Journal of Vocational Education & Training
ISSN: 1363-6820 (Print) 1747-5090 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjve20
A new approach to communication training in the
workplace
Heather Smigiel & Lorraine Merritt
To cite this article: Heather Smigiel & Lorraine Merritt (1999) A new approach to communication
training in the workplace, Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 51:4, 629-640, DOI:
10.1080/13636829900200097
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COMMUNICATION TRAINING IN THE WORKPLACE
Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Vol. 51, No. 4, 1999
A New Approach to Communication
Training in the Workplace
HEATHER SMIGIEL & LORRAINE MERRITT
University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
ABSTRACT Contemporary literature identifies communication skills as vital
tools for success in the workplace. Currently, in Australia these skills are
identified as generic competencies in many workplaces and vocation, and
large numbers of contemporary training programmes focus on the
development of these vital skills. However, research and anecdotal evidence
from the workplace suggests that current methods used in training
programmes are not developing the level of communication skill necessary in
today’s workplace. This article will describe innovative methods drawn from
the fields of theatre and educational drama, which have the capacity to
develop high levels of competency in communication in workplace and
vocational training.
Introduction: importance of communication
What would you find in common in the selection criteria for a position
working as a teller in a bank and for the Chief Executive Officer of a
multinational company? The answer: proficiency in communication skills.
These skills are demanded, but are often misunderstood and seldom
developed formally in the workplace. The knowledge and practice of
communication should include the understanding of the importance of
congruent transmittal of messages and the physical components of
non-verbal communication, knowledge of the differences between
non-verbal behaviour as an idiom and non-verbal behaviour as a skill,
awareness of appropriate and inappropriate physical communication, the
ability to use voice to enhance communication effectiveness, the
understanding of self, and the ability to empathise and communicate
effectively with others.
These skills are not only essential for professional proficiency, but
also crucial for life in general. Everyday life demands flexible and
comprehensive communication ability. Professional competence involves
the development of cognitive, technical and communication skills (Hargie,
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HEATHER SMIGIEL & LORRAINE MERRITT
1986). Yet the training of may professionals places emphasis on the first
two at the expense of the third (Field, 1990; Hargie, 1993; Karpin, 1994;
Marginson, 1993).
Lack of appropriate training in communication leads to disappointing
standards of communication in the workplace. For example the following
writers have observed:
... attention, though, has been directed to deficiencies in the basic
training received by, for example, pharmacists (Hargie and Morrow,
1987), nurses (Davies, 1976) and doctors (Pendleton, 1984). The
interpersonal dimension has all too frequently been ignored,
underestimated or misunderstood. (Hargie, 1993, p. 6)
However, contemporary Australian workplace policy literature identifies
communication skills as vital tools for success in the workplace. Currently
in Australia these skills are identified as generic competencies (Karpin,
1994) in many workplaces and vocations. This paper will expand on this
imperative and describe innovative methods through which these skills
may be developed in workplace and vocational training.
Background
In 1989, Commonwealth and State Ministers for vocational education and
training made the decision to introduce a competency-based system of
vocational training in Australia. (This decision firmly placed
competency-based education on the training agenda.) The greatest impact
of competency-based training (CBT) has been in the vocational education
and training sectors where the CBT system has been introduced through
the National Training Reform Agenda (NTRA). The introduction of the CBT
system in Technical, Adult and Further Education (TAFE) has resulted in
the need for specific and generic competencies to be developed in all
training courses. As a result of these initiatives most vocational areas have
developed their own list of specific competencies.
However, contemporary managers focus on the importance of
generic and transferable skills as well as those sills that are specific to
particular industry. For example, in 1993 Marginson reported on a study of
job advertisements and recruiting practices in which the most important
competencies were found to be ‘oral communication (nominated by 74 per
cent of employers), teamwork (73). interpersonal skills (71) and
conceptual and analytical ability (66)’ (Marginson, 1993, p. 23).
Marginson (1993) asserts that in all sectors of education, attention is
moving away from command of knowledge as the primary goal, and
towards the development of the skills needed in decision-making,
problem-solving and thinking generally. These skills, he argues, are most
needed for the workforce of the future.
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COMMUNICATION TRAINING IN THE WORKPLACE
The idea of generic skills (or competencies) has been further
developed and put into practice through the introduction of a set of Key
Competencies (Mayer, 1992a) as one of the outcomes of post-compulsory
education. The Key Competencies were proposed by the Mayer
Committee as part of a national project to identify the employment related
learning that young people should gain in the post-compulsory years at
school or in training.
Seven Key Competencies were proposed by the committee:
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collecting, analysing and organising information;
communicating ideas and information;
planning and organising activities;
working with others and in teams;
using mathematical ideas and techniques;
solving problems;
using technology.
These key competencies were determined to be those ‘that are essential
for effective participation in the emerging patterns of work and work
organisation across industries and occupations’ and ‘things that enable
people to put their general education to work’ (Mayer, 1992a, p. i).
The idea that the most important skills are those which are not job
specific but are able to be transferred and transported between various
forms of employment is supported by all sectors of education and training.
For example, Field (1990) refers to these skills as ‘under the surface sills’
and writes:
Traditional approaches to training have often overemphasised task
skills, and either treated “under the surface skills” indirectly or even
ignored them all together ... (Field, 1990, p. 42)
When considered together, CBT, the Mayer competencies and the work of
the NTRA illustrate shift in perception among the policy makers of the
education and training community: a shift which incorporates a change in
focus from the need to develop specific skills to the need for more generic
skills. This is the shift that Field (1990) advocates as necessary to skill the
workforce of Australia.
Generic skills are defined commonly as communication skills, team
building skills, interpersonal skills, conceptual and analytical ability and
individual or self understanding (Marginson, 1993). These skills also have
been defined as ‘soft skills’ (Karpin, 1994).
The ability to communicate has also been labelled as one of the soft
skills. In 1994, Karpin acknowledge the importance of ‘soft skills’ for
professionals of the future:
It is ironic that skills which ten years ago were regarded as “soft” – those
skills which involve human interrelationships and communication – are
among the core skills which commentators and researchers tell us are at
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HEATHER SMIGIEL & LORRAINE MERRITT
the vanguard of successful practice in Australia and globally. (Karpin,
1994, p. 40)
These directions demand a change in training methods from traditional
techniques of knowledge transmission to methods which are interactive
and focus on individual understanding and direct engagement. In
Performing Arts and Drama in Education these qualities are integral to the
art forms. Dramatic activities can provide the ‘supporting context’
(Bruner, 1978) that enables development of greater understanding or,
indeed, new learning. The principles of educational drama demand
involvement in action and reflection on this action. and through this
process participants are able to learn about or make meaning from a range
of situations from beyond their life experience as they are encountered in
the dramatic action. Drama provides contexts for the dynamic interplay of
these new situations with the participant’s personal experience and
perspectives. Through this medium the experience of the individual is
valued and their communication ability is developed, while the holistic
nature of the experience provides potential for retention and
transferability into other situations.
Drama and Theatre Skills
Although research, in theatre and in drama in schools and in artistic
contexts, shows that this type of learning will occur, the exploration of the
benefits of these methods has not taken place in workplace and vocational
education. This article will further elaborate on these methods and
introduce a project in Australia that has been established to research the
success of the application of theatre and drama practices to develop
communication skills in vocational training.
First, we will focus on specific vocal and physical skills, integral to
the actor in training, which can be applied outside the performance
domain to enhance an individual’s communicative effectiveness. Secondly,
we will focus on the use of role play to develop the understanding and
empathy crucial to good communication practice.
Today there are many contributions (e.g. Hargie [1993] and Mayer
[1992a,b]) to workplace literature regarding the importance of good
communication. This importance is acknowledged in diverse fields such
as: the health industry, the corporate world and in self-improvement. The
theory is soundly established and the principles of god communication
practice noted. However, research indicates that there appears to be a gap
between the intellectual analysis of the knowledge and the transference of
it into practical use. The ‘what’ is established, but the detail of the ‘how’
often not recognised.
The ‘what’ is widely documented in communication literature. There
is a recognition of the verbal component of messages being the least
significant indicator of the message (Drummond, 1993, p. 25). It is widely
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COMMUNICATION TRAINING IN THE WORKPLACE
accepted that there is more to communication than written transcript of
the words. It is through the paralinguistic (pitch, tone, volume, accent,
pause), extra linguistic (habitual, long-term biases that the individual
speaker imposes on the vocal performance of linguistic and paralinguistic
elements [Darby, 1981]) and non-linguistic (tacesics, proxemics, kinesics)
mediums that the subtle cues of communication are delivered. It is the
non-verbal aspect of communication which is the vital expression of an
individual’s subjective experience and is understood by the way of
intuitive interpretation (Newham, 1993, p. 34). It is in these non-verbal
components of communication that the effective use of self as
communicator needs not only to understood, but also integrated into
practical and continuous use.
Educational drama is a ‘symbol system’ (Curriculum Corporation,
1994a, p. 3) that has the capacity to express, hold and communicate
meaning. It is a communication system but is also a vehicle for the
development of communication skills both written and oral. Parsons,
(1984), in a state-wide study of schools, found that educational drama
provided opportunities for students to use language or a wider variety of
purpose than otherwise occurs in classrooms. Drama for people of all
ages, involves communication with other people, sharing ideas,
developing shared meanings, responding to others and expressing ideas.
Drama appears in English curricula as a means of developing language skill
and understanding, for example:
Drama ... is an important means of extending the pupil’s language
repertoire, his [sic] confidence in speech, and his awareness of how
other people speak and behave. It is an essential part of language
teaching in primary and secondary schools. (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate
[UK],cited in Nixon, 1987, p. 16)
As Fleming (1994) asserts, an important contribution that drama makes to
the development of communication skills is through the powerful contexts
it provides for language to occur.
... the full value of drama for the development of language can only be
appreciated in relation to an understanding of the power of the art form
in creating contexts embedded with feeling, meaning and motivation
and in bracketing experience. (Fleming, 1994, p. 45)
We believe that it is within the fields of performing arts and drama
education that the answer to the ‘how’ of this practice exists. These fields
hold great resources, where the key vocal and physical skills of the actor
in training, and the understanding and empathy developed through
educational drama can be integrated into strategies that would assist any
individual to be more effective and efficient communicator. Rather than
the intellectual compartmentalisation of communication techniques, such
as conflict resolution, negotiation skills, this practical base would allow for
application into all professional contexts and the broader community.
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HEATHER SMIGIEL & LORRAINE MERRITT
The Voice and Body in Communication
When a person speaks, a great deal of information is conveyed about that
person, beyond that which is conveyed by the linguistic content. As soon
as a person opens his or her mouth, information about the biology,
sociology and psychology of that individual is revealed. The speaker’s sex,
approximate physical size, emotional state, state of physical health,
attitude towards the listener, attitude towards the content o the message,
social or ethnic class, regional origin and personal identity may be
deduced. The fields of psychiatry, theatre, psychology, medical science
and voice therapy have all investigated how the voice reveals the self.
Through the paralinguistic and extra-linguistic cues, the voice is a
barometer of our history, past and present.
Not only does the voice reflect our history and sense of self, so too
does our physical use, i.e. body movements and posture. Our bodies
absorb the experience of each day. The way we sit, walk and stand reflects
our lives. Each thought and sensation ripples through the body as daily
experience is reflected in posture and habitual muscular patterns. Our
muscular architecture rearranges itself as a result of our psychological
and emotional reactions to events and circumstances.
Vocal and Physical Skills
An actor needs a high level of awareness of physical and vocal use. A key
focus for communication effectiveness is physical and vocal
‘connectedness’. By physical connectedness, we mean where physical
ease exists in the body and in such a state that physical presence can be
developed. In this way the skill of the actor can be of use in daily
communications. Physical ease is achieved through physical centring – a
state of complete physical balance, where the spine is aligned and the
weight properly distributed. Physical ease also involves the removal of
unwanted tension from any part of the body where it may habitually lock
into. The resultant physical state is marked by availability to whatever the
moment may bring, through heightened kinaesthetic sensitivity. This
ability can be valuable in the workplace in a range of communication
situations. Physical presence is established through an awareness of
claiming the space that one finds oneself in. This is developed through a
sense of mentally extending oneself out into the space, rather than
retreating and minimising the self in it. A balanced relationship is
established between self and the space, so that the danger of being
overawed by situations (e.g. meetings, presentations, interviews) is
reduced. Through specific exercises, the body is allowed to become less
urgent, as the unwanted muscular wiring dissolves. In such a state, our
physical use can enrich the thoughts and feelings we wish to express
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through our words, rather than robbing the message of its communicative
power. Idiosyncratic behaviours, which may act as communication
distracters, are removed. Knowledge and use of these skills can be an
enhancement communication in workplace settings.
Vocal connectedness involves a voice richly supported by an organic
connection with one’s breath, a sound delivered with impetus through the
understanding of the physicality of speech and a committed energy in
releasing the words outside one’s body, so that the right voltage is found
for the specific communication situation.
There is nothing esoteric about the above mentioned techniques.
Rather their simplicity is often surprising. The starting point is developing
the awareness of self to be able to identify the presence of habitual
patterns and then through committed application to specific exercises
being able to let go of what may have become static vocal and physical
use.
In order for clear communication to occur, the verbal communication
needs to be supported by appropriate body use and paralinguistic
transmission, i.e. congruent transmittal. When we hear and see a
congruent message, we have a feeling that the person is speaking the truth
and allowing himself or herself to be who he or she is. If there are
non-verbal signs used that do not register as understandable or are
distracting, then a distorted or inaccurate message is received. One
presumes mutual understanding that doe not quite exist (Hargie, 1986).
To retrain and re-educate a person’s voice and physical use is to
empower that individual with dynamic mediums of communication. The
multi-dimensional nature of communication is enriched and
communication competence enhanced. The dis-serving of self, which
occurs through communication difficulties, need no longer exist.
Awareness through Educational Drama
In an era when self-development, consciousness-raising and the worth of
individual are valued, it is surprising that drama has not been
acknowledged more forcefully as a core learning medium in all
educational contexts. (Arnold, 1991, p. 13)
Those involved in educational drama have long advocated the power of
drama as a learning medium in educational contexts. It has been claimed
that involvement in drama develops understanding of self and of other
people (Bowskill, 1974; Wagner, 1976) and of situations (Bolton, 1979),
self-confidence (Wills, 1990), problem-solving ability (O’Neill & Lambert,
1982) and empathy (Way, 1967).
However, exploration of the effectiveness of educational drama as a
teaching methodology has occurred mainly within the relatively closed
boundaries of educational institutions such as school, colleges and
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HEATHER SMIGIEL & LORRAINE MERRITT
universities. Little investigation of the learning that is possible through
educational drama has occurred in workplace and vocational training
contexts.
However, strategies such as role play simulation, which have
parallels with the art form of drams, currently are being used in workplace
and vocational training programs around Australia. Cacioppe et al (1992)
report that 45% of organisations use role plays in training. Another
research project (Smigiel, 1993) also found that techniques such as role
play were being used in training programmes. However, trainers were not
getting the most out of these dramatic methods because they lack
understanding about educational drama and the learning possibilities in
training settings.
Many drama educationalists have written about the place drama can
have in developing communication skills. McGregor et al (1977) claim that:
Spoken language develops through social interaction and is one of the
prime media of dramatic expression. Different situations elicit and often
demand different forms of linguistic response. (p. 153)
Bolton (1979) comments that there are a wide variety of reading and
writing activities that can be structured within the drama that can extent
students experience in those forms of communication, and help:
... children grasp the conception of words on paper as codes signalling
experience. (p. 122)
Bryon (1986), makes a stronger claim that:
... drama, because it suspends or modifies the “real” context and social
network of the classroom, in favour of an “as if” context and network,
can provide an enormous variety of opportunities for different kinds of
language demand and development. (p. 125)
Fleming refers to the use of drama in first-language learning. The following
observation was actually made in relation to its use in teaching English as
a second language (to Chinese students), but would be equally applicable
in either context:
The results of this study indicate that process-oriented drama activities
create authentic communication contexts for language learning and
teaching, preparing the learners to use the language spontaneously in
real-life situations. (Kao, 1995, p. 89)
These theorist and the results of research they have undertaken with
young children indicate that educational drama strategies transferred to
the workplace would be effective in providing contexts through which
adults would develop their communication ability. Furthermore, in a
recent study, ‘Educational drama in vocational and workplace training’
(Smigiel, 1997) there was a strong indication that the methods employed
in educational drama could be used productively in workplace and
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COMMUNICATION TRAINING IN THE WORKPLACE
vocational education. Indeed, educational drama strategies in this project
were effective in facilitating a number of interpersonal, team-building and
communication skills in a range of vocational and professional workplace
contexts.
Integrated Communication Training
The need for communication skills is well recognised in the context of
workplace and vocational training. This article is advocating the use of a
new approach which combines techniques from educational drama and
theatre training to address the subtleties of good communication. This
approach is different from other communication programmes because it
provides specific skills and technique development tailored for each
person, and realistic contexts in which to trial their use. It has a very
practical base as opposed to the intellectual compartmentalisation of
communication techniques in courses such as ‘conflict resolution’ or
‘negotiation skills’, where it is claimed that these skills may be taught in
isolation and without a sufficiently meaningful context for participants.
this approach, in addressing the individual as the communicators serves
to heighten the expertise of the communicator and the integrated and
multi-dimensional nature of communication.
Conclusions
Using this research base, we have developed a cross-faculty project at the
University of Tasmania through which we will develop a communication
package specifically targeted at students within the faculties of law and
medicine. In these faculties communication is already taught as part of
professional training. However, data from the professions suggests that
graduates have problems with some aspects of communication and that
their current preparation is not adequate. This project will use the
methods described above to improve these outcomes.
This special project will involve an extraordinary collaboration
between the Faculties of Education, Law and Medicine. The Centre for
Performing Arts, the Office of the Health Complaints Commissioner and
the Ombudsman for Law. Together, we will investigate how the key skills
of educational frame and performing arts can be integrated into a strategy
that will assist individuals in these professional areas to be more effective
and efficient communicators. Unlike normal curriculum development that
is expected within faculties across the university this cross-faculty and
government sector project draws on expertise that would not normally be
available to individual faculties nor have the breadth of vision and
professional appropriateness nor the potential for its positive impact into
the broader community.
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HEATHER SMIGIEL & LORRAINE MERRITT
The first phase of the project will involve trialling a range of
strategies and determining their usefulness through evaluation.
subsequently, the processes used in the communication workshops will
be refined and developed into communication packages: one for use in the
school of law and one for use in the school of medicine.
Such innovation has the potential to inform the development of a
new direction in communication training that would meet the specific
needs of the targeted professionals. The impetus for this project has also
been identified in the workplace where the growing need for effective
communication has been identified by a range of professionals.
Specifically, in his 1996–97 Annual Report the Tasmanian Health
Complaints Commissioner, Damon Thomas draws attention to the need to
address the large number of communication-based complaints:
... it is my intention to develop a communication training package for
providers, and to conduct similar programs for users to assist with better
information exchange in the future.
Another emphasis for communication education is the tertiary training
facilities, where clinicians are trained. It is a goal to be positioned to
provide input into their curriculum which will enable them to be better
communicators once working in their chosen profession. (pp. 18–19)
In the long-term the project has the potential to improve the
communication skills of future doctors and lawyers in Tasmania and this
preventative model of communication will assist in lowering the number of
complaints recieved by the Office of the Health Complaints Commissioner
and the Office of the Ombudsman.
Most importantly, the outcomes of this project will open the debate
about how communication skills are best developed in the workplace and
will have transferability into other vocational training contexts.
Correspondence
Heather Smigiel, Department of Early Childhood/Primary Education,
University of Tasmania, GPO Box 1214, Launceston, Tasmania 7250,
Australia.
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