to
X gives X
more
come /)
(will give
/
is
going
to give X)
2
possible)
7
stops (with ’provided')
8
change (with ‘what
9
will
if')
1
is /
are sacking
miss (prediction)
/
sack
X
(will
sack
y
[but present continuous or ’be going
past
lend (with ‘unless’)
/ are going
/)
coming
simple
(fixed event; ‘will go'
(will like
[but present continuous, present
possible)
6
on opinion
/ joins X (will join /
joining
are liking
(less routine
of
evidence)
(prediction based
is
to
arrangement)
you toko up Are you going to
experience)
will look after (less routine
rains (with
5
take up (prediction based on present
y
1
past
speaking)
W
also
to join /)
3
experience)
/
‘will get' is
arrangement)
9.1
y
1
get (fixed event;
possible)
UNIT 9
5
going to
predicted event). ‘Will starve' and ‘are
/
10.1
2
4
‘is
is
11
3
’ll
ll
showing some
8
more
have said
2
stop (logical consequence)
be sacked
hear
i
changing what
(conditional - negative)
you go
10
12
'll
ng to-eeU-;
i
context suggests
clause)
has been working
w
using
had thought
/
and
have a similar meaning here.
om go
(a)
buy (request)
will start /
cutting- (permanent future
s
As the present continuous for the
future suggests a definite arrangement,
going to hurt (conditional
6 'm going to see (main clause action
10 does not depend on action in the if-
5
9
5
more
arrangement - perhaps the
speaking)
going to plant (main clause action
/ 're
i
(b)
- negative)
1
suggests a personal
drive'
(promise; decision
have won
...
i
situation). ‘Will cut'
cut'
accused
will
dr ve- (planned future event).
their employer.
b u U4- 'm going to build (decision
11
4
moment of
at
speaker has been told to go there by
on opinion
finished
8.3
ll
i
going to
‘I'm
moment of speaking)
(prediciton based
hurt
w
(a)
of
6
'll
made
speaking)
have (decision
10
3
is
up next week.
intention; ‘I'm driving' suggests a
Example verbs are given
’re
it
(offer; decision
of
already made)
7
9
simply picking
going to
experience)
had come
arrangement - perhaps the
speaker has bought the car and
4
made
(decision
14 'm go ng to have
likely here)
‘I'm buying’ suggests a
arrangement;
moment of speaking)
i
3
buy (planned future
(decision
speaking)
also possible, but less
is
ll
an intention without a definite
speaking)
8.2
i
-
see (decision already made);
heard (Present simple and past
(or
asking about
'll
w
(a)
event). ‘I'm going to buy' suggests
have 'm going to have (decision
already made);
looking
20 hear
(prediction based
past experience)
/
‘is
going to leave' have a similar meaning
leave 'm going to leave (decision
‘are
starting
17
/
feel
'll
leavmg- (prediction perhaps
s
present evidence). ‘Will leave' and
on present
already made); will you
problem.)
complain
16
'll
i
based on opinion, experience or
on (Present simple and present
suggests that this
(with 'supposing')
10.2
1
getting
accept (prediction)
cut 'm going to cut (decision
already made)
/ isn't
also possible)
is
have
based on present evidence)
9
looking
13
12
’ll
here, although the present
she
play (or ‘plays') (fixed event;‘will play'
going to be (decision already
's
made)
and present continuous have a similar
meaning
11
be-
'l l-
enjoying (Present simple
/ is
to' are
more
natural here]
is /
are going
to sack y)
253
Key to Exercises
2
X close
are closing
(will
close
X are
3
3
are building
build
build
4
more
merge
merge' or
X
(will build
S
[but present continuous or 'be going
to' are
to
is
going to close X)
to be
see
(will
6
is
/
8
was supposed; was about to ask
9
y (‘am going to see'
to be replaced
is
6
to
is
to see X)
retire; is
retire’
10
and
‘will
will
8
are to receive
9
are to be created
be leaving
(‘will leave' is
Will
b
3
'll
you be working
(‘Will
you work'
work
b won't use
(will)
'll
(‘will give' is
also
be created'
are to have (see section B)
3
wins
4
enjoy (B)
5
'm just about to go
to start
is
6
possible)
a won't
also
5,
9 and
is
la
6
b
2
b
7
a
3
a
8
a
4
b
9
b
5
a
10
a
/ is
about to
start (A/C)
UNIT
(B)
(C)
can
2
were able to
is
8
(‘will
move'
is
is
also
to resign /
is
about to resign (C)
resign'
will resign
(‘is
3
emphasises that he
could
is
making a
profit
very soon)
is
by
we will have
we set ourselves
when we took
3
In
to be improved (B)
13.1
will
have
4
sure to provide
set to launch
is
also possible)
I
will
have finished
the report before the end of the week.
5
This
book on Proust
On Saturday
for a
6
I
will
who
still
it
arrived early will
late
(‘will
have discovered'
1
will
have closed
will
be enjoying
3
will
be leaving
4
will
be arriving
5
will
have been
will
have been planning
7
won't be spending
8
will
9
be keeping
will all
Can you
12
due to undergo
on the verge of quitting
set to
13
make
is
to be staged
possible)
2
will
stop
(‘will
be staged'
is
on the brink of going
1
4
2
propose
3
expect
/
'm proposing to deal
/
/ 're
expecting to finish
'm aiming to study
5
resolves to give
6
guarantee to find
7
intend / 'm intending to
up
/
Are you able to (A)
was able to
(B: single
past
couldn't
(B:
is
was able to
negative sentence;
more
natural)
(B: single
past
15.2
a
1
can
2
couldn't
3
can
4
can't
5
couldn't / weren't allowed to
6 can't
2
shan't / won't ('won't'
3
will
4
shall / will
is
more
natural)
7
were allowed to
b
won't
1
was going to do
will
be
3
4 would have shown
254
move
will
2
is
before passive)
achievement)
13.2
also
with ‘hardly 'could'
with 'smell' 'could'
1
can
2
wasn't allowed to
3
was allowed to
4 could
5
could
6
can't
7
was allowed to
14.1
12.1
1
(A:
‘couldn't'
UNIT 14
UNIT 12
past
achievement)
10
5
be going
(B:
can
13.3
6
could
10
1
(B:
natural)
11
4 aim
2
(B: single
more
on the verge of becoming
is
11.3
could hardly
on the point of signing
12
also possible)
were able to
6
11
changes to the conference
programme,
'know how to')
natural)
have been discovering, there have been
some
(A)
with 'understand' ‘could'
happening as speaking)
(A:
7
9
only half way.
can
9
8 sure to face
really difficult.
have been reading
month, and I'm
As delegates
is
6
8
5
am confident that
can't (A:
due to return
3
been acting for 50 years, and shows no
I
(B:
achievement)
sign of retiring from the theatre, (‘will
have acted'
4
past
natural)
5
7
UNIT 13
over.
two years' time Momeau
more
are about to get (C)
the end of the year then
achieved the objective
were able to
/
4 Could you
is
9
company
(B; single
to keep (B)
about to
11.2
the
before passive)
(A:
achievement)
move
possible)
If
15
1
recovers (B)
7
b will be moving
2
in
11.
15.1
give
b will be giving
5
(‘will
1
10
2
also
is
also possible)
is
Past or present tense forms are possible
(‘will receive' is
12.2
possible)
4 a
y (‘were meeting'
would cause
also possible)
won't be using (‘won't use'
a
11
12
become
also possible)
is
to be used
is
will increase
also possible)
is
start
14.2
will leave
a
10
(‘will
about to
possible)
also
possible)
2
is
be succeeded' are also
7
b
be replaced'
possible)
UNIT 11
will
(‘will
to be succeeded
11.1
a
also
7
5
are going
is
possible)
also possible)
X see X
y (‘was to be announced'
5
(’will
possible)
)
are seeing
1
merged
be merged' are also
will rise
4
natural here] are going to
/ is
‘will
/
couldn't
more
is
.
Key to Exercises
UNIT 16
might be imprisoned
7
case
16.1
may have been
8
will
1
spend
had
3
would exercise
4
found
5
will
exaggerating
might be punished
cause
6
would
7
will
know
8
will
probably be
-
to squeeze
(E:
period of time)
9
must-have to squeeze must have had
5
the
possible activity that went on over a
10
2
(C: typically
the past)
in
(C: typically
the
in
may
have told
6
must leave- must have
y
8
mustn’t
9
must be d sturbed- must have been
10
X used to /
/ ('used to’
X used to /
y (‘would’
3
4
(changed past state)
also possible)
is
(changed
is
at least he’s in tune.
...
2
... it’s
3
...
never broken down.
You may
6
She
past state)
/
might not agree with him,
may / might
feelings openly,
5
/ (‘would’
6
X met / (number of times
is
also possible)
7
may / might
It
.
may must get may have to get
I
3
would have hurt
4
will
5
would have preferred
not sound very exciting,
6
will /
2
must be
1
would have bought
7
y
16
have to get- must get (more
The three
1
if
must be
starting ('must be going
and ‘must
worked’
you
will drive
everywhere
instead of walking, I’m not surprised.
2
B:
Well,
if
you
spend so much time
will
3
B:
Well,
if
you
jumper when
it’s
30 degrees,
it’s
not
is
I'll
also possible)
a
6
must have to show
7
must be taking (‘must have
2
17
3
taken’
1
might (more
2
may
3
Are you
4
likely
to
.
(possible answer;
.
3
All
than ‘may’)
in
the
homework
...’ is
didn't have to
go to the hospital
Did Ben have to go alone?
6
Adam sometimes
Could (possible answer; ‘Might’ would
6:30. (‘Adam has
be rather formal)
start
1
work
in
2
possible event
...'is
has to start work at
activity that
went
possible
8
on over a period of
also possible)
3
We need only (or We only need
might be coming
is
With such a lead
(E:
possible event in
4
might require
the case
in
2
4
ill.
may
be moving
(E:
in
the future)
paid
always have got to poll- always have
5
(less
the Democrats hardly need
need know
...)
who
paid the
No one
(less
needs to know
who
...)
After such a huge lottery win, he need
never work again,
(less
formally
...
he
never needs to work again.)
bang (‘Must you bang
the future)
(E:
No one
formally
possible event in
6 may have improved
...
ransom to the kidnappers,
to pull
the past)
5
...)
the opinion polls
the Democrats hardly need bother)
formally
/
(C: typically
in
to bother campaigning
We may / might have to cancel our
my mother is
(less
campaigning before the election,
18.3
the future)
...)
the Democrats need hardly bother (or
time)
3
you needn't
on the form.
formally We only need to look at
The college has to be extended to
holiday because
details
seriousness of the problem,
sometimes got to
context)
(E:
computer
look at the rainfall figures to see the
also possible, but less likely in a formal
the past)
might have been trying
full
19.2
...
(E:
worry about being
after
students, (‘has got to be extended'
might have enjoyed
/
force until next year so
accommodate the growing number of
17.2
them down.
The new tax laws don't come into
5
2
5
7
the book so you
you needn’t concern
security so
also
all.
might (more
may
in
the windows have screens so you
change the
5
6
to the station so you
bother about booking
yourself with viruses.
4
likely
/
4 Our software provides
rarely has to be asked to tidy
.
'Might you ...’would be rather formal)
lift
bitten by mosquitoes.
Have we got to hand
I
may
I
taxi.
is
possible)
than ‘may’)
likely
you a
needn't panic
tomorrow? ('Do we have to
17.1
give
needn’t bother to copy
her room.
UNIT
something
if
even though
it,
The questions are
2
must be
Hannah
(both
to).
needn't worry
18.2
surprising.
...'
UNIT 19
also possible)
wear a thick
will
must admit
19.1
must have changed
8
likely)
start’ are also
5
online, I’m not surprised.
...', ‘I
I
1
B: Well,
/
expressions with ‘must'
necessary will do
must have had to work (‘must have
Example answers
common
must say
‘I
possible)
4
16.3
have to go
I
must-get- must be getting
not want
to
start’
/
is
is
must have found
would have noticed
must go
1
and ‘needs must’ (meaning
1
3
-
used to emphasise the following point),
18.1
have heard
ego
got to go
14
...
UNIT 18
would have approved
've t
.
specified)
have watched
will
incorrect.)
is
13
are
2
informal language, but
in
12
not express her
16.3
1
have
I
/
she has a very wide vocabulary.
5
/
some people use
11
I've
not possible) (changed
got to get
I've
-
others think this
1
past state)
get
to get'
‘I've
17.3
16.2
2
’ve to
I
Possible answers
1
didn't have to wait
to get (Note that
past)
would probably be
it-
i
rarely sit
/
wa
left
disturbed
possible event in the
(E:
must have squeezed
7
the past; passive)
case
/
...’is
also
19.3
possible but less likely)
possible event
4
/
1
don't need to
2
needn’t
/
don't need to
255
Key to Exercises
don't need to
3
needn't
4
don't need to
/
UNIT
needn't
don't need to
/
1
You needn't worry
2
Do we need
3
...
.
I
need hardly
tell
you
.
7
/
8
...
this
get
became
tell
you
mean
should
3
become (more
to have
should
4
become
to put
5
get
/
became
8
got
21.3
have put
.
ought
.
is
also
ought to have arrived (should
ought to
arrive
is
also possible)
5
should be sent (more likely than ought
should be removed (more
likely
went
7
go
4
get to
8
went bust
5
get tired
red
know
than
2
seemed to be awake
3
y
4
seemed to be taking
5
hadn't got dressed
/
7
we answer (more likely than
Ought we to answer ...; Should we
Should
also possible)
not possible)
have been
is
/
should or must; 'must' gives a stronger
23.1
becoming obvious
5
avoided being taken
6
was observed
7
was sent tumbling
possible)
/
3 and 6 include
use ‘must' not 'should')
faced being expelled
was found wandering
10
She was offered a second-hand
A second-hand
bicycle
was
23.2
should
y
the developers.
Some
He was awarded
5
next door.
3
interesting changes
were
4 The burglar was observed entering the
a prize.
/
A
prize
was
museum through
5
6
The
announced to the waiting journalists.
6
7
The password had been mentioned to
7
8
President's arrival will be
The pop concert
skis. /
a window.
is
expected to attract
over 20,000 people.
She didn't mind being
I
was
Some
skis
8
criticised.
required to complete
of the
have been lent some
I
Ollie hated being teased by the other
children.
suggested to me.
must
Emil and Laura could be heard arguing
Improvements have been proposed to
4
logical conclusions, so
resented being given
2
the thieves.
1
hiding
8
20.3
2
bitten
9
awarded to him.
we
holding
UNIT 22
recommendation
must
left
22.1
2
off (by the
UNIT 23
9
‘should' in this context
(Z,
was fenced
remembered being
should or must; 'must' gives stronger
6
it
4
3
should or must; 'must' gives a stronger
field after
to get worried
must
5
Walkers were prevented from crossing
8
3
than
two items were held over
denied being involved
bicycle. /
likely
last
(by the chairperson) until the next
was
offered (to) her.
perhaps more
deprived of
farmer).
would also be
must
is
The
3
ill'
2
advice and
7
blind
went missing
(‘be
recommendation
4
No passive
No passive
2
10
10
also possible)
passive
6
like
ought to
20.2
1
came to
the
6
is
No
Many people have been
go wrong
ought to have resigned
ought to be (should
3
4
committee meeting.
/
should go (ought to
been
The product was phased out (by the
an
8
should
is
(or has
declared) winner of the election after a
company) over a period of three years.
3
7
10
a
5
ought to wear
/
in
6
/
should
two copies
customs declaration.
Mrs Dee was caught
shoplifting.
have been lent to me.
3
-shall should
4
shouldn' t-
'd
/
9
ought to
5
‘d
hod better not shouldn't
I
am
A
better not
6
better should / ought to
/
being sent a lot of
lot of
spam
emails. /
2
are being sent to
3
4
22.2
2
introduced;
Rossi by
/
ought to
...
I
was introduced to Mrs
Tony
at his birthday party, (or
Mrs Rossi at Tony's birthday
be selected by the
captain, (different meaning)
Kathy arranged to be taken to the
station by Alastair. (different meaning)
to the students.
8
Omar hopes to
team
The changes are going to be explained
ought not
/
hod better should
spam emails
23.3
me.
to be
7
than 'become'
should
9
256
likely
6
have answered
who
recount.
went dead
1
ought to be removed)
8
’get' in
21.4
to be sent)
9
have any doubt.
22.3
7
2
I
be demonstrated to those
still
the right to vote (by the decision).
possible)
/
than
ought
10
should
likely
2
get (more
put (more likely than
should
will
Watson was declared
informal context)
...;
certain that
company director
declared (or have declared); Alan
become
...
won is also possible)
I
6
has
/
formal context)
ought to win (should
/
am
I
(to be)
...
prefer 'needn't' in
context (see C)
needn't
demonstrate;
will
(to be)
10
2
UNIT 20
4
9
1
or less
....
20.1
/
Sales Director for Scandinavia.
(to be)
6
3
to be
.
hardly need (to)
I
some people would
I
to be
8
21.2
formally
2
7
to be
Sarah's suitability as
more likely
...is
needn’t be a problem
6
1
appointed (or was appointed) Regional
to be
(to be)
.
/
5
to be
5
make
to
Has Chris been seen (by anyone)
morning?
(have) appointed; Sven Larsen has been
4
6
(to be)
19.4
4
seen;
this
don't need to
5
6
3
21
21.1
party.)
5
Caldos has
come to be
recognised as
one of
Spain's greatest novelists by
critics,
(corresponding meaning)
Holidaymakers continue to be
attracted to the south coast,
(corresponding meaning)
0
Key to Exercises
6
The Finance Minister has agreed to
25.2
be interviewed by Harris, (different
2
X
meaning)
3
It
26.4
is
water on Mars.
UNIT 24
4
It is
The main stadium has been designed
2
to
6
down
Games.
after the
The basketball arena
have been
will
Julius
7
X
8
It is
The rowing competition
is
being held
9
was completed) only a
(or
year after the city got the Olympics.
The handball venue was being used as
7
a
8
warehouse
2
in
council have been made.
Accusations
/
made
in
made
is
5
will
take several
5
Can't you leave
6
Wouldn't you rather go by plane?
it
last night?
will
to correct the fault, (or
weeks to
is
It is
will take
correct.) /
The
fault
in
2
Which
3
Which
naturally
4
Which
5
Whom / Who (‘Whom’
6
Who
7
Which
8
Who
'is
6
is
1
are
9
be affected
2
teaches (whether or not the expected
has been using
/Who
2
3
answer
3
is
4
makes
5
are /
6
has
is
one person or two)
3
hoped
4
decided
4
How + h
5
explained
5
What + j
explained
3
there nobody you can ask for
when?
He's leaving
/
He's doing what?
He's what?
He’ll
be away for
how
long?
how much?
4
It'll
5
He's sold
cost
/
(his)
what?
/
/
It'll
He's what?
doing what?
/
1
b
2
do you not Why don’t you (C)
Who do you expect that- will read
your blog?
(F)
What + f
9 What / How + c
10 What + e or
6
8
planned
He's
27.4
What + d
What / How +
Was n et- Wasn't (D)
/(C)
What did you say -that-
7
/
He's what?
4
6
intended
what?
He's going climbing where?
How + a or g
How + e or
established / revealed
/ He'll
He's done
/ (f)
6
i
8
thought
Is
3
7
/
there anybody you can ask for
what?
26.3
proposed
2
Isn't
what?
6
is
agreed
shown
remember
I
/
2
discovered
else to
273
26.2
are expecting
assumed
nowhere
help?
1
9
Do you have no
at all?)
Why don't ever do well in exams?
Why do never do well in exams?
help?
very formal)
to be abandoned
10
maths
I
8
/
at all? (or
in
interest
Couldn't you find anywhere else to
3
5
be turned into
/
at
nothing about the accident?
is
25.1
Have you no
the accident? Can you
will
UNIT 25
maths
4 Can't you remember anything about
whom
has been estimated
are (being) destroyed
at all?)
sleep? Could you find
7
11
in
Don't you have any interest
maths
in
May.
6
/
all? (or
interest in
is
expect
outside?
Haven't you any interest
2
has been decided to postpone the
suggested that the next launch
it
27.2
maths
fear
10
be
But weren't you supposed to do that
1
have disappeared
/
I'd
not
fault
5
has used
saying
The
/
expected to take several weeks to
It
my email
you get
Didn't
Couldn't you get a babysitter?
4
/
also possible)
4
are disappearing
using
is
on holiday?
3
/
(What have
UNIT 27
26.1
(being) ruled')
estimated
/
3
should take place
24.3
/
To whose address?
is
UNIT 26
industrial area will
more
n
sleep?
after the speeches.
(being) ruled (or
i
thought that the
expected that
It is
be
certainly be expected.
now
more likely
9
next rocket launch.
Resistance from local residents to
is
is
correct.
against
only two days.
the proposed new
2
It is
not serious.)
is
several
4
The presentation of the trophy
more likely
Which
2
not thought that the fault
weeks
4 The demolition of the building was
completed
is
8
Possible answers are given
It is
the local
Accusations of corruption
Which
X
expected that the fault
the local council.
6
was the source of a food
/
fault
of corruption have been
5
is
thought to be serious.
next week.
Whose travels
27.1
It is
3
(or less formally
7
1
been finished by now.
made
/
more likely
poisoning outbreak.
serious, (or
The appointment of a new managing
3
recovery.
The badminton arena should have
director will be
6
is
about?)
making a
is
lives
Who's
Nepal did Liam Wilson write a book
a spy.
25.3
until a year ago.
24.2
2
moon
said that the King
restaurant
The athletics track had been
completed
Who
5
has been established that a
It
on the River Nene.
6
was
is /
good
completed by the end of May.
5
in Berlin.
expected that the
whose
has been revealed that ex-President
It
10
The temporary stands will be taken
4
It is
/
3
astronauts will return (to Earth) today.
accommodate many different
sports.
3
5
2
4
believed that terrorists are
operating
24.1
Whose
1
has been discovered that there
i
5
is
in
these
biscuits? (F)
7
/(F)
8
d d not didn't (C)
i
257
Key to Exercises
UNIT 28
28.1
30.4
Jane posted the letter for me...
8
took the
(‘Jane
10
letter for
me
...'is
people
possible)
answered (the phone)
2
9
3
eat (dinner)
4
thanked Val
I
my old
offered
bike to
him
3+a
...
Can you save some dinner for me,
washed
6
brushed her hair
7
changed (her clothes)
1
some makeup
8
put on
9
drove (her car)
4+
He
kindly collected
for
me.
some
S
Can ask you a favour?
13
cooking (dinner)
5
A
14
to pick
15
studying (French)
16
mention her
17
introduce you
3
differentiate
4
between fantasy and
4
...
specialises in seafood.
5
...
inflicted
6
...
attributed his success to
7
...
mistook the black car for
8
...
based her
novel on
.
...
with the
/
result. /
/ is satisfied
I
6
7
8
at school.
his clothes for him.
3
Can you take this present
4
...
me
(not a verb of [disjliking or thinking)
It is
difficult
to imagine his accepting
I
can't rely
come up with some
and then
site,
I
on
waited ages for
initial
ideas for
had to keep on at her
more work on
do
it
it.
Finally,
after
Managers of the National
Electricity
Company have appealed to workers
their strike,
and have
government to intervene
The Energy Minister
called
in
to
on the
the dispute.
said that he has
arranged for employers and employees
No one
to meet next week, and he prevailed
in
the crowd that day will
on
remember their arguing a
when they were children.
I
great deal
X (not a verb of [disjliking or thinking)
2
approve of children wearing
end by summarising
agreed not to
2
are /
adapt to
in
the
4
me from going
living /
adapt to dealing with
life
30.3
burst (a single, short event)
2
watching (the context suggests that
don't recall seeing / don't recall having
denies
/
denied having received or
denies
/
denied receiving (similar
meanings)
named
5
asked not to be
6
didn't feel like walking
7
seems to have disappeared
8
1
tell
were thought to have escaped
seen (similar meanings)
on Sophie turning up
rely
6
work
31.3
1
3
5
strikers to return to
meantime.
3
are
/
were believed to have arrived
...
Carl
32.1
the watcher;
in
other words, he didn't
see the whole of the event)
6
He teaches
7
Can you read these
UNIT 32
was being watched before he saw
also possible)
sports to disabled children.
3
sting (‘stinging’
instructions to / for
this
The most likely reporting verbs are given
is
also possible, but
would suggest that the wasp stung
2
'Why don't we stop
for a coffee?' she
suggested.
4 feeding
event)
in
the answers, but others are possible.
several times)
258
she
all.
the decision without any objection.
for / to her?
we sold all the carpets to him as
(‘... we offered all the carpets to
me, please?
her to
end
well.
...' is
you
b
We don't approve of the developer's
30.2
some cases other tenses are possible
have to choose
learnt that
said she couldn’t
4 discouraged
29.1
advertised for a website designer
I
now
I've
the
3
have always found that he
to
a drink for Ben; the glass
inedible.
We believed her to be happy at
/ We believed that she was / is
it
/
forget Ashe's fighting so hard to win
/ is reliable.
31.2
Greta to do anything.
the match.
UNIT 29
him
a reminded b pretended
6 a hoped b advised
me the money / the
They considered that the
have always found him to be
...
a fortune;
him
30.1
5
/
reliable. /
5
stories to (or for)
Ben a drink
She declared
reliable;
is
b persuaded
for the business, Greta got the job. But
with the
food was
I
managed
When
X
4 X
They considered the food to
be inedible.
pass
a
him; him three bedtime stories / three
locating the factory so close to houses.
She declared herself to be
was
inedible;
I
3
to do any
result.
2
a offered b allowed
bedtime
UNIT 30
.
28.3
happy;
a told b threatened
2
4 a encouraged b agreed
paper
...
Example adjectives are given
school.
/ a
to him / him the glass
...
2
satisfied
31
a
you
5
6
a surprise defeat on
that she
control
aeroplane for him; his broken car for
money to me
satisfied;
you
me;
him a paper aeroplane
the discovery of
new
left lets
half hour
and Tom
in
on the
1
5
reality.
In
city.
the problem to our teacher; us another
penicillin.
happy
the
(the dishes)
culminated
dial
31.1
me her photograph /
her photograph to me
28.2
5
in
it
invite Val
was
museums
his sister to
3
4
the
29.3
afford
3
all
S
2
19
20 wash up
2
UNIT
special ticket allows (people) entry
to
6
enjoyed the evening
have him wait
arrives,
my office.
I
some flowers
18
(to) protest against
the speed of the fan.
4
...
+ d When Ethan
6 + c The
parked (her car)
(her hand)
we didn't dare
outside
colleagues.
waved
3
art.
it.
books
5
11
...
library
his error to his
12
2
modern
hope the new drug will
We didn't agree with the decision,
f
but
He admitted
2
reached their house
21
Scientists
(herself)
29.2
10
intended to help
is
(to) understand
help (them) (to) prevent hay fever.
please?
5
new course
2 + e The
also
3
(this refers
‘All right,
Georgia,
to a repeated
confessed.
it
was
me,’ he
Key to Exercises
‘My novel
4
Brown
5
more
is
Dan
always carry two umbrellas with
‘I
me because
I'm always losing them,'
explained Lena. /
6
exciting than a
she boasted.
thriller/
‘Oh, no,
Matt. /
it's
‘Have
/
...
done the
I
grumbled
4
choose
discuss
5
decide
3
considering
complained to
2
complained
3
joked with; announced to; mentioned
5
requires of
right thing?'
6
disagreed with
7
mention to
I
3
didn't feel
- could ( more likely than He
that he couldn't ask his parents to
help him again.)
(or hadn't been)
would
Possible necessary objects are given in bold
the conditions would be.
they showed
these must be deleted) to get to the track
3
confessed to her audience that
up the mountain.
reassured
He expected
his
mother not to be
7
went on to complain that government
I
help
1
angry.)
8
wouldn't mind
waiting.)
9
an announcement
employees
demanded
/
them that
3
my long-term career plans were /
what were my long-term career plans
how many
(1
I
spoke
/
As the snow got heavier
continue' would also be possible and
whether that
reassured staff /
them that
if
/
whether could use a spreadsheet
6
if
/
whether had organised
(had) learnt
/
I
/
if
whether would be
I
willing to live
overseas for periods of time
8
when can
I
/
He took my hands and showed
me how /where to hold the golf club
2
properly.
3
2 +j
do
advised
4+
I
warned
4
inform
5
have shown
/
the
in
4
teach
5
+b
I
6
has reassured
promised
/
in
the office and
5
I
saw Sarah leave the
didn’t notice
33.2
2
X
3
The judge thought
his explanation to
expected her plans to
X
6
Lucas acknowledged
7
wondered why Helen wasn't
had treated Lara unkindly.
She recalled that Wilma's great/
had been from
8 + a After
his
I'd
dismantled the motor
couldn't remember how to fit the
chances of
f
have solved
4
understand
2
states
5
looks
3
has
6
is /
1
I
parts
To win a
prize
When mentioned
I
you had to guess how
many sweets were in the jar.
10 + c As the guests came in Diego told
them where to put their coats.
X
had been seen
local
shop
that he
back together.
9+
1
was
35.3
path was dangerous.
fail.
We found the rugby supporters to be
very well behaved.
I
+ h As we walked over the hills the
guide warned us where / when the
winning the race to be slim.
X
film.
35.2
I
with him.
5
8
(‘is’ is
old.
Spain.
When saw Hugo alone at the
party
be unconvincing.
7
250 years
She conceded that perhaps she treated
grandmother was
building, but
where she went after
/
from her house.
has advised
6+e
I
I
She repeated that she had already seen
/
6
that.
4
but
was nearby
She estimated that the vase was
the
test.
had to keep reminding her who
I
7
it
side of
in,
She alleged that Markus had stolen
also possible) around
everyone was.
/
know -that- whether
stole jewellery
explained carefully so that the
Anna was new
i
promised
assured
could shelter
I
35.1
Added objects are in bold
students understood what they had to
3
a
somewhere on this
UNIT 35
34.1
3 +g
2
knew that there was
or miles away.
33.1
1
realise
UNIT 34
could start work
UNIT 33
I
the mountain that
didn’t
formal written context.
I
international conferences before.
7
are grammatical, but less
began to
I
my life was in danger.
Fortunately, my years in the Andes
had taught me what to do in extreme
shepherd's hut
learned Chinese
where
I
etc.)
I
-
conditions.
alternatives without* that'
has warned they, 2 explained to
likely in a
5
my
retrace
I
speak
4
whether to
asked of staff that (‘asked staff to
employees,
languages
4f-
should go back, the track had disappeared.
Note that
what
couldn’t see where to go.
wondered
by the time decided whether that
less formal)
possible
2
I
(‘demanded that ministers provide'
less formal)
10
and
on or go back down. Soon, however,
would also be possible and
also
is
whether to
couldn't decide
light,
carry
steps and try to find the track again, but
of ministers that
32.3
heard about the job'
(the
When the snow started falling it was very
4 denied that management
replied that
I
way / how: one of
has warned that they
5
‘how
hard
explained to employees that
6
1
me
how
the morning
In
2
- to be (more likely than
promised - wouldn’t
I
1
didn't expect
8
never imagined
mountain, but
announced - wasn't going
Adam
my descent from the
arrive before
33.4
5
She thought
discussion
through the day as to whether the snow
6
would (more likely than
was some
for a week. There
insisted
didn’t think -
higher altitudes,
like at
me to take enough food
and advised
4
7
me what the
The villagers warned
conditions were
the children chorused.
threatened not to repay
to;
34.3
announced to
2
mentioned
announced to
4
32.2
- wasn't
to;
to
wondered.
felt
debating
2
1
Matt grumbled.
...
the children.
8
34.2
1
Lena explained.
...
raining again,'
‘Good morning, Miss Novak,' chorused
7
33.3
Likely answers are given
-is-
last
to Nokes that he
(or
was
seen)
in
a
Monday, he protested
was
home all day. He
own doesn't
Focus. He claimed
at
swears that he d dn't
i
own
a blue Ford
that he had
been
paint factory
for work.
/
(or
went) to the
two weeks ago to look
Nokes
alleges that he
is
y a good friend of Jamie Barnes.
He
259
Key to Exercises
4
2
insisted that
(or
2
/
he didn’t telephone
hadn't telephoned) Barnes
The verb 'propose' can be followed by a
Monday morning. When pointed out
his
S
(or
was found)
house, he replied that he
had been storing
(or
was
is
S
(or
anyone by the
Barnes confirmed that he
was)
(or
in
-is-
had
the area of the paint
factory last Monday, but said that he
was visiting (or had been
visiting) his mother. He admitted that
he s w alk ng was walking (or had
i
i
i
been walking) along
around
a very honest person
never be involved
in
that he -was-
10
5
couldn't
2
may / might
6
can
3
can
7
will /
4
would
illegal.
/
8
could
9
late
for the
4
weekend
Paris
...
He
in
good time
4
in
6
to fight the ban on smoking
He expected
/
He asked me to lend him ten pounds.
(or He asked to borrow ten pounds.)
8 He called on the government to do
more
late...
heavy
/
(that) she
would be there
in
the city centre by one
is
also possible, but less
y
3
i
4
i
5
mustn't forget to bring
my student
5
demanded ordered
want ed hoped
y
offered proposed
no
is still
why the
definite explanation as
dinosaurs disappeared.
1
She said that could
I
/
can travel with
She said that she wouldn't answer
She said that
She
5
unsure whether or not certain whether
his
Karl
would
should
/
/
said that she
2
dismissive of
3
adamant that
how /
4
unsure
5
angry that
6
apologetic about
/
7
not certain
8
abusive to
9
may / might / could
not certain
when
/
6
She said that she couldn't
accept that Jason
7
/
ordered
is
/
was
/
unsure when
towards
complimentary about
agreed that
/
adamant that
/
if
we
leave
wouldn't
UNIT 39
dishonest.
She said that Maria would
disappointed
/ will
/ left
be
without
39.1
The most likely answers are given
2
seeing her.
36.3
Lee urged that Mara Bianchi should be
promoted to export manager.
Example answers
...seeing
...
buying a guide book.
5
...
going to the doctor.
it.
6
...
building
7
...
doing more exercise.
8
...
going for a long walk.
to the east of the
Alice
recommended
that a sales
representative should be sent to South
38.1
3
4
it
3
UNIT 38
reducing bus and train fares.
2
Africa.
He
failed to
issue of
address the question
who would
/
/
4
should pay for
3
I
was delighted to get an
Delaware
August next year.
invitation
to spend the holidays with
Alice reported that the
Bridge project should be completed by
the repairs to the building.
city.
Scotland.
them
5
in
Simon
insisted that
should be kept
6
Simon
work schedules
to.
instructed that
all
reports should be sent to
260
how
apologetic that
have to move to Milan.
6
8
some
are also possible
them.
i
7
/
38.3
should meet
37.4
4
promised
There
to
ought to be back soon.
/
might come to a
imply.
5
discount card
ns sted expected
...
this time.
questions.
ntended said
2
we
asked where
3
2
Malik would stand again.
Scientists
natural)
4
(by leaving early).
su ggested promised
speculation as to whether President
conclusion as to what their results
had to be
36.2
1
had been
...
There have been months of
10
2
expected to avoid the
traffic
cancelled, (or
3
good
in
3
to help the homeless.
He hoped
was
There has been a great deal of
37.3
2
9
my work gave
encouragement to
2
4
Olivia at
7
positive reaction to
argument as to how to define poverty.
time...
(‘must be'
hoped to see
would reduce the rate
38.2
...
She guaranteed to get us there
public places.
the party.
it
he would pay for the
insisted that
3
He vowed
that
cancelled).
She promised not to be
to collect Declan from
The
flight
...
Sentences 2 and 4 have alternatives with
school.
days.
...
they heard the announcement that the
me
She guaranteed that she could get
objects are given in bold
5
its
Waiting passengers were angry when
a to-infinitive clause:
He ordered us to be quiet.
4 He urged me to stay for a few more
bill
to pay the
take up photography as a career.
we could go to
that
36.1
He agreed
...
by the end of the week.
me considerable
...
He suggested
3
meal
2
bill
/
The government has broken
tax. /
She promised that she wouldn't be
5
The most likely answers are given. Possible
should pay the
I
promise to reduce the rate of income
would
37.2
2
there
UNIT 36
warning that
of income tax.
and would
anything
from the company gave a
letter
by the end of the week.
237.1
New Street at
He maintains
ten.
The
final
will
issue
question of whether assisted suicide
should be a criminal offence.
city.
UNIT 37
1
On the webinar they debated the
/
visiting
s
is
build
7
He
knew S (or knows)
name of Daniel Nokes.
denied that he
to the east of the
6
airport,
was)
entitled to have a lawyer present.
been
it
I
Amazingly the police accepted Rudi's
wallet by mistake.
needs a new
city urgently
and the government proposes to
reminded Barnes that he
was Aristotle who made the
explanation that he had taken the
reduce bus and train fares.
The
6
it
for a friend.
At the beginning of the interview
5
transport the council proposed to
is-stefing-
storing)
it
as bad publicity.
To encourage people to use public
in
think
observation that there's no such thing
For example:
I
to Nokes that a large quantity of paint
had been found
I
to-infinitive without an object (see A).
last
monthly
him
directly.
Key to Exercises
web
Alina suggested that
7
8
have (A plural verb form
class
emphasised by the use of
air fares.
company's
remain
office should
in
London.
Nathan agreed that the company
future
The United Nations has
in
US
is
/
/
8
No
No
No
8
9
/
(*...
need to be kept
...' is
also
-afe- is
shocked that
am
astounded that anyone should
urgent that he should return
It is
home
immediately.
am amused that
he should take
his
appearance so seriously.
am
upset that they should think
had
I
It is
appalling that they should be
allowed to go
It is
free.
we
imperative that
now
should act
to avoid war.
remains
remain
b
his early paintings
c
the food tastes
d
Dr Jones's acquaintances knows
/
vegetarians
b
medicines relieve
c
victims
d
museums
is
in
is;
was
believe
are
/ say;
/
a
1
a film star
c
school
b
girls'
c
the car door
d a cut on the
a
the pieces lasts
b
player tries
c
the cars are
d
these factors influence/influences
/ last
/
her head
b
/
c
a bottle of milk
d a packet of biscuits
/ is
tested
e
some toothpaste
f
/
4a/
b songs about pollution (‘pollution
2
think - has (more likely than 'have' in
wants
songs'
is
not a well-known class of
songs)
this
formal context)
remain remains
3
has
/
4
/
4
claim; constitutes
5
-is-
6
4etr lets
are
-is-
5
have; has
and
/
its
a
tool shed
b spiders' webs
(more
'constitute' as ‘the
re
likely
than
wreck of the ship
6
a
armchair
b
/
c
the 500-piece jigsaw puzzle
cargo' constitute together, as a
single item, a danger)
8
-are- is
9
-are-
5
/
12
-is-
13
-add-
have; are
‘is' if
adds
/ 's
42.1
1
40.2
2
university refuse / refuses
3
audience
2
/ ('are'
/
3
on
4
y
the audience as a whole rather than
5
go
is
likely
individual
here as the focus
is
/
performs
jury includes (A singular verb form
(‘
were'
is
also possible)
is
43.2
1
cover up
2
broken out
3
stopping over
4
get together
5
stopover (related to 3)
6
get-together (4)
7
cover-up
(1)
8
outbreak
(2)
43.3
6 are
members.)
4 orchestra perform
also possible)
have
(A singular verb form
...
is
d glasses case
we think of
UNIT 42
are
more
are (we use
is /
‘sausages and chips' as a single item);
is
have- has
11
5
have; says
admits; were;
3a/
the capital charge
40.1
is
shows;
8
exceeds
...
are;
10
7
expected
a
1
7
admit
were; have
2a/
2
41.2
3
5
also possible, but less
have
b a computer programmer
UNIT 40
2
is
/
6
3
cheated them.
8
has
blame
43.1
1
Kristina should
vote for him.
7
/
('were'
/
likely);
UNIT 43
41.1
am
I
was
but less
UNIT 41
behave so badly.
6
is;
4
likely);
possible)
shops
expects
/
blames
3
-ere- is
/
('are' is also possible,
expect
have has
Yes
I
is
have; have; shop
-are- is
Possible adjectives are given in these
5
(plural) provide / offer
2
6
answers
4
(singular)
6
1
7
I
5
is
42.3
Yes
39.3
3
(singular) has
report - reports
7
I
(singular)
4
/
Yes
2
3
is
3
Yes
9
(plural) are
come comes
10
4
39.2
10
(singular)
2
5
No
have
1
2
1
dollars.
Yes
/
42.2
all
claims for travel expenses should be
made
‘all'.)
present
press presents
8
/
did,
40.3
league for the next three years.
in
is
7
should sponsor the European chess
Nathan announced that
used
is
something the individuals
money on
head
9
6
as this
Alina declared that the
10
conferencing
should be used for meetings to save
7
y
8
are
9
say
(‘has'
2
is
also possible)
middle-of-the-road
3
round-the-clock
4
step-by-step
5
once-in-a-lifetime
group as a whole rather than individual
6
down-to-earth
members.)
7
used here as 'include' focuses on the
man
/
woman-in-the-street (an
alternative
is
‘man or woman
street', usually
8
in
the
without hyphens)
larger-than-life
261
Key to Exercises
4
UNIT 44
45.3
44.1
1
an
2
a
3
an
4
a
the holidays (specific reference; the
a
2
pleasure
7
a real pleasure
3
a
sound
8
a
9
an iron
4 grammar
10
5
iron
6
Sound
holidays that are
grammar
conversation
b Holidays
holidays
5
(a
coming soon)
general reference to
in this
part of the world)
rain (a general reference)
a
b the rain (reference to a
understood period of
5
a (‘MiG'
6
an
7
8
is
said
/mig/)
UNIT 46
an
46.1
a
1
6
understood
/-
2
a
3
a
11
a
4
Not the George Clooney
12
an
5
a
an
6
/
13
14
7
a
8
minister
7
Mac
- Usain Bolt
2
/
3
a-
4
1
one
-one-
6
-e«e-a
-one- a (’one'
more';
'a' is
would imply ‘one and no
more
likely
if
this
general invitation to ‘have
9
10
11
is
more
a
some
cake')
/ ('one' implies ‘one and only one')
y (both 'one' and ‘a' are possible)
of marketing advisers; ‘the' or
2
the/-
3
the/-
4 the /5 -
only one)
14
-one- a
15
-a-
16
/
less likely
than
'a'
context)
'a'
are possible)
(both ‘one' and
-
8
A/-
‘a'
are possible)
one
/
7
one /a
8
an
one
4
one
5
a
11
one /a
6
one
12
A
an
9
one
10
one
(‘all
afternoon'
1
a
the world
b a world
2
a
a bright future
b the future
3
a
the past
b a past
4
a
a deserted
1
the
5
(the)
(the)
6
(the)
3
(the)
7
the
4 the
8
1
this / a
2
-
3
-
the
likely
than
’all
the
the
5
the
the
the
/-
(‘the winter'
('this'
is
would be
unlikely here as the
not the topic of what comes
might imply
coming winter'. However, both
and
‘the winter'
might be a
meaning 'any winter')
a
47.3
1
an email
2
by car
3
the
by
/
air
air
4 the post
next)
5
a/-
6
a
7
the
9
the/-
10
the/-
5
by post
6
the car
/
7
by email
8
by
/
an email
by email
air
UNIT 48
48.1
1
some books
beach'
meaning a
is
a
also possible
1
a customer
2
the individual
3
the car
4
The television
meaning)
Some children
b the children
(a specific reference,
probably to my/our children)
2
a
b agriculture
an individual (similar
3
a
48.2
Suggested answers are given
2
(a
3
general reference)
islands (reference to islands
generally)
4
islands)
city
buses have been
An unexploded bomb has been found
some five miles from the centre of
Newham.
Some 25% of electricity will come
from wind energy by 2025.
b The islands (reference to a specific
group of
Some 30% of all
found to be unsafe.
the agriculture (a reference to the
agriculture in a specific area)
/
Some sports
y
Children (a general reference;
specific children are not referred to)
particular but
45.2
5
6
47.1
beach
(‘a
4
UNIT 47
unspecified beach)
5
Some 200 jobs
are to be lost at the
Encon steelworks.
262
more
a
'the
2
1
the smoker
is
the afternoon')
the focus of the next part of the story)
45.1
here,
-
8 -
8a/ this ('this' introduces the woman as
UNIT 45
b the beach
fire)
general reference)
4 the/-
3
/
(reference to a specific
fire
generalisation
paint
2
fire (a
4
9
7
44.3
one
3
7
46.4
one
1
b
;
one
-a-
the
86 -
journalism)
6 - -
would emphasise the
y (both 'one' and
13
5
(in
is
10
2
46.3
-one- a ('one'
in this
suggests that there are a
('a'
a
'winter'
-ene-a
number and seems
12
-
number
indicate that there
7
8
a / the /
an
S
5
1
46.2
-one- a
on the
money generally)
47.2
44.2
1
money)
particular parents)
the Nielsens
/
of
b The parents (a specific reference to
8
a
sum
Parents (= a general reference)
a
Van Gogh
-the-
(reference to a specific,
(an observation
effect of
an
-the- a
money
b
an author
10
9
money
the
a
specific,
rain)
Key to Exercises
many
48.3
13
11
was no
Suggested answers are given
12
/
thousands of jobs were
was no choice
decline of the northern coal and steel
some girlfriend
He’s probably out with
2
Maybe
49.4
lent
I
geography
4
I
think
to
some student
my
in
Mr Carlson
2
some travel
agent's
in
the
painting,
some
some
that
(‘any'
suggests that
was able to eat some
I
could
I
4
but not
all
make him change
4
someone
5
anything
(‘positive'
50.2
2
of the disease has been recorded.
3
floor
had
dirty black
marks
all
over
clean.
all
wrong; 'something'
6
wrongdoing but denied
this)
anyone
7
any
8
any
9
Some
No problem. / No bother.
No wonder.
3 No chance. / No way.
4 No idea.
5 No comment.
anyone
that
l
/
all)
someone
('anyone' suggests
don't want to lend
it
may have
a particular person in
(perhaps they have asked
50.1
Suggested corrections/improvements are
to any
person; ‘someone' suggests that
given
than 'many'
UNIT 49
49.1
no one heard
...
4
...
no point
...
2
...
...
nowhere
...
none of the hotels
else
nothing wrong
.
.
...
...
3
in
UNIT
...
he didn't have anywhere else to go.
Isn't
in
he ever going to get a job? (or
were
2
can
be back at work for o good deal of a
5
All
a:
/
lots of traffic on the
Many- A
many
4
A
3
no seatbelts
4 was no spare tyre
5
in
Professor
in
/
and
many- a lot of
lots
(more usual
8
was no swimming pool
9
was no television
Whole
3
The whole
4
all
of the towns
5
all
of the pages
6
all
the building
is
(‘all
I
that
in
A lot of Much
current
the survey were
research has been
link
a lot
-
much
number of rooms,
7
made up
we see
building’
of parts
for example); ‘the
would be more
likely in
The whole room
many studies
between
every
6
every
2
each
7
each
3
every
8
each
5
fat intake
/
(In 4, 7,
and 9
’each'
/
9
Every
10
every
every
each
every
/
Each
emphasises that
we are thinking of the
places
/
children /
households separately; 'every' suggests
remains to be done,
('much' and ‘many' are preferred
51.3
1
4 each
conducted on the effects of diet on
health, with a lot -ef-
the whole building
flawed.
under 18.
5
/
a formal context)
One
muc h far too many
people questioned
trip
the building as being
have claimed that
is
areas of the country
the building' suggests that
whole
and heart disease. However,
are no trees
The whole process
(more usual
Dowman's study on
all
been
2
/
Wales
all
(a
attitudes to politics
the children or The children
1
conversation).
focusing on the
6
left,
in
all
all
51.2
conversation) people
a lot
Many
lot
criticism
are no trains or buses
day
the
should leave now.
lot of / Lots of
than ‘many’
49.3
2
we
6
lot
way to
No, there's plenty of time
saw
Is
her.
are no jobs
all
all
(both are possible)
bound to be mucfr- a
There's
I
they couldn't find anything wrong
1
also possible)
51
1
are
She's having an
nowadays, but when was
protesting.
he ever going to get a job?)
with
(‘a lot of' is
51.1
think that hedgehogs are very rare
the cupboard.
7
y
plenty of
had
than ’many'
5
10
-e-let-
lots of people will already be at work.
there wasn't any point
7
a lot of (more usual
conversation) problems
many years.
at this time of
...
...
a lot of (not ‘plenty of')
5
4
b:
never going to get
There aren't any
8
a lot of (not ‘plenty of')
4
3
...
49.2
4
in
station. Perhaps
6
...
3
(‘a lot of' is
lot of (not ‘plenty of')
operation next week and she won't
of
5
8
A
good many weeks afterwards.
Not a drop...
...
plenty of
2
it
-ef-
7
many
had
Lola's
1
mind
me to lend
to them))
3
also possible)
1
I
with her back for
2
also possible)
50.3
UNIT 50
(= not
is
Many a teacher
8 the many coffee shops
7
2
suggests that he has been accused of a
particular
many a sunny afternoon
Many a ship
4 its / the many golf courses
5 my many emails
6 his many expeditions (‘many an
expedition'
49.5
1
nothing at
have
to take advantage of the
invited
and no amount of polishing could
it
in
newly available workforce.
the world but since 1978 not one case
get
meaning)
something ('anything'
suggests that he said that he did
1
number has
many hi-tech companies
moved
me for an interview.
Smallpox used to be common all over
it,
/
the region, but with lower
his
sent job applications to over a
The
5
it)
anything
3
10
in
/
great
I
eat none of the food; 'some' implies
of
recorded
and no amount of money
mind.
3
them
/
many advantages
the
sell
hundred companies, but not one of
any
with the
declined. In addition, a great deal of a
report
48.4
2
lost
many cases of lung disease were
want to
didn't
persuading could
finish
or other.
any
-
levels of pollution the
Perhaps she's got to
1
true that a lot of
have also followed. Mtieh- Far too
Possible answers
class.
in
it's
it
High Street.
5
it is
industries, a lot of
or other.
3
While
6
reply
in
a
something
like ‘all of'.)
written academic context).
263
Key to Exercises
51.4
4 + b Children whose
Surprising results might be:
Female students now spend no
Every so often
1
20% of their income on
2
3
every few weeks
4
y
Friday'
('all
context; ‘the
whole of
in
an informal
Friday'
6
not
7
Not
of a department store.
8
Neil and his family
9
the rest of us
y
(‘all
6+c
were
relative
3, 4,
pronoun can be omitted
in 1,
7 and 10.
54.2
Example answers
on holiday
all
evening’ would also be possible)
(‘that’ or *- are
1
more
An actuary
3
few
1
few' would
(‘a
number
10
of people
would be more
‘and
mean
that a small
would
disagree.
than
likely after ‘but
(some people
would use
an alternative)
father,
few
4
the few
5
A
6
The few
/ a
few
7
a
little
8
a
few
a
few
/
These drugs, which are used to treat
from
7
52.2
The
'...
a bit of TV
...‘
(more
likely in this
...
there are only a few
many
aren't
left or.
.
there
much more ...or...
there's not much more ...
4 ... not many like that ... or ... only a
3
there
...
few
like
isn’t
that
/
6
...
'which'
...
exchanged few words
.
.
.
.
a
little
.
'whom' seems rather formal here and
.
2000 than now.
(‘Less
students
for
-that
what
4
/
w h ch
5
wh chever
6
7
/ (or ‘no relative pronoun' or 'which')
w hat that
8
wh ch
3
i
whatever
(or 'what')
whatever
i
i
whichever
/
whatever
...'
is
also possible
6
wh ch
i
'that' or
He was the
2
...
after
The boy who took
‘which’
whose execution
3
It is
is
possible, but less likely than
will
‘which’
is
lost
her unmarried
name by which she
better known.
Mr Wang,
4
9
1536 he
...
across
'that' or
in
in
power.
*-'
7
is
uncle of Anne Boleyn,
...
8
be
built, is
possible, but less likely than
whose land the road
very unhappy about the
plans.
‘that’
Male students spend
less
5
money than
'which'
female students on books. Students
less
'that' or
10%
of female
students walk to lectures now.
Fewer students walk to lectures
1980. (‘Less students
also be acceptable for
Male students spend
now than female
some
less
...'
6
students.
about which
is
a great
The building from which Marcus
emerged was
54.1
7
2 + a The newspaper
is
owned by the
Mears group, whose chairperson
would
time online
result,
there can be no doubt,
disappointment.
now
people)
The election
possible, but less likely than
'-'
UNIT 54
2000.
in
is
on books now than they did
Less (or Fewer) than
than
can'
I
5
2000.
in
‘that
much that can
whom who
of
female students had a part-time job
spend
UNIT 55
or
55.1
some
10%
people) Less [or Fewer) than
'that',
.
Fewer students had a part-time job
in
than ‘who’,
less likely
4
would also be acceptable
264
wfratevef- whoever
-
2
.
Possible answers
4
54.4
1
is
possible, but less likely than
is
where
.
3
3
whom / who
much, (‘whom'
...
52.3
2
sisters
love very
I
very formal)
2
1
/-
why
method whereby
'that' or
more confident
8 There seems to be little prospect
7
more
is
...
has had few female politicians
the area where
a condition
have two older
that
3
6
53.3
1
5
I
an agreement whereby
the reason
a formal context)
likely in
9
left.
moment when
the
a
recovering from
month, (‘which’
riders
hammers with long
2
5
reveal next
to enjoy the view.
1
who was
singer,
sit
which horse
in
a ball using
4
10
2
(some people would use
8 The minister talked about the plans
for tax reform that / which / - he will
informal context)
a sport
54.3
had to cancel her concert.
flu,
Most likely changes are given
is
an alternative)
little
a small garden building in
is
handles.
that
have been withdrawn
ulcers,
sale,
‘that' as
what
Polo
hit
6
What few
little /
6
she adored,
/
their
a container in which things
is
which people can
He pointed to the stairs which
led down to the cellar.
stomach
1
A gazebo
5
formal)
is
insurance
are melted or burnt.
5
little
the
'that' as
who / whom
(‘whom’
9
A furnace
4
She was greatly influenced by her
Little
3
moment,
a
in detail in
...')
4
2
look at
I’ll
It
are being resolved,
whose job
customers.
The problems faced by the company,
which
a person
how much
companies should charge
52.1
3
woman whose husband
who has not remarried.
is
to decide
is
Eva's father, who is over 80, has just
come back from a skiing holiday.
2
a
is
has died and
an
likely in
informal context)
UNIT 52
A widow
2
53.2
had a great time
all
enjoy growing plants whose
I
flowers are attractive to bees.
53.1
The
my brothers always come
of
all
shelves
UNIT 53
the food usually gets eaten
all
My aunt, whose first job was filling
in a supermarket, is now CEO
5 + e
than 24
less
would
also be possible here)
each of them
in
examinations.
hours a week online.
10
5
diets contain
high levels of protein do better
than
books.
Female students spend no
possible
is
less
is
Miss Jiu Kim.
3 +
f
Parents
whose
little
between
more than a ruin.
whose tower
a medieval palace, in
the king hid during the
8
I
am
civil
war.
grateful to Aarav Basu, from
whose book on the
children are
four and six are being asked to take
part in the survey.
It is
history of the
bicycle this information comes.
Key to Exercises
4
55.2
2
Four
Beluga caviar,
kilos of
among the
UNIT 57
most expensive foods.in the world, has
1914 the pound sterling was the
Until
57.1
currency
been ordered for the reception.
with which most world
was conducted.
trade
3
in /
They have changed the date on
/
2 + e She's
writers for children
by
The most likely answers are given
popular modern
One of the most
5
in
the photograph on the
the Australian
is
piano.
which the furniture
4
Pasteurisation
John Marsden.
to be delivered.
is
3 +b
down the tree
plan to cut
the
in
back garden
French chemist Louis Pasteur, after
the last ten years, was
whom
watch her
was named.
it
I
Tonya's father, and (her) trainer for
6
was discovered by the
in
the crowd to
4+
There's a
a
team
of people in green
victory.
shirts.
5
He was persuaded
to stay
shown
6
7
in
Dr Sofia Lopez, head of Downlands
7
England
whom
by Charles Dickens, to
his novel.
8
Klaus Schmidt, the
metres record holder and current
European champion,
Details are in the instruction
was
Park
money by
the
left
champion and
her
4
whom she was
that
/
was conducted
is
to be delivered
and
was discovered by the
who
in
who he had shown
new
that
/
is
that
/
f
The
is
found
in
from
in
plan to cut
4
down
Tallinn,
situated
is
the tree which
is in
/
that
is
in
/
that
is
of people
who have
/
25%
are wearing green shirts.
of
namely
We took the footpath which runs /
/
along the canal.
/
6
on the Gulf
The children
which
7
b The largest island
team
There’s a
goes by
capital of Estonia,
namely
manual
Go
is
can't get over the fence
around the pool.
along the lane which runs between
the world,
the houses.
Greenland, covers over
who
has a quick temper.
8
Nico’s a boy
9
Follow the main road which runs
goes from
/
Paris to Lyons.
students, should
She's a teacher
have ways of complaining about poor
- the printer was
I
in
2 million square kilometres.
who
is /
comes from
New Zealand.
teaching.
money by her
former husband, who she was divorced
was
Park
on
is
dogs
cats,
6 + c The ‘consumers’ of education,
/
She’s in the photograph which
the piano.
the back garden.
namely
namely
supplied with.
left
the
57.3
56.3
2
Possible answers are given with
educated;
I
went
some
to a reunion for
alternatives
2005.
students
who were educated
in
the
2
physics department during the 1990s.
55.4
1
10
of Finland.
+
- you should be aware
Details are in the instruction
Ms
is
regulations.
rabbits, are
that
England
There are number of safety procedures
which
8
that
5
of.
7
57.2
/
households.
it
4+
to stay
New
She’s a teacher from
countries having land
3 + a The three most popular pets
5
/
10 + h
3
customs
after.
that
Follow the main road from Paris to
f
...)
to the President about the
/
novel to.
/
Nico's a boy with a quick temper.
9+
2
Britain,
He was persuaded
which
8 +j
Mexico and Canada, have complained
in.
- the furniture
by Charles Dickens,
6
German 10,000
borders with the USA, namely
/ by.
was named
his
between the
lane
Zealand.
+ d The two
most world
They have changed the date which
Pasteurisation
(the)
metres record holder,
was
sterling
French chemist Louis Pasteur,
5
Go along the
7+g
in
56.2
1914 the pound
/
The children can't get over the fence
i
Lyons.
2005.
in
the currency which
on
running
Schmidt, the current European
2
that
is
the Stockholm Marathon, (or Klaus
manual
55.3
trade
along
houses.
divorced
3
/
around the pool.
procedures of which you should be
Until
6+
German 10,000
aware.
Ms
by
the canal.
There are a number of safety
former husband, from
2
government
plans to cut health funding.
with which the printer was supplied.
8
We took the footpath
5 +d
Hospital, has criticised
he had
The house which the thieves broke
into
3
Teachers (who work
Queen's College
off; As my aunt told
me what she thought, felt like a
being told
who went on
in
/
working) at
the city centre,
strike last
week, have
I
2
/
3
...
4
The
schoolboy
first
of which
which
party,
forward to
5
all
his
...
4
been looking
5
6
...
both of which
...
part of which
8
...
all
of
whom
English, as their spokesperson.
saying; There
is
a sign on the gate
introduced; Across the river were
of the deer which
...
the park
...
6
...
UNIT 56
in
at
some
were introduced into
Sea are
much
cleaner
now than
4
I
went on an
IT training
3
Rubella, or
common
German
measles,
childhood disease
countries.
is still
in
a
many
needing;
woman
/
(to be)
in
south
(held) in Singapore,
Asian states, has
we speak will be on
A book on
that
8
colleague Mateo.
The conference
sale later this afternoon.
my
first
educated
south Wales.
agreement drawn up by European and
5
course with
Scott, the
(to be)
in
which approved the world trade
being printed; The booklets which are
being printed as
has died aged 95,
woman
educated at Marston College
56.1
The most likely answers are given
first
Wales, has died aged 95.
ten years ago.
7
who
Scott,
Marston College
Marge
the 19th century.
flowing; Rivers which flow into the
Baltic
2
Marge
was the
which says ‘Entry forbidden'.
...
y
7
being told off by
headteacher.
3
I've
week
who was
appointed Kristina Borg, the head of
Anyone who needs
information can see
/
now ended.
gardening, All about Plants,
which Anna wanted to borrow,
further
me in my office.
wasn't available
on gardening
that
/
in
the
library. /
A book
called All about Plants
which Anna wanted to borrow
wasn't available
in
the
library.
265
Key6to Exercises
A
painting found
a second-hand
in
58.2
shop by Lara Gruber, an antique dealer
from Austria,
is
thought to be by
(
I
or ... by the British landscape
The sentence could mean:
man was wearing a
was
(ii)
(i)
grey suit - he was
(the ridiculous) that a
talking with a grey suit.
and splashed water
man
To remove
was
-
(ii)
it
S (subject in both clauses
= 'Suzanne')
4
D
(first
a police
D
was
we could
hill,
s/he stopped the
lorry.
(first
To remove the
6
implied subject
=
'the boat')
Pretending not to notice
3
Determined not to be beaten
4
Not
5
Not bothering to put on
The sentence could mean:
(i)
parents;
(ii)
that
am
my
that
going to discuss the matter with
I
am going to decorate
I
feeling well
that
I
it
with me;
am going to
decoration
in
use
2 +c
3 +
discussed with
discussed
mean
my plan to decorate the
of my parents (to
my shoulder,
my head on the
Having waited
58.1
all in
she was almost invisible
the starless
in
black,
six
7
Not having
a credit card,
I
found
Being unemployed, Antonio spent a
of time
filling in
lot
Walking quickly,
Built of
wood
(or Being built of
the house was clearly a
Having been told
arriving late,
bus
in
l
off the
I
good time.
I
felt
I
/
knew the
266
his
childhood
city well.
in
Oslo, he
stars,
Reaching
also
became
I
was elected
my
final
International
Young
award
work on
(6)
for her
...)
While welcoming
5
Since being overthrown
Before being sold
8
After leaving
...
...)
(or
When
the secret of her success
what the
she
secret of her
said, ‘Just
little luck.' (7)
hard
Determined to
begun work on her PhD.
. .
...
(or After
...
...
(or After
UNIT 60
60.1
...)
...)
7
star classification.
continue her research, she has recently
...
...
being overthrown
was
in
won the
Scientist of the Year
When asked what was
work and a
4
in
University President in her
year of her degree, she
59.1
Before taking
degree
at university she
interested in student politics
(or When asked
While being interviewed
first
Once
her studies, however, and (5) while
the
success
3
Southam
and, (4) popular with her fellow students.
asked about
2
train
Always fascinated bv
she took a
UNIT 59
Being a nurse, she knew what to do
he had solved the
second year. This didn't distract her from
said.
6 Through working
after the accident.
I
couldn't wait for Andrei any
I
astrophysics. (3)
needed to change
reception.
Having spent
the
could
for
Not knowing where the theatre was,
it,
Paula Regis gained a place at
was able to understand most of
what she
she asked for directions at the hotel
9
I
fire risk.
was eager to catch the
realising
University. (2)
wood
day before
couldn't
Although from a poor background.
(11
I
soon caught up with
I
we
59.4
roof.
for the
Having learnt some Swahili as a
child,
job application forms.
her.
8
low
weeks
the way.
+ b Having reached
8+e
flu,
longer.
my life.
it
to book an airline ticket online.
is
likely here.)
I
Parking the car
/
rest of
mid-thirties,
difficult
...),
left,
how Nathan was feeling.
Having parked
walked the
night.
focuses on the
With time running out before the
could
about a kilometre from the stadium,
Dressed (or Being dressed)
also possible.
is
‘In criticising'
holiday.
Without
4
I
Having suffered from depression
understand
6 +h
her father, she
Without having more information,
3
decided to cancel the order.
5 +g
[ii]).
the children
won't be able to advise you.
. .
washing machine to be delivered,
UNIT 58
7
coat
Walking through the tunnel,
10
6
his
...
myself as a teenager,
5
go on
...
2
or
room with the help
mean
f
4+a
[i])
Looking over
banged
my parents my plan to
decorate the room, (to
In criticising
With Maryam having
1
. .
see Ida running after me.
the room! To remove the
ambiguity the sentence should be:
all
problem.
(the ridiculous)
my parents as
when
consequence of the action and so
58.4
(iii)
on the
59.3
.
...
6 Trying not to cry
also possible.
...'focuses
knew that she might offend him.
room and my parents will help
decorate
4
.
...' is
entering the classroom, she
surprised
perhaps more
Not wishing to boast
police officer.
6+c
‘the plant')
2
a
On
f
was
However,
58.3
was stopped by
5 +
(‘By criticising'
=
flat,
method used to save money.)
rather sick as the boat ploughed
1
(which was) carrying thousands
moving
('In
through the huge waves.
S (subject in both clauses
likely here.)
However, ‘By moving
feeling
A
of stolen cigarettes
3
month.
town
= T; second
was
I
perhaps more
stood up.
ambiguity the sentence should be:
I
down
see the
As we looked down from the
we could see the town spread out
subject
carrying thousands
also possible.
is
turning down' focuses on
she saved over a hundred pounds a
before us towards the coast.
of stolen cigarettes at the time
I
is
spread out before us towards the
5
down'
‘In
4 + b By moving to a smaller
implied subject 'we'; second
from the
(the ridiculous) that the
police officer
2
'Rashid')
subject = ‘the town') Looking
that the
was stopped by
(‘By turning
she gave
salary.
the consequence of the action and so
3
carrying thousands of stolen
cigarettes
officer;
(i)
huge
possibility of a
However,
=
hill,
down the job,
turning
In
up the
over
all
coast. /
The sentence could mean:
the
was
S (subject in both clauses
talking.
3
I
2
A man (who was) wearing a grey suit
was talking. / A man in a grey suit was
lorry
3 +e
over by a car that
all
a puddle. / While
By giving up sugar, she soon began
to lose weight.
me.
that a
the ambiguity the sentence should be:
lorry
Waiting for the bus,
‘a car')
was splashed
a puddle
talking;
2
=
2+a
T; second
waiting for the bus, a car went through
57.4
1
=
implied subject
went through
J.M.W. Turner.)
artist
(first
subject
J.M.W. Turner, the British landscape
artist.
59.2
D
1
working
2
prepared (herself)
3
prides itself
on
4 occupied themselves with
and
'by'
/
by
(‘with'
could be omitted: ‘occupied
themselves playing computer games')
Key to Exercises
61.4
63.3
Possible answers
2
such research
one who knew the way.
3
such claims
...
ones you have to drive
4
such a project
3
...
one
5
such destruction
4
...
ones are small and lightweight
6
such tactics
5
adapt (yourself)
6
trouble himself about
7
dress (herself)
1
...
8
absent himself from
2
/
with
60.2
me
1
2
myself
3
us
2
5
6
himself ('him'
1
and ‘him'
is
also possible
is
‘her' refer
also possible
if
‘
to different people)
also possible.
it' is
2
...
into research of this kind
3
...
claims
so.
suppose
I
think so.
6
Yes,
like this (or
these)
/
a claim
like this.
so.
hear (that) she
(‘So
is.
hear'
I
is
4
...
this kind of project
5
...
this sort of destruction
6
...
these tactics /this tactic
. .
. .
...
also possible; see E)
60.3
got ourselves vaccinated
/
guess
7
I
8
He
UNIT 64
so.
says so.
64.1
got
9
I
promise (that)
vaccinated
I'm sure (that)
will.
I
you
Yes,
will.
i
2
had themselves checked
62.2
4
he'd caught hepatitis himself
1
suppose not
5
/
2
don't think so
(however,
incorrect
some people think this
and would use
‘Jan
and
is
I')
3 suspect not
to tear himself
7
we're going to occupy ourselves
they can't reach
it
Yes,
don't suppose so
/
/
think not (‘think not'
would be rather formal)
away
6
themselves
we should
n odvancer
booked
3
8
such a tactic
/
Example answers
I
I
such a claim
/
63.4
5
me
1
hope
I
4
she'
doubt
‘I
3
10
he'
if
refer to different people)
herself (‘her'
8
fuels.
62.1
yourself
and
the burning of fossil
is
UNIT 62
4 them
7
to.
/
doesn't appear so
5
didn't say so
/
i
ho ve booked
Yes,
we
i
n odvonce.
be s tay ng n B roz4i
permonently.
/
stay n g n B roz
i
i
Yes,
l
i
we will
t a ken
by nowr
be
permonentty.
Yes, I'm sure they will
appears not
t i ckets
should have
-
ckets
we will
i
don't suspect so
4
t
/
/ Yes,
have been
I'm sure they will
have been taken by no w:-
/
Yes, I'm
sure they will have been
62.3
UNIT
61
61.1
ones some
1
4
5
3
Yes,
...
mint -one-
.../...
some mint
S
2
So
3
So
4
So
ones- one
haven't had d nner yet
i
I
has.
Yes,
i
2
ones (Some people would avoid
No,
I
can't see h
No
4
one
this
2
.
I
understand.
I
gather.
No, he couldn't have been
it
i
look in g
appears.
So he
tells
look ng
me.
i
/
.
No, he couldn't have been
-
:
64.2
She was asked to teach more
and was happy to do
6
ones
7
one
8
No
No
No
be unlikely here,
group of people)
hasn't
did so very reluctantly.
7
is
4 The company wanted to build a dam
on the site, but they were prevented
8
have (done)
9
have
French hosts gave
I
from doing so by
All
the
people avoid
much more
it.
possible, but
some
‘Are these yours?’
is
new
likely)
local opposition.
regulations on recycling
but so far only Finland and
Austria have
6
me snails to eat,
10
/
done
The water freezes
rocks,
(ones)
Note that some people think
4
(one)
5
/
6
(one)
7
/
8
(ones)
(ones)
(one)
is
incorrect.
and as
1
do so
2
do (not
3
doing so
4 do (not
it
the cracks
(be)
64.3
2
might
/
would
3
might
/
should (be)
4
should (be)
5
might
(be)
does so
it
in
expands.
would be
/
(be) /
would
7
would
/
might be
8
would
/
might be
‘do so'; habitual action)
UNIT 65
‘do so'; 'enjoy' refers to a
state)
5
did
so.
in
63.2
that ‘those ones'
/
do
6 should
61.3
doesn't
/
EU countries agreed to implement
plastic,
is
has
4 do
(do)
5
(‘your ones'
so.
do
3
6
My
but
No (‘ones' would
classes,
2
5
3
referring to a
10
m anywhere
-
i
No, he couldn't have been look ng. -or
63.1
use of ‘ones' to refer to people.)
3
9
;
did.
UNIT 63
ones
3
:
am gomg-to-Katal n's pafty
-
I
ones- some
1
9
it
...
61.2
5
you
No,
So
Possible answers
5
8
Yes,
has. /
it
62.4
ones some
6
7
Yes, they are.
4
2
10
3
taken by now.-
2
does so
6
do (not ‘do
so'; 'smell' refers
7
do (not ‘do
so';
8
did so
to a state)
65.1
2
used to
3
pretended to be
4
used to be
5
claimed to
habitual action)
267
Key to Exercises
9
5
10
6
pretended to
7
expected
8
expected to
claimed to
/
a
to be
it
legal / stupid
pretty
b legal /stupid
66.3
65.2
1
all
2
As the minister responsible
hated to
3
the opposite effect.
The most
3
refused (to)
4
a responsible adult.
2
5
the only available
choose to
determined
room
(to)
room / the only
available
3
10
4
likely answers are given
very late
very
critical
a straight
6
deserved to
6
the apparent approval
5
false
7
idea (to)
7
and concerned parents
6
a critical
8
financial advice available
7
late
8
original
8
delighted (to)
9
prefer to
10
afford to
(both correct)
68.1
opportunity (to)
2
4
vcry-
UNIT 68
the people concerned
1
5
/
fairly / pretty
UNIT 67
9
very straight
very false
67.1
65.3
1
10
2
5
you'd
/ (or
3
4
if
...
you'd
...
to (or
y
S
you
The most likely answers are given
like)
she'd
to.
(or
...
if
(or
...
where want
if
...
if
...
like to.)
she doesn't want
...
6
like
like.)
I
to.)
you don't want to. (However,
you don’t want'
is
sometimes used
’if
in
colloquial speech)
7
y
(or
8
...
9
...
you
...
so
10
if
...
to.)
didn't like to.
UNIT 66
66.1
Suggested corrections are given
2
a
lone figure
/
2
mainly cotton
3
absolutely excellent
4
very clear
a figure walking alone
/
68.2
complete
practically
2
a
5
completely
very popular
3
a
4 a
illegal
human
human
very
largely
academic
b academic
7
an almost permanent
8
very attractive
exclusively / mainly
highly technical
b technical
b
6
10
(or you'd like to)
like,
almost
9
to very much.
I'd like
I
they want
1
5
a
private
b an intensely private
male
6
very visible
a
diplomatic
b an extremely diplomatic
67.2
68.3
S uggested answers:
Possible answers are given
2
I'd
be incredibly upset.
2
...
nice
3
I'd
be rather angry.
3
...
lovely and soft
4
I'd
be a
4
...
nice
5
I'd
be extremely annoyed.
5
...
good and ready
bit
embarrassed.
and quiet
and juicy
3
4
a
happy
67.3
who was
5
his
cheerful person
/
/
a person
always glad and smiling
sleeping daughter
UNIT 69
69.1
are possible
/ his
daughter,
1
who was asleep
6
Suggested corrections are given, but others
2
extremely old
2
frightened passengers
board
who
/
...
the problems identified.
/
the
identified problems.
passengers on
3
absolutely useless
3
Interested visitors
4
very happy
4
...
the sheet provided.
5
...
with flights included.
6
...
the resulting publicity / the
...
are afraid
7
5
8
9
a similar age
/
The
girls,
who were sorry for their
girls
apologised to their teacher
because they were sorry for their
an utter
inevitable
/
a
unsafe ('domestic' would only
be possible here
if
unlikely;
8
quite small
9
7
perfectly comfortable
y
we wanted
to
home
11
reasonably quiet
12
virtually impossible
14
a really terrible
15
simply awful
16
y
4
/
entertaining
b educational
/
entertaining
a
chocolate
3
is
less
in
dark
than that found
in
Organic oranges contain
30%
more vitamin C than those grown
conventionally.
4
-
Cars today are
2
really / fairly (both correct)
1990.
3
fa rly / really
4
pretty
5
very
/
pretty
6
pretty
/ -very
7
really / fa rly
8
really / very (both correct)
i
serious
/
very (both correct)
i
b serious / underlying
268
The amount of added sugar
much more fuel-
5
than those manufactured
The President's salary
is
in
25 times
unsafe
educational
a
2
efficient
rather than another kind of
3
any cheese
69.2
fa irly / really
equipment)
/
/
remaining.
domestic)
1
b domestic
...
any remaining cheese.
white chocolate.
67.4
(i.e.
...
Example answers
emphasise that the equipment was
for use in the
more
13
b inevitable.
2
is
example, ‘almost unique'
publicity resulting
y
behaviour.
a
for
7
10
66.2
is,
6
behaviour, apologised to their teacher.
/The
1
‘reasonably unique'
likely
higher than that earned by the average
citizen.
Key to Exercises
UNIT
69.3
2
well-resourced
3
nerve-wracking
71
7
complexes more complex
8
y (‘more clever' would also be
71.1
possible)
1
repeatedly
4 far-reaching
2
69.4
were wide-ranging
3
is
clean-shaven
4 eye-catching
UNIT 70
in /
4
reputedly
to reduce
2
to cheat
3
knowing
4
to leave
5
to underestimate
6
to open
7
talking
5
in
7
determinedly
10
to resign
/
underestimating
/
an organised way
shopping
5
was concerned to
learn
7
8
busy drinking
me
me'
is
agitatedly
UNIT 73
most
pleasant a place to stay as the Strand
4
a
73.1
directly
3
4
me
way / manner /
for
5
flatly refused.
in
...
all
a cowardly
complain about the exam
justly
...
slowly turned
9
‘thinly’
but
{or
...
...
...
off the
off.;
getting the top off the
jar.)
6
It
was simple to put up the
It
was unprofessional
the headteacher
was
in
of
shelves.
him to
criticise
front of the staff.
kind of you to give birthday
presents to the children.
70.4
furious listening to his
sad that
we wouldn't
lies.
made me ashamed
to learn
how
in
the
1950s.
made me nervous
dentist’s drill as
I
thought.
dog
is
as ferocious an animal
Creek speaker
Greek speaker as she claims to
1
as
many as
5
as
2
as
few as
6
as few as
3
as
much
as
7
as
little
4 As many as
8
as
much
some people would
use
‘thin’ in
be.
little
as
as
as
73.3
2 + a
loudly applauded
Her handwriting was so untidy as
to be nearly
illegible.
...
almost impossible to move.
UNIT 72
4 + c The
72.1
more scared
2
deeper or more deep
3
more
4
stronger
5
more naughty
6
harder
7
truer or
8
longer
2
hearing the
sat in the waiting
CD was
so badly scratched as
to be unplayable.
1
be
working together again.
badly we treated immigrants
first
I
wasn’t as big a problem as
grammatically correct,
5
(for
emphasis)
/
f
The plot of the novel was so
incomprehensible.
6 + b The difference between the results
was so small
more true
(for
emphasis)
(‘more dirty' would also be
possible)
recenter
4
exc+t nger- more exciting
5
y
(‘wealthier’
6
«/
(‘more unique'
1
How serious an
2
or as serious as
3
bad enough to
4
not as
5
not such a good player as
would also be
possible)
used to suggest
some people have
fit
injury
as
good a player
i
is
as to be insignificant.
73.4
more recent
3
that
+
complicated as to be completely
pretty
72.2
Possible answers are given
made me
made me
first
It
She's not such a fluent
results.
7
wasn’t such a big problem as
/
ever
is
in his career.
3 + e The bookcase was so heavy as to be
to get the top of the jar
informally
is
...
informal contexts
was awkward to get the top
make
to
73.2
way / manner /
renowned.
...
8
me.
President's address to the nation
Theresa's
a
also possible in
is
...
7
the cake
not as
is
as she claims to be. / She's not as fluent
informal contexts)
was unreasonable of them to
jar.
It
6
/{or... fine...)
...
eat
The Downtown Hotel
as I've ever seen.
/('... very clear'
was wonderful to hear such a
and not leave any
It
a friendly
5
magnificent performance.
It
in
4
6
/
thought.
to
not such a
as important a speech as he
likely
me / was
also possible)
was mean of you to
The
is
highly
...
is
Hotel.
wide
a
The Downtown Hotel
pleasant place to stay as the Strand
fashion
It
2
short
('was sorry
70.3
or of (both are possible)
Hotel.
11
3
in
I
wasn't prepared to admit
It
in
5
1
sorry to (have) upset
for upsetting
2
of
4
b shortly
3
sorry that he'd upset
It
manner / fashion
3
fashion.
was
5.
a
2
/
4 and
3
5
6
It
/
b high
guilty
It
way
of
10
71.3
4
It
a satisfied
in
2
b widely
3
/
in 2,
a
stupid to go
confident that he wouldn't get lost
It
(‘in
fashion' are also possible)
1
b direct
2
5
in
/
out
72.4
way / manner / fashion
with satisfaction
manner
left
2
turning
stupid going
4
a relaxed
in /
can be
a
resigning
/
1
8
alert
72.3
b mostly
70.2
5
more
alerter-
1
opening
/
to panic
4
10
71.2
8
3
-
also
'the'
6
9
cheating
/
9
2
is
with anticipation
disappointedly
/
1
10
3
8
70.1
9
with despair (‘despairingly’
in /
possible)
2
10
powcrfuler more powerful
9
/
not as
as
6
go so
7
sufficiently well / well
8
as speedy a recovery as possible
far as to say
enough
particularly
individual characteristics)
room.
269
Key to Exercises
UNIT 74
7
No, they moved away
8
The
local residents
76.2
last year.
welcomed warmly
2
week had
last
...
the decision
1
or The local residents
...
warmly welcomed the
easily.
He
2
verb inversion
expect Catalina to win the race
I
9
decision
week'
...
y
He greatly
/
3
regretted missing
secretly hated playing the piano
I
(more
than
likely
hated playing the
‘I
thought
loved
I
it.'
This
I
3
across
...
across
a she admitted frankly
Frankly,
b
/
lecture
...
4
She kindly offered to do the work.
a
Bruno hurriedly finished speaking and
6
sat
down.
/
b
Bruno finished speaking
5
hurriedly and sat down.
7
simply don’t remember putting
I
it
They deliberately
me.
tried to ignore
They tried to ignore
/
me deliberately.
don't pretend to understand the
74.2
around Switzerland
/ in July (place
a car / at the airport (object
+
adverbial)
3
south
for a
/
towards the lakes (place
week
some friends of
mother (time + place [long
about
early / at
[adverb]
6
know what
don't
six o'clock
Kim's
adverbial])
(time
+ time [prepositional phrase])
some time when she was
spent
on the narrow winding roads
carefully
(manner + place)
8
the train
9
ourselves
home
/
/
enormously
+ adverb)
I'd
was
feeling
ill
1
enormously
2
from t
i
easily / scarcely
almost
1
rarely
/
i
4
by an hour
/
hordly ever- / every
7
greatly / rarely
8
nearly
week
1
[1]&[3]
2
[1]&[3]
3
10
than 'Next, beat the eggs
[1]
5
[2]
6
in a
I
thought
I'd
locked the
6
likely)
Lee was beaten
He always
home.
270
...
1
[
]
& [3]
& [3]
& 2
/
twice a
your salary will be paid monthly
4
y
y
5
Around the town she drove
around the town;
in
spotted the place
/
/
She drove
a side street she
she spotted the
a side street
in
across the
room
it
flew /
it
flew across
[
UNIT 77
77.1
]
much / very much
much / very much
3 very / muc h / very much
4 very / much / very much
5 -very- / much / very much
6 very / much / very much
7 very / much / -very much
2
very
/
-very- /
-
76.1
and out jumped Daniel.
2
...
3
Outside the door stood two small
-
-
the park the boys were playing
In
cricket, despite
the
muddy
conditions,
6
...
and up the tree
it
climbed, (no
inversion)
7
in
the
final easily.
brings sandwiches from
8
very
9
very
/
0
very
/
/
-
muc h
/
much
very
much- / very much
much
/
very
much
Around her neck hung a jade necklace.
...
and
in
marched
a delegation
8
...
away swam the fish.
9
...
in
In
it
S or Lee was beaten easily in the final.
/
week
play squash
I
the room
from
the corner was a very old
grandfather clock.
stopped playing tennis regularly
(more
5
hear him raise his
I
anger.
in
3
6
the striking workers.
securely locked the
luggage securely.
4
front position.
play squash twice a
I
1
small bowl vigorously').
I
hardly ever did
2]
[
4
more
a small bowl. (Both of these are
/
...
place
place)
S or Next, vigorously beat the eggs in
luggage.
in
2
entirely
/
1
I’d
change; the adverb 'hourly' can't
go
week
6
5
thought
an adverb of time
is
76.3
/ significantly
me to t me
3
4
before too long (place + time)
I
Japan,
in
not possible:
.
(no inversion)
3
No
9
at ease,
.
is
take inversion [see C])
was
Switzerland
there
likely
by next Friday we'll be
...
me to take the job.
sleep and
little
children.
/ in
+ manner +
74.3
2
a blizzard, preventing us
-
(object
(object
/
came
indicating a definite point; does not
student (time + place [long adverbial])
7
have
.
UNIT 76
a
politician
views so quickly as Beckett.
’by next Friday'
.
the village where Kim had
briefly / in
his
(subject-verb inversion
b
had very
8
I'd
speak seriously to him
Plainly, he
next
...
75.3
beautiful cottage
/ in a
belonging to
5
I
...
a
a
go
75.2
[adverb] + place [prepositional phrase])
4
7
10
+
time)
10
2
his
'daily' can’t
from leaving the hut.
have done
tried to
seldom can a
...
voice
instructions completely.
1
went to sleep during
Seriously,
I
change; the adverb
changed
b She always dressed plainly
soon.
I
6
...
having difficulty thinking clearly.
6
We look forward to hearing from you
9
No
in front position.
...
Clearly, he wants
down.
8
I
no time were members of the
at
...
5
...
putting up the shelf myself.
loved
a welcoming address by
public in danger.
was brought up to earn money
b Honestly, I'm perfectly capable of
would mean
my parents thought
He calmly started to walk
He started to walk calmly
105
I
honestly
playing the piano secretly.)
4
4
a
my parents
piano secretly, although
that
2
came
the head of the organising team.
75.1
...
‘last
an adverb of time indicating a
is
first
...
UNIT 75
the concert.
3
not possible:
is
period; does not take inversion [see C])
regretted missing the concert
greatly.
a holiday, (subject-
I
74.1
the office Lea found (no inversion)
difficult
home
to concentrate, but at
77.2
1
too
5
very
2
very / too
6
too
3
very
7
very
4 very
8
too
too
77.3
1
...
2
I
3
she worked (no inversion) more
efficiently.
/
and he even offered
will
...
only be
.
...
.
and even the smallest donation can
make
...
he has even asked Ann
4
...
5
Only
6
...
I
Louis
knew
only cook
...
...
.
.
Key to Exercises
UNIT 78
6 + c As the guest lecturer was
UNIT 79
Dr
78.1
79.1
A number of positions for these adverbs
1
Gomez spoke about
late,
his research
instead.
when
as /
(‘when’ emphasises a direct
are possible depending on the wider
connection between kicking the
context and the particular emphasis that
and
the speaker / writer wants to give. The
kicking the ball caused her to then
,
falling
over -
it
7+ e
we all go on holiday
we get on so
suggested
I
ball
together seeing that
suggests that
well.
first answer
below gives perhaps the most
likely position in
time
,
Presumably, the idea
...
visitors
The idea
/
...
3
is
welcome
to
from other countries.
presumably,
idea,
is,
is
to
/
suggests
‘at
the
falling
same
happened
welcome
...
new trees to
builders agreed
/
/
10
3
4 While /As
5
6 when
The builders
...
rightly, that
...
could
(‘as'
mean
As
/When
10
2
...
due to
lack of interest.
3
...
due to
/
4
...
due to human
5
...
due to
6
...
because of the bright sunlight.
7
...
because
8
...
because of local opposition.
...
because of
...
because there was a
9
while
As
/
as
When
/
(‘When' suggests ‘By the
time the paint
believe,
continuous change during the period
is
dry'; ‘As’
2
it
I
drying)
is
Obviously, she knew more about the
obviously knew
-As-
2
-When- While /As
3
wh le when
the police,
.../... told
6
He carelessly broke the window when
he was painting.
Carelessly, he
/
broke
7
4
Wfr le- When / As
6 -as- when
...
outside.
it
/
Bravely, she picked
She picked up the spider
up... /
bravely
4
environmentally
...
problem
it
...
...
if
/ until
it is
Before
6
until
7
before / until
8
until
/
performance was
visually the
2
...
3
...
4
we'd be
financially
much
...
we moved there.
5
he claims to be a
7
...
politically
8
...
technically she could be sent to
than he broke
...
his
arm.
In geological
relatively
terms, limestone
new
The building
is
opera house
in
when it rang again.
than /when it was time to
is
a
6
...
start
Milan in terms of
I
doing.
I
/
after
all. /
after
all,
I
a
the
doing.
on
don't think
don't think
felt
I
all
felt a lot fitter
I
was
train drivers
I
was doing
a lot fitter with
strike
I'll
I'll
go to town
go to town
with the train drivers on strike
81
before
when
He packed
his suitcase
with the
Bus fares
in
/ in
his clothes.
the city were being
cut so as to / in order to encourage
members of the audience
people to use public transport.
4+f
the engine cut out.
We crept quietly towards the deer
so as not to
5
was
its
b Andrea agreed to book tickets for
all
3+a
as
it
was her
idea to
/ in
order not to frighten
clearly rigged
and the
blow to the country
democracy
is
I
go to the
Seeing as
I've
walked around the outside of the
so as not to
/ in
damage the growing
6+ b
We
order not to
crops.
put up a fence so as to /
in
order to prevent people walking across
it's
your birthday,
4 + h Because I'm trying to
5 +d
inappropriate.
a severe
as far as
-»-
+c
field
I'll
buy
you lunch.
a grammatical point of view
is
felt
I
was
I
With the
3 +a
again.
theatre.
similar to the
The election was
2
us
rock.
the essay was well written, but
result
the exercise
order not to crush
80.1
architecture.
style
all
them away.
Suggested answers are given
5
With
in hospital.
books at the bottom so as not to
UNIT 80
4 From
aunt, with
2+ h
78.3
3
aunt. /
went to stay with her
UNIT
prison.
2
(being) in hospital,
tomorrow.
started to criticise her.
socialist.
Isabella
noise.
81.1
work
better off
was
what
Olivia
Until
Possible answers are given
relatively
Isabella
before
5
was
went to stay with her
tomorrow,
79.4
stunning.
6
/ Until
no longer the
once was.
industrially
...
it is
undeveloped.
5
4
outwardly she looked remarkably
calm.
4
before
it.
Olivia
her father (being)
(= 'because')
5
78.2
3
With her father
exercise
3
Isabella
what
until
Before
fly in
couldn’t hear
I
79.3
2
Interestingly, the road didn't appear
...
what
for all the exercise
.
off.
his age.
couldn't hear
lot fitter. /
1
on the satnav.
2
t
She bravely picked up the spider and
put
8
3
i
5
mobile was switched
his
was saying for the
When
1
obviously.
owing to heavy cloud.
/
couldn't hear
saying. /
79.2
robbery than she told the police. / She
central location.
its
error.
saying with the noise. / With the noise,
I
5
owing to
80.3
emphasises a
Rightly,
/
Most people
/
when
8 as
9
believe that the
prisoners should be released.
/
'because' here)
7
agreed generously to plant...
most people
while
Generously, the
Most people rightly
80.2
‘While
When
replace the ones
/
...
When (more likely than
talking about a period of our lives)
presumably, to welcome
they had dug up.
4
2
The builders generously agreed to
plant
‘as'
- kicking and
unlucky.
The
other countries, presumably.
...
as'
simultaneously)
alternatives.
2
over;
fall
many contexts and then
8 + g You should never walk under a
ladder because it's supposed to be
the grass.
7+g
lose weight
given up dairy products.
copy would be very expensive.
at the
book
in
avoid his gaze.
We were recommended to buy the
textbook second-hand since a
She looked down
front of her so as to / in order to
new
8 + e The roadworks were carried out at
night so as not to / in order not to
disrupt traffic too
much.
concerned.
271
Key to Exercises
6
81.2
In spite
s
2
X
6
3
s
is
4 X
in
a
Nepal.
much
Despite the fact that he was
doesn't arrive
3
...
team.
rider in the
nobody would know
was
it
there.
Despite the fact that he ate
had
/
haven't
filled in /
mosquitoes couldn't get
3
...
4
... it
won't take up a
course meal
in.
memory.
we
in
the evening.
Despite the fact that he was
to be placed
city.
5
you don't
way that
a
designed
is
in
such
6
now, you
it
such a
way
as to allow
everyone's voice to be heard without
2
even
the use of microphones.
3
Even
4
that
a
If
it is
way
is
organised
way
such a
in
easy to navigate.
...'.
present perfect and the present simple
/
...
in
in writing.
ill,
83.3
she
5
even though
if
6
even
if
7
Even though
1
belonged
4
doubted
2
/
5
S
3
liked
6
understood
Even though
8
even
83.4
if
2
rotated
such a way that
in
2
Whereas
a decade
3
5% of
ago only
opens.
/
...
in
number
the
1 is
way
today
figure
is
Were
25%.
as to locate
While the temperature
it
not for the intervention
/
intervening
still
be
below
is
going on.
at the top, the valve
freezing,
it
warm
actually feels quite
4
opens.
when the sun
is
Had
it
not been for the arrival of the
out.
police (or
4 While the cost of
UNIT 82
rail
...
for the police arriving
...),
travel has
the fight could have got out of hand.
increased, the
number of train
5
82.1
2 + b
for (the)
...
the strike would probably
...),
3
1
would have been
government intervention
at the top, the valve
such a
for his anxiety over
of the government (or
students dropped out of college, the
number
were not
complete.
such
82.4
is
If it
Carla, his happiness
if
as to be easy to navigate.
the dial
the
passengers has grown.
Frightened though
as she was, she
/
5
Scarce though
/
Whereas
always wanted to
I've
visit
had any wish to go
Australia, I've never
as food became,
to Canada.
/
was not /were not for the United
more wars
7
UNIT 83
Experienced though
If it
Nations, there would have been far
they always found enough to share
with me.
But for the sound of birds singing,
everything was quiet.
6
forced herself to pick up the snake.
c
need to do so
haven’t helped; go. The
82.3
even though
in
...
The website
4+
/
to
a walking holiday in Nepal.
1
3 + e
will
don't help
obviously
is
difficult
Despite the fact that she was
went on
everyone's voice can be
heard without the use of microphones.
4
may imply
an application form
in
have a similar meaning.
The meeting room
3
she finds
express her ideas
Suggested answers are given
/
fill
hands.
Despite the fact that she
intelligent,
81.4
2
in his
6
new channels.
the
will receive
... it
you
huge spider
frightened, he allowed the
could see the view over the
need.
‘if
an application
filled in
form'; the present simple
4
‘If
...
fill in;
eaten a big lunch, he had a three-
computer
lot of
don't
The present perfect suggests
previously
6
hasn't arrived; give.
simple have a similar meaning.
most outstanding
81.3
5
/
The present perfect and the present
5
2
warning or threat about a possible
future event.
younger than the others, he was the
X
5
she went on a
illness,
4
2
X
8
of her
walking holiday
If it
in
the
last
50
years.
had not been for the roadworks
we
would have been here two hours ago.
as the
83.1
climbers were, they had never faced
UNIT 84
Suggested answers are given
such severe conditions before.
2
5 + a
Confusing though
...
me a
give
call. /
take
...
back to
it
as the
/
84.1
the shop.
instructions
very useful
first
appeared, they were
when looked
I
at
them
2
3
...
him want to see him.
tell
/
I
on
him to come and see me.
4
Disgusting though
was
7+
f
/
as
it
looked,
If
you see any
large, hairy spiders in
3
it
the grass
...
/
If
as she
felt,
.
5
If
you're ever
in
...
/
If
products have proved,
still in
new
the company is
/
6
more advice
4
1
of being
much younger
In spite
Macbeth
present simple suggests
the team.
(get to)
3
/
.
If
The present perfect suggests
Macbeth
in
.
you
.
in
'if
2
in
leave
/
have
the
...';
the
future,
you study
6
In spite
meet. The present
huge
1
similar meaning.
3
In spite
break
/
have broken; have
to.
it
difficult to
express her ideas
in
may have
broken
it
(perhaps
I
writing.
you
272
have); the present simple
X
3
4
X
The
of her obvious intelligence, she
present perfect suggests that you
finds
salary
S
S
2
spider to be placed in his hands.
5
of employees.
Had the
been higher,
I
might
84.2
the evening.
of his fear, he allowed the
number
have considered taking the job.
perfect and the present simple have a
4
company not improve in the near
we shall have to reduce the
you
...'.
left;
Should the financial performance of
‘if
of eating a big lunch, he had a
three-course meal
...)
had to shut down.
the future, then you will
know
would
Were the workers prepared to accept a
wage cut, the factory would not have
.
5
previously studied
than the others, he was the most
outstanding rider
.
don't want to walk far to the shops
83.2
financial difficulties.
In spite
you're coming by bus
living in Brussels, Clare
...
as their
82.2
2
If
living in
you
still
ever need any
still
would have been able to
stay with them, (or Were her friends
Birmingham
easy.
Successful though
Clare's friends
.
she
knew the examination would not be
8 +d
Were
Brussels, she
snakes on your walk
/
you would know what you
you come across any
actually quite tasty.
Confident though
Friday,
have to do for homework.
detail.
6+h
Had you not been absent from school
ask
...
in
If
If
I
press this button
the disease
is
untreated
think
may
goes untreated
be
...
...)
...
(or
...
Key to Exercises
UNIT 86
s
6
X If you
me
complain about
.
87.2
.
2+d
84.3
2
3
4
5
happen to see Georgia when I'm
I
Rome
/
3
even though
Unless alternative sources of
3 +c
Unless the roads have changed
that part of town, I'm sure
you happen to
if
...
live
nearby.
my way
to find
X
in
the south of
Instead
I'll
6
whereas
7
so
in
be able
8
Meanwhile
9
while
starts
improving soon, the farmers
will lose
10
Before
11
unless
12
At that time
their crops.
...
5
84.4
+
6+
overcome with a great weariness.
what
3
...
trying to imagine
4
...
to agree with everything Julia said.
ridiculously expensive,
it's
buy that
I'll
I
painting.
Unless you have been unemployed
f
for six
contained.
it
Unless
e
think
Possible answers are given using the notes
...
Even so
5
there.
4 + a Unless the weather
you happen to be
4
not be able to continue.
in
...
Spain next week,
2
while
funding are found, the research will
If
If
Nevertheless
2
86.1
7
1
1
months, you are not entitled to
87.3
Example answers are given
2
state benefit.
However hard you might
difficult
(or
5
agreeing with
...
86.2
...)
had been reversed into a
it
...
wall.
2
/
down on
'If
the infection
isn't treated' is
also
3
exercise,
the
amount you
eat.
However much we enjoy being
possible.
together,
UNIT 85
3
85.1
Were the government to
2 +d
increase
4
y
5
if
If
outcry from students.
7
y
Were anyone to
8
if
3 + a
would be an
lean against the
window, the glass would certainly break.
4 + c Were
not already busy
I
would gladly accept your
August,
in
9
'if
you don't have'
4
invitation.
y
busy he might
‘if
they don't get'
Louise
if
‘if
4
if
Possible sentences are given
5
whether
4
5
/
/
8
if
/whether
they were emigrating to Canada.
9
whether
Supposing Spain were to win the
10
if
World Cup.
11
whether
Imagine the population of Britain were
12
if
whether
/whether
85.3
if it
2
she were
even
4
as
if
I
5
as
if
she were
6
even
7
as
8
even
if
I
3
were
4
they were
Possible answers
b:
4
I
Well,
I
only
it
I'd
was
1
across
2
across / over
3
over
4
across
5
across
6
across
7
across
8
over
/
over
much
time, but
6
have breakfast before
couldn't
along
2
Across
3
through
4
across
5
over
remember meeting him
I'd
rather
it
/
/
over
(‘all
over'
is
more
likely
than
‘all
critical
I
wish he
of his employees.
6 along
evacuation of islanders
88.3
is
1
under
continues to erupt.
2
y
French
3
below
too
4
over
5
/ (‘over’
6
over
a:
Why don't you
B:
like
new
that
Ingrid
For one thing,
came down with
flu
My
landlady didn't mind
was
8
paid
my room
it's
while
we
dig
them
me
having
as long as the rent
of
weeds
out. Alternatively,
poison them.
is
to
(‘under'
7
under
8
/
is
(‘above’
is
also possible)
also possible)
is
also possible)
88.4
on time.
One way of getting rid
through’)
‘all
familiar.
taking place. Meanwhile, the volcano
parties in
were
my classmates.
I’m very fond of Paul, but
A mass
seemed
were on holiday.
7
forgotten by
through
1
across' or
expensive.
Wearing odd shoes to school was
were not so
I
restaurant?
that.
leave.
embarrassing and
6
friends.
were as easy as
haven't got
were you
you
5
if
know you
if
5
sooner she were going with
I’d
3
/
are.
small boy was kicking a ball against
before, yet his face
85.4
2
they
rich
deserted.
were
if
A
a wall; otherwise, the street
were
if it
people never seem content,
87.1
were
3
if
Eiffel
to impress me.
88.2
Buddhist.
even
fails
/whether
UNIT 87
2
Some
never
however much money they have
(or informally' if')
if
you
I
it
88.1
whether
all
also possible.
whether
6
tell
however
be.
UNIT 88
7
Imagine you were to inherit a million
always happy to
/whether
85.2
dollars.
is
his students,
However many times see the
however
whether
you
horrified.
Suppose your parents were to
is
86.3
3
3
5
home
they can't prove'
if
2
at
also possible.
she wasn’t
whether
would be
isn’t
is
Tower,
1
living,
Professor Malcolm
you don’t get
2
which the refugees are
also possible.
is
Anya doesn't pass
6
10
some
important to spend
time apart.
I
+ b Were you to see the conditions
in
it is
he wasn't
spend time with
6
university fees, there
5
If
it is
to lose weight without cutting
under the weather =
1
c
2
d below the belt = cruel or unfair
3
b under her belt = successfully
you could
ill
completed
273
Key to Exercises
4
e under a cloud = with
some
90.3
people's
5
6
f
3
1
Over / During
over the top = extreme behaviour;
2
So
indicating disapproval
3
Until
disapproval
a over and above =
in
addition to
4 so
far
now
far
5 until
now
UNIT 89
6
during
89.1
7
until
8
by
between
1
between
6
2
among
7
3
between
among
8 among
4
between
9
5
among
UNIT
between
among the
between
3
between amateur
4
5
/
among teenagers
between / among
pupils
remaining
91
1
except
among
its
2
except
3
except
4
except for
except for
/
between intake of refined sugar
8
between cooking
9
10
5
except
6
except
between the
between
6
between
7
among
8
between
more
informal contexts);
(in
is
possible
about
except for
13
about
8
except
/
except for
14
on
except for
/
except for
0
except
(in
informal
is
also possible
2
Besides
3
except for besides
4
E xcept for Besides
5
besides except
6
except for
10
y
2 + a
would mean, however, that up
was served was
I
when
it)
I
it
was
I
couldn't face eating
it;
4+
was served
5
'by' in (a)
2
But for the shelter provided by the
5
the wind would have caused
6
threatened by the EU
rights
until
by
7
of sanctions
...),
human
would not have improved
in
...
the
Until
(‘By'
...
me
me by the bank ...),
would not have been able to
would
also be possible in
business.
set
is
of
little
takes (great
/
/ offers /
a lot of) pride in
provides advice on
cruelty to
had a long
/
lengthy discussion about
have a vaccination against typhoid
8
had a
significant influence
There
is
a
by
UNIT 92
b until
6
92.1
a
by
1
-ef- / -fef- /
about
b until
2
274
after
/
about
/ -fef-
/
up
the
my
city. /
The
city has a lack of
affordable housing.
a ban
I
on
a lack of affordable housing
on fireworks
93.2
2
sign of stopping
3
decision to allow
4
reason to worry
[a])
5
value
there has been an improvement in her
in
given to
=
9
But for the loan from the bank (or
/
lot
counting on = depending on; counts
have a typhoid vaccination
But for the loan the bank gave
b until
works
on
country.
6+d
by;
her work
in
4 give
the famine.
+ b But for the threat
= demanded
condition
3
people
by the EU (or But for the sanctions
was served)
b by
b By
in
called for
= was employed
UNIT 93
even more damage to the house.
I
dinner
f
trees,
simply means that was hungry
when
many more
would have died
not. Perhaps
the food was so unappetising that
...),
it;
93.1
But for the supply of food and
the charity
about = concentrating on;
.
for
for little
the food and medicines supplied by
in
.
worked
But for the interruptions caused by
have been completed by now.
would also be possible
.
4
5
y
by
ate
=
3
10
S
medicines by the charity (or But for
I
else
with computers = uses computers a
X
3 + c
(but before
someone
= asking about an opinion
have called on = have formally asked
(for)
12
90.2
thinking
him to do
11
hungry, and then
acted on = did what
think of
the bad weather, the building would
to the time dinner
also possible but less
except for
/
2
y
(a). It
is
more
informal contexts);
(in
bes i de s except for
1
4
(‘until’
(‘about'
natural here)
person such as a lawyer or accountant)
91.3
a
informal
91.2
X
4
(in
except
8
b until
unlikely in this formal
is
except
9
a
about
with
/
X
X
3
8
9
except
3
X
X
would also be
about
/
of (‘about'
7
y
y
a
about
about
7
2
for
5
12
12
between
10
'to'
represented (usually a professional
among
9
between
a
4
contexts)
V
1
with (note that
of
11
90.1
5
3
advised or suggested; acted for
UNIT 90
6
for
of / about
1
4 among
2
1
92.3
1
among
2 among
/ -ef>-
2
11
9
striking dockers
1
1
of / about
contexts)
89.3
5
7
-
context)
formally, ‘but for'
3
for / -aftof /
for / -ea- / with-
10
among my closest friends
about
5
7
clients
7
with
on
/
i
6
6 on
relatives
6
/ -fof- /
w th
possible)
formally, ‘but for'
his
about
-ef- /
92.2
91.1
89.2
2
4
of transmitting
5
risk
6
ability to
7
failure to protect
8
cost of buying
remember
/
Key to Exercises
9
10
possibility of getting
10
who / that
there anyone
Is
96.2
can help
me?
unwillingness to acknowledge
The most likely answers are given
There are some general rules (which
11
93.3
that)
you can
/
2
...
it
astonished
me to discover (that)
she was also a successful novelist.
follow.
Likely verbs are given
There used to be an
12
2
art gallery
around
it
hurts (me) to pedal
.
.
it
has hurt (me) to pedal
4
...
it
struck
5
...
it
concerned
here.
3
to take
4
to retire / of retiring
(Sentences with ‘There
5
of taking
6
of dancing
to take
/
are unlikely in
...'
and 7 because the subjects have a
2, 5,
'Your', ‘The',
UNIT 94
1
intransitive;
2
...
no noun
up
it
/
pronoun needed
noun or pronoun
(a
...
is
...
4
...
5
is
tidy (things)
is
noun or
(a
...
are
2
are
6
is
3
is
7
are
X about X
up
9
The most likely sentences are given.
...
(a
noun or
2
+c
up/
4
6
X
X up X
X away
no noun
/
I've
made
4+
a
everyone
(that)
...
upset me (that) she hadn't even
me when she was going away, (or
it concerned me ...)
...
it
...
it
doesn't do to criticise
them too
5
...
2
+
many
There aren't
f
out her
name
3
shut the thing up
4
make my mind up / make up my mind
got down the general ideas / got the
/ left
me to see
(that) they
were
pays to plan your journey ahead.
some
still
/
old houses in
3
/
It
house.
takes a considerable
amount of
front of a
in
It
takes patience and a lot of time to
explain the rules of cricket to
someone
who doesn't know the game.
5
It
takes bravery to stand up to a bully.
6
It
takes a lot of organisation to be a
falling.
in
good administrator.
the
7
company who
down
4
10
could do to prevent him
takes a lot of hard work to build your
courage to make a speech
which don’t have
8 + b There are few people
It
group of strangers.
7 + d There was absolutely nothing (that)
I
general ideas
it
own
people alive today
electricity.
name out
scared
Example answers are given
who / that haven't watched TV.
left
it
(that)
be held next month.
will
6 + g There are
2
...
especially for your
There have been suggestions (that)
the village that
hear
him
in.
birthday.
94.3
6
could see
96.3
pronoun needed
X out
her
...
didn't bother
carrying knives.
There's a cake in the kitchen (that
which)
/
an election
3
it
he was jealous.
me to hear (that) he
(or
it upset me ...)
is
Bruno would get the job.
2
5
8
3 + h There was never any doubt
/ out
...
(that)
told
8
is
possible)
intransitive;
1
5
5
95.3
possible)
94.2
6
are
me
bicycle. /
my bicycle.
much.
help (you) out
pronoun
10
7
1
4
necessary)
pronoun
6
'My'.)
95.2
94.1
look
and
.
was offended,
definite or specific meaning, indicated by
3
my
...
3
of seeing
It
that are harder-
takes a great deal of time to learn to
speak a foreign language well.
working than
Kristin.
me out
UNIT 97
95.4
94.4
2
There being no further business, the
97.1
1
meeting closed at 12:30.
everyone about
-pfovi d
3
e the r ch ldren for
i
i
provide for
their children
4et i n
patients were sent
4
me on the s ecret
let
me in on
There being inadequate
called
discover
4
owe
the
UNIT 96
took
tip E mre
on took Emre up on
remember
enjoy
7
prefer
8
leave
It
was unsettling how he
ooked Mr Goo up to looked up to Mr
3
X
in
2
spoken English
4
‘It
was
It is
5
there something bothering you?
an advantage
in
is
supposed to be a video on the
website, but
9
it
in
6
city.
it
as part of
my role to
exam
carbon
footprint in / over the next five years.
result'.)
the job to be a
3
I
accept
it
as a necessary evil that
some people may be made redundant
spoken English
in
we
quite radical, her
4
I
the next year.
view
it
as important for relations
It is
information about
highly unusual to put carpet on
/
make
available
on managers'
salaries.
walls.
7
doesn't work.
the
‘It's
see
with the workforce to
X
(However,
might say
in
‘It's
we
Robin’s new
spoken English
a Ferrari,
5
I
regard
it
as unacceptable for a
modem company to exclude the
workforce from major decision making.
There was no petrol available
anywhere
in
I
proposal'.)
do with nuclear waste.
There
(However,
might say
barrier across the road.
There remains the problem of what to
X
it
surprising,
qualified driver.
95.1
predict
significantly reduce Rexco's
Francesco's excellent
UNIT 95
it
it
97.2
me.
(However,
we might say
Gao
8
possible)
stared
l
4 There was a
would also be
it
consider
straight at
8
Is
(‘find’
it
5
96.1
2
3
it
6
9
/
7
9
facilities at
was relocated to
on
motorists
6
find
3
a nearby university.
-
5
home.
hotel, the conference
the secret
2
There being no doctor available, the
car'.)
8
It is
hard finding a good plumber these
days, (or
It is
hard to find
...)
275
.
.
.
.
Key6to Exercises
take
I
as a fundamental principle
it
company that
of the
suppliers of
materials should be given a
2 + h
3 + a
no hope
there's
It's
no secret
4
It's
no good
/
4 + g Should the
use or There's no point
again today,
there's
no reason
there's
no alternative
8
5
no denying
+ d Were
8
10
(to be) offered the job,
I
6+
Had
i
way,
UNIT 98
a car been
in
98.1
7 +
was to cheer her up that booked
it
...
Amsterdam.
a holiday in
3
4
because
it's
...
to
do that
...
it
coming the other
11
lost
I
to
it is
...
models
my family that
I
it is
the range.
in
alive
today, he would be writing novels
dedicate this
about the homeless
in
London.
99.3
hope
is
(0
she
No, what
borrow
it
I
Americans spent
meant was that she could
until
I
needed
it
housing
in
income on
less of their
recreation today than
didn't apologise.
4
do Americans.
7
No, what did was
(to)
and soy sauce on
and
I
No, what
I
did
was
money towards
8
No, what
drive
all
I
did
it
income on
less of their
1970 than did Europeans.
some
grill
(to) give
oil
recreation than
some
it.
(to) hire a car
and
the way.
98.3
I
know
don't
to help
if
is
2
/
In fact
Petra, (or
/
...
but Petra
3
is
was the case
in
1970.
.
this village
the place that
I
/
that
grew up
suppose the time when
Australia
I
grew up
and the next,
I
was when was
I
University, as
People
in
in
developed
4
(or
He
is
much
a
he was
5
five
better teacher
now than
possible; see Unit 2)
2
along comes
3
up go
4
back
5
out
/
/ in
6
along
7
off
also
/
/ off
3
he went
276
away she went
(or goes)
...
complicated was the equation
...
boring was the lesson
a keen golfer, as
is
his wife.
the sport
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
The people of Sawston were evacuated
headed towards
fires
the town. Such was the heat of the
Only once
in
recent years, during 2004,
has a town of this size (inversion
if
likely in
fires.
lorries arrived in
A fleet of coaches
the town
the early
in
and elderly
(inversion
is
likely in this
written context), before they headed off
cars left by
river.
Residents with
mid morning, as
essential police officers
did
all
non-
.
Hardly had the evacuation been
direction
and
it
became
in
clear that the fire
any
were heard from
At no time
residents.
real threat,’ said
want to leave
mv
did the fires
one
local
my home,
man.
*1
and nor
did
most
of
are
some
elderly residents that they are
neighbours So upset
.'
threatening to complain to their MP. But
Only with close
Only
is
context) had to be evacuated
because of forest
and
didn't
At no time was the public (ever)
the pitch
match be
5
in
were the twins
some
Little did
I
/
5
6
her dominance
after that complaints
is
friends
and family did
is
frozen will the
know then
been put at
moved
cancelled.
I
Chief Fire Officer Jones replied,
not taken this action,
he feel entirely relaxed.
came (or comes)
up came (or comes)
alike
Dan
danger.
4
away
...
pose a
2
is
... is
4
with a pronoun as subject)
UNIT 100
a narrative ’down comes'
3
would leave Sawston untouched. Soon
years ago. (no inversion
100.1
(in
...
completed when the wind changed
UNIT 99
1
was the strength of the earthquake
2
to safety across the
poorer countries consume
happiest.
99.1
100.2
sick
Kamal went to Oxford
resources than do those
in ...)
lived in
the last few years has he been
morning. Into these vehicles climbed the
a far smaller proportion of the earth's
that might be able to
the place where
in
this written
nations.
between
is
.
is
did his sister.
that might be able
help.)
I
1970, as
food and drink than on recreation today,
she's free, but
somebody who
4
in
99.4
somebody who
3
on housing
the case today.
as
5 uggested answers
2
income on
less of their
Americans spend more of their income on
was
Only
100 metres ahead began to smoulder.
Europeans spent
it.
her
when the conductor stepped
oncoming inferno that trees more than
again.
put
Hardly had the audience taken their
yesterday as forest
(ii)
6
ever
sections
Europeans spend
me was that
No, what annoyed
I
Corrections are given in the underlined
that they will be put
into a public art gallery.
3
this high
I
Only once before had
100.3
Example sentences
I
Only once had ever climbed
Possible answers
thesis.
No, what
I
acknowledged to be a great author.
unlikely that the
9 + e Were Charles Dickens (to be)
98.2
2
I
the SXL3, there are less expensive
it.
that she improved her Spanish.
6
12
there been a referendum
issue,
government.
/
between the three brothers.
onto the stage.
8 + b Should you not be able to afford
there that
in
was only by studying very hard
it
...
come.
can't
I
...
Not only was wet through, was
seats
electorate would have supported the
much work
got so
was somewhere
where
5
I've
Had
f
on the
I
fire
On no
/
climbed this high.
accepting.
injured.
2
must you
/
the
light
the house.
in
one moment was there any
before. /
I
might have been seriously
I
for
swim.
freezing cold.
be their tenth
will
it
Not
you to
are
you are alone
rivalry
9
hockey team win
would have no hesitation
question
/
ice
clear he couldn't
account should
it
New
consecutive victory.
choice
/
no longer
there's
(to be) built,
York to Tokyo by four hours.
/
5
It's
Were the plane ever
became
On no account
if
would cut the journey time from
chance
6
7
7
when
Barely had he entered the water
it
products, click on the box below.
97.3
3
Should you not wish to receive
further information about our
fair price
for their products.
2
6
99.2
raw
that
Carmen and
would be married one day.
well
lives
‘
Had we
would have
Only when the fires have
away from the town will
risk.
residents be allowed to return to their
homes.'
Key to Study planner
5.6
Tenses
1.1
5.7
B
1.2
D
1.3
C
1.4
A, B
6.1
1.5
C
1.6
A
A
Reporting
D
10.2
B,
10.3
C.D
10.4
A, B
10.5
CD
10.6
B
6.2
C
A
10.7
CD
A
D
6.3
D
10.8
D
6.4
B
10.9
A, B,
1.8
B
6.5
B,
10.10
A
1.9
A,
6.6
1.10
6.7
A
C
1.11
C
A
1.12
B
6.9
1.13
B,
1.14
C
1.15
B.C
17
C
6.8
6.10
D
D
Adjectives and adverbs
B.D
B, C
A, C
ii.i
Nouns
The future
B
7.2
B,
7.3
C
7.4
A,
7.5
A,
7.6
B,
D
2.1
C
2.2
D
2.3
B,
2.4
A,
2.5
C
7.7
A,
2.6
B
7.8
2.7
7.9
2.8
A
D
D
A
2.9
B,
2.10
CD
quantifiers
2.11
C
8.1
B
8.2
8.3
C
A
D
D
Articles,
C
Modals and semi-modals
D
C
D
D
B,
C
11.3
A,
C
11.4
11.6
D
C
A
11.7
A,
11.8
B
11.9
C
B
(in
informal speech only),
11.11
informal speech only),
11.13
A
A (in
D
11.14
A, B
11.15
C
11.16
A,
C
11.17
A,
11.18
B,
D
C
Adverbial clauses and
conjunctions
3.1
C
8.4
B
3.2
B
8.5
A,
8.7
C
D
8.8
A,
3.6
A
D
C,D
B, D
8.6
8.9
B
3.7
B
8.10
B,
3.8
C
8.11
A
12.7
3.9
A,
C
B, C
D
A
8.12
C
12.8
8.13
D
8.14
B
8.15
A,
8.16
Linking verbs, passives,
questions
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.10
3.11
3.12
C,D
11.10
11.12
determiners and
B
11.2
11.5
7.1
D
12.1
B
12.2
A
A
12.3
C
D
C
12.4
CD
12.5
A,
12.6
12.9
C
A, D
B, D
C
12.10
CD
D
B,
12.11
B
A
12.12
A,
8.17
B
12.13
A, B,
8.18
B
12.14
A
4.1
CD
8.19
D
4.2
B
8.20
B
4.3
A,
4.4
B,
4.5
B
4.6
C
4.7
A,
4.8
4.9
4.10
D
D
C
Relative clauses and other
Prepositions
A
13.2
D
types of clause
13.3
A. B
9.1
D
13.4
A,
D
9.2
A, B
13.5
B,
C
D
9.3
B, C,
13.6
B
9.4
B
13.7
A
C
C
9.5
14.1
B
14.2
C
1
13.1
C
C
D
Verb complementation: what
9.7
C,D
C
A
follows verbs
9.8
B
9.6
D
Organising information
A,
5.1
D
9.9
C
14.3
B
5.2
A, B
9.10
B
14.4
B,
5.3
C
14.5
A
14.6
B,
5.4
B
5.5
CD
1
Pronouns, substitution and
leaving out words
10.1
D
D
C
1
277
Key to Additional exercises
6
1
1
b 'm not promising
don't promise
/
a
3
a
was reading/ read
b read
were expecting
b are expecting
4
5
a
owns
b
owned
a
months when they
of
b
tell
7
a
phoned
week.
was considering
/
of the investigation
/
9
is
criticised
arrested the
b was phoning
/
tablet
phoned
a
's
always putting
b
's
constantly putting
a
prefer
/
money
computers
payments from
However,
her
2
I’ll
b was weighing
B
2
for the school.
2
a
+
(ii)
3
a
+(i)or(ii)
4
a +(ii)
5
a
or
am told (by
am advised that Mrs
said:
I
‘I
(=
'I
or
will'
'I
shall')
in
2
I'll
C
b +
(i)
1
b +
(i)
have no
I
severe
the city of Chittagong
in
southern Bangladesh. Although
there are understood to be [or
I’m going to build / I'm building
understood that there are
give
been) no casualties,
/
it is
have
many thousands
made homeless
of people have been
Will /Are
you going to be able to /Are
property
b +(i)
2
we're going to have
b +
(ii)
3
I'll
/
damage to
(by the floods), and the
you able to
we're having
estimated as running into
is
millions of dollars.
C
Protesters have continued to block
+
6 a +
(i)
b +
(ii)
4
the construction of the
+
(i)
b +
(ii)
D
by tying themselves to trees along
7
a
8
a +(ii)
(i)
(ii)
1
(b
+
(ii) is
also correct
grammatically, but
be used;
it is
to get good pasta
2
going (more
likely
than
‘is
going to
which
is,
of course, not the case!)
3
isn't (is
coming
not)
/ isn't (is
not)
days to leave the area or they will be
come / won’t come
3
we'll see / we’re going to see
4
S
1
likely as
is
2
also possible, but less
2
the duration of the discussions
3
‘had discussed'
is
emphasised
arrested (by the police).
D Conservation groups have demanded
that the nuclear
His condition
had improved
when saw him
in
I
hospital last night, ('improved'
be unlikely as
it
would
would suggest that
condition improved because
I
It
similar
4
that the Toulouse
had been delayed by ten minutes,
('was delayed’
is
also possible with a
meaning)
Thomas had been
dieting for a
month
when he came to stay with us, and
we noticed immediately that he had
already lost a lot of weight.
5
Victoria
had been expected to win
comfortably, but she finished third,
('was expected'
similar
take
after a report
is
meaning)
also possible with a
power
station should
(by the government)
which said that
unacceptable levels of radiation have
more
likely
is 'It's
at 4:15' as this
is
been found
part
It'll
5
‘we’re going to have'
6
Til stay'
take
made
E
is
more
at the
(by investigators) in the
local area.
is
likely
more
if
the decision
The Commissioner of the Dublin
police force has revealed that a death
likely
threat has
is
moment of speaking
been received
police) against the
who
Nabon,
5
was announced
train
I'll
saw him
last night)
3
I'm taking / I'm going to take /
4
his
down
be closed
of a timetable
considerably
ring road
the proposed route. (Police say that)
E
1
new
The protesters have been given two
going to
difficult
it is
in Italy,
is
go')
unlikely to
suggests that
it
'...
before
her.’
A tropical storm has caused
flooding
.']
.
(i)
b +
278
company.
by the company the money
also possible)
is
1
(ii)
+
oil
company) [Note the word order, not
B
a weighs
b
/
intention of dismissing
/ (‘you'll’
(ii)
major
Long was paid the money (by the
new
A
or
a
she joined the government.
1
was
it
statement today, the
a
in
Prime Minister
4
puts
b preferred
(i)
being
is
Minister, Maria Long, after
puts
/
Minister
my advisors)
should be spent on
it
it is
revealed that she had received
emphasised)
them during
Where
left out,
encouraged to sack the Environment
also
is
given only
...') is
to be included.
brackets.
in
A The Prime
had already suggested that
Emilia
it is
written
The Minister angered her colleagues
the
+
likely
speech yesterday.
10
a
(after ‘by
where
possible, but less likely as the duration
/told
1
The agent
might either be included or
number
chairman, (‘had investigated'
when she
tells / told
last
investigating Rentpoolfora
b consider
10
was promoted
The tax authorities had been
expect
/
'm considering
a
6
number
the rear
8
owns
6
9
damaged
Andrei
expected
/
considered
8
I
7
(or ‘own')
/
reversed the car out of the
I
plate.
didn't promise
2
When
garage,
/
is
life
visiting
(by the
of President
the capital this
weekend. He says that the threat
1
ought to have asked; would have been
is
2
should;
expected that security
3
won't; can't; used to
4
can't;
5
mustn't; can
hillside this
'd
better
must have
being taken very
F
A man was found
6
wouldn't; needn't have worried
that he
should; would
hillside in
8
should;
9
must; could
might
It is
on a Scottish
thought
down a
He is being
while coming
bad weather.
hospital for leg and head
in
injuries.
[We can assume that medical
will
11
couldn't; didn't have to
there
12
don't need to; can
here.]
to;
fell
injured
morning.
be
visit.
treated
10
be able
levels will
increased during the President's
7
may
seriously. It is
staff would treat
is
him in hospital, so
no need to mention the agent
He was reported
missing last
Key to Additional exercises
when he failed
night
home
to return
7
C And now football. There are expected
to be (or
It is
crowd
It is
if
financial
it
9
has even been
€50,000 each (by the
as
Rob's
was
cold.
their refusal to
10
/
by asking
levels
3
his
4
appointed
5
count
6
at
me to tidy
7
to
visit
/ -;
5
a
the/-;
b
c
some / -
(-)
him saying
11
was
I
7
a
/
10
8
The
a
The
/ A;
9
a (a)
a
the
a
a/
/
When
b
/ -;
b
-;
‘that' as
was that he
3
The
home
2
are
3
live
whose ambition
points
astronaut.
5
her wearing
12
to appear
4
13
let
5
prefer / prefers
14
to hearing
6
love / loves (although a plural verb
15
entitle her to
16
waited for
17
noticed a
1
21
talked
22
to living
23
me from
We were disappointed with
claim
8
go
9
comes
Karen's
Karen's decision that she
wouldn't go
/
wasn't going
/ isn’t
going to university next year.
of
kilos,
11
is /
are
12
shuts
13
suspect
14
are
15
appears
16
are
17
is /
about a teenage boy
is
to
whose main product
become an
is
electric light
bulbs.
Politicians should give
more
(who / that / whom) they represent.
Among the group of people was
Professor Fischer, who / whom had
I
last
9
I
seen
live
10
in
Munich 20 years
on a small road which
down
to the
Monet's
earlier.
are (although a plural
is
earlier paintings,
before, are in a
preferred
formal contexts)
plan
many of
19
is
11
20 provides (more
likely
in
new exhibition
the
in
USA
New
York.
plans
/
that leads
/
river.
which have never been seen
18
Considerable media attention has
is
Paul has got a job with Empirico,
6
is
8
are
in
a kitten (which /
consideration to the working people
is /
decision not to go to university next
...
The story
7
7
10
8
year. /
Chloe brought
more grammatical)
using
all
that) she'd found in the park.
forcing
20 looking
rugby team,
are clear favourites to win the match.
4
11
/telling
very
is
whose members weigh over 100
didn't know.
wants
invited
which serves a
an alternative to ‘which')
New Zealand
1
tell
(-)
(some people would use
value,
their cat
19
-
also
...');
c a (a)
9
18
c
-;
a;
Carla's restaurant,
good
children’s clothes / children's
man take
we could
(informally,
clothes
wearing
c the (the)
range of Mediterranean dishes,
had never used a computer
asked Zeb where Bethany was,
I
his reply
/
- (-)
c
for the night
‘...
c
b -;
b the;
An;
one
/
c - (-)
some/-;
11
surprised by her confession that
she has
12
/ -;
6a-/ Some;
2
have decreased.
10
than 'provide'
Ian Mclver,
whose
vegetables
in
managing
in
food
first
job was selling
become
a market, has
director of Europe's largest
this
formal context)
21
get
/
22
is
23
speak
24
has
25
are
26
have
27
has
didn't return to work).
28
isn’t
Nicky decided to follow her boss's
29 are
be present at
30
Bronwen Brookes, who(m) the Brookes
been focused on Professor Adams's
prediction that the Earth will /
pass through the
tail
of a
would
comet within
the next five years.
The company has
carried out
threat to dismiss the strikers
it
would dismiss the
strikers
its
/
(if
...
of her
work to her
secretary. /
boss's advice to delegate
more
that
they
advice that she should delegate
more
...
ten. /
pick
...
his
up at
promise that he would
me up at ten.
13
speaks
retailer.
Kaspar has a
new girlfriend who / that
works
library.
in
the
My Volkswagen Golf, which
in
2006,
I
a very reliable car.
is
people would use
'that' as
bought
(some
an
alternative to ‘which’)
14
Bronwen Brookes,
after
Brookes art gallery
gallery
is
is
its official
named
whom the
named,
will
opening.
after, will
/
...
10
a
me
/
have
is
Jason didn't turn up until eleven,
despite his promise to pick
/
12
gets
her
of her
work to her secretary.
6
b some
before.
8 wearing
5
the
c an (a /an)
a;
a warning that small children
...
2
4
a
have decreased.
should be kept indoors until pollution
3
c The (the)
4
The Health Minister has issued a
on paying
2
b the;
say
1
9
b
the/-;
b a
warning to keep small children indoors
club).
7
/
A /The;
a
land.
until pollution levels
saying
a
3
talking about.
was astonished by
I
2
negotiate over the ownership of the
suggested that they might be paid as
much
...
We decided to ignore Dan's complaint
that his dinner
bonus (by the club)
they win and
talking about. /
is
know what he was
8
reported that the
Barcelona players will be given a
huge
know
conclusion that Professor Jones didn't
at tonight's
match between Barcelona and Real
Madrid.
what he
expected that there
will be) a record
wasn't surprised by Rob's conclusion
I
that Professor Jones doesn't
after a day's walking.
a /one (informally,
say
b a
c
/
we
could also
for the week');
one;
one
('one'
sentences)
can complete
all
three
12
1
did
2
doing so
3
promised he would
4
appears so
5
do
/
so doing
279
)
Key to Additional exercises
6
have
7
didn't
8
do
/
have done
14
want to
3 + b Johan must weigh over 120
(‘do so'
unlikely in this informal
is
whereas
context)
his wife
will
wife
kilos, his
is
10
don’t suppose so / suppose not
11
want to /want
weigh over 120
12
has
wife
13
such a dilemma
over 120
is
is
Whereas
kilos. /
medicine, I'm
do
afford to
about the meeting. Even
16
expect so
about 100 people attended.
17
suspect not
4 + j There had been a
+e
hope not
18
I
might
19
might have
20
told
21
determined to
/
6+ h
me so
I
don't
if
I
until midnight. /
have to stay at work
Even
22
to be
at
23
guess not
to finish the report.
24
might do
/
might be
7
work
until
if
I
+ g Make sure you catch the
13
all
Suggested improvements are given
the
way from
last
E very so often
(or
I
leave
leave
I
work
have to walk
work early
and go to a performance
concert
in
()
stayed until the end.
hall. It's
the local
in
boring, although
9+
my office
Usually ()
very close to
the building opposite.
would never
total (/) disaster.
was
the pianist started to play,
awful. At
first
it
...
and
briefly
couldn’t continue), and they
stage unhappily
left
(). Naturally
the people present
felt
the
in
1
2
sorry for
3
this
my letterbox.
Bristol to visit her uncle,
it.
Our
plan
‘split
was from
It
is
who is unwell.
I
(/)
met
was
really pleased.
at university.
5
We first
a lot to talk about. The
photos included
in
the letter showed
(/) saw her.
letter that
I
I
I
last
spent so long reading the
was nearly
split
the organisation up
late for work.
units, (or split
‘
Note that
into'.
improve
Danny in town the
He asked for your email
in
touch
Jack takes great pride in never
throwing anything
We have similar
that she hadn't changed since
to
address, so he'll probably by
away anything'
interests (or Our interests arealike), so
we always find
to play well on
ran into / across
with you.
I
inability
specialised companies.
4
his
haven't seen her fora couple of
likelihood
our prospects of competing with more
could suggest a possible time.
I
little
you approve
the organisation into’ [without
relatives.
Well,
that
is
away throwing
(
also possible, but
less likely).
6
Although Professor Martinez knows a
great deal
about meteorology, even he
can't account for the unusual
weather
we have been
last
having over the
.
.
for
for
an ambulance,
Were
it
few
(or
Only
an emergency should you
an ambulance.)
one moment was there any
/
a
us.
not for financial assistance
...
Hardly had they finished eating before
away the
plates.
11
been
'up') is also possible.) This will
asked
I
know
number of small
other day.
if
I
There seems to be
few remaining (/)
She wants us to meet and
is
years, so
280
although
up the organisation
who writes from time to time (/).
The letter said that she has to come to
one of
...
of
Not
is
a waiter started to clear
Under no circumstances should
children be allowed into the
room
without adult supervision.
order to prepare for the marathon.
because of her
Mara,
She
/ I've
.
...
from the government,
grass tennis courts.
morning when the postman pushed a
through
9
been running about
kilometres a week.
into a
was just going out to work
letter
she hid
order to prepare for the
I've
...
an emergency should you
disagreement between
of Williamson winning Wimbledon
(/),
be severely
8
12
reprimanded.
I
it,
Rob was,
did she regret her lack of
for
there
phone
15
them. I'm sure the person responsible
for tuning the piano will
if
So that her
find
in
phone
running about 200 kilometres a week
couldn’t continue (or They clearly
b
/
Only
ill
So strong was the wind that
(or
formal education,
They stopped and discussed
discussed the problem). Clearly, they
all
In
200
became obvious
the problem briefly (or
...
10
marathon,
was completely out
that the piano
Seldom
7
book.
10 + c
sounded
it
6
the letter between the pages of a
thought he was playing
I
badly, but then
of tune.
when
it.
husband would never
a
The singer began to
sing with wonderful control. But
find
instructions,
Had we known how
between the
letter
So complicated were the
Such was the strength of the wind that
found the film
I
made
I
pages of a book so that her husband
they are rather good, but yesterday's,
given by a singer and pianist,
She hid the
i
/
is
5
stayed until the end.
I
complaint
4
the station.
8 + a Although found the film boring,
early every so often)
official
further.
3
bus at
I
a
an
if
the police investigate the matter
have to stay
midnight I'm determined
11:00. Otherwise, you'll
Only
will
I'm determined to finish the report
tonight, even
determined
/
in
16
2
the style.
like
a career
of admiration for her
only
can't afford a coat like that.
Besides,
full
determination to train to be a vet.
lot of publicity
so,
them
Even though Charlotte didn’t act
on my advice and follow
kilos.
14
5
8
Johan must weigh
15
the
decision-making.
in
his
in
from the
headteacher's idea of involving
really small. / His wife
really small,
the behaviour of children
school. This has resulted
whereas Johan must
really small,
There has been a great improvement
in
really small. /
is
Whereas Johan must weigh over 120
doubt that he
9
weeks.
7
kilos,
Should the bridge ever be
built,
...
Index of grammatical items
it
a / an, the, and zero article
generalisations about classes of things
90
make +
/
adjective (+ to-infinitive
that-clause) 140
248
before
holidays, seasons, days of the week,
classifying adjectives
jobs
/
94
job
means
see also passive forms
agreement, subject and verb
noun 132
132
clause, as subject
of transport and
80
co-ordinated nouns
grammar review 237
communication 94
names
/ after
emphasising adjectives 132
92
titles
phrases, as
/
subject 82
nouns 80
with linking verbs 132
collective
qualitative adjectives 132
complex subject 80
reduced relative clauses 132
determiners 82
nouns both countable and
study planner 218-19
how /
uncountable 90
types of 205
items joined by (either)
of people 92
94
specific versus general
see also comparative forms;
compound
with superlative adjectives 92
adjectives; participle adjectives;
with there + be 190
superlative forms
90
things that are unique
/
an and one
88
number / quantity expressions 88
one ...other / another pattern 88
abbreviations
particular, but unspecified
thing
/
person
before vowels
/
88
/
much
(of),
many
205
205
as
prepositional phrases 114
result
162
48, 204, 205
205
sentence connectors 174
comment
...
gradable adjective 136
136
patterns after linking verbs
adjective + -ing / that-clause / to-
wh-clause 140
+ linking verb + adjective (+ to-
infinitive)
140
128
auxiliary
substituted© 128
connecting adverbs 150
negative questions 54, 227
degree adverbs 150, 154
substitute so and not 124
focus adverbs 154
see also modal verbs
adverbial 148
order of events 150
grammar review 237
more and more + adjective 136
it
no
adverbs 150, 156
more than one
136
136
lovely and / nice and
infinitive /
248
and meaning 148
qualitative adjectives
as auxiliary + done 128
modal auxiliary + do / be 128
more than one auxiliary 128
148
long adverbials 148, 150
both senses 136
/
/
frequency adverbs 148, 150, 152
gradable and non-gradable 134
good and
128
previous clause
have
207
additional exercise
205
after
in
sentence 128
after object
confused 237
words out
be as main verb
207
prepositional phrases 114
and adverbs, use of 142, 237
inversion 198
leaving
position of
adjectives
205
auxiliary verbs
participle adjectives in -ed,
noun phrases 112,114
classifying adjectives
see also a / an, the, and zero article
in
phrasal verbs
adding information conjunctions 174
different senses
grammar reminder 232
205
formation of 142
particles
246-47
205
definition of
adverbial form of 142
active (versus passive) forms 44, 46,
easily
additional exercise
study planner 210
definition of
such that, to introduce a
definition of
articles
205
prepositional phrase as
100
178
apostrophe, for possessives 231
200
and adjectives, use of 237
(of)
before nouns 102
/ entire,
amounts 104
any see some and any
adverbs
few and little 104
may 34
80
whole, every, each
whole
participle clauses 116, 118
could 30, 34, 224, 225
80
have 82
among and between
noun phrase
academic writing
/
in -s
what-clause, as subject 80
all (of),
complement 206
inversion after negative
be able to 30
/ quantity,
time expressions 102
adverbial clause as
ability
can
subject, position of
there + be
definition of
88
or
84
in -s
205
study planner 219-220
tenses in 238
adverb as 205
consonants 88
ending
/ titles
nouns ending
adverbials
before singular countable nouns
amount
contrasts 164
adverbial phrases, as
/
with possessives 88
abbreviations
249
of time 158
event 88
have 82
nor 82
...
/
/
...
with singular verb 84
definition of
in
there + be
/
measurement
names
additional exercise
times of day and night 94
here
or(neither)
adverbial clauses
and jokes 92
this, in stories
207
agent 205
additional exercise
festivals
advice 40, 78
affirmative sentences 205,
position of
geographical areas 90
and
a
+
/-ing
+
place and direction adverbs 150, 152
B
bare infinitive
206
being + past participle clause 206
between and among 178
C
time adverbs 150, 152
can see
viewpoint adverbs 150, 156
change, process of 42
prepositional phrases, adverbial use of
142
study planner 218-19
ability;
permission; possibility
'choosing' verbs
68
classifying adjectives 132, 134, 136,
types of 205
definition of
with and without -ly 142
study planner 217
see also comparative forms; superlative
forms
205
clauses
types of
cleft
206
206
sentences 196, 206
281
Index of grammatical items
collective
nouns 80, 207
study planner 215-16
conditional clauses
206
colon 174,230
definition of
colour adjectives 122
real
comma 230
real conditionals, tenses in 20, 166,
comment
adverbs 150,156,205
comparative forms 238
172,
/
meaning 144
and 136
more + one-syllable adjective 144
more / less + two-syllable adjectives
144
in
166, 170,
239
144
206
direct speech
direction adverbs 150, 152, 198,
60
verbs
conjunctions 174
'disliking'
sentence connectors 174
distance 104
do, after negative adverbials
conjunctions
249
additional exercise
definition of
205
disapproval 168
206
200
see also auxiliary verbs;
conditions 174
one-syllable adjectives and adverbs +
-er
transitive / intransitive verbs; verb
complementation
conditional sentences
comparative adjectives, linking with
see also complement; object;
239
unreal conditionals, tenses
adjectives with comparative
superlative
and unreal conditions 206, 238-39
168, 172,
207
direct object 58,
substitution
206
-ed clauses see past participle
noun phrases, adding information to
E
phrases and clauses
112
as + adjective + a / an +
as + adjective
noun 146
adverb as 146
/
go so / as far as + to-infinitive 146
less + adjective + than 146
as little / few as 146
as
much / many as 146
not + adjective
so + adjective
infinitive
/
/
adverb + as + toadverb + that-
contrasting
F
conjunctions 174
few,
164
little, less,
and fewer
countable
206
uncountable nouns
42,206,20
and object 206
prepositional phrase as
what few / what
206
56
see also verb complementation
little, less,
(of),
many
criticising
might
86
much
34
wh-clauses 196
what-clauses 196
frequency adverbs
205
indefinite frequency
past continuous with 4
negative questions 54, 227
will /
emphasis 198
it-clauses 196
with have to 36
12
could + have + past
participle
fronting, for
would, use of 32
position of 148, 150, 152
present continuous with 4
future continuous
D
arranged events
dash
(-)
174
208
/ activities
22
grammar reminder 224
imagining what is happening
around
now 22
particular point in future, relating
86
definite article
205
start of
see also a / an, the, and zero article
degree adverbs 205
conclusions, drawing
much, very much 154
with owing to 160
grammar reminder 225-226
must 36, 74
present perfect continuous
209
see also relative clauses
two- and three-word verbs, nouns
/
repeated
event to 22
/
regular events 22
willingness, avoiding
too 154
determiners 206
grammar reminder 232-33
22
future events
additional exercise
position of 150,154
present
very,
/would 32
/
defining relative clauses
forms 86
perfect 12
and fewer;
(of), a lot of, lots (of);
days of the week 94
hyphenated 230
possessive forms
few,
one and ones; someand any
hyphenated phrases, before nouns 86
one word, separate words,
verbs
focusing
whole, every, each;
104
as ‘the small
(number / amount)' 104
fewer see few, little, less, and fewer
finite
an and one; agreement, subject and
verb; all (of),
noun + noun 86
noun + preposition + noun 86
little,
see also a / an, the, and zero article; a
/
compound adjectives 138, 206
compound nouns
countable compound nouns 86
definition of 206
grammar reminder 230
as informal alternative
focus adverbs 154, 205
and subject 206
transitive / intransitive verbs
little,
with there + be 190
206
104
+ noun, as ‘not
and fewer (than) 104
less (than)
a
90
grammar reminder 230
206
linking verbs
as pronouns
little
104
generalisations about classes of things
definition of
will
/
and fewer
little,
enough' 104
permission;
ability;
little, less,
few, (a)
few + personal pronouns 104
few and little, as informal alternatives
while /whilst 164
could see
definition of
adverbial phrases as
related to
/
94
the few, the
possibility; reporting; unreal past
complement
plural
(a)
sentence connectors 174
of the fact that 164
complaining 12
282
if
whereas 164
and
festivals
with participle clauses 164
in spite
see also few,
whole, every, each
40
expectations
although and though 164
while
146
all (of),
exceptions 182
sufficiently + adjective 146
infinitive
every see
connecting adverbs 150, 205
clause 146
too + adjective + a / an + noun 146
too + adjective / adverb + to-
whole, every, each
emphasising adjectives 132, 205
time 174, 238
even though and even
/
all (of),
echo questions 54, 208
study planner 219
adverb + enough
146
so + adjective
reasons and results 174
although, though, while and whilst,
146
to-infinitive
each see
242
26
be about to +
infinitive 24,
be going to +
infinitive 20, 166,
be to +
infinitive
common
223
24
phrases for talking about 26
Index of grammatical items
whether
grammar reminder 223-24
past and present continuous for
...
or not 172
J
jobs /job
if-clauses
intention 8
would
after
/
would
like
titles
92
130
L
possibility,
can
/
could 30
24
future events
less see few, little, less,
and fewer
inversion instead of 198
present continuous for 20
linking verbs
grammar reminder 224
should, were, had, and omission of
adjective patterns with 138, 140,
conditional clauses
'being' verbs
239
imperative clauses 42,166,206
indefinite article 205
20
situations 32,
grammar reminder 223
if-clauses 24
suppose
supposing
/
/
what
if
...
20
time clauses 20
real conditionals
'becoming' verbs 42
see also conditional clauses imaginary
20
go and turn 42
‘seeming' verbs 42
207
see also object; verb complementation
study planner 212-13
superlatives
little
seen from the past
indirect questions
be supposed to 28
reporting
indirect
28
verbs + to-infinitive, for intentions 26
if-clauses, without
+
will
and be going to 18,20
infinitive
future perfect and future perfect
continuous 22
may see
main clauses 168
/
events 8
new topic 196
grammar reminder 224-26
250
reporting to reported clause,
after
movement 198
negative adverbials 200
neither and nor 200
after
time adverbs 152
geographical areas 90
fronting, for
gradable adjectives 134, 136, 205, 237
grading adverbs 134,205
206
94
however 174
formal
with so + adjective 200
36
with such + be, for emphasis of extent
comparisons 198
in
mustn't,
/
in
reporting 74
226
202-3
proposing future arrangements 36
/
was no
versus there
is
/
was no
grammar reminder 235-36
prepositional object 208
reduced relative clauses 208
reporting with passive forms 50
with viewpoint verbs 194
it,
+ be + adjective
it
+ verb + object + that-clause 192
+ verb + object + to-infinitive
and whether
it
after certain verbs 172
+ verb + that-clause 192
it
+ verb + to-infinitive clause 192
not as alternative to noun as subject
possibilities, talking
about 172
no questions 64
before to-infinitive 172
need
formal written English 38
need(n't), don't
have
to,
mustn't,
as ordinary versus
in
modal verb 38
questions 38
negative questions 54, 227
be to +
infinitive, for
events
likely
to
happen 24
participle clauses, use of 112
past perfect continuous, use of 14
192
where subject
64
225-26
newspaper writing
it
clause acting as subject or
172
/
clause 192
after preposition 172
complement 172
noun + adjective + as to whether
noun 192
it
comparison clauses 168
necessity
don't need to 38, 226
element 192
complementation
narrative
in
introductory
to focus attention on sentence
see also participle adjectives; verb
N
names, of people 80, 92
as object of verb 194
reporting yes /
and warnings
need(n't), don't have to, mustn't
207
of verb and subject
rules, regulations
and have (got) to 36, 225-26
must
with as and than,
it is
I
in
a lot of, lots
it
-ing (present participle) form
in
(of),
drawing conclusions 36
194
if,
many
100
instead of if-clauses 198
irregular verbs
holidays
(of),
must
/degree 200
62,116,
if
study planner 212
much
(of)
emphasis 198
summary
of changes 74
with here comes, there goes 198
H
have (got) to 36, 225-26
having + past participle (-ed) clause
205
207
with performatives 2
adverbs of direction of
going to see will and be going to
possibility; unreal past
modal and semi-modal verbs
additional exercise 242-43
definition of
90
208
possibility
might see
auxiliary verbs
additional exercise
205-09
206
relative clause
intransitive verbs
after
and fewer
manner, adverbs of 148, 205
inversion
204
204
little, less,
intransitive verbs see transitive /
introducing
C
glossary
196
interrupted past actions
223
will
generalisations
and
intentions 26, 78
study planner 211
passive form
definition of
forms 206
grammar reminder 225
won't 26
144
main clauses
instructions 24, 166,
28
shall / shan't versus will /
future simple
infinitive
see few,
M
speech 208
see also reporting
was / were to + infinitive 28
was / were to have + past
participle
208
see also reporting
26
intentions
42
and complement 42, 206, 207
see also a / an, the, and zero article
indirect object 58,
166
164
become and get 42
without main clauses 168
present simple for
fixed events
if
168
informal arrangements 22
is
to-infinitive, that-
clause, wh-clause or -ing clause
192
it-clauses 48, 196
no, none(of), and not
nominal
any 98
108,208
relative clauses
see also relative clauses
non-affirmative meaning 207
283
Index of grammatical items
non-defining relative clauses
for adding information
106
208
definition of
intentions not carried out 10
contrasting 164
past perfect and past continuous
definition of
participle clauses, use of instead of 112
prepositional phrases 114
206
activity in progress recently
having + participle, and timing of
implied subject, and subject of main
see also relative clauses
clause 116
209
237
with
own
subject 116
non-grading adverbs 134, 205
participles
noun phrases
particles 188,
207
passive forms
204
review of use of 16
207
state verbs 14
past simple
grammar reminder 222
passive form 204
46
243-44
conjunctions 112
active patterns 44,
namely, use of 112
additional exercise
participle clauses 112
agent, omission of
prepositional phrases 114
'appointing' verbs
that
‘giving' verbs 44
grammar reminder 226-27
it-clause as subject of 48
‘liking /wanting' verbs 46
modal verbs 204
'naming' verbs 44
perfect forms 16
reporting with 50
performative verbs
is,
use of 112
to-infinitive clauses 112
complements 42
206
definition of
nominal
relative clauses
208
nouns
245-46
additional exercise
207
definition of
see also
compound
countable
nouns;
uncountable nouns
/
48
44
‘telling'
verbs 44
tenses
204
transitive
as
16
it
241
6,
209
were 170
were
unreal conditionals,
in
if-clause
170
were, for imaginary situations 170
were,
in
comparisons 170
207
definition of
present simple 2
permission 34, 38, 224
could, be allowed to 30
two- and three-word verbs
44
O
4, 8, 10,
and past perfect 10,16,241-242
and present perfect
48
topic emphasis
number expressions 88
and past continuous
past subjunctive
study planner 212-13
study planner 214
something
to 14
use of prepositions with 118
adding information to 112
of times
happened 14
particular past time, relating events
not, position of 116
non-gradable adjectives 134, 136, 205,
versus finished 14
number
action 116
whose, clauses with 108
non-finite verbs
with adverbial meaning 116
208
personal pronouns
persuading 54
verbs with related nouns 48
phrasal verbs
object
past continuous
and complement 206
207
definition of
as /
position of in two- and three-word
verbs 188
transitive verbs
209
see also transitive
/ intransitive
when / while 158
see also two- and three-word verbs
grammar reminder 223
passive form 204
place adverbs
past perfect continuous, and past
possessive nouns 207, 231
16
possibility
intentions not carried out 8, 10
in
narratives 8
past events
in
succession 8
inclusion of 122
not used after nouns used as adjectives
122
omission of 122
same
period 8
repeated past actions 8
past participle (-ed)
207
clauses
80
ought to see should and ought to
207
after nouns, reduced relatives
adjectives
with much, very
138
138
much 154
continuous 14
that
/
those before 138
participle clauses
active
and passive
208
as
definition of
word verbs
prepositions
in
noun phrases 112
additional exercise
after
intentions not carried out 10
184
definition of
particles
207
207
ordering past events 10
phrasal verbs
reporting past events 10
of place 178
review of use of 16
of position
past perfect continuous
249
nouns 186
after verbs
241-42
time clauses 6
position of 138
284
past perfect continuous, and past
additional exercise
-ing and -ed forms, as adjectives 138
compound
prepositional objects 58,
see also phrasal verbs; two- and three-
grammar reminder 223
passive form 204
and past simple
in
preferences 170
of
P
participle adjectives
225
complement 206
208
prepositional verbs 208
past perfect
orders 24, 72, 78
34,
reduced relative clause 208
referring to people 122
opinions 62
may and might
predictions 18
prepositional phrases
see also participle adjectives; participle
an and one
can and could 30, 34
grammar reminder 224
grammar reminder 236
with possessive determiners 122
names
206
possessive pronouns 207, 231
8,
past events over
organisations,
205
possessive determiners
perfect 14
and past simple
obligations 40, 226
offers 18,72,166,225
one and ones
with countable nouns 122
/
word order 188
verbs;
verb complementation
see also a
207
definition of
with adverbs of frequency 4
207
and movement 176
reasons, giving
in relative
160
clauses 110
additional exercise 241-242
study planner 220-221
grammar reminder 223
of time 180
Index of grammatical items
when, whereby, where, why 108
present and past time, review 16, 240
Q
present continuous
qualitative adjectives 132, 136,
with adverbs of frequency 4
26
intentions
passive form
208
definition of
grammar reminder 222
204
2, 4,
reporting
additional exercise
study planner 215-16
grammar reminder 229
'of'
233-35
modal
quantity expressions 84, 88
16
present participle (-ing) 207
present perfect
74
64
intentions
requests 72
/
grammar reminder 227
indirect questions 208
passive forms
negative questions 54
questions 64
44
punctuation for 229
grammar reminder 222-23
passive form 204
study planner 212-13
quotations 64
and past simple
with that-clauses 54
study planner 214
6,
241
and present perfect continuous
types of
12, 16,
208
tense choice
see also wh-questions; yes / no
241
using nouns 76
quotation marks 229
reporting
R
activities in progress until recently 12
reported clauses 64, 72
208
past tenses 70
real conditionals
present subjunctive 78
if-clauses 166, 168
additional exercise 241
conclusions from what can be seen
real
and unreal conditions 206, 238-39
/
tenses
20, 166, 168, 172,
in
etc. 12
unless and
recently completed events 12
if
requests
239
grammar reminder 225
not 172
if-clauses 168
reasons
cleft
results of circumstances / activities
64,208
reporting verbs
reporting 72, 78
repeated versus one-off activities 12
sentences 196
will
and be going to 18
conjunctions 174
12
review of uses of 16
situations existing until present 12
contents of books
/
films etc.
224
for
26
204
in
/
omission
of,
short answers 124
with
some
should and ought to
be supposed to 226
verb + object + adjective
complement
commentaries 4
structure
56
had better,
relative clauses
performative verbs 2
additional exercise
state verbs 2
defining
166
time clauses 6
present subjunctive 78,
209
reporting and reported
clauses 70
definition of
in
order
in
order that and so that 162
/
in
summary of
so + adjective
/
relative
adverb + that-clause
with before 96
that 162
in
such a
way that, such
‘approximately'
208
inclusion of 106, 110,
/
96
with comparisons 96
general statements about whole
190
object of relative clause
words 208
why / that 108
relative clauses, with who
classes of things 96
grammar reminder 232-33
with negative words 96
non-affirmative contexts 96
a / the reason
nominal
146
such that,
/
uses of 16
some and any
110
106
so as + to-infinitive 162
40
should and shall 40
208
pronouns
as subject
purposes and results
40
since and for 12, 14
omission
208
requests for confirmation
/
non-defining 106, 108, 112, 114, 208
definition of
study planner 217-18
questions
simple versus continuous forms,
relative
208
/
regret / criticism
study planner 217
pronouns
recommendations 40
obligations
or advice
reduced 132,138,208
promises 18
spoken English 40
in
grammar reminder 235
nominal 108,208
prepositions
product names 92
248
106,108,112,208
definition of
40
expectations
regret 170
mental states 2
types of
sentence connectors 174,208
verbs 120
immediacy 4
in
sense verbs 30
emphasis 120
inclusion
and present continuous 16
real conditionals
grammar reminder 224-26
see also modal verbs
208
grammar reminder 236
phrases introducing news 4
semi-colon 174
semi-modal verbs 207
pronouns
formality 120
newspaper headlines 4
present tenses,
reflexive
definition of
grammar reminder 222
passive form
S
seasons 88, 94
see also relative clauses
4
for future events 20, 24, 166, 172,
intentions
prepositions 118,160
sentence connectors 174
reduced relative clauses 132, 138, 208
present simple
life
/
definition of
and present perfect
heard
using adjectives 76
question tags 227
grammar reminder 223
passive form 204
70
in
that-clauses 66, 72, 76
questions
166
real conditionals
present perfect continuous
245
offers / suggestions / orders /
question forms
clauses
auxiliaries
negative forms
some and any
see also
see also participle adjectives; participle
64
grammar reminder 232-35
with and without
and present simple
208
reported speech
quantifiers
224
for future events 20, 22,
whose, clauses with 108
205
non-specific, unspecified things
/
what 108
96
before plural and uncountable nouns
96
...
whatever, whoever, whichever 108
strong and
weak forms 96
285
Index of grammatical items
unknown / unimportant person
thing 96
or
2,12,14,166,208
state verbs
of newspapers, books, films
80
wh-clauses
focusing 196
to-infinitive
complement 206
definition of 208
it-clause as 48
passive, uses of 48
placement of long 48
relative pronouns as 106
subject and
who or what as
W
94
times, of day and night
titles,
with
come and grow 42
definition of
with linking verbs 140
206
verbs with 68
leaving out 130
wh-questions
with linking verbs 140
auxiliary verb
112
52
see also verb complementation
209
with that-clauses 54
what 52
56
grammar reminder 228
which 52
past 170
implied object 56
who 52
present 78
intransitive verbs 56,
subjunctive
subordinate clauses 206,
208
206
whom 52
grammar reminder 226-27
whose 52
passives,
see also adverbial clauses; relative
transitive or intransitive verbs
clauses
56
see also negative questions
209
transitive verbs 56,
wh-words 208, 209
two- and three-word verbs, word order
substitution
to, for to-infinitive clause
additional exercise
130
188
248
two- and three-word verbs
each
209
207
definition of
particle in
study planner 217-18
position of prepositions
characteristic behaviour / habits
110
in
conclusions
word order 188
*»
plural
noun phrase,
superlative
in
after
+ singular noun phrase, after
superlative
U
repeated events
will
countable
/
uncountable nouns
unless and
if
not 172
formality / informality 18,
tenses
+ past simple 166
and unreal conditions 206, 238-39
in
if
not 172
grammar reminder 222-24
might
study planner 210-11
78
could have + past participle
repeated events
wh-questions with 54
in
there + be
change of
/
topic, topic
listener / reader
known
to
of
be with
239
noun following,
indefinite / nonspecific
with nouns followed by that,
wh, to-infinitive or -ing clause 190
'thinking' verbs 30,
60
three-word verbs see two- and
three- word verbs
time adverbs 205
time clauses
conjunctions 174
in
238
yes
/
no questions
64,
see also a
verb complementation
244
indirect objects
58
negative forms 62
verb + -ing or bare infinitive 60
verb + object + to-infinitive 62
verb + object
/
possessive + -ing 60
verb + preposition + object + toinfinitive 62
verb + to have + past participle 62
verb + to (preposition) + -ing 60
see also transitive
verb phrases
verbs 208,
/ intransitive
209
209
viewpoint adverbs 156,205
208
zero article 205
V
and
would and
used to
Z
past 32
verb + object + bare infinitive 60
meaning of 190
92
if-clauses; will,
see also question forms
prepositional object, with for / to 58
190
art
reporting 74
direct
introducing topics 190
noun following, agreement
in
additional exercise
190
events 18, 20
Y
participle 32,
grammar reminder 225
reporting 66, 72, 76
286
works of
used to
and zero article
/ likely
predictions 18
would see
239
would have + past
that-clauses
/ an, the,
planned
willingness 22
if-clause 166, 170
unreal past
48
20
offers / requests / promises 18
real
were
tenses
if
but for 166
T
the see a
come 20
decisions 18
unless and
in
/
unreal conditionals
most + adjective / adverb 144
noun + of which 110
should
and be going to
be going to + go
conditional sentences 18
92
passive sentences
past 32
in
unreal past situations 32
unchanging states 12
144
adjectives with a / an, the, and zero
article
grammar reminder 225
uncountable nouns see
144
32
assumptions 32
uncertainty 76
the + most + adjective 144
of
/
32
criticism
superlative forms
the + adjective with -est 144
would and used to
will,
so and not 124
suggestions 54, 72, 78, 227
what-clauses 80, 196
whether see if and whether
whole see all (of), whole, every,
see also verb complementation
do 128,200,227,237
do so and such 126
52
64
reporting
transitive / intransitive verbs
209
54
how and what
noun phrases, adding information to
see also agreement; inversion
52, 208,
verbs
/ an, the,
and zero article
Index of lexical items
alarmed / alarming 237
alert 144
/an 88,90,92,94,146,
190, 205, 206
a
alike 132,
a bit 134
few
235
(of)
all
autumn 94
apparently 156
avail of
appeal 62
available 132
appear
alive 132
a bit of 104
a
144
apparent 42
110,206
average 136
42, 46, 62, 124,
2,
120
132, 140, 164, 190, 192,
avoid 46, 228
228
appoint 44
awake 132, 202
award 44, 58
aware 42, 132, 140, 144
away 198
allegation 76
appreciate 46, 154, 222
awful 134, 140
able 140
allege 50, 62
approve 60
awkward 140
about 184
alleged 138
approve of 60, 188
above 176
above all 174
absent from 120
allegedly 142
argue 66, 194
allocated 138
argue about
allow 46, 58, 62, 228
absolute 132
almost 102,134,150,154
absolutely 134
alone 132,144,154
abusive 76
along 176, 198
academic 136
accept 124, 194
also 174
accident 194
alternatively 174
argument 76
arise 202
arms trade 86, 90
army 80
arrange 46, 62, 68
arrest 228
arts festival 86
acclimatise 120
although 118,164,174
as 144,146,158,174,198
according to 156
altogether 154
as a
account for 188
always
as a result 174
ache 222
amaze 192
amazed 78, 140
amazed / amazing 237
as a rule 150
amazing 140
ambition 186
as long as 174
a little (of) 235
a lot (of)
a
82,100,234
number of
apply 62
all
over 176
applying 138
all
the same 174
all
82, 110
a / the majority of 82
ability
82,102,233,234
of a sudden 4
all (of)
186
alternative 194
acknowledge 2, 66
acknowledgement 76
across 176
acton 188
4, 36,
150
among 178
among other things
among others 178
active 144
adamant 76
adapt 60, 120
adapted 42
as
if
as
it
/ for /
as soon as
6,
aspire to 56
annually 152
associate with 56
another 122
association 80
assume
affected 138
answer 56, 66, 76
answerback 188
anticipate 46, 222
afford 130
anxious 78
astonish 192
astonished 140
afterwards 174
any 96,186,232-33
any 82
any (of) 82, 233
anybody 98, 233
anyone 96, 98, 190, 233
anything 96, 98, 233
agitatedly 142
anyway
athletics
advise
2,
68
46, 62, 66,
72,
78, 130, 172
afraid
130,132,140144
after 6, 20,118,158174,
206
after all 174
after that 174
afternoon 94
174
be sure to 26, 124
68, 72, 78,130,
/
because
202
behave 120
astounded 78
believe
no time 152
same time
84
222
2,
30, 46, 50, 56 62,
64, 66, 124, 194, 222,
at that time 174
2,
200
before that 174
begin 46, 56, 60, 130, 228,
astonishingly 156
audience 80
with 184
222
beg 2,78
appalling 78
/
42, 132, 140, 164,
before 20,96,118,158174,
assure 66
attribute to 56
on
206
202
assuming (that) 174
attract
/
apart 182
become
50, 56, 66, 124,
apologise 2
agree about
228
118, 160, 174,
because of 160
apologetic 76
72, 124, 130, 222,
anywhere 98
beautiful 132
asleep 132
aim 26, 46, 186, 228
alarmed 140
62 66,
bear 202
beat 202
for / of 184
apart from 182
26, 46, 50,
228
ask of 184
at the
be to 24
beach 90
ask 44, 46, 56, 58, 62, 66,
agreed 76
2,
be supposed to 28, 190, 226
ashamed 132,140,144,186
at
34
likely
be on the point of 26
be on the verge of 26
as well 174
atmosphere 90
atomic 132
attempt 46, 186
agree
be going to 18,20,166,223
20, 174
annoying 140
advisable 78
be due to 26
as though 170
advice 76
228
be allowed to 30, 207
be on the brink of 26
advertise 62
194,
58, 60, 62, 66, 124,
be about to 24, 26
be afraid 124
be
adult 136
2,
164, 202, 205
be able to 30,130,207,224
many 146
as much 146
ask about
admit
be 42, 128, 130, 132 140,
be certain 124
announcement 76
annoy 192
annoyed 76, 140
admire 154
base on 56
were 170
aside 182
admiration 186
barely 96, 200
be bound to 26
and 112,174,206
angry 76, 134, 140
announce 44, 50, 58, 66
adjust 60
bad 140
ban 186
as
178
bedroom 86
back 198
bald 42
170
as to 68, 76, 172
adhere to 56
with 184
consequence 174
amongst 178
amount of 100
amused 78
address book 86
baby's
228
belong 12,166
174
belong to 222
belongings 84
below 176
bend 56, 202
beneath 176
besides 118,174,182
bet 202
between 178
287
Index of lexical items
care 150
big 134
company director 92
daily 152
complain 66
dance 56
bind 202
care about
biologically 156
careful 140, 144
complete
careless 144
completely 134,150
dark 144
carelessly 156
data 84
birds' nests
86
/
dare 60, 204, 207
144
132,
bleed 202
carryout 44
blind 42
cast 202
blow 202
book 58
cast back 44
catch 46, 58, 202, 229
complex 144
complimentary 76
computer 90
computer keyboard 86
concentrate 60
bored 144
catch out 188
concern 38, 186, 192
deal 202
cause 62, 228
concern with 120
debate 68, 172
boring 144
caused 138
concerned
both 110
cautious 144
conclude
cease 228
conclusion 76
202
bite
bored
both
/
boring 237
233
(of)
140, 144
certain 76,
bother 38
confess
day 102
deaf 42
78, 132, 140, 172
decide 30, 50, 62, 68
decision 76, 186
68
2,
2,
dawn 94
dawn on 192
declare
2,
44, 56,
confide 66
decrease 56
brave 140
chance 102,130,186194
confidence 102
deep 134
bravely 156
change 56
cheap 144
confident 140
deep(ly) 142
conflict 172
definitely 156
cheap(ly) 142
confusion 172
delay 228
check 66, 68
check into 188
congratulate 2
delighted 130
congratulations 84
demand
chemical 132
consent 62
democratic 132
bring 46, 58, 202
chicken drumsticks 86
consequently 174
bring about 188
choice 194
consider
broadcast 202
choose 58,68,130,172,202
broken 138
chosen 138
brother-in-law 86
civil
brush up on 44
claim 50, 76
break 56,202
break
188
in
break-out 86
brick-built 138
briefly
148
2, 8,
46, 50, 56, 62,
228
demonstrate 44, 50, 58
deny 2, 46, 58, 62, 66 96,
constitute 222
228
222
2,
constantly 4
136
66, 72, 78,
194, 228
department 80
depend 60, 62
depend on 172
66, 68,172,194, 222,
consist of
66
decline 228
66
60,
certainly 156
arm 86
boy's
contain 222
describe 44, 46, 58
clean 136
content 132
description 186
clean up 188
continually 4
deserve 130
burn 56, 202
clear 140, 144
continue 46, 228
deservedly 142
burst 202
clear
conversation 90
desire 186,222
busy 134, 140
busy with 120
clearly 148,150,156
convince 66
despite 164
clear(ly) 142
convinced 42
deter 60
but 174,182,206
clever 134
cook
but for 166,182
climate 90
cost 2,58,186,192,202,222
determine 68
buy 58, 202
by 94,118,180
by air 94
by bus 94
by car 94
climb 46
could 30,34,74,128,204,
determined 130
class
58,202
build
building materials industry
86
80
away 188
cling 227
56,
determination 186
58
207, 224, 225,
239
determinedly 142
close 56, 60
council 80
detest 60, 228
clothes 84
detract from 56
clothes shop 86
count 60, 62
countout 188
by contrast 174
club 80
country(side) 90
diabetes 84
by email 94
by phone 94
coal mine 86
cover up 188
differ 150
coffee 90
cowardly 142
differ
by plane 94
by post 94
coincidence 194
cow's milk 86
differentiate
cold 144
crazy 140
difficult 42,
by sea 94
by taxi 94
collect 58
creased 144
dig 202
college 80
creep 202
digital 132
come 42,46,152,198,202,
crew 80
criteria 84
dignified 142
by the time
by
train
6,
20
208, 228
94
calculate 50, 68
calculated 132
call
call
44
back 44, 188
on 72,188
call up 44
campaign 62
call
can 30,74,128,207,224,225
can't bear 46, 194
can't stand 194,
capable 132
288
for 184
229
critical 76,
command
comment
cup of tea 86
curious 140
76
commission 80
committee 80
common
134, 136
community 80
company 80
228
from 222
between 56
140
diplomatic 136
come about 192
come across 110
come in for 188
come to 188
come up against 44,188
62, 72, 78,
develop 150
direct 78, 144
136
crop up 188
direct(ly) 142
crowd 80
disagree 66
disagreement 172
crucial 78
culminate
in /
with 56
disappointedly 142
disapprove of 44, 60
discourage 60
curiously 150
customs
cut 202
officer
disappointed 78, 140
86
discover 50, 68, 228
discuss 68, 172
cut back on 188
discussion 76, 172, 186
cutout 188
dislike 12, 46, 60, 194,
228
Index of lexical items
get
148
down 44,188
dismissive 76
envisage 228
finally
dive 202
envy 58
financially 150, 156
get up 188
do 126,128,192,200,202,
equal 144
find 2, 46, 50, 56, 58, 66,
girls'
194, 202, 222
equate with 56
205, 227, 237
228
68
do out of 188
do so 126
especially 154
find out 46,
essential 78, 134
fine 132
domestic 134
establish 50, 68
fine(ly)
don't have to 38, 226
estimate 50
finish 56, 60,
doubt 2,124,166, 172,222
even 154
first
122,150,152
even
fit
2,
202
58
doubtful
76,
140
if
164, 170
go
228
even so 174
fix
downstairs 148
even though 164,174
flat(ly)
draw 202
evening 94
flee
202
dread 228
every 82,102,186,234
flick
through 188
dreadfully 134
every few (months) 102
fling
dream 202
every
dress 120
every other (kilometre) 102
focus 60
drink 56, 202
every single (day) 102
follow 192
drink up 188
every so often 102,150
fond 186
drive 56, 202
fondness 186
drop 56
everybody 82
everyone 82
duck's eggs 86
everything 82
foolishly 156
due to 160
exact 144
for 12, 14, 174, 184
during 180
excellent 134
for
dwell 202
except 182
for (reasons) 160
except for 182
forbid
excepted 182
force 62,
each 82,102,110,122,205,
234
each
(of)
233
each other 236
earlier 174
earnings 84
easy 140
foolish 140
grateful 76
forever 4
greatly 150
46 50, 54,
64, 66, 72 124, 130, 222
explain 44, 50, 66, 68
forget 46,60,62,68,130,
ground 90
explanation 76
formal 144
extremely 134, 154
forwards 148
grow 42, 202
grow up 188
grumble 66
found 138
guarantee
2, 8,
economic 132
economics 84
fail
effect 186
fair
either 122,233
fairly
26,
56, 62, 96, 130,
failure
fall
228
186
144
134
202, 228
through 188
fall
elderly 142
false 136
electorate 80
familiarise with 120
family 80
136
emerge 192
far-reaching 138
emphasise 194
fashion 142
empty 136
fast 134
enable 62, 228
encourage 50, 62,
fast-growing 138
228
encouragement 76
end 60
end up 42
enemy 80
enjoy 46, 154, 166, 194, 228
enormously
enough 146
150, 154
entire 102,132
entirely 134, 150, 160
228
environment 90
entitle 62,
202
227, 228
96,
group 80
202
forgive 58, 202
favourite 144
fear 38, 90, 186
federation 80
feed 202
60
64, 66,132,140,164194,
202, 222, 228
feel like 228
fetch 58
few 104, 146
few (of) 235
feel 2, 30, 44, 46, 50,
2,
26, 58, 72 76,
194
free 140
guess 68, 124
free(ly) 142
guess so
freeze 202
guilty 136,140
frequent 144
gymnastics 84
/
not 124
friendly 134, 142
frighten 192
frightened 132
frightened / frightening
from
my / his / her
perspective 156
from time to time 150
134
had better 40, 207, 224
90
hair
hand 44, 58
hang 152,202
hanger-on 86
happen 168,192,228
happily 142
fun 144
furious 140
furniture
habit 186
hair-raising 138
237
fully
72,
2,
frankly 150, 156
either of 82
electric
good-looking 138
exclusively 134
face 46
or 82
good 140, 194
good and 136
forecast 76, 202
eat 56, 202
...
one thing 174
go over 188
go rotten 42
go through with 188
go up 150
go wrong 42
goat's cheese 86
foreign 136
exciting 237
easy-going 138
either
202
152,198,202
excitedly 142
/
expect
eager 144
fly
142
42, 146, 152, 198, 202,
228
go bad 42
go bust 42
go dead 42
go missing 42
go mouldy 42
gooff 42
go on 62
goods 84
government 80
grab 228
grammar 90
excited
each of 82
again 102
glad 132,140
glasses case 86
142
down 198
now and
school 86
give 44, 58, 202
96
furthermore 174
future 90
happy
134, 140
hard 140
hardly 38,96,150,158,
200, 225
hardly ever 150,152
gather 124
hate 46,60,130,194 222,
gather up 188
generally 156
228
have 2, 60, 62, 114, 128,
202, 205, 222
generation 80
have got 128
generously 156
general 132
environmental 132, 134
fight
202
genuine 136
have got to 36, 207, 224,
225-26
environmentally 156
fill
in
110
get 42,58,132,202,22
have to 36, 38,
fewer 104
74,
225-26
289
Index of lexical items
imperative 78
it
importance 90
it
hear out 188
important
itself
help 44, 60, 192, 228
impossible 96, 134, 140
help on with 188
improvement 186
hear 30, 44, 46, 60, 124
202, 222, 228
78,
134
in
118,180,198
in
addition 174
her 122
in
amazement 142
here 82
in
any case 174
in
case 20
comes 198
228
order to 162
kneel 202
love
of 164
way that
inasmuch as 160
incline to / towards 56
inclined 140
162
66
infected 42
hurriedly 142
influence 186
hurt 192, 202
inform 50, 66, 68
I
I
learn 68,
least 144
on 56
leave 58, 194, 208, 202
leave out 188
lend 44, 58, 207, 202
insofar as 174
I
see 4
I
think 18
I
understand 4
I
wonder
intend
18
interested / interesting 237
20, 64,166,172,174,200,
not 172
if
only 170
if
so 174
introduce 44, 58
invaluable 134
180
invitation 76
I'm sure 18
invite 62, 72,
imaginable 132
imagine
2,
46, 60,
170, 222,
228
immensely 134
290
228
involved 132
68 124,
iron
90
irrelevant
issue 76
42
march 152
mathematics 84
matter 228
maximum 132
may 34, 74, 128,
me 208
8, 26, 46,
little
little
live
live
den 86
104,146,200
(of) 235
ones 122
152
up to 188
lively
142
228
medical 132
medically 156
mend 58
lion's
130 140,
meanwhile 174
measles 84
measure 2, 222
media 84
meet 202
84
225
means 84
likewise 174
linguistics
207,
192, 202, 222,
likelihood 186
little
Internet 90
interview 186
42, 132
illness
interesting 140
interestingly 156
if
72, 78,
interested 42, 138
206
ill
64
intention 186
ideologically 156
if
8, 26, 50,
intensely 134
identified 138
202
2,46,60,130,154 166,
194, 202, 228
like
130
144
let
235
202
go 60
in 44
in on 188
out 44
152, 202
light
intake 86
make 44,58,60,140,202
make up 188
manage 62, 228
manner 142
many 100, 110, 146
many (of) 233, 234
mean
lie
insulting 76
majority of 82
meal 180
let
instruction 76
idea 130,186
ideal
80
mad 140
let 60,
let
instruct 46, 68, 72, 78
reckon 18
low 134
less (of)
let
instead 174
I
104,144,146
less
78
institute
202
learn about / of 184
insistent 76
imagine 18
202
leap 202
individual 136
hope 18
lovely and 136
mainly 134, 154, 160
142
lean 202
indifferent 172
innocent 136
hear 4
lovely 140, 142
made-up 138
150
lead 202
industrially 156
I
largely 134, 154, 160
lay
human 136
human race 90
expect 18
228
lucky ones 122
later 174
hugely 134
gather 4
46, 60, 130, 194,
lamb chops 86
late(ly)
indication 76
I
124,
late 136
209
however 174, 208
huge 134
I
68
lack 186
last
increase 56
insist 60,
2,
luckily 156
inconceivable 78
bet 18
50, 60,
know about /of 184
186
income tax 86
inflict
2, 12,
166, 202, 222
included 138
indicate
know
100,234
loved ones 122
202
knit
home-made 138
I
lots of
lose 202
in
inability
146 196,
kind 140
loud(ly) 142
inappropriate 78
52, 68, 82,
looker-on 86
kindly 142,156
holiday 180
how
look up to 188
keep 42, 46, 60, 202
keep on 62
order that 162
such a
hourly 152
look to 26
look up 188
in
that 160,174
222, 228
horizon 90
look out 188
contrast 174
in
72,102,124130,194,
look forward to 154
my / his / her opinion
in
62,
down on 188
in
156
222
look forward 60
just(ly) 142
holdout 188
hold over 44
54,
look
just 154
hold 56,202
hope 8,10,26,46,50
42, 164,
in
in spite
honestly 150, 156
2,
look after 110, 188
jury 80
high(ly) 142
hit 192, 202,
236
judge 56
inconsequence 174
himself 120, 236
longest-serving 138
look
joke 66
236
hesitate 228
hide 120, 202
herself 120,
194
journalist 92
help out 188
hence 174
here
50, 140, 192,
says here 4
mention 44, 50,
58,
66 194
mere 132
mess up 188
midday 94
midnight 94
might 34, 128, 204,
225, 239
mind 46, 228
logically 156
mine 208
London-based 138
minimum
lone 132
miserable 140
lonely 142
miss 228
long 62, 72
mistake for 56
long-lasting 138
mobile 136
132
207,
Index of lexical items
modern 144
money-making 138
month 102
monthly 152
nor 200
ourselves 236
pour 58
nor do
200
normally 36
out 198
practically 134
outcome 86
predict
northern 132
outskirts
prefer
morally 156
not 200
84
outwardly 156
more 144
more and more 136
more wrong 144
not a single 98
over 176, 180
pregnant 42
not any 98, 186
overheads 84
premises 84
not certain 76
overhear 60, 228
prepare 120, 228
moreover 174
morning 94
most 110,144
mostly 154
not
many 104
not much 104
owe
prepared 140
owing to 160
present 90
not once 152
own 2,222
own up 60
press 80
most(ly) 142
nothing 54, 182
move 56, 120
move off 188
notice 46, 60, 66, 68 194,
mow
notify 66
I
notone 98
now
much
much
(of) 233,
must
36, 40, 74, 128,
100, 146, 154
234
mustn't 36, 38,
74,
207
226
58, 194
panic 38
park 56
pretty 134
prevail 62
prevent 60, 96
particularly 154
previously 174
84
particulars
pride 186
partly 160
pride on 120
object 60
pass 58
obligatory 78
passer-by 86
observation 76
past 90
observe 44, 46, 60, 228
pause 56
namely 112
obvious 42
pay
naturally 150, 156
obviously 156
228
peace-keeping 138
nearby 150
occasional 132
peculiar 144
nearly 102,134,150
occupy ... with 120
odd 136,140
pen top 86
oddly 150
percent 84
of 144, 184
perfect 134, 144
off 198
perfectly 134
my
122,
206
myself 120, 236
name
44
2,
need 38, 46, 130, 194,
224, 228
needn't 38, 226
neither 122, 200
neither do
I
207,
200, 237
offer 44, 58, 62, 72,
primarily 134
private 136
probability 186
probably 156
58, 192, 202,
promise
property 90
proposal 186
neither of 82,110
often 150
58
personally 156
neither (of) 233
old 136
persuade 50, 62, 66,
nerve-wracking 138
phenomena 84
nevertheless 174
on 118,184
on condition that 174
on many occasions 150
on the contrary 174
on the other hand 174
news 84
once 6
pick
next 150, 152
once a week 152
plainly 150
nice 140
one 88,122
one another 88, 236
one of 82
ones 122
plan
oneself 120
pleased 140, 144
150,200, 225
nice
and 136
night 102
no
54, 98, 182, 186, 200,
233
no amount of 98
no bother 98
96
26, 66, 72 76,
proper 132
permission 186
permit
2,
124,130
pronounce 56
office-worker 86
never 36, 38, 54, 96, 98,
professional 136
prohibit 60,
neither /nor 82
nervous 140
problem 76,186
people 48, 84
228
66, 124
pretend 62
particular 136
nowhere 54, 98
number of 82,100
228
presumably 150, 156
part 110
152
194
46, 78, 130 154,
194, 222,
presume
222, 228
202
2,
2,
2,
propose 26, 44, 50, 64 66,
72,
228
72,
78
prospect 186
proud 186
phone 56
prove 42,56,58,164,202
phonetics 84
provide for 188
physically 156
provided 20, 138
physics 84
provided that 174
up 188
8, 10,
public 80, 136
publications department
26, 50,
68, 186,
62 64,
228
86
228
pull
plans 130
pull to 188
play 56, 58
pleasing 237
pushto 188
push-up 86
put 203
only 38,154,200,225
pleased
chance 98
only later 152
pleasure 90
comment 98
open
plenty of 82,100
idea 98
opportunity 130,186
point 194
longer 194
opposite 132
point out 58, 66
one 38, 98
problem 98
opposition 80
pointedly 142
option 186
police
sooner 158
or 112, 174
politically 156
sooner than 200
orchestra 80
politics
noway 98
order
popular 134
quick(ly) 142
no wonder 98
nobody 38, 54, 98, 182
228
order about 188
population 80
quiet 134
positive 140
quietly 148
no(body) 190
original 136
possess 222
quit 203
nominate 44
none (of) 82, 98,
noon 94
otherwise 174
possibility
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
110,
233
56,
2,
60
46, 58, 62, 72, 76,
78,
ought to 40, 128, 204,
224, 226
207,
/
84
put
down
put up to 188
put up with 188
quarterly 152
84
question 76, 172, 194
quickly 142, 148
186
quite 150, 238
possible 132
post 58
as 188
put out 44
rabies
84
rarely
36,96,150,152,200
291
Index of lexical items
rather 134,150,170
run into 188
similar 132
staff
read 44, 56, 58, 203
runner-up 86
similarly 174
stairs
simple 140
stand 152,203
read-out 86
sad 140
ready 140
since
satisfaction 186
144
sink
reason 102,108,186,194
recall 46, 60, 62,
say 50, 54, 58, 62, 66 68,
228
reckon 54
50, 66, 72, 78
46, 58, 62, 72 96,
secret 194
regard 194
/
see 30,44,50,60,68194,
with 56
203, 222, 228
region to region 94
regret
2,
62, 154, 222,
228
seek 203
reluctance 186
seem
reluctant 96
seen 140
remain 42
seldom 96,150,152,200
remaining 138
remember
30, 46, 60, 62
68, 166, 194,
2,
228
50, 62, 66, 68, 72
remind of 56
repair 58
repeatedly 142
report 44, 46, 50, 56, 58
reportedly 142
78
require 46, 66, 78
resemble 222
resent 46, 60, 194, 228
resolve 26
60
resort
sell 58,
203, 228
selves 120
send 44, 46, 58, 203
sense 186
seriously 150, 156
sew 203
shall 40, 74, 128,
shall / shan't
reputedly 142
2, 72,
120
shake 203
228
request
self
set 203
reply 66, 76
66,
42, 46, 62, 124 132,
164,190,192, 222
62
remind
seeing as 160
seeing that 160
regularly 150
rely 60,
sea 90
seaside 90
228
regard as
136
scornful 76
refusal 76, 186
130,
school 80
scientific
recommendation 76
207
26
shear 203
shed 203
sheer 132
responsible 132
from 188
result
resulting 138
reveal 50
134
rich
84
203
riches
ride
right
144
right across 176
rightly 156
ring
rip
rise
203
56
203
risk
186,228
roll
152
rough 144
run 152, 203
292
steal
stick
shine 203
shock 192, 228
shocked
140
78,
stipulate 78
slowly 148
stolen 138
slow(ly) 142
stop 60, 228-29
small-scale 138
straight 136
smell 30, 203, 222
strange-sounding 138
smoke 56
strike 192,
so 146,174,200
strive
strong 134
so do
study 56
so far 180
stupid 140
so long as 174
stupidly 156
so that 162,174
subdued 142
soft 144
subsequently 174
soft-spoken 138
such 200
solely 154
such that 162
some 96, 110, 122, 206, 232
some 82
some (of) 82, 233
somebody 48, 96, 233
someone 48, 96, 233
short(ly) 142
74, 128, 198,
226
228
shrink 203
shut 56, 203
shut up 188
sign 186
68,
66
suddenly
4,
142
suffer 150
sufficiently 146
suggest
44, 50, 54, 58,
2,
66, 72, 78, 124,
228
something 48, 96, 190, 233
sometimes 36, 148
suggestion 76, 130
somewhat 154
summer 94
soon 174
sun 90
sooner 158,170,200
superb 134
sorry 132, 140
suppose 20, 50, 54, 64,
suitable 132
124, 170
supposed to 28, 190, 226
supposedly 142
sow 203
supposing 20, 170, 174
speak 60, 203
sure 76, 132, 140
special 144
surprise 192, 194
specialise in 56
surprised 78
specifically 154
surprised / surprising 237
speculate 66, 68
surprisingly 156
speculation 76, 172
surroundings 84
spill
46, 50, 58, 62,
200, 237
203
spend 203
short-term 138
show
I
203
203
so as to 162
spell
down 188
shop around 188
203
stink
speed 203
shoot
207, 224,
134,150
203
sling
shoot 203
should 40,
203
203
203
sting 203
slightly
sour-tasting 138
she 208
84
sleep 207, 203
sound 2,42,90,164,222
shave 120
statement 76
statistics
sleeping 132
sort out 188
shame 186
shampoo 90
state-of-the-art 86
stay 42, 180
scare 192
recognised 42
recommend
200
46,56,60,62,130,
228-29
start
sky 90
slide
scarcely 96,150,158
203
152,203
72,124, 203,229
recent 144
2,
sit
saw 203
reassure 50, 66
refuse
savings 84
savings account 86
reasonably 134
174
sing 56, 58, 203
save 58
134,154
really
6, 12, 14, 118,
since (because) 160,174
186
satisfied
222
realise 2, 68,
stand up 188
simply 134,154
sadly 156
ready-made 138
real
84
84
203
203
203
splash out 188
split 203
split up 188
suspect 124
suspicious 42
swear
72,
203
sweep 203
spin
sweet-smelling 138
spit
swell 203
203
spot 229
spread 203
spoil
spring 94, 203
swim 152,207,203
swing 203
sympathetic 76
sympathy 102
tactful 76
take 58, 192, 194, 203, 207
take after 44,188
Index of lexical items
take against 188
therefore 174
underneath 176
take on 110
these 122,229
understand
takeover 188
they 48
take up on 188
they say 4
taken 138
think
talk
60
talk
about
of / on / with
/
down to 44
talk
undoubtedly 156
203, 222
undress 120
8, 68,
8, 10,
172
weekly 152
weep 203
weigh 2, 222
welcome 140
unexpectedly 142
unhappy
60
42,
140
unique 134, 144
talk out of 188
thin(ly) 142
this 92, 122, 206,
tea cup 86
this
morning
/
229
week
/
month 6
80
university
way 142,186
we 48
weak 134
wear 203
weave 203
week 102
undertake 26
62, 64, 66, 68, 124, 194,
taste 30, 192, 222
tea leaf 86
46
203, 222
2, 8, 10, 50, 54, 56,
think of
30,
68,124,166194,
50, 66,
think about
68,172,184
wave 56
2, 12,
unknown 134
well 132
unless 20, 172, 174
well-behaved 138
unlikely
well-resourced 138
though 164, 174
96
unnecessary 78
team 80
thoughtful 140
unprofessional 140
were 170
wet 203
tear 203
threat 76
unreasonable 140
what
threaten 62, 72
unsure 132, 140, 172
teach 44, 46, 58, 62, 66, 68,
203, 228
away from 120
tear
those 122, 138
52, 64, 68, 76 108,
227
technical 136
through 118,176,180
unsure,
technically 156
throughout
not sure 76
what if 20
what with
tell 44, 46, 50, 58, 60, 62,
throw
until 6, 20, 158, 174, 180,
whatever 108
180
176,
44, 58, 203,
228
what's more 174, 208
200
66, 68, 72, 124, 203,
throwaway 188
228-29
thrust 203
until
thus 174
unwell 132
tidy up 188
unwillingness 186
apart 188
tell
tend 46,190
140
terrible 134,
till
140
terrific
when
now 180
up
140
237
till
180
tired / tiring
thank 2
title
thanks 84
to 130
upset 78, 140, 192
that 106,110,122,138,196,
to date 180
upstairs 148
to
208, 229
that
112
is
200, 208
whenever 118,174
where 64, 68, 82,108,196,
208
whereabouts 84
whereas 164, 174
whereby 108
whether 64, 68, 76, 172
which 52, 64, 68, 106, 110,
up to 180
than 198
up-to-date 86
44
my / his / her knowledge
urge 72, 78
156
urgent 78
6,20, 54, 68,108,158,
174. 196,
up 198
180
tired
118
122. 196, 208, 209,
227
today 6
use 194
whichever 108
tomorrow 150
use up 188
while 20,118,158,164,174,
the affluent 122
too 146,154,174
used to 32,74, 190,207,
the disadvantaged 122
total 132
the 92,94,122,144,205,
206
206
whilst 164
224, 225
who
52,64,68,106,108,
the elderly 122
totally 134
usually 148
the homeless 122
touch 228
utter 132
the low-paid 122
town 90
utterly 134
the main 122
transpire 192
whoever 108
whole 102,134
vary 56, 150
the majority of 82
travel industry
whom
the minute
second
/
moment
/
90
tread 203
tree-lined 138
the only 122
the poor 122
tremendous 134
tremendously 154
the position of 92
trouble about
the post of 92
true 136, 144
the privileged 122
try 130,228
the rich 122
tryout 188
the role of 92
turn 42
the slightest 186
turn
the sole 186
turn out 42, 192
unbelievably 156
the young 122
uncertain 76, 140, 172
their
then 152, 174
there 50, 82, 190
there goes 198
190
225
236
willing 140
78
willingness 186
volunteer 62, 72
56, 203
wind 203
wind up 188
win
vote 44
72
wait 62, 228
winter 94, 102
wake 56,203
wisely 156
wish 170,228
walk 152
want
8, 10, 26,
uncomfortable 140
undecided 172
under 176
underlying 132
46,
64
72,
68
72,
62, 66,
2, 50,
78, 228,
warning
229
76,
78
wash 56,120
wash up 56, 188
watch 60, 229
with 118,184
with confusion 142
130, 228, 229
warn
209
will 18, 20, 26, 32, 128, 207,
180
uncertainty 172
120,
68, 108, 196,
wild 136
102,134,154
visually 156
vow
209
wide(ly) 142
188
unaware 140
the whole of 180
is
with 120
unable 96, 140
the wealthy 122
there
/
vital
in
why
violently 148
visit
way 68
206
themselves
much 154
virtually
52, 106, 110,
whose 52,108,209,227
view 194
the number of 82
the
very 134, 154
very
treatment 180
6
196, 208, 209, 227
without 96,118
woman's face 86
women's clinic 86
wonder 4, 8, 68
wonderful 134, 140
world 90
293
Index of lexical items
worn 144
worried 42,140,144
worried
/
worrying 237
worriedly 142
worry 38, 192
would 32,74, 128,207,224,
225, 239
would like 130
would rather 170
would sooner 170
wring 203
write 56, 58, 203
wrong 144
wrongly 156
yesterday 152
yet 174
you 48
young 134
your 122, 206
yours 208
yourself 120, 236
yourselves 236
294
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