Lecture 1. Dramaturgy as an art form. The concept of drama. The structure of dramatic action.
"Dramaturgy" is on the one hand an art form, on the other - a kind of literature and theater. Dramaturgy is also
sometimes understood as the totality, a collection of plays (works intended for stage embodiment) in general.
Dramaturgy arises at the moment of the birth and emergence of the theater, because it is a product of the creativity
of the first playwrights.
Dramaturgy (from the Greek dramaturgia – composition) is the theory and art of constructing a dramatic work, its
plot–figurative concept. Today, dramatic art forms are
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a theater, the dramaturgical basis of which is a play;
cinematography, which is based on such a literary and dramatic work as a screenplay;
television with a television script as a dramatic work;
radio, the dramatic basis of which is radio drama;
theatrical holidays
mass performances.
Drama is a literary genre belonging to two arts at the same time: theater and literature; its specificity consists of plot,
conflict of action and division into stage episodes, a complex chain of utterances of characters. Dramatic conflicts
reflecting social contradictions are embodied in the behavior and actions of the characters and, above all, in
monologues and dialogues. The text of the drama is focused on spectacular expressiveness (facial expressions,
gesture, movement) and on sound; it is also consistent with the possibilities of stage time, space and theatrical
technique (with the construction of mise en scene). A literary drama realized by an actor and a director must have a
scenic quality. Leading genres of drama - tragedy, comedy, drama (as a genre), tragicomedy;
Drama is one of the leading genres of dramaturgy, since the Enlightenment (Diderot, Lessing), depicts mainly the
private life of a person in his acute conflict, but unlike tragedies, not hopeless relationships with society or himself.
The tragic beginning is inherent in the historical drama. It is necessary to characterize the main meanings of the term
"drama".
Drama is called:
– a certain circle of life phenomena (reality);
– genre of dramatic literature (plays) along with epic and lyrics;
– the leading variety of stage art is drama theater (combines the play of actors with gestures and words).
All works of fiction are usually divided into three main kinds (a kind of something that has some quality, property) epic, lyrics, drama (see diagram 2). They all have one main property: they have a common subject of the image – a
person. But each of them has a different way of reproducing reality. The main thing is how works of one kind or
another reflect reality and a person.
The epic means the reproduction, the presentation of events that took place in the past and, as it were, recalled by
the narrator. Lyrics are a kind of literature that creates, for the most part, an image of a person's inner state; it
depicts his experience, as a rule, simultaneously, experienced by him at the moment, here and now. Drama (Greek –
action, action) is one of the kinds of fiction, representing works constructed in the form of monologues and dialogues
intended for performance on stage. The drama is based on the action being performed. The hero of the drama is a
human personality, developing, acting in front of our eyes, in the present moment. People's actions are their actions
in relation to each other,their impact on each other in the process of their social life. Action is born only in
overcoming obstacles, only if it meets opposition. The word in drama is synonymous with action. Monologues and
dialogues are not messages, but actions. In their own words, the heroes of the drama respond to events, influence
their further course. The basic law of drama and all drama:
– every word that sounds from the stage must contain a grain of action.
Drama, like all dramaturgy, belongs to literature and theater at the same time. Unlike the lyrics, but like an epic, it
reproduces the world external to the author, conflict relations between people. The epic is based on an artistically
mastered event, the lyrics are based on mood, the drama is based on action.
V. G. Belinsky: "Despite the fact that in drama, as in epic, there is an event (incident), drama and epic are
diametrically opposed to each other in their essence. The epic is dominated by the event; the drama is dominated by
the person. The hero of the epic is an incident; the hero of the drama is a human personality. Life in the epic appears
as something existing in itself, independent from a person... A person is the hero of the drama, and it is not the event
that dominates the person in it, but the person dominates the event, by free will giving him this or that denouement,
this or that the end." "Dramatic poetry is not complete without stage art: in order to fully understand a person, it is
not enough to know how it acts, speaks, feels – you need to see and hear how it acts, speaks, feels. Intended for
collective perception, drama always tends to the most acute social problems. The basis of dramaturgy is sociohistorical contradictions or eternal, universal antimonies (contradictions), which are embodied in artistic conflicts. It
is always dominated by the atmosphere of conflict – a property of the human spirit, awakened by situations when
the cherished or vital for a person remains unfulfilled or under threat of non-existence.
Most dramas are built on a single external action with its vicissitudes (unexpected circumstances causing
complications; unexpected changes), which corresponds to the principle of unity of action, which goes back to
Aristotle. Drama is characterized by the realism of human relations with a common fiction. So, the differences
between the epic, lyrics, drama are in perception and impact:
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• the narrator turns to one listener, the reader;
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his word influences first on mind and then on the feelings.
• the same process of perception in the lyrics.
• in drama, the effect is first on the senses, and then on the mind.
All works of classical dramaturgy are "divided" into three main genres: tragedy, drama, comedy. In addition to these
genres, there are so-called "derivatives": melodrama, tragicomedy, vaudeville, farce.
Tragedy is a genre of drama based on a particularly intense, irreconcilable conflict that inevitably leads to disaster,
most often ending in the death of the hero. Since ancient times, tragedy has evolved from a religious cult. It
originated in ancient Greece from a folk performance during celebrations in honor of the mythological god Dionysus.
A goat was sacrificed to him: this rite was accompanied by the performance of dances, tales of the sufferings of
Dionysus. Later, theatrical performances were born on this basis.
The pathos of the ancient tragedy is the assertion of the inviolability of the moral law. The tragedy magnified the
moral feat of a person who does not change high moral principles even when their observance threatens him with a
personal catastrophe. The tragic plot is based on global, vital, often world-historical events, the outcome of which
depends on the fate of outstanding personalities, society, people, state. The hero of the tragedy is characterized by
the maximum available for human strength of will, mind and feelings. Therefore, Aristotle is right when he argued
that: "Tragedy tends to portray better people than those currently existing." In the words of A. Pushkin, the subject
of the tragedy is "human fate – the fate of the people."
The fate of the hero of the tragedy does not oppress, does not suppress him, on the contrary, awakens in him
spiritual and moral strength, courage, steadfastness, determination in the struggle for personal dignity, inspires a
willingness to self-sacrifice in the name of justice. That's why classical tragedy is distinguished by philosophical depth
in the formulation of the problems of human existence. From a philosophical point of view, tragedy is a process of
revaluation of values.
Drama (Greek: action) is one of the main genres of dramaturgy. Its formation dates back to the XVIII century. The
ancient Greek theater knew only tragedy and comedy. Drama is distinguished from tragedy by the fact that in it the
contradictions of the hero with the surrounding reality, although they have sharpness and may even end with the
death of the hero, but this death will not be absolutely inevitable. The death of the hero of the drama, when victory
is predetermined for him, is a heroic drama. The heroes of the drama may not be heroic characters, but its events
may take place in an ordinary household setting. Conflict situations in the drama do not differ on a global scale, do
not concern the fate of the whole society, the state.
Melodrama (from Greek melos – song, melody and drama – action) is a kind of drama genre. Originally in the middle
XVIII century. in Italy, this was the name of a musical-dramatic work in which the monologues and dialogues of the
actors were accompanied by music. Since the end of the XVIII century, the genre of melodrama has become a literary
and theatrical genre. Plays of this genre are different sharp, dynamic, entertaining intrigue, exaggerated
emotionality, sharp opposition of good and evil, moral and instructive tendency.
Comedy is a genre of drama in which events, actions and characters are designed to make the audience or readers
laugh. Depending on the content, the genre varieties of comedy are diverse – from vaudeville, farce to serious and
grotesque comedy. Accordingly, the funny in it has various emotional colors: irony, good-natured or bitter humor,
sharp satire, poisonous sarcasm. The comedy depicts the conflict caused by any aspiration harmful to society. The
comedic conflict ultimately boils down to the fact that imaginary values either pretend to be genuine, or are given
out by someone as genuine. The essence of comic conflicts lies in historical changes in public life. Usually,
representatives of obsolete or obsolete traditions try to push back, to put a dam in front of the new, inescapable.
The conflict situation in it is designed to make the audience laugh. Laughter in comedy, in fact, is nothing but a kind
of catharsis, as well as the suffering in tragedy that causes it. The social function of comedy is to ridicule those forms
of life and prejudices that are outdated, do not correspond to the interests and needs of society. Comic characters
stand, as it were, below the surrounding reality. They are not characterized by a reasonable form of existence,
logically justified actions. As a result, with their characteristics, such expressive means as grotesque, hyperbole,
caricature are possible.
The subject of the image in comedy is usually a situation where the discrepancy between the true meaning of the
event and how it is presented to the characters is comically played out. The secret of realistic comedy is that in it, as
in life, a vulgar and stupid person does not suspect at all that he is stupid and vulgar. On the contrary, he sincerely
considers himself smart and fair. The viewer (reader), laughing at such a character, realizes at the same time his
superiority over him. The positive hero of the comedy, basically, is laughter.
The main types of comedy:
• comedy of characters – a genre based on the depiction of typical characters, the collision of which causes a comic
effect – "Tartuffe" by J.B. Moliere);
• comedy of manners, a sitcom that gives preference to events, a clever intrigue – "Comedy of errors" by V.
Shakespeare
• satirical comedy – "The Inspector" by N. Gogol;
• heroic comedy – "Cyrano de Bergerac" by E. Rostand
• domestic, romantic, fabulously symbolic and others.
Tragicomedy is one of the varieties of the comedy genre, it has the characteristics of both tragedy and comedy; sadserious and funny episodes are combined here, sublime and comic characters are side by side.
Vaudeville – a genre of light comedy play, in which the second dialogue and dramatic action is based on an
entertaining intrigue, and often on an anecdotal plot. For vaudeville, topical hints, witty jokes, puns are common.
Comedy action is combined with music, songs, couplets, and sometimes dancing. At the same time, songs and
couplets are mostly composed to motifs familiar to the audience. Farce (French, Latin – stuffing) is a kind of comedy
genre, entertaining comic spectacle, built on purely external rude comic techniques, buffoonery. It is distinguished by
action-packed positions, eccentric tricks, frivolity, sometimes reaching the point of obscenity.
The main "product", the result of the work of the author-playwright is a play. A play is a work of drama intended for
presentation in the theater, expressing its content through the direct speech of the characters. Among other types of
works of drama can be called a film and television script, libretto.
Architectonics (structure) of the play
Architectonics (Greek – construction (art)) – a general aesthetic plan for the construction of an artistic work, the
fundamental relationship of its parts. Structure (Latin) is the mutual disposition and connection of the components of
something (a play, script, novel, etc.). Architectonics or structure is the external graphic "design" of any work of art,
the form of organization of its content. For the convenience of perception, staging and performance on stage, the
play is usually divided into acts, paintings, episodes, complete semantic pieces – structural units. There are other
concepts: action, part, scene, phenomenon. Outside of the main form of the play, there are sometimes a prologue
and an epilogue, which at the same time perform the functions of exposition and finale. The forms of organization of
the play can also include an intermission – a kind of break in the action of the play. It is important to interrupt the
action so that the viewer expects: "And what's next?". The smallest structural unit of the play is a phenomenon that
is practically not used by the authors today. And in the drama of the XIX century. you can find this entry:
"Phenomenon 5. The same and Podkolesin". The play, thus, was divided quite conditionally – from the exit to the exit
of the next character or the departure of one of those present. The next largest structural unit is an episode –
fragment, a small part of the play that contains a fairly complete moment of content. As a rule, the division of a play
into episodes does not have a formal designation – 1st, 2nd, etc. Each picture, as a larger structural unit, includes
several episodes. Further, the structural division of the play goes as follows: several paintings – part, act, action. A
play can have from one to five parts, acts or actions.
The same division is found in screenplays and in scenarios of cultural and leisure events. In the director's practice,
there is a "division" of the play by events: the initial, central, main, determining the development of the plot. There
may be other, less significant events in the play, or those in which not all the characters "participate", but only some
part of them, while not always the main characters participate in them. The main forms of presentation of the
content of the play are monologues, dialogues, replicas, remarks: Monologue (Greek. – one + speech) – a detailed
statement of one person, which does not imply a direct response from other characters; the character's speech with
himself (aloud), with an imaginary or invisible character. Dialogue (Greek – two + speech) is a form of oral speech, a
conversation between two or more characters. Replica (French, Latin. – object) – a brief remark, objection, response,
remark on the words of the interlocutor, a separate short phrase. In the actor's game, it can be used as an Apartment
technique (fr. – aside) – stage monologues and replicas pronounced "aside" for the public, and, according to the
author's plan, "inaudible" by other characters. Remark (fran. – note, remark)– a brief explanation of the author to
the text of the play, containing a description of the setting of the action, the appearance of the characters, the
peculiarities of their behavior, etc., As a rule, is written in the middle of the line and highlighted with brackets or
other font.
The form of recording a play has its mandatory components: the name, genre, number of acts, paintings, episodes,
etc., a list of actors, a brief description of the place and time of the action, monologues, dialogues of characters in
the form of direct speech with remarks by the author of the play (playwright).
Drama’s Composition
Composition is the construction of a work of art, a system of organization of images, their connections and
relationships that characterize the life process shown in the work. The basic elementary requirement for the
construction of a work of art (and for a work of art, too) is the presence and a certain sequence of the necessary
elements of its construction in it.
The main elements of the composition: the beginning of the struggle – the course of the struggle – the result of the
struggle.
The beginning of the struggle is revealed in the exposition and the beginnings of the main conflict. The course of the
struggle is revealed through the specific actions and collisions of the heroes – through the so-called vicissitudes that
make up the general movement of action from the beginning of the conflict to its resolution. In most works there is
the highest moment of tension in the development of the action – the culmination. The result of the struggle
(conflict resolution) is shown in the denouement and in the final. It’s called hegel 's triad.
Based on this fundamental structure (Hegel's Triad), the composition of a dramaturgical work can be presented most
fully as follows: prologue – exposition – the beginning – the course of the struggle – climax – denouement – a new
position after the denouement – finale – epilogue. (see diagram 4). Consider each element of the composition: 1.
Prologue (from the Greek prologos – before the word, preface) – an introduction to a literary work that is not related
to the developing action, but precedes it with a story about the events that preceded it or about their meaning, or
about the general plan, etc. The tragedy of V. Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" (translated by B. Pasternak) begins
with the prologue.19 2. The exposition is the initial part of the work. The main purpose of the exposition: •
information for the viewer, contributing to the understanding of the upcoming action (who, what, where, when,
etc.); • a period of "immersion" in the atmosphere of the action, helping the viewer to "turn" into a participant in the
collective perception of the play.
Types of exposure:
1.Direct exposure: showing what happened before the conflict began.
2.The exposition is a Prologue: the author's direct appeal to the viewer, a short story about the future action and its
character. Sometimes the prologue plays the role of an Exposition or opens it. In V. Shakespeare's tragedy "Romeo
and Juliet", the prologue and the entire 1st act is such an exposition. Sometimes a play can begin with an inversion,
i.e. showing before the beginning of the action how it will end. The task of inversion is to captivate the viewer, the
reader, to keep him in suspense. There is an inversion in Shakespeare's tragedy "Romeo and Juliet" (see Prologue).
Shakespeare, as it were, removes interest in what will happen, he is more concerned about how it will happen. Thus,
the exposure lasts until the tie.
3. The beginning: the emergence of a conflict. "Romeo and Juliet" – the conflict was discovered here (the longstanding enmity of the two families) at the very beginning of the tragedy. The development of the main conflict will
begin from the time when the young heroes fall in love with each other – there will be a struggle of pure love and
age-old tribal enmity. This conflict is the subject of the image.
4. Climax (from ital. – the top) is the highest point of tension in the development of the action of a work of art. The
climax appears with special distinctness in drama. The climax of the drama is a milestone that marks a decisive turn
in the fate of the characters. Aristotle defined climax as "the limit from which the transition from happiness to
unhappiness or from unhappiness to happiness begins." Examples: the Unmasking of the Fratricidal King– the
mousetrap scene in Shakespeare's Hamlet.
5. Denouement – the outcome of events, the resolution of contradictions, conflicts, which determined the
development of the action. The denouement is possible only if the main conflict, which began in the beginning, is
preserved. In the denouement or as a result of it, a new position is created in relation to the tie, new relationships of
the characters.
6.The finale is the emotional and semantic completion of the work. This is a continuation of the action in the future
(what will happen next?).
7. Epilogue (from Greek. epi – after; logos – word; literally – afterword): the final part, attached to the artwork, tells
about the further fate of the actors. The epilogue in drama is the scene following the denouement. The content of
the epilogue changed. In ancient comedy, the epilogue contained mischievous masquerade dances, songs; in ancient
Greek drama – the final address of the choir to the audience, commenting on the events that took place or
explaining the plan; in comedies of the XVII – XVIII centuries. the epilogue was a declamatory or song-and-dance
appeal to the audience with a request for leniency to the actors and to the author.
So, in relation to the drama, the composition: • the organization of the action in time and space, the sequence and
proportionality of the parts of the play combined into a single aesthetic whole, the logical arrangement of events; •
the way of grouping the material that makes up the fabric of the work, the order, the sequence of the arrangement
of the parts in their relation to the whole. The composition of the play is clearly limping if the plot rushes too hastily
to the denouement. Dramatic experience suggests that it is more rational if the path from the beginning to the
climax would be about 2-3 times longer than before it.
There are two types of composition: closed (closed) and open. A closed (closed) composition can be called
centripetal, because it tends to the concentration of time and space, to a well-known trinity (place, time and action),
based on a closed node of events that are in causal relationships with each other. The closed composition was widely
used in the dramaturgy of the past centuries. An open composition is created by emotional and semantic
comparisons of destinies, characters, events and is embodied in an active assembly construction.
Signs of drama:
· Action (event at the core) - the finished part of the performance, the play (the same as the act).2) In drama and
epic, the development of events that form the basis, the flesh of the plot (plot).3) In the theater, the main means of
embodying the stage image.
· Counteraction is an action directed in the opposite direction.
· Momentary – here and now (urgency, immediacy, urgency, haste, instantaneity).
· - Conflict - the clash of forces of confrontation and confrontation. There are hidden internal, external visible ones.