OIL FIELD CORROSION DETECTION AND CONTROL HANDBOOK ; :nt 3.S- OIL FIELD CORROSION DETECTION AND CONTROL By ' _ HOWARD J. ENDEAN CONSULTANT Published By CHAMPION CHEMICALS, INC. Houston, Texas 1989 m- he of :d. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The writer appreciates the support and encouragement of the management of Champion Chemicals, Inc. in the preparation of this manual. Also, myassociate Mr. Raymond Shelton for review and permission to include his compilation of Champion's Cortron Corrosion Inhibitors in Chapter V. The cheerful cooperation of Ms. Debbie Burroughs in the frequent re-working of the drafts required in the preparation of this manual is greatly appreciated. i TABLE OF CONTENTS DESCRIPTION ITEM DESCRIPTION ITEM PAGE CHAPTER II - OIL WELL CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION CHAPTER I - CAUSES OF CORROSION IN OIL FIELD EQUIPMENT General 13 A. Water Cut vs Water Wetting of Well Equipment 13 B. Typical Causes of Sucker Rod Body Breaks 14 C. Endurance Limit of Sucker Rods 15 D. Typical Causes of Sucker Rod Pin Breaks 16 General 1 A. Defmition of Corrosion 1 B. Electrochemical Environment 1. Metallurgical Factors 2. Mill Fabricating Factors 3. Field Operating Factors 2 3 3 3 C. Typical Idealized Electrochemical Reaction 4 E. Typical Appearance of Sucker Rod Body Breaks 16 D. Appearance of Metal Loss Corrosion 1. Hydrogen Sulfide - Pitting & General Attack 2. Carbon Dioxide - Pitting Attack 3. High Chloride Brines - pH 6.0 - 7.0 4. Acids - 15% HCI & Spent Acid 5. Bacteria - Sulfate Reducers 6. Corrosion/Erosion - Velocity Effect 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 F. Typical Appearance of Sucker Rod Coupling Breaks 17 G. Slag Inclusion Mill Defect 17 H. E. Corrosivity vs pH of Water 7 Rules of Thumb for Estimating Corrosion 1. Rule 1 - Corrosion Coupon Data - 30 Days 2. Rule 2 - Rpd String Stress Failures 3. Rule 3 - pH Measurements - Fresh Samples 4. Rule 4 - Water Cut & pH 18 18 18 18 18 F. Corrosion vs Hydrogen Sulfide & Carbon Dioxide 1. Corrosivity of Hydrogen Sulfide 2. Corrosivity of Carbon Dioxide 7 8 8 I. Field Program for Detecting Corrosion 19 J. Decisions in the Design of an Inhibition Program 20 G. Corrosion Rate vs Velosity & Temperature 9 K. Treating Procedures for Pumping Oil Wells 21 H. Accelerating Rate of Pit Development 10 L. I. Hydrogen Embrittlement 11 J. Factors Controlling Hydrogen Embrittlement 1. Yield Strength 2. Hardness 3. Stress Level 4. Internal Stresses 5. Hydrogen Concentration 6. Temperature 11 11 Initial Filming Procedures 1. Running Tubing and/or Rods in Well 2. All Batch and Continuous Injection Treatments 3. Squeeze Treatments 21 21 22 22 M. Periodic Batch Treating Procedure 1. Adequate Volume ofInhibitor 2. Gallons of Inhibitor Required per Week 3. Adequate Frequency of Treatment 4. Assuring Inhibitor Enters Tubing 22 22 23 23 23 K. Hydrogen Blistering 12 N. Periodic Batch with Inhibitor Emulsion Procedure 24 L. Galvanic Corrosion 12 O. Continuous Injection Procedure 24 .. II '-- PAGE - - - -- - - - 11 11 11 11 11 iii DESCRIPTION ITEM PAGE Squeeze Treatment Procedure 24 Q. Monitoring Oil Well Corrosion 1. Rod String Failure Analysis 2. Corrosion Coupon Data 3. Iron Count Data 25 25 25 Iron Loss Nomograph 27 R. 26 J. General 28 A. Theoretical Limiting Velocities for Well Tubing 28 B. Calculation of Approximate Tubing Velocity 1. Approximate Bottom Hole Pressure of Gas Wells 29 C. Corrosivity vs Limiting Velocity & Density 30 D. Phase Relations of Gas and Liquids in Tubing 1. Flow Patterns in Tubing 2. Slip and Holdup in Tubing 31 32 32 E. Gas/Condensate Wells Water Production 1. Gas Expansion Reservoirs 2. Water Drive Reservoirs 3. Mobile Water Table Reservoirs 33 34 34 34 F. Rules of Thumb for Estimating Corrosion 1. Rule 1- Predicting Corrosion in All Wells 2. Rule 2 - Predicting Corrosion - Sweet Gas Wells 3. Rule 3 - Predicting Corrosion - Sweet Gas Wells 4. Rule 4 - Predicting Corrosion - Coupon Data 34 35 35 35 36 G. Decisions Required for Inhibiting Program 36 H. Procedures for Inhibiting Gas Wells 37 1. Treating Rates for Gas Condensate Wells 37 30 PAGE 37 38 1. Batch Treating per 5000' of 2"-3" Tubing 2. Continuous Injection Rates 2"-3" Tubing 3. Squeeze Treatment Volume 38 Corrosion Control in Wellheads and Downhole Equipment 38 CHAPTER-IV OIL AND GAS PIPELINE CORROSION & PREVENTION General 39 A. Frequent Causes of Internal Corrosion in Pipelines 39 B. Flow Patterns in Pipelines 1. Custody Transfer Oil Lines 2. Wet Gas Pipelines 40 40 41 c. Approximate Velocities in Wet Gas Pipelines 1. Approximate OR for Buried or Submerged Pipelines, 2. Approximate Pipe Areas in Square Feet 42 D. Evaluation of Corrosion Possibilities in Pipelines 43 E. General Types of Inhibiting Programs for Pipelines 1. Procedures for Cleaning Lines Prior to Inhibiting a. New Pipelines b. Operating Oil Lines c. Operating Wet Gas Pipelines d. Operating Dehydrated Gas Pipelines 44 CHAPTER III - GAS/CONDENSATE WELL CORROSION & PREVENTION iv DESCRIPTION ITEM P. 43 43 44 44 45 45 45 2. Inhibiting Oil Pipelines by Continuous Injection 45 a. Inhibiting Field Transmission Lines 46 b. Inhibiting Custody Transfer Lines 46 3. Inhibiting Wet Gas Pipelines a. Type 1 Treatment (Batching) b. Type 2 Treatment (Continuous Injection) c. Type 3 Treatment (Special Conditions Only) d. Optimum Treatment F. Inhibitor Requirements Versus Wet Gas Velocity v 47 48 49 50 50 51 DESCRIYfION ITEM PAGE G. 51 Inhibiting Sales Gas Pipelines 1. Type 1 Treatment (See E,3,a Type 1 Treatment) 52 52 2. Type 2 Treatment (Continuous Injection) H. Monitoring Corrosion in Pipelines 1.Corrosion Coupons-Installation Requirements a. Lease Flow Lines b. Custody Transfer Lines c. Wet Gas Pipelines d. Sales Gas Line e. Interpreting Corrosion Coupon Data 52 53 53 53 53 54 54 2. Water Analysis of Corrosion Potential a. Lease Flowlines b. Custody Transfer Lines c. Wet Gas Pipelines d. Water Samples-Corrosion Monitoring e. Water Samples-Inhibitor Monitoring 54 55 55 55 56 56 I. Monitoring Sales Gas Pipelines 56 CHAPTER V - OXYGEN CORROSION IN PRODUCTION & PIPELINES General 57 A. Air Entrainment in Oil Wells 58 B. Air Entrainment in Tanks 58 C. Air Entrainment in Transfer and Injection Pumps 58 D. Air Entrainment in Injection Systems 59 E. Potential Sources of Air Contamination 59 F. Air Entrainmeni in Water Sources 60 G. Solubility of Oxygen in Surface Waters 60 H. Removal of Oxygen from Injection Waters 60 vi ITEM DESCRIYfION 1. Scavenging and Inhibiting of Oxygen 2. Gas Refluxing or Vacuum for Oxygen Removal PAGE 61 61 CHAYfER VI - CHAMPION'S CORTRON INHIBITORS FOR CORROSION CONTROL A. Sucker Rod Pumped Wells-High Fluid Level 62 B. Sucker Rod Pumped Wells - Low Fluid Level 62/63 C. Gas Lift Wells 63 D. Hydraulic Pumped Wells 63 E. Gas/Gas Condensate Wells 63/64 F. Oil & Gas Pipelines 64/65 CHAYfER VII - MISCELLANEOUS TECHNICAL INFORMATION General 66 A. Failure Analysis Procedure 67 B. Approximation of Tensile and Yield Strength of Steel 1. Brinell vs Rockwell Hardness 2. Brinell Hardness vs Tensile Strength 3. Tensile Strength vs Yield Strength Range 68 68 69 69 C. Approximate Velocity Criteria for Liquid 1. Calculation of Approximate Velocity 2. Limiting Velocities for Water in Steel Pipe 3. Limiting Velocities for Oil in Steel Pipe 4. Design Criteria for Pump Suctions 5. Pipe Velocities vs Fluid Densities 70 70 70 70 70 71 D. Design Velocities for Well Tubing 71 E. Corrosion Resistant Materials 72 vii ITEM DESCRIPTION 1. Non-Metallic Materials a. Extruded Plastic Pipe b. Glass Filament Wound Epoxy Pipe c. Plastic Liners in Steel Pipe d. Baked on Coatings e. Cement Linings F. G. PAGE 72 72 73 73 73 74 2. Corrosion Resistant Alloys a. Monels b. Stainless Steels (1) AISI 300 Series Stainless Steels (2) AISI 400 Series Stainless Steels 74 3. Aluminum Bronze Alloys 75 4. Inconel, Hastelloy, Stellite and Colmonoy 76 API Specifications - Physical Properties 1. API/SPEC. llB Sucker Rods & Couplings 2. API/SPEC. SA, 5AC, SAX Tubing & Casing 3. API/SPEC. 5L Line Pipe 76 References Pertinent to Oil Field Corrosion 79 74 75 75 76/77 77 78 FOREWORD Serious corrosion in production and pipelines began in the 30's with widespread drilling of wells west of the Mississippi River. In many of the fields the oil and gas contained significant amounts of the acidic gases, Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Dioxide. In addition, some fields had active water drives or mobile water tables and were completed in non-consolidated formations that further intensified corrosion. While the 30's incidents of corrosion were widespread the actual number of fields in which it was occurring was limited. However, by the mid 40's corrosion failures had reached epidemic level. Well and pipeline corrosion was classified as a field problem with the responsibility for its solution at the descretion of the field operators and their staffs. In cooperations with production chemical companies widespread field testing began, mostly based on intuitive guesses at solutions. Also many ad-hoc, off the record meetings were held for comparing of results. By the early 50's the widespread testing and interchange of results had developed "Rules of Thumb" for both detecting a corrosive condition and limiting the rate of metal loss. Since the 50's, through continued testing and the formulation of superior chemicals, t'reatments have been further improved. Considerable of the information in this manual is today's versions of these original programs. While by technical definition they would still be classified as "Rules of Thumb" based on years of successful application they can be applied with confidence. There is no way the many operating and production chemical company personnel that contributed to the developments can be acknowledged. In the late 40's the NACE was still in the formative stages with the formal reporting and cataloging of field work in the beginning stage. The NGAA Corrosion Research Project, one ad-hoc committee comparing and analyzing field studies lists 22 production companies and service organizations a~tive in fi~ld studies. The minutes of this committee refers to many of the studies bllt With only limited reference to the personnel involved. However, this manual attests to the thoroughness of studies and the technical proficiency and objectivity of the personnel that undertook these investigations. viii ix CHAPTER I CAUSES OF CORROSION IN OIL FIELD EQUIPMENT GENERAL It has been estimated that 80% of failures occurring in production and pipeline operations are caused by corrosion. This is either of the metal loss type or of the stress types with corrosion developing the stress raisers or atomic hydrogen associated with Hydrogen Embrittlement. The primary objective when failure occurs is to establish that if corrosion is the cause, what are the specific reasons and how can it be prevented in the future. Since corrosion is generally suspected as the cause, it is essential the operator have a general understanding of the corrosion phenomena, its appearance and operating conditions that can initiate the attack. Since most equipment is manufactured from Ferrous metals the corrosion of steels etc., are of primary concern. The two principal corrodents associated with oil and gas are Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Dioxide. Oxygen is also of major concern when produced or injection waters are in contact with air. While there are a wide variety of operating conditions under which corrosion may occur, the electrochemical reaction is always the underlying cause. Once these factors controlling corrosion are understood and the types of failures recognized, corrosion can be readily established as the probable cause. Usually a review of operating conditions coupled with relatively simple tests will confirm the condition. The following reviews the basic concepts of oil field corrosion and other pertinent information to field failure analysis. A. DEFINITION OF CORROSION The "CORROSION HANDBOOK" by Herbert H. Uhlig states: CORROSION: Destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. In routine production and pipeline operations only the electrochemical reaction applies. Depending on metallurgy, cor rodents and operating conditions the appearance of the corrosion and failures can be quite differerent, however the underlying cause is the electrochemical component of the definition. -1- While the chemical component of the definition is discounted for routine operations it can be a factor in failures associated with acid jobs, packer fluids and other operations where large volumes of treating chemicals have been used in stimulation or completion operations. Where corrosion has occurred without apparent cause, a review of the chemical possibilities is desirable. LOCAL CELL ACTION Fe+ + Fe+ + B. ELECTROCHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT Fe++~iNtH:1w (ELECTROLYTE) The figure below is an idealized representation of the electrochemical environment with a clean, perfect steel surface without internal or external imperfections. Each grain is minutely different in structure and composition and markedly different from the grain boundary alloys that precipitated as the steel cooled from the molten to the solid state. When the surface is filmed with an electrolyte, always water in routine field operations, there is a minute current flow between the anodic and cathodic areas of the surface. ELECTRO CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT ~ WATER ~ G R A : : : : J GRAINBOUNDARIES MAYBE /~ H+ Surface deterioration of the metal surface would be slow and generally uniform. Frequently corrosion products, such as rust, coat the surface, slowing the reaction rate. While this general corrosion is not usually a major concern from metal loss considerations, the atomic hydrogen can cause Hydrogen Embrittlement in high strength, highly stressed steels. The electrochemical pitting type attack is the major cause of stress corrosion and metal loss failures. There are a number of factors in typical oil field steels fabricating procedures and operliting conditions that form the areas of high electrochemical potential where pining attack develops. The following is a partial listing of the many conditions in field materials and equipment that can initiate corrosion pitting. 1. METALLURGICAL FACTORS: Abnormal grain growth, improper heat treatment, dirty steel (slag, slugs, scabs), improper stress relief, inadequate melting sequence. ANODES OR CATHODES SIMULATED STEEL MICROSTRUCTURE X'S 1,OOO'S The following figure is an idealized representation of the electrochemical reactions at the anodic and cathodic surfaces. Iron ions enter the water from the anode; hydrogen ions in the water move to the cathode, combine to form molecule, rise as minute gas bubbles and leave the electrolyte. -2- 2. MILL FABRICATING FACTORS: Inadequate heat treatment and/or stress relief, folds, seams, upsetting heat runouts, inadequate heading and scarfing, inadequate cleaning (mill scale), improper or inadequate welding, excessive cold straightening, surface damage (knicks, gouges, etc.). 3. FIELD OPERATING FACTORS: Surface damage (tool marks, gouges, knicks, etc.), improper welding (seams, heat runouts, blow throughs, slag, etc.) cold bending and straightening, acidic produced water, water deposited scales, corrosion product scales, water legs, high velocity (turbulence at flow discontinuities), dissimilar metals and alloys. -3- C. 1YPICAL IDEALIZED ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS The following ferrous corrosion products shown would form with the H2S and C02 in low solids water and from corrosion considerations they are the only products of concern. However, analysis of typical field scales will contain other chemical elements associated with oil field brines and an organic component from the oil, condensate or well treating chemicals. H20 + H2S ------------- FeS + H2 (sour corrosion) Fe + H20 + C02 ------------- FeC03 + H2 (sweet corrosion) 4 Fe + 302 -------------- 2 Fe203 (oxygen corrosion) Fe D. APPEARANCE OF METAL LOSS CORROSION The following are typical textbook examples of metal loss corrosion. The samples were thoroughly cleaned to illustrate the type of metal loss. When field samples are to be inspected a sample of the corrosion product should first be removed and placed in an air tight container in case an analysis is required. A section of the sample should then be thoroughly cleaned, with an acid wash if necessary, so the surface condition can be inspected. 2. CARBON DIOXIDE - PITTING ATTACK The corrosion product can vary from dark brown to black. Generally it is loosely adhering. Initially the pits are small as at the left center of the illustration, sides are vertical and the bottoms rounded. Originally the attack was called ring worm corrosion due to its appearance in a circumferential ring at the heat runout zone of upset tubing. Frequently they also appear in extended lines of pits as illustrated. Frequently the balance of the metal surface is either free of corrosion or only very lightly attacked. 3. HIGH CHLORIDE BRINES - pH 6.0 - 7.0 In produced water, with no or only minute traces of acid gases, the pH will approach 7.0. This will often result in a general attack with shallow round bottom pitting, the rounded bottom shape markedly decreases in stress raiser affect. The rate of metal loss is usually low. 1. HYDROGEN SULFIDE - PITTING & GENERAL ATTACK With both types of attack the corrosion product will be black. In the case of the pitting type attack it will generally be tightly adhering. In appearance it can vary from a smooth, shiny surface to a rough, dull black, noduler. With the general type attack the corrosion product is usually thin, relatively soft and dull black. ~ ~" "~.~\'_ . .. • • 1;#'0;.... ~'.~.. • ",*,:;'::.i...&/" ;. . , ~"'.. . 0 =- ;:.;,~ ,,; ':.i..Jo ... ' .. ; , . ,' . \ - •' 'J.,..,.,. • ... " 1, -,., ~. ~t 1 " " \/1 ~ "" ". ~,_!:";~:,~~ "~ _ '\',' ~. .. ' . - " Jlt~'~}~~~~'Hi:{'itl~I~~?':~~·~~:/~~~n; : "f. ',', .',:, , )·~~~~~.;i:~"~:'.\~" ,~, ~~1{ ?t . t· '. ~!~~~:\ 'f J ~' 4. ACIDS - 15% HCI & SPENT ACID With fresh, non-inhibited acid the attack is severe and rapid. The surface is deeply etched with sharp needle like protrusions. With spent acid, the attack, while rapid, is a less surface damaging type. 1/. " "".- ~ • " • • • ,;.' · .~~ ~j~~~~~i~~~' . ~~~. ~ J'1!;of. ~/., / ,r>i,;>~ I-.I! 1> (, .. ,' . I ., I' '.1,;)" t . ~ .' , . .. r- '. ': • ' I • " ~ - , " .' , I ~ -4- .... -5- \.'~ .... "\~.-~,' ... , ....~( • r • ~ 5. BACTERIA - SULFATE REDUCERS The attacked area is covered with a black, impenetrable adhering corrosion product film. In the initial phase of the infestation the steel surface has the mottled surface illustrated below. As the attack progresses a more conventional type pitting can develop as shown in the upper illustration. However, the outer edge of the pit still exhibits the mottled appearance establishing that the initiating cause was the bacteria development. E. CORROSM1Yvs pH OF WATER With water wetting of field equipment being a primary requirement for corrosion, its acidity - pH, is a readily made measurement for determining the significance of the attack. For solids free water of velocities of 3 FPS or less the following "Rules of Thumb" are applicable. pH 7.0 or higher pH 7.0 to 6.5 pH 6.5 to 6.0 pH 6.0 or less - Significant corrosion unlikely - Minor corrosion possible - Moderate corrosion with possible pitting - Significant corrosion with probable pitting The figure indicates the effect of increasing velocity on the corrosion rate. From approximately 3 to 7 FPS, water is in a transition range between laminar and total turbulent flow and the relative corrosion rate will be between the Dormant Water and the Corrosion/Erosion Condition. The upper curve will be the limiting condition up to velocities where erosion of the metal will begin. RELATIVE CORROSION VS pH & VELOCITY 8 >- I- 7 :;: 6. CORROSION/EROSION - HIGH VELOCI1Y EFFECT With high fluids velocity the type corrosion can be masked by erosion. The corrosion product formed is continuously eroded away, generating a smooth surface. This continuously presents clean metal to the corrodent with a high rate of metal loss. Ui o a: gj 6 5 U ~ 4 i= :3w 3 DORMANT WATER (No Flow) a: 2 12 10 8 7 ALKALINE - p H - 6 4 2 ACIDIC F. CORROSION vs HYDROGEN SULFIDE & CARBON DIOXIDE Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Dioxide are the only acidic components contained in any significant amount in oil and gas reservoirs. The amounts normally vary from minute traces to 5%. The corrosivity (pH) of produced water is a function of the amounts of these two gases in solution. However, the rate of metal loss, type, and locations are controlled by other factors, such as, temperature, pressure, susceptibility of the metal and pitting initiating conditions as noted in Item B. -6- -7- The examples below are from laboratory tests performed at low pressures and room temperature. As such, specific values would have no relation with field operating conditions. However, the rate of change shown can be considered reasonable approximations of the change of the corrosion rate that could be anticipated for similar changes in the variables in operations. 6 w 5 le( a: z 0 1. CORROSMTY OF HYDROGEN SULFIDE In considering the figure most sour corrosion will have less than 2000 ppm ofH2S and will be in the (5.0 - 6.5) pH range. Assuming an average pH of 6.25, an increase from a trace of H2S to 2000 ppm would increase the corrosion rate by a factor of 4. The curve indicates that for a H2S content of over 100 ppm the corrosion would be significant. It would probably be a pitting attack. 4 (j) 0 a: a: 3 0 0 w > 2 i= e( ...J W a: 5 w - le( a: z pH 4.5 pH 5.0 4 3 0 () w i= e( > 5 10 15 20 25 CARBON DIOXIDE - PPM G. CORROSION VERSUS VELOCITY AND TEMPERATURE 0 iii 0 a: a: o pH 6.25 2 ....I W a: The following figure illustrates the effect of both velocity and temperature increases on the rate of metal loss. The tests on sea water in a closed system would be for a pH in the 7.0 - 8.0 range, without oxygen present. The type attack for flow rates below 3 FPS would be similar to that illustrated in 4,C. The temperature rate increases would be of the same order of magnitude for all corrosive conditions. However, the effect of velocity could be markedly increased for more corrosive conditions due to the corrosion/erosion phenomna. e::-::: - pH 9.0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 SULFIDES AS H2 S, ppm 5 2500 2. CORROSMTY OF CARBON DIOXIDE w Ie( With the amount of Carbon Dioxide in solution being a function of the pressure and temperature in the system, the pH measurement on a water sample is misleading and should be discounted. When other than minute traces of C02 are present, the pH's of the water in either wells or pipelines will be markedly lower than measurements on even fresh water samples. The figure illustrates the rate of increase in corrosion that occurs with increasing C02 content in the water and also how the oxygen entering the water, by contact with air, further increases the rate of metal loss. The curve of 10 ppm 02 is for the maximum solubility that would be expected in routine field operations. / 4 a: z 0 (j) 0 3 ./ V 0 0 w 2 > i= e( ...J W a: ./ V V V -< a co ~ V ~ ~ V V ./ a: a: o -8- ~ V- ~ / ~ V V ,/'" ~ aC\J ;;:..-V V V ~ ...-- V ~ a <0 2 4 6 VELOCITY IN FT.!SEC. -9- 8 10 H. ACCELERATING RATE OF PIT DEVELOPMENT I. HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT The principal cause of all corrosion failures in oilfield operations is the pitting type attack. In operations where the equipment is under continuous or repeated strains, due to pressure or mechanical action, pitting can be the principal cause of premature failure. Pits under these conditions develop the stress raiser affect which markedly reduces the theoretical, calculated failure stress of an item. This stress raiser type failure is widely recognized and where it can occur every effort is made to minimize corrosion. Wide spread, spontaneous brittle failures were first encounte~ed in t.he production industry in the late 30's. These were generally aSSOCiated WIth high strength steels producing sour oil and gas (H?S). Initially, these were not identified as hydrogen embrittlement and a vanety of names were used to identify the failures such as: sulfide stress cracking, sulfide corrosion cracking, sulfide cracking, and sulfide stress corrosion cracking. While .this type failure is now generally recognized as a form of hydrogen embnttlement several of the field names are still in general use. However, it is frequently overlooked that in non-stressed equipment pitting can also cause premature equipment failures. This reflects a lack of understanding of the increasing rate of pit penetration of steel as corrosion progresses. As noted in Item D, APPEARANCE OF METAL LOSS CORROSION, Page 4, H2S, C02 and Sulfate Reducers, the principal oilfield corrodents, generally develop a pitting type attack. As illustrated below, as the pit deepens, the rate of ferrous ions entering the water remains constant. However, the surface area of the anode supplying the ferrous ions continuously decreases. This increased the rate of pit penetration and can result in rapid, premature failure of equipment. This can occur even though the overall corrosion rate in a system remains low. INCREASING RATE OF PENETRATION WITH PIT DEVELOPMENT There are several hypothesis for hydrogen embrittlement and all are in agreement that the phenomena is initiated by hydrogen di~fus~on into .the st~e.l. While the hydrogen can be from a number of sources, l~ OIlfield faIlures It ~s normally associated with water wet ferrous metals. While the electrochemical reaction is also the cause of metal loss corrosion, where steel are susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement and under sufficient tensile stress, failures are quite rapid and before any significant metal loss has occurred. Rese~ch and field testing has established rigorous specifications for preventmg hydrogen embrittlement. Details of the phenomena are. beyond the scope .of this presentation. The following lists the factors controlhng hydrogen ~mbnt­ tlement and Chapter VI lists the of API grades of sucker rods and tubmg and their susceptibility to this type failure. J. +-+-- --+-+ Large anodic area, rate of metal loss and pit penetration slow. ~ +-- --+- -+- -+-+ Anodic area decreases, cathodic area extends down ~ide of pit. Rate of penetration mcreases. ~ Anodic area confined to bottorn of pit. Rapid rate of metal loss and wall penetration. FACTORS CONTROLLING HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT 1. Yield Strength - Steels with yield strengths of 90,000 psi or lower are generally not susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. 2. Hardness - Maximum hardness should be Rc-22 or less. 3. Stress Level - With failure susceptible steels there is a stress level below which failures will not occur. This is a function of the yield strength of the steel and decreases as the yield strength increases. 4. Internal Stresses - Stress susceptible steels can fail due to internal tensile stresses caused by welding, cold working, bending or surface . damage by tools or handling. 5. Hydrogen Concentration - Time to fa~lure is a fun.ction o.f ~ydr?gen concentration. However, with susceptIble steel, faIlure WIll meVitably occur if hydrogen is present and the allowable stress is exceeded. 6. Temperature - Research and field experience indicates that failures will not occur above 150 F. 0 NOTE: Corrosion product normally coating or filling pits not shown. -10- -11- K. HYDROGEN BLISTERING CHAPTER II While low strength, ductile steels are not susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement occasionally hydrogen blistering can occur. Normally the atomic hydrogen entering the steel along the grain boundaries will defuse through the metal. Occasionally, an inclusion or other anomoly in the grain structure will stop the diffusion of the hydrogen with the combining of atoms to form the much larger molecules of hydrogen. This will cause internal cracking that with continuing molecule formation develops blisters. Generally this occurs in low pressure equipment and few failures have been reported from the cause. When the conditions develops to where blisters are noted the equipment should be replaced. L. GALVANIC CORROSION One source of failures frequently overlooked in field equipment where water is involved is that associated with the coupling of dissimilar metals. Failures from galvanic attack are usually associated with small piping and control items and not of serious consequence. However, this corrosion can easily be avoided. The following table lists the Galvanic Series for the metals normally used in oil field equipment. Every effort should be made to select metals in close proximity in this series. Where metals are widely separated it is mandatory, an insulating arrangement is to be used between the metals. GALVANIC SERIES IN FIELD OPERATIONS Magnesium and Alloys Zinc or Galvanized Metals Aluminum (soft alloys) Cadmium or Cadmium Plating Aluminum (hard alloys) Steel, Cast Iron, Wrought Iron Solder (50% lead, 50% tin) Stainless Steel (AISI Series 300, active) Lead Tin Naval Brass, Maganese Bronze, Yellow Brass Admiralty Brass, Aluminum Bronze, Red Brass Copper, Silicon Bronze Inconel Monel Stainless Steel (AISI Series 300, passive) -12- OIL WELL CORROSION AND ITS PREVENTION GENERAL With adequately designed well bore equipment, during the flush and low water producing periods and with an average fluid velocity of 3 FPS and above, the flow string surfaces will be oil wetted and no significant corrosion will occur. With velocities below 3 FPS, water legs can build-up in the lower sections of the well. This can result in casing, tubing and pumping equipmept being water wetted and corrosion is possible. Without the water leg development the equipment will normally remain oil wetted up to water cuts of about 25%. Between 25% and 45% water cut, equipment may be either oil or water wetted, depending on the crude oil characteristics. Generally as the API gravity of the oil decreases the cut level at which water wetting begins increases. At a water cut of 45% and above the equipment will always be water wetted. In gas drive reservoirs with stable water tables, wells will experience no significant corrosion during the primary producing phases. (With the exception of water leg corrosion). In reservoirs with water drives, mobile water tables or water injection projects the rate of water intrusion and oil characteristics will determine when corrosion will be occurring. In many fields where wells are essentially corrosion free during primary production, serious corrosion may develop during secondary recovery operations. The early detection of corrosion and beginning of corrosion control programs are essential for controlling well equipment replacement costs. When corrosion inhibition is deferred until equipment failures begin, corrosion is probably serious in many wells. This can result in widespread premature equipment failures, requiring replacement, before the corrosion control program can effectively protect equipment. The following summarizes information and "Rules of Thumb" that can be used to evaluate corrosion in oilwell operations. Various types of corrosion inhibiting programs are detailed along with the other pertinent information. Specific Champion Cortron inhibitors for the programs are listed in Chapter VI. A. WATER CUT VS WATER WETTING OF WELL EQUIPMENT Water Cut 0-25% 25 - 45% 45%& Up Wetting Film On Eguipment Oil (possible water leg) Can be oil or water Water -13- B. 1YPICAL CAUSES OF SUCKER ROD BODY BREAKS With the exception of mill and metallurgical defects practically all breaks in the body of sucker rods will be caused by conditions illustrated. The Bend Damage will normally be at beginning of pin upset with break at a slight angle with rod axis. Endurance Limit - See Item C. STRESS CORROSION FAILURES Corrosion Pits (many) Fatigue Cracks MECHANICAL DAMAGE TYPE STRESS FAILURES c. ENDURANCE LIMIT OF SUCKER RODS A factor frequently overlooked in sucker rod failure analysis is the possibility of the Endurance Limit having been exceeded. When a rod has a multiple crack appearance as in Item B an Endurance Limit failure has occurred. All steel items that undergo repeated stress reversals will eventually fail by exceeding the Endurance Limit. The curves illustrate the Endurance Limit for a steel immersed in air and in water. Steel specimens for these tests have a smooth surface without any apparent stress raisers. When immersed in water the electrochemical reaction will develop minute pits that serve as stress raisers to reduce the Endurance Limit. Sucker rod design is based on the water condition with a stress reversal range beyond the knee of the curve. With this stress range and a good corrosion control program, at least 108 cycles should be possible before the Endurance Limit is reached. When wells are pumping from gas drive reservoirs with less than 25% water, the rods will be oil wetted and the curve for air will control the Endurance Limit. With this condition, sucker rods will last for many years. The picture is a typical example of an Endurance Limit failure. Nicks, Dents, Scratches Hammer Blows, Gouges 100 i I Fatigue Cracks xr--- t;' c ) :e Fatigue Cracks (many) 0 0 0 .... V r-.... !! x 1'10 60 \l~ l- 40 '" Air en en ~en iii c i! f'.. " ....... 80 STRESS OR ENDURANCE LIMIT FAILURES ""r--" ," ); r-\r--. II Water- V 20 10' 10' I ~ I I 10' I II ! 10' 10' 10' Rod Bend ..! '~~I_~fJ&oo ~" ~. ~ 0 0 . .- . -" ~ , ..... , ~~.~ '.'..~ ..... ,; ~ . , 0, ",. ", ENDURANCE OR FATIGUE LIMIT FAILURE -14- -15- I ~ Number of cycles (log scale) Stress Raising Crack After Straightening i I ~ 0 z x I-x Ir Of BEND DAMAGE TYPE STRESS RAISER FAILURES :I x . D. lYPICAL CAUSES OF SUCKER ROD PIN BREAKS F. lYPICAL APPEARANCE OF SUCKER ROD COUPLING BREAKS While corrosion as a cause of failure is extremely rare in sucker rod pins, failures are frequent when the pin and coupling are not properly mated. The principal cause of this is inadequate torque. This causes slight separation at coupling and pin bearing surfaces with a slight bending. Under these conditions the threads act as stress raisers with failure occurring within the threaded section of the pin. The following lists the various conditions for pin failures. Failures in the undercut area are unusual except in thin wall couplings. When failures occur frequently in the pin threads, API RP llBR, Section 4 on Sucker Rod Joint Makeup gives the proper procedure to assure adquate joint torquing. With standard couplings the metal cross-sectional area is large compared to other cross-sections of rod string components and corrosion failures are infrequent. BREAK BEGINNING AT INTERNAL LOCATION Tensile Break (distorted cup-cone) Rough Granular (area of rapid separation) CAUSE Smooth Surface (area of slow separation) corrosion, wear, Origin of Break LOCATION OF BREAK handling damage, manufaduri n9 defect BREAK BEGINNING AT EXTERNAL LOCATION Tensile Break (distorted cup-cone) Sucker Rod Pin Rough Granular (area of rapid separation) Smooth Surface (area of slow separation) E. lYPICAL APPEARANCE OF SUCKER ROD BODY BREAKS Except for case hardened rods, body breaks, including those at the beginning of rod to pin taper, will invariably have the illustrated appearance. The size of the smooth surface area reflects that until the area is reduced to where the yield strength of the rod is reached the crack continually opens and closes peaning the surface. Once the yield strength is exceeded only a few pump strokes are required for complete failure and generation of the modified typical tensile cup/cone failure appearance. Origin of Break G. SLAG INCLUSION MILL DEFECT Most mill and metallurgical defects require laboratory investigations for ?ete<:tion. Howev~r, slag ~clusion type defects as illustrated can usually be Identified by field mspectIon. These occur when a surfaced slag inclusion is brok~n an~ extended and pressed into the rod surface in the forming process. The mcluslOns are generally spaced at approximately equal intervals either ' in a straight line or a long radius helix. Tensile Break (modified cup or cone) Rou h Gran ular (area of rapid separation) Smooth Surface (area of slow separation) Origin of Break -16- -17- H. RULES OF THUMB FOR ESTIMATING CORROSION I. In most fields the initial water rate is low and corrosion protection is not required. However, in many fields it is obvious corrosion will eventually develop and it is desirable to detect and inhibit as soon as possible. The following are "Rules of Thumb" that have been used for early detection and beginning treating programs. In fields where corrosion is anticipated it will begin when equipment is first water wetted in the 25 - 45% range. With the use of a key well type monitoring program, using pH and corrosion coupon data, the critical water cut level can be approximated. Depending on the size of the field select as key wells (3-10) those with the highest water cut. These will generally be those with the highest producing rate. With monthly measurements of pH's, coupon rate and water cuts follow the block diagram procedure to determine when well inhibition programs should begin. 1. RULE 1 - CORROSION COUPON DATA - 30 DAYS FIELD PROGRAM FOR DETECTING CORROSION Coupons Pitted - Corrosion Always Serious COUPONS - GENERAL CORROSION 0-2MPY 2-5MPY 5&UpMPY Mild Corrosion, Not Serious Moderate Corrosion, Watch Significant Corrosion, Treat 1- 2/YR 2& Up/YR Mild Corrosion, Not Serious Moderate Corrosion - Treat Significant Corrosion, Treat 3. RULE 3 - pH MEASUREMENTS - FRESH SAMPLES 6.0 - 6.5 6.0 & Less I No Corrosion, Scale Possible Mild Corrosion Moderate Corrosion - Treat Significant Corrosion - Treat I pH 6.0 TO 65 I NOTE: With new strings, failures in first 3 months are probably mill defects and should not be considered. 7.0& Up 6.5 -7.0 CORROSION POSSIBLE I pH LESS THAN 6.0 2. RULE 2 - ROD STRING STRESS FAILURES o-1/YR WATER CUT 25% OR OVER pH OVER 7.0 I I CORROSION PROBABLE I pH 65 TO 7.0 CORROSION UKELY I CORROSION CORROSION UNUKELY I~'~ALLOOAAO"ON OO~"; COUPON DATA I COUPON DATA I I I MORE'THAN 5MPY LES,S THAN LESS THAN MORE THAN 5MPY 5MPY 5MPY NO PITS ,ITS (3) CORROSION ISOLATED CORROSION UNUKELY CORROSION OCCURRING (2) CORROSION ISOLATED CORROSION UNLIKELY CORROSION OCCURRING LESS THAN 5MPY NO PITS I LESS THAN 5MPY PITS (3) I COlOSIO~ INHIBLON PROGRAM DESIRABLE I (2) I I I CORROSION INHIBmON PROGRAM PROBABLY DESIRABLE 4. RULE 4 - WATER CUT & pH STEEL WATER WET WATER CUT No 0 -25% Possible 25% -45% Possible 25% -45%* Yes 45%- Up Yes 45% - Up* *- Possibility of Scale Formation pH pH .!l:.1 1.:..!1. X X X X -18- CORROSION No Uncertain Doubtful Yes Possible 1. Corrosion occasionally occurs above a pH of 7.0. Where field experience indicates possibility of corrosion. 2. When equipment becomes water-wet, corrosion will occur. Maintain a planned monitoring program. 3. Check systems for air entrainment. If air entrainment is found, eliminate and re-test. -19- J. DECISIONS IN THE DESIGN OF AN INHIBITION PROGRAM Once the start of significant corrosion has been detected the object is to quickly control the attack with a cost eff~ctive inhibitin~ program. I~iti<l:lly many programs are ineffective due to faIlure to recognize how filmmg mhibitors function and the required solubility characteristics in the well fluids being produced. Another factor overlooked in older fields is the necessity of a special treatment to quickly establish an initial film of inhibitor. Occasion:uly effective treatments are also discredited by faill!re to r~cognize ~hat e9Ulp ment corroded prior to the start of a program will contmue to fail. Failures that occur during the first three months after beginning a program should be discounted. These generally reflect either equipment that is already corroded or with new equipment, damaging mill defects, not rejected in mill inspections. 1. Does well need to be cleaned? (NOTE 1) 2. What treating procedure should be used? (NOTE 2) K TREATING PROCEDURES FOR PUMPING OIL WELLS The following treating methods are only for rod pumped oil wells. When wells are flowing, on gas lift or centrifugally pumped, other treating methods are required. Type of Treatment Periodic Batch Yes Possible Note 1 Periodic Batch With Inhibitor Emulsion Yes Yes Note 1 Continuous Injection Yes Yes Note 2 Squeeze Treatment Note 3 Note 3 Yes Note 1: 3. What inhibitor should be used? (NOTE 2) 4. In batch and squeeze treatments what frequency is needed? (NOTE 3) Note 2: 5. In batch and squeeze treatments what volume is required? (NOTE 3) 6. In continuous injection what rate is required? 7. What monitoring procedure is desirable or required? (NOTE 4) NOTE 1: The metal must be reasonable clean to effectively film. NOTE 2: Items 2 & 3 are interchangeable and the treatment will generally dictate the type inhibitor or vice versa. NOTE 3: Squeeze treatments may cause skin damage and are not recommended if other treating methods are possible. NOTE 4: Monitoring should be for meaningful results and not require extensive field and laboratory time. -20- 1YPE COMPLETION Open Tubing On Annulus Packer Iii&!! Fluid Level Low Fluid Level Note 3: If operator is willing to unseat pump, either treating procedure can be used down tubing. Also, if the water oil ratio is not excessive, weighted inhibitors QIay be possible. Continuous injection is possible with a capillary tubing type completion. Downhole injection valves are also possible but field experience with these has been poor due to plugging of the valve. Squeeze treatments should be recommended only as a last resort. L. INITIAL FILMING PROCEDURES When running new rods and/or tubing it is desirable to quickly establish an inhibitor film. This will protect the tubing until the on-going treating program films the equipment. 1. Running Tubing and/or Rods in Well The objective is to place a batch of inhibitor at the top of liquids in well so as to film rods and/or tubing as it is run. Use Cortrons in Chapter VI, Standard Inhibitors-Semi-Weekly Batch. a) Running both tubing and rods. Pump into casing: 2 gallons of inhibitor/1,OOO' of tubing b) Running rods only. Pump into tubing: 1 gallon of inhibitor/1,OOO' of tubing. -21- 2. All Batch and Continuous In·ection Treatments not required when Item 1 has been used) The objective is to quickly film inside of tubing and rods to provide protection until the batched or continuously injected inhibitor can circulate. Wells that can be circulated. Pump into annulus: 2 gallons of inhibitor/l,OOO' of tubing. Circulate once or twice. Park inhibitor in annulus. b) Wells that cannot be circulated. Pump into annulus 2 gallons of weighted mhibitor/l,OOO' of tubing. a) 2) Gallons of Inhibitor Required per Week (BOD + BWD) x 7 days x 42 galslbbl x ppm Treating rate 1,000,000 Example: (30 BOD + 160 BWD) @ 25 ppm = 190 x 7 x 42 x ~25~~ = 1.3 gallons/week 1,000,000 @ 35 ppm = 190 x 7 x 42 x ~3~5~ = 1.8 gallons/week 1,000,000 @ 50 ppm = 190 x 7 x 42 x _;;.;50;....._ 1,000,000 = 2.6 gallons/week 3) Adequate Frequency of Treatment 3. Squeeze Treatments Treatment down tubing. Apply Item 1, b) to treat rods. b) Treatment down annulus. Apply Item 2, a) or b) at the rate of 1 gallon of inhibitor per 1,000' of tubing. a) Period of treatments can very widely depending on corrosivity, water oil ratio, tubing size and well deviation. Unless field experience has established the required treating period the following is recommended as the initial program. Producing Rate Treating Period Up to 150 BFPD 150 to 300 BFPD 300 to 800 BFPD Every Two Weeks Weekly Twice Weekly M.PERIODIC BATCH TREATING PROCEDURE The theory of batch treating is that O?ce the ~ell equip~ent has bee~ filmed, inhibitor batched into the annulus will feed mto the tubmg and contmuously maintain the film on rods and tubing. The three requirements for an effective program are; A) Adequate Volume ofInhibitor, B) l\dequate Frequ~n­ cy of Treatment, and C) Assuring Inhibitor Enters Tubmg. The followmg reviews each requirement. = (Barrels Oil + Barrels Water) per Day 4) Assuring Inhibitor Enters Tubing Low Fluid Level Wells (1,000' or less) 1) Adequate Volume ofInhibitor a) Pump one barrel of produced water down annulus. Treating Rates 25 ppm for mild field corrosion 35 ppm standard Permian Basin Recommendation 50 ppm for severe field corrosion ppm BFPD Gallons of Inhibitor = 1,000,000 Gallons of Production b) Pump required inhibitor volume. c) Pump 1/2 to 1 barrel of produced water flush per 1,000' of depth. High Fluid Level Wells (1,000' or over) a) Pump required volume of inhibitor. b) Circulate well at least once returning inhibitor to annulus. c) If wells cannot be circulated, flush with one barrel of produced water per 1,000' of depth. Depth measured to pump inlet. l -22- -23- N. PERIODIC BATCH WITH INHIBITOR EMULSION PROCEDURE The theory in M and requireme.n~s for volut.ne .a~d fr~quency. of 1), 2), and 3) remains the same. The combmmg of t~e 1~~lbltor. m a semi-stable emulsion with the injection water assures the mhlbItor will fall.t~ the bot~om of the tubing so that no overflush 4) is required. However, It ..S essential the emulsion break by the time it reaches the bottom of the tubmg. Test as follows: 1. Combine inhibitor on a 1:1 basis with water used in injection. (Use 4 oz. sample bottle) 2. Hand mix 50 times, a uniform emulsion should form. 3. Emulsion should break slowly with essentially complete separation in 4 hours. o. CONTINUOUS INJECTION PROCEDURE The theory of continuous injection is that inhibitor injected in~o the a?Du~us will fall through the annulus oil and cont.in~lOusly enter ~he tubmg, mamt~n­ ing a film on the equipment. However It IS a!",:ays. deslra~le ~o. hav~ a Side stream flush with continuous injection. Also mJectmg the mhlbltor mto the flush piping is preferred. Q. MONITORING OIL WELL CORROSION The best way of determining the effectiveness of a corrosion control program is the rate of stress corrosion failures occurring in a sucker rod string. A properly designed string should operate for at least 108 cycles before Endurance Limit failures begin. Failures occurring before reaching this number of strokes are invariably due to the development of stress raisers. The principal causes are mill and handling defects, rod bending, corrosion pits or improper makeup. With careful inspection those due to corrosion pits can readily be isolated. 1. Rod String Failure Analysis In inhibited wells, with new strings, where rod failures due specifically to stress corrosion have been isolated, the effectiveness of a corrosion control program can be judged as follows: FIRST YEAR Corrosion Control Failures 1 Well Failures +S Wells SECOND YEAR Failures 1 Well Base daily injection rate on oil + water per day. 1) Typical Field Corrosion = 25 ppm. 2) Permian Basin Corrosion = 35 ppm. 3) Severe Field Corrosion = 50 ppm. P.SQUEEZETREATMENTPROCEDURE This is the least desirable procedure and should be used only as a last res?r!. In low permeability sand formations producti~n rates are often redu~d mltially and there are instances of permanent skm damage. In unconsohdated sands producing through gravel packs, squeezes have destroyed the gravel pack. 'The treatments are not effective in vugular porosity and have a poor performance record in fractured formations. Failures +SWells Very Effective 0 0.5-1 Avg. 1 1-2 Avg. Partially Effective 1 1-2 Avg. 2 2-3 Avg. Not Effective 3-4 3-4 Avg. Failure rates increase and string replaced. NOTE: New rod strings typically contain 3% to 8% rods containing potentially damaging defects. Generally rod failures occurring in the first 60 days will be caused by mill or handling defects. The following is one method for estimating squeeze treatments. Q =T (.!'..- Q = T = F = G = l 1,000 2. Corrosion Coupon Data + ...Q...8) Inhibitor in Gallons at 25 ppm Rate. Life of Squeeze in Days Total Fluid Production in BFPD. Gas Production in MMCF/D -24- a) Installation and testing requirements. Coupons must be where wetted by typical produced water. Velocity should not be over 5 fps. Minimum exposure period = 10 days. Desirable exposure period = 30 days or more. Preferred steel = 10/20 sandblasted, hot rolled. -25- b) Significance of Results Corrosion Control 30 Days MPY Very Effective 0-2 Partially Effective 2 - 5 To be considered effec- IRON LOSS NOMOGRAPH tive,coupons must be free of pits. Not Effective 5&Up 3000 500 500 400 300 200 300 100 ~ 00 3. Iron Count Data a) Significance of results with water cuts less than 25%. Iron Count Corrosion Control 2000 - - - - -_ _ _-1_30 20 100 EXAMPLE: 300 barrels Iron Count Iron Loss 10 Pipeline carries of water daily. = 200 ppm = 21.0 Ibs/day 5 3 2 Very Effective Oto 50 50 40 0.5 Partially Effective 50 to 150 30 0.3 0.2 0.1 150& Up b) Significance of results with water cuts over 25%. Iron counts must be interpreted on the basis of the attached NOMOGRAPH. Any iron loss of over 5 lbs/day should be considered significant. 0.05 0.03 0.02 10 5 0.01 0.005 5 0.003 0.002 4 NOTE: The use of iron counts in oil production requires careful sampling and analysis, particularly with sour production. 3 3 2 0.001 pounds of iron removed daily ppm-iron R. IRON LOSS NOMOGRAPH With the Iron Loss Nomograph it is assumed all of the Ferrous Ions dissolved from the metal remain in solution and will reflect the actual weight of iron removed from the well bore equipment. Providing there is no iron contained in the formation waters and scaling of corrosion products is not significant, the chart can be considered a reasonable approximation. Also when used as a periodic measurement for estimating the effectiveness of the fIlming efficiency of the inhibitor, it is a good monitoring tool. However, it indicates only total iron removed and cannot be related to a pitting attack. Single reading can be misleading and duplicate or triplicate samples are recommended and the results from a series of periodic tests reviewed to establish a basis of the significance of the readings. -26- 30 20 20 Not Effective 50 -27- barrels water per day LIMITING VELOCITIES CHAPTER III GAS/CONDENSATE WELL CORROSION AND PREVENTION GENERAL The flow stream of gas, condensate, and water from the reservoir through the tubing to the surface separating equipment is a continually changing process stream. The pressure, temperature, ratios of gas, condensate, water, and velocity continuously changes. Furthermore, the composition of the water changes as the formation water entrained in the gas is diluted by condensate water separated from the gas, with reduction in temperature, as it flows up the tubing. All of these factors can affect the type and location of corrosion and should be considered in a corrosion control program. As previously noted the basic cause of the metal loss is the electrochemical reaction. With at least trace amounts of formation water always initially entrained in the gas, another corrosivity factor frequently overlooked is the flow patterns for the two phase flow variations with velocity changes. The velocity controls the slip and holdup of the liquid in the gas stream and the degree of turbulence, all of which affect the corrosivity. The following reviews the effect of these factors and corrosion inhibiting procedures for gas/condensate production. Specific Champion Cortron corrosion inhibitors for the programs are listed in Chapter VI. WELL STREAM CONDITION TUBING PRESSURE 1,000 psi 5,000 psi Wet Non-Corrosive Wet Corrosive Wet Corrosive & Abrasive -28- 50fps 40fps 30 fps 25 fps B. CALCULATION OF APPROXIMATE TUBING VELOCI1Y With single sized tubing strings the maximum velocity will be at the top of the string and calculations for well head conditions will indicate maximum velocity. However, with tapered strings the maximum velocity can occur down hole. If down hole pressure conditions are unknown the curve below can be used for an approximation of down hole pressures. The following will provide "ball park" approximations suitable' for field evaluations of well operating conditions. TUBING VELOCI1Y IN FEET/SECOND CFS GAS The effectiveness of inhibition programs in high velocity gas wells is limited by the erosive action of the flow stream. Continuous injection programs thru capillary tubing or macaroni string are the most effective. Frequent batch treatments with high surface tension, heavy film forming inhibitors may be partially effective. 75 fps NOTE: See Item C for effect of temperature and gas density. A. THEORETICAL LIMITING VELOCITIES FOR TUBING The following is for well streams entraining only minor amounts of formation water and condensate water, liberated from the saturated gas with temperature reduction, total water not to exceed 5 bbls/MMCF. At the listed velocities all corrosion product will erode and the attack will be general. For the corrosive conditions failures due to metal loss will eventually occur, even with inhibiting, due to the corrosion/erosion phenomenon. 85 fps MSCFD OR = = MSCFD x OR x Z = Px3600 Cu. Ft./Sec. Gas in Thousands of Cubic Feet per Day = OF + 460° = Absolute Temperature Z = Compressibility Factor P = Operating Pressure in psi NOTE: Disregard Z for pressures of 1,000 psi or less. When Z is unknown, for pressures over 1,000 psi, use 0.9. Gas Velocity in Feet/Second = CFS Tubing Area in Square Feet -29- 1. APPROXIMATE BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE OF GAS WELLS .10 :I: ~ Q. w Q C) .09 .08 PRESSURE PSI 150°F 1,000 2.97 2,000 5.93 DENSITIES @ 200°F 250°F 300°F 2.74 2.55 2.38 5.48 5.10 4.76 3,000 8.90 8.22 7.65 7.15 4,000 11.87 10.96 10.19 9.53 5,000 14.84 13.70 12.75 11.91 iii .07 6,000 17.80 16.45 15.29 14.29 u. .06 7,000 20.76 19.19 17.84 16.67 z ~ ~ 0 ~ .05 'wCo ~ .04 w .03 en c( w a: .02 0 ~ .01 EXAMPLE T.H.P. 3000 psi - Depth 9000' Factor 3000 psi .07 psi/ft. C.I.S.H.P. 3000+(.07X9000) C.I.S.H.P. = 3630 psi = = 0 12345 CLOSED IN TUSING HEAD PRESSURE - psi X 1000 DENSITY· POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT C. CORROSM1Y VS LIMITING VELOCI1Y & DENSI1Y D. PHASE RELATIONS OF GAS AND LIQUIDS IN TUBING The limiting velocity in a gas/condensate well defines the fluid flow rate above which the rate of metal loss by abrasion will result in a markedly premature failure. In wells where the water is non-corrosive all metal loss will be due to abrasion of the steel by the entrained water droplets. When the water is corrosive the limiting velocity is lower due to rapid erosion of the corrosion product, exposing clean steel with its higher susceptability to corrosion attack. This rate is further reduced when the flow stream entrains formation fmes which are frequently hard sand particles. The relative volumes of gas, condensate and water vary from the formation face to the well head. Also as the gas expands with reduction of pressure the velocity is continually increasing. The velocity will determine the flow patterns and in combination with the volume of liquids establishes the extent of liquid holdup. The slip and holdup dictate that the tubing wall will be wetted over the entire length of the tubing and at lower velocities result in a water leg buildup, with gas flowing as bubbles or small slugs through the buildup. At higher velocities, usually over 10-15 fps, all water and gas remain entrained. Within the gas stream the liquids will be in the spray form and there will be a film of liquid on the tubing wall. The thickness of the film will be a function of the velocity and rate of liquids being produced. From corrosion consideration, with the continuous water wetting of the tubing, C02 and/or H2S present in the gas and the limiting velocity are the items of concern. The following is an overview of Flow Patterns and Slip and Holdup factors for consideration in designing a corrosion control program. The table lists approximate densities at various temperatures for a typical gas entraining only traces of water (± 5 bblsIMMCF). The curves give maximum allowable velocities for three conditions. For the corrosive/abrasive condition the limiting Velocity can be increased with a good corrosion control program. However, the corrosive limit of velocity would be considered maximum for maintaining an inhibitor film for any batch treating type program. -30- -31- 1. FLOW PATTERNS IN TUBING The flow pattern illustration is for ambient temperature and low pressure. While the flow patterns are considered typical, the velocities at which they occur would vary somewhat with the density of the gas. The range of flow patterns for typical gas wells are indicated. With flows in the Slug Flow regime down hole water legs would be anticipated. As noted the Annular Mist Flow develops in the 40 to 50 fps range, where as noted in Item C, the Limiting Velocities are predicted. The term superficial velocity is defined as the velocity of a phase in a multi-phase flow stream calculated as though it were the only phase present. From corrosion considerations, the presence of water not its volume, is the critical factor. As noted in Item 1 - Flow Patterns, water will be continuously present. At low velocities the Holdup will dictate the length of the water leg, in gas well depletion periods or with low formation pressures, the buildup may result in killing of the well. A major consideration in inhibiting treatments for wells with water legs is designing a treatment that assures displacing of the leg and filming of the tubing covered by the water leg. The following curve illustrates the typical holdup conditions for ambient temperatures and low pressure. While the range for typical tubing is indicated literal interpretation would not be representative of gas wells. 500.-----..----,------.--,-----.--", SLUG ~ FROTH c FLOW PATTERNS Superficial Water Ve VSL • ftlsec IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII c A D n li [J > ...... u V\ ....a. W .... ex: 0 ...... Q) r 01 w to ~ a:: :=I V) 0.1 .. ,-. )?:~ - ;.~ ........ x: ";j:'jf,::'- L \'F;, 10. c c ex: HOLDUP RATIO: ~ . ~ / ~ tt: 0. "'0I" 10~--~~~~-~-~~-T_~-~~ .~ / / tI 10.0. When phases differ in density and/or viscosity the lighter phase tends to flow at a higher in-situ average velocity. The in-situ volume fraction ratio of the heavier phase to the lighter phase in the flow stream. / 'l/ /' / ..... . ~. :-..~ Range in Typical Tubing SUPERFICIAL GAS VELOCITY - ft./sec. -32 - / c5 / Ii: :n ;:: :/:J;-/ 2. SLIP AND HOLDUP IN TUBING The Slip and Holdup phenomena that is inherent in any multi-phase flow in vertical pipe is frequently overlooked in evaluating gas well corrosion. These factors can be defined as follows: SLIP: I .\~:~ ::J I I I 10. G ' to V) / / .. '"!'!r.'~~' [J A . a:: c 3 0 V\ 01 , ::J 3 F .... lJ... a:: 0 0.01/ 100 lJ... 0 - W E "'0: 3 0 ...J L.n :> 0 ity ~ ..:.;;;;:.-_ 0 ' .' - 'f..-- 10 10 Tubing Range of Typical Superficial Gas Velocity, VSG+O.1,fVsec E. GAS/CONDENSATE WELLS WATER PRODUCTION The geologic processes that resulted in the forming of gas reservoirs dictates that all produced gas will entrain water. The water will be of two types. Formation water stripped from the water wetted reservoir rock and condensate water that evolves from the water saturated gas. The formation water composition can vary widely dependi?g upon ~hether the w~ter.in the ori~nal sedimentary basin was fresh or sahne but wdl always contam d1ssolved sohds. Condensate water is always solids free. The composition of the produce? water will be a function of the ratio of the two types of water. The compOS1tion of the water may vary widely over the producing life of a we~l depend~ng on the type of reservoir. The corrosivity of the produced water 1S a functlon of the acidic components (H2S and/or CO2) contained in the gas stream. The following reviews the water production sequence in typi~al gas depletions. These are based on the initial production from completlons above the gas water interface zone in the reservoir. -33- 1. GAS EXPANSION RESERVOIRS Depending on depth, pressure and temperature of the reservoir the water production will be in the range of 1 to 3 bbls/MMCF throughout the life of the well. Initially the water will be principally condensate type with a low salinity. As the well depletes the amount evolved from the gas decreases and the amount of formation water stripped from the reservoir increases. In the later stages of depletion the composition will approximate that of formation water. As pressure and gas flow decrease, water legs develop, eventually killing the well. 2. WATER DRIVE RESERVOIRS Depending on permeability, the well pressure may remain relatively high, and until water enters the well bore the rate and composition will be identical to that in a gas expansion reservoir. With a water drive intrusion the water rate will markedly increase and the composition approximate that of formation water. If the water intrusion is due to permeability stratification, gas production may continue at a reduced but economic rate for a considerable period. When the producing interval is thin or of relatively uniform permeability, the well may water out quickly. 3. MOBILE WATER TABLE RESERVOIRS Production history is similar to a gas depletion reservoir until the pressure drops and allows water entrainment from the water table. Rate of water increase is frequently slow and can occasionally be stopped and reversed by reducing the gas producing rate. Water composition will approximate that of formation water. The well will water out, the time being a function of formation characteristics. F. RULES OF THUMB FOR ESTIMATING CORROSION 1. RULE 1 - PREDICTING CORROSION - ALL WELLS SOUR GAS H2S - 250 ppm & Up pH - 6.5 & Less COUPONS COUPONS SAND,ETC WATER VELOCITY SWEET GAS C02 - 7.0 PSI P.P. & Up pH - 7.0 & Less Fe - 100 ppm & Up Pitted 5MPY&Up Any 2BBLS/MMCF & Up 25FPS& Up NOTE: Wells showing any two potentially corrosive. 2. RULE 2 - PREDICTING CORROSION - SWEET GAS WELLS (With C02 Partial Pressure over 7 psi) WATER PRODUCTION BBLS/MCCF CHLORIDE CONTENT PPM IRON COUNT PPM POSSIBILITY OF SERIOUS CORROSION NO ±2 0-250 ± 50 ±2 0-250 50 -150 POSSIBLE ±2 0-250 150& UP PROBABLE 2-5 250 - 500 2-5 250 - 500 50 -150 PROBABLE 2-5 250 - 500 150& UP YES 5&UP 500& UP 150& UP YES ±50 POSSIBLE 3. RULE 3 - PREDICTING CORROSION - SWEET GAS WELLS Serious down hole corrosion and failures were first encountered in domestic gas production in the late 30's and early 40's. By the mild 40's failures were wide spread, occurring in both sweet and sour gas producing areas. Field conducted studies to determine the cause of the failures were wide spread. Many of these were trial and error type studies based on relating field failures with well operating conditions. The following are different "Rules of Thumb" that evolved from this empirical data. Years of experience have established these are all valid procedures and are still widely used. -34- a. A part~al pressure of C02 above 30 psi usually indicates corrosIOn. b. A part~al pressure of C02 between 7 and 30 psi may indicate corrosIOn. c. A partial p~essure of C02 below 7 psi is considered non-corrOSlve. -35- 4. RULE 4 - PREDICTING CORROSION - COUPON DATA COUPON REPORT MPY EXPOSURE PERIOD DAYS TYPE ATTACK POSSIBILITY OF SERIOUS CORROSION 0-5 30 Min. General No 0-5 30 Min. Pitting Yes 5 -lO 30 Min. General Possible 5 -lO 30 Min. Pitting Yes lO&Up 30 Min. Any Yes H. PROCEDURES FOR INHIBITING GAS WELLS The following six procedures have all been successfully used with the (1) Batch method (where applicable) being the most cost effective. The (2) Batch with a Wireline Brush assures uniform filming and is particularly advantageous in deviated wells. The (4) Tubing Displacement is an excellent procedure where wells have a large ~ater leg t~at must be ~ispla~ed to totally film the tubing string. The (5) CapIllary Tub10g and (6) Kill Stnng are both excellent methods but require large well bore equipment investment. The (3) Batch Squeeze and (7) Injector Valves are the least desirable. Squeezing can cause skin damage with a period of decreased productivity and in gravel pack completions, can disturb or de~troy the pack. Inj~ctor y alves f~e9uentl~ plug due to mud solids or other solIds or scales entramed 10 the dnll10g flUids. 1. Batch 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. G. DECISIONS REQUIRED FOR INHIBITING PROGRAM 1. What inhibitor should be used? (Note 1) 2. What treating procedure should be used? (Note 1) 3. In periodic treatments what volume is required? 4. In periodic treatments what frequency is required? 5. In continuous injection what rate is required? 6. What monitoring method should be used? (Note 2) I. Batch with wireline brush. Batch Squeeze - liquid or nitrogen. Tubing Displacement. Capillary tubing - batch or continuous Kill string - batch or continuous Injector valves - batch or continuous TREATING RATES FOR GAS/CONDENSATE WELLS The following batch treating rates are based on field experience in typical corrosive wells where the rates do not exceed the limiting curve (in Item C). Where these velocities are exceeded a continuous injection procedure will provide partial inhibition. 1. BATCH TREATING PER 5000 FEET OF 2" - 3" TUBING NOTE 1: Items 1 & 2 are interchangeable. The inhibitor will usually dictate the treatment or vice versa. NOTE 2: Monitoring should be for meaningful results and not require extensive field and laboratory time. RATEMMCF/D 0-2 2 -5 5 -10 10&Up INHIBITOR GALS. 25 25 25 25 INTERVAL MONTHS 3 2 1 1/2 NOTE 3: Squeeze treatments may cause skin damage and should not be recommended if other treating methods are possible. OPTIMUM RUN DOWN TIME - 1 HOUR/lOoo FEET. MINIMUM RUN DOWN TIME - 1 HOUR/15oo FEET. DILUENT WHEN REQUIRED - 1;1 TO 1:4 INH. TO DILUENT. PRE OR OVERFLUSH WHERE REQUIRED - 2 TO 10 BBLS. -36- -37~ 'I'I 2. CONTINUOUS INJECTION RATES - 2" - 3" TUBING (capillary tubing, kill string and injector valves) LOW GAS AND WATER RATES -1/4 TO 1 PINT/MMCF. CHAPTER-IV PIPELINE CORROSION AND PREVENTION LOW GAS & HIGH WATER RATES - 50 TO 100 PPM INHIBITOR IN PRODUCED WATER. HIGH GAS & LOW WATER RATES - 1 PINT TO 1 QUART/MMCF. HIGH GAS & HIGH WATER RATES - 50 TO 100 PPM INHIBITOR IN PRODUCED WATER OR 1 QUART/MMCF. 3. SQUEEZETREATMENTVOLUME Q=T _F (1,000 +~ - G) 8 WHERE: Q = INHIBITOR IN GALLONS/25 PPM RATE T = LIFE OF SQUEEZE IN DAYS F = TOTAL LIQUID PRODUCTION IN BBLS/DAY G = GAS PRODUCTION IN MMCF/D J.CORROSION CONTROL IN WELLHEADS AND DOWNHOLE EQUIPMENT The corrosion inhibiting treatments are designed for tubing strings with only minor diameter changes. Wellheads, storm chokes and seating nipples have locations of marked diameter changes or changes in direction of flow. These non-conformities create zones of high turbulence where inhibitor films will be quickly eroded, causing locations where corrosion/erosion occurs. The rate of metal loss under these conditions can be severe resulting in rapid failure. The velocity creating a level of turbulence for the corrosion/erosion phenomenon is uncertain, being a function of the configuration of the discontinuity. Field failures indicate it will generally be in the 15-20 fps range. When velocity at the top of the tubing is within this range the use of stainless steel or equipment components with stainless type overlays are recommended. All wellhead manufacturers can supply corrosion resistant equipment. The corrosion/erosion problem is also frequently encountered down hole on both sides of storm chokes and seating nipples. When velocities at down hole locations across non-conformities are in the 15-20 fps range, stainless steel subs at least 3 feet in length should be installed on both sides of the location of high turbulence. The alloy usually recommended is 410 stainless steel. -38- GENERAL As with all metal loss corrosion the occurrence in pipelines is controlled by the electrochemical reaction. This dictates the presence of water and the water wetting of the pipe wall. With this condition satisfied the electrochemical reaction will occur. However, the rate of metal loss and type is controlled by other factors. A pitting type attack can be caused by mill scale, slag inclusions or slugs, improper heat treatment, heat run out zone effects or use of unsuitable welding rod. The corrosion/erosion effect can be caused by too high fluid velocity. Water and sludge buildups will develop with too Iowa flUld velocity that may cause pitting and bacteria infestations. With low velocity water, sludge segregatIon invariably occurs and scheduled pigging programs are desirable. The rate and type of attack is also a function of the corrodents present. When corrosion is not controlled, depending on wall thickness and operating conditions, time to first corrosion type failure will be from three to twelve years. However, with a well desigIled corrosion inhibition program placed 10 operation"at the same time the line is commissioned, corrosion failures can be prevented indefinitely. The following reviews the effect of these factors and inhibiting procedures for pipelines. Specific Champion Cortron corrosion inhibitors for the programs'are listed in Chapter VI. A. FREQUENT CAUSES OF INTERNAL CORROSION IN PIPELINES NOTE: Welds and heat affected zones are areas of high electrochemical potential and subject to an accelerated pitting type attaCk. Inhibiting with a heavy film forming inhibitor is desirable. I{ COLD - COLD PASS HOT - COLD PASS HEAT RUN OUT WRONG ROD IMPROPER WELDING TOO HIGH TOO LOW VELOCIlY INADEQUATE _ __ PIGGING { SCALE BUILDUP LIQUID BUILDUP BACTERIA GROWTH INHIBITOR { WRONGlYPE LOW VOLUME -39- ,It B. FLOW PATIERNS IN PIPELINES With all oil, gas and refinery pr<?ducts, uJ:.ltil de.hy<!rated to b.elow the de~­ point temperature encountered In operations, lIqUId water will evolve. This evolves as a minute droplet dispersion that on contact coalesces into larger droplets. Except for crude oils of 10 API gravity or lower the water will tend to gravity segregate to the bottom of the pipeline. In pipelines the velocity is the controllIng factor, since in combination with the fluid being tra!lsported it determines the degree of turbulence that controls the extent to whlcli water segregation will occur. Once the pipe wall is water wetted, the electrochemical reactio.~l i.e. corrosion, begins. Generally, when segregation occurs, corrosion will be most severe along the bottom of the pipe. In some systems the metal loss is further intensified on the up-dip side of low spots where the fluxing of the water can develop the corrosIOn/erosion condition. 7 FPS& Up All water remains suspended as droplets in oil stream. NOTE: Tendency of water entrained in oil stream to water wet pipe is a function of oil gravity and surface tension. Assume that with oil gravity under 40° API, pipe IS oil wet; and over 40° API, pipe is water wet. The following are conservative "Rules of Thumb" that can be used to approximate Flow Patterns and degree of water segregation. 2. WET GAS LINES - (WATER: TRACE T05 BBLS/MMCF) 1. CUSTODY TRANSFER OIL LINES - (WATER: TRACE TO 2%) 0-31/2 FPS All water drops from oil and flows to low spots building up pools. As area over pool is reduced, water becomes turbulent and is displaced up dip. Eventually a slug is stripped from pool and flows with oil. Pool flows back to bottom of dip and repeats build-up. :;::E'" ';:::. ___~O Em NO 0-71/2 FPS All water quickly drops from gas stream flows to low spots and builds up pools. As area over 1'001 is reduced, water becomes turbulent and is displaceo up dil'. Eventually slug is ~tripped fr.om t?P of pool and flows with gas. Pool flows back to bottom of dip and agambUlIOs up. E DRY :::;7~ ';::_---0 / DORMANT POOLS / DORMANT WATER POOLS 71/2 -15 FPS 31/2 -7 FPS A velocity range of uncertainty. The extent to which water remains suspended as droplets depends on oil gravity, viscosity and droplet size. The higher the gravity, the greater the tendency of water segregation. Most water drops from gas stream and collects in turbulent pools on up hill side of dips. Slugs are stripped from tops of pool and flow with gas. Minor spray flow persists with droplets continuously wetting pipe waIl and entering pools and being stripped from pipe walls ana pools and entering spray. SP.ZtZ,;:;:,,< 7112 -15 f .p.s. {IMiNOR AGITATED POOLS AGITATED WATER POOLS -40- -41· ~~_ _-:--~ 0 "" 1. 15 - 25 FPS APPROXIMATE ° R FOR BURIED OR SUBMERGED PIPELINES Water dropping out forms a continuous flowing stream along bottom of pipe. Minor} turbulent pools build up on up hill side of dips with frequent small slu,g displacement. Continuous spray with water alternately depositing and belOg stripped from pipe walls and stream. 15 - -e;SPRAY; :'~''' ' -:. . .- > .' .- South of Denver, Colorado ° R = 520° Denver to Canadian Border ° R = 510° North of Canadian Border ° R = 500° 25 f.p.s . ~···:'··:~· <:'hn . :':: ':~ :. ~ •• ' _.,fir .............. SMALL AGITATED POOLS ~. CONTINUOUS STREAM NOTE: With only trace amounts of water, above 15 FPS velocity all water remains in spray regime. 25 FPS& UP All liquids remain in spray regime, continuously wetting and being stripped from pipe wall. 2. APPROXIMATE PIPE AREAS IN SQUARE FEET (Based on nominal diameters) Diameter Ins. Area Sq.Ft. Diameter Ins. Area Sq.Ft. 2 .0218 12 .7853 3 .0490 16 1.3963 4 .0872 20 2.1817 6 .1963 24 3.1416 8 .3491 30 4.9087 10 .5454 36 7.0685 NOTE: Calculations give order of magnitude velocities suitable for use with FLOW PATTERNS 10 pipelines illustrated in Item B. With two phase lines always include gas volumes, however when CFS (liquid) is less than 5% of total fluid volume, it can be deleted from gas velocity calculations. c. APPROXIMATE VELOCITIES IN WET GAS PIPELINES Liquids in cubic feet/second = BWPD + BOPD = CFS Gas in cubic feet/second MSCFDXOR PX3060 Velocity in feet/second CFS (Iiq.) + CFS (gas) Pipe Area in Sq. Ft. = BWPD = Barrels of water per day BOPD = Barrels of oil per day MSCFD = Gas in 1,OOO's feet/day OR =oF+460° P CFS = = D. EVALUATION OF CORROSION POSSIBILITIES IN PIPELINES 15400 CFS As noted in GENERAL: with water present in the fluids in a pipeline, the electrochemical action will occur if the 'pipe wall is water wetted. The extent to which this may cause serious corrOSIOn, will be a function of the electropotential and the corrosivity of the fluids. With water wetting in the weld area some corrosion should always be anticipated. In any major or critical pipeline, if water is known to be present, initial inhibiting of the weld areas IS aesirable. In new lines where corrosion is anticipated, inhibition should begin when the line is placed in operation. Generally new lines will operate a minimum of three years before the first corrosion failure. However when corrosion of the pitting type has occurred and corrosion products are of the scaling, encapsulating type, controlling corrosion with an inhibitor program may not be possible, unless the line is thoroughly cleaned. psi operating pressure Cubic feet/second -42- -43- Flow patterns in Pipelines, Item B, are "Rules of Thumb" for water wetting in pipelines. In operating lines where corrosion is known to be occurring, the fonowing listing indicates factors for review prior to determining the desirability of an inhibition program. b. OPERATING OIL PIPELINES Pig line with batching pig to remove any water or sludge build-ups, then clean line with a cleaning type pig. A. An estimate of present condition of line with regard to internal corrosion. B. Required operating life of system. Option 1: If sludge in receiving trap shows large amounts of corrosion product, repeat cleaning run with pig. Option 2: Displace 50 to 100 foot slug of alcohol between two batching pigs to dry line. C. An estimate of cost of line repairs or replacement. D. Practicality of various type treatments. c. OPERATING WET GAS PIPELINES E. Importance of maintaining uninterrupted operation. Pig line with batching pig to remove any water build-up, then clean line with cleaning pig. E. GENERAL ITPES OF INHIBITING PROGRAMS FOR PIPELINES The following treatments can be applied in many systems. However where the thru-I?ut IS large and variable, With multiple laterals either delivering to or supplymg line, or where the line is looped, a design study is desirable. In large complex systems the specifics of operations may dictate multiple treating procedures. Also in complex system a design study invariably results in a more cost effective program. Item 1. outlines pipeline cleaning procedures. The importance of adequate cleaning cannot be over emphaSized. Filming inhibitors function by establishing a film of an electrical insulating matenal between the water and the steel, stopping the electrochemical reaction. This requires intimate contact between the inhibitor and steel and filming the steel surface is mandatory to assure corrosion control. 1. PROCEDURES FOR CLEANING LINES PRIOR TO INHIBITING If sludge in receiving trap shows large amount of corrosion product - repeat run with pig. Option 2: Using cleaning pig, displace cleaning solution thru line. Use surfactant mixed with fresh water at a 1: 10-20 dilution ratio. Size miXture for a 50 - 100 feet slug in line. Option 3: Displace alcohol slug between batch pigs to remove film of cleaning solution. Size slug for 50 - 100 feet of line. d. OPERATING DEHYDRATED GAS PIPELINES NOTE: Lines that have not been frequently pigged may have build-ups of spent glycol or dessicant dust. Using bat ching pig, disl?lace surfactant cleaning solution through line. Mix with fresh water at dilution rate 1: 10-20. Size mIXture for 50 - 100 foot slug. a. NEW PIPELINES: After displacing of test water, blow line down to remove any by-passed water. Then pig line with cleaning type scrapper. Option 1: Option 1: After scraping, using a bat ching type pig displace alcohol slug through line to remove water film and that trapped in weld blowouts and crevices. Size slug for 50 to 100 feet of line. -44- Option 1: 2. If history indicates any water drop out or that corrosion has occurred, clean line with cleaning pig run. INHIBITING OIL PIPELINES BY CONTINUOUS INJECTION Oil pipelines are of two types. Field lines between the wells and tank batteries' ,generally flowing oil, gas and water. This flow will be turbulent at velocities of 3 1/2 fps and over. ~en water c}lts are 25% or less, C?il. or gas will be the external phase and senous corrosion would not be antiCipated. However, when water cuts are over 25%1 the piping will probably be water wetted, and regardless of velocity, corrosion may occur. -45- The objective in the tank battery processing is to p!~duce Custody Tr~sfer oil. The usual specification for Custody Transfer oil IS BS&W content m the 1 to 2 percent range. Water and oil distribution in these lines is ~hown in Item B, 1. All lines having velocities ofless than 7 fps should be considered potentially corrosive. Fluid phases and flow characteristics in these field and transmission lines are significantly different, requiring different type inhibition programs. These programs are described below. a. INHIBITING FIELD TRANSMISSION LINES OBJECTIVE: To combine water soluble inhibitor with produced water and film all surfaces of system contacted by water. PROCEDURE: Continuously inject inhibitor at beginning of line at a rate to establish a 50 to 100 ppm residual in water at terminal of line. After inhibitor residual has stabilized the injection rate can be reduced until a residual in the 25 to 50 ppm range has been established. TREATING RATES FOR 50 PPM INHIBITOR RESIDUAL Water Rate - BID 100 200 300 400 500 Inhibitor Rate-ptslD 1.4 2.8 4.2 5.6 7.0 h. INHIBITING CUSTODY TRANSFER LINES OBJECTIVE: To combine water soluble inhibitor with BS&W so that water that collects along the bottom of the pipe will contain a sufficient concenration of inhibitor to continuously film water wetted pipe. PROCEDURE: Continuously inject inhibitor at beginning ofline at a rate to establish a 250 ppm residual at the terminal of the line. When monitoring proves corrosion is controlled injection rate can be reduced. TREATING RATE FOR 250 PPM INHIBITOR RESIDUAL, BASED ON 2% BS&W Oil Rate - BID x 1000 20 40 60 80 100 Inhibitor Rate - galslD 1.4 2.8 4.2 5.6 7.0 3. INHIBITING WET GAS PIPELINES Gas pipelines are of two types. Wet gas field gathering and transmission systems and transmission lines for dehydrated sales gas. The field systems in large operations can be quite complex with many laterals of different sizes with large differences in producing rates. The lines can also vary widely in the rates of water production and occasionally in composition of the gas. Generally these operations require a design study to determine the best inhibition program both from corrosion protection considerations and cost effectiveness. The following describes three types of corrosion inhibition programs that have been extensively applied in wet gas pipelines, and an optimum program where a maximum corrosion inhibition control is desirable. The decision as to the type program will generally be dictated by the condition of the line, logistics with regard to line servicing, pigging program, velocity of the gas and corrosivity of the fluids. Of primary importance in inhibiting wet gas lines with velocities of less than 15 fps is maintaining an inhibitor film on the bottom of the pipe. The Type 1 program with a diligently applied maintenance program is desirable for this condition. The inhibitor used for this type treatment form heavy, tenacious films that are very durable. With new lines an initial filming treatment is always desirable to inhibit the weld areas. In lines with velocities of 15 fps and over there will always be a spray regime, with little or no build-up of water in the lower sector of the line. Also as velocities increase erosion of the film applied in the Type 1 treatment increases and the continuous injection type program becomes more cost effective. The Type 2 program is frequently recommended for new lines. Experience has established that for maximum inhibiting effectiveness the corrosion inhibitors should be formulated for the specific treatment type. Also since the corrosion protection is based on a continuous film of inhibitor, the concentration of the inhibitor component in the formula is critical. The programs reviewed in this chapter are based on inhibitors specifically formulated for pipeline operations. NOTE: With lines with low thru-puts batch treating can be used. Inject at rate of 1.0 gallon per 10,000 barrels of oil transported between treatments. -46- -47- I' b. 1YPE 2 TREATMENT (CONTINUOUS INJECTION PROGRAM) a. 1YPE 1 TREATMENT (BATCHING PROGRAM) OBJECTIVE: To film the entire internal surface of the pipe with a corrosion inhibitor insoluble in the gas, condensate and water carried in the system. PROCEDURE: Mix the inhibitor with a carrier at a 1:1 to 1:4 basis and displace through the line between two batching pigs. Recommended carriers - diesel, #2 fuel oil, water free crude oil (± 30 API). Rate of pig displacement not to exceed 5 mph. MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE: (For repair of mm on lower segment of line. Use 1/4 of initial treatment, push treatment through line with one batching pig. Frequency of treatment is a function of fluids carried and velocity. "RULE OF THUMB" - INHIBITOR VOLUME CALCULATION ± 2 MIL FILM OBJECTIVE: To combine water soluble inhibitor with entrained water and coat all surfaces of pipe contacted by water. Also to establish and maintain a sufficient concentration of inhibitor in water in pools or flowing along bottom of pipe to assure all pipe surfaces are continuously inhibited. PROCEDURE: Continuously inject corrosion inhibitor at beginning of line. In low velocity lines used fogging type injecting jet. NOTE: Where the volume of water transported in the gas in known or can be reasonable estimated use injection rate shown below. Where the volume of water transported with the gas is unknown, inject inhibitor at 1 to 2 pints per MMCF of gas. When inhibitor residuals at line terminal stabilize, adjust injection rate for recommended residual in system. INHIBITOR REQUIREMENTS FOR WET GAS PIPELINES (For maintaing 100 ppm in water phase) Gallons of Inhibitor = 3 X D X L D = Nominal Pipe Diameter in Inches L = Length of Pipeline in Miles DAIL Y INJECTION RATE IN PINTS 1 bAY FOR 100 PPM CONCENTRATION 2 INHIBITOR REQUIREMENTS FOR INTERNALLY COATING PIPE J , " \,I CJ UJ ..J - en ~ en UJ a: UJ z a. o 20 ,I"" " ~ () a: I 15 0 lt: ~ OJ I ..J LL ~ u:: ~ ..J 0 10 en UJ z 0z 0 ..J ..J <l: CJ a: UJ a. 5 o "" "" " " " " "" " " "" "" ,," ,,'" " " " " 1 LL () en ~ ~ 2 a: UJ a. a: UJ I- <l: 3:: 3 LL o en ..J ~ 4 a: <l: OJ 5 24 36 48 8 1 10 I I 12 14 16 I I \\\\"~' 11I\\"'~l" 1\ 1\ \\ \ \ \ \" ' ,", ' , \\\' I \ \ \ '\ \ 1\\\\ 1\ \ \ \ 1\ \ \ \ i \ 1\ \ \ I \ \ \ I I \ \ I\ ! I I \ I \ \ \ \-~ \ \ \ ~. 20 ,', ,','", " '~', '" \ \ ' ,,' " ' .... \ ' ,,, " \ \ \ ", " \' I'. " \ , \ \. \ \ ~\ \ \ 1 30 ,"f,' \ \ \ , j:1 '", ,, " ',"'", "', \~ , ,, ,,, ",'."", ,, , , , , '"" r, " I' \'1. \ \ \ \ 40 '.1 1 \ 50 60 70 GAS RATE - MMSCF 1 DAY PIPE DIAMETER - INCHES (Based on 1/2" wall thickness) -48- ,- \\ \ \ \\1'\' ,,~, 5 10 12 6 1 ~'" f\'\~~~~ en <l: LL 4 -49- 80 " I", 90 100 c. ITPE 3 TREATMENT (SPECIAL CONDITIONS ONLy) NOTE: This treatment is suggested only for low velocity lines where neither Type 1 or 2 treatments can be applied. In line known to be badly corroded or with sludge build-ups in low sections it may not be effective. It has been successful in relatively clean wet gas systems. OBJECTIVE: To establish and maintain a level of inhibitor concentration in water trapped in low spot of the system to assure all water wetted surfaces are adequately ftlmed. INITIAL PROCEDURE: Estimate the volume of water continuously trapped in low spots in the system. In pipelines traversing a typical terrain the amount of water continuously entrained in the system for velocities of 7 FPS or less would probably be 10 to 20 percent of the line volume. Based on the estimated volume an initial batch of inhibitor to establish a SOO ppm residual is injected into the line. 1,000 Barrels of water = ± 17 1/2 Gallons of Inhibitor PERIODIC BATCH PROCEDURE: At a 1 to 3 months interval batch into the line a volume of inhibitor based on 1 pint of inhibitor per MMCF of gas delivered during the time since previous batch. When inhibitor residuals in monitoring program stabilize, adjust volume of inhibitor batches for a 250 ppm residual. d. OPTIMUM TREATMENT In critical systems where maintaining delivery is mandatory or major systems where serious corrosion and failures may have occurred, an optimum corrosion inhibition program may be required. This consists of a thorough cleaning of the system as detailed in E, 1. A Type 1 treatment is then applied followed by a Type 2 program. It is further recommended that the Maintenance Procedure detailed for the Type 1 treatment also be followed. The Optimum Treatment has been used successfully in badly corroded lines that have experienced corrosion failures, maintaining the lines in continuous operations for extended periods. F. INHIBITOR REQUIREMENTS VERSUS WET GAS VELOCIlY The water s?luble inhibitors required for inhibiting wet gas lines function by the abs.orp~lOn, de-absorption phenomenon. This requires a level of concentratIon m the water phase to assure frequent contact of the pipe wall by the inhibitor molecules. In low velocity lines, with water segregated in low spots, the movement in the water will be principally by convection currents and the inhibitor concentration must be .hi~ to assure frequent contact of molecules with the pipe wall. ~s .th.e ve"ocI~ mcreas~s through laminar to the turbulent range the rate of ~hibltor Impmgement mcreases decreasing the amount of inhibitor required m the water phase. The f<.>llo~n~ ~i~ts the desired inhibitor residual in the water phase to assure effectIve mhlbltIon for normal gas velocity ranges. The level of inhibitor is determined by inhibitor residual tests conducted on water samples collected at the terminal of the line. INHIBITOR RESIDUAL RANGE GAS VELOCIlY oto 7 FPS 2S0 - SOO ppm ISO - 2S0 ppm 50 -ISO ppm 7to ISFPS IS& UPFPS G. INHIBITING SALES GAS PIPELINES Sales gas is always dehydrated and will generally be stripped of most of the LPG components a~d the Sales Gas is highly undersaturated with regard to ?ot~ :-vater and th~ hght~r hydrocarbon components. This dictates a special mhlbltor formulatIon usmg a carrier that will not flash, i.e. dissolve, into the ~a~ stream. Attempting to apply typical inhibitor formulas will not only result m madequate filmIng but also cause the heavy viscous inhibitor to gunk out in the line. ' ~he pri~cipal objectives for inhibiting Sales Gas Pipelines is to assure protec- tI.on In Instances of plant upsets and to assure government regulatory agenCI~S that all possible safety precautions are being taken to prevent pipeline failures. Sales Gas lines can be effectively protected with either a periodic Type 1 Treatment or a Type 2 Treatment. -50- -51- 1. lYPE 1 TREATMENT (SEE E, 3, A lYPE 1 TREATMENT) NOTE: The film life of a Type 1 Treatment in a dehydrated system will be long. With gas velocities of 25 FPS and less a minimum of three years effective inhibition would be expected. 2. lYPE 2 TREATMENT (CONTINUOUS INJECTION PROGRAM) OBJECTIVE; To entrain special inhibitor in gas, condensate or anyextraneous water that may enter the system. PROCEDURE; Inject the special inhibitor through a fogging type jet into the inlet of the pipeline. 1. CORROSION COUPONS - INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS NOTE: Unless located where coupons or probes are continuously water wetted and maintained free of any scaling materials entrained in the pipeline fluids, the results will be meaningless. Pipeline failures have occurred where coupons and probes improperly located have indicated no corrosion was occurring. The following lists operating conditions and locations where representative measurements can be expected. a. LEASE FLOW LINES TREATING RATE: 1/4 to 1/2 pint per MMSCF WATER CUT NOTE: During periods of extended plant upsets or plant by-passing increase injection rate to 1 to 2 pints per MMSCF. COUPON DATA MEANINGFUL GAS >25 CU.FTJBBL GAS <25 CU.FTJBBL I >25% NO YES <25% YES-? YES H. MONITORING CORROSION IN PIPELINES YES - ? Dependenton water being external phase. With all oil, gas and product lines, until the fluid is dehydrated to a dew point temperature below the lowest temperature that will be encountered in the pipeline, at least traces of water will be present. If the flow patterns indicate the pipe walls will be water wetted, corrosion is possible and monitoring is desirable. If corrosion is anticipated and an inhibition program started, monitoring is necessary to assure the effectiveness of the treament. It is particularly desirable in designing a monitoring program to recognize and design for the type of isolated metal loss attack that may occur. Corrosion coupons and the various probe type instruments indicate metal loss only at the point of their location. Unless wetted by the entrained water the monitoring data obtained will be meaningless and misleading. The two principal monitoring procedures used in pipelines are corrosion coupons and water analysis. These are discussed below. The various probe type instruments i.e. electrical resistance, linear polarization, galvanic and hydrogen, subject to the same limitations as corrosion coupons, would be equally effective. b. CUSTODY TRANSFER LINES NOTE: Dependent on sample pot mounted to bottom sector of line. OIL VELOCITY 0-31/2FPS 31/2-5FPS 5& UpFPS COUPON MOUNTING LOCATION IN LINE IN SAMPLE POT NO ? NO YES YES NO- ? ? - Depends on whether oil or water preferentially wets coupon. c. WET GAS PIPELINES NOTE: Coupons in wet gas pipelines must be located either in a spray flow regime or where water collects. Where a sampling pot is required it must be attached to the bottom sector ofthellne. -52- -53- GAS VELOCI'IY COUPON MOUNTING LOCATION IN LINE IN SAMPLE POT 0-71/2FPS 71/2 -15 FPS 15& UPFPS YES YES NO NO YES YES 8. LEASE FLOW LINES NOTE: It is assumed in Lease Flow Lines that Flow Regime will be either turbulent or pUlsating, and segregated flow will not occur. Since iron count and CI- or salt reflect well conditions, only the pH reading is considered significant. Coupons mounted in the line at 15 & up FPS must be located to prevent the corrosion/erosion effect. d. INTERPRETING CORROSION COUPON DATA NOTE: Minimum time requirement for coupon period is 30 days. Preferred material 10-20 C, hot rolled steel, with light sand blast to clean and remove all mill scale. !!!!!.t. 0-5 0-5 5 -10 5 -10 10&Up Pitting COUPON RESULTS Comment Corrosion Level Not Serious Corrosion Level Serious Corrosion of Concern - Watch Corrosion Serious - Inhibit Corrosion Serious - Inhibit NO YES NO YES Yes or NO e. SALES GAS LINES Corrosion Coupons Not Applicable. 2. WATER ANALYSES FOR CORROSION POTENTIAL NOTE: The measurements required for a corrosivity evaluation are pH, iron count and CC or salt content. While water samples at both ends of a pipeline are desirable, generally samples are obtained only at the terminal of a system and the following is based on terminal samples. For accuracy the pH measurements should be made on fresh samples at the sampling site. When samples are transported to the laboratory for testing, some of the acid gases evolve and reading will be higher. Laboratory pH values should be reduced by 0.5 to 1..0 for more realistic values. The water in either a Custody Transfer Crude or Wet Gas Pipeline should be principally of the condensate type that evolves from the fluids with temperature reduction. The salt content in the water should be > 500 ppm; salt content over this amount indicates a carryover of produced water and the iron count should be discounted since it reflects carryover of dissolved iron from the production equipment. -54- pH versus Serious Corrosion pH 0-25% 0-6.0 6.0 -7.0 7.0 -14 possible· unlikely unlikely !Yi!l~r ~Yl 25%-45% 45&UP possible • possible * unlikely probable· probable * unlikely *Where wells are inhibited, feed back of well treatments may protect flowlines. b. CUSTODY TRANSFER LINES NOTE: Water content will normally pe under 2%. Unless velocity is under 3 fps, most water will remain entrained. If water samples can be obtained from the pig traps after pig runs, they can be used for pH determinations and iron counts. The pH conditions noted in item (a) are applicable. If iron counts exceed 100 ppm it indicates that isolated corrosion is possibly occurring in the bottom of the line and corrosion inhibition may be required. c. WET GAS PIPELINES NOTE: As indicated in "H, 1, c Corrosion Coupons - Wet Gas Pipelines", provided coupons are properly located, corrosion can be successfully monitored. However, water samples can always be obtained from sampling pots or separating equipment prior to the processing plant and is the preferred monitoring method. Water sample analysis in addition to evaluating corrosion can be used to monitor the inhibiting program and the effectiveness of field separating operations. -55- The following are data normally reviewed in water sample studies and the significance of the numerical results. d. WATER SAMPLES - CORROSION MONITORING OXYGEN CORROSION IN PRODUCTION AND PIPELINES GENERAL NOTE: For 5 bbls/MMCF or less. pH 0-7.0 7.0 7.0 -14.0 Water Corrosive Water Neutral Water Non-Corrosive (scaling possible) Iron Count ppm 0-50 50 -100 100 - Up Minor Corrosion Moderate Corrosion Significant Corrosion Chlorides mgll >1,000 1,000 - 5,000 <5,000 Low Carryover Average Carryover High Carryover Daily Water Bbls/MMCF >.50 .50 - 2.5 <2.5 Mostly Condensate Water Condensate + Produced Mostly Produced Water e. WATER SAMPLES - INHIBITOR MONITORING GAS VELOCIIT FPS INHIBITOR RESIDUAL PPM COMMENT 0-71/2 71/2 - 15 15- Up 250 - 500 150 - 250 50 -150 250 Minimum 200 Preferred 100 Preferred f. MONITORING SALES GAS PIPELINES There are no simple procedures for monitoring corrosion in Sales Gas Lines. Calipering, Radiography, Sonies, Internal Inspection and Test Spools have been successfully used. -56- CHAPTER V Of all the corrodents that can be encountered in production and pipeline operations oxygen is the most serious. Not only is the rate of general metal loss and pitting type attack drastic, with either C02 and/or H2S also present the rate of attack is further intensified. Fortunately neither formation waters or condensate water contain oxygen. With well designed and carefully operated production and in pipelines, air the source of oxygen, can be excluded and this type corrosion will not be a problem. However there are many locations where air can enter the flow stream. When these are overlooked in the design and operating procedures; oxygen corrosion is frequently encountered. Water floods or produced water disposal systems are major problem areas with regard to oxygen type attack. At all ambient temperatures, water contacted by air quickly dissolves oxygen to the level dictated by the temperature and pressure. All surface water for flood projects, whether fresh or sea water, will be saturated with oxygen. The initial procedure in the use of these waters is to remove the oxygen. In well designed and operated production systems the production water separated for disposal will be oxygen free on leaving the separator. If this water can be maintained oxygen free from separation to the injection well head or point of disposal, corrosion can be low and readily controlled. However, unless the possibility of air entrainment is considered in design and operation, there are a number of locations where air can enter the system and increase corrosion. In designing water handling systems where oxygen or other corrosion is of concern, the use of corrosion resistant materials and coatings should always be considered. Corrosion resistant metals are avilable for valves, pumps and most control equipment. Tanks, piping and fittings can be obtained in plastics or with coatings that are resistant to corrosion. While designs will be more costly, when the time of anticipated operation is considered, the systems will generally be more cost effective. The following reviews typical locations of air entrainment in field operations and procedures for control. Where control is impractical, oxygen scavenging procedures are noted. There are also specific corrosion inhibitors available for the control of 0 gen corrosion; however where possible the scavenging methods are prefer ble. -57- A. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN OIL WELLS When wells are producing with the annulus closed or high fluid levels, air entrainment is improbable in the well bore. However, when wells are in the stripper phase, operating conditions change; generally the annulus is open and the fluid level is insignificant. Under these conditions the annulus fills with air and defuses through the short oil blanket in the annulus. The oxygen then enters any produced water at the bottom of the well bore and oxygen corrosion can occur in all portions of the tubing string contacted by produced water. This possibility can be prevented by closing the annulus. In cases where the well produces traces of gas up the annulus, using a low pressure relief valve or "U" tube arrangement on the annulus will essentially establish the same condition as to back pressure on the formation as achieved when producing with the annulus open. A more frequent source of air entrainment in wells that are operated in the pumped off condition is the polish rod stuffing box. In this operating condition pump efficiency is low and a slight vacuum will occur at the wellhead with each pump stroke. Typical polish rod seals are designed for internal pressure on the seals. Unless the stuffing box seal is tight and will hold a vacuum, air will intermittantly enter the well fluids. This type of leakage can also occur in other packing type seals between the wellhead and flowline check valve. It is important in stripper production that all wellhead connections and packing gland items be able to hold a vacuum. B. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN TANKS The produced water tank in the battery, unless protected with a gas blanket, is the most frequent source of air contamination. While these tanks will generally develop a thin oil blanket, this quickly oxidizes after which the oxygen passes through the film and enters the water. A thick oil blanket, frequently replaced, is reasonably effective. However, the oil entrained in the water is generally inadequate for effective blanketing. Gas blanketing the tanks is the recommended procedure. This should be maintained at a pressure of several inches of water. The gas supply line must be large enough to maintain the blanket pressure when the water is discharged from the tank. Many lease vessels develop bottom layers of water and sludge. While this water may be oxygen free, this is an ideal zone for sulfate reducer bacteria incubation and growth. When bacteria are detected, periodic slug treatments with a biocide will prevent bacterial corrosion. C. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN TRANSFER AND INJECTION PUMPS Pump installations are frequent sources of air contamination. This is generally caused by failure to recognize that for a given set of pumping conditions, a pump will endeavor to deliver a specific volume of liquid. When the liquid is not available at the pump suction in an adequate volume and pressure, cavitation with accompaning partial vacuum occurs within the pump. Unless packing glands on pump and adjacent valving are vacuum tight, air is drawn -58- into the system and the oxygen dissolves into the water. This source of air is easily prevented when the following specific installation specifications are followed. a. Suction piping one size larger than size of inlet to pump b. Valves to be through ported and full opening. c. Changes in flow direction minimized. d. Flow direction changes with 45° ells or long radius fittings. e. Suction system as short as possible. f. Maintain 6 to 10 feet of head on suction. g. Apply surge suppressors on suction side of high speed piston pumps. 4. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN INJECTION SYSTEM If ~ate~ is kept air-free through the injection pump and a positive pressure mamtalOed to the formation face, air contamination will not occur in a pressure tight system. The corros~on problem ~ost frequently encountered on the injection side of the system IS ca1!sed by faIlure to seal mating components. The slightest seep ~roV1des a CO?tlOU~>US water phase between the atmosphere and the injechon. water which wIll quickly corrode·a joint. This is because oxygen dissolves lOtO the w~ter at the se~p ~nd diffuses·into the wetted joint section. While t~e amount will not be a slgruficant quantity in the total injection stream, it will create an extremely C?rro~i~e fluid in the: joint which quickly deVelops a l~ak. Absolute pr~ssure-tIght jomts and seahng surfaces through the injection system are prlIDary requirements for trouble free operations. E. POTENTIAL SOURCES OF AIR CONTAMINATION PRODUCING WELLS PRODUCTION FACILITIES INJECTION FACILITIES Well Annulus Polish Rod Stuffmg Box Wellhead Valves Produced Water Tank Inadequate Gas Blanket Inadequate Oil Blanket Transfer Pump Piping Transfer Pump Shaft Seal Water Well Annulus Supply Water Tanks Inadequate Gas Blanket Injection Pump Manifold Injection Pump Seals Piping Joints & Seals Water Meters (Vacuum Only) Wellhead Valves (Vacuum Only) -59- F. AIR ENTRAINMENT IN WATER SOURCES Injection waters are generally from wells, streams, lakes or oceans. Water wells completed in deeper aquifers, far removed from their surface outcrops are oxygen free. When completed to assure no entrainment of air in producing or through the injection system, oxygen corrosion will not be a problem. In shallow wells where water is from aquifers closely associated with surface sources, air entrainment may occur either intermittantly or eventually continuously and a monitoring program should be planned for early detection. Regardless of the source all surface waters should be considered saturated wit~ oxygen, and treatment or removal is required for preventing oxygen corroslOn. The oxygen content and control procedures are discussed in the following. l.SCAVENGING AND INHIBITING OF OXYGEN Both scavenging and inhibiting require a continuous injection of chemical into the water stream with the amount dictated by the ppm content of oxygen. In water disposal systems where the volumes are low or oxygen is present in only trace levels, the chemical control will usually be the most cost effective. The chemicals should be injected either upstream or as close to the source of air contamination as practical. Providing the injection system is pressure and vacuum tight, injection is required only during periods of flow. Where only traces of oxygen are present, the scavenging procedure will generally be the most effective. The inhibiting chemicals will usually be the most cost effective when the level of oxygen is above the trace level. G. SOLUBILIlY OF OXYGEN IN SURFACE WATERS Theoretically the solubility of oxygen is controlled by temperature of the water at point of contact with the air and to a minor degree by composition of the water. With water entraining large amounts of organic matter some of the oxygen will be consumed by oxidation of the entrained contaminents. In general, providing the water inlet for the project is a reasonable distance above the bottom, in oceans or lakes, the quality of the water both from oxygen in solution and entrained solids is improved. 2.GAS REFLUXING OR VACUUM FOR OXYGEN REMOVAL In large water volume injection projects or where a long life is anticipated for a project, a plant for the physical removal of oxygen is invariably most cost effective. From capital expense considerations the plant requirements for the two methods are comparable and, with an adequate design, properly operated, the efficiencies are equivalent. In offshore operations where g(is volumes will not support a pipeline, gas is frequently preferred. With either method it is frequently desirable to inject a scavenger immediately down stream of the treating tower to remove any minute traces of oxygen remaining in the stream. The design of these units are beyond the scope of this handbook. However, the following schematic of a system installed in the Gulf of Mexico indicates features to be considered in the design. The reference D is a publication ofthe International Nickel Company. The approximate solubility range for oxygen in water is from 10 ppm at 32°F (freezing), to 0 ppm at 212°F (boiling). Where the specific oxygen content has not been measured, the following can be used for conservatively estimating the oxygen content. ppm oxygen = 10 - .0555 (T OF - 3Q°F) (D) T OF = r-_(A_)O_R-,-(B-,-)_ _ ~ Temperature of water at system inlet (A)OR(B) H. REMOVAL OF OXYGEN FROM INJECTION WATERS Four methods are in general use for control of oxygen corrosion in water in~ jection processes. With either gas or vacuum deaerator towers the oxygen is physically removed from the water. With chemical scavenging the oxygen is combined to form a non-corrosive molecule. Oxygen inhibitors are also available that in combination with the oxygen will form a protective fUm on the exposed steel. The most cost effective method will generally be dictated by volume of water, ppm of oxygen, and logistics of the operation. The following discusses the methods and there limitations. (GASOUT) (GAS IN) (C) .. ::.'~ ' (A) (D) (A) (A) (A) -=--- -~ - SCREEN~ (MONEL) (D) SUGGESTED MATERIALS (A)-FIBER GLASS EPOXY PIPE (B)-LINED WITH BAKED ON COATINGS (C)-COAL TAR EPOXY COATING (D)-METALLURGY AS INDICATED IN "GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF MARINE MATERIALS" 70 ' --t10 ' ~ -60- SCHEMATIC OF MAJOR COMPONENTS IN OFFSHORE INJECTION PLANT -61- CHAPTER VI B. SUCKER ROD PUMPED WELLS-LOW FLUID LEVEL (continued) CHAMPION'S CORTRON INHIBITORS FOR CORROSION CONTROL Production Chemical Company inhibitor formulations are proprietary. The treating procedures detailed in previous chapters have been successfully applied for the past 20 years using Champion's Cortron Inhibitors. Other chemicals with the same generic inhibitor and additives would be equally effective. However, since these formulations cannot be identified, only Champion's Cortrons are included in the listing. A. SUCKER ROD PUMPED WELLS - HIGH FLUID LEVEL TREATING MEI1IOD INHIBITORS NOH2S ~ Continuous Injection R-2263 RN-63 RU-19 R-2263 RN-63 RU-19 Flush 25-50 ppm down annulus by continuous slipstream. 350-500 BFPD Semi-Weekly Batch RH-147 RD-46 RH-147 Weighted Inhibitors. Prewet annulus with 1-2 bbls fluid. Batch 25-50 ppm down annulus. Neat with no flush or circulate. 350-500 BFPD Semi-Weekly Batch R-2375 R-129 R-2314 R-129 R-2375 Standard inhibitors. Disperse 25-50 ppm in 1 bbl brine per 1000 ft. of tubing and/or circulate annular fluid up tubing and back into annulus. PRODUCTION RATE >5OOBFPD 50BFPD Monthly Batch Weekly Batch RH-147 RD-46 Weighted Inhibitor. Same as above for 350-500 BFPD with Semi-Weekly treatments. 150-350 BFPD Weekly Batch R-2375 R-129 R-2314 R-129 R-2375 Standard Inhibitors. Same as above for 350-500 BFPD with Semi-Weekly treatments. < 50-150 BFPD Weekly Batch Bi-Weekly Batch R-2375 R-2255 R-2314 R-129 R-2255 R-2300 R-129 R-2239 Disperse 25-50 ppm in 1 bbl brine. Flush down annulus with 1/2-1 bbl brine per 1000 ft. of tubing. Circulate as needed. R-2375 R-2255 R-2314 R-129 R-2255 R-2300 R-129 R-2239 Same as above for 150-350 BFPD with weekly treatments. -62- Same as above for 150-350 BFPD with weekly treatments OR batch neat and circulate down-hole to pump. All Continuous Injection RU-161 R-2255 R-2314 R-129 RU-161 R-2300 R-129 R-2239 Inject 25-100 ppm into lift gas at wellhead. All Tubing Displacement 1 t03 Month R-66 R-66 R-68 R-2255 R-2258 R-2345 R-2300 Dosage 1 gal/1oo sq.ft. of metal surface to be filmed. Mix 1:1 to 1:4 with crude or diesel. Displace to bottom of tubing with crude or diesel. Or atomize mixture into nitrogen and displace tubing volume. R-68 R-2255 R-2258 R-2345 D. HYDRAULICALLY PUMPED WELLS Continuous Injection R-2314 ~. R-129 Batch R-129 R-68 R-2258 R-129 R-68 R-2258 Disperse 25-50 ppm in power oil. Maintain level by monitoring. Power Water Systems Continuous Injection R-2263 RN-63 RN-82 R-2263 RN-63 RN-82 Inject 25-50 ppm. Water Supply Systems Continuous Injection R-2263 RN-63 RU-19 R-2263 RN-63 RU-19 Inject 10-50 ppm. Power Oil Systems B. SUCKER ROD PUMPED WELLS - LOW FLUID LEVEL < 150-350 BFPD R-2255 R-2300 R-2300 R-2239 C. GAS LIFT WELLS DOSAGE & PROCEDURE 150-350 BFPD R-2375 R-2255 R-2314 R-129 Inject 25-50 ppm. E. GAS/GAS CONDENSATE WELLS lOMMCF/D or VaNe = 0.7 Continuous Injection Ru-156 RU-161 RU-163A R-2302 RU-156 RU-161 RU-163A R-2302 Inject 100-200 ppm via capillary tubing, macaroni string or bottom hole injectionvalve. 5 -lOMMCF/D or VaNe = 0.7-0.9 Batch 3-6 Weeks R-66 R-2258 R-2345 R-66 Treat at rate of 1 drum/lO,ooo ft. for up to 3" tubing. Dilute 1:1 to 1:4 with diesel or equivalent. -63- R-2258 R-2345 F. OIL & GAS PIPELINES (continued) E. GAS/GAS CONDENSATE WELLS (continued) 5 - 10 MMCF/D or VaNe = 0.7-0.9 2-5 MMCF/D or VaNE = 0.5-0.7 0-2MMCF/D or VaNe = 0.2-0.5 Tubing Displacement 3-6 Weeks R-2255 R-2258 R-2255 R-2258 Treat at rate of 1 drum/lO,OOO ft. Dilute 1:1 to 1:10 with diesel or equivalent. Displace to bottom of tubing with diesel or atomize mixture into nitrogen and displace to bottom of tubing. Batch 6-8 Weeks R-66 R-2258 R-2345 R-66 R-2258 R-2345 Same as above for batch treatments. Tubing Displacement 6-8 Weeks R-2255 R-2258 R-2255 R-2258 Same as above for tubing displacement. Batch 8-12 Weeks R-66 R-2258 R-2345 R-66 R-2258 R-2345 Same as above for batch treatments. Tubing Displacement 8--12 Weeks R-2255 R-2258 R-2255 R-2245 Same as above for tubing displacements. Wet Gas Lines Velocity > 15 fps Continuous Injection RN-63 RN-82 RU-19 RN-63 RN-82 RN-97 RU-19 Inject inhibitor at a rate that maintains at least 250 ppm residual in water samples at end of line Wet Gas Lines Velocity < 15 fps Continuous Injection RN-63 RN-82 RU-19 RN-63 RN-82 RN-97 RU-19 Inject at 1/2 - 1 pint/MMCF. Dehydrated Gas Pipelines Velocity-All Continuous Injection RN-177 RN-I77 Inject 1/4 - 1/2 pint/MMCF. NOTE: Inhibitor type is critical, must be generically similar to RN-177. NOTE: Va=Actual Velocity, Ve=Erosional Velocity. Calculate using methods in API RP-14E. F. OIL & GAS PIPELINES All Pipelines Batch As Required R-129 R-2255 R-2239 R-2231 R-129 R-2255 R-2239 R-2300 R-2231 Vol.lnhibitor = 2-3 gals per inch diameter per mile of line. Dilute 1:1 to 1:4 with diesel, batch between squeege pigs. Wet Oil Lines Water> 25% Velocity 5fps Continuous Injection RN-63 RN-82 RU-19 RN-63 RN-82 RN-97 RU-19 Inject inhibitor at rate that maintains at least 250 ppm residual in water samples at end of line. Wet Oil Lines Water < 25% Velocity-All Continuous Injection RN-63 RN-82 RU-19 RN-63 RN-82 RN-97 RU-19 Inject inhibitor at a rate that maintains 50-100 ppm residual in water samples at end of line. Custody Transfer Oil Pipelines Velocity> 3 fps Continuous Injection RN-63 RN-82 RU-19 RN-63 RN-82 RN-97 RU-19 Same as for Wet Oil Lines. > 25% -64- -65- CHAPTER VII MISCELLANEOUS TECHNICAL INFORMATION A. FAILURE ANALYSIS PROCEDURE FAILURE ANALYStS INSPECTION OF FAILURE SERVICE HISTORY (Decision) GENERAL The following information while not directly related to corrosion is frequent1y desirable in studying a failure or reporting on the problem. The primary objective in most studies is to isolate the reasons and if possible modify producing operations to prevent their reoccurence. Statistics indicate that 80 to 90 percent of the failures in production and pipeline equipment are due to metal loss corrosion. When corrosion has been isolated as the cause, it is frequently probable that the condition causing the attack is present throughout the operation. Research and field studies have identified most of the reasons for corrosion and the most likely location of corrosive zones. With this information a corrosion engineer or experienced field operator can frequently, quickly solve a corrosion problem. The 10 to 20 percent not readily identified as corrosion may require an indepth laboratory study to determine the cause. Such studies are generally time consuming and frequently quite expensive. This requires a decision on the operator's part as to whether a further investigation is warranted. Where the failure is defmitely not due to corrosion but probably reflects a material or operating anomaly, neither of which will reoccur, studies are probably unwarranted. Failures that cause either a catastrophic or hazardous operating condition should always be studied. A reoccurring inquiry on non-identifiable failures is "...not to specification". Most wellbore equipment and piping is made to API specifications. These are always precise as to dimensions. However, the API composition specifications for steels are quite broad and generally limited to carbon, manganese, sulfur and phosphorous. Invariably the steels will be within specification. The physical strength specifications, except for materials designated for sour service are also broad. Failure to meet API specifications within the designated grade are rare. While failure to meet specifications are unusual, there are occasional instances of heat treating, major surface imperfections or API grade substitution or mistake causing failure. These conditions will generally require laboratory tests to establish lack of specification as the cause of failures. In addition to the following a number of references are listed at the close of this chapter as further sources of information frequently pertinent to corrosion studies. -66- --------------------------- --------------------------------TESTING METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY ANALYSIS OF RESULTS CAUSE NOT OBVIOUS CAUSE OBVIOUS The block diagram lists steps in a ~yPical failure analysis. In field operati?ns the steps above the first decision line would n~rmally be per.forme~ at SIte. If corrosion is recognized as the cause, an expenenced corrOSIon ~n~eer or field operator can generally locate the reaso~ for the attack. ThIS Will complete the investigation and other than prepanng necessary reports no other action is required. If the first three items have not isolated the cause, the opera~ions betwee~ the decision lines are the next considerations. Generally the testI?-~ branch w.Ill be first considered. In view of API limited and broad compOSItIonal. specIfi~a­ tions Chemical Analysis is not usually considered as desirable. Ph~slcal. testmg will determine if rods and tubular goods are within grade speclfica~lOn: As noted in Item B, non-destructive testing based on hardness determmatI~ns will determine if laboratory tensile testing is warranted. T~e non-destruct~ve hardness testing can generally be made in field labor atones and determme whether destructive type tensile testing is warranted. If testing is not definitive, a Metallographic Study m~y be ~esirable. If a failure is of a metallurgical nature, it is frequently assocIated.WIth an anoI?oly in the metal at or close to the point ~f initi~ting ?f the ~ai1ure. ~etectIon usually requires multiple metallographlc sectIons tmmedlately adjacent to the failure location. -67- If the Testing or Metallographic Study indicates cause of failure the Final Report can be made. However, if, "Cause Not Obvious", is the result a decision is required as to further investigation. The indicated Laboratory Experiments will be time consuming and always expensive. Unless required by legal considerations, the indicated Preliminary Report including a summary of probable causes will usually complete the study. 2. BRINELL HARDNESS vs TENSILE STRENGTH With the Brinell Hardness the range of probable Tensile Strength can be obtained from the curve. If the steel specification is outside these limits, standard tensile tests should be made on samples from the failure. 180,000 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,..... B. APPROXIMATION OF TENSILE & YIELD STRENGTH OF STEEL 160,000 iii As noted in Item A, with either Rockwell or Brinell hardness tests that can usually be made in Field area locations, tensile and yield strengths can be estimated. Three to five hardness measurements, as close to the failure as practical, should be averaged to assure to reasonably accurate result. This hardness can then be used in conjunction with the following curves to estimate the range of tensile and yield strengths of a steel. 140,000 Q. i= 120,000 t!) Z ~ 100,000 l- f/) ~ 80,000 iii ffi 1. BRINELL vs ROCKWELL HARDNESS I- 60,000 40,000 Item 2 & 3 relate Tensile and Yield Strengths to Brinell Hardness. The curve below converts Rockwell "e" to Brinell. 20,000 100 40 200 300 BRINEll HARDNESS 3. TENSILE STRENGTH vs YIELD STRENGTH RANGE 35 w Using median tensile strength from Item 2 determine Yield Strength range. "" If steel specifications range is outside these values, make standard tensile yield -I 0 til 30 tests. 0 til til 25 w 90 Z W ..J Q a:: 20 iii z w "" -I -I l- w 15 3: 0 # J: u. ~ 0 0 a:: /' 0 l- t!) zw / II: l- 5 / /' ::r:: 10 /' /' / f/) 0 ..J W 0 >= 200 230 260 290 BRINELL HARDNESS 320 350 50 75,000 100,000 125,000 150,000 TENSILE STRENGTH - PSI -68- -69- 175,000 C. APPROXIMATE VELOCI1Y CRITERIA FOR LIQUIDS Velocity limitations are frequently overlooked in the design of production and pipelining of liquids. One factor of particular importance is the much lower velocities required where corrosive and/or abrasive liquids are being transported. The following "Rules of Thumb" based on field experience have been successfully used for years. 1. CALCULATION OF APPROXIMATE VELOCI1Y CPS (cubic feet per second) = .;;Ba.;.;.IT;.;.e.;.;.l_so_f_L_iq....u_id...pe_r_D.... ay 5. PIPE VELOCITIES vs FLUID DENSI1Y V (fps) =# C P = = Operating Constant Density in pounds per cubic feet To keep pipe clean C = 15 to 24 For long life projects C = 100 to 125 For short life projects C = 160 Swing Check Valves C = 35 to 50 Piston Check Valves C = 40 to 140 Tilting Disk Check Valves C = 30 to 80 Check Valves "Cs" function of design. 15,400 CFS Pipe Area in Square Feet fps (feet per second) D. DESIGN VELO~ITIES FOR WELL TUBING Analyis of tubing failures has indicated that this empirically derived curve establishes suitable design velocities for tubing in reasonably vertical wells. 2. LIMITING VELOCITIES FOR WATER IN STEEL PIPE 100r--,--,----'-.---r--r---r---r----. = 12 to 20 fps Water (non-corrosive) Water (corrosive) = 6 to 12 fps Water (corrosive + abrasive) = 4 to 6 fps NOTE: Higher values fresh water, lower values brine. CLEAN-SINGLE PHASE FLUIDS oIII 3. LIMITING VELOCITIES FOR OIL IN STEEL PIPE Crude Oil (dry) = 30 to 35 fps Crude Oil (wet) = 20 to 25 fps NOTE: Minimum velocity to entrain emulsion Vel. = 31/2 to 5 fps ~ ~ go 70 60 50 III > ~ 40 ffl c 30 4. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR PUMP SUCTIONS Optimum Velocity = ± 20 10 1 fps Piping one size larger than pump inlet. Pressure Head of 8 to 10 feet. Pump as close to liquid storage as possible. -70- 10 20 30 40 50 60 POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT OF LIQUIDS GAS-CONDENSATE LIQUIDS RANGE RANGE -71- 70 80 FLUID DENSI1Y CALCULATIONS BOPD X SG X 14.6 BWPD X SG X 14.6 MSCFD X SG X 3.17 = = = pounds per hour TOTAL BOPDXO.234 BWPDX0.234 MSCFD X 1.18 X oR X Z = cubic feet per hour cubic feet per hour cubic feet per hour = = = cubic feet per hour TOTAL SG pounds per hour pounds per hour pounds per hour h. GLASS FILAMENT WOUND EPOXY PIPE The performance of this pipe has been excellent. It is recommended in applications where it meets pressure and temperature requirements and cost considerations. c. PLASTIC LINERS IN STEEL PIPE A number of plastic pipe liners are available for use in steel pipe. In one type, the inserted plastic tubing is molded directly to the next tubing section, eliminating the problem of sealing and protection at the pipe coupling. With other systems, joint inserts and sealing combinations are used. Field experience with the liner type of systems has been inconsistent, instances of frequent joint failures or collapse of the plastic liner have occurred. From engineering considerations, the insert liner type of system is good but requires careful control of application for a trouble-free installation. Specific Gravity d. BAKED ON COATINGS · Total Pounds per Hour . D enslty = Total CubIc Feet per hour E. CORROSION RESISTANT MATERIALS There are a variety ofcorrosion resistant non-metallic mate~ials and metal alloys used in production and pipeline oper~tions. Where s~ltable and cost .effective, they can provide excellent protection from cor~os~o~. T~e followmg is a brief overview of these materials and some of theIr IlDlltatIons. Where apparently applicable and cost effective, a detailed review of types, manufacturers and availability is desirable. 1. NON-METALLIC MATERIALS With the exception of cement linings most of the non-metallic. ~aterials ~e tradename plastics or synthetic organic coatings ~he c<.>mp~sltIon o~ which are considered proprietary. Where a tradename Ite~ IS ~emg co~sldered, technical data should be reviewed to assure to matenal will be satisfactory for the operating environment. EXTRUDED PLASTIC PIPE Although extruded plastic pipe is freque~tly used; the limitations of t~s pipe must be carefully considered and the pipe applIed <.>nly where .a~plIcable. Specifications are usually based on the American SanltaIJ: ASSOCiation ~tan­ dards. The temperature base in this standard is 73.4°F. With f~w exceptI~)lls, the extruded plastic pipe is also fatigue-sensiti~e under surgmg operations and must be down-rated where pressure fluctuatIOns occur. A general recommendation would be to use extruded plastic pipe only in open-end systems, free of surging and down-rated for temperature. 3. -72- In smaller pipe and injection lines, the baked-on coating is the most widely used procedure for corrosion protection. Laboratory tests have established that if properly applied, all of the baked-on coatings, whether they are of the thin or thick film types, will give good protection in oil and water handling operations. In practically all instances where failures occur these are due to either improper cleaning, coating'application, baking of the coatings or fieldinduced failures resulting from improper transporting or laying procedures. Where the baked-on coatings are properly applied and handled, good service can be expected in oil and water piping. In many instances baked on coatings have been unsatisfactory in high pressure gas piping. Service has been particularly poor in lines subject to frequent pressure fluctuations. The failures are due to blistering and the coating flaking off the steel. The failures are attributed to the coating being permeable to gas, which diffus through the coating. With pressure reduction the gas expands, forming bl sters, which spall from the pipe wall. Baked on coatings are not recommended for high pressure gas service. e. CEMENT LININGS In large diameter piping (6" plus) cement is a widely used lining system for handling water. With present laboratory proved specifications excellent performance can be anticipated from cement type linings. The major problem area is in the joints. However, such failures are usually due to improper welding or chalking practices. When the laying of the cement lined pipe is supervised to assure proper welding and sealing of the joints excellent service can be expected. There are a number of special joint systems that can also be used to assure line integrity. -73- 2. CORROSION RESISTANT ALLOYS Although it is impractical to use corrosion-resistant alloys for such items as pipe or lease vessels, it is possible to use such metals where the major cost of equipment is fabrication. Generally such equipment is connected to a carbon steel item. Chapter I, Item L, Page 12, discusses Galvanic Corrosion that is occasionally overlooked in such installations. All of the alloys discussed below are available in a variety of grade designations. While each designation will include the same major elements for corrosion resistance, other elements are added to improve some specific factor, such as machine ability, weldability, ductility, pit resistance, etc. When the environment is unusual, these factors should be reviewed in designating the specific alloy. 3. MONELS In highly corrosive environments, where failures will be of serious consequence, Monels are the preferred materials. The Monels have a distinct advantage over most of the other corrosion-resistant metals in that their corrosion rate is not markedly increased by aeration. Also, since Monels are resistant to sulfide stress corrosion cracking, the material can be used at high stress levels. While Monels would be preferred for many items, the cost and lack of availability will often preclude its use. b. STAINLESS STEELS The term stainless steel used with many tradenames is a misnomer. These alloys may resist corrosion for some specific operating condition but unless the chromium content is above 9% - 10% they do not meet the AISI designation for stainless steel. The following figure is the designation of the alloys as based on the chromium content. 45 I 40 ~Steel 35 .l: .ll' 30 ~ ~ .. .!: 25 E ., ~ u ~ 20 15 l~ . -'", Stainless steels """""- " D.. 10 5 00 8 12 16 CAUTION: These alloys have a tendency to gall in running fits such as threads, pistons, valve stems, etc. Mating surfaces can be coated to prevent galling. On surfaces not subject to frequent movement or disassembly the coatings are satisfactory. (2) AISI 400 Series Stainless Steels Equipment fabricated from the AISI 400 stainless steel series is most readily available. In sour water, the 400 series will be subject to a pitting type attack, with the susceptibility to attack and the rate of attack increasing as the hardness, tensile and yield strengths of the metal increases. CAU ION: While the 400 Series alloys are widely used and frequently the only stainless steel available in "off the shelf' items, they should not be used in non-oxidizing or saline water. As noted above, once the chromium oxide film is destroyed and not replaced, the steel is active and corrodes; frequently a rapid, isolated, pitting type attack develops under these conditions. C~rome_ Iron I' 4 (1) AISI 300 Series Stainless Steels This is the 18% Cr, 8% Ni stainless steel group. These alloys are mostly of the non-hardenable type and have generally given good corrosion-resistance in sour field waters. The yield and tensile strengths are less than most steels normally used in oil field equipment and this must be considered in designing parts subject to high stresses. The alloys also have a tendency to gall in running fits and this factor should be taken into consideration in threads, pistons, valve stems, etc. (3) ALUMINUM BRONZE ALLOYS Aluminum Bronze and other bronze alloys are used extensively for water handling, particularly in piston-type injection pumps, and have generally given good service. The two principal uncertainties are the endurance limits for various operating conditions and internal stresses in cast and machined parts. Research studies have established that heat-treating and stress-relieving are required for development of ultimate performance of the material. Chromium steels ~ Chromium is the principal alloying element for increasing the corrosion resistance of steel. The resistance of the steel to attack is developed by a very thin fIlm of chromium oxide that forms on the surface. Even though this film can be ruptured or destroyed, in the atmosphere or in a highly oxidizing environment, it is self healing and the stainless condition is maintained. However, in the presence of certain acids, chlorides, etc. the film may be destroyed and not reestablish. The condition of the alloy is then designated as active and the metal corrodes like plain carbon steels. 20 24 33.5 ....,. 28 32 Chromium (per cent) -74- -75- (4) INCONEL, HASTELLOY, STELLITE AND COLMONOY These are the specialty alloys most commonly found in oil field. <:quipment. Inconel has excellent corrosion-resistance and very good physlclal characteristics. Although this metal is not generally used in stock items, it has found wide-spread use in springs for corrosive service, particul~ly where such springs may also be subject to a hydrogen sulfide type of envrronment. Hastelloy, Stellite and Colmonoy all have excellen~ corrosi?n~resistant properties in sour waters and are primarily used as facmgs or tnm m valves, etc. F. The primary objective of API Specifications is to assure equipment f~om various suppliers will be dimensionally interchangeable. A secondary obJective is that equipment will have the physical strength to wit~stand the str.ess caused by field operating conditions. There have been ongomg efforts t? Improve specifications to include damaging mill defects and in some specifications these are broadly defined. With the exception of hydrogen embrittlement corrosion resistance, corrosion is not considered in specifications. The API and NACE have various Recommended Practice publications detailing procedures for corrosion control in field operations. With premature or unusual failures it is possible the API physical prope.rties have been exceeded. These specifications along with API reference are listed below. 1. API/SPEC. llB: SUCKER RODS & COUPLING The fotIowing table lists the only composition and ~ech~ni~al properties for sucker rods and couplings. The Grade D rod operatmg wlthm ~he API recommended stress range is not susceptible to sulfide stress crackmg. API SUCKER ROD SPECIFICATIONS K C D CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AISI46XX AISI1536* CARBON/ALLOY** TENSILE STRENGTH MIN.PSI MAX.PSI 85,000 90,000 115,000 115,000 115,000 140,000 * Generally manufactured from but not restricted to AI~I ~536. . * * Any alloy that can be effectively heat treated to the mlmmum ultimate tensile strength. -76- CLASS HARDNESS ROCKWELL-C T 16 Min. - 23 Max. CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS: The maximum sulphur content of couplings and subcouplings is limited to 0.05%. 2. API/ SPEC SA, SAC, SAX TUBING & CASING API SPECIFICATIONS· PHYSICAL PROPERTIES GRADE API COUPLING SPECIFICATION The following specifications cover the various grades of tubing and casing with industry specifications, also including information on drill pipe. As noted in Item A, Failure Analysis Procedure, specifications for composition are quite broad and seldom considered in failure studies. The following lists the Physical Specifications, the first consideration, when failures not attributable to corrosion are investigated. In the H2S column, "YES" indicates the Grade is suitable for sour service. GRADE STRENGTH YIELD TENSILE MIN. MAX. MIN. ~ SPEC. 60,000 YES 5A H-4O 40,000 J-55 55,000 80,000 75,000 YES 5A K-55 55,000 80,000 95,000 YES 5A N-8O 80,000 110,000 100,000 ? 5A C-75 75,000 90,000 95,000 YES 5AC L-80 80,000 95,000 95,000 YES 5AC C-95 95,000 110,000 105,000 ? 5AC P-105 105,000 135,000 120,000 NO 5AX P-ll0 110,000 140,000 125,000 NO 5AX ? - Where maximum stress does not exceed 90,000 psi or downhole temperature is in excess of 1500 F, sulfide stress cracking would not be expected. -77) 3. API SPEC. SL LINE PIPE The composition specifications in 5L are broad and with only minimum requirements for yield and tensile strengths. These physical requirements are listed below for the various Grades of pipe. Failures are invariably associated with either external or internal corrosion. External failures are beyond the scope of this presentation but are frequently associated with the weld area and either holidays in the pipe coating, malfunction in the cathodic protection system or both. Internal failures are principally due to corrosion with occasional stress fa!lures in old lines, subject to pulsating pressure. Most lines are designed With a large safety factor and with the broad specifications noted above physicalor chemical tests are generally unwarranted. GRADE API LINE PIPE TENSILE SPECS. STRENGTH YIELD MIN. PSI TENSILE MIN. PSI A 30,000 48,000 B 35,000 60,000 X42 42,000 60,000 X46 46,000 63,000 X52 52,000 66,000* 72,000** X56 56,000 71,000* 75,000** X60 60,000 75,000* 78,000** X65 65,000 77,000* 80,000** X70 70,000 80,000* 82,000** G. REFERENCES PERTINENT TO OIL FIELD CORROSION While there are many references to corrosion few specifically relate to production and pipeline operation. Furthermore, there are not many giving extensive illustrations and specifics on the environment where the failure occurred. Another factor frequently overlooked in failure analysis is the extent to which complex flow patterns in multi-component, two phase, can induce failures. The following is a list of references particularly suited to failure analysis where the cause cannot be easily identified. 1. Corrosion Control in Petroleum Production NACE, TPC Publication No.5. 2. Forms of Corrosion, Recognition and Prevention c.P. Dillon - Editor, NACE Publication 3. Metals Handbook, Volume 10, Failuare Analysis and Prevention 8th Edition - American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio 44073 4. The Flow of Complex Mixtures in Pipes Govier/Aziz, Van Nostrand-Reinhold co. 5. Physical metallurgy for Engineers Clark and Varney, Van Nostrand-Reinhold Co. 6. Production Operations, Vol. 1 & 2 Allen and Roberts, Oil and Gas Consultants International, Inc. Tulsa, Oklahoma * For pipe less than 20" O.D. with any wall thickness and for pipe 20" O.D. and larger with wall thickness greater than 0.375". ** For pipe 20" O .D. and larger with wall thickness 0.375" and less. -78- -79-