Research Methods for the
Behavioral Sciences, 5e
GRAVETTER | FORZANO
1
Introduction, Acquiring
Knowledge, and the
Scientific Method
© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
1.1 Introduction to Research
Methodology
• Why take a research methods course?
– To learn how to apply science to the study of
human behavior
– To understand and interpret others’ research
– To evaluate claims in everyday media
– To discover how to acquire knowledge and
make decisions by applying the scientific
method
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1.2 Methods of Knowing and
Acquiring Knowledge
• Nonscientific approaches
– Method of tenacity
– Method of intuition
– Method of authority
– Rational method
– Method of empiricism
• Scientific method
– Goal is to obtain better-quality answers
© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Methods of Tenacity
• What is tenacity?
– Information accepted as true because it has
always been believed or because superstition
supports it
• Ex. Opposites attract
• Ex. Wearing lucky socks to play well
– Limitations: potential inaccuracies; no method
for correcting erroneous ideas (ignore
contrary evidence).
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Methods of Intuition
• What is intuition?
– Information accepted on the basis of a hunch
or intuition
• Ex. “Something tells me I should bet on
#23.”
– Limitation: no method for separating accurate
from inaccurate knowledge
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Methods of Authority
• Relies on information or answers from an
expert in the field
• Good starting point—often quickest and
easiest way to obtain answers
• Some limitations:
– Does not always provide accurate information
– Often accepts expert’s statements as fact
(method of faith)
– Not all “experts” are experts
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The Rational Method
• Seeking answers by logical reasoning.
►All 3-yr-old children are afraid of the dark
►Amy is a 3-yr-old girl
►Therefore, Amy is afraid of the dark
• In the above argument
– First two sentences are premise statements
– Final sentence is a logical conclusion based
on the premises
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Limitations to the Rational Method
• Logical conclusions are only valid if the
premise statements are true
– The rational method “assumes” the premise
statements are true
• People are not very good at logical
reasoning
– Sometimes the argument does not logically
support the conclusion
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The Empirical Method
• Also known as empiricism: answering
questions by direct observation or
personal experience
– Based on the philosophy that all knowledge is
acquired through the senses
• Limitations
– Observations can be misinterpreted (Fig. 1.1)
– Sensory experience can be swayed by beliefs
– Time-consuming and sometimes dangerous
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The Horizontal-Vertical Illusion
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Summary of Nonscientific Methods of
Acquiring Knowledge
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1.3 The Scientific Method
• An approach to acquiring knowledge
– Involves formulating specific questions and
then systematically finding answers
– Combines several different methods of
acquiring knowledge
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The Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Observe behavior or other phenomena
– Can involve casual observations, other’s
observations, inductive reasons (reasoning
from specifics to a general conclusion).
– Ex. Of inductive reasoning: notice that it is
cold dark and dreary. You are feeling a bit
down. Your friends don’t seem to be in a great
mood either. Reach general conclusion that
people are sadder during winter than in
summer.
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The Steps of the Scientific Method
2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (a
hypothesis)
– Identify factors or variables associated with your
observation.
– Variables: characteristics or conditions that
change or have different values for different
individuals.
• Ex. weather, the economy, health, etc
– Hypothesis: people become depressed in winter
because the weather is dark and depressing
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The Steps of the Scientific Method
3. Use hypothesis to generate testable a
prediction
– Apply hypothesis to specific, observable, realworld situation.
– Ex. Decreasing light in dormitory should
increase depression for students living there.
– Ex. There should be less depression in cities
with more sunshine than those with less.
– Note: used original hypothesis to make specific
testable prediction (Deduction: use logic
(rational)
toReserved.
reason from general to specific).
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Learning. All Rights
Two Testable Predictions Derived from a
General Hypothesis (Deduction)
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The Steps of the Scientific Method
4. Evaluate the prediction by making
systematic, planned observations
– Do actual research study and collect data.
– Goal is to provide fair, unbiased test of hypothesis
by observing whether the prediction is correct.
– Carefully observe what happens with subjective
interpretation.
– Note: research study is an empirical test of the
research hypothesis.
© 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
The Steps of the Scientific Method
5. Use the observations to support, refute,
or refine the original hypothesis
– Might need to revise original hypothesis, or
discard and come up with a new one (back to
step 2).
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The Process of Scientific Inquiry
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Science is Empirical, Public, & Objective
• Empirical: answers are obtained by
making structured or systematic
observations
– Results will provide clear support for the
hypothesis or will clearly refute the hypothesis
• Public: observations are available for
evaluation by others
– Replication is key to the scientific method
• Objective: outcome is not skewed by bias
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Science versus Pseudoscience
• Basis of scientific research
– Evidence is gathered from careful, systematic,
and objective observations
• Pseudoscience is a system of ideas often
presented as science
– Lacks some of the key components essential
to scientific research
– Examples: aromatherapy, astrology, and
intelligent design
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1.4 The Research Process
• What distinguishes qualitative research
and quantitative research?
– Quantitative research produces numerical
scores
• Submitted to statistical analysis for summary and
interpretation
– Qualitative research is based on making
observations
• Summarized and interpreted in a narrative report
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The Steps in the Research Process
1. Find a research idea: select a topic and
search the literature to find an
unanswered question
2. Form a hypothesis
3. Determine how you will define and
measure your variables
4. Identify the participants or subjects for the
study, decide how they will be selected,
and plan for their ethical treatment
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The Steps in the Research Process
(cont’d.)
5. Select a research strategy
6. Select a research design
7. Conduct the study
8. Evaluate the data
9. Report the results
10.Refine or reformulate your research idea
►Return to step 2 and continue
Important: there are no final answers
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Summary of The Research Process
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