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They
and
approach
forethought,
roles,
their
Balanced
iv
They
courage
give
are
order
to
importance
achieve
thoughtful
able
to
the
to
and
their
intellectual,
well-being
consideration
assess
support
personal
of
to
their
understand
learning
and
for
themselves
own
their
physical,
learning
strengths
personal
and
and
development.
A note on academic honesty
What constitutes misconduct?
It
Misconduct
is
of
vital
importance
appropriately
when
After
have
that
all,
credit
to
the
information
owners
property
of
is
used
ideas
rights.
acknowledge
owners
To
of
in
your
(intellectual
have
an
and
result
information
in
Misconduct
work,
it
must
be
based
on
your
original
ideas
with
the
work
of
others
oral,
Therefore,
own
used
completed
language
or
for
all
and
referred
assignments,
assessment
expression.
to,
whether
must
Where
in
or
paraphrase,
such
or
the
your
is
work
sources
form
of
sources
are
Words
assessment
plagiarism
dened
of
as
the
another
some
and
support
and
or
may
unfair
component.
collusion.
representation
of
the
of
person
the
ways
as
to
your
own.
avoid
The
plagiarism:
are
ideas
one’s
of
another
arguments
person
must
be
used
to
acknowledged.
direct
must
Passages
that
are
quoted
verbatim
must
be
be
appropriately
more
in,
an
written
use
●
quotation
or
results
gaining
fully
●
or
one
that
student
piece
following
acknowledged.
any
individual
ideas
and
behaviour
or
includes
Plagiarism
of
is
you
advantage
work.
property)
authentic
in,
enclosed
within
quotation
marks
and
acknowledged.
acknowledged.
●
CD-ROMs,
email
messages,
web
sites
on
the
How do I acknowledge the work of others?
Internet,
The
the
way
that
ideas
of
you
acknowledge
other
people
is
that
through
you
the
have
use
used
treated
and
any
the
endnotes
to
be
(placed
(placed
provided
at
at
the
the
when
bottom
end
you
of
a
quote
of
a
page)
document)
or
or
The
sources
of
another
are
not
is
need
part
do
of
not
to
a
document,
provided
provide
‘body
need
assumed
to
resources
listing
should
or
closely
summarize
Works
of
of
be
in
a
another
footnote
for
knowledge’.
footnoted
as
document.
You
information
That
they
is,
are
you
include
magazines,
resources,
means
that
accepted
full
of
A
you
include
used
all
in
a
forms
work
be
maps,
CDs
of
part
list
work.
is
works
use
one
to
how
nd
the
a
of
of
same
in
they
data,
material
are
graphs,
must
be
not
your
own
work.
whether
or
visual
music,
lm,
dance,
arts,
and
where
creative
use
of
a
part
of
must
acknowledged.
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work
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the
place,
that
be
of
the
Collusion
of
●
The
is
allowing
for
dened
student.
as
This
your
work
assessment
by
supporting
misconduct
by
includes:
to
be
copied
another
or
submitted
student
duplicating
work
You
Other
provide
extended
that
taking
essay.
forms
gives
results
viewer
information.
the
and/or
different
diploma
assessment
requirements.
‘Formal’
several
must
or
for
Internet-
art.
the
reader
compulsory
similar
including
articles,
presentation.
as
can
bibliography
and
if
programs,
denitions
formal
your
resources,
newspaper
should
information
your
must
journals.
do
another
should
that
art,
arts,
components
based
media
and
the
●
books,
books
paraphrase
knowledge.
Bibliographies
the
as
photographs,
and
acknowledged
theatre
information
all
computer
audio-visual,
●
from
electronic
way
bibliographies.
illustrations,
Footnotes
other
same
of
●
footnotes
and
in
room,
of
you
of
misconduct
an
unfair
another
student.
unauthorized
misconduct
falsifying
a
CAS
include
advantage
Examples
material
during
or
an
into
an
any
action
affects
the
include,
examination
examination,
and
record.
v
The location of case studies
Option
A
to
G
42
17
7
5
38
35
16
21
34
12
45
36
4
64
54
15
55
43
59
51
63
11
19
48
3
25
58
18
33
22
23
62
1
53
30
57
26
20
56
6
13
28
61
2
8
24
5
9
58
50
44
31
60
29
39
49
14
37
40
27
47
52
Option A – Freshwater – Drainage basins
1
2
3
4
Egypt – Aswan Dam
Option D – Geophysical hazards
27
China – water diversion
Europe – river regimes
28
29
6
7
8
9
10
11
Philippines – Typhoon Haiyan
South China sea – geopolitics
31
32
Bangladesh – flow mitigation
St Lucia – coastal management
USA – oceanside littoral cell
14
Eastern Cape, South Africa –
farming in semi-arid areas
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
33
35
23
24
25
26
vi
37
Alaska National Wildlife Refuge
Greenland –
resource nationalism
Nepal – Tourism
New Mexico, USA – tourism
Middle East – resource security
Yamal Peninsula, Russia –
Sustainable farming in Egypt
Sahara –
solar energy
47
48
38
39
40
42
43
44
49
China’s theme park
Par ticipation in spor t in UK
Haiti ear thquake, 2010
Food consumption in the Middle
Changing dietary patterns in Brazil
Famine in Ethiopia
Oxford – tourism hotspot
Option G
51
52
National spor ts league in
Glastonbury festival
Machu Picchu – heritage tourism
53
54
55
Monteverde cloud forest,
Changing urban environment –
Urban decline in Detroit
Urban microclimate, Seoul,
South Korea
56
57
Air pollution in Delhi, India
Managing air pollution in
Mexico City
London Olympic Games
Venice – urban tourism hotspot
Gentrication and relocation in
Shanghai
Tourism as a national development
Tourism in the Maldives
– Urban environments
Land-use in New York
Cape Town, South Africa
Killarney National Park
58
59
Costa Rica
Urban crime, Iran and Nigeria
Urban deprivation and regeneration
in Barcelona
60
61
62
63
Protecting Lagos
Masdar City
Tokyo’s ecological footprint
Environmental measures in
Chicago
Sahel – coping in semi-arid areas
Nepal landslides, 2015
Food consumption in Cape Town
– Leisure, tourism and spor t
strategy – South Africa
41
Epidemiological transition in USA,
East
South Africa
Rosemont Copper, Arizona, USA
oil megaproject
22
Reconstructing Haiti
HALE in Canada
China and Afghanistan
Landslides in Sri Lanka, 2016
Option E
Switzerland – Gorner Glacier
Sahara – climate changes
46
50
34
USA – floods
Option C – Extreme environments
13
Urban Landslides, Kalimpong,
– The geography of food and
health
Mt. Sinabung volcano, Indonesia
Arctic – geopolitics
36
12
Soufrière Hills, volcano, Montsalvat
West Bengal India
Option B – Oceans and coastal margins
Option F
45
2012
Nile Basin
30
5
Christchurch ear thquake, 2010,
64
Songdo International Business
District, South Korea
Unit
1
to
6
11
36
7
14
5
25
39
37
40
25
13
21
4
17
1
27
6
32
19
12
25
24
26
23
35
34
38
8
3
18
15
9
33
10
22
28
31
16
35
42
30
29
2
20
Unit 1 – Changing population
1
2
Population distribution in China
Population distribution in
South Africa
3
4
5
Unit 3 – Global resource consumption
and security
18
19
39
Economic growth in Vietnam
40
Food, water and energy security in
41
Hindu Kush
Megacity growth – Mumbai
Forced migration from Syria
Unit 6 – Global risks and resilience
20
Improving food security in
Tax avoidance – Apple in Ireland
Acid rain in Eastern Canada
Maquiladora
developments in
Mexico
42
Water problems and flower farming
South Africa
Japan’s ageing population
in Kenya
6
7
8
9
China’s one-child policy
Pro-natalist policies in Russia
Literacy and gender in Kerala
Trafcking of Nigerian women to
Europe
10
Ethiopia and the demographic
dividend
Unit 4 – Power, places and networks
21
22
23
24
25
26
Unit 2 – Global climate – vulnerability
27
China – a rising superpower
Aid and Bangladesh
The Tata Group
The Apple Group
NAF TA
Incheon, South Korea
Migration control in the USA
and resilience
11
12
13
Negative feedback in Greenland
Unit 5 – Human development and
The retreat of Swiss glaciers
Diversity
The destruction of forests in the
USA
14
15
16
Climate change and the UK
Flooding in Bangladesh
29
30
31
Corporate change mitigation in the
Empowering women in Colombia
Mapajo Lodge, Bolivia
Fair trade pineapples in Ghana
The Rana Plaza disaster,
Bangladesh
Vulnerability and adaptation in
Ghana
17
28
32
33
USA
Cultural change in Tibet
Cultural change in the Andaman
Islands
34
Cultural diusion in Seoul,
South Korea
35
36
37
38
Shell and Ogoniland, Nigeria
Denmark’s immigration laws
The “Jungle” in Calais, France
Political change in Myanmar
vii
Unit 1
Contents
1.
Option A
Changing population
Population
and
economic
development
Freshwater – Drainage basins
patterns
1.
Drainage
basin
2.
Flooding
and
hydrology
ood
and
and
geomorphology
mitigation
3.
Water
scarcity
water
4.
Water
management
388
2
2.
Changing
3.
Challenges
populations
and
places
396
16
quality
and
opportunities
409
28
futures
39
Unit 2
Global climate – vulnerability
and resilience
Option B
Oceans and coastal margins
1.
Ocean–atmosphere
2.
Interactions
coastal
interactions
between
oceans
and
Managing
4.
Ocean
The
causes
of
2.
The
3.
Responding
global
climate
change
426
consequences
of
global
climate
change
436
the
places
3.
1.
52
to
climate
change
451
65
coastal
margins
79
Unit 3
management
futures
Global resource consumption
91
and security
Option C
1.
The
Extreme environments
characteristics
of
extreme
environments
2.
Physical
3.
Managing
4.
Extreme
1.
Global
2.
Impacts
107
processes
and
extreme
landscapes
116
environments
3.
Option D
futures
Geophysical hazards
systems
164
2.
Geophysical
hazard
176
3.
Hazard
4.
Future
risks
vulnerability
Option E
and
Changing
2.
Tourism
leisure
and
adaptation
504
at
the
3.
Tourism
213
local
1.
Global
interactions
2.
Global
networks
3.
Human
global
sport
at
the
international
237
Managing
and
and
and
physical
global
power
ows
tourism
and
sport
for
the
future
530
inuences
on
interactions
552
Human development and diversity
1.
Development
2.
Changing
3.
Local
opportunities
identities
responses
to
and
569
cultures
global
583
interactions
Global risks and resilience
1.
Geopolitical
2.
Environmental
3.
Local
and
and
economic
risks
615
risks
global
627
resilience
639
Index
648
The geography of food and health
1.
Measuring
2.
Food
3.
Stakeholders
4.
Future
food
systems
and
and
in
health
the
food
and
health
266
spread
and
food
of
disease
285
health
security
304
and
sustainability
Option G
Preparing for the exam
1.
Essay
2.
Internal
3.
Map
writing
guidelines
4.
Glossary
5.
Answers, sample exam papers and mark schemes
assessment
skills
320
of
key
terms
Urban environments
Available
The
598
252
Option F
1.
516
225
scale
4.
Power, places and networks
and
scale
and
stewardship
196
patterns
sport
resource
487
Unit 6
national
in
186
Leisure, tourism and spor t
1.
trends
Resource
Unit 5
resilience
changing
469
143
Geophysical
and
consumption
128
1.
risk
of
in
consumption
Unit 4
environments’
trends
variety
of
urban
environments
on:
www.oxfordsecondary.
331
co.uk/9780198396031
2.
Changing
3.
Urban
4.
Building
future
viii
urban
systems
environmental
sustainable
and
349
social
urban
stresses
systems
for
360
Additional
see
the
374
this
case
icon:
studies
are
available
wherever
you
O P T I O N
A
F R E S H W AT E R
–
D R A I N A G E
This
Key terms
optionl
physicl
Daae
geogrphy
encompsses
of
freshwter
the
in

systems
The area drained by a river and its
frmework,
as
tributaries.
Feshwate
Freshwater includes rivers, lakes,
hydrology
wetlands, groundwater, glaciers
and ice caps.
Hdca
A conceptual model that describes
cce
the storage and movement of
water between the biosphere,
atmosphere, lithosphere and the
hydrosphere.
Wateshed
theme
B A S I N S
give
nd
rise
It
(nd
to
uvil
process
lso
lnd
including
lndform
the
scrce
mngement,
such
s
nd
dischrge
geomorphology
nd

elements
fctors
bnkfull
covers
s
the
core
lkes
in
study
of
including
the
wys
the
chllenges
of
tht
ooding)
(including
wter
on
requiring
river
the
creful
freshwter
quifers.
which
processes
nd
study).
resource
nd
of
This
humns
bodies
includes
respond
mnging
the
to
quntity
Also known as the drainage divide,
nd
qulity
of
freshwter,
s
well
s
this is the imaginary line dening
the
consequences
(whether
intended
the boundary of a river or stream
or
unintended,
positive
or
negtive)
of
drainage basin separating it from
mngement
within
dringe
bsins.
the adjacent basin(s).
The
Dschae
importnce
of
integrted
plnning
is
The volume of water passing a
emphsised,
in
ddition
to
the
geopoliticl
given point over a set time.
consequences
Phsca
Lack of available water where
wate
water resource development is
scact
approaching or has exceeded
of
growing
interntionlly
shred
Through
of
students
study
will
this
develop
pressures
wter
optionl
their
on
resources.
theme,
understnding
of
unsustainable levels; it relates
processes,
plces,
power
nd
geogrphicl
availability to demand and implies
possibilities.
They
will
lso
gin
understnding
that arid areas are not necessarily
of
other
concepts
including
systems
(the
water scarce.
hydrologicl
Ecc
Lack of water where water is
wate
available locally, but not accessible
scact
for human, institutional or nancial
to
tckle
cycle),
ooding)
ood
nd
mitigtion
wter
(ttempts
security.
capital reasons.
Key questions
St
A graph showing how a river
hdaph
changes over a shor t period, such
1.
How
do
physicl
dringe
bsin
processes
systems
nd
inuence
lndforms?
as a day or a couple of days.
2.
Fd
How
do
physicl
both
increse
nd
humn
fctors
A discharge great enough to
(excerbte)
nd
reduce
cause a body of water to overow
(mitigte)
ood
risk
for
different
places?
its channel and submerge
3.
Wht
re
the
vrying
powers
of
surrounding land.
different
stkeholders
mngement
4.
Wht
re
the
mngement
in
reltion
to
wter
issues?
future
possibilities
intervention
in
for
dringe
bsins?
1
1
Drainage basin hydrology and
geomorphology
The drainage basin as an
Conceptual understanding
open system
Ke est
A
How
nd
do
physicl
processes
inuence
dringe
bsin
systems
drainage
which
lndforms?
basin
wter
trnsferred
strem.
It
is
n
supplied
to
the
re
by
precipittion
ocen,
includes
ll
of
within

lke
the
or
re
is
lrger
tht
Ke ctet
is
●
The
dringe
bsin
(precipittion
(evportion
n
open
vrying
nd
throughow,
(including
of
s
type
system,
nd
trnspirtion),
overlnd
vegettion,
ow
soil,
nd
with
ows
bse
quifers
Dringe
inputs
intensity),
(lso
outputs
nd
nd
the
stores
cryosphere).
River
nd
dischrge
chnnel
nd
its
reltionship
shpe/hydrulic
to
strem
ow
of
River
processes
of
erosion,
Some
rdius.
trnsporttion
nd
sptil
nd
temporl
including
fctors
chnnel
tht
inuence
chrcteristics
A.2
Afric.
The
formtion
wterflls,
of
typicl
oodplins,
river
lndforms
menders,
levees
is
bsins
rther
dividing
like
wter
nother.
bsins
shows
In
occur
of
dringe
nd
in
delts.
the
Some

roof,
–
djcent
the
re
extremely
mjor
lrge.
dringe
contrst,
very
smll
bsins
dringe
good
inlnd
exmple.
depression
endorheic
bsin
in
smll
strems
ner
the
sesonlity.
including
is
or
wtersheds
their
nd
source
●
gutter
by
divides)
wtershed
sloping
dringe
bsins
opertion,
divided
seprting
The
tributries.
deposition,
for
nd

its
(velocity)
Figure
●
re
nd
dringe
lines
the
one
river
s
A.1).
top

bsins
known
(Figure
into
●
by
imginry
(inltrtion,
ow)
drined
on
or
Others
for
closed
Figure
A.2
is

Arthur’s
rivers
do
not
exmple.
Figure
nd
Pss
drin
rech
These
drainage
n
river.
bsins
iterranean
ed
M
of
region
into
the
the
se
dringe
basins .
exmple
A.3
n
shows
wtersheds
The
of
New
se
but
–
strems
Zelnd.
the
drin
bsins
re
Okvngo
endorheic
some
for
Nile
into
n
clled
dringe
bsin.
S
e
a
d
e
h
s
r
e
t
a
W
Tropic
of
Cancer
A
Watershed
Niger
Nile
Roof
Key
Drainage
basin
A
Drainage
basin
B
Gutter
Congo-Zaire
Equator
Atlantic
Indian
Ocean
The watershed is like the top of a
Ocean
roof – water that falls on one side
of the roof ows in one direction,
Zambezi
into one set of gutters and drains
(the drainage basin, its rivers
Inland
drainage
B
and streams). On the other
House
Watersheds
side of the watershed (which is
A
Sahara
B
Kalahari
Desert
Tropic
Orange
500
1,000
normally high ground), the water
Desert
drains in a dierent direction.

Fe A .1: Drainage basins and watershed
2

Fe A .2: Major drainage basins in Africa
km
of
Capricorn
1
D r A i n A g E
b A S i n
H y D r o l o g y
A n D
g E o m o r P H o l o g y

Fe A .3: A small drainage basin: Ar thur ’s
Pass, New Zealand
39
C
38
695 m
(6)
955
989
37
1310
36
1296
1669
1762
Activity 1
35
Compare the drainage basins
of the rivers at A, B and C in
A
Hui
1846
Figure A.3.
Spur
34
78
80
79
81
82
Key
(20)
Hut
Native
(bunks)
forest
Scrub
Tramping
track
Tramping
route
Tramping
route,
Activity 2
Shingle
lightly
Scree
marked
1.
Identify three stores and
three processes in the
0
1
2
3
4
5
drainage basin system.
km
2.
Explain why drainage
basins are considered to
The drainage basin as an open system, including the
be open systems.
major ows and stores
The
hydrological
biosphere,
–
the
cycle
tmosphere,
dringe
bsin
refers
to
the
lithosphere
(Figure
A.4)
–
cycle
nd
of
wter
between
hydrosphere.
At


the
locl
Fe A .4: Drainage basin
hydrology
scle
the
P
P
CP
cycle
hs
(PPT),

single
nd
two
input,
mjor
precipittion
losses
P
T
P
Soil
(outputs),
E
evpotrnspirtion
third
output,
(EVT)
lekge,
nd
my
run-off.
lso
A
occur
from
bsins.
The
Rock
Aeration
Zone
the
deeper
dringe
s
it
subsurfce
bsin
llows
the
to
system
is
other
n
movement
open
of
OF
system
energy
TF
er
at
W
ble
ta
River
Zone
nd
of
Saturation
mtter
Wter
cross
cn
be
its
boundries
stored
t

(Figure
number
of
A.5).
GWF
stges
Key
or
levels
include
within
the
vegettion,
cycle.
These
surfce,
soil
stores
Saturated
P
groundwter
stores
re
nd
linked
wter
by

chnnels.
number
rock
and
soil
Inltration
OF
Overland
ow
(very
fast)
moisture,
of
Precipitation
T
Transpiration
Water
E
Direct
TF
Throughow
(quick)
These
movement
ows.
evaporation
intercepted
CP
Channel
precipitation
of
precipitation
GWF
Groundwater
ow
(baseow)
(slow)
3
1
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
PRECIPITATION
BA SINS
Inputs
Channel
Interception
precipitation
1.
Precipitation
VEGETATION
Stemflow
&
The
min
input
into
the
dringe
bsin
is
throughfall
Overland
SURFACE
Floods
Infiltration
Capillary
rise
rinfll,
nd
snow,
trnsfer
Precipittion
frost,
of
hil
moisture
includes
nd
in
dew.
the
It
ll
is
forms
the
of
conversion
tmosphere
to
the
.5
Interflow
3.
precipitation.
EGAROTS
LENNAHC
2.
flow
SOIL
lnd.
MOISTURE
Percolation
The
ffect
min
locl
chrcteristics
hydrology
of
precipittion
tht
re:
Capillary
Base
rise
Evaporation
4.
flow
GROUND-
WATER
●
the
●
intensity
●
type
●
geogrphic
●
vribility.
Recharge
totl
mount
of
precipittion
Transpiration
Leakage
EVAPORUNOFF
(snow,
rin
nd
so
on)
TRANSPIRATION
Transfer
Output

Storage
distribution
nd
Input
Fe A .5: Drainage basin hydrology – a systems approach
Other
inputs
trnsfer
could
schemes
include
nd
the
irrigtion
use
of
wter,
deslinted
wter
wter.
Outputs
Evaporation
Evportion

solid
of
is
solid
wter)
most
nd
the
to
wter
losses
be
they
Fctors
will
ffecting
humidity
the
the
nd
most
the
colour
in
of
which
It
the
dry
in
ice
ses.
It
is
Evportion
nd
conditions.
nd
or
nd
tmosphere.
Evportion
semi-rid
climtes
include
such
speed.
Of
fctor.
s
temperture,
these,
Other
vilble,
surfce
liquid
conversion
(snow,
nd
evportion
wter

the
regions.
inuences
the
is
conditions
rid
polr
wind
of
in
clm
importnt
mount
nd
cold,
be
by
gs.
ocens
wrm,
greter
meteorologicl
is
vpour
under
will

precipittion
from
under
decreses
process
into
liquid
importnt
increses
thn
is
chnged
temperture
fctors
vegettion
(lbedo
or
include
cover
reectivity
of
surfce).
Evapotranspiration
Trnspirtion
escpes
nd
of
from
enters
the
evportion
referred
to
represents

is
s
the
process
living
plnts,
tmosphere.
nd
by
which
minly
The
re
most
importnt
vpour
leves,
combined
trnspirtion
evpotrnspirtion
the
wter
the
effects
normlly
(EVT).
spect
of
EVT
wter
loss,
Pht A .1: Soil erosion leads to
ccounting
for
the
loss
of
nerly
100
per
cent
of
the
nnul
precipittion
soil compaction and increased
in
rid
res
nd
75
per
cent
in
humid
res.
Only
over
ice
nd
snow
overland ow
elds,
purely
4
bre
rock
slopes,
evportive
desert
losses
res,
occur.
wter
surfces
nd
bre
soil
will
1
D r A i n A g E
b A S i n
H y D r o l o g y
A n D
g E o m o r P H o l o g y
Potential evapotranspiration (P
.EVT)
The
distinction
(P
.EVT)
lies
in
between
the
evpotrnspirtion
unlimited
exmple,
becuse
high
there
mm,
In
is
of
s
of
EVT
in
thn
loss
the
250
tht
soil
mm
experienced
be
in
of
use
rte
rin
Egypt,
if
dpted
of
to
occur
by
in
the
Potentil
if
is
less
is
rinfll
2,000
help
ws
ws
mm.
tht
them
s
tht
250
given
high
wter.
The
ffect
n
For
thn
However,
evporte
those
there
vegettion.
Egypt
the
to
there
ll
evpotrnspirtion
nnully.
het
rte
include
hve
would
for
sufcient
evpotrnspirtion
plnts
potentil
availability.
evpotrnspirtion
would
some
nd
moisture
wter
evpotrnspirtion
ddition,
such
the
wter
less
there
potentil
ffecting
is
ctul
tempertures
2,000
the
supply
the
ctul
concept
mm,
the
s,
sy,
Hence
fctors
evportion.
reduce
moisture
loss,
ccti.
Flows
Inltration
Inltrtion
soil.
be
The
is
the
process
inltration
bsorbed
Inltrtion
by

soil
cpcity
by
which
capacity
in

is
given
decreses
wter
the
soks
into
mximum
or
rte
is
t
bsorbed
which
by
rin
the
cn
condition.
with
time
during

period
of
rinfll,
until
−1

more
or
less
constnt
vlue
is
reched.
Inltrtion
rtes
of
0–4
mm
/
−1
hour
snd
re
some
For
rinfll
my
s
Plnt
it
on
picks
roots
vriety
10
up
is
(pre-existing
levels
rindrop
nd
size
down
soils
hve
ne
the
nd
soil
slope
speed
t
similr
orgnic
for
to
mm/hour
This
which
cids
overlnd
of
moisture),
from
re
common
becuse
t
occurs,
covered
by
it
the
surfce.
inltrtion
vegettion,
wter
on
intercepts
is
rtes
chemiclly
vegettion
nd
soil.
(percolines).
run-off
rinfll,
soil
is
rrives
Inltrted
percoltion
durtion
it
impct
soils
recorded.
relted
s
3–12
inltrtion.
rin-splsh
On
been
chnnels
such
of
wheres
where
mm/hour.
inversely
fctors
soils
increses
minerls
provide
of
cly
lso
slows
bre
mm/hour
Inltrtion

nd
rech
50–100
rich
on
Vegettion
exmple,
rtes
of
common
soils.
nd
is
inuenced
ntecedent
porosity,
soil
vegettion
by
moisture
cover,
ngle.
Overland ow
Overland
surfce.
It
ow
(surface
occurs
in
two
●
when
precipittion
●
when
the
In
res
run-off
elds.
high,
of
is
By
soil
high
contrst,
most
ow
ow
it
to
(lines
to
the
(ll
wter
the
occurs
close
pore
nd
clerly
precipittion
in
prt
to
owing
increses
of
the
ows
over
the
lnd’s

slightly
of
low
is
through
wter

re
res
low
nd
the
ow
following
It

is
nd
river
soil

wet
in
wter).
overlnd
cultivted
inltrtion
is
chnnels.
in
tht
with
cpcity,
nd
nturl
between
discharge
river.
lled
inltrtion
semi-rid
strems
river’s
bed
rte
spces
intensity
concentrted
into
tht
inltrtion
intensity
seen
wter
of
the
seeping
lthough
is
where
refers
refers
groundwter
ow
This
overlnd
percolines
Base
sturted
is
wys:
exceeds
precipittion
common.
Throughow
nd
is
run-off)
min
is
soil
pipes
horizons).
provided
reltively
by
constnt
period.
5
1
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
Stores
Vegetation
Interception
There
●
re
refers
three
●
●
which
down
the
Interception
less
from
surfce
cerels
trees
in
wter
–
wter
loss
of
or
cught
is
retined
bsorbed
tht
either
leves,
tht
by
flls
twigs
trickles
with
thn
grss
prticulr,
intercept
is
nd
stored
by
vegettion.
by
plnt
the
through
or
surfces
nd
which
is
plnt
gps
in
the
vegettion
stems
long
twigs
nd
brnches
nd
nlly
trunk.
vries
the
tht
wy
from
min
tht
components:
wter
grsses
re
in
–
drops
stemow
is
–
evported
throughfall
or
wter
min
interception
lter
to
different
from
shoots.
From
interception
more
thn
types
deciduous
vegettion.
griculturl
increses
deciduous
of
woodlnd
trees
with
in
Interception
owing
crops,
crop
winter,
to
the
nd
density.
but
this
smller
from
Coniferous
is
reversed
summer.
Soil
Soil
moisture
refers
to
wy,
tht
the
the
rnge
occurs.
is,
of
The
refers
to
mount
the
of
sturtion
moisture
wilting
subsurfce
wter
or
held
ner
content
point
in
wter
the
sturtion.
in
which
denes
the
in
soil
the
soil.
fter
Wilting
permnent
pproximte
Field
excess
point
drins
refers
wilting
limits
capacity
wter
of
to
to
plnts
plnt
growth.
Aquifers
Groundwter
downwrds
percoltion.
very
slow,
chlk,
it
within
or
my
solid
in
some
be
rocks
of
sesonlly.
It
precipittion.
The
out
s
known
up
hundred
to
4
km
freshwater
dys
or
yers.
hs
by
where
up
of
the
known
winter
zone.
of
is
the
s
the
table .
following
Most
rock
hs
my
phretic
The
nd
been
zone
zone.
wter
The
tble
levels
sesonlly
is
be
nd
sturted
incresed
wetted
it
s
this
limestone
groundwter
but
slowly
known
permnently
water
surfce,
into
to
It
ccounts
However,
while
tmospheric
my
the
tking
not
be
relling
extrcted
not
The
is
the
moves
this
crboniferous
sesonlly
importnt.
refers
–
found
found
t
of
dries
within
depths
of
surfce.
Erth.
been
is
in
is
the
groundwter
or
s
ertion
very
the
s
loclly.
tht
evportion
rechrge
Aquifers
nd
is
on
Recharge
renewble
gret
the
such
higher
Wter
bedrock
permebility
sediments
metres
weeks,
dried
is
wter.
the
the
known
zone
beneth
Groundwter
recycled
is
on
fst,
nd
this
into
rocks,
quite
vries
is
subsurfce
soil
Depending
lyer
few
to
the
upper

6
refers
from
by
of
96.5
moisture
wter
per
soil
recycled
humn
plce,
for
some
in
groundwter
within
for
ctivity.
cent
s

long
pores
in
ll
my
be
mtter
s
where
Hence,
is
of
moisture
the
some
considered
of
20,000

wter
plces,
non-
resource.
(rocks
reservoir
limestone.
tht
of
contin
wter.
The
signicnt
Aquifers
wter
in
re
quifers
quntities
permeble
moves
of
rocks
very
wter)
such
slowly
provide
s
nd

sndstone
cts
1
s

nturl
regultor
in
D r A i n A g E
b A S i n
H y D r o l o g y
A n D
g E o m o r P H o l o g y
Aquifer
the
recharge
hydrologicl
cycle
by
area
bsorbing
Major
rinfll
tht
would
Intermittent
strems
rpidly.
In
discharge
area
Months
Unsaturated
rech
perennial
otherwise
ddition,
discharge
area
zone
Artesian
quifers
mintin
strem
ow
discharge
during
wter
long
ow
shown
by
dry
periods.
reches
the
the
Where
surfce
dischrge
res
Minor
perennial
discharge
(s
area
area
in
Years
A.6)
springs
my
be
Y
Figure
found.
De
ca
de
s
These
my
be
substntil
enough
Ce
to
become
or
river.
the
source
of

ntur
Millennia
ies
strem
Aquitards
Groundwter
result
●
rechrge
occurs
s

(a)
In
humid
regions
of:
inltrtion
of
prt
of
the
totl
Aquifer
precipittion
t
the
ground
recharge
area
surfce
●
seepge
through
the
Minor
bnks
perennial
discharge
nd
bed
bodies
lkes
●
of
surfce
such
nd
s
area
wter
ditches,
rivers,
ocens
groundwter
lekge
nd
Decades
inow
nd
●
from
djcent
rocks
Centuries
Aquitard
quifers
rticil
rechrge
from
Near
irrigtion,
reservoirs
nd
Millennia
aquiclude
so
(b)
In
semi-arid
regions
on.
Fe A .6: Groundwater sources

Cryosphere
The
of
cryosphere
the
of
the
is
the
snow
freshwter
world’s
wter
nd
is
in
is
slt
ice
the
environment.
form
wter,
of
so
snow
there
Up
nd
is

to
ice.
66
per
(Over
limited
cent
97
supply
per
L TA
cent
world’s
of
Research and
communication skills
freshwter
res
my
sesonlly
vilble
hve
to
to
humns.)
importnt
produce
stores
mjor
High
of
ltitude
snow
chnges
in
nd
the
regions
ice.
bsin
nd
Some
of
high
this
hydrologicl
ltitude
my
melt
1.
cycle.
Reserch
nd
the
ows
min
stores
dringe
River discharge
River
time
re
discharge
(Figure
of
slopes

A.7).
river
should
Velocity
rpids.
lso
is
or
the
strem
led
Dischrge
volume
Dischrge
to
is
by
s

of
is
wter
found
the
higher
increses
for
men
velocities
strem
normlly
pssing
by
given
multiplying
velocity
of
becuse
moves
expressed

of
from
in
the
the
pools
cubic
point
the
over
2.
low
per
of
grvity.
3.
to
how
cquire
Prepre

physicl
or
nd
the
nd
nmed
bsin.
informtion
grdient
second,
Explin
you
Steeper
inuence
metres
set
cross-sectionl
wter.
of

ny
quntify
this
in
mp
the
eld.
showing
bckground
vribles
tht
3
m
/sec
(cumecs).
ffect
in
Dischrge
(Q)
normlly
nd
velocity.
By
The
increse
in
tht
of
chnnel
increses
contrst,
chnnel
depth.
downstrem,
chnnel
width
Lrge
roughness
downstrem
rivers
with

s
does
decreses
is
normlly
higher
width
width,
your
nd
chosen
stores
bsin.
depth
(Figure
greter
to
ows
A.8).
thn
depth
(w:d)
4.
Explin
how
ctivities
the
humn
impct
upon
bsin.
7
1
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
Cross-sectional
area
Cross-sectional
area
Discharge
bankfull
stage
DR A IN A GE
velocity
distance
Velocity
at
=
–
×
cross-sectional
area
(m)
=
=
time
BA SINS
m /sec
(sec)
Upstream
Downstream
Discharge
Occupied
channel
width
Flow
Water
width
n
e
L
Bankfull
depth
quantity
h
t
g
Load
.
g
.
e
Width
particle
size
m
0
1
Load
Channel
Depth
Wetted
roughness
perimeter


bed
Fe A .8: The Bradshaw model of channel variables
Fe A .7: Discharge in a river
rtio
re
since
cpcity
lod.
more
less
efcient
energy
increses
Although
smller
is
nd
thn
spent
nd
river

in
smller
lower
grdients
therefore
rivers
overcoming
esier
grdient
is
decrese
to
with

friction.
lower
Thus
required
to
downstrem,
w:d
the
rtio
crrying
trnsport
the
lod
the
crried
is
trnsport.
Stream ow
Water ow in rivers
Hydrulics
to
two
is
min
frictional
the
do
shape
its
ow
eddying.
llows
●
the
is
not
the
lifting
turbulent
high
●
cvittion
best
nd
to
pools
in
It
or

nd
the
uniform.
support
occur
chnnel.
bnk,
of
Wter
downstrem
which
water
mount
of
ow
ow,
is
subject
nd
opposes
the
ow
within

chnnel
energy

strem
nd
hs
to
the
of
It
is
turbulent,
upwrd
ne
motion
prticles.
in
The
chotic
the
nd
ow
conditions
which
necessry
re:
shpes
nd
which
is
lthough
such
s
mendering
chnnels
nd
rifes
it
●
smooth,
●
low
pockets
ow
is
common
cn
conditions
shllow
for
the
in
occur
of
ir
explode
movement
groundwter
in
the
lminr
bed
ow
in
of
under
wter
nd
the
in
high
in

pressure.
series
glciers,
lower
course
of
but
of

sheets
not
re:
chnnels
stright
on
ow
chnnels
the
lone
bed.
occurred
in
rivers,
ll
of
the
sediment
in
river.
velocities.
lminr
remin
8
bed
volume
ffect
provides
lminr
lmine).
●
If
the
in
cuses
velocities
contrst,
rivers,
stedy
chnnel
●
The
ow
which
the
channel
ow
lternting
(or
with
ddition,
Turbulence
complex
By
wter
work.
Wter
for
of
In
of
gravity,
resistance
downstrem.
the
study
forces:
would
1
When
wter
visible
to
velocity
more
nd
velocities
the
eye
increses,
turbulent.
re
(except
the
low,
t
turbulence
the
bnks).
hydrulic
Turbulence
is
D r A i n A g E
is
As
rdius
b A S i n
reduced
wter

nd
levels
increses,
therefore
H y D r o l o g y
nd
product
of
not
rise,
the
A n D
g E o m o r P H o l o g y
redily
men
strem
chnnel
ppers
roughness
velocity.
Velocity
The
effect
of
friction
strem.
Wter
nerest
the
bout

centre
third
resistnce).
chnnels
the
bed;
of
mximum
vries
grdient
the

bnk
The
(t
is
number
the
fctors:
depth
is
ffects
deep
implictions
of
it
is
thus
velocity.
nd
erosion
volume
nd
shpe
of
of
In
surfce
symmetric
slightly
wter;

mid-strem
by
nd
in
wter
under
deposition.
roughness
of
chnnel.
River
Channel shape
velocity
while
ffected
bnk
for
of
slowest,
velocity
surfce
lso
nerer
width,
distribution
trvels
highest
the
chnnel
importnt
strem;
uneven
nd
fstest.
down
of
n
bed
velocity
hs
with
of
crete
the
wy
shpe
This
to
to
trvels
the
The
surfce.
Velocity
is
closest
3
level
Flood
–
high
friction
3
2
The
efciency
of

strem’s
shpe
is
mesured
2
by
its
re
hydraulic
divided
A.9).
The
by
radius,
the
higher
the
wetted
the
rtio,
Bankfull
cross-sectionl
perimeter
the
more
(low
1
(Figure
–
maximum
efficiency
1
friction)
Below
bankfull
–
high
friction
efcient
Shape
the
loss
strem
is.
is
The
nd
idel
the
smller
form
is
the
frictionl
Stream
semicirculr.
A
Stream
2
There
is

close
reltionship
between
4
velocity,
m
2
2
Cross-section
4
B
m
Cross-section
area
=
24
m
m
m
2
area
=
24
m
12
dischrge
nd
the
chrcteristics
of
the
Inefficient
6
chnnel
include
in
depth,
hydrulic
is

which
good
the
wter
width,
geometry.
mesure
owing.
chnnel
The
of
is
Very
efficient
(low
relative
the
chnnel
is
lso
determined
by
friction)
Wetted perimeters
friction)
Hydraulic radius
shpe
Stream
of
relative
nd
rtio
The
(high
m
These
roughness
width:depth
comprison.
m
A
A:
the
24
mteril
Solid
forming
rock
lluvium
the
llows
llows
chnnel
only
rpid
slow
nd
river
chnges,
chnges.
Silt
forces.
14
wheres
nd
Stream
B
B:
cly
24
16
produce
steep,
mteril
being
snd
nd
deep,
nrrow
cohesive
grvel
nd
promote
vlleys
stble),
wide,
(the
ne
wheres
shllow
Fe A .9: Hydraulic radii

chnnels.
Channel roughness
Chnnel
wter.
roughness
Friction
boulders,
nd
the
trees
bed
is
nd
nd
cuses
cused
friction,
by
vegettion,
bnk.
which
irregulrities
nd
Mnning’s
slows
in
contct
n
is

the
down
river
between
formul
tht
the
velocity
of
the
bed,
the
wter

Tae A .1: Channel roughness and velocity
describes
bed pe
the
reltionship
between
chnnel
roughness
2/3
R
v
nd
Sad ad
Case
ave
ave
bdes
Uniform
0.02
0.03
0.05
Undulating
0.05
0.06
0.07
Irregular
0.08
0.09
0.10
velocity:
1/2
S
=
n
where
v
=
velocity,
roughness.
shown
in
The
Tble
R
=
higher
hydrulic
vlue
of
n,
rdius,
the
S
=
slope
rougher
the
nd
bed,
n
=
s
A.1.
9
1
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
A
B
Key
Mean
annual
run-off
(mm)
>1,000
600–1,000
400–599
200–399
50–199
<50

Fe A .10: Global variations in mean annual run-o/basin area
Mean annual discharge
Activity 3
A
useful
sttistic
is
the
men
nnul
dischrge
divided
by
the
dringe
Study Figure A.10 which shows
bsin
re.
This
gives

depth-equivlent
dischrge
(tht
is,
how
much
global variations in the mean
wter
runs
off
the
surfce
for
ech
re).
The
vlues
rnge
from
over
annual run-o.
1.
What is meant by
the depth-equivalent
discharge?
1,000
mm
terms
of
for
the
Amzon
river
to
31
mm
for
the
Colordo
river.
In
3
(Some
bsolute
700
m
dischrge,
upstrem
the
from
its
Amzon
mouth
is
it
highest
is
2.5
t
km
230,000
wide
nd
m
60
/sec.
m
deep!)
3
Second
is
the
Zire
river
t
40,000
m
/sec,
while
the
Mississippi
is
just
3
2.
Describe the patterns
18,000
m
/sec.
Even
in
ood,
the
dischrge
of
the
Mississippi
hs
only
3
shown in Figure A.10.
3.
once
reched
57,000
m
/sec.
Using an atlas, suggest
Processes of erosion, transportation
reasons for:
a.
the value at location A,
and deposition
and
.
the value at location B.
Erosion
Corrasion
lod
is
or
crried
the
result,
mechnicl
of
the
but
strem.
energy
of
Abrsion
river.
the
of
is
is
the
terms
re
produced
most
rivers
impcting
s
wering
Techniclly
brsion
increses
Attrition
10
In
of
the
squre
smller,

impct
effectiveness
the
abrasion
by
used
by
it
is
prticles
velocity
of
is
the
the
bed
debris
the
eroding
principl
on
the
nd
the
increses
mens
resistnce
bnk
nd
bed
of
of
energy
nd
is
the
The
hrdness
is
the
bnks
erosion.
the
by
brsion
Corrsion
the
concentrtion,
(kinetic
nd
process
interchngebly.
the
depends
wy
corrsion
nd
bedrock.
proportionl
velocity).
the
rounder
wering
wy
prticles.
of
the
lod
crried
by

river.
It
cretes
to
1
Hydraulic
nd
of
in
ir
It
of
rock.
to
the
force
the
uids
n
of
up
importnt
ccompnied
ir
occurs
velocities
is
of
direct
nd
by
of
bubbles
130
on
in
the
sides
wter
drops
nd
implode
m/sec.
process
H y D r o l o g y
owing
pressure
s
to
b A S i n
wter
force
ccelerte,
Cvittion
with
Cvittion
generlly
As
form.
wter
is
includes
exploding.
bubbles
jets
action
crcks.
D r A i n A g E
nd
my
nd
These
rpids
of
nd
cn
A n D
g E o m o r P H o l o g y
rivers
the
force
cuse
eject
ir
tiny
dmge
wterflls,
solid
nd
is
brsion.
Hydraulic
Corrosion
especilly
of
or
solution
clcium.
corrosion
re
The
is
the
key
bedrock,
removl
fctors
solute
of
chemicl
controlling
the
concentrtion
of
ions,
action
rte
the
Attrition
strem
wter,
dischrge
nd
velocity.
Mximum
rtes
Solution
of
corrosion
occur
where
fst-owing
strems
pss
over
Abrasion
soluble
There
rocks
re

such
s
number
chlk
of
nd
fctors
limestone.
ffecting
rtes
of
erosion
including:
Fe A .11: Types of erosion

●
Load
–
the
hevier
nd
shrper
the
lod,
the
greter
the
potentil
for
erosion
●
Velocity
erosion
–
●
Gradient
●
Geology
esily
pH
●
Human
the
of
–
–
the
velocity,
the
greter
the
potentil
for
A.13)
incresed
soft,
rtes
of
grdient
increses
unconsolidted
solution
impact
nturl
rocks
the
such
rte
s
of
snd
erosion
nd
grvel
re
ow
–
re
incresed
deforesttion,
of

river
nd
when
dms
the
nd
frequently
wter
bridges
end
up
is
more
cidic
interfere
incresing
with
the
rte
erosion.
Erosion
(plus
greter
eroded
●
–
the
(Figure
by
the
other
upper
river
will
wethered
vlley
sides)
is
provide
mteril
crried
loose
tht
by
the
mteril.
hs
moved
river
s
its
This
eroded
downslope
mteril
from
the
lod.
Transpor t
The
●
lod
The
is
trnsported
smllest
downstrem
prticles
(silts
nd
in

number
clys)
re
of
wys
crried
in
(Figure
A.12).
suspension
s
the
!
suspended
✗
●
Lrger
Common mistake
lod.
prticles
(snds,
grvels,
very
smll
stones)
re
trnsported
Some
tht

series
of
“hops”
s
the
sltted
students
cly
Pebbles
●
In
re
shunted
long
the
bed
s
the
bed
or
trcted
of
dissolved
clcreous
rock,
mteril
is
crried
in
solution
s
the
lod.
Flottion
is
is
erode
smll
very
●
the
process
by
esy
to
erode
which
mterils,
such
s
it
is
so
smll.
lod.
✓ Cly
res
is
lod.
becuse
●
believe
in
leves
difcult
becuse
tht
it
to
it
is
tends
cohesive
(it
so
to
be
sticks
nd
together).
occsionlly
The
lod
of
strem

crry,
of

bodies,
river
refers
while
the
re
vries
to
the
crried
with
the
dischrge
lrgest
competence
on
mount
refers
to
surfce
nd
of
the
of
river.
velocity.
debris
tht
dimeter
of
The

cpcity
strem
the
cn
lrgest
11
1
OPTION
A
Aeolian
airfall
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
and
BA SINS
Slope
failure
Bank
caving
Key
material
1
Mostly
clay
and
2
Mostly
sand
3
Mostly
gravel
silt
and
cobbles
Suspension
Suspended
load
Dissolved
load
Suspended
dissolved
Suspension
1
Settling
and
load
plume
Turbulent
Ballistic
3
entrainment
Deposition
impact
Rolling
Sliding
3
Saltation
2
Bedload

Fe A .12: Types of transpor t
1,000
prticle
tht
)ces/mc(
velocity
Particles
is
cn
the
be
crried.
lowest
The
velocity
criticl
t
which
erosion
grins
eroded
100
of

given
wofl
between

10
size
cn
these
Hjulström
be
moved.
vribles
curve
is
The
reltionship
shown
(Figure
A.13).
by
mens
For
of
exmple,
fo
yticoleV
Particles
carried
snd
if
Particles
already
cn
be
moved
more
esily
thn
silt
or
deposited
eroded
cly
s
ne-grined
prticles
tend
to
be
more
1
cohesive.
grvel
High
nd
velocities
cobbles
re
becuse
required
of
their
to
move
lrge
size.
The
0.1
criticl
0.001
0.01
0.1
1.0
Size
Clay
Silt
of
10
particle
Sand
100
tend
to
be
n
re
rther
thn

1,000
stright
(mm)
line
on
the
grph.
Gravel
There

velocities
Fe A .13: Hjulström cur ves
re
three
importnt
fetures
of
Hjulström
curves.
●
The
smllest
nd
lrgest
prticles
require
high
velocities
to
lift
them.
Activity 4
For
Study Figure A.13 which shows
of
the HjulstrÖm curve.
500
exmple,
round
100
mm/sec
lift
due
cly
to
its
to
be
0.1
mm
entrined,
(0.01
m)
nd
cohesion,
nd
mm
compred
grvel
grvel
1
(over
due
to
its
require
with
2
velocities
vlues
mm).
of
Cly
over
resists
weight.
Describe the work of the river
when sediment size is 1 mm.
2.
between
mm/sec
to
entrinment
1.
prticles
Comment on the
relationship between
●
Higher
●
When
those
velocities
velocity
prticles
re
flls
re
required
below

for
entrinment
certin
level
thn
(settling
or
for
trnsport.
fll
velocity)
deposited.
velocity, sediment size and
river process when the river
Deposition
−1
is moving at 0.5 m/sec
There
re

number
●
of

cuses
shllowing
nd
●

●
n
River
decrese
in
increse
processes
seson,
nd
width
of
such
grdient
s:
which
decreses
velocity
the
in
the
vry
when
my
volume
friction
of
between
sesonlly.
the
velocity
increse.
wter
Some
is
in
wter
rivers
greter,
Monsoonl
the
chnnel
nd
hve
depth
rivers
chnnel.

cler
increses
erode
nd
Pht A .2: Erosion and deposition is highly seasonal at Myrdalsjohkull
in Iceland
12
deposition
energy
wet

of
1
tht
ow
it
more
ows
in
spring
deposits
nd
sediment
from
its
the
vry
the
seson.
river
to
snow
in
humn
the
longer

rivers,

such
but
lod
hve
Once
brided
ctivity
dm
hs
H y D r o l o g y
Icelnd,
melt.
reshping
behind
no
Some
glcier
spring
nd
due
deposition
s
wet
the
forming
my
increses
downstrem
in
Solheimjokull
following
lod,
deposition
dms
the
b A S i n
–
the
s

g E o m o r P H o l o g y
river
drops,
Prepre
Erosion
building
of
Communication skills
high
dischrge
encourges
to
the
very
chnnel.
the
A n D
L TA
crry
D r A i n A g E

two-minute
presenttion
lrge
Hjulström
on
the
curve.
erosion
crry.
The formation of typical river landforms
Formation
of
waterfalls
Key
Waterfalls
1
Hydraulic
2
Abrasion
impact
4
Soft
Wterflls
frequently
rock
rock
soft
hard
fragments
3
Lack
of
4
Weight
occur
Hard
on
of
rock
by
River
horizontlly
support
by
soft
rock
3
bedded
rocks.
The
of
water
unsupported
soft
rock
is
1
by
hydrulic
Broken
ction
brsion
A.14).
of
the
of
the
Soft
rock
lso
be
hard
rock
2
(Figure
nd
Pht A .3: The Axara Falls at Thingvellir,

support
nd
to
retret.
form
formed

Over
gorge
by

Fe A .14: Formation of waterfalls
Iceland
wterfll
collpse
enough
to
pieces
weight
wter
lck
cuse
to
The
the
rock
collapse
of
nd
causes
hard
undercut
the
or
thousnds
recession,
collpse
of

of
yers
such
s
t
the
wterfll
Nigr
my
Flls.
retret
Gorges
cn
cve.
Floodplain
Line
Oxbow
of
bluffs
lake
Levees
Flood plains
Terrace
The
min
fetures
menders,
plins
re
when

river
generlly
the

size,
cover
s
nd
only
low
oods
of
the

deposition
oxbow
of
mixture
outside
deposition
in
levees,
res
of
lkes
relief
(Figure
of
of
nd
nd
brs.
low-mgnitude

smll
prt
of
nd
ood
plins,
delts.
formed
A.15).
snd
mender
series
re
by
The
lluvium
grvel,
built
Flood
Flood
deposition
eroded
up
by
plins
chnnel
vry
high-frequency
the
ood
is
on
gretly
oods
plin.
Bedrock
Silt
and
sand
Sand
and
gravel
Meanders

Mendering
is
the
norml
behviour
of
uids
nd
gses
Fe A .15: Flood plains
in

motion.Menders
cn
occur
on

vriety
of
mterils,
from
Pht A .4: The Por t Meadow ood plain in
ice
Oxford, UK
tosolidrock.
where
chnnel
sitution
cn
Mender
slope,
where
spred
its
development
dischrge
mendering
energy
over
is
the
nd
the
occurs
lod
only
entire
in
conditions
combine
wy
length
tht
of
to
the
the
crete

strem
chnnel.
Levees
One
of
A.17).
ner
the
most
These
the
re
prominent
formed
chnnel,
while
by
the
deposits
the
re
levees
deposition
ner
deposits
of
(Figure
corse
re
mteril
crried
out
13
1
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
Development
Bluff
of
a
meander
through
time
line
(a)
Bluff
(b)
(c)
line
Floodplain
Former
of
Valley
is
positions
point
Sinuosity
bar
is:
widened
Direction
Pool
actual
Pool
by
lateral
erosion
Riffles
of
flow
Deposition
on
channel
straight
convex
the
B
bank
velocity
length
inside/
line
distance
where
is
Riffle
least
2
In
time
the
meander
B
migrates
3
–forms
B
down
its
floodplain
in
a
point
bar
Original
this
course
direction
Pool
formed
concave
and
Oxbow
adjacent
bank
erosion
where
are
to
outside/
the
velocity
greatest
lake
5
times
the
Point
B
bedwidth
one
2
bar
B
Former
wavelength
3
B
positions
Deposition
results
the
meander
usually
in
of
point
bar
10
Erosion
times
former
the
bedwidth
being
from
A
river
is
exceeds
three
blocked
main
said
1.5.
nature
of
to
be
The
major
off
Pool
river
meandering
wavelength
factors:
the
bed
channel
and
of
when
its
sinuosity
meanders
width,
is
ratio
dependent
discharge,
and
on
Line
of
the
main
current
(THALWEG)
banks.
Fe A .16: Formation of meanders

1
into
the
the
ood
edge
of
ooding
River
level
in

of
plin.
river.
the
Levees
They
river.
re
re
When
rised
formed
the
bnks
by
river
t
repeted
oods
its
speed
Deposition
flood
is
reduced.
This
is
becuse
it
is
slowed
down
by
the
2
vegettion
it
hs
to
hevier
on
the
ood
deposit
some
mteril
rst
plin.
of
its
nd
As
lod.
the
its
It
speed
drops
ner,
is
reduced
the
lighter
corser,
mteril
3
lst.
up
This
from
while
mens
corse
the
tht
over
mteril,
ood
plin
centuries
such
consists
s
of
the
snd
ne
levees
nd
silt
build
grvel,
nd
cly.
The
4
levees
thn
on
the
the
Yngtze
ood
river
re
up
to
20
m
higher
plin.
Levee
Raised
riverbed
5
Deltas
When
it
1
When
the
coarsest
finer
river
load
load
floods,
(gravel
(silt
and
it
and
clay)
bursts
sand)
further
its
banks.
closer
to
It
deposits
the
bank

my
strem
form
3,
4.
The
This
river
continues
has
built
over
up
a
long
raised
and
formed
the
time,
banks
for
called

stnding
A.18).
body
For
of
delts
wter
to
be

river
needs
to
Deposition
is
crry

lrge
incresed
if
volume
the
of
wter
is
centuries.
levees,
consisting
s
Fe A .17: Formation of levees
so
rte
of
this
cuses
slt
prticles
to
group
together
(
of
process

into
(Figure
away.
slty,
5
ows
delt
its
sediment.
2,

deposition
by
they
termed
re
slowing
occulation)
deposited.
down
the
nd
Vegettion
wter,

become
lso
process
hevier,
increses
known
the
s
bioconstruction.
Deposition

regulr
(the
bottom-set
ngled
the
top
wedges
wide
type
exmple
14
beds).
of
tidl
the
of
the
deposits.
rpid
The
beds),
There
or
re
uvil

nd
the
strem
re
corsest
vriety
processes
the
in
deposits
deposits
the
wide
including
Nile)
Mississippi).
nd
drop
nest
medium-grde
shpes,
exmple
the
of
beds),
mrine,
vriety
(for
becuse
(fore-set
(top-set
whether

occurs
succession
projecting
There
removed
deposited
s
steep-
is
of
depending
delts
deposited
Similrly,
shoreline
bird’s
of
foot
is
furthest
mteril
dominte.
curving
velocity.
re
there
the
t
upon
re
arcuate
type
(for
1
D r A i n A g E
b A S i n
H y D r o l o g y
Sea

T
op-set
beds
(coarse
deposits)
Fore-set
beds
or
A n D
g E o m o r P H o l o g y
lake
Bottom-set
(finest
beds
material)
Fe A .18: Formation of deltas
Concepts in contex t
In
this
section,
processes
include
ow,
hve
in
precipittion,
seen
re
lso
depends
on
The
climte
incresingly,
nd
of
ctul
These
erosion,
relief
energy.
Others,
trnsport
tht
processes
much
trnsport
overlnd
interception.
process
geology,
humn
The
mny
bsins.
inltrtion,
processes
deposition.
how
dringe
evpotrnspirtion
There
nd
we
operte
occurs
In
the
in
my
operte
Some
s
sections

dringe
such
require
deposition,
hve
lower
in
processes,
evportion
such
upper
grvity
thn
nd,
or
tht
where
greter

lot
require
bsins
s
of
less
grdients
inuence
use
erosion,
energy.
energy.
re
on
steep,
rivers
sections.
ctivities.
Check your understanding
1.
Dene
the
term
“dringe
bsin”
6.
nd
Dene
(c)
2.
Explin
why
considered
3.
Describe
dringe
A.5)
the
to
how
be

bsin
differs
hydrologicl
n
open
systems
tht
of
cycle
cn
pproch

cycles
of
the
Briey
8.
With
the
(Figure
is
the
evidence
5.
(d)
hydrologicl
interception,
(b)
groundwter,
evportion,
(e)
bse
ow.
explin
the
use
the
of
formtion
n
of
formtion
of
wterflls.
nnotted
digrm
explin
levees.
grphicl
of
erosion
in:
()
Outline
the
min
processes
in
the
formtion
nd
(b)
Describe
how
the
between
upstrem

lowlnd
lod
nd
of

delts.
n
10.
river
()
(A.4).
of
uplnd
inltrtion,
7.
9.
Wht
following
be
system.
hydrologicl
from
representtion
4.
the
chrcteristics:
“endorheic”.
Describe
the
min
chrcteristics
of
n
quifer.
river?
river
vries
downstrem.
15
2
Flooding and ood mitigation
Hydrographs and variations in discharge
Conceptual
understanding
Hydrographs
A
Ke est
storm
responds
How
do
physicl
fctors
t
(excerbte)
risk
(mitigte)
for
key
or
ood
processes
hydrograph
of
the
shows
hydrologicl
how
cycle.
It

river
chnnel
mesures
which
rin
flling
on

dringe
bsin
reches
the
river
the
chnnel.
is

grph
different
on
which
river
dischrge
during

storm
or
run-off
event
is
nd
plotted
reduce
the
both
It
increse
to
nd
speed
humn
hydrograph
ginst
time
(Figure
A.19).
ood
places?
Rising
●
limb:
indictes
the
mount
of
dischrge
nd
the
speed
t
which
it
is
Ke ctet
incresing
●
Hydrogrph
●
chrcteristics
very
steep
response
time,
pek
ow)
nturl
on

sh
ood
or
in
smll
dringe
bsins
where
the
rpid
generlly
steep
in
urbnized
ctchments.
nd
inuences
Pek
ow
or
dischrge:
hydrogrphs
including
geology
How
urbniztion,
deforesttion
chnnel
●
higher
●
steep
●
t
bsin,
ctchments
hve
hve
lower
high
inltrtion
inltrtion
rtes
rtes,
so
more
throughow
nd
peks.

time:
risk
●
time
●
inuenced
dringe
including
distribution,
nd
bsins
modictions
ood
within
lrger
ctchments
lower
nd
Lg
ffect
in
nd
sesonlity.
●
is
dischrge,
●
bse
in
(lg
intervl
between
pek
rinfll
nd
pek
dischrge
its
by
bsin
shpe,
steepness,
strem
order.
frequency
mgnitude.
Runoff:
discharge
3
●
Flood
in
mitigtion
cumecs
(m
/sec)
Peak
flow
or
50
discharge
including
structurl
mesures
(dms,
40
chnnel
strengthening)
levee
Rising
limb
reviR
nd
ni
modiction
doofl
fforesttion,
nd
30
plnning
Falling
limb
or
recession
(personl
insurnce
nd
Bankfull
ood
discharge
Rainfall
peak
preprtion,
nd
ood
20
wrning
Attempts
t
ood
ni
chnges
in
forecsting
llafniaR
prediction,
Lag
including
wether
Runoff
time
50
mm
●
technology).
Approach
40
30
or
storm
segment
10
Throughflow
20
Rainfall
10
Baseflow
Time
of
rise
nd
0
uncertinty
in
climte
12.00
(day
1)
24.00
modelling.

16
Fe A .19: A storm hydrograph
(day
2)
12.00
(day
2)
24.00
(day
3)
2
Run-off
revels
●
where
the
reltionship
inltrtion
impermeble
●
F l o o D
m i T i g A T i o n
nd
is
between
low,
overlnd
ntecedent
rinfll
strong,
ow
moisture
overlnd
nd
throughow
high,
ow
surfce
will
dominte.
ow:
the
seepge
rocks
●
A n D
curve:
●
Bse
F l o o D i n g

hve
slow
of
groundwter
high
pore
movement,
into
the
chnnel
–
very
importnt
where
spce
nd
the
min,
long-term
supplier
of
the
river’s
behviour
of
locl
dischrge.
Recessionl
limb:
●
inuenced
●
lrger
by
geologicl
ctchments
hve
composition
less-steep
nd
recessionl
limbs,
likewise
quifers
tter
res.
Hydrogrph
size
●
the
higher
●
the
lrger
(re
the
the
under
rinfll,
bsin
the
the
size,
grph):
greter
the
the
greter
dischrge
the
dischrge.
The inuence of geology
In
generl,
ow,
so

shorter
The
ood
rivers
hve

Ock
nd
rocks
lg
nd
nd
Kennet
climte.
pttern
wter
time
hydrogrphs
similr
similr
pek
impermeble
shorter
re
The
(nd

soils)
higher
for
longer
regimes
generte
ow.
river
tributries
river
will
pek
This
regimes
of
the
River
for
the
two
more
is
overlnd
true
both
(Figure
Thmes.
rivers
for
A.20).
They
show

of
ow
in
10.0
ow
nd
in
tht
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
pss
0.6
0.4
prt,
0.4
for
0.2
0.2
between
0.1
the
the
over
ccount
the
vrition
the
two
two
cn,
0.1
J
regimes.
m
2.0
1.0
in
3
4.0
2.0
ces/
in
6.0
4.0
deguaG
terrin
rivers
8.0
6.0
lower
summer.
Differences
10.0
8.0
egrahcsid
winter
F
M
A
M
J
A
J
S
O
N
D
2
The
River
minly
Cly
is
Ock
ows
impermeble
increses
overlnd
nd
drins
n
234.0
km
minly
rocks,
grvels.
re
It
over
40.0
40.0
20.0
20.0
10.0
10.0
8.0
8.0
6.0
6.0
4.0
4.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
four
tht
times
lrger
drined
River
Ock.
by
thn
m
snds
River
ows
tertiry
area
3
over
In
deguaG
Kennet
run-off.
the
Abingdon:
ces/
contrst,
at
cly.
egrahcsid
nd
Ock
over
0.0
J
F
M
A
M
J
A
J
S
O
N
D
2
the
Kennet

at
Theale:
area
1,033.4
km
Fe A .20: The inuence on geology on ood response
17
2
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
River regimes – the inuence of seasonality
Activity 5
The
1.
river
regime
is
the
sesonl
vrition
in
the
ow
of

river
Describe the main
(FigureA.21).
Arctic
strems
hve
mximum
ow
in
spring,
following
variations in the river
snow
melt,
wheres
monsoonl
rivers
hve
mximum
ows
following
regimes of the Glomma and
the
summer
oods.
Vritions
in

river’s
ow
depend
on
mny
fctors
the Shannon, as shown in
suchs:
Figure A.21.
2.
●
the
●
sesonl
●
chnges
●
vritions
mount
nd
nture
of
precipittion
Referring to Figure A.20,
explain how dierences in
vritions
in
temperture
nd
evpotrnspirtion
geology have aected the
in
vegettion
cover
river regimes.
dringe
in
rock
types,
soil
types
nd
the
shpe
nd
size
of
the
bsin.
L TA
Research skills
Of
on
Find
out
bout
river
regime
your
home
resons
you
for
the
for

re.
the
identify.
these,
sesonl
chnges
in
in
nnotted
climte
generlly
hve
the
gretest
impct
in
Suggest
pttern
Present
the
in
ow.
typicl
river
your
Shannon
ndings
chnges
river
form
of
n
at
Glomma
Killaloe
40
40
20
20
at
Langnes
poster.
Rhine
at
Basel
0
0
40
J F M A M J J A S O N D
J F M A M J J A S O N D
N
20
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Rhine
Loire
at
at
Reas
Montjean
40
40
20
20
0
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Guadalquivir
Alcala
del
at
Rhone
Ri
40
40
20
20
0
at
Beaucaire
1,000
km
0
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
J F M A M J J A S O N D
2
Note:
All
the
graphs
show
specic
discharge

Fe A .21: River regimes in Europe
18
in
l/second
per
km
2
F l o o D i n g
A n D
F l o o D
m i T i g A T i o n
Flood
and
drought
Factors aecting ood risk
Normal
flow
High
A
ood
wter
the
it
is

trnsporting
chnnel
contined
which
when
on
occur
onto
the
less

river
in
its
ood
ood
cn
longer
chnnel.
plain.
plin
often,
no
close
cover

The
Most
to
the
lrger
contin
wter
ll
ows
smll
oods
river.
Lrger
prt
of
the
the
out
ecnerrucco
of
occurs
re
oods,
ood
plin.
Flood
hazard
hazard
fo
Drought
recurrence
of
certin

size
infrequently.
exmple,
once
intervl
occur.
Smll
is
the
Very
events
high-mgnitude
every
50
yers,
frequency
lrge
events
hppen
very
with
events
low-mgnitude
events
very
frequently.
low-frequency
wheres
which
hppen
ycneuqerF
The
For
might
occur
high-frequency
Catastrophe
events
my
occur
every
Catastrophe
yer.
Low
Moderate
Low
Figure
A.23
shows
the
reltionship
between
ood
Magnitude
frequency,
tht
most
Dissters
lnd
ows
re
ctstrophes
use
re
nd
cused
re
economic
contined
by
cused
200-year
flood?
100-year
flood
loss.
within
extremes
under
of
very
In
digrm
norml
oods
extreme
()
we
operting
(or
High
mgnitude,
drought)
of
event
see
levels.

Fe A .22: River ows and recurrence inter vals
nd
conditions.
The
distinction
a.
egrahcsid
50-year
(1%
annual
probability)
Catastrophe
flood
Disaster
Losses
Resources
reviR
Drought
Severe
drought
Losses
(e.g.
2%
(e.g.
0.5%
annual
frequency)
annual
frequency)
Disaster
Time
b.
200-year
Catastrophe
Disaster
100-year
50-year
flood
flood
flood
line
line
line
Losses
Resources
A
200-year
flood
line
100-year
flood
line
c.
50-year
River
Low
flood
main
line
channel
flow
Key
Residential
Open
space
B

Fe A .23: Flood
Commercial
magnitude, frequency
and land use
19
2
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
between

disster
nd

ctstrophe,
in
the
cse
of
oods,
is
tht
Activity 6
ctstrophes
1.
hve

higher
mgnitude
but

lower
frequency.
Describe the relationship
There
re

number
of
fctors
tht
inuence
ood
risk.
These
re
between ood magnitude
summrized
in
Tble
A.2.
(including drought) and
frequency, as show in
Figure A.22.
2.
The hydrological impact of urbanization
Describe the relationship
Urbn
between ood magnitude
re
and land use as shown in
rods,
Figure A.23.
A
long
peak
lag
Infiltration
>
Overland
Forest
flow,
time
●

shorter
lg
●

steeper
rising
●

higher
●

steeper
overland
T
F
S
cibuc(
tnuomA
0
0
(gutters,
drins,
hve:
River
area
peak
lag
Overland
flow
>
Infiltration
Bare
flow,
time
surface
increased
leads
to
overland
flow
flow
30 ,000
A
25 ,000
20 ,000
200
15 ,000
150
10 ,000
100
5,000
few
trees
left
llafniaR
cattle
chnnels
there
pvements,
)mm(
fo
dairy
sertem
50
for
rep
100
5,000
cibuc(
tnuomA
llafniaR
fo
sertem
10 ,000
urban
short
flow
and
becuse
(roofs,
limb.
reduces
Farmland:
pasture
dringe
High
trees
ones
res
hydrogrphs
of
Interception
rurl
urbn
(dischrge)
recessionl
retaw
150
W
ow
ni
15 ,000
more
Urbn
An
deciduous
arable
s
from
in
limb
revir
rep
retaw
)mm(
ni
200
T
well
flow
flow
20 ,000
different
surfces
time
pek
25 ,000
M
s
(FigureA.24).
)dnoces
revir
)dnoces
River
area
re
impermeble
buildings)
sewers)
rural
Low
hydrogrphs
more
50
0
0
S
M
T
W
T
F
S
S
Days
R
i
Parent
rock
rock
v
R
i
v
Soil
e
r
Soil
Parent
e
r
Days
Soil
eroded.
rock
in
steeper
Large
floodplain
allows
drain
waters
to
River
a
channel
flow
metres
of
(can
15 ,000
per
hold
cubic
second)
River
(can
of
channel
hold
15 ,000
metres

Fe A .24: Urban and rural hydrographs

Tae A .2: Physical factors aecting ood risk
a
Town
Bare
places
on
slopes
built:
flow
cubic
per
second)
Factor
Inuence on ood risk
Precipitation type and
Highly intensive rainfall is likely to produce overland ow and produce a greater ood.
intensity
Low-intensity rainfall is likely to inltrate into the soil and percolate slowly into the rock
thereby reducing the peak of the ood. Precipitation that falls as snow sits on the ground
until it melts. Sudden, rapid melting can cause ooding and lead to high rates of overland
ow, and high peak ows. Also, intense rain compacts the ground and reduces inltration.
Temperature and
Not only does temperature aect the type of precipitation, it also aects the evaporation
evapotranspiration
rate (higher temperatures lead to more evaporation and so less water getting into rivers).
On the other hand, warm air can hold more water so the potential for high peak ows in
hot areas is increased.
Antecedent moisture
If it has been raining previously and the ground is saturated or near saturated, rainfall will
quickly produce overland ow and a high peak ood.
20
2
F l o o D i n g
A n D
F l o o D
m i T i g A T i o n
Factor
Inuence on ood risk
Drainage basin size and
Smaller drainage basins respond more quickly to rainfall conditions. For example, the
shape
Boscastle (UK) oods of 2004 drained an area of less than 15 km
2
. This meant that the
peak of the ood occurred soon after the peak of the storm. In contrast, the Mississippi
river is over 3,700 km long – it takes much longer for the lower par t of the river to respond
to an event that might occur in the upper course of the river. Circular basins respond more
quickly than linear basins, where the response is more drawn out.
Drainage density
Basins with a high drainage density – such as urban basins with a network of sewers
and drains – ood very quickly. Networks with a low drainage density have a longer time
before it oods.
Porosity and
Impermeable surfaces cause more water to ow overland. This causes greater peak ows.
impermeability of rocks
Urban areas contain large areas of impermeable surfaces. In contrast, rocks such as chalk
and soils
and gravel are permeable and allow water to inltrate and percolate. This reduces the
peak ow. Sandy soils allow water to inltrate whereas clay is much more impermeable
and causes water to pass overland.
Slopes
Steeper slopes create more overland ow, and higher peak ows.
Vegetation type
Broad-leafed vegetation intercepts more rainfall, especially in summer, and so reduces
the amount of overland ow, peak ow and increases time lag. In winter, deciduous trees
lose their leaves and so intercept less rainfall.
Land use
Land uses which create impermeable surfaces or reduce vegetation cover reduce
interception and increase overland ow. If more drainage channels are built (sewers,
ditches, drains) the water is carried to rivers very quickly. This means that peak ows are
increased and time lags reduced.
Urbniztion,
oods
●
in
t
for
lest
cretion
of
pvements
●
smooth
exmple,
three
highly
surfces
the
(Figures
impermeble
(Photo
underground
increses
wys
mgnitude
A.25
nd
surfces,
nd
frequency
of
A.26):
such
s
rods,
roofs,
A.5)
served
sewers
with

increse
dense
network
dringe
of
drins,
gutters
nd
density
20
●
nturl
river
chnnels
re
often
constricted
by
10
5
2
1
300
0
reducing
120
cibuc
100
r
a
t
i
0
5
200
–
0
4
0
4
–
0
2
0
2
150
100
U
n
u
r
b
a
n
iz
e
d
50
R
aerA
2.5
–
0
5
o
V
a
l
u
e
4
3
o
f
mrots
egrahcsiD
5
40
250
ni(
derewes
6
80
60
8
1
cpcity.
0
0
–
fcilities
6
riverside
0
or
–
supports
crrying
)dnoces/teef
their
0
6
bridge
%
2
0
1.5
20
0.2
0.5
1.0
Flood
recurrence
2.0
interval
5.0
(in
10.0
years)
0
Key
0
20
40
%

60
Area
80
100
Numbers
on
red
lines
represent
percentage
area
impervious
Fe A .25: Annual ood increments with increasing urban
and sewer cover
120

Fe A .26: Flood frequency cur ves for dierent levels
of urbanization
21
2
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
Urbniztion
hs
lower

This
prt
is
lower
of
becuse
prts
conicting
of

greter
dringe
more
urbn
dringe
impcts
impct
bsin
on
on
thn
res
bsins.
processes
the
re
upper
found
in
Urbniztion
hydrologicl
in
the
cn
processes,
the
course.
hve
for
exmple:
●
incresed
erosion
due
to
more
wter
getting
into
rivers
●
incresed
due
●

less
to
speed
enlrged
erosion
due
of
ow
nd
trnsport
of
mterils
chnnels
to
riverbnk
protection
schemes.
Pht A .5: Impermeable surface in an urban area, and
ooding from a drain

Tae A .3: Potential hydrological eects of urbanization
Activity 7
Urbanising inuence
Potential hydrological response
1.
Describe how urban and
Removal of trees and
Decreased evapotranspiration and interception;
rural ood hydrographs
vegetation
increased stream sedimentation.
Initial construction of houses,
Decreased inltration and lowered groundwater
streets and culver ts
table; increased storm ows and decreased
dier, as shown in
Figure A.24.
2.
Explain why urban and
base ows during dry periods. Sedimentation
rural ood hydrographs
continues while bare ground is still exposed.
dier.
3.
Figure A.25 shows the
mean annual ood
Complete development of
Decreased porosity, reducing time of run-
residential, commercial and
o concentration, thereby increasing peak
industrial areas
discharges and compressing the time
increments with increasing
distribution of the ow; greatly increased
urban cover and sewerage
volume of run-o and ood damage potential.
facilities. The ratio R shows
Construction of storm drains
Local relief from ooding; concentration of
and channel improvements
oodwaters may aggravate ood problems
the factor by which the
ood level has increased
downstream.
(for instance, when R = 3,
ood levels have tripled).
Describe what happens
Deforestation
to ood levels as the
Deforesttion
cn
urbniztion.
As
hve
n
impct
on
ood
hydrogrphs
similr
to
tht
of
propor tion of impervious
Figure
A.27
shows,
the
presence
of
vegettion
increses
land increases and the
interception,
reduces
overlnd
ow
nd
increses
evpotrnspirtion.
number of storm sewers
In
contrst,
deforesttion
reduces
interception,
increses
overlnd
ow
increases.
nd
4.
Using the data in Figure
reduces
shorter
time
evpotrnspirtion.
lgs
nd
higher
This
pek
cuses
ood
hydrogrphs
to
hve
ows.
A .26, describe and
This
increses
the
ood
risk
in
deforested
res.
The
risk
of
higher
explain the changes that
mgnitudes,
greter
frequencies
nd
reduced
recurrence
intervls
occur in the magnitudes
increses
when
the
vegettion
cover
is
removed.
and frequency of ood
discharge as urbanization
increases.
Deforesttion
in
chnnel
the
of
silt
in
high
22

cuse
This
However,
for
prts
combintion
unstble
lso
cpcity.
chnnel.
Himlys,
is
of
the
high
terrin.
irrespective
of
to
in
is
ood
n
not
run-off
increse
lwys
ooding
nd
Gnges-Brhmputr
monsoon
ensures
the
due
evidence
chnges
lower
This
incresed
occurs
the
exmple,
of
of
rins,
tht
vegettion
steep
run-off
cover.
slopes
is
in
nd

deposition
conclusive.
incresed
re
due
nd
rpid
decrese
the
nd
to
In
within
the
deposition
the
seismiclly
sedimenttion
is
2
Deforesttion
is
likely
to
occur
over

much
F l o o D i n g
broder
a.
A n D
F l o o D
m i T i g A T i o n
Forest
Precipitation
re
thn
urbniztion.
my
occur
for
This
lnd-use
is
becuse
chnges
(for
deforesttion
exmple
Evaporation
conversion
to
mke
to
wy
for
urbniztion
more
griculture),
to
tourist
occur.
widespred
These
my
industril
developments
Hence
impct
on
it
is
Interception
development,
nd
likely
to
hydrologicl
to
llow
hve

Soil
processes.
include:
Rock
●
more
overlnd
ow
leding
to
more
frequent
Water
erosion
runs
●
rivers
●
reduced
trnsporting
more
infiltrates
through
soil
sediment
b.
After
clearcut
evpotrnspirtion.
Increased
surface
sediment
Little
low
and
flow
enlrgement
nd
include
chnneliztion,
strightening.
discharge
to
stream;
evaporation
more
modictions
run-off;
production;
interception
Channel modications
Chnnel
and
the
tree
landslides
roots
that
due
to
decaying
weaken
soil
strength
Chnneliztion
Soil
my
crete
quite
nd
new
stright.
so
time
chnnels
chnnels.
This
lgs
speeds
re
through
These
up
likely
levees
to
re
wter
be
likely
be
compaction
movement
reduced.
(rised
to
bnks)
Landslide
Enlrging
enbles
Increase
rivers
to
crry
more
wter.
Thus
the
in
ow
my
be
higher.
However,
the
purpose
nd
strightening
is
sediment
to
channel
of
Fe A .27: The inuence of deforestation on drainage basin

chnneliztion
in
pek
remove
hydrology and ooding
wter
from
ood.
This
levees
on
n
re,
works
the
nd
up
to
so

Mississippi
reduce
point.
re
the
thret
of

The
ble
to
Lake
del
with
sized
smll-scle
oods
severe
but
oods
Hurricne
re
nd
very
medium-
vulnerble
such
s
those
Ktrin
in
2005,
cused
when
Pontchartrain
B
to
by
over
A
50
breks
occurred
in
the
levees.
Floodwall
along
New
Mississippi
Hurricane
river
Orleans
30
Chnnel
modictions
my
30
protection
lter
&
processes,
especilly
if
the
chnnel
23
is
levee
floodwall
FT
A
20
20
17.5
(culverted).
mount
tht
speed
up
elevation
ow
11.5
FT
10
Gentilly
Normal
lake
1.0
FT
level
ridge
0
0
P
o
b
should
of
10
t
s
h
wter
from
the
re
k
c
h
e
10
a
r
r
e
t
l
i
n
ip
the
a
o
ir
remove
L
n
v
nd
B
10
a
Strightening
FT
design
FT
e
chnnel
hold.
wter
14
n
cn
of
should
highwater
r
the
river
chnnel
annual
k
the
the
the
SPH
Avg
snoitavelE
increse
of
nd
ni
deepening
Widening
teef
covered
e
r
a
i
n
p
Scouring
of
the
chnnel
is
quickly.
20
20
s
is
s
should
more
sediment
lso
llow
wter,
from
the
thereby
its
river
iM
(removing
bed)
to
crry
reducing
the
City
From
risk
of
Canal
St
of
at
New
the
Orleans
Mississippi
Ground
river
to
Elevations
the
Lakefront
at
U.N.O
ooding.

Fe A .28: The breaching of levees in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina
Flood mitigation
There
re
These
include
s
well
s

number
soft
hrd
of
wys
in
which
engineering
engineering
the
schemes,
schemes,
such
ood
such
s
risk
s
cn
the
be
reduced.
building
of
dms,
fforesttion.
23
2
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
Dams
The
number
high)
is
tht
of
re
incresing
of
lmost
not
just
terms,
of
hs
from
nd
is
it
Egypt,
reching
it
control.
the
lso
the
hs
risk
the
lower
Nile
benets
On
the
re
times
on
recretion,
power.
level
The
ood
Dm
m
simple
when
High

nd
In
15
world
dy.
during
nvigtion,
hydroelectric
every
wter
protects
but
thn
the
numerous
ood
bck
Aswn
ooding,
griculture,
re
relese
The
Nile,
to
hold
nd
gone.
River
dms
relted
ood
nd
(more
round
completions
of
they
dms
built
rpidly
two
dvntges
lrge
being
for
tourism
other
hnd,

Pht A .6: Evretou dam, Paphos, Cyprus
it
evportion,
chnnel
erosion
decline
in
such
schistosomisis
s
sediments
Reservoirs
However,
hs
to
been
mke
store
this
ny
the
tht
signicnt
nd
rinwter
be
to
Nile
(bilhrzi)
only
estimted
led
incresed
downstrem
reching
excess
my
cn
in
66
impct
nd
the
wter
due
erosion”),
spred
of
to

diseses
mlri.
the
in
billion
on
of
(“cler-wter
Delt,
pproprite
some
loss
upper
dringe
bsin.
smll
dringe
networks.
cubic
mjor
metres
oods
in
of
storge
is
It
needed
Bngldesh.
Aorestation
Flood
abatement
reducing
of
the
reducing
ood
involves
pek
in
peks.
decresing

dringe
These
●
fforesttion/reforesttion
●
reseeding
●
tretment
the
●
of
of
run-off
sprsely
slopes
cler
s
protection
cutting
of
There
of
re
run-off,

thereby
number
of
wys
res
contour
to
increse
ploughing
evportive
or
terrcing
losses
to
reduce
clernce
●
construction
of
smll
●
preservtion
of
nturl
of
sediment
L TA
should
of
vegettion
from
wildres,
overgrzing
forests
●
Afforesttion
mount
include:
vegetted
such
the
bsin.
coefcient
comprehensive
nd
nd
other
wter
nd
wter
increse
the
debris
from
sediment
storge
mount
holding
zones,
of
hedwter
such
strems
res
s
interception
lkes.
nd
reduce
Research skills
themount
Find
nd
out
bout
successes
the
of
ims
the
TV
A.
of
the
evidence
the
Severn
fter
L TA
ofn
overlnd
does
not
ctchment
fforesttion.
increse
in
ow,
thereby
necessrily
(in
Why
the
ws
overlnd
support
UK)
this?
reducing
this.
sediment
The
run-off,
result
little
the
For
lods
is
risk
of
exmple,
incresed
explined
ground
oods,
by
vegettion,
in
four

lthough
prts
of
times
combintion
young
trees,
Thinking skills
ccess
How
nd
why
fforesttion
routes
llowed

mount
of
in
over
cuse
nd
of
re
bre
breks
ground.
nd
wind
However,
breks.
only
All
ve
of
these
yers
erosion
reduced
becuse
the
trees
hd
grown
nd
lter
the
were

overlnd
time?
trctors,
mount
might
more
rinfll.
The
Tennessee
Vlley
Authority
(TV
A)
used
run-
fforesttion
off
for
lrge
intercepting
vrition
24
ood
in
the
1930s
to
combt
soil
erosion
nd
ooding
in
theUSA.
2
F l o o D i n g
A n D
F l o o D
m i T i g A T i o n
Sluice
or
Channel modication
pumping
Modiction
(to
up
hold
of
more
ow
nd
creting
river
chnnels
wter),
remove
new
includes
strightening
the
chnnels
wter
s
rising
the
river
quickly
(ood-relief
s
the
(to
speed
possible)
chnnels)
station
bnks
to
nd
crry
Embankments
wter
cn
when
lso
them
be
less
the
river
is
in
strengthened
vulnerble
to
ood
with
(Figure
steel
or
A.29).
Chnnels
concrete
to
1.
mke
Flood embankments with sluice gates. The main problem
with this is it may raise ood levels up- and downstream.
erosion.
Enlarged
channel
Articil
levees
engineering.
incresed
in
re
This
is
height
the
most
when
so
common
the
tht
bnks
the
river
form
of
the
cn
of
river
river
crry
re
more
Enlarged
wter
nd
nd
sediment.
restrict
Over
4,500
Levees
wter
to
km
the
of
cn
low-vlue
lso
lnd
Mississippi
be
on
River
used
the
hs
to
divert
ood
channel
plin.
2.
Channel enlargement to accommodate larger discharges.
One problem with such schemes is that as the enlarged
levees.
channel is only rarely used it becomes clogged with weed.
Chnnel
of
improvements
sediment
will
such
increse
the
s
dredging
crrying
the
river
cpcity
of
bed
the
Sluice
Bypass
river.
channel
Sluice
Planning
Flood-relief
channel
Plnning
for
oods
includes
hving
personl
insurnce
3.
s
well
s
being
prepred
for
the
oods.
This
my
Flood-relief channel. This is appropriate where it is
tke
impossible to modify the original channel as it tends to
the
form
of
using
sndbgs
to
protect
homes
ginst
the
be rather expensive, e.g. the ood relief channels around
risk
of
ooding,
seling
doors
nd
windows,
moving
Oxford, UK.
vlubles
of
upstirs,
buildings
moving
rther
thn
electricl
hving
genertors
them
in
the
to
the
top
bsement,
Intercepting
channel
nd
designing
homes
so
tht
the
electricl
fetures
re
t
Old

level
higher
thn
Loss-sharing
insurnce.
the
expected
djustments
Disaster
aid
ood
include
refers
to
disster
ny
id,
river
channel
level.
id
nd
such
s
New
enlarged
river
Embankments
money,
equipment,
stff
nd
technicl
ssistnce
tht
4.
is
given
to

community
following

disster.
In
Intercepting channels. These diver t only par t of the ow
high-
away, allowing ow for town and agricultural use, e.g. the
income
countries
(HICs)
insurance
is
n
importnt
Great Ouse Protection Scheme in England’s Fenlands.
loss-shring
strtegy.
However
not
ll
ood-prone
Old
households
hve
insurnce
nd
mny
of
those
free
reinsured
income
s
re
plins
my
be
countries
mny
in
underinsured.
re
unble
residents
the
of
to
new
Mny
obtin
homes
people
ood
built
development
who
in
from
flooding
low-
insurnce,
on
ood
UK.
Washlands
Redeveloped
5.
Attempts at ood prediction and
area
restored
Removal of settlements. This is rarely used because of
cost, although many communities, e.g. the village of
forecasting
During
the
wrning
the
becme
most
Valmeyer, Illinois, USA, were forced to leave as a result of
1980s
widely
nd
1990s
more
used
ood
ccurte
mesures
forecsting
nd
to
it
is
now
reduce
the
the 1993 Mississippi oods.
nd
one
of
Key
problems
Tributary
Floodplain
Main
cused
by
ooding.
Despite
dvnces
in
wether
stellites
river
nd
of
the
ll
of
use
of
rdr
unprotected
for
forecsting,
dwellings
in
over
50
Englnd
per
nd
cent
Wles
Urban
hveless
thn
low-income
six
hours
countries
of
ood
(LICs)
wrning
there
is
time.
much
less
In
area
most
effective

Fe A .29: Flood control measures
25
2
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
ood
BA SINS
forecsting.
originte
in
Flooding
from
stellite
more
the
the
to
new
pst.
hve
According
to
the
warning
done
to
improve
forecsts
better
nd
of
nd
more
they
be
predicted
vilble
to
be
of
the
72
by
people
smrtphones
members
my
oods
bout
the
is
nd
societies
lest
in
Bngldesh
hours
wrning.
use
of
esier
now,
computers
hve
informed
lest
in
s
thn
ccess
terms
of
Ntions
Environment
there
nd
re

These
snow-pck
Progrmme’s
number
of
things
publiction
tht
could
be
include:
estimtes,
better
nd
longer
of
rivers,
collection
of
meteorologicl
informtion
nd
chnnels
more-current
into
shring
gencies,
●
poorest
wrnings.
infrstructure,
better
lso
Most
hve
rinfll
incorported
●
ood
guging
better
my
television,
assessment,
rinfll
of
mpping
●
to
so
United
and
improved
●
Bngldesh.
wrnings
the
nd
is
uthorities
oods.
Early
●
ccess
However,
so
rins
Mking
technology,
impending
exception
monsoon
imgery.
people
in
An
Himlys,
of
relief
is
elevtion
ood
risk
nd
informtion
nd
timely
needed
bout
strem
ssessment
orgniztions
complete
informtion
informtion
is
the
shring
mong
of
chnnels
popultions;
need
to
be
models
needed
nd
humn
between
generl
forecsters,
meteorologicl
countries
ntionl
public
within
nd
hydrologicl
interntionl
dringe
bsins
●
technology
forecsting
However,
L TA
Research skills
become
Reserch
ood
in
bsin
river

nd
risk
result
in
be
shred
ssessment
of
globl
forecsting.
higher
nd
mong
more
In
both
climte
some
frequent,
ll
gencies
in
the
bsins
chnge
res,
involved
there
oods
wheres
nd
in
is
re
in
ood
round
the
incresed
predicted
other
world.
res,
to
rinfll
mitigtion
ptterns

s
uncertinty
should
of
my
become
more
errtic.
On
the
other
hnd,
s
more
people
your
hve
ccess
to
ICT,
they
my
be
ble
to
keep
up
to
dte
with
wether
choice.
wrnings.
Case study
●
Protecting the Mississippi
lterl
dykes
to
divert
wter
wy
from
theriver
For
over
mpped,
ows
of
the

century
protected
through
USA.
It
10
the
Mississippi
nd
regulted.
sttes
contins
nd
hs
The
drins
some
of
been
river
●
strightening
one-third
the
USA
’s
griculturl
regions.
A
number
hve
been
used
to
control
over
ooding
controlling
river,
nd
its
effects,
stone
nd
erthen
the
levees
to
rise
the
bnks
river
of
ws
rin
not
holding
levees
dms
to
hold
bck
wter
in
26
wter
billion
hs
Mississippi,
been
nd
spent
nnul
costs
re
nerly
$200
million.
But
April
collpsed
The
In
1993
nd
llowing
dmge
following
July,
mny
the
ws
river
of
to
hevy
the
ood
estimted
to
its
be
times
over
ofood
$10
the
enough.
between
oodplin.
●
remove
including:
it
●
to
in
mintennce
the
chnnel
of
on
methods
the
most
Altogether
importnt
of
speedily.
$12
billion
yet
only
43
people
died.
Over
2
F l o o D i n g
A n D
F l o o D
m i T i g A T i o n
Case study (Continued)
2
25,000km
only
engineers
its
of
lnd
performing
hd
norml
were
its
ooded.
nturl
modied
function
did
the
not
The
function
chnnel
occur
river
–
so
much
often,
levees
ws
people
nd
nd
1.5
m
tht
below
thought
they
were
sfe
from
the
ooding.
the
oods
Orlens
Some
cused
(see
50
by
Figure
breks
occurred
Hurricne
during
Ktrin
in
New
were
left
hve
been
to
to
some
its
geogrphers,
own
creted
devices
by
the

if
the
the
ports
t
New
river
New
level
Orlens
nd
5.5
is
m
level!
relief
mesures
include:
Bonnet
Crre
to
Pontchrtrin
Lke
new
chnnel
mid-1970s,
Atchfly
Mississippi
so
cent
would
much
Wterwy
from
nd
New
then
to
Orlens
the
Gulf
of
Orlens
nd
Bton
of
the
River,
which
Mississippi
crries
up
to
25
per
ow
so
●
tht
Pontchrtrin.
verge
Mexico
A.28).
●
According
ood
the
effects
●
of
Lke
so
Flood
people
but
below
Dredging
of
the
Atchfly
nd
Mississippi
Rouge
Rivers
would
be
defunct.
However,
river
protection
●
schemes
hve
prevented
this.
For
exmple,
Morgnz
oodwy
between
Mississippi
nd
t
Atchfly.
New
Orlens
7
m
levees
nk
the
river
nd
3
m
Online case study
Concepts in contex t
We
hve
seen
fundmentl
climte,
how
to
geology,
intensity
of
loction
every
plce.
humn
will
be
to
plces
ccidentl,
study
level
physicl
every
Different
hydrogrphs
the
interct
on
intercting
or
humn
unique
with
other
plce.
Plces
type
interct
ech
As
other.
the
This
of
in
in
lnd

Flood
is
terms
use,
unique
type
be
intensify,
nd
in
nd
in
for
deliberte
popultion
mitigtion
Bngldesh
of
wy
chrcteristics
my
humn
will
Place
vry
geogrphicl
environment
with
with
impct,
These
negtive.
the
vry
Geogrphy.
processes.
produce
positive
impcts
of
of
or
increses,
more
plces
plces.
Check your understanding
1.
Dene
2.
How
the
term
“ood
hydrogrph”.
6.
Outline
the
hydrologicl
effects
of
urbniztion.
does

river
regime
differ
from

ood
hydrogrph?
7.
How
does
deforesttion
increse
the
risk
of
ooding?
3.
Exmine
the
mgnitude
reltionship
nd
between
ood
frequency.
8.
Outline
the
4.
Explin
the
mening
of
the
term
9.
In
wht
the
Outline
ood
the
risk.
physicl
fctors
tht
chnnel
of
modiction
cn
ffect
ooding.
“lnd-use
zoning”.
5.
how
impct
wys
impct
of
cn
forecsting
help
to
reduce
oods?
increse
10.
How
cn
impct
of
individul
decisions
ffect
the
ooding?
27
3
Water scarcity and water quality
Conceptual understanding
Ke est
Wht
re
the
vrying
mngement
powers
of
different
ctors
in
reltion
to
wter
issues?
Ke ctet
●
Clssifying
tht
the
●
physicl
control
these
distinction
between
Environmentl
qulity,
to
nd
economic
including
cuses
wter
consequences
include
pollution
wter
nd
quntity
of
scrcity,
impcts
nd
nd
of
wter
griculturl
nd
fctors
nd
qulity.
ctivities
(eutrophiction)
the
droughts;
on
wter
irrigtion
(sliniztion).
●
Growing
humn
including
●
pressures
economic
Interntionlly
on
growth
shred
rivers,
nd
wter
lkes
nd
popultion
resources
s

quifers,
migrtion.
source
of
conict.
Physical water scarcity and economic
water scarcity
The
level
wter

Fe A .30: Physical and
economic water scarcity
Physical
scarcity
Economic
Little
Not
or
will
more
of
scarcity
estimated
Indicates
that
scarcity
no
countries
import
than
their
50%
cereal
consumption
28
in
2025
of
wter
vilbility,
scrcity
in
popultion

country
growth,
depends
demnd
on
for
precipittion
wter,
nd
ffordbility
of
3
supplies
types
●
nd
of
infrstructure.
wter
Physical
scrcity
water
Where
wter
W A T E r
supplies
re
S C A r C i T y
A n D
indequte,
W A T E r
q u A l i T y
Freshwater
two
resources
in
the
world
exist:
scarcity ,
where
wter
consumption
exceeds
Oceans
60percent
of
the
useble
supply.
To
help
meet
wter
needs
some
97.5%
countries
oftheir
such
food
s
nd
Sudi
Arbi
invest
in
nd
Kuwit
desliniztion
hve
to
import
much
plnts.
Fresh
●
Economic
water
scarcity ,
where

country
physiclly
hs
water
sufcient
2.5%
wter
to
meet
its
needs,
but
requires
dditionl
storge
nd
trnsport
Permafrost
0.8%
fcilities.
This
mens
wter-development
hving
to
projects,
embrk
s
in
on
mny
lrge
nd
expensive
sub-Shrn
countries.
Ice
and
sheets
Ground-
glaciers
water
68.7%
Activity 8
30.1%
Describe the distribution of areas expected to experience physical water scarcity
in 2025. How does this compare with those expected to experience economic
Surface
and
atmosphere
water scarcity?
0.4%
Vegetation
1%
Drought
Freshwater
Drought
is
extreme
dryness.
n
extended
period
of
dry
wether
leding
to
conditions
of
lakes
67.4%
Wetlands
Absolute
drought
is

period
of
t
lest
15
consecutive
8.5%
dys
with
lest
29
not
less
0.2
consecutive
exceed
Some
thn
0.2
mm
dys
of
rinfll.
during
Prtil
which
the
drought
verge
is

dily
period
rinfll
of
t
Rivers
Soil
Atmosphere
1.6%
moisture
9.5%
does
12.2%
mm.
drought
is
sesonl,
wheres
some
cn
be
linked
to
El
Niño
events.
Water
(rivers,
The
severity
how
severe
of

the
drought
wter
depends
shortge
is.
upon
The
the
length
impcts
of
of
the
drought
drought
cn
abstraction
lakes
and
in
crop
humns
bns,

yields,
(linked
bn
on
incresed
to
niml
dehydrtion),
wtering
privte
mortlity,
n
increse
grdens
or
n
in
increse
forest
wshing
sector
include
Rivers,
reduced
by
groundwater)
nd
in
res,
and
illnesses
lakes
groundwater
hosepipe
crs.
Water quantity and water quality
Agriculture
Wter
quntity
which
include:
(supply)
depends
on
severl
fctors
in
the
wter
cycle,
Power
67–8%
10 –11%
●
rtes
●
evportion
●
the
●
river
of
rinfll
Evaporation
from
use
of
reservoirs
Domestic
other
3–4%
wter
by
plnts
(trnspirtion)
Consumptive
abstracted
Less
nd
thn
1
reminder
groundwter
per
is
cent
locked
of
ll
up
water
use
by
of
sector
ows.
freshwter
in
and
industrial
19 –20%
ice
sheets
is
vilble
nd
for
glciers).
people
Globlly,
to
use
(the
round
12,500
Industrial
Agriculture
and
cubic
kilometres
of
wter
re
considered
vilble
for
humn
use
on
n
93%
domestic
nnul
If
bsis.
current
This
trends
mounts
continue,
to
bout
only
6,600
4,800
cubic
cubic
metres
metres
will
per
be
person
per
vilble
in
7%
yer.
2025.

Fe A .31: Availability of
The
world’s
vilble
freshwter
supply
is
not
distributed
evenly
round
freshwater supplies
the
●
globe,
About
less
either
sesonlly
three-qurters
thn

third
of
of
the
or
from
nnul
world’s
yer
to
rinfll
yer.
occurs
in
res
contining
Activity 9
popultion.
Comment on the availability of
●
Two-thirds
qurter
of
of
the
the
world’s
world’s
popultion
nnul
live
in
the
res
receiving
only

freshwater shown in Figure A.31.
rinfll.
29
3
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
L TA
Thinking skills
Water stress
In
some
prts
of
the
world,
When
most
wter
is
re
by
women
per
cpit
nd
impct
suffers
is
tht
hve
on
their
level
wys
tiredness.
is
thn
1,700
cubic
metres
per
yer,
n
“wter
mny
of
stress”
these
nd
res
is
subject
wter
to
supply
frequent
is
wter
ctully
less
shortges.
thn
per
cpit,
which
cuses
serious
problems
for
food
1,000
production
economic
this
development.
In
2016,
2.3
billion
people
lived
in
wter-
of
res.
If
current
trends
continue,
wter
stress
will
ffect
3.5
billion
In
people
wht
from
in
metres
stressed
nd
less
physicl
nd
development,
helth
is
likely
cubic
to
supply
children.
Currently,
Wht
wter
collected
–
48
per
cent
of
the
world’s
projected
popultion
–
in2025.
unjust?
Water use
The
world’s
incresed
Colordo
in
the
USA,
hlf
●
20
●
mny
importnt
●
wter
tbles
2040.
–
the
per
wter
By
will
world’s
cent
live
Middle
of
Est
nd
no
wetlnds
to
of
Asi.
so.
disppered
the
re
severe
Disputes
se,
in
the
endngered
world
hlf
our
the
wter
such
use
s
hs
the
sme
or
period
extinct
depleted
increse
–
while
reched
Moreover:
being
of
people
conditions
south
re
1922,
once
species
prts
projected
do
hve
quifers
billion
since
tht
longer
mny
is
4
under
tripled
rivers
freshwter
in
use
2025,
hs
Some
●
World
Activity 10
popultion
sixfold.
by
the
re
flling
bout
50
world’s
wter
over
n
per
lrming
cent
by
popultion
stress,
scrce
t
especilly
wter
t
in
rte.
round
tht
time
Afric,
resources
the
my
Describe the trends in water
led
to
lck
ccess
n
increse
in
rmed
conicts.
Currently,
bout
1.1
billion
people
use, as shown in Figure A .32.
to
sfe
wter,
2.6
billion
re
without
dequte
snittion,
nd
Which sector has the highest
more
thn
4
billion
do
not
hve
their
wstewter
treted
to
ny
degree.
level of consumption?
These
numbers
re
likely
to
get
worse
in
the
coming
decdes.
Water quality
Online case study
Wter
Wter
lso
needs
to
be
of
n
dequte
qulity
for
consumption.
footprints
However,

in
developing
countries
too
mny
people
lck
ccess
to
Fe A .32: Trends in global water use
Forecast
Forecast
Forecast
3,200
Agriculture
Domestic
use
Industry
2,800
2,400
raey
2,000
rep
mk
1,600
cibuC
1,200
800
400
0
1900
1925
1950
1975
2000
2025
Extraction
Consumption
Consumption
The
grey
band
consumed.
1900
represents
Water
may
be
1925
the
1950
1975
difference
extracted,
2000
between
used,
2025
the
recycled
1900
amount
(or
of
returned
1925
water
to
1950
1975
extracted
rivers
or
and
aquifers)
2000
that
and
2025
actually
reused
Extraction
several
Consumption
can
Extraction
30
times
extractions
now
over.
have
exploit
Consumption
increased
water.
at
Only
a
a
is
final
much
use
faster
fraction
of
of
water,
rate
water
is
an
after
which
indication
extracted
is
lost
it
of
can
how
no
longer
much
through
be
more
reused.
That
intensively
evaporation.
we
3
sfe
nd
ffordble
Orgniztion
wter
(WHO)
supplies
estimtes
nd
tht
W A T E r
snittion.
round
4
The
million
S C A r C i T y
World
A n D
W A T E r

Helth
deths
ech
q u A l i T y
Tae A .4: National water footprints
yer
nata wate
re
from
wter-relted
disese,
prticulrly
choler,
heptitis,
mlri
³
Ct
nd
other
prsitic
diseses.
Wter
qulity
my
be
ffected
by
ftpt ( /
orgnic
pe capta)
wste
from
hevy
metls
ffecting
●
sewge,
nd
ccess
fertilizers
cids
to
sfe
from
vilbility
●
wter
infrstructure
●
cost
pesticides
industril
drinking
wter
of
nd
wter
from
processes
frming,
nd
nd
by
trnsport.
Fctors
Brazil
2,027
China
1,071
Ethiopia
1,167
India
1,089
Saudi
1,849
include:
wter.
Arabia
Urbn
res
Americ
of
Asi,
in
the
more
nd
In
nd
(s
Indi
or
to
in
rely
60
per
bottled
cities
in
rurl
better
were
however,
on
mjor
thn
re
lone
over
systems,
people
served
Cribben
2000,
wter
mrkets
better
the
Chin
yer
piped
re
nd
of
not
wter
up
the
Colombi,
countries
Africn
of
some
region’s
meet
for
nd
thn
mde
cent
do
res,
off
wter
personl
Indi,
2.28
totl
Asi,
billion
criteri,
which
Mexico,
In
is
Ltin
the
Mny
South
1,255
Africa
Spain
2,461
UK
1,258
USA
2,842
World
1,385
leding
bought
Thilnd,
cse
people
popultion.
qulity
use,
in
countries.
in
Venezuel
Yemen).
some
rich.
For
cses
poor
exmple,
households
$1.00per
in
cubic
metre,
mobile
ctully
py
more
Port-u-Prince,
connected
wterfrom
cubic
the
to
the
wter
while
vendors
for
Hiti,
from
wter
surveys
system
unconnected
pid
their
hve
typiclly
to

average
the
shown
pid
customers
$5.50
thn
tht
round
forced
stggering
to
purchse
$16.50
per
metre.
Environmental consequences of agricultural
activities on water quality
Eutrophication
Eutrophication
phosphorus
nutrient
blooms
is
n
nd

s
plnts
exmple
plnkton
result
of
res
scle
close
There
in
re
rivers
cuse
of
results
to
of
Third,
lge.
humn
helth;
develop.
the
wter
levels
led
to
This
leds
of
(oxygen
n
the
off
lge,
nutrients
the
to
in
in
vilbility.
the
light
in
wter
in
“ded
cusing
lgl
This
lge
supply
especilly
the
of
increse
increse
strvtion
formtion
nd/or
groundwter,
nutrient
cutting
growth
nitrogen
nd
However,
below,
of
of
lkes
incresed
anoxia
resons
effects
Second,
high
for
A.33).
prolic
in
mounts
strems,
feedbck.
groundwter
frmer.
in
in
nd
the
the
for
utumn
higher
wter).
zones”
in
On

costl
mouths.
min
undesirble
growth
my
my
river
three
nd
the
The
incresed
to
incresed
(Figure
respond
shde
they
to
crried
positive
plnts.
tempertures,
lrger
leds
re
enrichment
submerged
s
tht
re
in

the
the
nitrte
why
the
high
problem.
qutic
loss
of
First,
nitrogen
ecosystems,
fertilizer
concentrtions
exmple,
concentrtions
in
is
n
of
compounds
especilly
economic
drinking
methemoglobinemi
wter
(blue
nitrogen
loss
my
bby
cn
excessive
to
the
ffect
syndrome)

Pht A .7: Eutrophication – algal
bloom caused by excessively high
nitrate levels in freshwater
31
3
OPTION

A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
Fe A .33: The process of
Time
eutrophication
Sunlight
1.
Nutrient
load
excessive
are
flushed
rivers
or
up:
5.
nutrients
from
lakes
by
from
the
Death
fertilizers
land
of
oxygen
into
where
rainwater.
Fish
algae
3.
Algal
blooms,
algal
bloom,
reaching
and
oxygen
is
no
and
reach
life
is
other
a
point
possible.
organisms
die.
depleted:
preventing
in
ecosystem:
layer
oxygen
other
the
levels
plants.
the
sunlight
The
water
plants
is
die
depleted.
decomposers
nutrient
material
2.
Plants
these
of
flourish:
4.
pollutants
algae,
cause
duckweed
aquatic
and
other
plant
Decomposition
growth
dead
plants.
even

Tae A .5: Global variations in
plants
bacteria
further
are
more
depletes
broken
decomposers,
oxygen
in
down
using
the
oxygen:
by
up
water.
Dealing with eutrophication
eutrophication
There
re
three
min
wys
of
deling
with
eutrophiction.
These
include:
Pecetae f akes ad
●
ltering
the
humn
ctivities
tht
produce
pollution;
for
exmple,
by
ese vs se
using
lterntive
types
of
fertilizer
nd
detergent
etphcat
●
Asia and the Pacic
regulting
nd
reducing
exmple,
Europe
53%
Africa
28%
Nor th America
48%
South America
41%
in
phosphtes
●
restoring
Possible
sewge
from
wter
mesures
northern
Source: UNEP/ILEC surveys
tretment
t
plnts
the
point
tht
of
emission;
remove
nitrtes
for
nd
wste
qulity
to
by
reduce
pumping
nitrte
loss
mud
re
from
s
eutrophic
follows
(bsed
lkes.
on
the
hemisphere).
●
Avoiding
the
September

pollutnts
54%
Pht A .8: The use of bales of barley straw
therefore
use
nd
it
is
of
nitrogen
fertilizers
mid-Februry
more
likely
when
tht
between
soils
fertilizer
re
will
mid-
wet
nd
wsh
through
to reduce the eects of eutrophication
the
●
Preferring
in
●
soil.
the
utumn-sown
soil
Sowing
nd
up
conserve
crop
crops
–
nitrogen
utumn-sown
mintining
crops
cover
s
nitrogen
to
●
Avoiding
pplying
nitrogen
just
●
Using
less
nitrogen
hve
difcult
Avoiding
s
conserve
the
possible,
utumn
nitrogen
previous
nd
yer.
nd
winter
to
nitrogen.
pplying
●
roots
from
erly
through
Avoiding
is
their
left
●
would
32
use
been
to
fertilizer
wshed
ssess
elds
next
before
fter
wy

in

hevy
dry
the
to
yer
strem
rin
is
or
forecst.
becuse
previous
yer.
less
(This
precisely.)
ploughing
up
grss
s
this
releses
lke.
nitrogen.
3
●
Using
bles
of
brley
strw
to
prevent
the
W A T E r
growth
S C A r C i T y
of
green
A n D
lge.
W A T E r
q u A l i T y
It
TOK
uses
lso
nitrogen
locks
up
s
it
decys,
with
up
to
13
per
cent
less
nitrogen
lost;
it
Is it fair that consumers should
phosphorus.
pay for the clean-up of polluted
water? What should the role
Stakeholders
and responsibility of the other
There
re
mny
people
who
benet
from
incresed
crop
yields
nd
food
stakeholders be?
production
ber
the
nd
cost
there
of
re
mny
clening
up
who
suffer
from
eutrophiction?
eutrophiction.
The
stkeholders
Who
should
include:
Ex tension work
●
the
frmers
●
the
chemicl
●
the
government
●
the
customers
who
pply
the
fertilizer
nd
hve
incresed
frm
yields
Visit www.chesapeakebay.net
compnies
tht
prot
from
the
sle
of
fertilizers
and investigate the
tht
my
begin
to
chieve
food
security
environmental issues in the
bay, the potential solutions,
who
receive
more
relible
food
supplies
nd
benet
and how progress towards
from
lower
prices
restoring Chesapeake Bay by
●
the
wter
Ultimtely,
on
by
the
compnies
the
cost
wter
of
tht
provide
clening
compnies
to
up
the
the
wter
eutrophic
to
consumers.
wter
is
likely
to
2025 is progressing.
be
pssed
consumers.
Activity 11
1.
Choose an appropriate method to show the data in Table A.5. Comment on
your results.
2.
Describe the human causes of eutrophication.
3.
Outline the ways in which it is possible to manage eutrophication.

Fe A .34: Types of irrigation
The potential eects of irrigation
SURFACE
People
hve
ncient
times:
irrigation
6,000
irrig te d
in
yers.
the r e
Egypt
Wter
cr op s
is
ev id ence
going
fo r
rivers,
s ince
b ck
WATER
lakes,
GROUNDWATER
reservoirs
aquifers
of
ne  rl y
i rr i g tion
c n
GRAVITY
be
tken
from
sur f  ce
s to re s ,
such
DRIP
SPRINKLERS
s
FLOW
lkes,
from
rnge
cse
dms,
reserv o i r s
groundwte r.
from
of
totl
pddy
 nd
Ty p e s
 o o d i ng ,
eld s ,
to
r iv er s ,
of
or
ir r ig  ti on
s
dri p
in
the
ir r ig  ti on,
Siphons
where
precise
mo unts
 re
to
ech
A.34).
individ u l
Irrigtion
m y
p l nt
led
for
( Fi gure
to
e x  mp le
pivot
open
system
ditches
Perforated
in
pipe
networks
Single-point
unwnt e d
Whole-field
consequences,
Central
me s ure d
and
out
SYSTEMS
pulse
system
Weeping
lines
r el  tio n
flooding
to
groundwter
q u l i ty
( Fi g ure
A. 3 5)
Low-energy
precision-application
nd
salinization
(Figure
A.36).
system
Impacts of irrigation
Irrigtion
s
occurs
developing
in
developed
countries.
For
s
well
exmple,
Wastes
lrge
prts
of
the
USA
nd
Austrli
re
water;
promotes
waterlogging,
irrigted.
The
dvent
of
diesel
nd
in
the
mid-20th
century
led
for
and
salinization;
inexpensive
the
rst
time
to
systems
tht
could
supply
water
to
crop
Efficient;
water
supplied
directly
to
electric
erosion
motors
Efficient;
matches
needs;
expensive
individual
plants;
expensive
pump
33
3
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
15.5
60
Na
+
K
CI
+
BA SINS
groundwter
200 ±
600
out
of
quifers
fster
thn
it
ws
NO
3
rechrged.
This
hs
led
in
some
regions
to
loss
of
CI
Mg
ratio
SO
4
CO
+
CO
+
quifer
HCO
3
Ca
50
cpcity,
decresed
wter
qulity
nd
other
3
HCO
3
500
3
problems.
In
Texs,
USA,
irrigtion
hs
reduced
the
Sample
wter
number
I/stnelaviuqe
40
tble
s
much
s
50
metres.
By
contrst,
Description
1
Normal
good
groundwater
2
Slightly
contaminated
in
aquifer
in
400
the
fertile
3
Moderately
4
Injuriously
5
Highly
contaminated
contaminated
contaminated
Indus
Plin
in
Pkistn,
irrigtion
hs
groundwater
rised
30
by
the
wter
tble
by
s
much
s
six
metres
groundwater
since
groundwater
groundwater
1922
nd
cused
widespred
sliniztion.
300
6.6
(near
seashore)
Irrigtion
gu
6
cn
reduce
the
Erth’s
lbedo
(reectivity)
Seawater
by
20
s
much
s
10
per
cent.
This
is
becuse

reective
200
sndy
surfce
my
be
replced
by
one
with
drk
2.8
green
crops.
Irrigtion
precipittion.
1.3
10
cn
Lrge-scle
lso
cuse
irrigtion
chnges
in
in
semi-rid
res,
100
0.5
0
such
s
the
High
with
incresed
Plins
rinfll,
of
Texs,
hs
hilstorms
been
nd
linked
torndoes.
0
Under
1
2
3
4
Water

sample
5
nturl
semi-rid
res
hve
sprse
6
vegettion
number
irrigted
Fe A .35: Changes in
groundwater quality with distance
complete
from an aquifer
greter
nd
conditions
vegettion
mounts
the
Texs
common
over
of
cover.
irrigted
dry
soils
res
in
hve
Evpotrnspirtion
summer
Pnhndle.
nd
these
rinfll
In
cross
ddition,
res
summer.
moist
rtes
Knss,
hilstorms
compred
with
However,
soils
in
increse,
Nebrsk,
nd
nd
resulting
in
Colordo
torndoes
non-irrigted
when
summer
re
more
res.
Salinization
Irrigtion
known
the
it
Some
As
on
surfce
tht
is
cly
sndy
where
irrigtion,
increse.
of
nd
it
silty
my
n
increse
occurs
this
my
soils
be
especilly
This
chnges
chrcterized
rtio
soils
evportes
Chemicl
is
In
to
This
be
it
within
is
less.
evported,
by
chlorides
in
lso
re
n
to
the
pddy
hot
occurs
lso
rice,
sun,
mount
three
leving
of
slt
levels
metres
Cpillry
importnt.
increse
requires
the
behind
in
of
forces
behind
huge
slinity
lrge
In
in
re
the
bring
ny
the
soil,
close
to
surfce,
wter
soluble
mounts
levels
to
slts
of
the
of
wter.
remining
dms.
Slins,
dissolved
slts
Cliforni,
nd
n
sliniztion
increse
in
the
bicrbontes.
Poor
of salinization
on
drainage
irrigated
water
leave
arid
regions,
evaporation
the
water
soil
rates
table
is
drainage
are
high
is
often
and
land.
contains
behind
evaporation
Even
some
tonnes
dissolved
of
concentrate
good-quality
salt
salt
per
and
hectare
poor,
low.
root
and
salts
level,
are
soil
eventually
resistant
washed
salinity
kill
plants.
off
down
will
all
below
stunt
but
growth
the
most
Irrigation
a
metre
salts
can
of
from
raise
the
the
groundwater
surface,
aquifer,
bringing
subsoil
levels
up
and
to
more
root
within
dissolved
zone.
salts
irrigation
and
Unless
34
the
groundwter
Fe A .36: The process

In
in
when
crrying.
wter
wter
leds
sliniztion.
surfce.
wheres
the
frequently
s
can
each
year.
3
W A T E r
S C A r C i T y
A n D
W A T E r
Growing human pressures on rivers, lakes
q u A l i T y
Activity 12
and aquifers including economic growth and
1.
Explain how irrigation can
both:
population migration
a.
As
popultions
continue
to
grow,
there
will
be
incresing
pressure
on
raise groundwater
wter
levels, and
resources.
pressure
growth
The
Popultion
in
certin
re
likely
quntity
of
kilometres
per
two-thirds
of
1960
uses
wter
bout
bout
10
wter
for
Urbn
the
currently
drwn
crop
cent
cent.
uneven
res
is
from
Popultion
ll
rivers,
will
wter,
user,
lkes
by
nd
incresed
economic
wter
exceeds
per
cent.
municipl
urbniztion
nd
cubic
2.
quality of groundwater with
Since
distance from the centre of
Industry
sector
Study Figure A.35, which
shows changes in the
lmost
an aquifer in California.
uses
industriliztion
a.
hve
incresed
the
use
of
wter
in
these
sectors.
As
lower groundwater
levels.
3,700
groundwter.
60–70
.
stress.
consuming
nd
the
be
rpid
in
purposes
risen
growth,
there
increses
lrgest
hs
vilble
so
experiencing
for
the
irrigtion
of
nd
gretest
used
Agriculture
wter
per
is
experience
yer.
use
per
loctions.
to
ll
20
growth
world
Describe the
popultion
dierences in water
nd
industril
output
hve
incresed,
wter
use
hs
ccelerted,
nd
this
quality between
is
projected
to
continue.
By
2025
globl
vilbility
of
freshwter
my
“normal” groundwater
drop
to
n
estimted
5,100
cubic
metres
per
person
per
yer,

decrese
in the aquifer (site 1)
of
25
per
cent
on
the
2000
gure.
with that nearest the
Growing
rech
tht
pressure
the
do,
Hwng
se,
they
He
for
on
rivers
exmple
my
rivers,
be
hs
the
hevily
mking
ment
tht
Colordo
polluted,
them

river.
such
unsfe
number
for
In
s
of
rivers
ddition,
the
of
Gnges,
domestic
no
coast (site 5).
longer
those
.
Yngtze
consumption.
nd
How does the relative
composition of (i) Cl
The
and (ii) CO
and NO
3
Rio
Nuevo
(New
River)
tht
ows
from
Bj
Cliforni
into
Cliforni
3
and HCO
3
is
now
It
is
contminted
the
most
regulr
which
lgl
hs
sewter
with
polluted
blooms.
become
nd
griculturl,
river
The
of
its
river
feeds
incresingly
there
hve
been
size
industril
in
the
the
sline
mjor
USA.
inlnd
over
sh
nd
municipl
wste.
The
pollutnts
cuse
Slton
time.
deths
It
is
due
Se
now
to
in
distance from the
centre of the aquifer?
Cliforni,
sltier
Suggest reasons for
thn
these changes.
incresing
3.
tempertures,
slinity
nd
bcteri
present
in
the
vary with
Explain the causes of
river.
salinization, as shown
Overuse
of
9
per
of
cent
believed
levels.
the
Oglll
since
tht
it
1950,
would
Another
quifer
vst
nd
tke
2
in
per
6,000
quifer
is
the
USA
cent
yers
the
hs
resulted
between
to
Nubin
2000
rechrge
t
Sndstone
in

nd
decline
2009.
current
Aquifer
It
in Figure A.36. Visit the
is
website to view a case
rinfll
study about the eects of
System
agriculture on the Aral Sea.
2
under
offers
the
gret
Lkes
2016
Shr
nd
the
relted
using
potentil
rivers
Flint
to
Rpid
wter
for

wter
qulity.
levels
of
Some
the
cent
is
the
their
vulnerble
70
in
per
tht
unsfe
Est
nd
to
USA,
of
cent
hs
of
people
ws
km
in
even
for
the
the
do
from
the
supply,
not
sfely
hve
into
cuse
but
in
country’s
with
city
nd
re
nd
of
it
2014
nd
chemicls
Flint
begn
resulted
of
hs
only
rivers
be
to
1.4
s
in
led
cent
of
high
wter.
of
the
contins
per
such
river
use
in
declining
drinking
clen
He
The
blooms
region
hve
used
Hwng
uses.
lgl
(MENA)
widespred
ccess
the
griculturl
Afric
popultion
Between
polluted
resulted
cnnot
dischrges
North
million
residents.
wter
be
2
pollution.
Authorities
Chin
the
to
thn
drinking-wter
number
million
world’s
more
region.
ctivity.
believed
is
Michign,
griculturl
wter
Middle
of
300
nd
griculture
The
Over
This
the
lso
growth
pollution
Industril
mde
in
for
in
lrge
economic
wter.
re
river
industril
river
poisoning
Desert.
hve
fertilizers
Ti
over
its
in
Lke.
6
per
freshwter.
35
3
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
As
to
the
BA SINS
popultion
intensify.
MENA
region.
System
would
nd
ccess
to
conict,
the
this
within
pressure
world’s
to
importnt
nd
s
my
to
of
wter
the
the
more
to
rivers
pln
conict,
is
for
or
it
my
likely
re
in
Sndstone
Mn-mde
freshwter
countries,
to
resources
countries
Nubin
Gret
mnge
Filure
led
the
ccess
different
country.
between
on
wter-scrce
use
such
region
include
sme
resources,
is,
is
15
creful
chnnels
MENA
my
the
tht
the
Nevertheless,
plnning
Sometimes
users
of
irrigtion
enble
Integrted
increses,
Twelve
Aquifer
River
Project
resources.
different
my
be
result
including
the
in
users.
different
unequl
geopoliticl
countries.
Internationally shared water resources as a
source of conict
Case study
The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam
Ethiopi
dm,
(GERD),
it
is
to
currently
Grnd
on
Its
Blue
will
reservoir
volume
produce
thn
it
of
the
6,000
double
building
Ethiopin
the
nished,
wide.
the
is
the
Nile
be
(Figure
170
will
be
entire
m
tll
ble
to
Blue
megwtts
Ethiopi’s
Afric’s
nd
of
current
It
When
1.8
hold
thn
designed
electricity,
the
more
dm’s
experts
This
for
Egypt.

this
out
of
opportunity
wter.
on
three
The
Egypt
trety
is
no
four
for
Nile
with
enough
in
nerly
of
Sudn
to
the
could
two-thirds
signed
longer
Ethiopi
provides
clims
it
people
ll
in
(1.8
per
cent
stisfy
growth
sector.
Annul
wter
fllen
by
well
(UN)
hs
over
hlf
wrned
since
of

of
the
Egypt’s
some
tht
bsed
ow
However,
used
ow
stkeholders
Egypt,
Ethiopi
Ntions
the
nd
supply
1970.
looming
people
leders
protection
reltions
Nile
of
Bsin.
trety
over
hve
their
with
per
well
will
the
with
which,
upstrem
been
other
The
s
the
mke
of
other,
Egypt
of
United
of
hve
gives
Mrch
it

the
the
for
more
of
Egypt,
Sudn
signed
construction
36
of

the
declrtion
dm
s
long
tht
s
the
will
during
lte
dm’s
produce
its
to
correct
ultimte
reducing
only
turbines
storge)
Egyptins
resonble
If
concern
lled
signicntly
ffect
its
own
the
fer
will
it
use.
power
(less
ultimtely
will
lso
downstrem
too
is
over
the
quickly,
it
reduce
Egypt’s
be
supply.
dm’s
would
wter
electricity-generting
Aswn
government
on
its
Dm.
fces
investment.
self-funded,
will
Some
experts
seven
yers.
Sudn
the
hs
dm,
greed
But
become
veto
receive
But
pressure
The
cost
sy
s
long
which
the
the
to
for
supply
cpcity
round
the
Ethiopin
see
project,
lling
some
to
sided
is
it
of
hs
the
the
prevent
with
some
potentil
cler,
stbilizing

quick
which
$4.8
is
return
mostly
billion.
reservoir
could
tke
Egypt
20
km
benets
bcked
power
Nile’s
to
opposition
its
Sudn
Ethiopi.
produced
ow,
ooding,
in
from
it
will
hve
Sudn
by
lso
consume
to
border.
the
will
dm.
llow
more
wter
Ethiopi
nd
nd
over
it
pushing
irrigtion,
reservoir.
time
By
leders
wter
evportion
nother
projects.
2015
tht
downstrem.
Sudn
In
too
dm
the
soured
shre
dismissing
clims,
be
the
person
in
hs
tht
them
my
tht
hlf-nished,
United
use
forceful
This
countries
most
ech
very
supply.
so
Alredy
study
crisis.
governments
s
who
wter
However,
cooperte
old
the
the
Sudn,
stlling
to
Egyptins
nd
wter.
Egyptin
to
include
nd
Some
growing
2015)
of
The
it
uncertinty
nd
nd
Ntions
is
disster

hs
tht
insists
lrge
griculturl
worry
is
ccompli.
Ethiopi
1959.
the
in
impct.
Ethiopi
fit
countries.
commissioned
which
A
popultion

downstrem
drk.
spell
tht
to
were
problems.
There
leves
rms
potentil
tht
becomes
ny
hrm”
French
believe
km
more
is
output
Two
Dm
A.37).
Nile.
“signicnt
lrgest
Renissnce
pproved
there
is
no
increse
griculturl
output.
Currently
much
3
W A T E r
S C A r C i T y
A n D
W A T E r
q u A l i T y
Case study (continued)
of
the
country’s
lloction
of
wter
under
the
Med.
Sea
IRAN
IRAQ
1959
trety
is
ctully
consumed
by
Egyptins.
much
wter
Sudn
uses
in
the
future,
N
i
l
How
nd
e
Cairo
LIBYA
vribles
such
s
chnges
in
rinfll
EGYPT
nd
S
Aswan
should
determine
how
the
Dam
dm
A
A
R
U
A
D
B
I
I
A
e
qulity,
operted.
nd

Tht
will
willingness
to
require
more
compromise.
coopertion
a
is
e
S
d
wter
R
other
Disgreement
SUDAN
CHAD
nd
Sudn
over
such
things
s
l
Egypt
B
between
ERITREA
u
of
“signicnt
hrm”
bodes
ill.
YEMEN
e
denition
e
l
i
N
the
Khartoum
The
Grnd
Ethiopin
Renissnce
Dm
is
merely
C.A.R.
of
countries’
willingness
to
shre
plns
could
to
build
further
other
ffect
dms
on
the
C.A.R.
downstrem
Dam
L
which
Renaissance
I
Ethiopi
SUDAN
river,
Ababa
Grand
A
SOUTH
wter.
Addis
W
h
test
t
e
ltest
eliN
the
ETHIOPIA
A
M
0
UGANDA
supply.
Sudn
hs
promised
foreign
investors
n
CONGO
bundnce
uncertin
of
wter
future
for
over
irrigtion.
its
wter
Egypt
fces
500
O
km
KENYA
n
Fe A .37: The location of the Grand Ethiopian

supplies.
Renaissance Dam on the Blue Nile
Lrge-scle
wter
developments
crry

dul
thret
–
conict
TOK
with
neighbouring
displcement
GERD
s
militry
thret

of
lrge
thret
threts
is
to
in
through.
countries
countries,
ntionl
Nile
to
lso
communities.
its
disputes
Greter
likely
but
Egypt
security.
but
is
coopertion
be
the
internl
most
views
Egypt
unlikely
between
fesible
conict
wy
the
hs
to
due
building
tended
be
Egypt
to
ble
nd
forwrd
to
to
the
of
investigate water disputes in
follow
other
for
Visit the following website to
the
use
the Middle East: http://journal.
the
Nile
georgetown.edu/stemming-the-
Bsin
rising-tide-the-future-of-water-
Egypt.
conicts-in-the-middle-eastA
UN-bcked
pln
suggests
using
the
Nubin
Sndstone
Aquifer,
below
and-nor th-africa/.
the
estern
hve
prt
greed
wter
the
of
the
pln.
Shr
The
UN
Desert.
Egypt,
suggests
there
Sudn,
could
Chd
be
nd
400
Liby
yers
worth
Suggest why future “water
of
wars” are very likely.
there.
L TA
Research skills
Activity 13
Use
the
First
Chinese
Wter
2013pcgb/merge1.pdf
Chin.
Visit
(The
for
informtion
Census
n
in
t
updte
English
http://www.mwr.gov.cn/
on
is
wter
in
the
quntity
second
nd
hlf
of
Develop a case study to show an
qulity
the
in
international conict over water,
census.)
based on your own choice.
http://www.thegurdin.com/environment/gllery/2011/sep/09/
chin-south-north-wter-diversion-project-in-pictures
essy
on
the
impct
of
the
diversion
project
on
for

Online case study
photo
resettlement.
Mnging
in
wter
resources
Tunisi
Case study
nd
Water diversion in China
consists
designed
Chin’s
controversil
South–North
Project
chnnels
wter
from
the
Hebei
province
to
Beijing
in
the
north.
diversion
project
cost
44.8
of
cnls
billion
nd
cubic
tunnels
£48
from
the
wetter
south
to
the
metres
north
of
(Figure
Some
350,000
people
were
relocted
due
The
to
south–north
divert
km
south
A.38).
of
2,400
Wter
wter
Diversion
to
of
the
building
of
reservoirs
nd
cnls.
billion
37
3
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
Case study (continued)
Some
complin
tht
the
scheme
hs
South-to-North
excerbted
poverty
in
Hebei,
diversion
forcing
water
project
HEBEI
(middle
wter-hungry
nd
polluting
route)
industries
500
to
close
rice
nd
some
growing
but
lso
less
for
frmers
less
to
wter-intensive
protble
mize.
Also,
SEE
over
hlf
of
Chin’s
km
forske
50,000
rivers
Beijing
hve
INSET
r
70
per
cent
of
i
bout
v
nd
e
disppered
R
w
re
polluted.
l
ones
l
remining
o
the
e
Y
CHINA
The
not
extent
in
of
doubt.
reservoirs
Beijing’s
In
were
June
predicment
2008
down
to

is
Yellow
Sea
Beijing’s
tenth
of
Hebei
Beijing
N
Reservoirs
their
cpcity.
Beijing
drws
two-thirds
Danjiangkou
of
its
nd
wter
the
supply
wter
from
tble
is
underground
dropping
by
reservoir

Baiyangdian
Wangkuai
Lake
Xidayang
metre

yer,
thretening
geologicl
Three
disster.
Beijing
hs
been
trying
to
Gorges
reservoir
site
Baoding
reduce
triffs.
demnd
Beijing’s
recycling
15
by
industries
per
consumption
incresing
cent
of
compred
re
their
with
Dangcheng
wter
Gangnan
now
Huangbizhuang
zi
g
an
Y
Shijiazhuang
85
per

cent
in
developed
Chongqing
wter
Fe A .38: The south–nor th water diversion scheme in China
countries.
Concepts in contex t
Wter
mny
scrcity
nd
processes,
induced.
These
lnd-use
chnges,
increse,
wr
scrcity
mny
led
nd
nd
prts
to
the
spred
reduced
for
economic
qulity
world
of
qulity
–
inuenced
some
climte
wter,
re
mjor
chnge,
popultion
reduced
Wter
Countries
wter
tht
reduced
how
poor
in
their
ccess
crop
yields
to
powerful
develop
countries
ccess
people
wter
more
or
poorer
with
could
re
resources
wheres
they
issues
potentilly
by
humn
development.
disese,
of
re
nd
climte,
demnd
nd
the
qulity
nturl
include
wter
of
wter
some
thn
to
often
richer
freshwter
wter
my
wter.
hve
to
people.
round
be
We
my
forced
hve
py
to
lso
more
There
the
seize
resources,
is
cope
seen
for
unequl
world.
life.
Check your understanding
1.
Dene
physicl
wter
scrcity.
6.
On
which
river
Renissnce
2.
Explin
wht
is
ment
by
economic
Explin
wht
is
ment
by
the
term
the
Grnd
Ethiopin
wter
scrcity.
3.
is
Dm?
“wter
7.
Outline
the
process
of
sliniztion.
8.
Explin
the
process
of
eutrophiction.
9.
In
stress”.
4.
Explin
their
why
wter
mny
thn
poor
richer
people
py
more
for
38
Explin
wht
is
ment
environments
is
sliniztion
most
people.
10.
5.
which
frequent?
by
virtul
wter.
Suggest
supply
different
my
be
wys
in
reduced
which
in
Egypt’s
future
wter
decdes.
4
Water management futures
Costs and benets of a dam as a multi-purpose
Conceptual
water scheme
understanding
The impacts of the Aswan Dam (a megadam)
Ke est
on the River Nile
Wht
re
the
possibilities
The
number
of
lrge
dms
(more
thn
15
m
high)
being
built
future
for
round
mngement
the
world
is
incresing
rpidly
nd
is
reching

level
of
lmost
in
completions
Akosombo
every
dy.
(Ghn),
nd
the
Grnd
The
dvntges
Exmples
Tucurui
Ethiopin
of
such
(Brzil),
megdms
Hoover
Renissnce
Dm
include
(USA),
(pge
Krib
dms
re
numerous.
In
the
of
Ke ctet
the
Aswn
Incresed
on
the
River
Nile,
Egypt,
they
ood
for
nd
drought
exmple,
in
control:
Egypt
in
llow
nd
good
crops
in
dry
yers
s,
nd
irrigtion:
irrigtion
of
●
the
60
per
nd
desert
ech
up
re
hydroelectric
cent
to
of
3.4
the
wter
million
from
hectres
the
Aswn
(4,000
Dm
squre
is
used
for
benets
The
kilometres)
integrted
bsin
this
the
costs
they
bring.
growing
importnce
irrigted
power:
nd
1973
●
●
wter
include:
dms
1972
building
multipurpose
schemes,
●
dm
High
for
Dm
bsins?
the
36–37).
cse
dringe
(Zimbbwe)
●
of
intervention
two
ccounts
for
7,000
million
kilowtt
mngement
(IDBM)
hours
the
yer
of
dringe
plns,
costs
nd
nd
benets
theybring.
●
improved
nvigtion
●
●
recretion
nd
Growing
mjor
It
is
estimted
economy
is
tht
bout
the
vlue
$500
of
million
the
Aswn
ech
High
Dm
to
the
Egyptin
efforts
yer.
wetlnds
to
the
other
on
hnd,
there
re
numerous
costs.
For
exmple,
in
the
nd
protect
including
wetlnd
On
pressures
tourism.
them,
Rmsr
restortion
cse
schemes/projects.
of
the
Aswn
High
Dm:
●
●
wter
losses:
the
dm
provides
less
thn
hlf
the
mount
of
The
importnce
wter
of
strengthening
expected
prticiption
●
sliniztion:
re
crop
irrigted
by
yields
wter
hve
from
been
the
reduced
dm
due
on
to
up
to

third
of
the
sliniztion
locl
to
communities
improve
wter
mngement
●
groundwter
chnges:
seepge
leds
to
incresed
groundwter
my
cuse
secondry
in
levels
different
nd
of
economic
sliniztion
development
●
displcement
of
popultion:
up
to
100,000
Nubin
people
hve
been
contexts,
removed
from
their
ncestrl
including
homes
sustinble
●
drowning
Nefertri
increse
of
●
of
t
in
ncient
seismic
hve
rcheologicl
Abu
the
decrese,
sites:
hd
humidity
of
to
the
the
be
tombs
moved
re
hs
of
to
led
Rmeses
sfer
to
II
nd
loctions,
incresed
nd
the
wethering
the
cused
so
too
erthquke
by
does
the
nd
to
nd
of
Aswn
seismic
November
Dm;
s
1981
wter
is
believed
levels
in
the
wter
efciency,
ensuring
clen,
sfe
ffordble
monuments
stress:
been
Simbel
use
ccess
nd
wter.
to
dm
ctivity
39
4
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
4,000
●
Annual
variations
concentration
and
3,000
at
after
station
in
closure
Gaafra
in
the
of
deposition
within
the
lke:
inlling
is
tking
plce
sediment
Nile
the
(mg
t
before
High
per

rte
of
bout
100
million
tonnes
ech
yer
Dam
litre)
●
chnnel
the
erosion
chnnel:
over
18
(cler
lowering
yers,

wter
the
modest
erosion)
chnnel
by
beneth
25
mm
mount
2,000
Before
●
erosion
rte
of
of
the
bout
Nile
25
delt:
mm

this
is
tking
plce
t

yer
1,000
●
After
loss
of
$100
nutrients:
million

it
is
yer
estimted
to
buy
tht
it
costs
commercil
0
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
fertilizers
D
trpped

to
mke
behind
up
the
for
the
nutrients
tht
get
dm
Fe A .39: Changes in
sedimentation along the Nile
●
decresed
sh
ctches:
srdine
yields
re
down
95
per
cent
nd
3,000
Valley
jobs

in
Egyptin
sheries
hve
been
lost.
Tae A .6: The logistics, benets, costs and prospects of the Aswan Dam
Logistics
Benets
Side eects
General assessment and
prospects
Land development was a
It controls high oods and
Water loss through
The Aswan High Dam is hard
necessity to cope with the
is a source of water during
evaporation and seepage
engineering work; more
huge imbalance between
the dry season, saving
is likely to aect the
impor tantly, it is fullling
the country’s population
Egypt from the costs of the
water supply needed
a vital need for 40 million
growth and agricultural
damage from both high
for development plans;
people.
production. Agriculture
and low oods.
studies show that the
is basic to the Egyptian
water loss is within the
economy.
predicted volume.
Egypt had no option but to
Land reclamation
Loss of the Nile silt
All dams have problems;
increase the water supply
allowed for an increase
requires costly use
some are recognized while
to meet the needs of land
in the cultivated area,
of fer tilizers; it has
others are unforeseen at the
development policies.
and increased the crop
also caused riverbed
time of planning.
production of the existing
degradation and coastal
land through conversion
erosion of the nor thern
from annual to perennial
delta.
irrigation.
Building a dam and
Nile navigation improved,
Soil salinity is increasing
A lesson learned from the
forming a water reservoir
and changed from
and land in most areas is
Aswan project is that dams
in an Egyptian territory
seasonal to year round.
becoming waterlogged due
may be built with missionary
minimizes the risks of
to delays in implementing
zeal but little careful planning
water control politics
drainage schemes.
and monitoring of side
on the par t of riparian
eects.
countries.
40
Egypt perceived the Aswan
Electric power generated
Increased contact with
As a result of the new semi-
High Dam as a multi-
by the dam now
water through irrigation
capitalist policies and also
purpose project, basic
supplies 50% of Egypt’s
extension schemes was
the technical and monetary
to national development
consumption, but the dam
expected to increase
aid that Egypt received from
plans.
was not built primarily for
schistosomiasis
several western countries,
power generation but for
(bilharzia) rates; evidence
it is expected that several
water conservation.
exists that rates have not
of the dam’s problems will
increased due to use of
be eciently controlled and
protected water supplies.
monitored.
4
Logistics
Benets
W A T E r
m A n A g E m E n T
Side eects
F u T u r E S
General assessment and
prospects
The new lake has
The Nile water quality has
Dam-related studies have
economic benets,
been deteriorating, but it
recognized problems
including land cultivation
does not yet constitute a
and provided possible
and settlement, shing
health hazard.
solutions. The dam will meet
and tourist industries.
expectations providing that
research ndings are utilized.
The development potential
and economic returns of this
water project are expected to
be rewarding in the long run,
if the project’s developments
are systematically studied
and monitored.
Ethiopi
is
building

huge
new
dm
on
the
River
Nile,
the
Grnd
Activity 14
Ethiopin
Renissnce
hydroelectric
nd
the
is
course
plce.
scheme
locted
of
Egypt
Egypt’s
close
the
min
the
the
of
it
is
so
with
tht
new
s
GERD).
completed.
border
Nile
tht
source
(known
when
to
Blue
fers
Dm
It
It
will
Sudn.
In
construction
dm
will
will
cost
2014
of
restrict
be
lmost
ow
could
of
lrgest
$5
builders
GERD
the
Afric’s
the
billion
Table A.7 provides information
diverted
about the Aswan Dam. Identify
tke
the need for the dam, its costs
Nile,
and benets, and evaluate its
overall prospects.
freshwter.
Integrated drainage basin management
Ex tension work
In
the
pst,
reduce
plin
is
impct
in

nd
vriety
its
bsin
of
holistic
of
the
Components
wter
of
supply,
the
to
on
of
mngement
ginst
it,
but
it
effective
bsin.
in
t
to
Lnd
the
USA
Authority
recognized
reducing
the
nd
bsin.
embnkments
tht
ood
(TV
A),
the
of
my
the
mngement
Nevertheless,
since
ood-
risk,
functioning
wter
to
integrted
1930s
which
with
dopted
the

Visit the International
Rivers Network at https://
www.internationalrivers.
org/resources/we-all-live-
downstream-2700 and watch
the video slideshow called “ We
all live downstream”.
mngement.
dringe
river
the
bsin
energy
hs
hs
used
incresingly
dringe
Vlley
qulity,
recretionl,
is
consequences
operted
river
frequently
usully
the
integrted
wter
It
dringe
hs
mngement
industril,
chnnel
while
dverse
Tennessee
pproch
hs
ooding.
focused
mngement
cretion
thn
of
ssocited
incresingly
nd
engineering
embnkments,
result
river
the
river
in
nd
tended
often
bsin
mngement
chnnels,
ood
reltion
to
ecosystem
to
work
focused

griculturl,
needs.
with
on
include
control,
the
smll
Recent
river
prt
rther
of
the
river.
In
of
the
USA,
the
griculturl
exports.
people
bsin.
Over
re
Mississippi
products
hlf
the
produced
Nevertheless,
dringe
nd
goods
with
there
92
per
nd
wter
re
bsin
cent
of
services
from
threts
the
to
produces
the
$54
country’s
consumed
by
Mississippi
the
billion
frm
US
dringe
Mississippi
nd
its
tributries.

Pht A .9: Reser voir development,
Antigua
41
4
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
●
BA SINS
Rising
demnd
for
wter
cused
by
popultion
increse
nd
increses
Activity 15
in
consumption
hve
plced
gret
stress
on
wter
resources.
Evaluate the eectiveness of
●
Floods
on
the
Mississippi
nd
its
tributries
threten
people
nd
large dams.
economic
●
Globl
L TA
Communications and
ctivities.
demnd
increse
for
pressure
crops
on
such
wter
s
cotton,
corn
nd
soy
bens
will
resources.
social skills
●
Divide
into
nd
Pln
on
B.
the
two
for
lrge
A
is
in
dms,
B
of
nd
lrge
fvour
is
A
debte
dvntges
disdvntges
dms.
groups,

of
ginst
them.
Much
The
civil
six
reduction,
s
gol
these
Wtershed
vilbility,
societies
mesures
infrstructure
genertions.
Mississippi
One
wter
Gret
wter
future
nd
the
the
Americ’s
increse
for
of
to
It
key
res
nd
is
to
support
provide
The
nd
bundnt
wter
for
the
provide
qulity
cross
The
nd
nd
the
run-off
industry
nd
in
sh
The
in
from
is
the
AGWI
ooding
lso
nd
bsins
or
businesses
incresing
plin
in
The
the
USA
’s
grin
nd
condition,
nd
investment
deteriorte,
nd
some
forms
42
Fe A .40: AGWI Repor t Card
of
in
in
the
in
on
the
one
most
over
is
ood
investment
losses
of
from
in
the
of
the
country’s
per
cent
for
hs
will
been
of
the
poor

lck
As
become
seek
of
globl
mny
reltively
my
USA
’s
routes.
infrstructure.
delys
bsin
the
60
products
crriers
ood
the
oods.
lso
there
cpcity
communities
commercil
re
hypoxi
thret
nturl
when
However,
dms
of
high
nd
drmticlly
reduced
nd
res.
of
reduce
The
locted
crries
exports
to
ooding
is
importnt
consumption.
locks
their
Mississippi
rivers
cuse
Nevertheless,
Mississippi
frm
nturl
result
developments
control
2011
most
The
s
of
increse.
ood
the
re
risk
the
river
Mexico.
risk.
nd
The
bsin.
of
griculture
increses
wter
The
of
turn
vried
prt
to
ttempts
lose
store
very
the
mjor
ood
to
plin.

in
services.
Mississippi
is
risk
ecosystems,
dringe
from
Gulf
ooding
when
is
threts
nutrient
A.40)
nd
which
estern
qulity
mnging
recretion.
ecosystem
gretest
wter
of
productive
Lower
use
businesses
(Figure
nd
Mississippi
to
its
control
ecosystems
the
the
Poor

ood
industrilized
bsin
re
Crd
vegettion,
mny
of
project
sfegurd
chllenges
economy
nd

replcing.
cdemics,
Report
helthy
wildlife
is
nd
ecosystems,
supply,
needs
(AGWI)
qulity
AGWI
enhnce
sh,
nd
government,
concern:
trnsporttion,
its
solutions
bsin.
of
ging
Inititive
improve
involves
help
dringe
is
of
fcilities
longer,
lterntive
trnsport/lterntive
routes.
4
Demnd
for
popultion
demnd,
groundwter
increses
long
with
nd
n
nd
surfce
stndrds
ging
wter
of
will
living
increse
improve.
infrstructure,
W A T E r
will
s
The
m A n A g E m E n T
F u T u r E S

the
increse
the
Tae A .7: Ecosystem services
provided by drainage basins
growing
pressure
Provisioning services
on
wter
millions
resources.
of
people,
hydroelectric
production.
becoming
Another
im
the
sh,
bot,
helps
for
relible
of
from
Wter
Demnd
recretion-bsed
nd
nd
power.
less
lke
Wter
is
in
AGWI
is
jog
or
lso
is
to
economies
used
provides
some
for
cses
but
per
the
cent
nd
wter
of
the
for
ntion’s
supplies
the
qulity
recretion.
nd
Every
rivers.
This
of
domestic use, and agriculture
re
and industrial use).
life
is
for
people
enhncing
yer,

Water (quantity and quality) for
consumptive use (for drinking,
industril
contminted.
mintining
long
25
drinking
irrigtion
incresing
enrich
by
cycle
bsin
produce
some
wetlnd-ssocited
hike,
to
wter
or
the
nd
riverine,
millions
of
people
multi-billion
Water for non-consumptive
use (for generating power and
transpor t/navigation).
dollr
Aquatic organisms for food and
recretionl
economy
tht
is
vitl
to
mny
smll
communities
nd
medicines.
businesses.
Spp t se vces
Costl
wetlnds
in
Louisin
enjoy

vried
biodiversity,
provide
Role in nutrient cycling (role
importnt
storm
protection
from
hurricnes
nd
se
surges,
nd
re
in maintenance of ood-plain

nursery
for
the
commercil
sefood
industry.
However,
Louisin’s
fer tility), primary production.
wetlnds
ccount
80percent
12,000
of
the
squre
wetlnds
re
for
bout
lost
40
per
wetlnds.
kilometres
growing.
of
On
cent
Some
wetlnds
the
of
75
USA
’s
squre
re
whole,
the
lost
wetlnds
kilometres
nnully.
construction
of
but
of
Lousin’s
However,
dms
on
some
Predator/prey relationships and
ecosystem resilience.
the
Regulatory services
Mississippi
hs
river
reduced
the
nd
its
tributries,
mount
of
nd
sediment
rising
tht
the
reches
levels
of
costl
the
levees,
Maintenance of water quality
wetlnds.
(natural ltration and water
treatment).
Wetlands
A
wetland
There
6
per
for
re
cent
those
viewed
is

dened
wide
of
the
who
s
vriety
world’s
live
on
fvourbly,
“lnd
of
hbitts
them.
nd
with
wetlnd
for
soils
nd
of
re
n
wetlnds
the
permnently
These
provide
However,
much
tht
hbitts.
20th
ccount
importnt
hve
century
not
ooded”.
for
bout
resource
lwys
they
hve
been
Buering of ood ows, erosion
control through water–land
interactions and ood control
infrastructure.
been
Cultural services
destroyed,
ltered,
settlements,
incresing
of
trnsport
pressure
sustinble
level
nd
drined
t

s
nd

nd
removed
industril
result
mngement
of
of
mke
wy
developments.
globl
wrming.
wetlnds
regionl/interntionl
to
show
level
to
for
griculture,
Wetlnds
re
Nevertheless,
tht
it
is
mnge
possible
wetlnds
under
exmples
t

locl
Recreation (river rafting,
kayaking, hiking and shing as
a spor t).
sustinbly.
Tourism (river viewing).
The
Rmsr
Convention,
denes
wetlnds
nturl
or
or
owing,
fresh,
nine
marsh,
permnent
brckish
there
re
subdivided
humn-mde
interntionl
of
or
or
ones,
30
such
Thus,
costl,
to
conserve
with
inlnd
of
reservoirs,
nd
or
to
wetlnds,
wter,
wter
ccording
ctegories
s
trety
peatland
temporry,
slt.”
mrine,
into
fen,
tht
the
whether
is
wetlnd
brrges
nd
satisfaction from free-owing
rivers).
Rmsr
mn-mde
nturl
sttic
Existence values (personal
types
L TA
wetlnd,
n
“res
rticil,
clssiction,
of
s
nd
grvel
Research skills
pits.
Visit
Wetlnds
now
represent
only
6
per
cent
of
the
Erth’s
surfce,
of
view
30percent
re
bogs,
26
per
cent
re
fens,
20
per
cent
re
the
website

cse
cent
re
ood
plins
nd
2
per
cent
re
lkes.
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is
study
estimted
dringe
1900
there
ws
twice
s
much
wetlnd
re
s
there
ws
in
for
benets.
provide
These
protection,
retention
include
ood
of
mny
importnt
wter
mitigtion,
crbon,
socil,
storge,
shoreline
nutrients,
economic
groundwter
stbiliztion,
sediments
nd
nd
environmentl
rechrge,
erosion
pollutnts.
the
2000.
Murry-Drling
Wetlnds
bsin
tht
mngement
in
on
swamps,
integrted
15per
to
which
bsin
in
Austrli.
storm
control,
Wetlnds
nd
lso
43
4
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
produce
BA SINS
goods
opportunities
Wetlnd
importnt
for
beds
the
very
Pht A .10:
Wetlands
sh,
re
for
Wetlnds
the

re
bout
s
in
big
humn
for
remove
wter
highly
of
three
qulity.
regulte
re
nd
clen
wter,
resources.
min
over-top
exmple,
toxins
s
Wetlnds
wter
lso
such
wildlife
types:
re
Flood-plin
their
bnks,
wter
known
excessive
qulity.
s
nutrients
the
increse
in
droughts
conditions
believed
to
be
evportion
on
for
ecologicl
including
sport
niches
ecosystems
wter
construction,
the
nture
lso
for
pet
hunting,
oods.
rise
nd
nd
to
nd
For
cent
per
for
cent
so
such
chnges
will
of
be
nd
provide
drinking,
nd
fuel
birdwtching,
intensity
exmple,
levels
of
in
precipittion,
specic
rnge
is
North
such
chnge
Americ
per
on
uncertinty
events,
of
will
wetlnds.
dependent
there
+/−10
in
long-term
extreme
the
for
chnges
s
highly
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precipittion,
for
nd
function
dpt
pre-industril
per
levels,
vilbility,
chnges.
frequency
from
wter
wter
se-level
these
+/−50
of
wetlnd
shing,
ecosystems
nd
+/−20
nd
timber
ffect
on
of
number
of
consumption
dependent
wetlnd
lrge
sports.
tht
extent

include
temperture,
nd
storms,
climtic
nd
by
roofs,
uses
inuence
bility
rte
into
rivers
Wetlnds
plnts,
they
nd
when
components
thtched
conditions
increses
The
Mny
direct
for
photogrphy
hve
since
chrcterized
Recretionl
climtic
wetlnd
nd
production.
quntity
wter
vlue
pet
grouped
nd
downstrem.
regultors
reeds
wood.
wter
store
economic
timber,
be
hbitts,
of
other
diverse.
resources

signicnt
sheries,
wter.
Wetlnds
re
risk
nd

generlly
of
exmple,
ood
importnt
from
cn
provision
regultors
wetlnds,
reducing
hve
tourism,
functions
regultion,
Reed
tht
for
cent
in
re
for
run-off.
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The
Convention
Wterfowl
the
plce
of
its
instruments
The
●
convention
of
mintin
●
orgnize
in
re
excess
wetlnd
●
of
30
thn

s
500
1971)
This
is
Importnce
Rmsr
one
trety
of
the
lid
wetlnds
especilly
Convention
most
the
nd
importnt
bsis
more
s
fter
for
thn
60
Convention.
signtories
interntionl
chrcter
so
s
nture
to
to:
importnce
for
inclusion
in

list
of
their
chieve
listed
the
Rmsr
wise
use
of
sites
ll
of
the
reserves.
wetlnd
hectres
signicnt
or
the
the
territory
million
fun
in
s
conserving
the
plnning
their
Irn
to
sites
interntionl
support
in
ecologicl
wetlnds
more
of
peculir
44
on
Interntionl
wetlnds.
to
of
Rmsr
their
designte
There
requires
the
wetlnds
up
wetlnds
so-clled
●
●
signed
of
referred
in
conserving
coopertion
hve
designte
Wetlnds
(usully
rtiction
for
interntionl
countries
on
Hbitt
of
sites
importnce,
popultion
or
on
the
wetlnd

of
site
Rmsr
hbitt.
To
list,
be
covering
considered

must:
wterfowl,
thretened
species,
or
4
●
be

●
be
physiclly
regionlly
protection
representtive
nd
nd
exmple
dministrtively
mngement
of

cpble
type
of
of
W A T E r
m A n A g E m E n T

wetlnd
beneting
F u T u r E S
from
Tae A .8: The value of wetlands
Functions
mesures.
Flood control
A
distinguishing
chrcteristic
of
the
Rmsr
Convention
on
Wetlnds
is
Sediment accretion and
the
doption
of
the
concept
of
“wise
use”
s

prt
of
the
ide
of
nture
deposition
conservtion.
for
of
the
the
The
benet
nturl
of
wise
use
mnkind
properties
of
wetlnds
in
of

wy
the
is
their
sustinble
comptible
ecosystem.
In
with
this
the
utiliztion
mintennce
context,
Groundwater recharge
sustainable
Groundwater discharge
utilization
is
dened
s
the
continuous
“humn
use
of

wetlnd
so
tht
it
my
yield
Water purication
its
gretest
potentil
Wetlnds
nd
the
to
re
meet
one
totl
of
benet
the
needs
the
most
economic
to
present
nd
spirtions
productive
vlue
genertions
(TEV)
of
of
future
ecosystems
wetlnds
while
hs
in
mintining
genertions”.
the
often
world,
Storage of organic matter
Food-chain suppor t/cycling
been
Water transpor t
underestimted.
This
TEV
includes:
Tourism/recreation
●
direct
such
●
use
s
vlues
of
recretion
indirect
use
provided
nd
vlues
by
products
such
s
sh
nd
fuel
wood,
nd
services
Products
trnsport
such
s
ood
control
nd
storm
Fisheries
protection
mngroves
Game
●
option
vlues,
which
could
be
discovered
in
the
future
Forage
●
intrinsic
vlues,
the
vlue
of
the
wetlnd
“of
its
own
right”
with
its
Timber
ttributes.
Water
A
study
of
the
lrge
Hdeji-Nguru
wetlnd
in
rid
northern
Nigeri
Attributes
found
tht
grzing
the
wter
lnds
yield
of
in
nd
the
wetlnd
nturl
wter
being
crop
yielded

irrigtion
diverted
from
prot
tht
the
in
ws
sh,
30
wetlnd
rewood,
times
into

cttle
greter
costly
thn
Biological diversity
irrigtion
Culture and heritage
project.
A
provided
by
different
per
rinforest.
ttempt
hectre
Much
of
to
put

ecosystems
per
this
yer,
dollr
worldwide
seven
vlue
vlue
times
comes
on
put
more
from
ood
the
ecologicl
wetlnds
thn
tht
top
of
services
t
the
lmost
tropicl
L TA
$15,000
recent
Research skills
prevention.
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Nturl
nd
cuses
other
humn
for
storms,
wetlnd
nd
interference,
wetlnds
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of
nd
cuses
pet,
dm
include
erosion.
either
the
grvel,
se-level
However,
direct
construction
include
col,
loss
or
cuse
conversion
phosphte
nd
the
indirect.
the
for
rise,
min
The
gretest
drought,
cuse
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reclmtion
loss
quculture,
other
hs
mterils,
of
of
t
re
hbitt.
wetlnds
In
other
cses
it
hs
been
down
to
humn
Rmsr
investigte
closest
plces
re
to
website
you
sites
you
hve
interested
or
tht
in
visited
or
in.
groundwter
Visit
bstrction.
the
http://www.rmsr.org/
nd
of
wetlnd
mining
nd
hurricnes
the
website
t
conict.
http://www.ces.fu.edu/
riverwoods/kissimmee.php
Community-level responses to water management
to
According
ccess
to
Nerly
2008
WterAid
sfe
hlf
live
people
to
wter.
of
in
with
the
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sfe
there
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people
nd
is
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who
Chin.
wter.
re
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one
gined
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million
in
ten
ccess
1981
vrious
people
to
of
in
the
wter
WterAid
world
world’s
to
lern
bout
the
without
restortion
of
the
Kissimmee
River.
popultion.
between
hs
pproches
the
1990
provided
wter
21
nd
million
mngement.
Water saving
There
wter.
re
mny
Tking

wys
of
shower
sving
rther
wter.
thn

Smller-cpcity
bth
sves
wter.
bths
hold
less
Wter-efcient
45
4
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
showerheds
re.
Tps
sinks.
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Tps
short
produce
with

low
with
time
less
tht
Products
Lbelling
wys
of
off
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tps
sving

minute.
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yer,
wter
wter
A
tps
when
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used
energy
tht
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feel
tted
mechnisms
thn
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use
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turn
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off
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use
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mny
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my
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wter
to
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it
py
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of
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in
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people
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suppliers
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rst-ever
ions
brekthroughs
$0.80
Seawater
46
in
deslinted
between
4
used
mobile
inltrtion,
monitoring,
inltration
silver
enbles
membrnes
smrt
cubic
plnt
expensive,
mount
ws
of
metre
with
energy:
of
opened
wter.
t
the
reverse
round
Britin’s
Thmes
to
re
4
Gtewy
in
Wter
Singpore,
2005,
is
science
cn
processes,
for
In
only
costly
of
nd
leks
griculturl
to
hve
dischrged,
wter.
resource
for
lern
to
being
processes
using
miniml
mimicking
cn
these
explored
plnt
by
in
which
energy.
biologicl
potentilly
be
derived
cent
in
estimted
tht
distribution
networks.
will
million
on
help
compnies
re
to
not
wter
to
ensure
instruments,
wirelessly
llow
cubic
Leks
stretched
Electronic
connected
systems
45
networks.
pressure
technologies
of
the

in
urbn
such
centrlized
compnies
to
detect
nd
into
res,
rivers
promise
re
irrigation
even
to
in
is
used
pproch
systems
dvnced
treted,
nd
nd
now
turn,
freshwter
intelligent
by
to
the
wter
could
bring
countries.
dequtely
genertion
in
world’s
more
precision
developed
sewge
re,
is
nd
esturies
trnsform

source
removing
reducing
by
of
or
used
to
s
drinking
50
to
per
is
into

wter.
be
cent
still
often
irrigtion
wstewter
nutrients
up
economies,
wstewter
used
the
Sludge
s
energy
tretment.
by-product
and
tret
tretment
biologicl
increse
supply
deploying
industry
treatment
they
Applying
exmple,
unexpected
frcturing
solution
deslintion
F u T u r E S
quicker.
per
energy
for
One
solutions
in
sensors,
technologies
nd
An
70
living
fertilizers
it
dy
monitoring
by
digesters,
required
lone,
wter
much
their
for
the
effectively
every
untreted,
New
of
2010.
sewter
sewter
engineering
coustic
frmers
people
not
extrct
monitoring
industry.
mngement
Mny
wy
lost
their
Approximtely
benets
sh
compnies,
cloud-bsed
pinpoint
do
is
Smart
pressure
in
rst
mimicking
countries
for
qulity
nd

its
m A n A g E m E n T
deslintion.
wter
resources.
the
nd
nd
developing
of
–
innovtive
sewter
metres
s
plnts
Works
opened
biomimicry
mngrove
If
Tretment
which
W A T E r
hs
from
been
recycling
high
the
explosion
demnd
for
facilities .
volumes
of
wter,
As
it
of
highly
these
will
the
globl
mobile
hydrulic
water
technologies
led
to
cheper,
develop
more
nd
potble
systems.
Zoning
Zoning
in
reltes
order
dry
to
res
rechrge.
of
in
of
the
zones
there
strems,
been
or
to
for
lso
ws
high
thereby
wter
Qulity
chnce
incresing
Between
66
per
s
to
the
the
2004
stble
cent
of
im
The
nitrogen
nd
or
nd
be
2007,
reduced
nitrte
t
groundwter
70
is
imed
t
vulnerable
these
The
into
elds
the
policy
concentrtions
per
risk
strems.
to
wshed
eutrophiction.
the
Directive
Nitrate
rivers
some
to
reduce
legisltion
fertilizers
would
of
quifers
Nitrtes
(EU)
development
feture
nd
qulity.
to
from
llow
1991
Union
next
of
to

qulity
nitrogen
risk
been
is
wter
elds
pply
protected
hs
wter
Europen
such
remined
t
The
improving
not
re
This
mintin
of
nd
dvised

tht
qulity.
over-bstrction.
identied,
were
res,
decdes.
pieces
pollution
successful.
surfce
sites.
due
or
wter
my
erliest
were
Frmers
zones,
USA
Zoning
controlling
s
the
subsidence
one
to
sfegurd
cent
monitoring
of
hs
in
monitored
points
is
stble
improving.
47
4
OPTION
A
F R E S H WAT E R
–
DR A IN A GE
BA SINS
Water purication
Wter
is
t
puriction
for
purpose.
biologicl
include
is
the
contminnts
ltrtion,
processes
such
s
Orgniztion,
tht
for
wter
since
successful
Snow
hd
use
used
it
spred
it
rpidly
is
nother
livestock
of
n
in
It
is
1
nd
1854
to
mny
exmple
to
is
the
still
hrmful
of
wter
people
disinfect
tret
This
occultion.
wter
being
ccess
puried
lso
in

to
of
ws
s
mde
t
World
lter
The
rst
John
London,
of
tht
disinfectant
Deslintion
nd

lter.
Soho,
chemicl
the
when
type
it
solids,
drinking
used
type
common
tht
puriction
re
to
been
supply
microorgnisms.
so
According
hs
supply
most
of
there
common
wter
the
lck
Snd
most
wter
suspended
methods
distilltion;
qulity.
the
from
chemicls,
Physicl
nd
billion
still
chlorine
choler.
kills
over
impurities
include
gses.
cceptble
1804.
of
nd
chlorintion
supply
of
my
sedimenttion
Helth
is
removl
Impurities
of
for
s
sewter
humn
nd
consumption.
Rainwater harvesting
Wter
harvesting
drins
wy
chieved
in
or
mny
●
irrigtion
●
covering
refers
to
evportes.
of
wys,
for
individul
expnses
mking
of
use
Efcient
of
use
vilble
or
storge
wter
of
before
wter
cn
it
be
exmple:
plnts
wter
rther
with
thn
plstic
whole
or
elds
chemicls
to
reduce
evportion
●
storge
reduce
of
Substntil
cost

Wter
into
use
In
soil,
nd
vlley
grvel-lled
bottomlnds
recession
ims
to
frming
cpture
conserve
dringe
trp
Check

in
reservoirs
(gin
to
losses).
re
suited
involves
the
for
irrigtion
plnting
of
with
crops
low-
fter
nd
moisture
chnnel
in
the

root
greter
zone
shre
where
of
rinfll
crops
cn
it.
llowed
less
of
Flood
hrvesting
the
directly
nd
underground
recedes.
mny
cn
res
pumps.
ood
wter
evportion
lrge
to
to

eld,
re
sediment
constructing
run-off,
in
smll-scle
nd

through
during
£250)
of
stored
percolte
dms
thn
bsins,
mounts

tnk
the
ood.
typiclly
or
tht
They
lst
to
re
for
cross
cn
smll
soil
dms
dms
which
chep
to
ve
hedwters
chnnelled
for
the
designed
bout
be
reservoir
rechrge
re
strem
either
lter
use,
or
groundwter.
to
trp
construct
yers.
wter
(generlly
Some
re
Pht A .11: Water butt
built
entirely
from
mnufctured
locl
debris,
while
others
my
be
built
from
bricks.
Activity 16
Gnsu
province
Explain how a water butt and a
rinwter
check dam can capture water.
tht
ll
48
Chin
hrvesting
new
residents.
in
In
nd
projects.
construction
contrst,
in
north-est
In
Brzil
Bermud,
includes
Colordo,
it
sufcient
USA,
is
hve

the
legl
rinwter
wter
lrgest
rooftop
requirement
hrvesting
hrvesting
ws
for
its
restricted
4
by
lw
those
until
who
2009
hd
–
it
rights
ws
to
believed
tke
to
wter
reduce
from
the
the
W A T E r
vilbility
dringe
of
m A n A g E m E n T
wter
F u T u r E S
to
bsin.
Concepts in contex t
There
re
wter
scrcity.
such
s
mny
the
individul
schemes
locl.
It
World
plns,
my
is
through
possibilities
These
Bnk,
for
be
for
from
to
to
restore
ctivities.
mngement
strtegies
multi-government
smll-scle
exmple
for
interntionl
possible
humn
vry

in
community
borehole
scle

wheres
environments
River
or
is
plns
wter
others
tht
restortion
to
reduce
orgniztions,
hve
or
butt.
re
been
possible
Some
very
but
hrmed
expensive.

Some
lrge
dms
re
very
expensive
nd
my
led
to
Pht A .12: Check dam, Eastern
unforeseen
Cape, South Africa
consequences,
wter
losses
for
due
exmple
to
the
spred
of
diseses
nd
incresed
evportion.
Check your understanding
1.
Outline
wys
in
which
it
is
possible
to
sve
6.
Outline
the
dvntges
7.
Identify
n
8.
Identify
one
9.
Outline
10.
Briey
of
wetlnds.
wter.
2.
How
3.
Dene
the
4.
Briey
explin
my
cn
pricing
term
promote
help
reduce
“rinwter
how
two
greter
wter
integrted
dringe
bsin
scheme.
loss?
lrge
dm
scheme.
hrvesting”.
new
ccess
the
dvntges
of
lrge
dms.
technologies
to
explin
the
disdvntges
of
lrge
freshwter.
dms.
5.
Explin
why
mny
wetlnds
hve
disppered.
Synthesis and evaluation
●
The
mteril
humn
prts.
led
●
Wter
scle
the
●
For
to
in
There
re
from
such
cn
by
shown
the
in
tke
the
lower
plce
Authority,
how
nturl
dringe
in
the
mngement
perspectives
interntionl
World
frmers
cycling
grphiclly
of
t

my
bsin
upper
prt
prt
of
the
vriety
cover
wheres
of

processes
my
of
ffect

bsin
nd
other
my
bsin.
scles.
wide
individuls
Lrge-
re,
my
such
s
collect
butts.
the
s
hs
deforesttion
Vlley
different
nd
prt
dischrge
bsin
wter
rnging
Wter
chpter
one
mngement
dringe
Ntions
●
in
exmple,
Tennessee
users
this
incresed
wter
–
in
ctivities
nd
wter
mens
of
wter
development
orgniztions
Bnk,
nd
on
to
other
ntionl
such
s
the
governments
schemes
United
nd
end
consumers.
systems
ows
nnotted
cn
be
sketches
represented
nd
systems/ow
digrms.
49
1
E X Am
PrACTiCE
E C I T C A R P
The
mps
totl
show
vilble
wter
withdrwls
in
1995
nd
2025
s

percentge
of
wter.
M A X E
1995
2025
Water
withdrawal
more
than
(a)
as
a
percentage
40%
(i)
of
total
from
Stte
the
wter,
in
(ii)
Describe
(iii)
Outline
(b)
Explin
to
wter
the
from
10%
withdrwl,
nd
in
pttern
chnges
1995
why
water
40%
Chin
two
between
(iv)
available
20%
nd
ccess
to
20%

in
wter
less
percentge
1995
(2
nd
withdrwl
withdrwls
2005.
to
s
Indi
of
to
of
than
of
totl
2025.
in
over
10%
(2
1995.
40
vilble
mrks)
(3
per
mrks)
cent
mrks)
freshwter
is
importnt
to
humns.
(3
mrks)
Either
Exmine
benets.
the
(10
view
tht
the
cost
of
dms
outweighs
their
potentil
mrks)
Or
Exmine
50
the
role
of
humn
ctivities
in
incresing
ood
risk.
(10
mrks)
O P T I O N
B
O C E A N S
A N D
C O A S TA L
Key terms
Coasal
Oceans
cover
surface
and
over
are
of
70
per
great
cent
of
the
importance
Earth’s
to
humans
All areas from the deep oceans to inland
in
agns
M A R G I N S
a
number
of
ways.
This
optional
theme
areas that are aected by coastal
provides
an
introduction
to
the
physical
processes (for example land–sea
characteristics
and
processes
of
the
oceans
breezes) and that aect the coastline
with
particular
reference
to
the
atmosphere–
(for example sources of sediment).
ocean
ENSO –
A reversal of the normal atmospheric
El Nño
circulation in the southern Pacic
Soen
Ocean, bringing warm water and low
Oscllaon
pressure to the eastern Pacic, and
role
link,
that
concentrating
oceans
conditions.
resource
This
play
Issues
bases
theme
also
help
the
important
inuencing
arising
are
will
in
on
from
the
climatic
oceans
as
considered.
develop
an
cool water and high pressure to the
understanding
of
the
concepts
of
place,
western Pacic. It occurs once every
processes,
power
and
geographical
2–10 years.
possibilities.
La Nña
An intensication of normal
atmospheric processes, for example
increased ooding in normally humid
areas and
increased drought in areas
concepts
belts
There
including
and
coastal
(exclusive
will
also
systems
landform
economic
be
more
(ocean
systems),
zones)
and
specialist
conveyor
the
territories
Global
commons.
that are relatively dry.
Esac
Eustatic changes are worldwide
and
changes in sea level caused by the
sosac
growth and decay of ice caps, thereby
sea-level
locking up and later releasing water
canges
from ice. Isostatic changes are localized
Key questions
1.
How
do
Earth’s
changes in the relative level of the land
2.
How
physical
atmospheric
are
coastal
interaction
and sea, caused by the depression
processes
with
and
places
the
link
ocean
shaped
the
systems?
by
their
ocean?
of the Earth’s crust, such as due to
3.
How
powerful
are
different
stakeholders
the weight of an ice sheet. Following
in
relation
to
coastal
margin
management?
deglaciation, the crust beneath the
4.
What
are
the
future
possibilities
weight begins to rise again, and relative
for
managing
the
oceans
as
a
Global
sea level therefore falls.
commons?
Ad vancng
Coastlines that are growing/getting
and
larger either due to deposition or a fall in
eeang
sea level are called advancing coasts.
coaslnes
Retreating coasts are those that are
getting smaller/disappearing either due
to erosion or to a rise in sea level.
Global
Resources that are outside the
coons
reach of any one nation, for example
oceans, the atmosphere and
Antarctica. Global commons may be
exploited or degraded and so need to
be managed carefully.
51
1
Ocean–atmosphere interactions
Conceptual understanding
Key qeson
How
do
physical
processes
link
the
Earth’s
atmospheric
and
ocean
systems?
Key conen
●
The
operation
nutrient
and
conveyor
●
of
ocean
energy
Niño
and
economic
●
The
●
The
La
interactions
Niña)
and
their
distribution
margins,
changing
dioxide
the
their
distribution,
importance
of
oceanic
associated
climatic,
with
ENSO
cycles
environmental
and
effects
formation,
coastal
including
and
belts
Atmosphere–oceanic
(El
currents,
transfers
(CO
)
including
role
of
and
and
oceans
the
physical
storm
as
impacts
a
impacts
of
hurricanes
on
surges
store
of
and
ocean
source
of
carbon
acidication
on
coral
reefs
2
Ocean currents
Surface
ocean
blowing
surface
ocean
pattern
of
these
circumpolar
in
the
is
distribution
to
on
piles
cause
the
water
western
bucket.
The
such
the
as
Stream
is
relatively
cold
ocean
equator.
western
Europe
Current
and
are
why
the
rather
as
across
the
British
west
hemisphere
rotation
like
in
exception
from
this
of
water
to
is
gyres
is
water
slopping
in
a
currents
transports
mild
the
east.
the
up
Atlantic.
have
and
earth
fast-owing
North
of
The
because
of
the
piles
particular
Isles
ow.
hemisphere
circulation
narrow
Stream
the
the
winds
pattern
circular
main
westward;
occurs
Gulf
The
Antarctica
of
prevailing
northern
northern
effect
of
dominant
roughly
the
Within
push
eastwards
the
move
move
Gulf
second.
would
move
Stream,
be
more
for
for
it,
like
to
the
the
the
cold
masses
instance,
the
the
of
from
from
huge
Current
dragged
important
away
away
Without
Benguela
waters
water
water
currents
warm
per
nutrient-rich
The
the
basins
often
in
is
The
The
heat
Gulf
winters
and
summers.
major
The
in
sea.
to
ocean
reason
currents
metres
currents
then
main
gyres)
around
The
oceans
of
as
inuence
B.1).
hemisphere.
and
dome.
ow
the
clockwise
current
Stream.
currents
The
distances.
cubic
and
cool
ocean
edge
Gulf
the
a
by
(Figure
ows
land
the
return
northwards
Warm
in
is
that
of
into
sea
(known
equivalent
up
caused
the
southern
current
of
water
are
currents
There
the
no
across
currents
anticlockwise
52
currents
steadily
of
surface
of
by
lands
The
Africa
offshore
energy
and
contrast,
over
transports
sub-Arctic.
In
towards
water
temperate
south-west
transfer
equator.
regions
55
of
the
long
million
north-
cold
Peru
bring
in
winds.
Ocean
nutrients.
1
O C E A N – A t m O S p h E r E
i N t E r A C t i O N S
JANUARY
t
f
i
r
ro
d
C
a
il
f
o
r
in
a
n
Equatorial
Equatorial
N
o
i
m
r
o
u
K
u
G
N
.
E
q
u
a
N.
t
Current
o
r
i
a
l
C
u
r
r
Countercurrent
e
n
t
N
G
u
i
n
.
E.
o
n
so
o
n
D
ri
Equatorial
Cur rent
ft
Equatorial
a
.
Current
e
r
r
u
E
q
u
a
to
ri
a
l
C
l
u
B
l
r
h
a
a
z
C
rru
tne
s
i
g
A
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
C
u
rr
e
n
t
.
C
m
b
o
l
d
t
)
S
o
u
th
eB
ugn
ale
n
(
H
u
t
P
e
r
u
Equatorial
M
Countercurr ent
e
C
Southern
w
S
a
e
r
t
S
f
l
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
Northern
h
t
r
o
aL
Current
S
i
A
ar
b
Pacific
w
o
.C
N.
O
y
a
D
c
i
t
n
a
l
t
Current
C
ir
c
u
m
p
o
r
la
An
tar
ctic
Ocean
currents
Cold
Warm
Speed
Less
(knots)
than
0.5
JUL
Y
D
t
u
i
c
a
Over
S
i
l
o
1.0
N
o
w
C
t
A
h
t
r
aL
c
t
0.5 –1.0
n
ar
b
fi
en
t
O
y
a
ro
d
ci
Pa
.
N
rr
f
i
w
o
.C
r
iS
o
r
u
t
S
r
m
a
e
K
f
l
u
G
N.
N
o
rt
rn
e
h
to
a
u
q
E
ri
al
rr
u
C
en
t
Equa
torial
Curre
nt
N.
S
Equatorial
Current
.
W
Equatorial
.
M
Equatorial
Countercurrent
o
Counter current
n
s
G
Equatorial
u
in
o
o
e
n
a
C
D
r
.
S.
i
f
Current
Equato rial
Current
t
t
u
r
B
e
n
g
u
le
a
e
P
Southern
r
u
r
H
e
(
n
b
C
ru
r
e
)
tn
u
g
A
B
t
r
C
ent
h
l
a
u
Curr
a
z
t
n
e
r
r
to rial
Equa
s
i
o
l
l
h
.
C
C
m
u
d
Sout
Circ
ump
ol ar
Current
An
tar
ctic

The
effect
they
raise
are
of
ocean
cold
the
westerly
or
temperature
winds).
example,
the
North
Europe.
average
their
as
the
areas
the
that
Labrador
reduce
to
for
summer
eastern
ocean
currents
of
to
Peru,
support
the
the
of
areas
the
Drift
areas
the
temperatures,
is
by
the
the
more
(Figure
only
if
aid
of
winter
than
ocean
upon
the
winter.
warmer
contrast,
currents.
coast
in
temperatures
24 °C
By
whether
regions
prevailing
noticeable
B.2).
north-east
but
depends
equatorial
only
raises
are
colder
off
from
(with
effect
latitude
made
Current
oceans
move
surface.
California
important
coast
pages
polar
Some
temperatures
currents
of
Cold
North
wind
For
of
than
there
the
are
currents
such
America
blows
from
may
the
sea
land.
Many
oor
of
Atlantic
line
are
on
Warm
However,
north-west
other
currents
warm.
Fge B.1: Ocean currents
of
Peru,
experience
upwelling
cold
rich
Such
and
water,
upwelling
south-west
sheries.
disappears
The
in
currents,
nutrients,
currents
Africa.
best-known
periodically
are
These
where
from
found
off
the
ocean
the
nutrient-rich
upwelling
during
the
El
coast
waters
current,
Niño
events
off
(see
56–58).
53
1
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
0
12
8
8
4
0
0
4
16
0
24
8
24
12
8
20
20
12
16
8
12
8
4
12
4
8
4
4
0
4
0
4
0
4
8
0
4
4
0
0
0
0
4
8
4
Solid
lines
southern
indicate
positive
hemispheres
properties
of
land
and
and
values,
also
water
the
in
and
broken
land/ocean
relation
to
lines
show
contrast
absorbing
in
negative
the
and
values.
northern
losing
Note
the
difference
hemisphere.
This
map
between
illustrates
the
the
northern
and
different
energy.

Fge B.2: Global temperature anomalies
Specic heat capacity
The
specic
heat
temperature
does
to
land
is
heat
B.3).
With
a
capacity
body.
land.
hotter
(Figure
night.
of
It
is
the
takes
However,
than
the
Places
sea
that
increasing
it
by
are
heat
from
the
states
15 C
Coastal
cooled
(warm)
sea
east
heat
In
slowly
Land
absorbs
heat
sea
the
takes
up
water
than
are
sea
it
heat
this
Ocean
to
the
cool
two
lose
sea
by
effect
to
raise
water
heat.
by
day,
is
the
than
it
Hence,
night
but
mild
by
reduced.
The
west
with
the
other
rst
is
main
cold
is
warm
atmospheric
surface
warm
surface
water
surface
water
in
water
the
with
both
cold
cases,
from
the
surface
the
water
warm
in
the
in
the
surface
west.
causes
low
quickly
low
heat
for
colder
the
Pacic
pressure.
Outgoing
to
air
(cool)
absorbs
but
to
exist.
the
east;
region
by
energy
longer
from
the
of
energy
sun
in
Sea
day,
distance
Summer
10 C
takes
close
In
Incoming
amount
more
As
pressure
air
blows
there
is
from
a
high
pressure
movement
of
to
water
Earth
Winter
from
the
These
Coastal
0 C
region
warmed
by
sea
warm
to
the
warm
warmer
surface
area.
water
region,
exposing
colder
into
deep
water
air
(cool)
behind
Sea
area
push
(cold)
the
5 C
colder
winds
loses
heat
them,
and
so
the
process
repeats.
slowly
Land
loses
heat
rapidly
In
addition,
This
deep,
there
is
the
grand-scale
ocean
conveyor
circulation
of
the
belt.
ocean’s

Fge B.3: The eect of the sea on temperatures in coastal margins
waters
to
effectively
colder
regions,
transfers
such
as
heat
from
northern
the
tropics
Europe.
The ocean conveyor belt
In
addition
there
54
is
to
also
a
the
transfer
transfer
of
of
energy
energy
by
by
wind
deep
sea
and
by
ocean
currents.
currents,
Oceanic
1
convection
occurs
from
polar
regions
where
cold
O C E A N – A t m O S p h E r E
salty
water
sinks
i N t E r A C t i O N S
into
Activity 1
the
is
depths
found
and
in
the
temperature
left
behind
sweeps
the
from
the
around
much
bring
reverse
the
ocean
at
a
depth
to
waters
the
the
give
North
of
the
the
conveyor
is
of
up
about
4
and
their
km.
the
heat
This
to
form
It
then
spreads
sinks
Describe the temperature
anomalies shown in
Figure B.2:
into
a.
across the equator
b.
about 60° Nor th.
Surface
Indian
winds
then
1.
a
water
Ocean.
the
cold
at
seawater
dense
Indian
water
water
ice
the
cold
from
to
densest
hence
This
Atlantic
ocean
belt
freezes
denser.
Pacic
Atlantic.
The
freshwater,
North
deep
equator.
seawater
ice
therefore
Atlantic,
convection
the
and
water
These
across
Here
The
the
and
which
and
blow
2.
How do you account for
these anomalies?
starts
current.
operates
in
this
way,
the
L TA
Because
of
towards
area.
−2°C.
saltier
warm
Oceans.
Canada
way
Antarctica
basins
currents
Pacic
is
its
Antarctic
of
round
deep
makes
North
Research and
communication skills
Atlantic
more
salt
is
warmer
evaporation
in
it
due
to
causes
it
to
where
it
mixes
in
the
sink.
Temperature,
than
the
the
North
North
Atlantic.
evaporation,
Eventually
with
more
salinity
and
Pacic,
the
and
and
pressure
there
The
is
its
is
water
therefore
water
water
so
it
is
left
affect
the
is
behind
much
transported
density
proportionally
has
denser,
into
the
more
which
Pacic
reduced.
density
of
Use
or
a
search
other
investigate
water
masses
of
different
densities
are
important
the
of
oceanic
in
contrasting
conveyor
in
the
Give
a
the
ocean
water
(denser
water
sinks).
As
temperature
becomes
less
dense.
As
salinity
increases,
water
pressure
deep
mass
water
mass
densities
increases,
of
water
is
less
meet,
is
water
very
dense.
the
becomes
dense,
When
denser
large
water
denser.
whereas
a
water
mass
slips
A
cold,
warm,
masses
under
becomes
highly
less
with
the
the
two-minute
outlining
importance
ocean
belts.
saline,
saline,
surface
different
less
of
denser.
conveyor
As
belts
of
increases,
the
water
parts
layering
presentation
of
to
importance
seawater.
world.
Large
engine
resource
dense
Activity 2
mass.
Describe the movement of cold
These
responses
to
density
are
the
reason
for
some
of
the
deep
ocean
and warm water in the ocean
circulation
models.
conveyor belt, as shown by
Figure B.4.
Driven
by
changes
in
temperature
and
salinity,
Cold
deep
Warm
ocean
currents
are
moving
to
latitudes
moving
from
the
and
cold
toward
the
Known
as
Some
that
back
this
which
northern
climate.
scientists
speculate
Equator
warming
weaken
circulation
some
includes
Stream,
global
could
upper
‘thermohaline
moderates
Europe’s
atmosphere
the
then
phenomenon
Gulf
current
to
equator.
circulation,’
the
release
motion,
heat
equator
surface
in
Heat
constant
current
large
this
and
regions
leave
relatively
cooler.

Fge B.4: The ocean conveyor belt
55
1
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
El Niño and La Niña
a.
High-altitude
flow
El
Niño
–
eastern
Rising
air
Descending
flow
“Christ
that
Child”
occurs
–
at
is
a
warming
intervals
of
the
between
air
two
Surface
Low
the
Pacic
High
and
10
Originally,
years,
El
and
Niño
lasts
for
referred
to
up
a
to
two
warm
years.
current
that
Equator
pressure
pressure
SOUTH
appeared
off
the
coast
of
Peru,
but
we
now
know
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
Several
up
to
degrees
1m
Pacific
warmer
higher
than
in
that
Ocean
this
current
is
part
of
a
much
larger
system.
and
Eastern
Pacific
Normal conditions in the Pacic Ocean
120
180
120
60
Upwelling
cold
encourages
water
growth
brings
of
nutrients
plankton
and
and
The
Walker
that
occurs
circulation
is
the
east–west
circulation
fish
in
low
latitudes.
Near
South
America
stocks
winds
cold,
High-altitude
b.
blow
rich
Fish
catches
down
pushed
Rising
contrast,
warm
of
the
flow
into
the
western
Pacic.
surface
water
Normally
temperatures
(SSTs)
in
the
western
sea
Pacic
air
are
Surface
By
upwelling
20%
surface
air
High
waters.
causing
flow
is
Descending
offshore,
over
28 °C,
causing
an
area
of
low
pressure
and
Low
producing
Equator
pressure
high
rainfall.
By
contrast,
over
coastal
pressure
SOUTH
South
America
SSTs
are
lower,
high
pressure
exists,
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
Drought
in
Australia’s
Pacific
green
Ocean
and
in
bush
are
dry.
belt
Floods
Increase
conditions
in
fires
Peru
and
Chile
El Niño conditions in the Pacic Ocean
120
180
120
Warm
60
currents
force
fish
to
During
move
El
Niño
episodes
the
pattern
is
reversed.
Water
of
temperatures
in
the
eastern
Pacic
rise
as
warm

Fge B.5: Normal conditions shown in (a) and El Niño
water
from
the
western
Pacic
ows
into
the
eastern
conditions in the South Pacic Ocean (b)
Pacic.
During
ENSO
events,
SSTs
over
(El
Niño
Southern
Oscillation)
Source: NOAA
the
Pacic.
over
the
west.
America,
pressure
whereas
Some
Niño
is
In
event
estimated
July
2015
(NOAA)
return
than
El
In
on
US
in
and
any
general,
storm
on
the
Coast
experience
could
oil
believed
Niño
countries
have
over
Pacic
further
high
coastal
The
21,000
across
pressure
South
experience
disastrous.
than
and
air
warm,
1997–98
people
over
and
caused
the
El
40
Niño
decreased
26.5°C
due
beneted
to
were
1°C
higher
needed
began
events.
Atlantic
by
2°C
to
for
in
not
benet
prolonged
production
and
its
if
an
El
drought,
higher
the
hurricane
form
Farms
milder
as
Increased
storm
–
more
Pacic
activity,
in
the
US
and
as
$15
so
Niño
intensies.
coffee
production.
The
billion
in
Indonesia
production,
Forest
the
Midwest
temperatures.
much
affecting
hydroelectric
the
years.
hurricanes.
yields
and
declared
event.
a
dry
El
Administration
and
temperatures
Pacic
cyclones
previous
from
Atmospheric
temperatures
surface
tropical
fewer
higher
to
may
experience
palm
by
be
more
and
sea
SSTs
six
occurs
much
Pacic,
damage.
Oceanic
sea
the
experiences
can
extend
eastern
western
equatorial
benets
matched
is
Other
in
of
28 °C
the
rainfall
the
killed
July
July
day
economy
El
in
pushed
generally
1997–98
have
central
12
USA
is
and
worth
During
This
heavy
National
the
over
conditions
changes
single
activity
East
US
Niño.
Pacic.
formation,
than
the
to
billion
reported
of
these
believed
$36
expected
eastern
Indonesia
of
of
develops
Consequently,
conditions.
an
56
Low
res
US
the
1
would
be
2billion
more
5percent
Scientists
In
of
rice
almost
in
events
Africa
reductions
in
China.
can
the
also
oods
complication
further
stored
rising
heat.
of
children
El
could
This
gas
soya
release
is
the
bean
crops
up
for
harvest,
that
to
equivalent
emissions
concluded
world’s
10
in
area
the
wheat
between
were
affected
1998
heavy
of
year.
in
1984
by
El
difcult,
Niño
event
more
if
harder
the
in
be
one
had
suggest
to
rate
be
rains
in
breed.
difcult
can
release
greenhouse
just
a
plateau
1997–98.
0.04°C
were
the
to
a
lot
of
effect
Since
is
1999,
decade
in
rains
need
in
may
likely
the
not
and
Up
of
was
to
in
to
million
heatwaves
able
by
to
breed
over
spread
in)
while
history.
of
scale,
happen.
1
America
strength
global
areas
were
treatment
by
South
food
rural
increased
virus
droughts
the
in
Africa
affected
maize
Zika
Given
water
years.
mosquitoes
severe
or
35
were
of
of
people
southern
for
heavy
predict
may
in
year
for
cause
million
price
why
most
such
of
the
40
Asia
the
impacts.
what
for
more
apparent
since
Africa
in
water
to
event
the
areas
The
reason
its
a
driest
people
its
Niño
enhanced
Some
its
impossible,
prepare
at
Southern
of
it
to
1990s.
urban
stagnant
one
El
events
said
2015.
mosquitoes
making
that
the
Niño
Zimbabwe
therefore
to
to
with
was
of
with
more
not
and
difcult
much
to
was
America
and
Millions
In
strong
people.
and
insecticides.
increased
people
thus
believe
El
during
event
compared
(there
Central
quiet
Africa
considered
easily
a
experienced
shortages.
cent
that
1997
allowed
roads
and
million
million
East
is
In
that
nets
have
Niño
100
The
water
per
is
study
disease.
associated
0.18°C
malnutrition.
were
It
for
nearly
affected.
50
with
2015–16
shortages
and
Indian
the
pools
scientists
relatively
temperatures
compared
bring
bed
Some
temperatures
result
global
for
greenhouse
2014
of
and
atmosphere.
the
damaged
A
and
in
A
stagnant
medicines,
The
conditions,
the
one-quarter
distribute
the
dry
into
human-related
created
addition,
of
the
carbon
i N t E r A C t i O N S
events.
Niño
East
of
total
and
2004,
Niño
El
of
warn
Australia
and
likely
tonnes
O C E A N – A t m O S p h E r E
This
the
it
is
El
even
makes
it
events.
La Niña
La
Niña
the
is
whereby
of
an
intermittent
equatorial
South
Pacic
(just
strong
has
the
south
temperature
into
been
of
cold
Ocean.
easterly
America
and
to
Pacic
the
the
is
winds
with
that
ows
from
intensication
push
Sahara
in
an
western
linked
patterns
current
It
cold
upwelling
Pacic.
unusual
desert)
of
Its
and
water
impact
rainfall
in
the
off
extends
patterns
India,
east
normal
and
in
across
conditions
the
coast
beyond
the
with
the
Sahel
unusual
Activity 3
Canada.
1.
Managing the impacts of El Niño and La Niña
Compare the conditions in
the south Pacic Ocean
a) under normal conditions
Managing
the
impacts
of
these
events
is
difcult
for
many
reasons.
In
and b) during El Niño
the
past,
El
Niño
events
could
not
be
predicted
with
much
accuracy.
conditions.
Now
in
there
are
advance.
and
to
affect
They
relocate
large
sensors
have
people
parts
across
of
the
enabled
away
the
Pacic
Peru
from
globe,
not
to
that
stock
vulnerable
just
the
predict
up
El
with
areas.
Pacic.
Niño
food
months
resources
Nevertheless,
Some
of
the
they
countries
2.
What were the impacts
of the 1997–98 El Niño
event?
57
1
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
China
Philippines
Drought
Drought
20
million
ha
reduced
land
in
rice
Parts
of
by
15%
USA
had
normal
200%
for
this
harvest
time
threatened
of
in
year
by
Record
flooding
rainfall
north
above
Grain
north-west
of
harvest
arable
USA
affected
snowfalls
in
south
Rocky
Mountains
Hurricanes
El
Niño
Africa
Damage
crops
in
to
corn
sub-
Saharan
Africa
Typhoons
Colombia
Indonesia
World’s
coffee
Fish
third
largest
Cold
producer’s
catches
down
Humboldt
20%
Current
Australia
crop
down
25%
Dryness
belt
in
Australia’s
threatened
grain
wheat
Peru
production
Floods
Warm
currents,
forced
Warmer
to
anchovy
move
in
Peru
5 °C
and
offshore
and
above
Pacific
to
Chile
normal,
cooler
sardine
waters,
Drier
beyond
Warmer
and
the
range
of
small
Peruvian
drier
fishing
boats
Wetter

Fge B.6: The eects of the 1997–98 El Niño event
affected
do
impacts
on
not
have
other
the
parts
resources
of
the
to
world
cope,
and
through
there
trade
are
and
indirect
aid.
Hurricanes/tropical cyclones
“Cyclone”
These
are
is
“typhoon”
Tropical
strong
and
!
Common mistake
the
the
called
is
the
winds
and
mudslides.
areas
they
Some
students
in
the
are
used
in
in
South
the
the
high
waves,
affect.
This
rainfall
of
and
also
is
to
cause
deliver
due
up
systems
to
500
and
and
north-west
low-pressure
Hurricanes
Pacic
Atlantic
Pacic
that
other
in
and
B.7).
rainfall,
such
as
ooding
quantities
of
water
over
millimetres
Pacic;
heavy
hazards
origin
Ocean.
(Figure
bring
enormous
their
Indian
north-east
moist
24
tropical
hours
to
seas.
invariably
confuse
cause
tropical
used
term
cyclones
High-intensity
✗
term
“hurricanes”
cyclones
ooding.
The
path
of
a
hurricane
is
erratic;
hence
it
is
not
always
with
possible
to
give
more
than
12
hours’
notice.
This
is
insufcient
for
proper
tornadoes.
✓ Tropical
very
cyclones
wide
evacuation
measures
Hurricanes
develop
that
oceans.
spiral
of
narrow
systems
that
develop
over
very
to
land.
58
may
water
central
systems
area
over
known
tropical
as
the
oceans.
eye.
the
whole
hurricane
may
be
as
much
as
800
km,
The
although
strong
belt,
winds
up
to
that
300
cause
km
most
wide.
In
of
a
the
damage
mature
are
found
hurricane,
in
a
pressure
as
low
as
880
millibars.
This
very
low
pressure,
and
the
may
strong
normally
to
spouts.
in
pressure
between
the
eye
and
outer
part
of
the
hurricane
Some
lead
water
low-pressure
calm
weather
contrast
over
a
are
fall
tornadoes
intense
around
In
tornadoes
narrower
very
as
rapidly
develop
the
contrast,
implemented.
are
diameter
over
be
weather
Winds
systems
to
to
strong
gale-force
winds.
form
produce
Hurricanes
normally
move
develop
excess
in
the
heat
from
low
latitudes
westward-owing
air
to
just
higher
north
latitudes.
of
the
They
equator
1
O C E A N – A t m O S p h E r E
i N t E r A C t i O N S

Fge B.7: The distribution of hurricanes
3.0
and
1.0–2.9
0.1–0.9
more
per
(known
as
an
depressions,
These
trigger
develop
118
km
into
per
wave).
areas
tropical
ever
hurricanes
mph).
become
to
form,
a
low
that
storms,
(74
They
of
thunderstorms
hour
disturbances
For
easterly
localized
begin
life
pressure
persist
which
for
have
However,
as
that
at
small-scale
cause
least
greater
only
hours
wind
about
10
●
Sea
are
needed
temperatures
depth
large
this
of
60
quantities
is
the
heat
number
(Figure
of
be
heat
of
up
of
tropical
to
of
27°C
water
when
drives
An
upper
atmosphere
pressure
area
helps
away
rising
high-
pump
B.8).
over
(warm
that
rise.
may
hurricanes.
must
metres
to
and
cent
6
conditions
air
speeds
per
it
the
to
gives
is
air
in
the
storm
Pre-existing
The
low-pressure
area
has
a
condensed;
hurricane).
to
be
far
enough
4
Air
up
to
about
5,500
Pre-existing
winds
not
by
created
from
the
equator
so
that
the
needs
Coriolis
to
be
humid
as
it
(the
force
caused
by
the
rotation
into
the
storm.
extra
water
vapour
earth)
mass;
is
if
it
creates
is
too
insufcient
rotation
close
to
rotation
in
the
and
the
rising
equator
a
latent
same
the
storm
and
speeds
Conditions
tropical
must
be
unstable:
low-pressure
but
not
systems
all
of
The
why
some
do
develop
them,
but
close
to
avoid
ripping
the
air
needs
so
to
it
be
Pre-existing
winds
Pre-existing
winds
will
rising
some
and
into
W inds
need
to
be
coming
scientists
together
unsure
at
all
will
2
hurricanes,
at
apart
develop.
continue
are
direction
same
there
hurricane
unstable
●
–
nearly
energy
air
3
not
heat
those
storm
from
supplies
altitudes
more
the
–
coming
The
to
of
be
is
the
pulled
force
the
m
should
away
winds
off
5
●
year
tracks
tropical
warm
24
year
year
per
Average
per
others
do
not.
near
the
–
converging
–
surface
Impacts of hurricanes
The
the
Safr-Simpson
National
scale,
Oceanic
and
developed
60m
by
Warm
Atmospheric
1
Ocean
water
amount
Administration,
assigns
hurricanes
to
ve
categories
categories
are
of
based
potential
on
wind
disaster.
above
water
28ºC
to
is
needed
evaporate.
for
Warm
the
proper
water
must
one
be
of
of
water
The
intensity.
about
ocean,
60
m
deep
bringing
up
because
cold
storms
water
from
stir
up
the
below
The

Fge B.8: Factors aecting the development of hurricanes
59
1
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
classication
Pacic;
is
other
used
areas
for
use
hurricanes
different
forming
in
the
Atlantic
and
northern
scales.

table B.1: The Sar-Simpson scale
tye
hcane
Daage
caegoy
pesse
Wnd
So sge
(b)
seed
(ees
(k/)
above
noal)
Depression
–
–
–
<56
–
Tropical
–
–
–
57–118
–
Hurricane
1
Minimal
>980
119–53
1.2–1.5
Hurricane
2
Moderate
965–79
154–77
1.6–2.5
Hurricane
3
Extensive
945–64
178–209
2.6–3.6
Hurricane
4
Extreme
920–44
210–49
3.7–5.5
Hurricane
5
Catastrophic
<920
>250
>5.5
storm
●
The
unpredictability
management
Hurricane
of
Ivan
of
hurricane
hurricanes
(2004)
paths
difcult.
suddenly
It
makes
was
changed
the
effective
fortunate
course
for
away
Jamaica
from
the
that
most
Activity 4
densely
1.
In
populated
Describe the distribution
hit.
contrast,
of hurricanes as shown in
Hurricane
it
parts
was
Charley
of
the
island,
unfortunate
(2004)
moved
where
for
it
had
Florida’s
away
from
been
Punta
its
expected
Gorda
predicted
to
when
path.
Figure B.7.
●
2.
The
strongest
Outline the main changes
six
that occur as hurricane
taken
intensity increases
storm”
lives
were
by
storms
lost
Jeanne
and
had
to
do
always
Hurricane
when
not
not
it
yet
was
cause
Frances
still
reached
the
in
greatest
2004,
categorized
full
but
as
hurricane
damage.
2,000
just
a
Only
were
“tropical
strength.
(Table B.1).
●
3.
Suggest reasons why the
The
distribution
hurricanes.
impacts of hurricanes vary
exposed
to
of
Much
the
of
population
the
increased
increases
population
sea
levels
and
lives
the
the
in
risk
risk
coastal
of
associated
with
settlements
and
is
ooding.
from place to place.
●
Hazard
to
mitigation
natural
planning,
schemes
events.
evacuation
and
●
depends
This
the
LICs
on
measures
distribution
hazards
preparation.
greatest
in
Australia,
By
as
effectiveness
urban
and
of
(low-income
natural
the
includes
relief
food
aid
result
contrast,
high-income
where
the
laws,
clean
such
to
inadequate
insurance
countries,
multi-million
costs
such
dollar
response
as
rehousing
water.
continue
of
human
emergency
operations,
and
countries)
a
of
planning
lose
lives
to
planning
and
continue
to
as
the
USA
waterfront
be
or
homes
proliferate.
Typhoon Haiyan: how does it compare to other
tropical cyclones?
Typhoon
to
make
winds
landfall
of
strongest
the

poo B.1: Damage in Grenada following Hurricane Ivan
60
Haiyan,
314
described
in
km/h
typhoon
strongest
to
as
recorded
and
ever
reach
the
strongest
history,
gusts
of
up
recorded
landfall.
hit
to
the
378
(Table
tropical
Philippines
km/h,
B.2)
cyclone
but
the
with
fourth-
1
O C E A N – A t m O S p h E r E
i N t E r A C t i O N S
Case study
Typhoon Haiyan
Storm
Tropical
Storm
Food
Category
Programme
Haiyan
Tropical
Tropical
Category
Category
Category
Category
Category
Depression
Storm
1
2
3
4
5
<39
39 –73
74 –95
96 –110
111–130
131–155
156+
mph
mph
mph
mph
mph
mph
mph
mobilized
$2
45ºN
million)
aimed
40ºN
some
million
to
tonnes
aid
and
deliver
of
biscuits
(£1.25
in
40
fortied
to
victims
35ºN
within
Nov
14
11
Nov
dead
(confirmed)
7
days.
The
11
dead
economic
cost
estimated
to
was
(confirmed)
30ºN
be
about
$15
Many
countries
billion.
25ºN
Hanoi
Guangxi
pledged
Nov
aid
to
8–9
20ºN
LAOS
1,774
Hainan
dead
(confirmed)
Over
10,000
dead
the
(confirmed)
Philippines,
including
the
UK
Danang
15ºN
Manila
PHILIPPINES
THAILAND
($131
million),
Japan
$53
million),
Tacloban
10ºN
VIETNAM
Canada
Palo
($40
CAMBODIA
million)
and
the
5ºN
USA
($37
million).
0º
95ºE
105ºE
115ºE
125ºE
135ºE
145ºE
155ºE
165ºE
175ºE
Satellite
images
showed

Fge B.9: The track of Typhoon Haiyan
At
least
green
10,000
people
were
killed
in
the
patches
province
of
Leyte
after
of
one
of
the
strongest
struck
the
storms
Philippines
ever
to
Winds
in
up
to
during
315
the
km/h
(195
mph)
super-typhoon
off
buildings,
knocked
out
turned
roads
into
rivers
electricity
full
path
70–80
of
per
Haiyan
Tacloban,
the
cent
in
of
Leyte
the
of
of
buildings
province
provincial
over
capital
200,000.
in
were
of
The
buildings
streets
the
seawaters
to
rise
by
the
Leyte,
had
no
future
typhoon
mobile
hit.
Power
phone
was
signal,
so
cut
only
by
or
many
was
provinces
areas,
impossible
6
m
damage
and
there
to
–
Government
million
had
in
the
Visayas,
hardest-hit
were
Philippines.
Many
among
had
little
–
so
the
typhoon
population
and
job
at
even
put
an
already
greater
risk
of
insecurity.
island,
where
killed
some
a
7.3
200
magnitude
people
were
successfully
in
October
evacuated
was
communication
of
the
storm.
However,
because
the
island’s
was
left
such
without
and
as
know
power
airports
Tacloban,
the
full
in
In
power
supply
the
closed,
extent
of
too
it
or
to
provide
badly
gures
showed
that
been
directly
affected.
residents
Tacloban,
much
stadiums
comes
from
neighbouring
the
for
and
were
without
sheer
some
force
electricity
of
evacuation
churches,
and
the
storm
centres,
they
or
water.
was
such
as
collapsed.
the
Philippines
experiences
about
20
typhoons
needed
more
The
year.
In
2012
Typhoon
Bopha
killed
more
than
than
4
living
eastern
the
residents
every
aid.
through
held
when
The
storm’s
wading
possessions
radio.
telecommunications,
hardest-hit
in
food
Bohol
Leyte,
With
TV
surges,
a
main
possible
storm
surge
ahead
no
huge
families
their
Those
the
savings
vulnerable
destroyed.
storm
above
as
poorest
2013,
the
and
with
water.
such
earthquake
caused
of
debris.
On
population
images
pylons
or
About
brown
local
tore
the
and
into
a
were
which
areas,
roofs
up
where
November
above
recorded
ripped
Tacloban,
make
ooded
2013.
in
broadcast
attened
landfall,
debris
Typhoon
channel
Haiyan,
vegetation
central
squares
Philippine
of
normally
1,100
people
and
caused
over
$1
billion-
World
worth
of
damage.
61
1
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S

table B.2: The strongest tropical cyclones in world history
Se
Yea
Wnd seed
pesse
(k/)
(b)
346
882
yoon
L TA
Communication skills
Nancy
1961
Landfall
Made landfall as a Category 2 in
Japan, killing 191 people
Use
the
data
in
Table
B.2
Violet
to
produce
a
scatter
1961
322
886
Made landfall in Japan as a tropical
graph.
storm, killing 2 people
Use
the
Spearman’s
Rank
Ida
Correlation
1958
200
877
Made landfall as a Category 1 in
Coefcient
Japan, killing 1269 people
to
test
whether
relationship
strength
and
the
Report
your
of
there
between
a
class
a
the
Haiyan
2013
314
895
Made landfall in the Philippines at
peak strength, Category 5
hurricane
number
your
is
of
deaths.
ndings
using
Kit
1966
314
880
Sally
1961
314
895
Did not make landfall
to
either
Made landfall as a Category 4 in the
a
Philippines
poster
or
a
presentation.
NB: Some of the data from the 1950s and the 1960s may have overestimated wind speeds.
The role of oceans as a source and store of
carbon dioxide
L TA
Oceans
Research skills
carbon
sea.
Visit
the
largest
Over
that
the
geological
National
settled
(USA).
time,
on
Earth;
release
more
into
than
90
more
the
per
than
air
is
cent
25
per
absorbed
of
the
cent
into
world’s
of
the
the
Haiyan
(or
in
the
carbon
any
into
dioxide
the
deep
in
the
more
well
as
and
such
as
carbon
photosynthesis,
into
organic
ocean.
The
material.
upper
Gradually,
ocean
organic
therefore
has
a
carbon
lower
of
carbon
than
the
deep
ocean.
If
carbon
on
the
ocean
was
lifted
to
the
surface
(as
in
a
thermohaline
circulation)
the
information
ocean
maps
processes,
search
oor
for
Biological
other
concentrations
hurricane)
ocean.
Enter
settles
as
sink
2
Hurricane
turns
Center
box
CO
humans
www.nhc.noaa.gov
has
for
are
dioxide
satellite
could
become
a
source
of
CO
rather
2
than
a
sink.
images,
photographs.
During
cold
around
180
glacial
phases
atmospheric
CO
levels
may
have
decreased
to
2
much
of
ppmv
this
interglacials,
(parts
was
stored
CO
is
per
in
million
the
released
by
oceans.
from
the
volume),
In
and
contrast,
oceans,
and
in
it
is
the
thought
warm
atmospheric
CO
2
levels
may
have
that
2
been
around
280
ppmv.
Current
CO
levels
are
around
2
400
ppm,
indicating
The
major
a
substantial
warming.
12
reservoirs
of
carbon
dioxide
are
fossil
fuels
(10,000
×
10
kg
12
of
carbon),
the
atmosphere
(750
×
10
kg
of
carbon)
and
the
oceans
12
(38,000
×
10
kg
Photosynthesis
dioxide.
to
the
Some
ocean
destroyed
the
at
by
of
The
carbon).
plankton
this
oor
where
plates.
transfer
Oceans
it
passes
zones
carbon
a
key
organic
through
decomposes
Carbon
of
play
generates
material
subduction
continental
activity.
of
where
into
ocean
dioxide
dioxide
is
role
the
compounds
the
food
later
are
to
of
cycle.
carbon
and
sinks
Eventually
subducted
released
ocean
carbon
chain
sediments.
crusts
from
in
during
it
is
beneath
volcanic
atmosphere
Activity 5
happens
1.
over
a
very
long
timescale.
Describe the main stores of
Up
to
half
of
the
carbon
dioxide
released
by
burning
fossil
fuels
carbon in the carbon cycle.
since
2.
the
early
has
been
absorbed
by
oceans.
Absorbed
CO
2
in
Identify the main ows of
seawater
forms
carbon in the carbon cycle.
moreacidic.
62
1880s
carbonic
acid,
which
lowers
the
water’s
pH
and
makes
it
1
O C E A N – A t m O S p h E r E
i N t E r A C t i O N S
Ocean acidication
Atmosphere
750
The pH of seawater
(CO
)
2
Acidity
is
measured
Freshwater
Surface
has
a
on
pH
seawater
the
pH
reading
had
a
scale.
of
7.
reading
of
0.5
8.2
a
has
century
dropped
ago,
to
but
8.1
now
this
because
of
the
Vegetation
610
60
5.5
60
amount
been
this
of
carbon
absorbed
may
by
seem
dioxide
oceans.
like
a
that
has
121.3
1.6
Although
relatively
small
Fossil
fuels
&
cement
change,
the
pH
scale
is
production
logarithmic,
4,000
and
so
a
0.1
difference
Soils
actually
92
1,580
represents
of
30
per
surface
an
increase
cent.
By
seawater
to
7.8,
which
in
acidity
of
in
2100,
could
150
pH
have
represents
about
acidity
the
an
per
90
Rivers
of
dropped
increase
Surface
ocean
1,020
50
cent.
100
91.6
40
The
oceans
are
thought
to
have
Marine
biota
Deep
3
ocean
Storage
in
GtC
38,100
absorbed
about
50
per
cent
of
the
4
Fluxed
in
GtC/yr
6
0.2
extra
CO
put
2
into
the
atmosphere
Dissolved
organic
6
carbon
in
the
industrial
lowered
mildly
its
pH
age.
by
alkaline
This
0.1.
with
a
<700
Sediments
has
Seawater
is
“natural”
pH
150

Fge B.10: The global carbon cycle
of
about
8.2.
However,
the
(Intergovernmental
Panel
will
0.14
to
fall
the
between
present
cause
of
decrease
ocean
made)
sources
power
stations,
extinction,
areas
are
–
Climate
of
0.35
0.1
cars
sheries
to
as
and
is
carbon
during
since
believed
Many
eradication,
forecasts
the
21st
pre-industrial
emissions
planes.
face
Change)
units
units
acidication
such
starting
on
and
to
species
and
be
from
ocean
anthropogenic
now
reefs
pH
adding
times.
industrial
are
coral
that
century,
(man-
Research skills
plants,
threatened
that
L TA
The
by
IPCC
protect
Visit
with
http://news.bbc.
co.uk/1/hi/uk/7053903.
coastal
stm
erode.
to
see
world’s
Some
of
the
carbon
that
mankind
emits
remains
in
the
30
causes
per
it
cent
to
of
heat
up,
carbon
driving
dioxide
is
global
warming.
absorbed
However,
oceans
More
coral
acidic
reefs
stocks
will
where
of
oceans
and
sh.
reduce
it
turns
are
to
carbonic
beginning
shellsh
beds
Increasing
calcication
and
ocean
in
to
acid.
kill
more
or
less
8.15
8.10
8.05
8.00
7.95
More
acidic
acidic
Arctic
Ocean
off
threaten
acidication
corals
resulting
2
7.90
Less
and
other
North
organisms,
CO
about
North
calcifying
the
now
by
8.20
the
are
atmosphere
absorbing
and
whether
oceans
in
Atlantic
Pacific
slower
Ocean
Ocean
growth
and
Scientists
weaker
estimate
skeletons
that
oceans
absorb
around
Indian
South
a
million
tonnes
of
carbon
dioxide
every
Pacific
Ocean
Ocean
South
hour.
As
a
result,
they
are
now
30per
cent
Atlantic
Ocean
more
This
acidic
than
increased
they
acidity
were
last
disrupts
century.
reproductive
Antarctic
Ocean
Antarctic
activity
and
carbonate,
adversely
which
affects
forms
the
Ocean
calcium
shells
and

Fge B.11: Variations in pH levels in the world’s oceans
63
1
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
skeletons
1
Atmospheric
carbon
Less
More
acidic
acidic
of
some
of
many
species
of
sea
creatures.
coral
has
The
declined
growth
by
14
rate
per
dioxide
cent
on
the
Great
Barrier
Reef
since
1990,
either
CO
2
due
2
3
to
both.
temperature
Other
reef
stress
areas
or
ocean
report
acidication
similar
or
results.
Dissolved
Hydrogen
carbon
Carbonic
ions
dioxide
Water
Early
acid
warning
signs
that
have
been
noticed
include:
+
H
CO
2
O
H
2
H
CO
2
3
●
the
failure
of
commercial
oyster
and
other
Bicarbonate
shellsh
ions
beds
on
the
Pacic
coasts
of
the
USA
Carbonate
–1
ions
HCO
and
3
Canada
–2
CO
3
●
coral
reefs
–
already
bleached
by
rising
global
Deformed
temperatures
shells
Up to half of the carbon dioxide (CO
many
regions
at
poles
–
have
suffered
disintegration
in
) released by burning fossil fuels
2
●
the
and
high
latitudes,
tiny
shellsh
since the early 1800s has been absorbed by the world’s oceans.
called
Absorbed CO
2
in seawater (H
O) forms carbonic acid (H
2
CO
2
pteropods
–
the
basis
of
the
food
chain
),
3
for
sh,
whales
and
seabirds
–
have
suffered
a
lowering the water ’s pH level and making it more acidic.
noticeable
reduction
in
their
numbers.
This raises the hydrogen ion concentration in the water, and limits
organisms’ access to carbonate ions, which are needed to form
Ocean
hard par ts.
three
of

Fge B.12: Ocean acidication
coral
these
will
is
thought
changes.
be
By
affected
by
to
2050
local
be
involved
over
and
90
per
global
in
L TA
http://
climateinterpreter.org/
threats.
1.
Study Figure B.12. Explain how ocean acidication is changing the carbon cycle.
2.
Compare the location of areas that are becoming more acidic with those that
content/effects-ocean-
are becoming less acidic, as shown in Figure B.11.
acidication-coral-reefs
for
a
series
news
and
of
articles,
videos
acidication
and
on
Concepts in contex t
ocean
coral
We
reefs.
have
oceans
seen
how
(currents;
there
How
is
affecting
coral
widespread
is
can
be
done
and
the
processes
as
El
Niño;
carbon
operating
in
hurricanes;
the
of
these
processes
such
as
the
cycle
carbon
for
example).
cycle
are
affected
by
human
in
processes
activities,
natural
and
which
systems,
ocean
in
turn
has
and
it
acidication.
an
may
appear
There
impact
that
is
human
a
ne
activities
to
are
manage
many
atmospheric
balance
What
interactions;
such
it?
on
●
natural
reefs?
being
How
many
processes
acidication
However,
●
are
weather
ocean–atmospheric
●
upsetting
the
equilibrium.
problem?
Check your understanding
1.
Outline
the
main
causes
of
ocean
currents.
7.
Outline
Niño
2.
Explain
the
3.
Outline
the
main
causes
of
ocean
impacts
of
the
main
coral
Explain
energy
the
inuence
of
ocean
currents
Outline
Identify
the
main
64
of
factors
needed
for
a
tropical
cyclone.
the
main
hazards
associated
tropical
cyclones/hurricanes.
the
with
Explain
how
transfers.
Explain
how
ocean
currents
transfer
Distinguish
between
El
Niño
and
La
oceans
nutrients.
sink
6.
El
on
10.
5.
of
reefs.
9.
4.
impacts
ocean
development
on
economic
events.
acidication.
8.
main
acidication
all
cent
Activity 6
Research skills
Visit
acidication
of
Niña.
of
carbon.
may
be
a
source
and
a
2
Interactions between oceans and
coastal places
Conceptual understanding
Key qeson
How
are
coastal
places
shaped
by
their
interactions
with
oceans?
Key conen
●
Physical
inuences
sediment
wave
●
The
of
processes
The
and
spits
raised
●
The
(littoral
and
dune
and
of
landscapes,
vegetation,
drift,
hydraulic
formation
of
including
subaerial
action
coastal
including
waves,
processes
and
abrasion)
landforms
wave-cut
tides,
and
as
a
platforms,
result
and

poo B.2: Skellig Michael, o the
County Kerry coast, south-west
cliffs,
Ireland
beaches
identication
including
beaches,
role
coastal
deposition,
formation
coastlines,
on
lithology,
characteristics
erosion
stacks,
●
supply,
isostatic
of
and
advancing
eustatic
and
retreating
landforms
(relict
cliffs,
fjords)
coastal
processes,
wind
and
vegetation
in
coastal
sand
development
Coastal environments
Coastal
environments
physical
and
landscapes.
●
human
For
Lithology
basalt
in
give
Geological
the
Dalmatian
●
strata
Processes
England,
rapid
–
and
a
at
for
Rocks
or
such
off
and
great
of
as
shaped
variety
the
the
as
and
Causeway
south-west
sands
around
coastal
following:
granite
Giant’s
by
in
and
Cape
coast
of
gravels
Cod
off
the
B.3).
(Pacic)
the
the
angles
a
the
such
example
concordant
right
rocks
rocks
is
account
example
(Photo
to
factors,
there
on
hard
for
soft
Croatia
of
for
Pacic
the
for
occur
example
coastline
coastlines
to
coastlines
coastline,
occur
shoreline,
of
the
where
for
where
the
USA,
the
example
the
Ireland.
landscapes,
rapidly
example
for
example
retreating
the
the
cliffs,
Netherlands,
east
coast
whereas
contain
of
areas
many
of
sand
ats.
changes
interact
advancing
relative
–
parallel
many
coastal
produce
and/or
of
many
vary
(Atlantic-type)
erosional
contain
Sea-level
to
are
–
lie
coastline
deposition,
dunes
●
strata
by
result
Skellig
America
coastline
south-west
the
landscapes,
of
discordant
geological
(rock)
whereas
structure
geological
whereas
at
a
landscapes
or
B.2),
coast
As
landscapes,
Ireland
low,
north-east
inuenced
properties
rugged
(Photo
produce
●
example,
Northern
Ireland
are
processes.
fall
in
with
erosional
coastlines
sea
level)
(those
or
and
depositional
growing
retreating
due
to
processes
deposition
coastlines
(those

poo B.3: Cape Cod,
being
eroded
and/or
drowned
by
a
relative
rise
in
sea
level).
Massachusetts, USA
65
2
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
Long
Low
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
wavelength
Short
wavelength
height
High
Shallow
Elliptical
height
gradient
orbit
Steep
Circular
•
Depositional
•
Also
•
Long
•
Low
•
High
•
Swash
•
Low
•
Low
called
“spilling”
wavelength,
waves
low
height
•
Erosional
•
Also
•
Short
gradient
•
High
energy
•
Low
•
Backwash
•
Steep
•
High
frequency
period
gradient
orbit
waves
(6–8
(one
greater
per
every
than
minute)
8–10
seconds)
backwash
waves
called
“surging”
wavelength,
frequency
period
or
high
(10–12
(one
every
greater
“plunging”
per
minute)
5–6
seconds)
than
waves
height
swash

Fge B.13: Constructive or swell waves
gradient
energy

Fge B.14: Destructive or storm waves
Activity 7
●
Human
Compare the main
Cape
characteristics of constructive
are
impacts
Cod
more
(Photo
are
increasingly
B.3),
natural,
for
are
being
example
common
–
extensively
Skellig
some
coasts,
modied,
Michael
(Photo
for
example
whereas
others
B.2).
and destructive waves.
●
Ecosystem
and
rocky
type
shore
such
add
as
mangrove,
further
variety
coral,
to
the
sand
dune,
salt
marsh
coastline.
Waves
Most
waves
although
are
some
generated
waves
tsunamis).
(a)
are
by
wind
caused
Tsunamis
have
blowing
by
tides
over
and
reached
the
sea
surface,
earthquakes
heights
of
up
(for
to
15
example
m
and
can
Land
travel
Shoreline
Wave
down
Depth
this
decreasing
to
movement
in
shallow
causes
the
is
slowed
water,
wave
at
speeds
of
●
wind
strength
●
fetch
or
●
depth
up
to
and
600
km/h.
Wave
energy
is
controlled
by:
duration
and
front
distance
of
open
water,
and
break
onshore
Waves
in
of
the
open
sea
bed.
water
can
reach
heights
of
up
to
15
m
and
are
Wind
Unimpeded
fast
movement
in
direction
deep
water
break
causes
parallel
to
waves
each
to
capable
of
travelling
huge
distances
as
swell
waves.
These
are
other
characterized
(Figure
by
B.13).
very
By
long
contrast,
wavelengths
storm
and
waves
are
a
reduced
generated
height
by
local
winds
Sea
and
as
(b)
travel
only
destructive
a
short
distance
(Figure
B.14).
They
are
also
known
waves.
Land
Dispersed
energy
As
the
wave
movement
A1
breaks,
of
water
its
energy
up
the
is
transferred
beach
is
known
to
as
the
the
shore.
The
swash.
The
Concentrated
A1
energy
effectiveness
on
of
this
is
controlled
by
wave
energy,
size
of
beach
B1
B1
flank
material
water
and
down
beach
the
gradient.
beach
under
The
the
backwash
force
of
is
the
movement
of
gravity.
Wave refraction
Wave
front
Sea
Wave
or
refraction
are
at
an
complete,
B.15,
a).
A
A
B

Fge B.15: Wave refraction
66
B
causes
Wave
headlands
occurs
oblique
and
when
angle.
wave
fronts
refraction
dissipates
waves
approach
Refraction
to
reduces
break
concentrates
energy
in
parallel
energy
bays
an
irregular
wave
to
the
onto
(Figure
coastline
velocity
shore
the
B.15,
sides
b).
and,
if
(Figure
of
2
i N t E r A C t i O N S
B E t W E E N
O C E A N S
A N D
C O A S t A L
p L A C E S
Land
Longshore drift
Direction
steepest
Swash
Refraction
For
is
drifting
direction
rarely
to
complete
occur
parallel
to
the
the
and
swash
consequently
carries
prevailing
material
wind,
longshore
up
whereas
the
the
drift
beach
of
slope
occurs.
in
a
backwash
Backwash
Longshore
operates
Prevailing
wind
drift
at
right
angles
(Figure
B.16).
to
the
The
shore
result
due
is
a
to
net
the
steepness
transfer
of
of
the
sediment
beach
along
slope
a
beach.
Sea
Drifting
by
is
not
always
less-regular
straightforward.
secondary
waves,
and
Secondary
refraction
drifting
around
may
an
be
caused
island
may

Fge B.16: Longshore drift
cause
drifting
to
occur
in
converging
directions.
Tides
Tides
are
regular
gravitational
inuenced
of
In
the
by
of
the
shoreline,
the
size
the
in
moon
and
the
and
shape
Coriolis
of
force
sea’s
sun
surface
on
the
ocean
and
caused
oceans.
basins,
the
by
the
Tides
are
characteristics
meteorological
conditions.
general:
●
tides
●
in
●
during
are
the
every
The
greatest
northern
decrease
from
almost
bays
in
the
●
It
●
Weathering
●
Velocity
controls
the
is
scouring
high
Bay
on
is
deected
systems,
and
in
of
Fundy,
water
to
coastlines
the
levels
right
rise
10
of
its
cm
path
for
by
tide
is
seas
called
such
Canada.
the
as
The
tidal
the
tidal
range.
This
Mediterranean
range
has
processes.
range
biological
inuenced
low
enclosed
coastal
vertical
and
water
funnel-shaped
millibars.
nothing
inuences
along
weather
10
between
m
and
hemisphere
of
almost
15
important
in
low-pressure
difference
varies
to
movements
pull
of
erosion
activity
the
is
tidal
and
affected
range
deposition.
by
and
the
has
time
an
between
tides.
important
effect.
Sediment supply
There
The
are
many
coastal
model
that
(Figure
sediment
coast.
and
outputs
The
concept
are
of
states
sediment
coastal
operates
Swanage
California
concept
It
of
system,
examines
B.18).
example
sources
Bay,
Each
at
UK,
or
(Figure
littoral
processes
a
variety
to
littoral
a
cell
and
of
is
a
system,
patterns
scales
regional
cell
B.17).
from
scale,
for
is
in
a
a
a
simplied
given
single
example
self-contained
cell,
in
area
bay,
the
for
south
which
inputs
balanced.
dynamic
that
any
equilibrium
system
(or
in
is
important
this
case
to
littoral
littoral
cell)
cells.
is
the
This
result
Online case study
of
Oceanside
the
inputs
inputs
cliff
(for
the
drift).
processes
example
collapse)
longshore
in
and
and
drift,
is
a
has
as
in
within
sediment
knock-on
transport,
(such
balance
operate
increase
there
or
landforms
The
an
that
or
beach
stabilization
changed,
effect
the
on
on
cell.
the
the
protection)
of
hence
cliffs
or
Change
shoreline
processers
and
a
beach
dynamic
one
of
littoral
cell
the
following
(such
resulting
as
change
enlargement
down
equilibrium
67
2
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
1
Mass
movements
amounts
beaches
Rivers
2
of
and
protect
mostly
carry
(fine-grained
to
3
the
is
and
shingle
derived
from
7
silts,
large
which
may
bury
cliffs.
sediment
clays
and
sands)
coast.
Glaciers
the
provide
material,
the
periglaciation
on
beaches
from
last
in
–
much
the
frost-shattered
cold
periglacial
of
British
lsles
material
era.
4
3
4
Erosion
large
of
cliffs
amounts
building.
This
by
of
the
sea
produces
material
may
for
protect
the
beach
cliff
from
2
further
erosion.
6
1
5
The
sea
may
bring
sediments
shorewards
5
forming
offshore
6
Wind
erosion
7
Volcanic
bars
and
activity
and
beaches.
transport.
–
dust
and
ash.

Fge B.17: The main sources of sediment in coastal areas
Lithology
River
sediment
transport
Lithology
Dredging
Dune
and
sand
refers
to
the
characteristics
of
rocks
mining
such
erosion
as
resistance,
permeability.
The
bedding,
jointing
well-developed
and
jointing
Dellation
and
Longshore
drift
Cliff
Internal
Inlet
bedding
certain
harder
limestones,
erosion
for
biogenic
example,
creates
a
geometric
cliff
prole
lling
input
(shells,etc.)
with
Articial
of
a
steep,
angular
cliff
face
and
a
at
top
beach
(bedding
plane).
Wave
erosion
opens
up
nourishment
Offshore
transport
these
Onshore
Litteral
drill
Littoral
transport
drift
lines
of
weakness,
causing
complete
out
blocks
in
to
fall
away
and
the
creation
overhangs
and
cave
of
Marine
Solution
(dissolving
angular
erosion
of
well-jointed
processes
and
bedded
rocks,
a
canyon
whole
Marine
In
sediments)
other
Submarine
shapes.
Sediment
input
and
variety
of
features
is
created
by
wave
output
erosion,
and
such
as
caves,
geos,
arches,
stacks
stumps.

Fge B.18: A small-scale littoral cell
Many
as
cliffs
are
composite
factors
such
nature
of
there
is
overlies
is
more
composed
cliffs.
as
the
The
strength
waves
limited
and
percolation
where
more
rock,
water
than
shape
If
and
one
and
structure
involved.
impermeable
likely
of
exact
rock
form
of
of
rock,
impermeable
so
water
builds
the
cliff
may
up
is
soak
at
the
type.
the
relative
rock
more
into
These
cliff
will
hardness
overlies
stable.
the
junction
are
cliff,
of
If
and
on
the
permeable
rock
permeable
rock
and
the
known
depend
slope
two
failure
rock
types.
Subaerial and wave processes
There
(Table
68
are
B.3
many
and
subaerial
Figure
and
B.19).
marine
They
processes
may
operate
that
operate
together
to
on
coastlines
produce
2
landforms,
a
different
There
are
each
way
a
process
(Figure
number
weathering
that
of
occur
i N t E r A C t i O N S
contributing
B E t W E E N
O C E A N S
A N D
C O A S t A L
p L A C E S
in
B.19).
types
in
of
coastal
zones.
B
●
Salt
by
weathering
which
sodium
compounds
is
the
and
expand
process
magnesium
in
joints
ABC
and
=
Material
by
cracks,
thereby
weakening
rock
mass
removed
movement
(rockfalls
and
slides)
structures.
Wave-cut
cliff
ACD
●
Freeze
thaw
weathering
is
=
Material
by
process
whereby
water
eroded
the
wave
freezes,
Beach
expands
and
degrades
jointed
Wave-cut
rocks.
notch
C
●
Water
layer
weathering
relates
A
to
the
tidal
cycle
of
wetting
and
D
drying
●
(hydration).
Biological
out
by
weathering
molluscs,
urchins
and
is
sponges
very
is
carried
and
important
in
Wave-cut
platform
low-energy
Wave
coasts.
base

Fge B.19: The contribution of marine processes and subaerial processes to a
Mass
movements
are
also
a
common
cli and wave-cut platform
type

of
cliff
degradation.
table B.3: Summary of the main processes on rocky shores leading to erosion
pocess
Descon
Condons condcve o e ocess
mecancal wave eoson
Erosion
Loose material is removed by waves
Energetic wave conditions and microtidal
range
Abrasion
Hydraulic action
Rock surfaces are scoured by wave-induced
“Soft” rocks, energetic wave conditions, a
ow with a mixture of water and sediment
thin layer of sediment and microtidal range
Wave-induced pressure variations within the
“ Weak” rocks, energetic wave conditions and
rock cause and widen rock cracks
microtidal range
Frost action and cycles of wetting/drying cause
Sedimentary rocks in cool regions
Weaeng
Physical weathering
and widen rock cracks
Salt weathering
Volumetric growth of salt crystals in rocks
Sedimentary rocks in hot and dry regions
widens cracks
Chemical weathering
A number of chemical processes remove rock
Sedimentary rocks in hot and wet regions
materials. These processes include hydrolysis,
oxidation, hydration and solution
Water-layer levelling
Physical, salt and chemical weathering work
Sedimentary rocks in areas with high
together along the edges of rock pools
evaporation
Bo-eoson
Biochemical
Chemical weathering by products of metabolism
Biophysical
Physical removal of rock by grazing and boring
Limestone in tropical regions
Limestone in tropical regions
animals
69
2
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
pocess
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Descon
Condons condcve o e ocess
mass oveens
Rockfalls and
Rocks fall straight down the face of the cli
Well-jointed rocks, undercutting of cli by
toppling
Slides
waves
Deep-seated failures
Deeply weathered rock , undercutting of cli
by rock
Flows
Flow of loose material down a slope
Unconsolidated material, undercutting of
clis by waves
Coasts
●
are
eroded
Abrasion
the
●
is
by
the
waves
in
wearing
a
number
away
of
of
the
ways
(Figure
shoreline
by
B.20).
material
carried
by
waves.
Hydraulic
impact
or
quarrying
is
the
force
of
water
and
air
on
2
rocks
●
(up
to
Solution
by
●
an
is
acidic
Attrition
actually
is
30,000
the
wearing
water.
the
erode
kg/m
in
away
Organic
rounding
the
severe
of
base-rich
acids
and
coastline,
storms).
aid
the
reduction
but
erodes
rocks,
especially
limestone
process.
of
particles
the
–
so
it
does
not
sediment.
Vegetation
Vegetation
It
may
or
the
coastal
increase
mangrove
forms
in
by
and
reducing
the
has
deposition,
forests
destructive
increase
areas
rate
on
wind
such
sand
of
as
in
(and
salt
It
functions.
marshes
may
and
protect
potentially
tropical
biological
important
dunes.
speed
impact
of
many
cyclones),
land
erosion
or
it
may
weathering.
Features of erosion
Bays
may
be
rocks
form
rocks
are
bay
eroded
spreads
wave
sand
are
to
wave
energy
beaches
eroded
in
headlands
on
form
the
two
of
weaker
protrude,
bays.
energy
formed
between
beds
that
Wave
around
anks
when
of
the
the
The
the
bay,
but
headlands.
such
as
in
it
the
focuses
Bayhead
waves
at
harder
weaker
refraction
constructive
headlands,
rock.
and
deposit
Maracas
Bay

poo B.4: Saltmarsh vegetation rapidly increases
and
deposition
Tyrico
Rapid
weakness.
sea
caves
stack
is
These
in
the
anks
Faults
meet,
formed,
features
rock
of
an
erosion
the
arch
and
are
and
the
in
if
Bay
rock
is
in
northern
occurs
may
be
formed.
this
largely
is
If
eroded
in
wave
rocks
eroded
the
a
determined
variations
on
Trinidad.
to
roof
where
form
of
the
stump
is
location
energy
formed
caused
by
is
a
caves.
arch
by
the
there
sea
(Figure
of
If
two
collapses,
B.21).
weaknesses
refraction
on
headland.
Wave-cut (shore) platforms
Wave-cut
platforms,
70
platforms
high-tide
(also
called
platforms
shore
and
platforms)
low-tide
include
platforms.
a
intertidal
Wave-cut
the
2
i N t E r A C t i O N S
B E t W E E N
O C E A N S
A N D
C O A S t A L
p L A C E S
Headland
Human
activity
Durdle
•
can
increase
•
sea
defences
runoff
and
Promontory
erosion
Subaerial
•
surface
runoff
•
rain
•
weathering
•
mass
wash
by
wind
movement
landslides,
–
and
soil
frost
creep,
slumps
Corrosion
•
salt
•
blue-green
crystallization
weaker
down
Biotic
•
disintegrates
Stack
layers
Man
algae
help
o’
War
rocks
break
rock
factors
burrowing
and
browsing
organisms
Stump
Bull,
Cow,
and
Abrasion/corrasion
Calf
•
wearing
material
hurled
away
of
(rocks,
against
cliff
rocks
High
by
sand)
Hydraulic
it
•
compression
air
and
tide
pressure
of
sudden
trapped
release
Arch
Durdle
Door
Low
tide
Currrents
•
generated
waves
and
by
Wave
tides
•
pounding
shock
waves
up
to
2
30
tonnes/m

Fge B.21: Features of coastal erosion: arch, stack and stump
Solution
•
dissolving
other
acid
of
limestone
minerals
in
by
and
carbonic
seawater
Attrition
•
wearing
smaller,
down
more
of
broken
rounded
materials
into
particles

Fge B.20: Erosion and subaerial processes
Cliff
1
2
3
4
5
Sea
Wave-cut

Fge B.22: Shore platforms
platforms
are
most
level
platform
through cli recession
frequently
found
in
high-energy

poo B.5: Headlands, bay, stack and stump, Praia
environments
an
angle
of
evolution
replaced
(5),
by
about
(Figure
by
a
are
1°.
periods
to
action,
of
A
model
B.22)
salt
lower
how
steep
and
wide
with
de Rocha, Por tugal
shore-platform
cliffs
have
(1)
than
been
biological
different
m
are
lower-angle
rather
might
or
500
and
and
processes
platforms
levels
than
cliff-
platform
weathering
sea
less
of
shows
subaerial
Alternatively,
frost
typically
lengthening
subjected
forces.
and
cliffs
marine
formed
action
during
climates.
Clis
The
prole
of
a
cliff
depends
upon
a
number
of
factors
including:
●
geological
●
subaerial
●
amount
structure
and
of
marine
processes
undercutting

poo B.6: Arch, Praia de Rocha
71
2
OPTION
1
Removal
>
B
supply:
OCE ANS
a
steep
AND
cliff
C O A S TA L
2
Supply
M A R GIN S
>
removal:
a
gentle
3
cliff
Low
Horizontal
beds
4
Vertical
beds
5
Sloping
beds
water
mark
Low
water
mark

Fge B.23: Types of cli
●
rates
●
stage
Rocks
of
of
of
support
of
removal
development.
low
an
resistance
overhang.
weaknesses
control
are
the
also
in
the
shape
of
important.
bevelled
cliffs
are
are
easily
Jointing
rock,
the
In
just
cliff
areas
eroded
may
as
and
are
determine
the
(Figure
affected
angle
B.23).
by
of
unable
the
dip
Past
to
location
may
processes
periglaciation
found.
Stacks
Wave
of

poo B.7: Wave-cut platform
headlands.
eroded
to
eroded
and
side
and
weathering
leaving
an
refraction
of
of
a
If
form
concentrates
there
a
geo
enlarged
headland
the
arch
upstanding
to
form
cause
(Figure
lines
of
widened
merge,
may
stack
are
(a
wave
an
arch
B.24).
on
weakness,
crack
caves,
the
energy
and
is
roof
if
the
the
may
Geos
caves
to
be
may
on
Further
arch
eventual
anks
these
inlet).
formed.
of
The
or
the
be
either
erosion
collapse,
erosion
of
the
Activity 8
stack
Describe the coastal features
at
produces
Etretat
in
a
stump.
northern
Good
France
examples
and
at
of
arches
Dyrhólaey,
and
stacks
southern
can
be
found
Iceland.
shown in Photos B.6 and B.7.
Features of deposition
Deposition
(Figure
●
a
creates
B.25).
large
supply
sediments,
of
longshore
●
an
●
low-energy
●
bioconstruction,
the
in
suppliers
Beach
tidal
in
mid
are
of
form
range
winter
in
steepness
In
reduce
turn,
high
wave
in
and
beach
the
deposits,
cliffs
for
work
latitudes
sand.
the
by
This
are
is
spits
offshore
and
and
beaches
deposits,
river
headlands)
example
river
mouths
and
size,
more
mostly
to
pebble,
the
shape
angle
As
whereas
contribution
and
prole.
is
a
whereas
produce
composition
storm
important
summer
angle
gradients
plants.
of
those
rivers
in
as
tropics.
the
beach
of
due
characteristics.
waves
winter
low
coastline,
namely
and
swell
wave
it.
their
from
including
include:
coastlines
affected
and
and
features,
(beach
eroded
indented
mostly
differ
waves
material
sediment
is
of
requirements
drift
irregular,
tropics
number
material
●
Beaches
72
a
Essential
in
gentle
are
summer,
The
two-way
shallow
waves
of
many
relationship
affair.
Steep
constructive
water
which
materials,
more
between
destructive
waves
in
frequent
beaches
increase
turn
increases
2
i N t E r A C t i O N S
B E t W E E N
O C E A N S
Storm
Plan
view
Side
A N D
Two
caves
in
a
beach
–
a
noticeable,
p L A C E S
Berms
–
small-scale
beach
view
semi-permanent
1
C O A S t A L
headland
found
the
at
the
highest
ridges
ridge,
level
spring
levels
of
built
of
up
tides
by
or
successive
storms
tides
Cusps
–
semi-circular
scalloped
embayments
found
in
at
shingle–sand
the
the
shingle
or
junction
Ripples
wave
–
formed
action
or
by
tidal
currents
2
A
natural
arch

Fge B.25: Beach prole
3
A
sea
stack

table B.4: Beach proles and
par ticle size
maeal
1
Wave
refraction
Weaknesses
forming
2
Caves
until
concentrates
such
as
joints
or
erosion
cracks
on
in
the
the
sides
rock
of
are
headlands.
the
and
eventually
arch
angle
Cobbles
32
24
Pebbles
4
17
Coarse sand
2
7
caves.
enlarge
Continued
high
Beac
exploited,
are
the
eroded
caves
further
from
back
each
side
and
mass
into
meet
the
and
headland
an
arch
is
formed.
3
Daee
()
erosion,
and
cause
standing
weathering
the
roof
of
the
arch
movements
to
collapse,
enlarge
forming
Medium sand
0.2
5
Fine sand
0.02
3
Very ne sand
0.002
1
a
stack.

Fge B.24: The formation of stacks
wave
steepness.
beaches
Sediment
(Table
size
B.4).
the
is
sand
than
because
cliff
on
the
spring
beach
source
of
eroded
from
Beach,
river
areas
reduced
the
gravel
size
are
tides
cliffs
up
a
is
an
coastal
then
has
to
a
be
rear
inltration
backwash
a
rate
and
will
next
be
shallower
angle
is
important
made
average
and
more
Large,
only
and
on
a
the
the
By
allows
sand
products
rounded
during
conditions.
attrition
If
occur.
complex
particles,
beach.
reduced.
swash.
may
supplied
frequent
gentle
beaches.
deposition
Largest
of
by
the
more
pattern
with
steeper
percolation
impede
probably
is
the
On
the
common,
smaller.
varies
headlands,
and
and
beach.
the
is
more
material
and
The
unaffected
is
size
that
likely
at
beach
sediments,
is
is
varies
action
beach
of
beach
is
not
with
its
rapid
swash
will
beach.
and
particle
source
a
it
associated
through
allow
of
are
associated
backwash
found
upper
soliuction
greater
pebbles
Backwash
wave
consequently
The
a
recession,
highest
lower
on
waves
are
prole
impact
than
sediment
material
and
the
is
waves
beach
produces
percolation.
beach
of
hence
stronger
contrast,
less
affects
backwash
swash
plunging
surging
Shingle
percolation,
As
Hence,
whereas
considerably
offshore
periglacial
important
sediment
and
supplies
and
beach
contributor.
(beaches)
includes
such
Globally,
than
as
deposits.
material
at
Chesil
In
Arctic
rivers
erosion
by
are
the
a
sea.
73
2
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Spits
A
spit
is
a
beach
shingle
linked
land.
is
of
at
sand
one
or
end
to
Milford
on
It
found
on
indented
Sea
coastlines
For
where
Salt
marshes
at
river
along
headlands
common
The
Longshore
or
example,
and
mouths.
a
coast
and
near
bays
are
mouths
Solent
drift
(estuaries
Recurves
energy
is
examples
(Photo
Hurst
0
1
castle
have
mile
(the
Wave
refraction
Isle
1
include
B.3).
a
rias),
thin,
wave
Excellent
Cape
Spits
attached
proximal
Cod
generally
end )
end
and
a
of
larger,
Wight
0
and
reduced.
km
distal
recurves
end
(Figure
with
smaller
B.26).

Fge B.26: Formation of a spit; Hurst castle spit, Hampshire, UK
Spits
waves
undergo
occasional
storm
formation.
Walvis
spit
is
Bay,
or
sediment
but
it
The
very
change
in
the
trend
around
is
the
very
water
seaward
steep.
is
mudat
These
mud
the
and
marsh
salt
being
a
are
trapped
spit
of
moves
However,
there
the
in
the
smaller
coast.
and
of
hooked
sand
drift
occurs,
the
and
marshes
this
as
or
is
a
coastline.
causing
the
eastwards.
shallow
salt
is
side,
Within
curved
body
the
irregular
refraction
On
main
along
waves
bend
the
additional
Consequently,
to
assist
is
Longshore
northwards
is
may
has
recurves.
become
Cross-currents
example
Namibia.
coastline
sudden
waves
good
curved,
hooks,
the
A
often
refraction.
slope
to
deeper
curve
of
the
considerable
is
water
spit,
area
exposed
at
low
continuing
to
grow
by
the
marsh
the
of
water.
as
vegetation.

poo B.8: Spit
Case study
The
The Palisadoes, Jamaica
the
The
Palisadoes
is
one
of
the
largest
Palisadoes
coastline.
features
in
the
Caribbean.
Located
of
Kingston,
Jamaica,
the
13
km
grew
times
may
has
been
during
be
its
4,000
formed
history.
years
and
re-formed
Scientists
drift
believe
that
it
old.
occurs
east
to
islands)
The
region
west
on
For
coast
of
Jamaica.
The
sediment
comes
dunes.
from
74
rivers,
cliff
erosion
and
bend
carries
in
sediment
offshore
extends
it
linked
the
up
length
with
a
of
the
spit.
number
of
turning
the
spit
into
a
As
cays
tombolo.
is
affected
These
by
can
example,
in
tropical
seriously
2004
storms
damage
Hurricane
and
the
Ivan
the
eroded
south
and
longer,
hurricanes.
from
sharp
many
coast.
Longshore
a
long
(small
feature
at
drift
just
it
south
located
deposited
westwards,
coastal
is
Longshore
sediments.
up
to
a
metre
off
the
2
m
high
sand
2
i N t E r A C t i O N S
B E t W E E N
O C E A N S
A N D
C O A S t A L
p L A C E S
Beaches and sand dunes
The
largest
sand
environments
Their
dunes
(Photo
formation
is
a
●
high
●
low
precipitation
●
low
humidity.
A
large
beach
supply
onshore
tidal
provided
by
of
sand
wind
range
gradient
is
found
favoured
●
large
are
mid-latitude
storm
wave
by:
on
the
beach
speeds
will
low.
steep,
in
B.9).
expose
Large,
actively
more
fresh
sand,
especially
supplies
eroding
of
sand
if
the
are
rivers.

poo B.9: Sand dunes
Two
types
Free
of
dunes
dune
are
are
commonly
formed
in
the
described:
absence
of
free
and
vegetation
impeded
and
occur
dunes.
largely
TOK
along
desert
margins.
where
vegetation
strong
prevailing
development
of
is
Impeded
essential
wind
and
extensive
dunes
for
trapping
large
dune
are
supply
common
sand.
of
A
in
humid
large
sediment
tidal
are
areas
How do we know that levels of
range,
important
in
land and sea vary?
the
systems.
Advancing and retreating coastlines
The
a
level
result
localized
is
as
are
simple
●
the
land
tectonic
change
known
Canada
A
of
of
in
the
isostatic
sequence
of
varies
or
level
to
sea
of
rise
relation
the
or
at
level
decrease,
in
following
change
continuing
Temperatures
fall
also
uplift
the
land
to
relative
isostasy.
rates
of
change
glaciers
the
up
can
and
sea.
removal
be
ice
to
Parts
to
of
the
of
20
Land
an
may
ice
rise
sheet.
level
of
the
Scandinavia
as
The
sea
and
mm/year.
described
sheets
as
follows.
advance
and
sea
levels
eustatically.
●
Ice
●
Temperatures
●
Continued
thickness
increases
rise,
ice
melting
and
the
melts
releases
land
and
is
sea
pressure
lowered
levels
on
rise
the
isostatically.
eustatically.
land
and
the
land
rises
isostatically.
As
a
result
of
global
warming
(the
enhanced
greenhouse
effect)
A
sea
D
V
A
N
C
I
levels
are
rising,
and
this
is
impacting
low-lying
communities
in
erosion
N
=
400
m
300
m
200
m
100
m
G
uplift
classication
(1952):
O
Valentin’s
A
to
tfilpu
According
C
particular.
retreating
coasts
include
submerged
coasts
and
coasts
where
the
X
rate
exceeds
the
rate
of
emergence/deposition
R
S
erosion
T
A
of
S
●
coasts
include
emerged
coastlines
and
coasts
where
E
advancing
B
rapid
(Figure
B.27).
R
is
These
shows
Valentin’s
classication
of
advancing
and
retreating
T
B.27
coasts.
balance
of
are
partly
erosion
and
the
result
of
deposition.
sea-level
On
the
changes,
diagram,
and
points
partly
A
and
the
X
both
N
I
Figure
A
E
deposition
ecnegrembus
T
●
G
C
Y
deposition
A
S
experienced
at
A,
uplift
reducing
the
of
around
effect
of
100
uplift.
m.
However,
Similarly,
B
erosion
and
Y
has
have
taken
place
T
S
experienced

Fge B.28: Advancing and retreating coasts
about
100
m
of
submergence.
However,
Y
has
experienced
=
submergence
O
deposition,
75
2
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
so
the
level
overall
is
Features
●
of
raised
UK
emerged
beaches,
(Photo
●
coastal
●
relict
River
position
relative
to
sea
rias,
such
as
the
include:
Portland
Raised
Beach,
such
as
those
along
the
Fall
Line
in
mudats,
for
example
the
Carselands
of
the
Forth.
coastlines
such
river
coastlines
USA
Submerged
the
its
B.11)
cliffs,
raised
●
in
plains
eastern
●
change
negligible.
as
the
valleys
land
include:
River
caused
Fal
by
in
the
rising
UK
sea
–
drowned
levels
or
due
to
sinking

poo B.10: Fjord, western Nor way
●
fjords
Oslo
page
●
Activity 9
1.
Describe the
characteristics of the fjord
shown in Photo B.10.
118
fjards
or
B.10),
such
Norway
for
the
–
as
formation
drowned
Milford
caused
glacial
by
of
Sound,
drowning
U-shaped
New
of
Zealand,
U-shaped
and
the
valleys
(see
valleys)
lowlands.
The role of coastal processes, wind and vegetation in sand
dune development
Initially,
height
sand
above
surface.
2.
(Photo
Fjord,
As
is
a
moved
by
surface.
most
the
The
grains
wind.
belt
of
protrude
However,
no
wind
above
is
this
wind
only
1
height,
speed
mm
they
varies
above
are
with
the
moved
by
Distinguish between
saltation.
The
strength
of
the
wind
and
the
nature
of
the
surface
are
advancing and retreating
important.
Irregularities
cause
increased
wind
speed
and
eddying,
and
coastlines.
more
3.
material
is
moved.
On
the
leeward
side
of
irregularities,
wind
Explain how a) stacks and
speed
is
lower,
transport
decreases
and
deposition
increases.
b) spits are formed.
For
4.
dunes
to
become
stable,
vegetation
is
required.
Plant
succession
and
Examine the relationship
vegetation
succession
can
be
interpreted
by
the
fact
that
the
oldest
dunes
between coastal process,
are
furthest
On
the
from
the
sea
and
the
youngest
ones
are
closest
to
the
shore.
subaerial processes,
shore,
conditions
are
windy,
arid
and
salty.
The
soil
contains
lithology and landform in
few
nutrients
and
is
mostly
sand
–
hence
the
dunes
nearest
the
shore
two contrasting coastal
are
referred
to
as
“yellow
dunes”.
Few
plants
can
survive,
although
sea
environments.
couch
and
Once
the
level.
The
such
to
as
Once
belt
of
the
back.
76
As
sand.
the
dune
Thus
no
it
is
is
tolerate
dunes
supply
of
higher,
marram
with
covered
However,
gets
may
marram
pace
the
these
established,
wind
and
keep
established,
established,
As
of
couch
they
sand.
supply
can
vegetation
sea
grow,
more
marram
dies
it
sand
the
out.
reduces
increase
need
to
to
be
deposition.
grows
should
once
it
conditions.
–
In
so
of
the
and
continue
and
wind
to
the
addition,
as
of
by
so
sand
wind
is
mm.
fresh
to
As
sand
ground
grasses
in
grows,
it
order
traps
on.
as
dune,
growth
close
10
marram
grow
younger
fresh
speed
height
buried
As
more,
another
supply
a
of
a
long
fore
the
are
there
dune,
dune
reduced
speeds
as
to
–
is
is
a
becomes
reduced.
dunes
reduced,
further
2
evapotranspiration
moister.
to
the
In
The
soil,
the
which
slacks,
are
vegetation
may
to
system
the
nature
shells
By
Here,
the
on
acid-loving
can
be
quite
has
in
is
been
such
on
more
of
as
are
old
the
soils,
of
found.
dunes
out,
and
neutral
the
due
climax
on
and
gravels.
heather
acid
the
proportion
leached
sands
p L A C E S
is
grey
The
on
C O A S t A L
dunes,
of
–
largely
high
found
favour
rear
a
A N D
marsh
rear
soil.
O C E A N S
nutrients
the
grasslands
are
plants
the
the
depends
soil
B E t W E E N
acidic.
and
formed
the
outwash
trees
found
at
are
there
dunes
more
between
Towards
calcium),
acid
Pine
If
the
some
moister,
dunes
here
sand.
and
adds
becomes
humus
calcium
vegetation
is
of
less
points
occur.
found
based
dominate.
oak
low
(providing
dunes
turn
“grey”
the
contrast,
where
on
of
are
marram
noticeably
presence
vegetation
in
the
conditions
dune
losses
decaying
i N t E r A C t i O N S
and
ling
whereas
soils.
sand-dune
Thus
the

poo B.11: Raised Beach
complex
variable.

Fge B.28: Succession across a sand dune
Yellow
Embryo
Strand
Embryo
Yellow
dune
dune
dune
Embryo
dune
dune
Semi-fixed
dune
line
Sea
Sea
Sea
a
As
the
and
of
is
the
litter
A
tide
beach
called
small
behind
easily
goes
blown
is
the
a
the
the
line
dune
strand
destroyed
sand
beach.
of
strand
embryo
the
out,
up
At
line.
unless
dries
the
seaweed
out
Sea
top
and
line.
This
in
the
dune
colonized
shelter
can
by
the
over
1 m
at
be
couch
bind
the
forms
a
b
sea
grass
sand.
high,
couch.
10–20
marram
m
colonizes
Once
the
marram
A
high
forming
grass
yellow
with
a
and
dune
good
helps
Once
grows
to
sand
replaces
dune
the
c
dies
forms
to
long-rooted
sand
the
to
trap.
is
Fixed
dune
becomes
can
grow
Marram
3
(or
grey
damper
on
the
grass
is
dune):
and
as
richer.
dune.
They
replaced
by
time
form
a
dune
is
over
behind
it
and
thin
are
on,
have
the
mosses
layer.
dune.
high,
This
As
new
As
to
soil
grow
kind
the
less
grass
begins
on
of
the
dune
original
embryo
and
formed.
soil
and
continuous
10 m
marram
able
dandelions.
developed,
dunes
fescue
humus
plants
semi-fixed
has
goes
Lichens,
red
a
(a)
yellow
4
a
other
including
called
dune
up
form
form,
dune
plants.
yellow
builds
a
b
develops
flowering
cover
over
and
plants
the
sand.
grass.
Semi-fixed
dune
2
Yellow
Dune
dune
Silica
sand
heathland
(acidic)
1
Wet
Dune
Dune
slack
slack
slack
Slack
Shell
sand
5
Embryo
(alkaline)
dune
Dune
grassland
Strand
line
Sand
flat
Peat
Beach
Peat
est
Old
Yo
As
the
the
dune
back
Marsh
of
system
a
plants
dune.
and
un
gets
ge
du
older
These
small
st
ne
willow
s
and
damp
s
ne
du
larger,
hollows
trees
can
water
are
can
known
grow
here.
collect
as
towards
dune
slacks.
Climax
grasses
small
willow
and
trees
vegetation
flowering
succeeds
plants
as
mature.
77
2
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Concepts in contex t
This
section
process,
has
examined
including
transportational,
and
take
a
place
animals
in
weathering.
vacuum
including
and,
importance
but
increasingly,
affected
geology,
human
not
local
plants,
they
are
coastal
do
by
is,
places
(mass
Processes
are
climate,
(that
of
depositional,
gravity-inuenced
movements)
conditions
the
erosional,
of
affected
by
processes,
evolution
is
are
shaped
unique
many
of
that
and
is
factors
and
in
coastal
the
by
their
turn
the
they
place.
result
and
place).
Many
interaction
of
Every
the
with
inuence
the
coastline
interaction
processes
that
they
produce.
activities
Check your understanding
1.
Distinguish
destructive
2.
Briey
3.
Outline
between
constructive
and
6.
waves.
explain
how
the
Outline
process
littoral
cells
of
longshore
drift.
function.
7.
Explain
8.
Distinguish
changes
4.
Distinguish
processes
between
on
a
subaerial
and
Explain
formed.
how
9.
Identify
wave-cut
(shore)
platforms
be
required
for
beach
the
in
process
of
between
sea
sand
dune
isostatic
development.
and
eustatic
level.
two
ways
in
which
raised
beaches
formed.
are
10.
Distinguish
“grey
78
conditions
marine
cliff.
can
5.
the
formation.
between
dunes”
in
sand
“yellow
dune
dunes”
and
succession.
3
Managing coastal margins
Conceptual understanding
Key question
How
powerful
margin
are
different
stakeholders
in
relation
to
coastal
management?
Key content
●
Coastal
erosion
including
●
cliff
and
ooding
stabilization,
population
preparedness.
Conicting
pressures
land
use
(tourism,
on
management
sea
walls,
coastlines,
industry
and
strategies,
managed
including
housing)
retreat
and
commercial
and
conservation
measures.
●
Management
different
●
Sovereignty
along
of
coral
stakeholder
rights
coastal
reefs
and
mangrove
perspectives
of
nations
margins
and
in
on
relation
exclusive
swamps,
their
use
to
and
including
value.
territorial
economic
limits
zones.
Coastal erosion and ooding management
strategies
Cli failure
Human
of
pressures
coastal
coastal
may
long
operating
on
increase
areas;
and
Defence
a
short
a
●
maintain
●
improve
●
managed
nothing;
growth
shing,
of
help
to
for
the
to
rise
living
activities
tourism
and
Successful
processes
likely
people
variety
strategies
unsustainable.
of
a
prevent
management
are
of
need
owing
in
such
as
to
coastal
industry
recreation.
include:
that
is,
existing
the
or
Pressures
numbers
the
developments,
the
defences
Coastal
understanding
greater
and
sea.
create
sustainable
coastline.
temperatures;
do
Coastal
the
detailed
particular
options
by
term,
population;
energy
●
be
or
environments
strategies.
ooding
requires
in
rising
trade,
and
term
management
an
coastal
management
erosion
be
on
level
retreat;
let
the
levels
of
of
cliff
is,
the
area
ood
defence
defence
that
erode/let
provided
protect
some
areas
but
allow
other
areas
to
eroded.

poo B.12: Coastal management at Brunei
Cliff
defences
schemes
include
revetments,
of
the
can
as
waves
be
sea
divided
walls,
shown
and
so
in
into
cliff
gabions,
Photo
protect
the
rock
B.12.
cliff
base
cliff
armour,
They
base
and
Cliff-base
offshore
attempt
from
face.
to
breakwaters
absorb
erosion.
the
Cliff-face
and Norfolk . Top to bottom: Cli drain,
and
energy
measures
Norfolk, UK; Sea walls and groynes, Norfolk,
UK; Gabion and sea walls, Pantai Berakas,
Brunei; Revetments, Norfolk, UK.
79
3
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
L TA
include
cliff
drainage,
regrading
(making
the
cliff
less
steep
and
so
less
Thinking skills
vulnerable
What
areas
types
are
of
most
coastlines/
likely
together,
hold
the
cliff
nothing”
and
coastal
protection?
moisture
and
schemes,
reduce
which
overland
help
to
hold
the
soil
runoff.
will
be
these
change
activities
protected
locally
.
depends
For
on
example,
its
value
there
is
a
and
the
major
value
of
energy
at
the
gas
terminal
at
Bacton
in
Norfolk,
UK,
which
is
protected
How
by
might
vegetation
forms
development
of
in
and
managed
properties
retreat/“do
failure)
to
Whether
experience
to
gabions
and
concrete
blocks,
whereas
cliffs
(and
housing)
further
down
over
the
coast
at
Happisburgh
have
been
abandoned
to
coastal
erosion.
time?
Cost-benet analysis of coastal defence
Superstorm
Sandy,
which
14foot
storm
surge;
New
12foot
storm
surge.
The
Newdefences,
costing
hit
New
York’s
surge
$19
York
in
defences
caused
billion,
$20
may
October
were
billion
protect
2012,
built
to
worth
New
brought
withstand
of
a
a
damage.
York.

table B.5: Cost-benet analysis of coastal defence
Coss
•
Benes
Cost of building
•
Protected buildings, roads
and infrastructure (gas,
•
Maintenance/repair
•
Increased erosion downdrift due to beach starvation or reduced LSD (longshore drift)
•
Reduced access to beach during works
•
Reduced recreational value
•
Reduced accessibility
•
Smaller beach due to scour
water, sewage, electricity
services)
•
Land prices rise
•
Peace of mind for residents
•
Employment on coastal
defence works
•
Disruption of ecosystems and habitats
•
Visually unattractive
•
Works disrupt natural processes

table B.6: Costs and benets of coastal protection strategies
tye of anageen
As/eods
had engneeng
To control natural processes
Sengs
Weaknesses
Cli-base management
To stop cli or beach erosion
Sea walls
Large-scale concrete curved walls
Easily made; good in
Expensive. Lifespan about
designed to deect wave energy
areas of high density
30–40 years. Foundations
Porous design to absorb wave
Easily made; cheaper
energy
than sea walls
Rocks held in wire cages to absorb
Cheaper than sea-walls
wave energy
and revetments
may be undermined
Revetments
Gabions
Groynes
To prevent longshore drift
Relatively low cost;
easily repaired
Rock armour
Large rocks at base of cli to
Cheap
absorb wave energy
Lifespan limited
Small scale
Cause erosion on downdrift
side; interrupt sediment ow
Unattractive; small scale;
may be removed in heavy
storms
Oshore breakwaters
To reduce wave power oshore
Rock strongpoints
To reduce longshore drift
Cheap to build
Relatively low cost;
easily repaired
80
Disrupt local ecology
Disrupt longshore drift;
erosion downdrift
3
tye of anageen
As/eods
Cli-face strategies
To reduce the impacts of subaerial
m A N A G i N G
C O A S t A L
m A r G i N S
Sengs
Weaknesses
processes
Cli drainage
Removal of water from rocks in
Cost eective
Drains may become new
the cli
lines of weakness; dry clis
may produce rockfalls
Vegetating
To increase interception and
Relatively cheap
May increase moisture
reduce overland run-o
content of soil and lead to
landslides
Cli regrading
Lowering of slope angle to make
Useful on clay (most
Uses large amounts of land
cli safer
other measures are not)
– impractical in heavily
populated areas
Sof engneeng
Working with nature
Oshore reefs
Waste materials, for example old
Low technology and
tyres weighted down, to reduce
relatively cost eective
Long-term impacts unknown
speed of incoming waves
Beach nourishment
Sand pumped from seabed to
Looks natural
Expensive; shor t-term
replace eroded sand
Managed retreat
“Do nothing”
solution
Coastline allowed to retreat in
Cost eective; maintains
Unpopular; political
cer tain places
a natural coastline
implications
Accept that nature will win
Cost eective
Unpopular; political
implications
Red-lining
Planning permission withdrawn;
Cost eective
Unpopular; political
new line of defences set back
implications
from existing coastline
1.
2.
L TA
Activity 10
Research skills
Study Photo B.13, which shows a groyne/rock strong point. Longshore drift is
Use
taking place from the bottom right of the photo towards the top left. Using a
Change
sketch diagram, suggest the likely changes to the distribution of sediment
your
50 years after the construction of the groyne. Suggest reasons to suppor t
understanding
your answer.
protection
the
USGS
site
Coastal
to
increase
knowledge
as
many
of
coastal
and
of
coastal
schemes
other
(as
well
features
For a coastal area or inland sea you have studied, describe how the coastline
processes
and
is being protected, and comment on the eectiveness of the measures used.
landforms).
See
http://
pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1075/

poo B.13: Groyne/rock strong point
change.html#g1.
L TA
Communications and
social skills
Divide
and
on
into
the
“The
groups
a
benets
of
debate
topic:
coastal
always
outweighs
costs”.
Each
of
for
following
defences
the
two
prepare
group
three
their
has
a
minutes
maximum
to
present
case.
81
3
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Case study
water
Protecting the Palisadoes spit
from
waves.
Regular
storm
surges
and
coastal
ooding
years
have
led
to
the
massive
rainfall
10
m
erosion
of
peninsula’s
natural
the
harbour
manage
the
problem,
the
Jamaican
with
the
Company
(CHEC)
China
Harbour
repair
and
protect
degraded
At
a
cost
shoreline
of
over
of
$65
have
withstand
the
on
of
the
rock
revetment
peninsula
and
walls
on
October
the
road
on
the
was
m
to
raised
from
2.4–3.2
m
its
previous
above
sea
the
drainage
roadway
–
this
facilities
is
were
needed
been
designed
level
to
placed
remove
Coastal
wind
sea
over
that
is,
the
shoreline
storm
surges
average,
once
only
in
2012
Kingston
Sandy.
This
was
Following
that
Hurricane
businesses
Thames
at
of
protecting
otherwise
and
tides.
been
sea
clay
local
result
for
the
can
2–3
times
from
risk
a
levels
for
it
could
the
protection
along
ooding
may
and
be
caused
tsunamis.
However,
sea
walls
Fukushima-Daiichi
topped
have
passage
suffered
scheme
of
the
times
each
had
50
times.
until
between
It
due
to
several
hours
surge,
Barrier
believed
year.
and
is
in
water
the
10
m
by
The
will
most
in
to
the
2014
sea
only
and
it
2070.
by
storm
experts
Kingston
in
rise
generated
to
surges
walls.
in
have
the
south-east,
and
operates
advance
and
river
closed.
was
is
it
be
used
closed
remain
ows,
When
would
it
very
form
up
surges
abstraction
Barrier
to
a
the
Currently,
expected
2060
be
to
years.
signicant
(storm
common
protect
tsunami
high
hurricanes
aim
London
system
tide
the
proved
might
high
reasons:
subsidence
the
that
central
early-warning
each
year,
than
of
affected
massive
hurricane,
completed
with
ooding
in
expected
of
speeds)
was
exceptionally
from
the
was
from
number
An
B.14)
million,
levels
gradual
predict
time
built,
used
(Photo
£500
subsidence
exceptional
giving
of
London
shrinkage.
which
was
cost
Flood
rising
level,
and
82
Barrier
a
is
100
Sandy,
along
The Thames Barrier
1982,
the
100-year
anticipated
every
caused
Case study
in
a
damage
and
that
the
effective.
excess
wall.
2011
The
for
level.
during
Additional
The
along
Caribbean
Harbour
0.6–1.0
works
harbour.
claimed
The
peninsula.
CHEC
surges.
side
the
Palisadoes
million,
Hurricane
constructed
of
protective
the
In
peninsula.
side
and
period,
reoccur,
extensively
by
constructed
Engineering
to
to
was
Government
return
partnered
overtopping
dune.
peninsula
To
from
boardwalk
the
rehabilitative
Palisadoes
and
wide
over
on
the
A
6–7
more
operational

poo B.14: The Thames Barrier
surges
of
a
of
and
high
protection
certain
over
is
height.
11
m
a
The
which
3
m A N A G i N G
C O A S t A L
m A r G i N S
Conicting pressures on coastlines: the Soufrière
Marine Management Area (SMMA)
Soufrière
St
Lucia.
island’s
shing
is
It
most
have
However,
industry,
a
a
small
at
no
its
a
by
with
that
limited
often
focus
to
which
of
the
of
area)
and/or
lacking.
and
of
the
or
The
generally
1995
took
led
resources
In
St
with
Lucia,

poo B.15: Soufrière Bay,
St Lucia
enforcement
establishment
of
themselves
users.
established
required
in
and
tourism
consultation.
the
(SMMA)
management
users
were
of
the
income.
found
tourism-related
regulations
island
supports
agriculture
employment
capacity,
Area
Caribbean
development
education
severely
the
shelf
stakeholders
and
nancial
approach
on
variety
rules
Management
stewardship
a
of
Traditionally,
of
users
conicting
in
reefs.
sources
traditional
awareness,
with
were
main
coast
submarine
productive
basis
managing
west
narrow
increased
(the
daily
Marine
central
a
two
approach
island
Soufrière
the
and
the
public
capabilities
of
to
on
efforts
or
diverse
provided
due
top-down
little
on
bordered
shermen
competing
Past
located
is
of
to
the
the
within
success
the
area.
Activity 11
The
Soufrière
Marine
Management
Association
is
a
self-sustained
Describe the attractions of
not-for-prot
NGO
authorized
by
the
Government
of
St
Lucia
to
Soufrière, as shown in
manage
the
SMMA.
Mandated
to
conserve
and
protect
the
natural
Photo B.15.
marine
and
environment,
development
tourism
The
SMMA
areas
consists
zones
mooring
were
conict
among
of
community
The
of
areas,
the
of
per
cater
and
along
cent
the
of
problems,
which
waste
from
land-
infrastructure
the
human
on
practices,
Hurricanes
are
Research
has
there
clear
no
is
a
as
a
sustainable
the
shing
such
the
result
a
divided
shing
of
marine
uses
use
and
the
into
in
is
areas,
areas.
the
have
process
ve
priority
resources.
authorities
of
natural
to
benets,
the
or
in
of
the
the
These
area,
From
reduce
the
learned
vital
for
that
the
has
use
expansion
of
in
general,
sources,
In
recognized.
coast
in
sites
for
remote
areas,
nearly
compared
by
with
is
those
case
low
in
tourism
solid
construction
area,
adversely
the
include
and
addition
controlling
conicts
the
east
nearshore
given
located
sand,
stewardship
been
been
target
coast.
also
derived
often
the
long
prime
often
for
beach.
force
coastal
resource
On
mined
beaches
has
become
are
water-based
be
as
they
west
disasters
are
stability
have
difcult.
being
natural
that
actions
coastal
since
affect
beach
benet
the
critical
coast
along
and
major
1980s
of
is
multiple-use
multitude
stages
for
east
dynamics
shown
perceivable
activities,
During
the
natural
all
were
beaches
both
and
management
at
and
reserves,
areas
the
protect
activities
beaches
Other
affects
within
coastline
marine
to
activities
surveillance
of
of
recreational
beaches
sand-mining
6.5
ensures
management.
illegal
cent
km
SMMA,
resource
importance
per
also
particularly
B.29):
participation
beaches
15
area,
11
to
users
Many
making
of
(Figure
designed
experience
success
the
association
sectors.
different
yacht
of
the
which
to
impact
beach
with
turn
destructive
beaches.
change.
successful
involved.
in
of
If
when
there
are
beach-monitoring
priority.
the
area
sector,
increased
dramatically
technological
changes
83
3
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
in
the
shing
industry,
and
an
increase
in
N
negative
Anse
Jambon
Anse
Mamin
notably
These
impacts
agriculture,
conicts
increased
Anse
land-based
industry
manifested
competition
and
activities,
construction.
themselves
between
seine
in
shers
and
Chastanet
yachters
Grand
from
Caille
regarding
disputes
between
the
pot
use
of
shers
shing
and
areas,
and
recreational
MRA
Soufriére
Trou
divers
Diable
Rachette
S
o
u
f
r
i
é
r
e
The
in
respect
SMMA
of
the
provided
use
a
of
new
reefs.
zoning
plan
(shing
r
i
v
e
r
Point
priority
areas,
marine
reserves
and
multiple-
MRA
use
areas),
(user
Anse
Malgretoute
fees,
a
range
of
incentives
management
and
so
on)
measures
and
a
new
Mitan
institutional
it
was
clear
arrangement.
that
there
However,
were
by
difculties
1996
in
the
Caribbean
implementation
of
the
SMMA.
In
1997
the
Sea
Petit
Petit
Piton
Piton
SMMA
2,460
began
a
thorough
review
process,
which
ft
MRA
involved
all
relevant
stakeholders.
Jalousie
A
●
number
All
of
lessons
stakeholders
were
must
learned.
be
involved
in
Beausejour
Gros
Piton
planning
and
negotiating
stages
–
one
group
MRA
that
Gros
Piton
2,619
had
who
been
lived
in
overlooked
nearby
were
the
agricultural
shermen
communities
ft
and
not
where
in
the
the
coastal
regular
town
of
shermen
Soufrière
lived.
Anse
I’Ivrogne
●
Stakeholder
from
0
1
shermen,
Allows
Access
and
Reserves
fish
to
Fishing
stocks
the
area
Priority
Commercial
to
is
regenerate
by
permit
and
and
protects
can
be
marine
enjoyed
flora
by
and
divers
has
over
all
other
activities
and
in
areas
Yachting
is
Effective
●
When
snorkellers.
these
Fishing,
allowed
in
the
SMMA.
Moorings
are
provided
in
these
areas
only.
snorkelling
and
other
legitimate
uses
are
carried
Natural
are
variety
far
of
hotel
operators
is
difcult.
out
in
a
analysis
is
participatory
an
fashion,
instrument
of
resource
management
processes
are
and
constantly
allowed.
After
the
SMMA
was
formally
areas
created
for
a
resolution.
evolving.
Areas
operators,
representation
development
areas
diving,
Recreational
are
areas.
●
not
Multiple-use
communities
there
fauna.
dispute
Yachting
tourism
stakeholder
precedence
–
farmers.
●
Areas
fishing
and
2
km
Marine
groups
homogeneous
public
recreation
–
sunbathing,
in
1995,
a
hotel
and
an
agro-
swimming.
processing
factory
closed.
These
were
two
of

Fge B.29: Land-use zoning at Soufrière
the
main
reef
areas
Lenny
●
Conicts
cannot
challenge,
that
are
capable
emerging
The
the
●
SMMA
resolved;
of
changes,
is
to
were
evolving
they
destroyed
can
only
conict
equitably,
issues
establishes
the
area.
by
Also,
several
Hurricane
1999.
establish
responding
agreement
in
in
and
ve
be
managed.
management
effectively
new
and
The
institutions
efciently
to
needs.
different
types
of
zones
within
area.
Marine
reserves:
extractive
approval
84
be
therefore,
employers
these
activity
by
the
is
are
designed
allowed
Department
and
of
to
entry
protect
into
Fisheries.
a
natural
reserve
resources.
is
subject
No
to
3
●
Fishing
priority
sustaining
the
●
these
areas
activities,
are
which
designed
take
for
priority
maintaining
over
any
other
C O A S t A L
m A r G i N S
and
use
of
area.
Recreational
(swimming
access
●
areas:
shing
m A N A G i N G
and
Yachting
areas:
and
include
terrestrial
snorkelling)
areas
(beaches)
which
are
and
marine
reserved
for
public
recreation.
areas:
the
SMMA
only
provides
moorings
–
yachting
takes
Activity 12
place
outside
the
SMMA.
1.
●
Multiple-use
areas:
these
are
areas
where
activities
are
regulated
Explain the need for
by
planning and management
existing
legislation,
notably
the
Fisheries
Act
and
by
provisions
of
in the Soufrière coastal
the
SMMA
Management
Agreement
(2000).
Activities
that
may
take
zone.
place
in
these
areas
include
shing,
diving,
snorkelling
and
other
2.
recreational
Describe the land-se
activities.
zonng in Figure B.29.
Recent
surveys
suggest
that
the
SMMA
has
seen
an
increase
in
the
How does this help reduce
amount
of
sh
caught
and
in
sh
biodiversity.
Moreover,
there
has
been
conict?
less
damage
to
coral
reefs
resulting
from
human
activity.
Managing coral reefs and mangrove swamps
Coral
of
reefs
their
are
rich
often
although
most
a
species
million
world’s
Some
Reef,
and
sea
of
is
sh
the
many
the
described
biodiversity.
less
of
plants
world’s
of
than
breed,
the
and
largest
and
as
the
coral
10,000
grow,
reefs
Comoros,
Some
believed
years
animals,
spawn
coral
around
the
“rainforests
is
the
Coral
and
and
reefs
Lesser
old.
2
25
sea”
per
cent
in
and
the
of
Indonesia,
old,
nearly
the
coral
Great
Caribbean
account
years
contain
Australia’s
Philippines
on
million
predators
include
in
the
be
reefs
about
evade
Antilles
of
to
reefs.
Barrier
Tanzania
(Figure
B.15).
Environmental and economic value of coral reefs

poo B.16: Coral reef o the
coast of Antigua
Coral
reefs
4,000
been
species
users.
rely
billion
economic
global
●
reefs
and
800
tourism.
generated
per
is
biological
Countries
annually
of
the
of
coral
of
The
reefs
is
over
have
more
be
off
year,
reefs
provide
( net
of
corals
Reef
prots
is
and
thanks
Saint
for
than
biodiversity,
g/m
simply
but
to
the
amount
tourism.
and
coastal
These
a
include
breeding
primary
the
ground
following.
for
productivity )
many
of
coral
2
/year
and
existence
also
that
Lucia
tourism
the
some
about
suggest
largely
sheries,
and
for
worth
Estimates
2
2,000
have
Seychelles
large
About
billion.
advantages.
NPP
Barrier
alone.
terms
$375
the
Martinique
each
in
importance.
reef-building
generate
Great
reefs
reefs
many
species
of
reefs
the
economic
Barbados,
Queensland
to
Biodiversity:
sh.
as
kilometre
estimated
provide
Coral
coral
coral
and
species
such
by
to
square
value
protection
major
sh
on
value
$50,000
Coral
of
Tourism
A$4.6
The
of
discovered.
Maldives
to
are
to
the
its
biomass
value;
human
they
is
2
are
kg/m
.
Coral
important
population.
There
not
are
reefs
only
many
advantages.
●
Seafood:
total
sh
alone.
sh
If
and
in
LICs,
catch,
properly
other
coral
reefs
providing
managed,
seafood
contribute
food
per
for
reefs
square
up
can
to
about
1
one-quarter
billion
yield,
kilometre
on
people
average,
per
in
15
of
the
Asia
tonnes
of
year.
85
3
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND

poo B.17: Coral and tourism,
C O A S TA L
●
M A R GIN S
New
Jolly Harbour, Antigua
of
medicines:
the
array
of
self-protection.
chemicals
viruses,
●
Other
ranging
are
reefs
offer
difcult
to
inhabitants.
●
●
snorkellers,
wave
by
of
action
and
are
the
impact
case
tropics,
the
Overshing,
reefs,
problem,
causing
which
lead
occurrences
1997–98
2010.
the
The
killed
richest
of
in
grafts,
for
for
and
treating
other
economic
jewellery
aquariums,
and
and
sand
industry.
industry
services,
of
buffer
and
and
some
importance
16
began
The
of
to
which
nearby
are
and
rst
per
in
2015
may
only
this
of
highly
as
is
local
often
the
reefs.
pressures
are
a
on
both
three
with
The
coral
longer-term
oceans,
been
corals.
have
draw
from
supporting
nearby
warming
of
from
where,
coincided
cent
major
shorelines
to
gases
have
fastest-
a
maintenance
short-term
There
the
are
shers.
wetlands
by
of
reefs
benets
from
harbours,
acidication
about
one
adjacent
greenhouse
The
is
Coral
recreational
range
pollution
bleaching.
which
of
into
enormous
sheltered
bleaching.
off
of
storms.
and
are
levels
oceanic
coral
coral
third,
world’s
The
to
of
and
and
and
ports
these
growing
bone
useful
host
used
economy.
sheries
around
tourism
whereas
a
made
corals
reefs
widespread,
built
yield
tourism
coral
economies
for
because
organisms
tumours.
shells
are
hope
these
include:
divers
mangrove
used
environmental
global
productive
in
of
of
appear
construction
they
the
the
protection:
protection
the
but
scuba
and
and
range
value:
being
and
particular
many
species
cancer
sh
offer
by
ecosystems
services
sectors
Coastal
live
wide
already
several
corals
quantify,
Recreational
for
to
used
These
growing
of
a
reef
species
produced
are
skin
from
curios,
limestone
reef
within
leukaemia,
tourism
Coral
Corals
found
products:
goods,
and
coral
chemicals
El
global
Niño
second
affected
38
in
was
per
in
cent
of
corals.
reefs
are
in
the
“coral
triangle”
in
South
East
Asia
(Figure
B.31).
2
This
and
area
of
more
than
anywhere
The
face
popular
run-off
corals
are
Resources
beaches
need.
to
The
use
in
two-thirds
reef
the
changing
vary
livelihoods
In
to
sh
to
to
the
on
are
in
–
of
the
twice
as
world’s
many
of
and
reefs
kill
Sea,
beyond
hence
largest
region:
and
the
coral
as
are
species
found
of
Indonesia,
in
the
must
Papua
Philippines,
to
get
be
people
all
of
off
of
in
up
methods
to
the
and
harm
shing
adapted
to
the
for
giant
recovery.
who
these
coral
fertilizer
that
Colombia
and
New
all
most
herbivorous
shing
of
reefs
of
the
light
regard
building
of
addition,
the
Some
possibility
policies
In
block
without
cent
quarter
those
shermen
island
the
per
a
number
control.
sh
are
water.
which
blast
number
Trying
the
60
about
shape
into
reduces
out
China
reefs.
gets
about
2016,
worst
example,
stun
that
to
blooms,
grow
spatially,
Indonesia
depend
years
reefs
For
some
with
estimates
50
algal
to
South
coral-triangle
Philippines.
that
close
harmful.
In
the
suncream
vegetation
countries
the
In
leads
dynamite
problems
three
of
Institute
reefs
Fishing
reefs.
are
species
where
farms
allowing
clams
86
The
particularly
done
contains
threats.
died.
from
Tanzania
all
3,000
immediate
has
km
else.
World
cover
sh,
86,500
sh
locally.
on
Guinea
1
reefs
and
million
people
on
The
are
the
people’s
board
3
with
conservation
prove
measures
approach
Coral
is
to
C O A S t A L
m A r G i N S
will
difcult.
reefs
Marine
One
m A N A G i N G
Protected
give
Areas
ecologically
sensitive
status,
as
areas
(MPA)
special
Oahu
Pacific
such
marine
protected
South
areas
(MPAs).
In
theory,
Ocean
Coral
China
activities
Triangle
Hawaii
(US)
Sea
that
as
are
shing,
can
then
with
The
Aichi
on
for
the
at
water
mining,
or
UN
17
and
banned,
agreed
Equator
I
N
D
O
N
E
S
I
A
in
Convention
Diversity,
least
such
rule-breakers.
Targets,
under
inland
and
restricted
Biological
have
harmful,
drilling
be
penalties
2010
to
deemed
per
10
seek
cent
per
of
Great
cent
Barrier
AUSTRALIA
of
coastal
under
Most
marine
conservation
countries
However,
the
and
less
ocean’s
areas
by
have
Reef
2020.
signed
up.
than
3
per
surface
is
within
cent
of
an
MPA.
The
of

Fge B.30: Coral reefs and Marine Protected Areas in the western Pacic Ocean
most
urgent
action
shing
vessels
would
declaring
an
area
Bush,
is
regarding
help
protected
George
W
.
marine
monuments
then
to
shing
identify
does
president
not
of
vessels.
necessarily
the
A
wrongdoers.
USA,
global
register
Moreover,
safeguard
established
it.
In
three
simply
2009
national
2
islands
and
vessels
entering
are
a
role.
(NOAA)
has
$500,
making
photograph
In
acidity
poor
them
rogue
or
cent
economic
far
of
In
as
by
rm,
manned
as
an
of
already
each
have
and
However,
on
a
Satellites
could
drones
play
that
around
drones
ocean
are
coral
stop
Administration
cost
been
those
of
to
robots
Such
monitoring
surveillance
MPA.
hard
Saildrone,
boats.
km
stretched.
sailing
They
that
waters,
it
Atmospheric
months.
well
methods
is
518,000
makes
future,
and
species
territorial
protected
the
private
for
than
vessels
low-tech
are
a
endangered
Malaysia’s
zone,
with
remoteness
Oceanic
regions
cheaper
shing
tracking
countries,
0.09per
ocean
nearly
coastguard
MPAs.
National
working
remote
including
Their
Hawaii’s
police
USA
’s
been
roam
to
Pacic,
areas.
illegally;
used
The
could
and
the
surrounding
sometimes
larger
in
could
temperature
tagged.
needed.
within
Just
its
national
exclusive
programme

poo B.18: Mangrove trees
requires
have
then
shermen
permission
spot
charges
when
visitors
to
to
paint
sh
their
within
a
rogue
to
enter
vessel
a
vessels
according
the
nearshore
has
strayed.
coastal
In
to
area.
how
Other
Barbados,
far
out
they
shermen
a
pilot
can
project
MPA.
Mangrove swamps
Mangroves
the
tidal
muddy
are
salt-tolerant
estuaries
waters,
rich
home
to
algae.
Mangroves
largest
a
huge
being
and
in
cover
of
570,000
ha
25
of
and
tropical
cent
shrubs
areas
decaying
worms,
per
the
trees
of
from
sponges,
about
of
zones
nutrients
variety
the
forests
coastal
that
leaves
and
crustaceans,
of
the
Sundarbans
tropical
in
grow
(Photo
in
B.18).
wood,
molluscs
The
are
and
coastline,
the
Bangladesh.
87
3
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Mangroves
and
the
fuel,
have
Philippines
also
protect
They
also
sewage
many
building
can
yield
coastlines
act
as
uses,
materials
400
by
natural
such
and
as
kg
of
sh
absorbing
lters,
providing
medicine.
and
the
75
force
absorbing
large
One
quantities
hectare
kg
of
of
of
shrimp.
hurricanes
nutrients
from
of
food
mangrove
in
Mangroves
and
storms.
farming
and
disposal.
Pressures on mangroves
Despite
and
their
shrimp
increase,
value,
farms.
the
fate
South
Pacic
South
East
many
As
of
mangroves
mangroves
Asia
mangrove
population
have
have
lost
half
areas
growth
looks
have
in
bleak.
disappeared,
of
been
coastal
Already
while
lost
areas
to
is
most
India,
rice
set
paddies
to
Caribbean
West
and
Africa
and
theirs.
Managing mangrove forests
Mangroves
products
poisons,
both
provide
such
and
as
food
such
commercially
swamps
and
provide
humans
fuelwood,
protection
beds
from
many
shellsh
farmed
seagrass
Nevertheless,
as
with
charcoal,
and
as
and
over-exploitation
farmed
of
services.
thatching
crustaceans.
for
nurseries.
tropical
ecological
timber,
storms
Many
subsistence,
In
addition,
and
mangroves
act
has
as
led
These
materials,
sh
use
species,
mangrove
mangrove
sediment
to
include
dyes,
trees
traps.
signicant
declines
2
in
their
extent
produce
the

poo B.19: Mangrove (Sarawak, Malaysia)
for
as
of
Singapore,
coastal
population
and
some
Rapid
beds
requires
Attempts
unless
in
bark
occurs
of
on
have
is
are
year,
aside
for
been
the
have
and
Sabah,
to
heavily
of
sh.
mangroves
40
per
In
In
to
other
urban
cent
of
many
make
areas,
way
such
expansion.
Urban
waste-treatment
facilities,
polluted.
of
mangrove
Coastal
between
and
over
forests.
Integrated
Conicts
conservationists,
of
of
removed
allow
mangrove
km
production.
been
other
destruction
development
2,000
woodchip
expansion
becoming
the
in
removed
squeezing
and
and
forests
crabs
over
and
human
sustainable
seagrass
Zone
use
users
of
of
mangroves
planning.
mangroves
that
was
species.
of
for
its
Intensive
cycle
to
1760
could
tannins
–
so
not
and
In
India
most
planting
of
cut
King
for
was
1759
José
other
of
uses
obtained
mangroves
since
cases,
and
when
be
fuelwood
management
1902.
of
back
trees
Bangladesh
since
30–year
date
mangrove
used
Malaysia
a
set
techniques.
and
Sundarbans
Metang
each
exceeding
the
Indonesia,
prawns,
growth
protect
valuable
the
is
areas
(ICZM)
forests
ensured
its
for
mangroves
growth
to
was
In
mangrove
development
careful
Portugal
Asia
prompted
mangrove
woodchip
ponds
population
has
decades.
area
East
coastal
Management
less
of
mangrove
South
aquaculture
Rapid
recent
250,000
total
parts
in
and
sustainable
has
in
from
occurred
the
silviculture
harvesting.
Restoration and aorestation
There
are
including
roong
erosion
(in
Rio
have
places
afforestation
material,
control,
de
been
Middle
88
numerous
sheries
and
introduced
mangrove
programmes
protection
Janeiro)
East.
where
from
produce
tropical
enhancement,
even
to
to
the
as
fodder
Marshall
trees
the
storms,
aesthetic
for
have
planted,
Nypa
mangrove
timber,
fuelwood,
appeal
livestock.
Islands,
been
around
Mangrove
French
for
landll
trees
Polynesia
and
the
3
m A N A G i N G
C O A S t A L

table B.7: Examples of mangrove restoration
Managed realignment
As
a
result
of
rising
mangrove
are
to
inland.
migrate
mangroves
farmers
to
are
sea
being
is
continue
unwilling
mangroves
levels
to
and
constrained
This
continue
the
as
provide
see
to
coastal
by
known
to
to
m A r G i N S
their
subsidence,
coastline
managed
ecological
land
many
and
need
realignment.
services.
holding
areas
to
It
be
allows
However,
reduced
in
of
size
Geogac
allowed
Noes
locaon
the
Australia –
11 ha; approximately
Brisbane
50,000 plants along a
airpor t
drainage canal, par tial
many
to
allow
ourish.
oset for losses during
runway construction
Flow restoration
The
Diawling
population.
National
However,
Park
due
in
to
Senegal
the
was
established
construction
of
a
mainly
dam
for
its
upstream,
bird
Bangladesh
148,500 ha
the
Pakistan
wetlands
began
to
dry
out,
the
mangrove
suffered,
and
the
area
19,000 ha; 16,000 ha
became
of plantation and 3,000
saltier.
Prompt
management
led
to
the
articial
ooding
of
the
wetland,
ha of assisted natural
the
recovery
of
the
mangroves,
and
the
restoration
of
the
local
sheries
regeneration
and
bird
population.
Thailand
Mangrove restoration in
Generic protection
A
number
and
Tanzania,
Brazil,
all
abandoned shrimp ponds
countries,
have
coastal
such
as
introduced
vegetation
Brazil,
Mexico,
legislation
is
to
protected
Cambodia,
protect
(in
El
Salvador
mangrove
theory)
and
trees.
tourist
L TA
In
of
and
Research and
communication skills
aquaculture
strict
rules
developments
over
the
are
regulated.
establishment
of
In
the
Philippines
aquaculture
ponds.
there
are
Australia
and
Visit
the
USA
operate
a
“no
net
loss”
policy,
while
in
Kenya
and
Malaysia,
http://wwf.panda.
all
org/about_our_earth/blue_
mangroves
fall
under
state
ownership.
However,
not
all
of
these
schemes
planet/coasts/mangroves/
have
prevented
exploitation.
mangrove_importance/
and
http://www.
Protected area
endangeredspecies
Some
1,200
areas
worldwide,
accounting
for
about
25
per
cent
of
the
international.org/
remaining
mangrove,
are
said
to
be
protected.
The
sites
range
in
size
coralreefs5.html
from
just
a
few
trees
to
the
vast
Sundarbans.
Permitted
activities
the
from
conservation
to
sustainable
and
use
range
information
to
give
forestry.
a
brief
your
presentation
class
on
mangroves
the
and
to
value
coral
of
reefs.
Sovereignty rights of nations
Exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
Exclusive
economic
sovereign
rights
and
subsoil,
extending
international
on
the
of
nautical
management
recognize
ocean
the
all
be
in
found
right
space.
conserve
zones
over
up
and
of
are
of
to
mile
the
Coastal
waters,
sh
on
states
are
or
the
in
which
nautical
1.852
km).
conservation
states
–
areas
economic
200
is
coastal
resources
the
all
to
free
oil,
to
over
and
the
a
nation
the
38
coast
develop
the
impact
they
square
and
or
has
seabed
(the
since
million
nodules
in
sea,
profound
resources
gravel,
oor
of
from
“exploit,
or
coastal
have
ocean
control
gas
ocean
miles
They
of
a
resources
manage
sulphur
subsoil
miles
of
an
–
and
to
area,
Online case study
extending
almost
all
oil
200
nautical
miles
from
its
shore.”
Almost
90
per
cent
of
Geopolitical
known
reserves
under
the
sea
fall
under
some
country’s
EEZ.
So
Falkland
do
the
rich
shing
areas
–
up
to
98
per
cent
of
the
world’s
shing
conict:
The
too
Islands
(Las
regions
Malvinas)
fall
within
an
EEZ.
Ascension – an EEZ in the South Atlantic?
2
The
UK
has
claimed
surrounding
ownership
Ascension
Island.
of
200,000
The
km
of
mountainous
the
Atlantic
ocean
oor
seabed
up
to
89
3
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
560
M A R GIN S
km
from
the
isolated
island
in
the
South
Atlantic
is
believed
to
TOK
contain
To what extent can any country
states
extensive
are
mineral
unlikely
to
deposits.
challenge
the
With
no
near
neighbours,
other
claim.
have a claim over another
2
Ascension
Island
is
small,
having
a
land
area
of
around
100
km
,
but
in the middle of the ocean?
due
to
its
isolated
location
it
generates
an
EEZ
comparable
to
an
area
Comment on the UK’s territorial
2
of
more
than
440,000
km
.
As
mineral
and
energy
prices
have
risen,
claim over the Falkland
there
has
been
growing
international
interest
in
exploring
the
seabed
for
Islands (also South Shetland,
increasingly
scarce
reserves.
South Orkney and the South
Sandwich Islands).
The
waters
Pacic
However,
vents
around
and
the
that
Atlantic,
to
claims
and
beyond
mid-Atlantic
help
preparing,
Ascension
probably
in
Island
ridge
concentrate
to
the
of
generally
deeper
technological
contains
valuable
underwater
Bay
are
current
similar
minerals.
territories
limits
than
for
volcanic
Britain
around
the
extraction.
black
has
Rockall
smoker
lodged,
in
the
or
North
Biscay.
Concepts in contex t
There
many
power
and
so
power
may
of
of
countries,
on.
of
How
these
require
countries
economic
their
forms
a
TNCs,
stretch
different
large-scale,
may
be
power
own
than
territories.
Economic
territorial
rights.
In
territorial
and
afford
These
Zones.
is
territories
addition,
is
some
around
have
Some
into
conict
countries
the
once
more
rights
oceans
over
had
the
events
poorer
have
sovereignty
the
wealth,
on
physical
nations
extend
those
nature,
depends
Powerful
Some
often
of
individuals’
management.
this.
Nations
There
power
managed
forces.
expensive
to
the
industries,
coastline
others.
rights
including
different
of
users
unable
Exclusive
claimed
power,
within
to
form
competing
colonies
and
places.
Check your understanding
1.
Explain
term
2.
the
meaning
“managed
What
is
meant
of
the
7.
by
“land-use
What
8.
Outline
walls
Identify
the
benets
some
disadvantages
zoning”?
3.
are
two
causes
of
of
sea
walls?
retreat”.
as
a
of
the
of
form
using
of
sea
coastal
storm
management.
surges.
9.
4.
Explain
the
term
Explain
the
term
“beach
economic
zone”.
nourishment”.
10.
5.
Outline
the
advantages
Dene
the
term
of
“geopolitics”.
coral
6.
reefs.
Dene
the
term
management”.
90
“coastal
“exclusive
is
4
Ocean management futures
Developing abiotic resources
Conceptual
Many
people
minerals.
nodules,
have
for
Roughly
usually
a
years
believed
quarter
about
the
of
the
size
of
that
ocean
an
the
seabed
oor
apple,
is
is
paved
strewn
which
with
with
contain
manganese
not
understanding
just
Key qeson
manganese
technically
and
it
stirs
The
is
up
but
also
cobalt,
difcult,
not
mainly
popular
sediment
economics
with
that
of
copper
because
nickel.
most
Gathering
of
them
lie
environmentalists
since
the
kills
mining
and
everything
has
in
the
4
nodules
km
of
is
water,
necessary
dredging
for
are
though.
Industrial
the
future
managing
global
nearby.
changed
What
the
possibilities
oceans
as
a
commons?
commodity
Key conen
prices
are
much
higher
than
in
the
1970s,
and
technology
has
advanced.
●
That
means
it
may
now
become
protable
to
exploit
the
Causes
and
increasing
crusts
and
other
minerals
recently
discovered.
Since
2004
China,
India,
Japan,
Russia,
South
Korea
and
a
consortium
of
countries
have
all
been
awarded
licences
by
the
for
of
the
resources
of
oceans,
east
including
European
demand
France,
abiotic
Germany,
consequences
manganese
minerals,
oil
and
International
gas.
Seabed
Authority
seabed.
The
deep-water
ore
oil
mining
containing
north
of
to
explore
Canadian
company
copper
Papua
mining
company
New
and
to
gold
Guinea,
possibilities
Nautilus
start
production.
from
using
on
Minerals
the
Its
bottom
technology
the
deep-ocean
hopes
of
to
plan
the
is
be
to
the
Bismarck
developed
by
rst
bring
the
●
up
Sea
offshore
Trends
biotic
(sh
the
viability
to
industry.
in
use
and
of
overshing,
aquaculture,
areas
and
resources
mammals)
and
alternatives
including
conservation
quotas.
Deep-water discoveries
●
Hydrates
Hydrates
trapped
1960s
deep
are
in
a
and
compounds
cage
then,
beneath
together
of
in
the
contain
that
water.
the
1970s,
ocean
more
usually
They
on
surface.
energy
consist
were
the
rst
slopes
Some
than
all
of
methane
found
of
the
molecules
permafrost
continental
scientists
of
in
believe
known
in
these
as
a
possibility
Japan
and
that
India,
makes
with
little
them
or
highly
no
oil
or
attractive
gas.
The
to
oil
manage
pollution,
including
strategies
oil
and
are
cautious.
Hydrates
occur
naturally
in
countries
The
strategic
and
possible
unpopular
very
because
difcult.
And
they
clog
methane,
the
ow
though
it
of
oil.
burns
lines,
Extracting
more
and
value
a
wider
range
of
wavelengths
of
the
Earth’s
them
cleanly
CO
.
Therefore,
it
traps
more
heat,
making
it
outgoing
an
oceans
for
even
conict
including
or
the
would
than
ownership
and
coal,
of
islands,
canals
and
radiation
transit
than
of
sources
they
control
absorbs
plastic
companies,
fault
contested
be
and
such
insecurity,
are
local
radioactive
waste.
international
though,
for
of
ocean
fossil
●
fuels,
weaknesses
to
materials,
hydrates
of
and
initiatives
global
the
shelves
deposits
Strengths
choke
points.
more
2
pernicious
contain
greenhouse
less
energy
gas.
than
Some
the
scientists
energy
argue
needed
to
that
release
methane
and
hydrates
secure
them.
Oil
All
is
over
a
Sea
of
the
major
and
world,
activity
the
North
widespread
oor
of
the
platforms
spills
The
effects
Sea
British
regularly
regions
Sea.
toxic
North
in
oil
in
in
and
such
as
threats
on
the
vary.
benthic
vicinity
Norwegian
contaminate
the
Gulf
There
(deep
of
of
the
waters.
coasts.
Mexico,
is
sea)
Oil
the
growing
exploration
South
communities
500-plus
oil
Meanwhile,
China
evidence
on
the
production
oil
exploration
91
4
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
in
Case study
the
deep
threatens
acoustic
Oil pollution in the Gulf of
waters
of
the
endangered
prospecting
disorientate
some
North
Atlantic,
deep-sea
for
corals.
hydrocarbons
marine
north-west
There
in
is
these
also
of
Scotland,
evidence
waters
may
that
deter
or
mammals.
Mexico – Deepwater Horizon
Shipping
In
April
2010
the
Deepwater
oil,
the
is
also
dirtiest
a
of
huge
cause
fuels,
that
of
pollution.
means
not
Since
just
ships
more
burn
CO
but
bunker
also
2
Horizon
oil
collapsed.
in
total,
of
oil
rig
Estimates
up
to
4.9
entered
Over
160
affected,
exploded
of
suggest
million
the
km
and
Gulf
of
that,
barrels
Mexico.
coastline
including
more
was
oyster
particulate
60,000
deaths
cancer.
Most
South
rarer
Asia.
since
shrimp
farms.
The
cost
to
operated
the
rig,
of
year
these
Some
2010,
from
occur
action
when
is
all
may
chest
near
be
responsible
and
lung
coastlines
being
taken.
single-hulled
diseases,
in
Oil
for
Europe
spills
ships
and
have
were
about
including
East
and
become
banned.
are
also
being
made
to
prevent
the
spread
of
invasive
BP
,
species
who
each
which
beds
Efforts
and
matter,
reached
through
the
taking
on
and
discharging
of
ships’
ballast
$20
water.
Similarly,
a
UN
convention
may
soon
ban
the
use
of
billion.
tributyltin,
BP’s
by
attempts
pumping
mud
into
three
huge
the
were
plug
the
oil
quantities
blowout
on
of
almost
and
well
attempts
using
a
total
ships’
toxic
hulls
chemical
in
order
BP
to
of
heavy
of
mud.
made
pressure
forcing
was
at
the
International
the
seabed.
See
the
mud.
included
to
try
to
in
safety
robot
activate
lowered
the
Previous
using
the
concrete
but
the
for
Seabed
with
icy
well’s
BP
Visit
built-
Nautilus
the
to
use
leaking
This
was
a
also
container
container
crystals.
only
Dispersants
the
oil
the
US
use,
as
and
over
And
collect
partially
but
used
BP
they
to
could
marine
to
to
at
http://
Mining
also
Code
http://www.cares.nautilusminerals.
Minerals
community
accountability
and
responsibility.
guyots
break
limit
a
map
of
cobalt-rich
crusts
on
seamounts
http://www.isa.org.jm/les/images/maps//
Sulphides_Global.jpg
for
polymetallic
sulphide
deposits.
the
sea
the
distribution
oor.
Suggest
of
polymetallic
reasons
to
sulphide
account
for
their
deposits
on
distribution.
in
up
by
their
even
in
for
and
TOK
Is the oil producer BP to blame for the Deepwater Horizon accident, or is
Transocean, the owner of the rig, responsible? Who should be in charge of
maintenance of the rig – the owner or the user?
more
Gulf
The environmental, economic and
attempts
were
the
oil.
ordered
cause
life
tool
the
Mexico.
BP’s
website
about
it
successful.
was
government
out
became
insertion
to
were
slick,
damage
of
riser
pipe
Authority
nd
http://www.isa.org.jm/les/images/maps/Crusts_
Pacic_3D.jpg
the
tried
and
attempts
Describe
clogged
used
algae
force
submarines
mechanisms.
a
leak,
the
were
oil
than
environmental
of
prevent
paint
However,
the
greater
or
the
30,000
com/
upwards
kill
to
Research skills
for
the
to
added
block
www.isa.org.jm/authority
barrels
once
barnacles.
Look
the
all
highly
preventer
unsuccessful.
separate
leak
L TA
(BOP)
to
a
to
eventually
plug
the
oil
leak
geopolitical consequences of overshing
successful.
World sheries
L TA
Thinking skills
World
sheries
tonnes
In
what
ways
does
of
seabeds
92
and
in
aquaculture
2012,
valued
at
contributed
over
$215
almost
billion.
160
million
Over
tonnes
were
used
as
food
for
136
people.
international
(Figure
inuence
of
sh
the
million
map
of
the
B.31)
development
polymetallic
sulphides?
The
world’s
1961,
with
compared
supply
an
of
sh
average
with
a
as
food
growth
growth
rate
has
rate
of
of
1.6
grown
3.2
per
per
cent
dramatically
cent
per
per
year
since
year
for
the
4
North
O C E A N
Atlantic
m A N A G E m E N t
F u t u r E S
11.4%
Anchorage
Dublin
Brussels
Odesa
Seattle
Marseille
North
New
York
Pacic
Athens
Lisbon
UNITED
JAPAN
STATES
28.2%
Pusan
Algiers
Los
Angeles
Gibraltar
Kuwait
City
Shanghai
Miami
Taipei
Muscat
Doha
Central
Atlantic
Abu
Hong
Kong
Dhabi
Mumbai
4.3%
San
Kingston
Juan
Dakar
Channai
Manila
Djibouti
Central
Central
Caracas
Pacic
Guam
Portonovo
Accra
Pacic
Abidjan
9.6%
Mogadishu
Colombo
Cayenne
9.6%
Libreville
Singapore
Dar
es
Salaam
Jakarta
Luanda
Indian
Ocean
Rio
de
Janeiro
Maputo
7.1%
Port
Headland
AUSTRALIA
South
Cape
Town
Perth
Atlantic
South
Pacic
3%
Sydney
10.9%
Auckland
Antarctic
0.1%

Fge B.31: The world’s main shing grounds, showing percentage of global catch
world’s
of
9.9
was
population.
kg
per
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consumption.
which
42.8
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annual
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the
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for
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for
reached
consumed
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in
85.4
million
average
of
total
tonnes,
of
China.
products
considerably
an
consumption
two-thirds
outside
of
from
Fish
lower
has
grown
than
in
steadily
high-
narrowing.
much
of
the
substantial
production
increase
increase
grew
from
in
in
7
world
per
aquaculture.
per
cent
in
1961
again
3.0
billion
people
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almost
20
per
cent
protein.
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production
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than
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19
consumption
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gap
to
to
2010.
freshwater
growing
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world
in
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and
owing
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the
in
was
capita
but
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Asia
responsible
in
to35percent
tonnes
per
China
share
food
1960s
while
countries,
countries,
China’s
the
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million
low-income
income
World
in
catches
million
and
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western
showed
tuna
tonnes
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south-west
of
in
and
is,
sh
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stable
species
in
at
about
set
a
new
2012.
central
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shrinking
and
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remains
Pacic
areas
catches
south-east
and
for
Atlantic
have
the
the
largest
and
Mediterranean
2011
have
and
2012.
been
recovering
recently.
93
1
4
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Fish stocks
Total
global
capture
second-highest
Moreover,
tonnes)
2012
when
production
ever,
slightly
showed
the
a
highly
of
93.7
below
new
million
the
93.8
maximum
variable
tonnes
million
in
production
anchoveta
2011
tonnes
catches
of
(86.6
are
was
the
1996.
million
excluded.
The decline of sh stocks
Fishing
sh
eets
further
cod,
which
now
down
tend
less-desirable
human
Larger,
catch
the
to
sh.
be
predatory
numbers
fall,
overshing
the
of
sh
not
it
need
and
most
affects
change
to
of
predatory
The
predators,
only
could
numbers
cod
large
chain.
top-level
This
consumption,
fewer
food
eat
other
type
of
important
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more
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of
increases.
species,
example
smaller,
available
for
smaller
This
total
smaller
for
leaving
ecosystems
quantities
sh
but
food
declining
marine
large
smaller
are
the
sh
prized
is
sh
for
ever.
sh.
why
As
their
despite
catches
have

poo B.20: The Tokyo sh
remained
high.
However,
the
type
of
sh
being
caught
is
changing.
market – unsustainable demand
for sh (shown here are tuna)
Despite
are
larger
falling.
even
boats
World
become
and
sh
extinct.
better
stocks
More
technology,
have
and
sh
declined
more
catches
rapidly
ships
are
–
of
species
some
chasing
like
species
fewer
cod
have
sh,
and
Activity 13
prices
Comment on the propor tion of
for
have
risen
example
quickly.
through
Despite
quotas
and
many
bans,
attempts
there
has
to
save
been
the
little
sh
industry,
success.
marine sh stocks that have
Nearly
70
per
cent
of
the
world’s
stocks
are
in
need
per
cent
of
management.
Cod
been over-shed since 1974.
stocks
in
the
North
Sea
are
less
than
10
of
1970
levels.
Fishing
160

Fge B.32: World capture
Aquaculture
sheries and aquaculture, 2012
production
140
Capture
Source: The State of World Fisheries and
production
120
Aquaculture. The Food and Agriculture
sennot
Organization of the United Nations, 2014.
100
noilliM
80
60
40
20
0
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
00
05
12
Year

Fge B.33: Global trends in the
100
state of the world’s marine sh
Aquaculture. The Food and Agriculture
skcots
Organization of the United Nations 2012.
dessessa
Source: The State of World Fisheries and
At
Overfished
90
stocks, 1974–2011
biologically
Within
unsustainable
biologically
levels
sustainable
levels
80
70
60
50
Fully
fished
fo
egatnecreP
40
30
20
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10
0
74
78
82
86
90
94
Year
94
98
02
06
11
4
boats
from
Africa
and
waters.
the
EU
South
More
regularly
America,
than
half
of
sh
to
in
other
make
the
sh
up
parts
for
the
consumed
of
the
world,
shortage
in
O C E A N
of
Europe
is
m A N A G E m E N t
for
sh
F u t u r E S
example
in
EU
imported.
Strategies for the European shing industry
A
World
per
year
world
$2.2
Bank
is
trillion.
of
capacity
due
has
more
The
to
in
to
report
poor
report
is
puts
the
showed
total
technology
since
nd
catch
is
loss
Due
the
Fish
up
continues
to
each
$50
1978
to
The
amount
are
billion
overshing
and
2008
increase.
boat
has
over-capacity,
stocks
remaining
to
and
between
However,
wasted.
2006.
that
inefciency
capacity
slowly.
technology.
changed
and
2008
shing
increasing
improved
in
management,
industry’s
new
barely
effort
to
The
vessels
investment
FAO
due
sheries.
number
sea
and
lost
of
The
greater
much
sh
depleted,
of
caught
so
in
at
it
the
at
takes
sh.

Fge B.34: Fishing grounds under threat
North
west:
Iceland:
Cod
gone
from
lrish
Sea
World’s
Haddock
most
successfully
overfished
managed
fishery
throughout
Black
Canada,
Sea:
Newfoundland:
Mediterranean:
Grand
Banks
collapsed
in
Pollution
led
to
the
extinction
1992
Most
species
seriously
Eastern
Bigeye
depleted
of
14
commercial
species
of
fish
Fishing
Atlantic:
tuna
now
can
endangered
by
West
African
Fishing
by
for
With
and
satellite
radar,
locate
dwelling
cod
it
and
and
within
to
own
shoals
satellite
coast:
bought
compensate
lost
fisheries
technology
is
possible
catch
fish
EU
rights
trawlers
locate
to
bottom-
such
as
haddock
a
wide
radius
Case study
Grand Banks
2.0
Once
a
sh
for
it
to
Newfoundland
to
The
years
have
cod’s
taken
it
recover.
three
cod,
1992
not
–
over
by
to
was
but
yet
niche
had
It
The
once
the
be
the
other
Grand
closed
Banks
and
it
ecosystem
such
off
richest
to
to
numbers,
species,
very
world’s
expected
sh
recovered
in
is
allow
be
closed
especially
is
still
has
as
closed.
erutpaC
for
recover.
was
it
ni
stocks
In
overshed
1.5
North-east
stock
.llim
shery.
is
sennot
difcult
stock
1.0
North-west
stock
0.5
been
shrimp
and
0.0
langoustines.
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year

Fge B.35: The decline of Atlantic cod
95
1
4
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Table
B.8
there
are
suggests
no
politically,
some
simple
possible
solutions
economically
and
to
strategies
the
for
the
problems
future,
associated
environmentally
sensitive
but
clearly
with
such
a
industry.

table B.8: Strategies for the European shing industry for the future
Acon
tye of ease
Objecves
Conservation of resources
Technical measures
Restrict catches
Limit number of vessels
Surveillance
Small meshed nets, minimum
Protect juveniles and encourage breeding,
landing sizes, boxes
discourage marketing of illegal catches
Total allowable catches (TACs) and
To match supply to demand, plan quota uptake
quotas
throughout the season, protect sensitive stocks
Fishing permits (which could be
System applicable to EU vessels and other
traded inter- or intra-nationally)
countries’ vessels shing in EU waters
Check landings by EU and third-
To apply penalties to overshing and illegal
country vessels (log books,
landings
computer/satellite surveillance)
Structural
Structural aid to the eet
Finance investment in eet modernization
(although commissioning of new vessels must be
closely controlled) whilst providing reimbursement
for scrapping, transfer and conversion
Reduction in
Inclusion of zones dependent on
To facilitate restructuring of the industry, to
unemployment leading to
shing in Objectives 1, 2 and 5b of
nance alternative local development initiatives to
an increase in productivity
Structural Funds
encourage voluntary/early retirement schemes
Minimum impor t prices,
To ensure EU preference (although still bound
restrictions on impor ts
under WTO)
Markets
Tari policy
Other measures
Restrict number of vessels
Fishing licences
Large licence fees would discourage small,
inecient boats
Increase the accountability
Rights to sheries
Where sh stay put (for example shellsh)
of shermen
–
sections of the seabed can be auctioned o
–
Where a whole shery is controlled, quotas could
be traded which would allow some to cash in and
leave the sea
L TA
Research and communication skills
Visit
http://ec.europa.eu/sheries/cfp/index_en.htm
about
the
Prepare
Common
a
brief
presentation
●
What
●
When
●
What
happened
●
What
are
is
the
was
Fisheries
Common
it
the
Policy
with
of
the
details
Fisheries
European
about
Policy
of
the
the
and
nd
out
Union.
following.
European
Union?
introduced?
to
North
arguments
Sea
for
cod
and
stocks
against
in
a
2008?
common
sheries
policy?
Visit
and
a
96
http://ec.europa.eu/sheries/cfp/shing_rules/tacs/index_en.htm
research
map
of
TACs
TACs
by
(total
species
allowable
and
catches).
countries.
Scroll
down
for
a
link
to
4
O C E A N
m A N A G E m E N t
F u t u r E S
Illegal shing
Activity 14
The
scale
of
illegal
and
unreported
shing
is
difcult
to
estimate.
The
Maximum Sustainable Yield
Pew
Charitable
Trusts,
an
American
research
group,
believes
that
(MSY) is the largest yield that
around
one
sh
in
ve
sold
in
restaurants
or
shops
has
been
caught
can be taken from a natural
illegally.
That
may
amount
to
26
million
tonnes
of
sh
every
year,
worth
resource without long-term
more
than
$23
billion.
This
illegal
trade,
though
not
the
only
cause
of
depletion. The formula for
overshing,
is
an
important
one.
As
well
as
the
economic
cost,
there
calculating MSY is as follows:
is
an
environmental
one
–
since
the
1960s
one
in
four
sheries
has
S
collapsed.
= S
n
+ G +
Where: S
A
new
monitoring
Applications
system
Catapult.
It
has
uses
been
data
developed
from
by
various
the
Satellite
sources,
R −
M −
C
n−1
= stock size now
n
notably
ships’
S
= stock size one year ago
n−1
automatic
identication
systems
(AIS).
These
broadcast
a
vessel’s
G = growth or biomass added
identity,
position
stations,
and
and
other
information
to
nearby
ships
and
coastal
by sh stock
also
to
satellites.
An
AIS
is
mandatory
for
all
commercial
R = recruitment or biomass
vessels,
shing
boats
included,
with
a
gross
tonnage
of
more
than
300.
added by young sh
However,
a
enforcement
legitimate
protable
reason
for
of
AIS
is
turning
patchy.
it
off,
so
Some
as
captains
not
to
alert
believe
other
they
boats
have
to
M = biomass lost by mor tality
shoals.
C = biomass caught
A
virtual
watch
room
can
track
vessels
anywhere
in
the
world.
It
When MSY is achieved the sh
uses
AIS
data,
satellite
data,
radar,
photographic
images
and
radio
population remains stable.
transmissions,
and
it
gives
alerts
when
a
vessel
enters
prohibited
waters
What is the maximum tonnage
and
slows
down
to
shing
speed.
It
can
also
see
when
a
vessel’s
catch
is
of sh that can be removed in
transferred
to
another
vessel.
one year without damaging the
Nevertheless,
support
tackle
come
a
of
the
illegal
from.
powerful
There
is
this
system
industry,
shing.
an
irony
require
well
combat
this
as
may
pressure
to
in
as
Firms
Customer
weapon
will
government
retailers
be
able
and
to
and
illegal
restaurants
trace
satellite
funding
where
and
if
their
technology
it
is
sh
may
ocean’s ability to recover its
the
stock?
to
have
prove
to
be
shing.
development.
Overshing
is
the
product
not
just
Ex tension work
of
human
nding
is
now
greed,
and
up
but
also
catching
to
the
sh
task
of
of
far
technologies
more
catching
such
efcient
illegal
in
as
sonar
recent
shermen
that
have
decades.
as
well
as
made
Technology
Watch a shor t video clip that
explains how the Vir tual
sh.
Watch Room operates: http://
worldmaritimenews.com/
Aquaculture
Aquaculture
contrast,
shing
sh
a
or
sh
to
species
Salmon
North
raising
hatchery
raised
was
up
by
85
and
a
sh
cent
Baltic
seas
are
of
when
commercially,
juvenile
species’
farms
per
introduced
Atlantic
sh
releases
supplement
makes
Farming
archives/150115/video-eyes-
involves
sh
natural
total
carp,
sale
populations
declined
into
the
numbers.
salmon,
the
usually
due
of
to
of
for
wild
The
tilapia,
for
most
Atlantic
on-the-seas-xated-on-pirate-
In
recreational
shing/.
important
catsh
Norwegian
wild
food.
and
sh
cod.
farming.
salmon
in
the
overshing.
Global aquaculture
Between
8.8
per
1980
cent
estimated
at
Aquaculture
and
and
per
66
2010,
annum.
million
tonnes,
production
environmental
world
World
is
aquaculture
aquaculture
worth
vulnerable
conditions.
$140
to
Disease
grew
by,
on
production
average,
in
2012
was
billion.
adverse
impacts
outbreaks
in
of
recent
disease
years
have
97
4
1
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S

Fge B.36: The Vir tual Watch
Room
2
3
4
1
TOK
The Tragedy of the Commons
is an idea which states that
a commonly held resource
is over-exploited. Nobody
owns the high seas, which
are therefore vulnerable to a
perfectly legal free-for-all. Much
of the overshing occurs in
territorial waters that stretch 12
nautical miles from a country’s
coastline, as well as so-called
exclusive economic zones that
stretch to 200 nautical miles
beyond coastlines, over which a
more limited sovereignty exists.
Visit https://www.theguardian.
1
com/environment/the-
Vessel
to
a
Monitoring
fisheries
Systems, or
monitoring
VMS,
centre
via
aboard
vessels
broadcast
GPS
coordinates,
speed
and
other
data
satellite.
coral-triangle/2015/jan/14/
2
Synthetic
Aperture
Radar,
or
SAR,
satellites
circle
the
globe
day
and
night,
independent
of
weather
indonesias-new-marineconditions,
and
can
detect
vessels
in
remote
areas.
laws-threaten-sustainable-
sheries to read a case study
3
Automatic
by
on the problems of managing
VHF
Identification
radio
Convention
to
for
nearby
the
Systems, or
vessels
Safety
of
and
life
at
AIS,
broadcast
coastal
Sea
stations
for
all
a
vessel’s
and
are
commercial
identity,
mandatory
vessels
position
under
larger
than
and
the
300
other
information
International
gross
tonnes.
Indonesia’s shing industry.
4
Optical
and

Fge B.37: Growth in
Satellite
can
Sensors
continuously
provide
cover
one
high-resolution
small
imagery
and
oceanographic
and
atmospheric
data
area.
80
aquaculture
Sea-based
aquaculture
70
Source: The State of World Fisheries
Inland
and Aquaculture. 2014. The Food and
Nations
60
sennot
Agriculture Organization of the United
aquaculture
50
noilliM
40
30
20
10
0
80
85
90
95
Year
98
00
05
10
12
4
affected
shrimp
In
farmed
2012,
13.5
China
million
have
Atlantic
farming
in
produced
tonnes
reduced
competition
salmon
several
their
from
of
in
Chile,
countries
over
40
aquatic
in
lower
in
South
tonnes
Some
output
with
oysters
Asia,
million
algae.
aquaculture
countries
in
Europe,
America
of
HICs,
O C E A N
food
recent
years,
production
and
and
sh
notably
m A N A G E m E N t
F u t u r E S

poo B.21: A Brunei sh farm
marine
Africa.
and
the
USA,
mainly
due
to
costs.
Characteristics of aquaculture
Technological
to
keep
sh
programmes
farmer,
costs
and
are
to
salmon
as
it
be
2–5
species,
like
herring,
for
costs
into
of
wild
Organic
escaped
parts
wild
native
The
the
sh
but
sh
–
and
the
high
on
a
Salmon
It
is
protein
1
kg
85
of
as
antibiotics
Breeding
per
hectare
per
for
and
are
uses
per
and
food
supply
most
to
Fish
produce
leads
to
the
the
environmental
farmed
food,
salmon
faeces
and
surrounding
other
so
non-carnivorous
markets.
from
uneaten
and
farmed
contrast,
salmon
contaminating
steroids
In
Other
spread
that
global
used
of
scale.
by
carnivores
the
domestic
that
(created
in
cent)
anchovy
global
are
possible
salmon.
production
diseases
with
can
sh
salmon
Atlantic
affect
wild
local
is
that
an
alien
environmental
them
–
chemical
species
into
farms,
gene
waters.
waste,
of
can
sh
genetic
farms
the
In
threaten
British
introduced
a
non-
ocean).
removing
huge.
when
variations.
example,
Pacic
not
are
from
(for
their
genetic
inadvertently
the
pools
reducing
escaped
has
benets
in
sh
non-natural
have
industry
salmon
wild
populations,
introducing
farming
growing
of
grow
salmon)
with
world,
as
such
waters.
of
salmon
positive
type,
drugs
growth.
are
sh.
catsh,
so
and
potentially
species
stocks,
and
other
(about
and
the
Outputs
loss
to
species
interbreed
of
net
pollution
this
coastal
and
Columbia
of
a
using
improve
damaging.
sardines
treat
to
from
sh
lice
and
to
be
tilapia
sh
include
high.
production
sea
escape
sh
diversity,
native
the
debris
Accidental
wild
as
other
used
contaminate
can
salmon,
stocks,
chemicals
also
made
mackerel,
include
some
of
such
farmed
depletion
is
represent
kg
and
steroids
expensive.
effects
aquaculture
sh
feed
also
pellets
actually
takes
global
fed
high,
and
efciency
Environmental
need
are
healthy,
Wild
sh
from
populations
wild
are
Atmosphere
allowed
to
provides
breed
and
maintain
stocks,
whilst
the
farmed
–
33%
variety
Runoff
food.
and
discharge
–
land-based
44%
Initiatives to manage oceanic pollution
Every
year,
worldwide,
posing
millions
turning
of
it
tonnes
into
environmental,
Marine-based
industry,
offshore
mining
(for
and
of
pollution
world’s
economic,
activities
shipping
the
that
lead
example
health
to
and
pollution
transport,
extraction,
ends
biggest
illegal
up
in
the
“landll”
aesthetic
include
tourism,
dumping
at
ocean
and
thus
problems.
the
shing
shing),
sea
and
Maritime
discarded
shing
gear.
The
main
sources
of
marine
litter
include
Offshore
transportation
land-based
activities
such
as
discharge
from
stormwater
–
Dumping
industrial
beaches
outfalls,
and
untreated
rivers.
In
the
municipal
North
Sea,
sewerage,
half
of
the
littering
litter
production
–
1%
12%
drains,
of
comes
–
10%

Fge B.38: Sources of waste
entering the sea
99
1
4
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
from
ships.
depressing
The
amount
reading.
●
approximately
●
in
2014,
For
80
marine
plankton;
that
of
per
cent
water
is,
pollution
in
the
sea,
and
its
sources,
makes
example:
out
of
marine
samples
of
7
kg,
litter
contained
there
were
is
land-based
six
6
times
kg
of
more
plastic
plastic
and
1
than
kg
of
plankton
●
each
day
sewage
and
●
cruise
from
250,000
kg
litter
for
€60
coastal
year,
revenues
of
into
the
5,420,000
the
to
to
serious
oceans
m³
of
shing
ocean
the
around
sewage
eet.
of
was
95,000
from
and
North
damage:
assessed
losses
at
sinks,
litter
include
changing
may
m³
of
galleys
for
coastal
across
€630
amount
1
per
be
year.
one
of
million
to
cent
the
almost
of
the
total
fastest-
oceans.
recycling,
the
each
cost
almost
could
approximately
world’s
Sea
Potential
industry
Marine
the
the
shing.
shing
dumping
energy
and
represent
health
from
economic
cleaning
to
would
the
removed
shipping
cost
EU
saving
are
beach
the
which
Alternatives
benign
cause
and
threats
products,
waste
tourism,
while
million,
growing
of
can
communities,
per
release
and
showers
Marine
EU
ships
toilets
producing
dangerous
less-wasteful
material
into
more
waste.
Radioactive waste
Radioactive
and
1992,
successor,
still
the
and
Arctic
the
containing
and
research
was
the
also
of
place
carried
its
for
across
for
at
the
18
into
by
the
the
unwanted
the
and
Fukushima
northern
waste
industrial
uses.
Daiichi,
Pacic
is
power
Following
in
Between
Union,
nuclear
nuclear
decades.
oceans.
Soviet
Radioactive
from
radioisotopes
station
way
used
fuel.
comes
radioactive
power
was
nuclear
usually
use
makes
Ocean
resting
their
remains
nuclear
waste
and
as
oceans
usually
the
efuent
the
its
also
several
dumped
process,
in
medical
waste
explosion
Japan,
1958
Russian
reactors,
Nuclear
the
Ocean
or
of
radioactive
towards
Canada
USA.
Very
Low
low
impact
impact
Medium
impact
Medium
high
High
Very
impact
impact
high
impact

Fge B.39: The human impact on
the oceans
100
4
O C E A N
m A N A G E m E N t
F u t u r E S
Plastic
Activity 15
More
alarming
still
is
the
plague
of
plastic.
The
UN
Environment
1.
Programme
reckoned
even
as
far
back
as
2006
that
every
Outline the main sources of
square
ocean pollution.
kilometre
it
was,
100
of
of
and
is,
million
garbage
sea
held
in
the
tonnes
over
an
nearly
central
of
18,000
Pacic,
plastic
area
pieces
where
jetsam
twice
the
of
are
size
oating
scientists
suspended
of
the
plastic.
believe
in
two
Much
as
of
much
separate
as
2.
Study Figure B.39.
gyres
a.
Suggest reasons for
USA.
the locations of very
high human impacts.
About
wind
seals
90
or
per
water
and
study
of
560
that
pieces
in
become
The
of
from
birds
found
enter
cent
out
each.
land.
of
20
in
food
formed
in
takes
eat
up
had
Moreover,
marine
GPGP
It
picked
concentrated
the
plastic
inadvertently
fulmars
19
the
the
has
decades
it,
and
dead
plastic
when
sea
in
in
in
the
other
up
it
tiny
there
or
sink.
Pacic.
around
stomachs
breaks
and
carried
decompose
just
countries
their
plastic
barnacles
to
not
been
–
the
an
by
Turtles,
A
North
average
attracts
Identify, and suggest
and
reasons for, a region
Sea
of
toxins,
organisms
b.
Dutch
of very low human
44
impact.
which
thus
chain.
due
to
the
concentration
of
marine
pollution
by
Ex tension work
ocean
currents.
surrounded
by
accumulation
Ocean.
the
the
of
in
US
the
other
North
carry
about
Approximately
GPGP
is
six
80
20
Environmental
large,
debris
cent
cent
of
the
from
Protection
the
debris
slow-moving
Circulation
countries
from
and
relatively
gyre.
from
years
per
per
a
Pacic
pollutants
Currents
gyre
and
The
west
from
waste
of
coast
Asia
comes
of
in
in
2011:
gyre
the
about
from
a
to
America
ve
to
Visit http://www.greenpeace.to/
publications/dead-zones.pdf for
information on dead zones and
red tides.
years.
report
primary
the
Pacic
land-based
to
“The
leads
North
North
shipping. According
Agency
the
bordering
mass,
sources
from
source
the
of
Case study
marine
and
debris
is
the
manufacturing
improper
products,
waste
disposal
including
or
plastics
management
(for
example
of
trash
littering,
The Great Pacic
illegal
dumping)
harbors,
vessels,
Pacic,
docks,
…
and
stationary
US
EPA,
Debris
storm
is
generated
drains.
platforms
November
and
on
Debris
cargo
land
is
at
marinas,
generated
ships”
at
( Marine
ports,
sea
from
Debris
in
rivers,
shing
the
North
2011).
Garbage Patch
The
is
The
size
of
the
GPGP
is
unknown,
although
it
is
known
to
be
Estimates
vary
from
700,000
km
more
than
15
area
garbage
2
to
an
million
km
GPGP
is
also
estimated
to
contain
about
100
million
(GPGP)
marine
located
Ocean
in
the
roughly
tonnes
between
of
of
.
Pacic
The
Pacic
Patch
very
2
large.
Great
Garbage
135°
and
rubbish.
155°
35°
Photodegradation of plastics
west
and
GPGP
Plastic
never
biodegrades.
It
does
not
break
down
into
natural
it
goes
through
a
photodegradation
process,
splitting
has
into
smaller
450
years
particles
that
are
still
plastic.
It
takes
a
plastic
bottle
photodegrade,
and
a
disposable
nappy
takes
500
The
extremely
concentrations
and
other
of
rubbish
about
that
to
between
north.
smaller
plastics
and
42°
substances.
high
Instead
and
years
have
been
trapped
to
by
the
currents
of
the
photodegrade.
North
As
a
result
of
photodegradation,
much
of
the
plastic
particulates
in
Pacic
currents
GPGP
are
too
small
to
be
seen.
A
2001
study
counted
334,721
pieces
particles
per
square
kilometre.
The
United
Nations
suggests
that
each
square
mile
of
ocean
water
pieces
of
oating
garbage.
The
overall
concentration
of
seven
times
greater
than
the
concentration
of
that
the
zooplankton.
from
deeper
points
found
much
lower
in
debris
America,
Hawaiian
Asia
islands.
consists
concentrations
mainly
of
small
Samples
particles
collected
pulls
North
plastics
It
was
These
circular
contains
and
46,000
a
Environment
from
Programme
create
of
effect
plastic
gyre.
the
of
in
the
upper
plastic
water
layers.
particles.
101
1
4
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Eect on wildlife
Due
to
the
fact
photodegrade,
end
up
in
Midway
(coral
the
(also
It
the
million
1.5
of
is
has
plastic
their
in
up
in
die.
of
this
Marine
plastics
An
debris
plastics
partly
as
Atoll
fed
also
of
to
a
that
20
is
on
year
an
of
atoll
Most
the
about
tonnes
to
plastics
Pacic
GPGP
.
nest
and
time
animals.
North
the
albatross
the
long
small
Islands)
by
every
enable
and
the
system,
estimated
is
birds
affected
albatrosses
take
degraded
Midway
middle
digestive
Midway
can
the
marine
the
Laysan
quarter
of
severely
their
on
of
these
known
been
chicks
washed
of
situated
Ocean.
have
many
stomachs
Atoll
reef)
that
some
island
one-third
plastic
and
of
debris
about
one-
chicks.
spread
of
invasive

poo B.22: Eects of plastics on albatrosses
species.
region
Some
and
species
drift
long
may
attach
distances
to
to
oating
colonize
plastic
other
in
one
ecosystems.
L TA
Research skills and social skills
Use
the
following
prepare
a
presentation
possibilities
in
the
sources
for
world’s
Chinese expansion in the South China Sea
to
on
managing
The
pollution
oceans.
is
now
the
United
Nations
Law
the
of
Sea
Convention
(1982)
on
regulates
in
numerous
a
comprehensive
maritime
and
the
in
by
which
controls
deep
the
the
the
limits
of
way
In
western
2015–16
for
China
insists
organizes
to
It
built
resources
seabed
also
articial
area,
and
(Sea-bed
Asian
of
Nuclear
and
the
Treaty)
of
the
1971
Thereof
In
http://www.
and-ocean-oor-and-subsoil-
thereof-seabed-treaty/–
nuclear
mass
Ocean
bans
weapons,
health
destruction,
index
in
the
to
on
years
have
of
£3
for
trillion
American
installed
Woody
claimed
its
Paracels
virtually
all
some
coral
rocks
and
Island
right
are
of
to
also
the
reefs
reefs
construction,
China
sea.
Islands
signed
in
China
to
in
two
in
about
value.
naval
launch
the
limited
China
supremacy
in
claimed
by
belongs
the
Spratly
batteries
Paracel
and
sea
in
also
like
in
claimed
the
2002
which
has
create
including
oil
and
China
archipelago
necessary
Vietnam
to
self-
and
Taiwan.
it.
the
Islands,
by
the
missiles,
with
the
parties
creating
Philippines,
outs
the
spirit
Association
promised
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Taiwan
of
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South
“exercise
East
self-
built
land
over
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4
km
of
facilities
articial
that
could
land
be
mass
utilized
in
for
an
air
strip
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a
3,000
m
runway.
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region
gas.
delegates
archipelago
also
UN
Convention
of
claimed
cannot
to
by
on
sustain
territorial
accorded
visited
in
the
China,
the
human
waters,
but
habitable
the
Law
Itu
of
the
China
Philippines
the
life,
not
Aba,
South
so
the
biggest
Sea,
and
Vietnam.
Sea
(UNCLOS),
it
entitled
200
is
mile
natural
garrisoned
to
Itu
12
exclusive
island
by
Under
Aba
is
a
nautical
economic
in
Taiwan
the
rock
miles
zone
islands.
the
or
2030,
on
current
trends,
the
South
China
Sea
will
be
virtually
a
any
on
the
oor.
http://www.
oceanhealthindex.org/.
102
alleged
(ASEAN),
but
today.
ocean
in
Spratly
Chinese
of
is
The
The
that
use,
rich
2016
the
By
or
on
Nations
Spratly
that
weapons-mass-destruction-seabed-
seabed
70
accounting
over
Ocean
Subsoil
nuclear-weapons-and-other-
weapon
than
artery,
passes,
the
treaty-prohibition-emplacement-
of
trade
trade
Weapons
nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/
placing
over
land
declaration
national
Prohibition
Sea-bed
in
vital
2
the
and
more
China
that
Vietnam.
also
the
a
missiles
facilities.
military
Floor
China
B.40).
restraint”
Emplacement
on
is
world’s
Pacic.
surface-to-air
(Figure
the
on
Sea
the
the
jurisdiction.
Treaty
of
threatening
defence
relating
mineral
international
beyond
–
UN
activities
seabed’s
this
issues.
https://www.isa.org.jm/
means
–
China
the
http://www.
un.org/Depts/los/index.htm
South
30percent
lake,
as
the
Caribbean
and
Gulf
of
Mexico
are
for
the
USA
is
4
Three
approaches
are
being
tried
to
O C E A N
m A N A G E m E N t
F u t u r E S
moderate
CHINA
China’s
behaviour
–
legal,
diplomatic
and
military.
TAIWAN
The
legal
UNCLOS
case
that
is
show
to
“nine-dash
line”
sea
B.40)
the
Philippines
that
on
China’s
maps
brought
historic
to
the
claim
encompassing
most
–
of
a
the
HAINAN
(Figure
has
no
legal
basis.
Diplomatically,
Approximate
China
prefers
to
negotiate
with
ASEAN
location
members
oil
Woody
of
Island
South
rig
China
individually.
As
for
military
deterrence,
a
marked
Duncan
increase
defence
years
still
spending
leaves
the
across
USA
as
the
the
region
The
a
of
USA
standing
also
military
up
wants
training
to
to
only
power
turn
ground.
two
Pacic
Tinian
and
islands
Pagan
into
are
Islands
territories
that
form
part
of
the
the
Northern
Mariana
Islands.
Thitu
cay
Island
two
Eldad
Reef*
Reef
Commonwealth
Itu
of
Manila
Southwest
Subi
US
PHILIPPINES
Paracel
China.
MANTE
capable
Sea
Island
in
V
recent
in
The
US
Navy
has
Spratly
Aba
Islands
Island
Mischief
Gaven
proposed
using
the
two
islands
for
live
re
Reefs
exercise
Reef
Fiery
for
at
least
16
weeks
each
year.
Pagan
has
Cross
been
Hughes
Reef
Reef
largely
uninhabited
since
a
volcanic
eruption
in
Cuarteron
Johnson
1981,
and
would
be
used
as
a
training
ground
for
a
Reef
South
potential
conict
in
the
South
and
East
China
Reef
Seas.
Reclamation
Swallow
China
Reef
Vietnam
BRUNEI
work
Malaysia
Philippines
Extent
A
Changes in the Arctic and the global
by:
Taiwan
of
I
China’s
S
E
250
claim
N
0
Airstrips
O
geopolitical oppor tunities and challenges
D
MALAYSIA
km
*Unconfirmed
I
they bring

Fge B.40: Geopolitical conict in the South China Sea
The
fact
that
Arctic
sea
ice
is
disappearing
has
been
Sources: www. amti.csis.org; www. janes.com; www. lawfareblog.com
known
trade
decades.
routes,
reserves
and
This
also
believed
is
opening
giving
to
lie
up
access
to
beneath
potential
the
the
vast
oil
and
L TA
gas
for
Arctic.
Research skills
Find
L TA
Research skills
out
about
complaint
that
Philippines
Look
at
http://www.geopoliticsnorth.org/
for
an
article
on
the
High
North,
and
add
to
your
lodged
with
Geopolitics
the
in
the
the
UN
Permanent
Court
notes.
of
Arbitration,
China
says
engage
it
with
and
will
the
why
not
case.
Case study
According
The Arctic
hold
Canada
is
establishing
a
year-round
on
Denmark
part
of
is
the
land
and
trying
to
sea
as
prove
underwater
well
that
as
a
extension
of
Lomonosov
Greenland,
quarter
in
the
oil
Russia
submersible
has
titanium
In
2008
the
USA
divide
ag
to
staked
some
Canada,
met
up
the
plant
in
4
a
which
a
the
world’s
Survey,
it
could
This
undiscovered
amounts
to
90
gas
billion
barrels
of
Nearly
85
oil
and
Ridge
is
claim
per
vast
cent
of
amounts
these
of
natural
deposits,
they
gas.
believe,
is
offshore.
The
ve
countries
are
racing
to
Danish
by
the
limits
of
their
territory,
stretching
sending
beyond
their
land
borders.
corrosion-resistant
km
below
Denmark,
Greenland
resources
Geological
air.
far
a
of
reserves.
establish
territory.
US
detached
are
an
the
Arctic
and
presence
a
to
of
the
North
Norway,
to
the
discuss
Arctic
Pole.
Russia
how
and
to
Ocean.
There
At
the
was
is
also
Arctic
increased
Frontiers
announced
animals
such
as
that,
potential
for
conference
increasingly,
copeopods
and
shing.
in
2015
it
planktonic
krill
were
103
4
OPTION
B
OCE ANS
AND
C O A S TA L
M A R GIN S
Case study (continued)
abundant
that
in
and
could
primary
cod
feeding
survive
on
the
productivity
population.
As
the
Arctic
smaller
winter.
could
water
plankton
The
support
a
temperatures
increase
treaty
similar
which
bans
Under
the
are
being
found
as
far
rise,
scramble
unique
for
groups
the
animal
have
north
Arctic,
criticized
saying
habitats,
and
it
will
have
regulating
activity
the
and
Antarctic,
mineral
mining.
as
UN
Law
of
the
Sea
Convention,
states
own
the
seabed
beyond
existing
80°N.
of
the
damage
called
1982
cod
370
Environmental
that
larger
coastal
populations
to
military
for
a
km
zones
shallower
shelves’
have
if
it
is
waters.
outer
created
limits
a
part
of
While
on
tangle
a
of
a
continental
the
clear
rules
aim
geological
overlapping
shelf
to
x
basis,
Arctic
they
claims.
Concepts in contex t
There
are
oceanic
Much
many
of
the
commons,
country.
for
ocean
and
is
will
Therefore,
to
be
they
the
is
is
by
a
humans.
any
or
in
remote
pressures
and
that
economics
ocean
degraded.
be
are
single
and
may
it
be
areas,
on
such
resources.
pressures
on
contested.
and
may
between
management.
may
Even
populations,
Global
danger
careful
consensus
managing
of
the
over-exploited
need
achieve
of
owned
there
for
benet
part
not
However,
resources
Trying
possibilities
resources
as
In
be
different
close
resources
The
battle
environment
well
Antarctica,
areas
is
are
large
greater,
between
likely
complicated
there
to
by
to
intensify,
conicts
countries.
difcult.
Check your understanding
1.
Identify
two
oceanic
abiotic
7.
resources.
Explain
the
sheries
2.
Explain
the
terms
“quotas”
and
Outline
the
main
sources
of
ocean
pollution.
8.
Explain
what
9.
Explain
how
sh
4.
Name
two
5.
Identify
strategies
to
manage
ocean
ocean
area
in
which
as
well
there
6.
Identify
the
conict
countries
conict/insecurity
source
of
or
the
the
Virtual
technology
as
protect
Watch
has
Room
helped
to
is.
catch
them.
Outline
the
environmental
problems
is
associated
international
capture
pollution.
10.
one
between
aquaculture.
“conservation
areas”.
3.
difference
and
with
aquaculture.
insecurity.
involved
(question
5)
in
the
and
the
conict.
Synthesis and evaluation
●
Changes
margin
parts.
in
one
may
This
part
bring
can
be
of
an
about
ocean
change
small-scale
or
in
and
small-scale
coastal
other
in
the
case
of
groynes,
or
policies.
The
benets
large-scale
as
in
the
case
of
El
Niño
The
exploitation
also
vary
of
scale
aquaculture
The
104
in
of
to
management
oceanic
from
resources
highly
large-scale
of
oceans
may
localized
capture
also
large-scale
cost
and
effectiveness
depends
on
the
of
perspective
events.
of
●
to
and
management
natural,
reserves
articial,
●
as
nature
sheries
cases
sheries.
varies
from
the
stakeholder
developers,
have
different
should
be
–
industrialists,
conservationists
opinions
managed.
as
to
and
energy
shermen,
how
oceans
prACtiCE
2
M A X E
E X Am
E C I T C A R P
Tower
Middens
Faha
Lo
RS64
Faha
Faiche
Ross-Behy
274
2
0
0
275
257
256
Curra
250
208
150
The
map
(a)
(i)
shows
Identify
coastal
the
(ii)
Explain
(iii)
Outline
such
(b)
a
as
landform.
landform
how
the
this
shown
landform
conicting
that
shown
on
on
has
the
been
pressures
the
map.
map.
on
(6
(1
mark)
formed.
(3 marks)
managing
a
coastal
area,
marks)
Either
Examine
than
the
local
view
that
the
management.
ocean
(10
requires
more
global
management
marks)
Or
Evaluate
coastal
the
costs
protection
and
benets
strategies.
of
(10
two
or
more
named
and
located
marks)
105
O P T I O N
C
E XT R E M E
E N V I R O N M E N TS
This
Key terms
optional
kinds
Sstaiabiit
of
theme
extreme,
considers
terrestrial
two
different
environment:
Social, economic and
●
cold
environmental use of resources
and
(polar,
in a way that allows future
high-altitude
glacial
mountains
generations to maintain their
areas;
in
environments
periglacial
non-tropical
areas;
high
latitudes)
standard of living.
●
Arid ad
Arid areas receive less than
si-arid
250 mm rainfall per year
hot,
arid
environments
semi-arid
These
(hot
deserts
and
areas).
environments
are
relatively
inaccessible
whereas semi-arid areas receive
and
tend
to
be
viewed
as
inhospitable
to
between 250 mm and 500 mm
human
habitation.
Despite
this,
they
provide
per annum.
numerous
Ifr tiit
opportunities
for
settlement
and
A lack of nutrients or bases in soils,
economic
activity.
This
theme
examines
the
caused by low weathering rates,
essential
landscape
characteristics
of
the
two
a lack of biomass; insucient
kinds
of
extreme
environment,
together
with
nutrients to support arable farming.
Priacia
Snow and ice cover on the fringe of
glaciated areas (“peri” means edge)
usually associated with permafrost
or ground that remains frozen for
at least two years. These regions
the
natural
the
way
the
opportunities
in
adapted
and
for
the
processes
to
which
people
they
extremes
challenges
management
operating
of
them,
responded
how
weather
these
and
have
offer,
in
they
and
to
have
climate,
environments
pose
sustainability.
include high mountain and tundra
This
theme
will
develop
an
understanding
areas of northern Eurasia and North
of
processes,
places,
power
and
geographical
America.
possibilities.
Prafrst
More
specialized
concepts
include
Permanently frozen subsurface. To
glacial
systems
risk
and
adaptation
(in
relation
be classied as a permafrost the
to
climate
change)
and
resource
nationalism
land must have been frozen for at
(in
relation
to
land
ownership).
least two years.
Watri
Weathering is the breakdown
ad rsi
(denudation) of the Ear th’s
surface in situ (on the spot,
that is, without a moving
Key questions
1.
force) whereas erosion is the
Why
can
extreme
some
places
be
considered
to
be
environments?
breakdown of the Ear th’s surface
2.
How
do
physical
processes
create
unique
by a moving force, for example
landscapes
in
extreme
environments?
glaciers, rivers, wind.
Dsr ticati
The spread of desert or desert-like
3.
How
from
People native to an area and
pp
who have been there for many
generations.
Rsrc
The use of a country’s resources
atiais
to benet that country rather than
allowing a TNC or another country
to benet from the resources.
106
the
stakeholders
conditions.
Idis
does
4.
power
to
extreme
What
are
managing
the
of
extract
different
economic
environments
future
extreme
communities?
value
vary?
possibilities
environments
for
and
their
1
The characteristics of extreme
environments
Conceptual understanding
K qsti
Why
can
some
places
be
considered
to
be
extreme
environments?
K ctt
●
Global-scale
(polar,
glacial
tropical
Relief
●
cold
periglacial
and
climatic
hot
arid
and
high-altitude
areas,
high
environments
mountains
environments
characteristics
(including
environments
How
of
(hot
in
non-
deserts
and
areas).
and
extreme
arid
areas,
latitudes)
semi-arid
●
distribution
relief,
and
climate,
remoteness
the
present
that
unreliability
the
resulting
human
make
and
risk
discomfort,
challenges
for
environments
intensity
of
ash
of
rainfall
inaccessibility
human
in
oods).
habitation
and
and
resourcedevelopment.
●
The
changing
time,
distribution
including
the
of
advance
extreme
and
environments
retreat
of
glaciers
over
and
natural
desertication.
The global distribution of extreme environments
Cold and high-altitude environments
The
distribution
of
cold
environments
is
very
uneven.
In
general,
cold

environments
are
found
in
high
latitudes
and
at
high
altitudes.
Fir C.1: The distribution
Polar
of ex treme environments
N
Anchorage
Arctic
Circle
(Alaska)
Tropic
of
Cancer
Timbuktu
CARIBBEAN
(Mali)
MIDDLE
CENTRAL
EAST
AMERICA
AFRICA
Equator
INDIAN
OCEAN
OCEANIA
SOUTH
AMERICA
Tropic
of
Capricorn
AUSTRALIA
Mountains
Tundra/Periglacial
Ice/snow
Desert
and
semi-desert
107
1
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
(a)
environments
where
North
levels
located
towards
insolation
(solar
the
North
radiation)
Pole
are
and
very
the
low.
South
In
the
Pole,
northern
Pole
hemisphere,
Polar
are
of
there
is
a
belt
of
periglacial
environments.
This
zone
is
high
generally
not
found
given
relative
in
the
southern
hemisphere
except
in
small
areas,
Subtropical
the
lack
of
land
mass
at
around
60°–65°S.
high
Heated
air
Other
cold
extensive
areas
of
high
are
associated
ground
in
Asia,
with
high
associated
mountains.
with
the
There
are
Himalayas.
Colder
Subtropical
air
high
sinks
high
air
South
Other
high-altitude
Americas.
Warm
Polar
environments
rises
On
areas
average,
include
the
temperatures
Andes
and
decrease
the
by
Rockies,
about
10°C
located
per
in
1,000
the
m,
rises
so
Pole
high-altitude
areas
will
be
cooler
than
surrounding
low-altitude
areas.
Deser t and semi-arid environments
(b)
Boundary
of
Desert
and
semi-desert
areas
cover
as
much
as
a
third
of
the
Earth’s
Cold
hot
desert
surface.
offshore
They
are
generally
located
around
the
tropics
and
are
associated
currents
Sahara
Desert
Increasing
Increasing
Increasing
Fog
with
temperature
range
continentality
distance
from
permanent
formation.
Four
high-pressure
main
factors
systems
which
determine
the
limit
the
location
potential
of
the
for
world’s
rain
main
23.5˚N
deserts
(Figure
C.2).
●
location
They
include:
ocean
Decreasing
cloud
the
of
stable,
high-pressure
conditions
at
the
tropics,
for
cover
example
the
Sahara
and
the
great
Australian
deserts
Marine
influences
Boundary
of
●
hot
large
distance
thecentral
parts
south-west
●
Fog
the
sea
(known
Sahara
and
as
continentality),
Australia
and
also
such
parts
of
as
the
effects,
as
in
Patagonia
(South
America)
and
the
Gobi
disperses
Desert
over
air
the
of
USA
rain-shadow
(c)
Subsiding
from
desert
warm
in
central
Asia
land
(warm)
●
proximity
of
Fog
air
bank
in
cool
to
moisture
America,
cold
held
upwelling
in
helping
the
to
air,
form
currents ,
for
the
example
Atacama
which
off
the
Desert,
limit
west
and
the
amount
coast
off
of
the
South
west
coast
beneath
Atacama
Sea
of
breeze
southern
Africa,
helping
to
form
the
Namib
desert.
temperature
Desert
inversion
Cool
Conditions in extreme environments
sea
Heated
land
surface
Cold and high-altitude environments
Upwelling
cold
of
water
Cold
Upwelling
inversions
water
on
and
west
environments
are
very
varied
in
their
characteristics.
Mountain
temperature
coast
hot
deserts
environments
They
may
also
can
be
characterized
receive
large
by
amounts
warm
of
days
rainfall
and
due
to
very
cold
relief
nights.
rain.
In
(d)
Air
cools
on
rising,
contrast,
and
is
warmed
descending,
has
lost
its
some
mountain
areas
receive
low
rainfall
because
they
are
in
on
but
a
rain
shadow.
Polar
areas
generally
receive
low
rainfall.
They
are,
in
rain
effect,
cold
deserts.
Precipitation
Pacific
Atlantic
Activity 1
Activity 2
Study Figure C.2. Explain how the
1.
Study Figure C.3. Outline
following factors inuence the
the ways in which this
development of arid and semi-arid
environment may be
areas:
considered an extreme
Patagonia
environment.
1.
Atmospheric pressure
2.
Ocean currents
3.
Relief
4.
Continentality
2.

Fir C.2: Causes of aridity (a) subtropical
high pressure, (b) continentality, (c) cold
In what ways can the
environment in Figure C.4 be
considered extreme?
oshore current and (d) rain shadow.
108
1
Owing
are
act
to
their
difcult
as
barriers
Soils
are
high
rates
areas
–
to
often
erosion.
of
In
or
thin,
and
and
only
a
e n v I R o n m e n T S
they
98
from
and
–
the
are
low
rates
of
97
frequently
growing
season
temperatures
few
e x T R e m e
periglacial
low
soils
The
short:
and
suffer
regions
produce
o F
(FigureC.3).
run-off
in
C h A R A C T e R I S T I C S
mountains
on,
transport
tundra
waterlogged.
for
nature,
build
overland
evaporation,
6°C
to
contrast,
temperatures
relatively
steep
areas
T h e
months
of
is
are
the
above
year.
96
Nevertheless,
support
there
some
large
may
adjacent
numbers
be
to
periglacial
of
important
some
areas
people,
and
settlements
high-altitude
95
environments.
Deser t and semi-arid
environments
94
In
desert
to
the
lack
for
areas,
Gulf
of
of
water
such
Aden
acts
throughout
absence
almost
500
areas
the
adjacent
Red
major
Sea,
year
In
mm,
so
but,
are
in
farming
between
there
is
93
the
is
semi-arid
varies
the
constraint
Temperatures
freshwater,
rainfall
and
a
the
impossible.
annual
mm
of
or
as
development.
high
as
areas,
250
some
92
possibility
where
are
for
water
used.
of
especially
conservation
On
guarantee
farming,
the
other
warm,
methods
hand,
dry
the
conditions
91
could
be
excellent
developments,
areas
such
Egypt.
as
Other
for
tourism
especially
the
Red
desert
in
Sea
areas
coastal
coast
may
622
of

characterized
slopes,
ash
at
by
a
areas,
oods
mixture
seasonal
(Figure
of
623
624
625
626
be
Fir C.3: Zermat and the Gorner Glacier
steep
streams
and

Tab C.1: Climate data for Anchorage, Alaska
C.4).
Month
Rainfall (mm)
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
20
18
13
11
13
25
47
64
64
47
28
24
−11
−7
−4
3
9
13
15
13
9
2
−5
−10
People in extreme
Average
environments
temperature (°C)
Extreme
environments
characterized
densities
include
square
Iceland
by
low
(Figure
densities
kilometre
and
C.6).
of
in
are
population
three
people
central
northern

Tab C.2: Climate data for Timbuktu, Mali
Examples
Australia,
Canada,
Month
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
Rainfall (mm)
0
0
0
1
4
20
54
93
31
3
0
0
22
25
28
31
34
34
32
30
31
31
28
23
per
two
Average
people
per
square
kilometre
in
temperature (°C)
Namibia
and
just
one
per
square
109
1
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
0
6
Fork
0
2
5
5
E
Copper
can
Copper
Canyon
be
in
put
the
western
down
to
the
Sahara.
Much
extremes
of
of
this
climate:
0
Fork
0
kilometre
W
insufcient
heat
insufcient
water
in
Iceland
and
Canada,
and
Oljato
Canyon
000
5
0575
0
0
5
5
largely
5
2
5
0
is
to
blame.
particularly
outside
the
None
other
of
these
“comfortable”;
the
three
recognized
areas
are
environments
they
all
fall
“comfort
a
long
zones
for
human
habitation”
(Figure
C.5).
r
e
p
p
o
6
0
0
0
005
5
C
E
way
in
factors
are
important,
too.
Iceland
is
r
C
Other
relatively
5
7
5
0
remote
communications
increases
the
imported,
and
costly,
cost
such
isolated.
of
as
and
This
often
materials,
timber
for
makes
difcult.
which
It
have
building.
also
to
be
Similarly,
Fir C.4: OS map of Monument Valley region of Utah,

Namibia
is
a
long
way
from
the
economic
core
USA
of
imports
and
exports.
southern
Coastal
areas
Africa,
are
and
better
this
off
increases
than
the
inland
costs
areas
of
but
Activity 3
are
1.
still
relatively
undeveloped.
Plot the climate data for Anchorage
and Timbuktu presented in Tables
Coping with periglacial environments
C.1 and C.2. Make sure that you use
the same scale for temperature and
Traditionally,
rainfall for both locations.
Canada
or
2.
and
hunting
the
Inuit
peoples
Greenland
caribou.
have
The
of
the
used
Inuit
Arctic
regions
periglacial
tend
to
be
of
pastures
migratory,
Alaska,
for
herding
moving
north
Describe the main dierences in
into
the
tundra
during
the
brief
months
of
summer
and
heading
climate between the two places.
southwards
3.
to
the
forest
margins
in
winter.
The
Sami
of
Scandinavia
Suggest reasons for the dierences
also
follow
this
pattern.
that you have noted for question 2.
To
make
people
up
important
Peninsula
At
for
have
in
lack
to
Siberia,
other
of
pasture
and
the
of
are
the
an
on
For
important
scale,
land,
oceans.
environments.
sh
end
good
rivers
periglacial
in
the
the
turned
shing
many
Fishing
the
Nenets
extremely
of
supplement
and
indigenous
is
the
to
Yamal
their
sh-related
diet.
products
X
Impossible
accounted
for
up
to
70
per
cent
of
Iceland’s
GDP
.
To
cope
with
the
environment
45
Limit
of
cold
conditions
protects
light
them
Inuit
from
populations
the
extreme
have
evolved
a
layer
of
fat
that
cold.
40
July
sedentary
activity
35
Sept
) C°(
May
25
Nov
July
Mar
20
15
May
Building on permafrost
Building
the
it
permafrost
permafrost
sinks,
that
by
the
raising
cold
air
is
underneath
damaging
problem
so
on
challenging.
them.
building
buildings
can
ow
it
Once
the
supports.
above
under
Heated
the
them
permafrost
Engineers
ground
and
buildings
stop
on
a
can
thaw
thaws,
solve
steel
this
frame,
thepermafrost
from
Nov
zone
5
New
yrD
10
Comfort
blub
Sept
Jan
erutarepmet
30
thawing.
Another
way
to
stop
damage
from
thawing
permafrost
is
York
Mar
Phoenix,
to
thaw
the
to
build
on
ground
rst.
This
method
makes
the
ground
more
stable
Arizona
0
Jan
because
the
structure
keeps
the
ground
from
freezing.
5
%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Activity 4
Relative
Note
how
outside

the
the
climates
comfort
of
zone
humidity
New
in
York
most
Fir C.5: Comfor t zones
110
of
and
the
Phoenix
six
fall
months
1.
Describe the conditions of the comfor t zone as shown in Figure C.5.
2.
Explain why conditions are impossibly uncomfor table for humans at X.
plotted.
1
Arctic
T h e
C h A R A C T e R I S T I C S
o F
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S
Circle
Siberia
Alaska
Moscow
London
Paris
Chicago
San
Beijing
Francisco
New
York
Seoul
Istanbul
Tianjin
Philadelphia
Los
Tokyo
Tehran
Angeles
Delhi
Sahara
Tropic
of
Cairo
Chocgqing
Shanghai
Karachi
Cancer
Dacca
Desert
Kolkata
Bombay
Mexico
Bangkok
City
Equator
Jakarta
Tropic
of
Capricorn
Great
São
Australian
Paulo
desert
Buenos
Aires
2
Inhabitants
Over
per
Urban
km
population
Over
200
10,000,000
5,000,000–10,000,000
100–200
1,000,000–5,000,000
50–100
6–50
Under

6
Fir C.6: Ex treme environments have low population densities
Water supplies
In
places
with
permafrost,
People
lakes
they
can
and
supply
that
rivers
in
to
ground
get
the
the
water
continuous
water
sometimes
cannot
ground
large,
nding
or
by
get
water
inside
around
the
the
pipe
of
from
ice
or
pipes
have
pipe
lot
to
does
does
out
but
of
the
the
water
protected
not
not
nearby
from
be
of
effort.
snow,
directly
Water
buildings
stretches
a
water
melting
liquid
winter.
takes
freeze
so
and
the
thaw.
Transpor t
Transport
bridges
need
water
roads
and
repair
be
better
may
be
keep
such
damaged
can
drains
roads
heat
be
constant
under
or
infrastructure
may
to
by
keep
replaced
and
is
and
heave,
with
white
cooler.
roads
them
there
painted
them
as
frost
safe.
gravel
less
to
and
Soil
so
frost
reect
Acooler
that
heave,
more
road
surface

helps
prevent
frozen
ground
from
thawing
underneath.
In
some
Pt C.1: Thingvellir, Iceland –
places
a periglacial region in which the
with
permafrost,
the
top
layer
of
ground
thaws
during
the
summer,
Nor th America plate (left)
creating
marshland,
so
people
can
only
drive
on
these
areas
during
the
is pulling away from the
winter,
on
ice
roads
at
least
a
metre
thick
built
on
top
of
the
frozen
European plate
marshes.
Trucks
and
supplies
haul
Alaska.
Ice
summer
weighing
roads
the
to
are
roads
up
mines
also
melt,
to
and
built
and
64
tonnes
drill
on
they
sites
frozen
must
can
in
drive
northern
lakes
be
then
for
rebuilt
across
Canada
winter
each
them
and
travel.
In
winter.
111
1
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Coping with arid environments
Relief
Many
The
hot,
steep
mesas
and
of
arid
slopes
contain
make
Monument
plateau
even
areas
been
Speedway
tops
track
travel
Valley,
there.
attempts
is
at
an
a
mixture
and
for
area
on
speed
of
rugged
transport
example,
Movement
world
of
salt
difcult.
contrast
the
plains
records.
ats
in
slopes
For
Utah
The
with
is
and
buttes
the
easy
–
is
the
used
for
slopes.
and
at
plains
there
example,
that
at
have
Bonneville
racing.
Rainfall
L TA
Rainfall
in
desert
areas
is
unreliable
and
very
low.
In
Timbuktu,
for
Research skills
example,
Research
and
at
environments
human
adaptation
http://ameeta.tiwanas.
com/les/presentations/
physical/Environment_
and_Human_adaptation.
pdf
and
areas
at
Alpine
protected
http://www.
alparc.org/index.php.
is
less
the
than
greater
than
250
between
of
the
500
mm.
the
125
mm
large
erosion
to
660
dry
than
rather
disruption
the
is.
of
areas
than
of
in
with
ash
in
distinct
economic
50
30
in
total
example,
about
result
while
rainfall
about
Moreover,
these
mm,
For
of
whereas
variability
mm).
210
lower
variability
surfaces,
areas
severe
the
mm),
annual
and
the
375
less
variability
annual
and
surface
and
an
an
is
general,
inter-annual
have
Due
rainfall
In
have
340mm
deserts.
over
30
mm
mm
around
average
an
is,
rainfall
(between
may
channels)
less
(that
annual
ow
it
year)
with
cent
cent
oods
sheet
(per
areas
per
per
Cairo
occur
in
(water
and
owing
lead
to
activities.
Climate and human discomfor t
Hot
arid
areas
extremely
temperatures
cover
Like
allows
the
to
loose-tting
be
very
in
early
migrants
travel
through
and
of
to
and
–
desert
close
cope
and
into
areas,
areas
a
are
the
late
since
the
are
Night-time
lack
of
the
afternoon.
to
cope
USA
to
inhabitants
and
extreme
the
cloud
Their
of
the
clothing
high
Europe
not
are
of
temperatures
with
are
Fulani
middle
reasonably
or
fatalities
due
temperatures
summer.
desert
during
remain
the
and
areas,
Peninsula
rest
to
in
freezing,
them
them
Daytime
night.
with
helps
get
to
at
Arabian
taking
also
to
arid
extremes.
uncommon
periglacial
the
allows
trying
hot
in
of
morning
garments
sweating
by
not
low,
peoples
sun
is
reradiation
learned
direct
fatalities
40°C
Bedouin
Some
the

can
have
the
travel
reduces
characterized
over
maximum
The
example,
avoiding
tend
–
traditional
migratory.
for
are
high
also
Africa,
by
day.
–
They
long,
temperatures.
It
comfortable.
may
be
forced
uncommon.
to
Most
of
dehydration.
Pt C.2: Oryx-Antelope crossing
red sand dunes at Sossusvlei,
Inaccessibility
Namib-Naukluft National Park
Many
hot
desert
permanent
along
is
the
much
wadis,
Nile
as
due
Some
the
to
are
Where
Valley,
easier.
such
difcult
areas
water.
the
inaccessible.
there
providing
river
Grand
are
is
settlements
valleys
Canyon
narrow
This
in
desert
and
nature
partly
permanent
of
and
to
of
transport
areas
Wadi
due
sources
form
Rum.
the
of
such
as
infrastructure
canyons
Here
lack
water,
and
transport
is
thegorge.
Remoteness
Many
desert
Sahara
Europe.
are
112
areas
Desert
So,
away
are
covers
remote
many
inevitably,
from
the
some
coast
due
to
countries
and
areas
the
sheer
and
will
habitable
be
is
scale
larger
remote,
areas
such
of
than
the
the
desert.
USA
especially
as
river
The
or
those
valleys.
that
1
T h e
C h A R A C T e R I S T I C S
o F
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S
The changing distribution of extreme
environments
Inputs
The advance and retreat of glaciers
Accumulation
Zone
of
zone
excess
Equilibrium
A
glacial
storage
system
and
is
the
outputs.
balance
Inputs
between
include
line
inputs,
accumulation
of
Ablation
snow,
main
avalanches,
store
is
that
debris,
of
ice,
heat
but
and
the
meltwater.
glacier
also
zone
The
carries
Outputs
debris,
losses
and
moraine
due
to
and
ablation,
sublimation
(Figure
The
meltwater.
of
the
ice
to
The
melting
vapour,
outputs
of
as
snow
well
are
and
as
the
ice,
sediment
Zone
C.7).
regime
of
the
glacier
refers
to
whether
the
glacier
is
of
deficiency
Fir C.7: Accumulation and ablation in a glacier

advancing
or
retreating:
●
if
accumulation
>
ablation,
the
glacier
advances
●
if
accumulation
<
ablation,
the
glacier
retreats
●
if
accumulation
=
ablation,
the
glacier
is
Glacial
systems
can
be
studied
on
an
steady.
annual
basis
or
over
a
much
Activity 5
longer
timescale.
balance
and
between
rate
supply
wind
of
is
erosion,
and
size
rate
The
than
(for
at
by
the
depends
amount
will
so
on)
can
altitudes
its
of
positive
(melting,
so
the
into
generally,
ice
and
regime
glacier
that
the
and
and
two
an
so
is
of
the
thicken
greater
the
the
during the late Pleistocene with
and
that of today.
than
glacier
an
Compare the distribution of ice
in the nor thern hemisphere
calving,
sections:
area
is,
amount
when
will
wasting
today)
divided
regime,
evaporation,
the
when
glacier
be
on
supply
a
and
occur
Rhône
of
have
ablation
will
glacier
high
glacier
and
regime
Any
a
and
loss
example
retreat.
of
glacier
avalanches
ofaccumulation
the
the
loss.
Anegative
supply
thin
ice
greater
advance.
the
The
will
area
ablation
at
snout.
Natural deser tication
Deserts
also
change
in
their
Activity 6
distribution.
This
is
partly
due
to
long-term
1.
changes
in
climate,
for
example
increasing
aridity
in
today’s
Briey explain how bare
desert
dunes and xed dunes help
areas
compared
with
wetter
“pluvials”
(rainy
periods)
which
occurred
to explain climate change.
around
the
same
time
as
glacial
advances
in
temperate
areas.
Part
of
2.
the
evidence
for
changes
in
the
distribution
of
deserts
is
shown
Outline the evidence for
in
climate change in the
Figure
C.8.
The
xed
dunes
were
formed
during
arid
conditions,
mm
rain.
but
Sahara.
are
located
over
is
in
150mm
able
to
areas
of
that
rain
stabilize
receive
have
the
over
some
dunes.
In
150
vegetation
contrast,
of
Areas
that
which
the
bare
20°W
dunes
are
only
located
in
areas
that
receive
receive
0°
20°E
40°E
less
0
than
150
mm
of
rain.
area
is
a
now
much
range
of
evidence
occupied
wetter
in
the
by
the
past
to
suggest
Sahara
(Figure
that
Desert
the
was
C.10).
edutitaL
There
20°N
1
5
0
mm
20°N
m
m
Fixe
In
addition,
variations
expand,
there
in
and
are
annual
rainfall.
This
at
times
other
and
can
form
of
d
du
nes
decadal
cause
contract.
deserts
This
is
to
a

natural
965
km
150
Fir C.8: The distribution of bare and xed dunes in Nor th Africa
desertication.
113
1
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
TOK
180º
To what extent does physical
Pacific
Ocean
geography set limits on human
activities?
Cordilleran
Explain how we know that harsh
ice
sheet
climate, high altitudes and
dicult terrain are no longer
East
barriers to human habitation
ice
Siberian
sheet
because of technological
advances.
Arctic
Ocean
Central
North
!
✗
Many
that
students
all
recent
climate
and
Asian
Pole
90ºW
Common mistake
90ºE
ice
cap
believe
change
due
to
is
global
Fennoscandinavian
ice
sheet
warming.
✓ Climate
change
has
been
Greenland
happening
ice
throughout
cap
Laurentide
ice
the
Earth’s
past,
and
sheet
geological
there
is
Alps
Atlantic
evidence
both
for
longOcean
term
climate
recent
change
climate
and
change
0º
0
(as
shown
in
Figures
2,000
C.9
km
Modern
and
alpine
C.10).
ice
sheets
glaciers
Fir C.9: The past and present distribution of ice sheets and ice caps in the

nor thern hemisphere
N
Granary
for
0
ancient
Approximate
1,000
Rome
km
northern
limit
today
Fossil
and
Fossil
ergs
years
possibly
laterite
water
soils
25,000
—
old
formed
Numerous
by
water
as
well
Ahaggar
T
assili
Mountains
des
Egyptian
as
by
wind
Relict
radial
wadis
in
Ajjers
desert
drainage
River
Nile
Approximate
River
southern
limit
Pollen
today
Ancient
from
and
civilization
cedars.
left
Small
pastoralists
crocodiles
who
oaks
Garamantes
Niger
cave
found
in
paintings
Tibesti
Lake
mountains
Chad
2
Once
300,000
km
Forests
and
Lake
large
enough
in
flow
southwards
early
Drought
up
Lake

114
since
1974
headwaters
Volta
is
of
has
the
dried
River
decreasing
in
Volta,
size
Fir C.10: The evidence for climate change in the Sahara
sea,
dried
50
m
is
up.
now
Lake
high
farmland
20th
into
now
the
and
to
Volta
virtually
terraces
desert
century
1
T h e
C h A R A C T e R I S T I C S
o F
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S
Concepts in contex t
a
Mali
Chad
There
Mauritania
are
many
types
of
extreme
environments.
There
Sudan
are
considerable
differences
in
places
in
extreme
Sahel
environments.
dry
Departure
and
some
Some
very
are
wet.
cold,
In
others
addition,
hot,
some
some
very
extreme
from
Burkina
Ethiopia
average
rainfall
places
Faso
2ºC
are
located
2.5ºC
3ºC
located
in
rich
countries
and
some
are
25%
in
poor
countries.
30%
40%
How
a
with
extreme
at
b
population
their
learnt
disposal.
to
extreme
live
some
community
nature
environment.
and
richer
conditions
by
varies
Indigenous
with
environments
in
or
conditions
cold
peoples
and
This
is
in
have
true
the
an
they
to
have
both
generally
in
In
avoid
environment
cope
resources
adapted
environments.
communities,
living
manages
with
to
the
hot,
arid
contrast,
the
extreme
modied
Drought
by
areas
or
to
technology
–
this
may
include
air
conditioning
prone
desalination
for
example.
Moreover,
economic
drought
activity
varies
farming
This
and
creates
in
extreme
shing,
great
environments
some
variety
mining,
in
places
and
–
some
others
among
have
tourism.
extreme
environments.
Check your understanding
Famine
famine
1985
1.
Name
two
2.
Describe
types
of
cold
environment.
at
levels
arid
3.
the
main
characteristics
of
a
hot,
climate.
Outline
reasons
for
the
location
of
hot,
arid
environments.
4.
Dene
5.
Name
the
an
Describe
“permafrost”.
indigenous
periglacial
6.
term
population
that
live
in
areas.
the
method
of
farming
used
by
those
Desertification
identied
in
question
5.
severe
very
severe
7.
Name
an
indigenous
group
that
live
in
a
hot,
arid
environment.
8.
Describe
your
9.

the
answer
What
traditional
to
climatic
clothing
question
pressure
worn
by
those
in
7.
system
are
hot,
arid
Fir C.11: The relationship between rainfall variability,
environments
associated
with?
drought, deser tication and famine in Africa
(a)
The Sahel and (b)
the relationship between
10.
Name
one
similarity
between
hot
deserts
and
drought, deser tication and famine in Africa
periglacial
environments.
115
2
Physical processes and landscapes
Glacial erosion
Conceptual
The
understanding
of
amount
the
character
K qsti
How
do
unique
plucking
physical
processes
landscapes
in
and
glacier,
of
the
and
rate
the
of
erosion
weight
load
and
carried.
depend
thickness
The
on
of
local
the
methods
of
geology,
ice,
and
glacial
the
the
velocity
amount
erosion
and
include
abrasion.
create
extreme
Plucking
environments?
This
K ctt
It
is
As
●
Glacial
processes
of
occurs
most
the
and
ice
moves,
deposition,
features
in
including
lakes,
peaks/horns,
troughs,
and
the
glacier
or
those
meltwater
seeps
into
the
and
to
an
extent
weakened
joints
and
by
at
the
side.
freeze–thaw.
freezes
to
the
which
is
then
ripped
pressure
out
caused
by
by
the
the
moving
weight
of
glacier.
the
ice
Plucking
and
involves
downhill
used
for
Once
the
material
has
been
ripped
out
of
the
bedrock,
it
can
abrasion.
pyramidal
arêtes,
lateral,
terminal
of
rocks
cirques/
be
corries,
base
glaciated
movement.
areas,
the
jointed
and
downward
landscape
at
in
erosion,
rock,
transport
mostly
effective
glacial
Abrasion
medial
moraine,
and
The
debris
carried
by
the
glacier
scrapes
and
scratches
the
rock,
leaving
erratics.
striations,
●
Periglacial
thaw,
soliuction
heave,
in
processes
and
of
and
landscape
periglacial
permafrost,
areas,
freeze–
scratch
the
frost
features
and
rock.
down
or
to
grooves,
groove
As
ice
form
in
the
the
rock.
movement
a
rock
rock.
The
The
coarser
ner
continues,
material
material
the
will
glacier
will
scrape,
smooth
load
will
and
be
polish
worn
oor.
including
thermokarst,
Other mechanisms
patterned
ground
and
pingos.
Other
●
Physical
and
mechanisms
weathering
weathering
of
erosion
include
meltwater,
freeze–thaw
chemical
in
hot
pressure
release.
Although
neither
strictly
glacial
arid
nor
environments,
and
and
erosional,
these
processes
are
crucial
in
the
development
of
glacial
erosion,
scenery.
transportation
by
wind
and
and
deposition
Although
water.
a
●
Landscape
areas
features
including
in
hot,
dunes,
year
–
glaciers
the
force
move
of
slowly
gravity
–
and
usually
the
at
sheer
rate
of
a
weight
a
of
their
pedestals,
mesas
centimetres
ice
arid
wadis,
Bergschrund
rock
few
and
meltwater
Pivot
buttes.
of
rotation
allows
to
seep
Pyramidal
in
peak
Arête
Freeze–thaw
on
exposed
rock
Extending
ow
Rotational
e
ri
r
o
C
ow
lip
Abrasion
Compressive
ow
and

116
plucking
Fir C.12: Processes of weathering and erosion in a cirque
give
2
P h y S I C A l
P R o C e S S e S
A n D
l A n D S C A P e S
Tab C.3: Factors aecting glacial abrasion

Relative hardness of par ticles
The most eective abrasion occurs when hard par ticles at the glacier base pass over a
and bedrock
soft bedrock .
Ice thickness
The greater the thickness, the greater the ver tical pressure exer ted on the par ticles of
rock at the glacier base and the more eective abrasion is.
Basal water pressure
Up to a point, presence of water at the glacier base speeds up glacier movement and
leads to an increase in abrasion. However, basal water pressure may “lift” the glacier
above the levels of par ticles at the base, and may reduce abrasion.
Sliding of basal ice
The faster the rate of basal sliding, the greater the rate of abrasion. Ice frozen to the
bedrock cannot erode.
Movement of debris towards
Unless par ticles at the glacier base are constantly renewed, they become polished and
the glacier base
less eective at abrasion. Movement of sediment from the glacier surface, via crevasses,
decelerating ow and plucking brings fresh sediment to the base of the glacier.
Removal of ne debris
Meltwater at the base of the glacier may remove ne debris, therefore leaving larger,
coarser, angular debris in contact with the underlying surface.
Debris par ticle size and shape
Large angular debris abrades much more eciently than smaller, rounder debris.
Presence of debris in
Pure ice is unable to abrade solid rock . The rate of abrasion will increase with debris
basal ice
concentration up to the point at which basal sliding is reduced.
Tab C.4: Rates of abrasion

Location
Abrasion
Ice thickness
Ice velocity
French Alps Glacier (d’Argentiere)
36 mm/year
100 m
250 m/year
Breidermerkurjokull (Iceland)
Marble 3.4 mm/year
15 m
19.5m/year
Basalt 0.9 mm/year
40 m
9.6 m/year
Marble 3.75 mm/year
32 m
15.4m/year
them
the
thaw
ice
tremendous
ice
picks
up
weathering.
(supraglacial
(englacial).
As
power
and
Some
and
sediments
form
of
glacier
sediments
till,
erode
the
moraine),
the
fragments
to
transports
melts
a
erratics,
landscape.
fragments
material
under
in
the
rock
the
and
can
ice
be
moraine
it
carried
(subglacial)
retreats,
process
As
called
and
it
moves
produced
leaves
on
or
downhill,
freeze-
top
of
within
behind
deposition.
other
by
The
depositional
the
the
these
rocks
ice
rock
and
features.
Landforms produced by glacial erosion
Cirques
A
cirque
scooped
cirques
(or
out
are
corrie)
by
is
an
erosion
generally
amphitheatre-shaped
at
the
found
head
on
of
north-
a
glacier.
or
valley
In
the
east-facing
that
has
been
northern
slopes,
hemisphere
where

accumulation
1.
A
is
highest
preglacial
hollow
by
2.
Ice
and
is
ablation
enlarged
is
by
lowest.
They
nivation
are
formed
(freeze–thaw
in
and
Pt C.3: Glacial landscape
stages:
removal
snowmelt).
accumulates
in
the
hollow.
117
2
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Arête,
e.g.
3.
Striding
Having
depth,
English
Cirque
lake
or
Lake
reached
the
Blue
Lake
e.g.
Lake
Veil
eroding
the
oor
by
plucking
and
the
Matterhorn,
4.
Wood,
Meltwater
trickles
down
the
bergschrund
District
valley
Falls,
and
rotational
Alps
Truncated
waterfall,
a
abrasion.
(a
Hanging
in
peak,
Australia
spur,
Glencoyne
English
weight
out
District
e.g.
Truncated
critical
moves
cirque
Pyramidal
NSW,
ice
tarn,
manner,
e.g.
a
Edge,
e.g.
crevasse
glacier
spur
ice
that
forms
separates
when
from
the
the
moving
non-moving
with
ice
Bridal
Yosemite,
Glacial
U-shaped
valley
(trough),
above),
allowing
the
cirque
to
grow
by
freeze–thaw.
USA
Glenridding,
Ribbon
Lake
e.g.
e.g.
English
lake,
District
After
and
glaciation,
Nant
Ffrancon,
armchair-shaped
hollow
Wales
Lake
District
Deposits
(boulder
of
Keswick,
remains,
frequently
example
Blue
clay),
with
a
lake,
Lake
cirque
in
New
for
South
Wales,
e.g.
Australia,
near
and
the
Cirque
de
Gavarnie
in
the
English
Central
Lake
lled
moraine
Braithwaite,

an
Ullswater,
English
Pyrenees,
France.
District
Fir C.13: Landforms of a
Arêtes, peaks, troughs, basins and hanging valleys
glaciated valley
Other
features
(horns)
more
and
the
cirques.
at
the
Glacial
oors.
and
further
glacial
by
In
interlocking
phases,
with
troughs
mass
troughs
plan
the
view
of
on
movement)
include
the
by
(or
of
passing
the
are
valley.
surfaces
ice.
has
taken
place
they
During
present
since
the
have
warm
there
of
last
truncated
will
of
as
or
sides
interglacial
most
(such
peaks
two
steep
stripped
form
activity
of
have
conditions,
geomorphological
that
since
previously
The
pyramidal
back)
valleys)
straight,
periglacial
and
(cutting
U-shaped
preglacial
rock
arêtes
recession
they
the
return
of
material
depends
erosion
headward
spurs
weathering
weathered
or
of
caused
be
their
glacial
weathering
glaciation.
The
Activity 7
sides
1.
Describe how cirques are
of
many
contain
glacial
hummocky
troughs
are
moraines
covered
deposited
by
by
scree
the
while
the
retreating
bases
ice.
formed.
The
2.
ice
Explain why rates of glacial
lakes.
erosion vary.
rivers,
may
do
not
suspended
the
also
Hanging
cut
and
down
For
Bridal
the
deep
are
down
above.
Ribbon
metres
carve
valleys
side
rock
to
the
Veil
falls
the
by
level
example
of
basins
formed
in
of
the
valley
National
involve
valley.
lled
glaciers,
main
Yosemite
both
main
frequently
tributary
drops
They
are
with
but
Park,
of
ribbon
which,
are
California,
several
usually
unlike
left
hundred
marked
by
waterfalls.
A
roche
vary
in
moutonnée
size
from
are
Arête
Pyramidal
a
(or
few
sheepback)
metres
smoothed
and
is
a
bare
hundreds
polished
on
mound
of
metres
their
of
rock
high.
that
These
can
rocks
up-valley
side
(stoss)
down-valley
side
(lee)
peak
byabrasion
Medial
to
but
plucked
on
their
as
moraine
ice
Lateral
accelerates.
They
can
be
several
kilometres
long.
There
moraine
are
examples
Bay,
in
the
Cairngorms
in
Scotland
and
Glacier
Alaska.
Ice
Activity 8
1.
Subglacial
Terminal
Briey explain one form of weathering likely to occur in cold
environments.
moraine
moraine
2.
Identify two landforms of glacial erosion shown in Photo C.3.
Explain briey how one of these landforms was formed.

118
Fir C.14: Glacial landscape during glaciation
2
2
P h y S I C A l
P R o C e S S e S
A n D
l A n D S C A P e S
Glacial deposition
The characteristics of glacial deposits
Till
is
often
moving
retreating
●
subdivided
glaciers,
poor
ice.
Till
sorting
boulders,
●
poor
●
mixture
●
striated
●
long
●
some
and
has
–
till
the
and
till,
following
a
till,
deposits
material
dropped
dropped
by
by
stagnant
actively
or
characteristics:
large
range
of
grain
sizes,
for
example
clay
stratication
rock
lodgement
contains
pebbles,
of
into
ablation
–
no
types
regular
–
from
subangular
a
sorting
by
variety
of
size
sources
particles

axis
orientated
in
the
direction
of
glacier
Pt C.4: Medial and lateral
ow
moraines on the Gorner Glacier
compaction
of
deposits.
Lateral
moraine
The characteristics of moraine
(a
of
Moraines
are
loose
rocks,
weathered
from
the
ridge
a
at
the
side
valley)
valley
Hanging
sides
a
and
carried
by
crescent-shaped
It
represents
character
was
is
the
than
The
the
USA,
is
mound
the
down-valley
a
ne
by
speed
ice-contact
At
or
maximum
determined
carrying,
retreat.
glaciers.
of
ridge
of
of
a
a
amount
in
the
is
glacier
and
the
rate
always
valley
is
Section
moraine.
load
and
Cod
terminal
the
glacier,
of
(up-valley)
Cape
of
terminal
movement
slope
of
snout
advance
the
slope.
example
the
A
its
glacier
of
steeper
Massachusetts,
moraine.
Drumlin
Terminal
Lateral
moraine
is
a
ridge
of
loose
rocks
and
sediment
Boulders
running
along
the
edge
of
a
glacier
where
it
meets
moraine
the
Clay
in
side.
The
Switzerland
lateral
are
moraines
good
on
examples.
the
Gorner
Where
two
sertem
valley
Glacier
glaciers
5
merge
the
and
middle
the
of
two
the
touching
enlarged
lateral
glacier,
moraines
the
ridge
merge
is
in
known
as
Angular
a
unsorted
medial
moraine.
examples
of
Again,
medial
the
Gorner
Glacier
contains
many
Section
moraines.
A
enlarged
Fir C.15: Depositional features after glaciation

The characteristics of drumlins
Drumlins
example
One
of
over
the
As
are
the
the
largest
10,000
ice
the
and
small
oval
drowned
the
They
underlying
continues
to
are
up
of
concentrations
drumlins.
glacier
mounds
drumlins
to
1.5
Clew
is
in
km
Bay
New
deposited
causing
advance
it
a
and
County
York
as
geology,
long
in
State,
result
the
of
glacier
streamlines
the
100
m
Mayo,
where
high,
there
friction
to
for
Ireland.
drop
are
between
its
load.
mounds.
Activity 9
1.
Describe the main
The characteristics of erratics
characteristics of glacial
Erratics
local
are
glacier-transported
bedrock,
and
may
size
from
be
rock
fragments
embedded
in
till
or
that
on
differ
the
from
ground
the
deposits.
surface.
2.
They
range
in
pebbles
to
huge
boulders.
One
example
is
Identify the features of
the
glacial deposition shown in
Madison
Boulder
in
New
Hampshire,
USA,
estimated
to
weigh
over
Photo C.4.
4,600tonnes.
Erratics
that
have
moved
over
long
distances
–
some
more
119
2
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
than
800km–
grinding
types
can
glacial
These
be
of
features
axes
to
can
be
place
brought
used
to
pinpoint
pebbles
in
of
rock
transport.
their
that
Erratics
of
consist
glacial
traced
movement
movement.
long
generally
effects
resistant
Erratics
of
origin,
them
to
glacial
till
origin
are
the
of
the
indicating
their
determine
the
to
composed
resting
the
of
material;
orientated
in
and
distinctive
direction
rock
of
place.
direction
the
shattering
of
the
glacier
drumlins
direction
and
of
the
glacier
movement.
Periglacial environments
Periglacial
than
areas
one-third
conditions
at
which
Ph C.5: Drowned drumlins in
Clew Bay, County Mayo, Ireland
of
Earth’s
time.
usually
soil
near
types
alpine
and
of
the
land
hundreds
rock
these
the
edge
the
of
of
surface
glaciers
has
ground
deep,
surface
(frost-shattered
environments
are
and
so
rock)
briey
ice
masses.
experienced
environments
metres
or
rise
periglacial
characterized
freeze–thaw
that
are
More
large
quantities
common.
above
by
action,
Summer
freezing,
so
ice
in
surfacemelts.
periglacial
Arctic
temperature
periglacial
in
on
Periglacial
alters
fractured
temperatures
Three
the
continuously
angular,
the
found
some
permafrost,

of
are
region
maritime.
and
therefore
processes
can
These
the
be
vary
identied:
in
frequency
terms
and
Arctic
of
continental,
mean
intensity
annual
with
which
operate.
Landforms and processes associated with periglacial
environments
Periglacial
relate
to
processes
the
environments
the
action
include
warmer
of
mass
seasons,
geliuction,
frost
show
a
wide
permafrost
and
movement,
which
creep
a
usually
and
range
of
different
freeze–thaw
common
occurs
in
processes
weathering.
phenomenon
four
forms:
that
These
during
soliuction,
rockfalls.
Freeze–thaw
Freeze–thaw
weathering
is
periglacialenvironments.
above
and
below
9–10
percent.
rock,
which
slopes
most
in
may
Photo
effective
supply
of
freezing
This
can
be
C.6
point
broken
and
extremely
occurs
place
have
where
water
an
It
to
created
are
jointed
the
many
water
on
of
of
it
expands
especially
scree.
freeze–thaw
cycles
in
uctuates
freezes
rocks,
fragments
by
process
temperature
When
pressure
angular
been
there
(0°C).
great
important
when
The
scree
weathering.
freeze–thaw
by
jointed
each
It
is
year,
a
rocks.
Mass movements
See
on
also
mass
Option
Soliuction
soil,
particles.
over
the
them
120
Geophysical
literally
causing
inltrate
D,
hazards
(pages
163–211)
for
more
details
movements.
In
means
expansion
spring
the
soil
the
ice
because
permafrost
further
of
it
owing
the
melts
of
the
carries
downslope
soil
as
a
soil.
and
and
In
winter,
segregation
water
ows
impermeable
segregated
U-shaped
soil
water
of
freezes
individual
downhill.
permafrost.
particles
soliuction
It
As
(peds)
lobe
or
in
the
soil
cannot
it
moves
and
deposits
terracette.
2
In
periglacial
are
well
Soliuction
saturated
Frost
and
is
creep
is
water,
the
however,
a
type
The
of
occurs
water
surface
soliuction
process
at
begins
right
As
the
ice
contracting
is
liquid
when
is
only
when
available
sediments
in
surface
inuenced
by
to
cause
thaws
that
with
angles
temperatures
expand.
soliuction
free
are
P R o C e S S e S
in
A n D
l A n D S C A P e S
temperatures
the
poorly
active
layer.
drained
and
water.
particles
cold
and
common
thawing.
because
zero
with
elevating
and
environments,
above
P h y S I C A l
occurs
the
the
water
the
drops
gravity,
because
freezing
slope.
of
of
frost
the
The
particles
inbetween
particles
warm
the
season,
particles
causing
the
turning
in
heaving
ground
rise
to
freeze
back
elevation.
particles
to
surface,
up
to
This
move
drop,
slightly
downslope.

Pt C.6: Scree slopes and clis –
an alpine periglacial environment,
Rockfalls
occur
when
fragments
of
rock
break
away
from
a
cliff
face,
Silent Valley, the Italian Dolomites
often
as
a
result
of
freeze–thaw
weathering.
Activity 10
Permafrost
1.
Permafrost
is
permanently
frozen
ground.
It
has
been
estimated
Outline the main
that
characteristics of
the
mean
annual
temperature
must
be
as
low
as
−4°C
for
permafrost
to
periglacial environments.
develop.
Approximately
20
per
cent
of
the
world’s
surface
is
underlain
by
2.
permafrost.
Three
types
of
permafrost
exist:
continuous,
Describe two forms of mass
discontinuous
movement that occur in
and
sporadic,
and
these
are
associated
with
mean
annual
temperatures
periglacial environments.
of
−5°
the
−50°C,
permafrost
thaws
the
to
out
active
Siberia
Latitude
active
and
rock
●
aspect
is
–
presence
●
the
nature
0.5
at
of
or
with
are
the
70°N
the
factors
to
highly
intense
amount
to
0.7–4
main
−1.5°C,
respectively.
mobile
mass
layer
movements.
of
heat
m
at50°N.
factors
which
it
receives,
controlling
the
Above
seasonally
The
depth
of
and
varies
in
depth
of
the
a
thaw
slope
more
faces
quickly
has
than
clays
considerable
effect
on
the
received
absence
the
a
0°
include:
gravels
direction
the
Active
m
and
layer,
on
insolation
●
Latitude
associated
coarse
the
of
−5°C,
active
altitude
–
to
depends
Other
type
amount
the
0.2–1.6
and
layer.
●
is
layer
from
−1.5°
of
an
vegetation
75º
“insulating”
peaty
cover.
Latitude
layer
Active
m
soil
65º
layer
1.0 –1.5
m
Latitude
Active
60º
layer
1.5 – 3.0
m
10
45
m
m
Permafrost
Scattered
400
m
Talik
(unfrozen
Continuous
permafrost
zone

patches
ground)
of
permafrost
Discontinuous
permafrost
zone
Fir C.16: Types of permafrost
121
2
OPTION
Open
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
system
Closed
system
Pingos
Lake
A
pingo
to
Pingo
90
is
an
metres
isolated,
high
conical
and
800
hill
up
metres
Talik
wide,
which
can
only
develop
in
PERMAFROST
periglacial
Lake
Talik
converted
ground
water
creating
into
a
seeps
body
into
of
upper
layers
of
areas.
Pingos
form
as
a
ground,
talik
result
of
the
movement
and
freezing
ice
of
water
are
under
generally
pressure.
identied:
Two
types
open-system
Talik
and
closed-system
source
The
talik
is
gradually
surrounded
by
of
the
pingos.
water
is
a
Where
distant
the
elevated
permafrost
source,
open-system
pingos
form,
Pingo
Ice
wedge
whereas
Water
the
supply
of
water
is
local,
movement
Ground
ice
and
Talik
the
As
the
and
talik
pushes
becomes
the
pingo
expansion
pingos
frozen,
surface
up
it
are
expands
into
a
of
in
as
a
result
permafrost,
form.
found
arises
Nearly
the
of
the
closed-system
1,500
pingos
Mackenzie
Delta
dome
of

if
Canada.
When
a
pingo
collapses,
Fir C.17: Open- and closed-system pingos
ramparts
Scree
and
ponds
are
left.
slope
Thermokarst
Dry
valley
Thermokarst
refers
to
a
landscape
of
Loess
hummocks
and
wet
hollows
resulting
Patterned
from
Tor
subsidence
caused
by
the
be
because
melting
ground
of
permafrost.
of
broad
This
may
Braided
climatic
changes
or
local
rivers
environmental
involved
in
changes.
creating
The
processes
thermokarst
include:
●
the
thawing
elongated
●
the
thawing
circular
●
Solifluction
and
ice
wedges
to
leave
of
pingos
craters
the
removal
the
subsurface
of
with
to
produce
raised
vegetation
rims
causing
lobes
terracettes
Coombe
or

of
depressions
rock
to
become
exposed
Pingo
head
Asymmetric
slope
●
re
●
climate
Fir C.18: Features of the periglacial environment
warming.
Patterned ground
Patterned
garlands
formed
ground
that
by
a
refers
may
be
variety
to
the
found
of
in
array
of
stone
periglacial
processes
stripes,
areas
including
polygons
(Figure
frost
heave
C.19).
and
They
(which
are
brings
the
Activity 11
particles
1.
Briey explain the
formation of pingos.
or
thermal
intense
the
surface),
contraction,
frost
Iceland.
2.
to
On
action,
steeper
for
cracking
and
mass
example
slopes,
stone
of
the
surface
displacement.
on
the
stripes
slopes
due
Soils
of
replace
to
drying,
are
Kerid
stone
heaving
subjected
crater,
circles
and
Describe the variations
polygons.
Their
exact
mode
of
formation
is
unclear,
although
ice
sorting,
in patterned ground, as
differential
frost
heave,
soliuction
shown in Figure C.19.
widely
122
to
southern
held
to
be
responsible.
and
the
effect
of
vegetation
are
2
P h y S I C A l
P R o C e S S e S
A n D
l A n D S C A P e S
Hot arid environments
Various
processes
deposition
shape
topography
it
is
an
desert
and
is
of
erosion,
desert
carved
important
erosion
by
water:
climatic
features.
mechanical
weathering
landscapes.
although
factor
As
a
in
the
result
weathering
and
Their
also
of
distinctive
rainfall
the
play
is
formation
an
low,
of
dryness,
wind
Stone
important
polygons
part
in
desert
vegetation
erosion
in
erosion.
make
the
deserts
The
wind
than
in
lack
a
of
moisture
more
humid
and
powerful
scant
agent
environments.
of
Garlands
Sand
Stripes
and
sediments
rocks
and
are
other
blown
objects
along
with
the
surface,
which
they
eroding
come
into
Fir C.19: Patterned ground – “Seldom has so much been

contact.
However,
wind
lifts
the
sand
only
up
to
a
written about so little” (Price, 1972)
metre
above
eroded
by
the
ground,
so
higher
features
have
been
water.
Weathering in deser ts
●
Salt
crystallization
of
salt.
There
in
areas
where
sulphate
300
per
)
4
This
and
main
and
the
are
of
salts
around
salt
in
(Na
joints,
crystals
expand
frequent
temperatures
on
hot
cause
of
crystal
carbonate
pressure
the
salt
uctuate
evaporates,
rises,
high
decomposition
types
sodium
creates
water
mechanisms
rainfall
●
2
when
causes
two
temperatures
SO
temperature
Both
the
(Na
cent.
Second,
the
are
and
salts
to
by
26–28°C,
CO
2
)
solutions
3
may
First,
sodium
expand
forcing
exert
desert
rock
growth.
them
be
left
about
crack.
behind.
pressure
regions
by
to
on
where
accumulate
As
rock.
low
just
below
surface.
Disintegration
large
diurnal
is
found
in
temp e r a tur e
hot
de s e r t
r ange .
In
a r e as
m a ny
whe re
d es e rt
t he re
a re a s,
is
a
d ayt i m e

temperatures
exce e d
4 0° C,
whe r e as
at
n i gh t
t h ey
ar e
l it t l e
Pt C.7: Patterned ground on
a b ove
the side of the Kerid crater, Iceland
freezing.
a
poor
Rocks
conductor
This
causes
that
moisture
moisture,
break
as

of
peelin g
is
up
down.
It
by
he at,
or
e s s e nti a l
is
a nd
s tr e ss e s
fo r
this
cha ng e
p o s s i bl e
calcium ,
da y
tha t
to
to
by
only
occur.
ha pp e n.
a lone
the
p o ta s si um
c on t ra c t
oc c u r
exfoliation
tempera tur e
sodium,
the
hea t
doe s
in
t he
In
n ot
th e
of
ro c k
s howe d
a bs e nc e
r oc k s
m a ny
ca n
of
to
sa l t s
be
is
la yer s .
(19 3 6 )
ca us e
ma g n es iu m
As
out e r
Griggs
e x pa n s ion
a nd
nig h t .
su c h
l i nk ed
wit h
exfoliation.
Tab C.5: Rates of weathering
Ara
Rat f watri
(/ar)
Arid
Egypt
0.00001–2.0
Semi-arid
Australia
0.6–1.0

Weathering
above
may
the
be
produces
solid
used
to
rock.
regolith,
This
erode
a
supercial
material
other
is
easily
and
unconsolidated
transported
and
Pt C.8: Salt weathering
layer
eroded,
and
materials.
123
2
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
The work of water in deser ts
Not
only
it
also
is
is
water
weathering
rainfall,
an
dry
rains
the
the
for
the
the
There
table
development
operation
are
(which
a
of
number
may
of
many
mechanical
be
of
desert
and
sources
exposed
by
landforms,
chemical
of
water
deation
in
to
deserts:
produce
rivers.
may
and
desert
carrying

and
for
deserts.
water
ground,
down
At
in
the
oasis)
Desert
vital
important
fall
as
there
short
is
mountains
large
bottom
amounts
of
transported
the
a
in
of
rock
of
of
build
an
run-off.
channels,
fragments
mountain
to
downpours
amount
networks
desert
material
torrential
high
that
the
have
fan.
the
normally
ash
gullies
streams
alluvial
over
The
or
great
spread
oods
erosive
out,
Channels
rush
canyons,
in
power.
depositing
the
fan
Pt C.9: Deser t landscape
carry
any
water
that
has
not
sunk
into
the
ground
or
evaporated,
along
showing evidence of weathering
with
ner
washes
lake,
silt,
down
which
Rivers
that
endorheic
Exotic
or
wetter
Egypt
to
to
the
the
then
ow
or
toe
through
equatorial
exotic
over
deserts
rivers
and
river,
are
then
semi-arid
Increasingly
humid
(grasslands
to
the
a
can
spreads
basin,
few
out
where
days
be
Victoria,
as
those
ow
being
fed
are
Endorheic
&
then
to
it
form
classied
as
still
more
may
a
salt
form
as
a
it
playa
pan.
exotic
(exogenous),
that
have
through
by
the
the
Blue
a
their
White
Nile
source
desert.
Nile,
and
The
in
another,
Nile
which
Atbara,
in
rises
which
in
the
rise
in
Ethiopia.
2,500
Arid
of
It
ephemeral.
Lake
monsoonal
fan.
part
evaporates
exogenous
an
the
lowest
environment
is
of
rivers
are
those
that
drain
into
an
inland
forests)
lake
or
)ry/ah/sennot(
Dead
2,000
sea.
Sea,
is
Ephemeral
1,500
The
a
good
rivers
noisore
after
storms,
high
sediment
overland
River
and
ow
Jordan,
drains
into
the
example.
are
those
often
levels.
can
which
that
have
Even
on
generate
ow
high
seasonally
discharges
slopes
as
gentle
considerable
or
and
as
2°,
discharges.
1,000
fo
This
is
a
result
etaR
●
an
●
limited
●
rainsplash
of
factors
impermeable
including:
surface
(in
places)
500
interception
(lack
of
vegetation)
0
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
turn
Rainfall

erosion
displacing
ne
particles,
which
in
1,600
seal
off
the
surface
and
make
it
impermeable.
(mm)
Fir C.20: Rainfall and soil erosion
Wind action in deser ts
Wind
Many
Dust
of
the
world’s
great
deserts
are
dominated
storm
by
subtropical
areas
are
winds
high-pressure
affected
are
by
important
trade
too.
systems.
winds,
Wind
Large
while
action
local
is
cm
important
in
areas
where
winds:
1.0
0.1

124
●
are
strong
●
are
turbulent
●
come
●
blow
(over
largely
20
from
km/hour)
a
constant
direction
Fir C.21: Wind action in deser ts
for
a
long
period
of
time.
2
Near
the
surface,
wind
speed
is
reduced
by
P h y S I C A l
friction
(but
P R o C e S S e S
the
rougher
A n D
l A n D S C A P e S
the
Activity 12
ground
the
more
turbulent
it
becomes).
Study Figure C.20.
Sediment
is
dry,
more
loose
forces,
in
is
but
and
likely
small.
reduced
pressure
on
the
by
to
be
moved
Movement
particle
windward
of
size
and
if
there
is
sediment
and
a
is
friction.
leeward
lack
sides
of
vegetation,
induced
Drag
of
by
results
grains
drag
from
in
an
and
and
it
1.
lift
Describe the relationship
between the rate of soil
differences
erosion and the amount
airow.
of rainfall.
There
are
two
types
of
wind
erosion.
2.
●
Deation
is
the
progressive
removal
of
small
material,
Suggest reasons for the
leaving
relationship you have
behind
larger
materials.
This
forms
a
stony
desert,
or
reg.
In
some
described.
cases,
deation
may
remove
sand
to
form
a
deation
hollow.
One
of
3.
the
best
known
is
the
Qattara
Depression
in
Egypt,
which
reaches
Describe two types of
a
weathering that occur in
depth
of
over
130
metres
below
sea
level.
hot deser ts and semi-arid
●
Abrasion
act
like
is
the
erosion
sandpaper,
carried
smoothing
out
by
surfaces
wind-borne
and
particles.
exploiting
They
weaker
areas.
rocks.

Tab C.6: Peltier ’s classication of regions and their distinctive processes
Semi-arid
Aa tp (°C)
Aa raifa ()
5–30
250–600
Prcsss
Strong wind action,
running water
Arid
15–30
0–350
Strong wind action,
slight water action
Canyons
Plateaux
Very
Large,
flat
deep
exotic
at
high
gorges,
usually
dry.
If
there
is
a
river,
it
is
usually
areas
(e.g.
the
Fish
River
Canyon
in
Namibia)
altitude
Wadis
Butte
An
Dry
isolated
the
peak,
remnant
mesa
or
of
a
often
gullies
Heavy
former
that
have
rainstorms
torrents
on
steep
been
eroded
(100–250
mm)
floods.
rushing
slopes
Pediments
relatively
plateau
plateau
erosion
large
that
isolated
slope
flash
plateau
Mesa
A
by
create
has
from
of
Shallow
become
the
either
or
area
at
main
the
steep
slopes
base
of
formed
a
cliff
or
hill
by
through
retreat
Wind
direction
Inselbergs
Also
known
kopjes
or
isolated
rock.
or
by
domes
They
parallel
as
bornhardts
can
of
be
retreat
resistant
formed
of
exhumation
surface
is
surface
stripping
slopes
where
exposed
as
a
by
(pediplanation)
the
result
basal
of
Yardangs
Zeugens
Salt
pans
Sites
of
soft
(playas)
former
occasional
rock
rock
or
lakes
Alluvial
Cones
fans
of
sediment
deposited
abrupt
their
a

hard
by
loss
rivers
of
that
energy
mountain
are
owing
as
channels
plain
to
Oasis
an
Formed
when
they
leave
bearing
rocks
and
enter
the
surface.
done
by
the
are
This
water-
exposed
is
deflation
Barchan
at
commonly
Sand
speed
is
a
or
crescent
dunes
is
formed
high
large
and
supply
dunes
where
constant
of
wind
and
there
sand
Fir C.22: Landforms in the arid landscape
125
1
2
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Activity 13
1.
Distinguish between the processes of weathering and erosion in arid and
semi-arid areas. Refer to specic landform features in your answer.
2.
Distinguish between the terms exotic, endorheic and ephemeral in the
context of rivers, and give two examples in each case. (Note that making a
distinction means picking out the dierences, not just dening the terms.)
Features of the arid landscape
What
differentiates
is
only
not
their
the
surfaces.
dunescape,
wadis,
The
but
features
a
salt
of
and
landscapes
but
also
assumption
fth
pans,
arid
arid
climate
popular
only
canyons,
typical
deserts
extreme
of
deserts
alluvial
the
is
are
fans
from
that
deserts
covered
and
other
landforms
are
with
plateaux
ecosystems
scattered
sand.
are
across
largely
Pediments,
among
other
environments.
Dunes
Sand
dunes
may
cover
500
metres
high.
They
and
a
slope
on
types
steep
according
of
sand,
of
vegetation.
which
hold
are
the
shaped
main
wind
leeward
slope
where
wind
the
in
to
is
of
in
Variations
can
by
be
is
a
or
include
topographic
wide
as
30
the
supply
presence
rocks,
but
are
crescent-
is
and
a
a
ridges
abundant,
barrier,
dunes,
which
there
slope
to
side
crescent
barchans
is
up
many
and
dunes
limited
sand
on
large
windward
where
as
or
Barchan
sand
into
surface,
barchan
be
windward
depends
shrubs
gentle
forming
checked
Barchans
a
size
are
the
and
classied
ground
place.
where
on
are
and
the
types
kilometres
slope
but
around
have
33°.
latter
ow
cover.
dune
They
up
the
side,
shape
form
areas
square
gentle
common
the
supply.
ridges,
vegetation
of
a
of
nature
They
found
transverse
Their
wind,
most
part
are
have
leeward
shape.
of
The
all
the
U-shaped.
and
constant
steep
to
direction
thousands
or
and
and
increased
metres.
Yardangs and zeugens
Wind

erosion
only
takes
place
when
the
wind
is
loaded
with
loose
Pt C.10: Wind action in deser ts
materials,
especially
sand
grains.
Dust
particles
are
ineffective.
The
– Finger of God, Tenerife
wind
or
throws
corrasion
transported
worn
the
the
(a
by
sand-blast
the
fragments
wind
will
landforms
grooved,
natural
1.
are
for
of
effect).
are
called
and
and
from
against
Large
worn
the
In
wind
the
areas
by
erosion,
faces,
of
with
too
windward
abrasion
heavy
side
homogeneous
However,
joints
forming
creating
fragments,
on
surface.
weakened
honeycombed,
rock
rock
down
ventifacts.
polish
example
result
sand
or
rock
if
the
faults,
faces
towers,
–
to
be
these
rock,
rocks
some
are
dramatic
etched,
pinnacles
and
pedestals.
Distinguish between
zeugens and yardangs.
Yardangs
rock
2.
will
uted
rock
wind,
smooth
heterogeneous,
Activity 14
particles
and
strata
zeugens
are
are
removed,
wind-eroded
leaving
the
landforms
more
where
resistant
the
layers
to
softer
form
either
Outline the main features
mushroom-shaped
features
(zeugens)
where
strata
are
horizontal,
or
of sand dunes in hot,
long
ridges
(yardangs)
where
the
strata
are
vertical.
These
deser t areas.
be
126
as
high
as
100
metres
and
stretch
for
many
kilometres.
ridges
could
2
P h y S I C A l
P R o C e S S e S
A n D
l A n D S C A P e S
Wadis
Activity 15
Wadis
are
river
channels
that
vary
in
size
from
a
few
metres
in
length
to
1.
over
100
kilometres.
They
are
generally
steep
sided
and
at
Contrast the landforms
bottomed.
that result from erosional
They
may
be
formed
by
intermittent
ash
oods
or
they
may
have
been
and depositional glacial
formed
during
wetter
pluvial
periods
in
the
Pleistocene.
The
relative
processes.
infrequency
suggest
that
frequent
been
on
of
ash
they
and
alluvium
were
more
enlarged
by
and
oods
in
formed
intense.
repeated
solid
some
In
at
a
areas
time
contrast,
ooding.
where
when
wadis
storms
arroyos
They
are
are
are
found
were
in
2.
more
channels
common
could
that
Outline the impor tance
of wind and water in the
have
semi-arid
development of landforms
areas
in one named extreme
rock.
environment.
Mesas
Mesas
sides.
rock.
and
(the
They
As
Spanish
word
represent
the
mesa
is
the
for
table)
remnant
reduced
in
are
of
size
a
by
plateau-like
former
cliff
features
extensive
retreat,
it
with
layer
retains
of
its
steep
resistant
at
top
altitude.
Buttes
Buttes
nal
are
stage
eroded.
similar
of
to
mesas,
development
Water
has
eroded
but
of
much
erosion
most
of
smaller.
before
the
rock,
These
the
represent
resistant
leaving
a
rock
thin
the
is
nally
pillar.
Concepts in contex t
In
this
that
section
operate
we
in
environments.
include
occur
water
cold
The
erosion,
transport
and
exhibit
action
have
seen
environments
processes
are
weathering,
deposition.
power.
show
The
and
their
hot
varied
mass
Glaciers,
immense
times
processes
and
movement,
processes
wind
power
that
action
at
and
and
in
power
different
they
to
deposition.
in
present-day
of
water
change
Processes
hot
action
present-day
places.
their
from
the
there
past,
areas
they
work
change
deserts
periglacial
When
from
over
is
and
there
lose
time
erosion
–
evidence
in
is
some
evidence
of
glacialactivity.
certain
Check your understanding
1.
Identify
two
forms
of
glacial
erosion.
7.
Outline
arid
2.
Briey
of
explain
glacial
3.
Give
an
4.
Describe
5.
Outline
two
factors
that
affect
the
abrasion.
example
a
of
pyramidal
Identify
the
hot
areas.
of
weathering
in
hot
arid
main
types
of
wind
erosion
in
9.
Explain
the
formation
10.
Outline
the
factors
of
alluvial
fans.
drumlin.
the
Distinguish
endorheic
forms
peak.
formation
of
a
between
needed
for
the
formation
pingo.
of
6.
main
rate
8.
a
the
areas.
exotic
rivers
barchan
dunes.
and
rivers.
127
3
Managing extreme environments
Agriculture in arid areas
Conceptual
Hot arid areas
understanding
Hot
is
K qsti
arid
an
season.
How
does
the
power
of
areas
In
areas
value
from
to
extract
extreme
of
a
number
heat
where
and
of
opportunities
sunlight,
water
is
for
favouring
available
agriculture.
a
(either
lengthy
due
to
There
growing
exotic
rivers,
different
desalination
stakeholders
offer
abundance
and/or
irrigation),
the
potential
for
farming
is
good.
economic
environments
vary?
The
main
nomads
search
type
of
wander
of
water
farming
with
and
in
their
new
most
herds
hot,
of
pasture.
arid
areas
camels,
is
goats,
Semi-nomadic
nomadism.
sheep
True
and/or
movement
cattle
may
in
occur
if
K ctt
there
●
Agricultural
is
Oases,
challenges
arid
and
in
semi-arid
the
desalination
agriculture.
gs
between
aridity
access
to
technology
and
use
irrigation,
be
salinization,
and
exotic
rivers
provide
opportunities
for
The
oasis
at
oranges.
Date
palm
Douz,
is
Tunisia
a
(Photo
particularly
C.11)
useful
produces
crop
the
and
for
thatching
or
fencing,
the
leaves
can
be
made
–
the
into
bark
ropes
mats,
and
the
dates
can
be
eaten.
and
Rivers,
risk
such
supply
land
of
issues.
and
and
used
of
a
as
the
water
oil-rich
provide
Human
plants
infertility,
and
●
season.
distinction
can
ownership
dry
areas,
dates,
of
and
hot
settled
of
wet
opportunities
and
including
a
so
Nile,
that
countries,
plentiful
provide
there
is
water
for
enough
such
as
Saudi
supply
of
water.
in
Arabia
With
farming.
the
dry
and
such
Dams
UAE,
a
can
season.
In
control
a
desalination
plentiful
the
number
supply
plants
of
physical
water,
opportunities
and
hydroponics
(the
growing
of
plants
in
water
rather
than
soil)
challenges
ispossible.
for
mineral
cold
extraction
environments,
inaccessibility,
resource
in
including
permafrost
and
There
in
an
nationalism.
are
most
arid
Human
and
saline
overgrazing,
mineral
arid
and
environments,
political
and
also
make
including
climatic
The
shortage
the
of
factors.
Opportunities
tourism
and
in
local
is
dominated
sunlight,
water,
limited
of
strong
very
dry
low
by
arid
lack
rainfall
winds,
poor
areas.
of
or
soil
Agriculture
freshwater,
a
short
rainy
structure,
technological
development.
Poor
transport
can
challenging.
water
areas
have
a
and
the
processes
of
in
their
negative
high
arid
soils
water
temperatures
and
and
semi-arid
determine
areas
ecosystems.
balance.
That
All
means
as
well
arid
the
many
as
and
of
many
semi-
outputs
challenges
evapotranspiration
including
populations.
(pEVT
>
and
stores
of
water
exceed
the
input
from
ppt).
the
Desert
soils
are
arid
(dry)
evapotranspiration.
●
a
●
being
●
lack
●
not
low
organic
of
clay
They
content
generally
very
(the
generally
salts
128
areas
hot,
extreme
environments,
of
and
characteristics
precipitation
role
or
agriculture
characteristic
the
from
for
soil
and
in
in
arid
●
heat
agriculture
challenges
extraction
inaccessibility
and
semi-arid
of
for
physical
opportunities
for
challenges
and
abundance
season,
●
many
remain
the
to
low
thin
with
of
due
the
few
increases
leached
soil
rainfall
infertile
because
amount
being
in
due
are
and
high
low
levels
of
biomass
minerals
with
because
could
and
to:
be
of
rainfall)
the
toxic
low
to
rainfall;
plants.
hence
soluble
3
Salinization
250
in
may
occur
millimetres.
the
large
continental
amounts
below
8.5.
plants
by
result
of
cotton,
of
The
are
on
●
reducing
●
using
solar
●
using
animal
●
planting
●
using
in
herd
of
size
run-off
soils
water
and
arid
and
See
precipitation
like
affect
by
the
roots,
crops,
Option
A
e x T R e m e
is
oors
and
less
and
leaves
salinization
growth
by
Some
also
valley
evaporates
affected
uptake
osmosis.
tolerant.
hot
of
adversely
rate
reverse
salt
agriculture
pH
annual
locations
surface
The
irrigation
where
drained
soils
the
and
more
areas
interior,
saline
wilting
in
poorly
salts.
reducing
information
Thus,
In
m A n A g I n g
of
and
such
is
most
behind
crop
date
Freshwater
than
basins
usually
plants
as
e n v I R o n m e n T S
die
as
palm
for
a
and
more
salinization.
areas
could
pressure
on
be
made
limited
more
sustainable
amounts
of
by:
vegetation

panels
to
produce
energy
rather
than
using
animal
Pt C.11: Date palm farming at
dung
Douz oasis, Tunisia
than
dung
vegetation
more
lining
●
building
●
using
irrigation
check
more
fertilizer
to
efcient
whole-eld
●
as
provide
types
of
fodder
for
irrigation
animals
(drip
and
sprinkler
rather
ooding)
channels
dams
with
(Photo
salt-tolerant
concrete
C.12)
and
(halophytic)
to
reduce
diguettes
seepage
to
collect
water
plants.
Semi-arid areas

Pt C.12: Check dam to collect
water and soil
Case study
●
The establishment of drought-resistant
although
low
production
in
in
protein,
it
increases
milk
cows
fodder
Pastureland
Africa
is
in
especially
overgrazing.
and
In
Transkei,
population
of
land
crops,
pear,
The
for
to
used
for
compounds)
been
used
number
as
of
for
for
soil
in
the
goats
reduce
aloe
C.13)
kraals
and
of
10
used
for
used
for
soil
conservation
years
it
produces
fencing
or
a
pole
that
can
be
building
of
●
it
●
the
can
act
as
a
wind
break
decrease
of
juice
of
the
aloe
is
used
in
the
production
tequila.
herd
the
An
fodder
prickly
gwanish.
has
traditionally
(animal
conservation,
times
after
be
absence
unsuccessful.
indigenous
(Photo
fodder
but
drought.
It
it
has
has
a
advantages:
●
it
requires
●
it
is
not
aloe
to
●
can
Ciskei
drought-resistant
American
the
fencing,
and
and
it
and
prolonged
and
●
South
problems
During
trying
of
drought
sometimes,
sheep
produce
and
to
homelands,
policies.
cattle,
example
saltbush
due
region
additional
and,
unpopular
American
been
are
However,
been
is
of
Cape
former
there
levels
alternative
fragile
pressure
signicantly.
has
Eastern
the
ownership
drought,
size
the
little
moisture
attacked
by
any
insects

Pt C.13: American aloe
129
3
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Case study (continued)
Saltbush
provides
eaten
sheep
by
thrive
water
and
on
remains
can
saltbush.
that
once
other
goats.
It
green
to
such
year
propagate
and
which
no
than
half
year
the
require,
irrigation.
and
However,
needs
is
particular,
lucerne
the
fodder.
in
less
as
requires
throughout
all
fodder
Goats,
requires
crops
established
provide
difcult
protein-rich
and
It
therefore
it
varieties
used
other,
are
common
fodder
which
in
needs
to
yields
at
comparable
prices
Pruning
is
of
one,
of
be
sprayed
with
apples
per
while
to
fruit.
annually.
fodder
insect-resistant,
drought,
high-quality
needed
tonnes
–
times
damage,
100
is
as
reduce
The
and
This
fruit
per
insect
is
sold
oranges.
provides
hectare
is
the
up
to
year.
high-quality
In
the
former
Cisk e i
r e g io n
of
the
Ea s t e rn
management.
Cape,
The
spineless
features
cactus
or
prominently
prickly
in
the
pear
(Photo
agriculture
of
C.14)
many
drought
government
prickly
order
to
pear,
to
of
region
in
the
are
fruit
carminic

of
Pt C.14: Cactus and prickly pear
soil
has
countries,
such
as
Mexico,
Peru
and
it
is
for
used
more
2–3
as
a
fodder
months
widespread
in
each
crop
the
year.
Eastern
is
O ne
pe a r
it
is
at
is
of
l ow
t he
t r ia l s
a lo e
th e
its
ve ry
i nte ns iv e
as
of
m ai n
l ow
w at e r
s ui tabl e
a nd
to
u n re li a bl e .
ir r ig a t i on
schemes
Ke is ka mma h oe k,
i na pp ro pr ia te
to
wi t h
in
the
t he s e
a r ea
acid
it
pear
is
for
is
also
the
described
mainly
used
dye
used
for
the
industry
and
Nevertheless,
by
as
a
fodder
production
as
a
prickly
development
of
means
pear
planners
as
a
Tunisia
and
It
and
prickly
crop,
as
a
the
plant
of
the
poor,
a
ag
of
misery
…
fruit
inconsistent
crop
suc h
s e ri e s
f od de r.
r a i nf a ll
ar e
a
Ame r ica n
ma ke s
conservation.
been
“weed,
where
a nd
pr ompte d
people.
Although
and
on
p r i ckl y
Thi s
where
region,
the
mo r e
there
expensive
and
1 980 s
em b a r k
the
requirements.
Although
the
saltb us h
create
advantages
the
in
with
progress”.
becoming
Cape.
Two
Activity 16
1.
Outline the advantages of the American aloe plant.
2.
Comment on the advantages and disadvantages of using the prickly pear.
Case study
Globally,
Essential oils
around
About
65
per
cent
of
the
world
production
the
$10
essential
billion
oils
is
produced
by
developing
as
India,
China,
Brazil,
Indonesia,
and
Morocco.
oils
industry
the
South
mainly
to
has
The
only
African
South
recently
essential
developed
African
industry
economies
such
as
Currently
exports
cent),
the
US
(24
per
cent)
and
products
that
essential
per
cent).
The
most
signicant
by
South
130
and
Africa
buchu.
are
at
expansion.
productionof
the
range
of
Africa
an
attractive
include:
Europe
much
of
the
demand
is
in
the
northern
Japan
essential
eucalyptus,
and
seasonal
effects
make
oils
citrus,
attractive
geranium
extending
South
market
southern
produced
and
make
oils
hemisphere
(4.5
huge
increasing
grown.
Factors
●
(49per
include
essential
emerged.
oils
valued
Mexico,
crops
Egypt
enjoying
–
countries
existing
such
is
industry
of
Opportunities
essential
–
oils
hemisphere
suppliers
globally
3
m A n A g I n g
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S
Case study (continued)
●
having
traditionally
Europe
as
a
major
strong
trade
importer
of
links
●
with
many
fragrance
the
materials
●
South
class
culturally
Africa
is
being
agricultural
established
producer
in
a
as
a
wide
●
world-
range
in
of
Eastern
oils
to
industry,
sites
are
Cape
contributors
is
with
currently
set
South
in
of
10
to
become
Africa’s
Six
Project
Hogsback,
one
of
the
burgeoning
these
form
throughout
part
of
●
main
for
approximately
of
communal
land
is
being
production
considerable
agricultural
region
of
materials
industry
essential
potential
as
a
development
the
Eastern
present,
and
unemployed
The
of
and
essential
it
is
holds
form
in
Cape.
but
would
oils
Not
a
utilize
of
the
only
underemployed
oils
industry
sustainable
former
large
has
a
be
are
these
as
the
are
plants
not
used
by
therefore
are
very
not
very
valuable
so
stolen
looked
upon
regularly
well
essential
species
require
be
an
such
too
are
the
supply
is
raw
Its
used
in
as
as
weeds.
improves
supplying
oils
as
raw
grazing
materials
industry.
geranium,
much
land,
best
a
Wilde
peppermint
labour
at
has
a
strong
when
the
the
end
results.
second
als
mountainous
deodorants
summer
the
as
successful.
oil
in
autumn
of
people.
number
very
indigenous
colds.
Ciskei
labour-intensive
a
and
are
and
and
water
used.
to
The
and
eight
sage
hectares
known
Oil
Some
where
the
state
they
to
species
potential
the
theEssential
and
Removing
trial
already
medicines,
natural
unlikely
many
essential
government-sponsored
development
province.
of
their
are
as
acceptable
palatable,
products.
The
plants
people
It
crop.
It
terms
of
planting,
and
is
relatively
used
medicinal
and
soaps.
plant
of
is
( artemisia
shrub
the
is
requires
tillage,
season
being
minimal
pest
and
in
yields
cultivated
input
control
and
cropping
growing
growing
increasingly
is
treat
fragrance
Double
still
afra)
to
and
in
so
on.
of
it
easy
to
establish
and
manage.
advantages:
Moreover,
●
it
is
a
new
many
or
additional
source
of
income
for
elds
people
The
and
local
especially
●
it
is
labour
intensive
and
local
in
it
can
slopes
stabilize
where
population
given
the
many
soil
are
very
right
of
the
erosion
is
maize
a
problem.
enthusiastic,
economic
incentives.
nature
Activity 1
7
1.
Suggest reasons why the essential oils industry has developed in the Eastern
Cape province.
2.
Explain the extent to which the essential oils industry could be considered
a form of sustainable development.
Mineral extraction in hot, arid areas
There
hot,
is
huge
arid
west
USA
potential
and
and
that
size
housing
need
to
miners
and
and
be
the
in
and
in
have
that
exploitati o n
remote,
for
gas
occur
and
TNCs/countries
However,
are
in
Oil
Australia,
riches
signicant
the
potential
areas.
basic
uti l i tie s
at
hot,
the
arid
be
in
mining
to
mineral
copper
in
resources
in
Chile,
Australia
Many
of
generate
illustrate
these
large
in
south-
the
deposits
earnings
are
for
them.
di f c ult
be c a u se
tr a ns por t
s uch
of
East,
areas.
potential
develop
ma y
Middle
uranium
the
in v e s tme nt
provid e d
development
the
as
mi ne s
is
w a t er,
and
in
many
of
e xp en s ive .
ene r gy
the
and
In
these
wa s t e
s ett l e m e n t s
a re a s
a ddi ti on ,
di s pos a l
wh e r e
live.
131
3
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
The
shortage
built
the
or
water
groundwater
inaccessible
resources
some
of
impacts.
species.
a
the
arid
The
major
coast
In
many
to
be
to
desalination
be
tapped.
addition,
hot,
arid
exported
mineral
given
areas,
is
resource
plants
This
to
could
the
be
cause
remote
transporting
difficult
and
and
the
expensive.
infrastructure
has
been
In
the
a c t i v i t y.
in
movement
mines
source
require
decline.
exploitation
The
may
reserves
of
areas
military
Resource
to
nature
to
hot,
target
be
of
groundwater
and
of
hot,
of
areas
vehicles
their
dust
arid
and
wastes
that
is
can
people
can
linked
have
be
to
an
an
adverse
can
environmental
introduce
eyesore,
increase
and
in
exotic
mines
can
respiratory
problems.
Case study
Tourism
Rosemont Copper, Arizona
nearly
Rosemont
Copper
is
a
copper
mining
Pima
County,
Arizona,
an
undeveloped
50
km
south-east
of
C.23).
In
general,
Counties.
three
copper
mines
opponents
pollute
argue
surrounding
known
or
water
other
regional
supplies
elements
with
and
mercury,
that
the
argue
that
the
lead,
mine
project
generate
will
damage
tax
on
revenue
foreign
and
will
reduce
sources
of
over
the
proposed
revolves
environment,
around
with
water
being
ore
tonnes
of
waste
Rosemont
in
an
$7
Copper
billion
in
Mine
prot
is
over
to
major
lifespan
and
become
the
concern.
course
third
mine
in
the
in
would
frog,
the
United
also
sh
expects
an
by
States.
threaten
and
to
bat
mine
additional
rock.
massive
aural
various
species.
Most
of
550
1.3
this
million
billion
piles
called
rock
tailings.
would
be
Intended
and
visual
the
buffer
between
tailings
could
the
rise
mine
several
feet.
Arizona’s
to
other
gallons
of
of
copper
water
for
mines
every
consume
pound
of
around
copper
earn
but
Rosemont’s
usage
could
be
less
its
one-third
that
amount.
The
trade-off
is
a
largest
more
copper
middle
Copper
than
21-year
the
used
the
projected
the
and
thehighway,
produced,
about
in
The
25
The
falls
corridors
American
copper.
risks
a
site
create
Rosemont
potential
Copper
of
hundred
mine
jaguar
cactus,
tonnes
and
controversy
mine
wildlife
destruction
Rosemont
as
dependence
for
and
arsenic
heaped
jobs,
Cruz
air
tourism.
Proponents
account
Santa
that
endangered
and
The
important
only
Habitat
open-pit
in
Tucson
the
(Figure
recreation
annually
area
of
approximately
outdoor
billion
project
Pima
in
and
$3
energy-intensive
process
that
would
cut
USA.
into
the
prot
its
company’s
but
show
commitment
Tucson
to
corporate
social
10
Coronado
responsibility.
Benson
National
Industry
Sonoita
and
Forest
Valley
19
mining
make
up
scenic
overlook
about
83
5percent
Arizona’s
total
of
water
82
use
(approximately
Sonoita
Santa
Rita
126
billion
mountains
per
83
N
82
Sonoita

Fir C.23: Proposed mine at Rosemont Ranch, Arizona
132
year).
gallons
3
m A n A g I n g
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S
Case study (continued)
Tab C.7 The arguments for and against Rosemont Copper

Arguments in favour of the proposal
•
Arguments against the proposal
Copper is an essential component of a
•
Open-pit copper mines such as that proposed by Rosemont
clean-energy economy. For example,
pollute the air and nearby water supplies with mercury, lead
hybrid cars contain twice as much copper
arsenic or other poisons.
as conventional cars.
•
•
The mine would impor t 105% of the
The mine structures would be visible from Arizona State Route
83, a designated scenic route.
water needed for operations and leave
•
The economies of the Santa Rita Mountains communities are
a 5% net water gain to the Tucson Active
largely driven by outdoor recreation and tourism. Even modest
Management Area basin.
impact from the Rosemont Mine could discourage tourism to
•
•
The used land will be reclaimed from the
the region, and destroy more than the number of new jobs the
beginning of the mine’s operations.
mine would create.
The mine would create a much-needed
•
Mining jobs represent a small percentage of total Pima County
economic boost to the region, employing
jobs. Jobs created by the proposed Rosemont mine would
400 people directly for at least 19 years
represent just 0.3% of total employment in Pima and Santa Cruz
and suppor ting 1,700 indirect jobs.
counties.
Historically, mining jobs are among the
•
Destruction of habitat and individuals representing nine
highest-paying positions in Arizona,
endangered and threatened species, including the only known
and experienced workers in the copper
jaguar species living in the USA .
industry in the south-west can earn an
•
Complete loss of 85 historic proper ties that include Native
average of $59,000 per year.
American remains and prehistoric sites, and resource-
•
The project would suppor t ancillary
gathering locations thousands of years old.
industries – contractors and vendors
•
Degradation of air quality throughout the region, including
providing goods and services to the mine
Saguaro National Park East and West, from mine vehicles, dir t
operation during the nearly two decades
roads, crushers and conveyors.
of operation.
•
Signicant trac increases along Highways 83 and 82, as the
mine would generate 55–88 round-trip truck shipments daily.
L TA
Research skills
Visit
the
websites
of
Save
scenicsantaritas.org/
and
rosemontcopper.com/
Rosemont
Ranch
is
the
Santa
Rosemont
and
good,
discuss
and
for
Ritas
at
http://www.
Copper
http://www.
whether
copper
mining
at
whom?
Activity 18
Outline the climatic challenges of arid areas for the provision of infrastructure.
Mineral extraction in periglacial environments

Pt C.15: Rosemont valley prior
to development
The exploitation of periglacial areas
The
exploitation
fuel
resources
development
of
periglacial
creates
can
both
improve
areas
for
their
opportunities
the
mineral
and
economies
of
and
challenges.
these
fossil
Resource
regions,
but
it
can
also
133
3
OPTION
Natural
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
vegetation
put
their
conicts
Cleared
environment
local
under
pressure
and
create
communities.
area
Stripped
(moss
fragile
among
and
earth
peat)
(bare
earth)
0
Fragility of periglacial areas
Periglacial
10
)m(
Active
areas
are
fragile
for
three
reasons:
layer
●
the
ecosystem
htpeD
because
●
the
of
is
the
highly
limited
extremely
low
susceptible
number
of
temperatures
to
interference
species
limit
involved
decomposition,
Permafrost
and
hence
lasting
pollution,
effect
on
especially
periglacial
from
oil,
has
a
very
long-
ecosystems
40
Original
10
yrs
permafrost
after
●
permafrost
problems.

is
easily
Fir C.24: Permafrost disruption
changes
and
Heat
in
Thawing
the
of
pipeline
above
posing
to
buildings
vegetation
signicant
pipelines,
rapidly
increases
settlement
engineers
and
cover
permafrost
subsequent
structures
permafrost
from
the
Consequently,
Unstable
disrupted,
disturbance
of
the
have
the
soil
had
to
and
destroy
active
causes
build
it.
layer,
subsidence.
special
cope.
ground
Frost heave
Radiators
cooling
for
ammonia
Fibreglass
system
and
polyurethane
Close
insulation,
pumpable
to
in
keep
oil
winter
war m
to
rivers,
owing
to
an
abundant
supply
and
of
shutdowns
water,
can
lift
frost
piles
heave
and
is
very
structures
signicant
out
of
the
and
ground.
Steel
Piles
for
carrying
oil
pipelines
have
therefore
pipe
Oil
needed
to
to
be
overcome
embedded
mass
deep
in
movement
the
in
permafrost
the
active
Teflon-coated
shoes
pipe
allow
to
layer.
In
Prudhoe
Bay,
Alaska,
they
are
slide
11
metres
deep.
However,
this
is
extremely
expensive.
Active
layer
The human impact on
Pipe
Pipes
for
liquid
anchored
every
cooling
system
–
250–550
heat,
m.
periglacial areas
disperses
Zig-zag
summer
only
ammonia
line
allows
retains
pipe
to
expand
and
The
permafrost
contract
Slurry
backfilled
around
vertical
in
range)
and
hazards
and
adjust
periglacial
to
areas
include
permafrost
(i.e. where
block
pipeline
above-ground
caribou
buried
pipe
Earthquake
other
would
by
mass
thermokarst
of
Automatic
close,
Refrigerated
to
pumped
an
soils,
of
may
be
human
impact.
movements,
Problems
ooding,
subsidence,
short
low
growing
temperatures,
season
and
a
lack
average
spillage
For
of
example,
the
Nenets
tribe
in
the
Yamal
through
pipes
ground
a
light.
barrels
of
oil
Peninsula
small
–
of
Siberia
has
suffered
as
a
result
keeps
frozen
of
the
exploitation
subsidence
Fir C.25: Problems with pipelines
vegetation,
of
breeding
directly
remote
134
use
valves
limiting
brine
15,000

the
and
and
pipe
poor
Insulation
with
diverse
fractures
migration)
Oil
are
earthquakes
support
intensied
Unstable
associated
(temperature
or
grounds
indirectly
and
and
as
a
inhospitable
reduced
result
of
of
of
railway
decreased
caribou
human
environment.
oil
and
lines,
sh
numbers
attempts
gas.
Oil
leaks,
destruction
stocks,
have
to
of
pollution
all
happened
exploit
this
3
m A n A g I n g
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S
Beaufort
Prudhoe
Sea
The case of ANWR
Bay
The
Arctic
National
Wildlife
Refuge
(ANWR)
is
the
Arctic
largest
protected
wildlife
area
in
the
USA,
with
National
CONTINUOUS
Wildlife
9
million
hectares
in
the
remote
north-east
of
Alaska.
Trans-Alaska
It
includes
a
range
of
natural
habitats
such
as
Refuge
PERMAFROST
Russia
Pipeline
tundra,
r
e
barrier
islands
and
coastal
lagoons,
and
Canada
i
forest,
v
boreal
R
Fairbanks
n
to
many
rare
birds
and
animals.
There
has
u
long-running
political
controversy
over
the
Y
Bering
been
DISCONTINUOUS
k
home
o
is
PERMAFROST
Sea
Anchorage
SPORADIC
future
of
ANWR,
because
oil
companies
active
Valdez
in
PERMAFROST
Prudhoe
east
Bay
along
protected
to
the
the
west
northern
want
to
coastal
drill
plain,
for
oil
further
within
N
the
area.
Gulf
of
Alaska
0
500
km
Fir C.26: Periglaciation and the primary economy

Case study
streams.
Oil mining in Alaska
Alaska,
has
at
60°
some
north
and
remarkable
covering
periglacial
20°
of
80°C
as
–50°C
conditions
range
from
wet
in
north.
the
south
The
to
region
arid
and
covers
40
surface
and
is
rich
in
and
very
cold
of
per
of
cent
an
possesses
20
per
cent
of
primary
the
gold
and
abundant
the
sh
exploitation
of
the
the
technically
difcult
and
allow
oil,
as
possibility
of
tectonic
timber
these
extensive
created
permafrost
difculties
for
be
The
and
of
these
Heat
as
is
central
the
Dark
for
have
vibration
the
water
it,
causing
with
the
generates
melts
hot
causes
below
and
materials
oil
also
infrastructure
heating,
layer
tarmac
by
systems
permafrost
active
pipeline
about
3
sits
on
metres
The
for
pipeline
is
displacement
also
of
built
6
on
metres
1.5
Any
metres
vertically
disruption
or
oil
during
leakage
In
Alaska
the
and
ecologically
tundra
ecosystem
to
the
and
the
biodiversity
boreal
and
forest
short
to
food
the
east
chains.
have
These
inaccessibility
are
fragile
and
slow
to
recover
from
but
justied
by
kind
of
trauma,
and
oil
spillage
is
particularly
the
and
long-lasting.
benets.
generated
sewerage
low
cold
developers,
resources
the
support
environmentally
destructive
economic
as
prevent
by
any
exploitation
To
reserves.
ecosystems
have
ow.
resources
compounded
activity.
and
earthquake.
limited
climate,
to
well
north-west
the
needs
permafrost,
ground.
to
damaging.
is
oil
resources;
USA
’s
and
pipeline
drop
the
would
However,
the
in
of
an
as
the
insulated
horizontally
it
through
temperatures
maritime
sleepers
USA
’s
air
landforms.
mild,
above
the
pumped
latitude,
top
and
is
because
melting
Climatic
Oil
at
albedo
effect.
frictional
to
of
disturbing
permafrost,
leads
and
melting
the
subsidence.
low
same
such
heat,
and
permafrost
such
as
Drilling
which
drilling
breakage.
The trans-Alaska pipeline
Construction
was
of
began
completed
$8
billion.
pipeline
in
The
crosses
mountain
1975
1977
1,300
the
ranges
in
at
a
cost
kilometre
Brooks
and
and
800
and
rivers
Alaska
and

Pt C.16: The trans-Alaska pipeline, on the nor th slope of the Brooks
mountain range
135
3
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Greenland and resource nationalism – on hold
The
melting
political
countries
with
the
looked
UN
as
2014
could
from
The
Greenland
Denmark.
The
of
companies,
such
exploring
beneath
in
as
has
geographically
land
just
no
mass
and
has
130
been
years
Americans
was
support
on
a
who
in
long
of
cusp
territories
country,
rich
in
of
the
Arctic
accordance
Greenland,
and
of
a
it
independent.
rare
resource
underwrite
of
earth
from
a
its
Cairn
has
“nation
deposits
around
and
boom
the
Cairn
for
a
the
population
building”.
has
attracted
world.
Energy,
Energy
that
independence
scramble
Greenland
process
Statoil
political
the
lacks
most
Major
have
discovered
both
obstacles
hostile
the
Nuuk,
Ilulssat
of
of
mining
1987.
Greenland
and
in
It
oil
been
traces
of
oil
Some
about
and
80
a
5,000
a
The
country
human
per
has
and
Greenland.
provided
in
development.
cent
of
the
population
each.
single
There
of
are
ship
serves
was
mined
island.
during
used
Greenland’s
the
to
Earth.
capital,
communities
side
and
the
have
on
physical
development.
ice.
Copenhagen
control
1990s,
quite
seas.
the
scattered
1857
thawing
the
prompted
its
and
of
rapid
history
the
2010.
western
occupied
in
in
and
by
Since
their
one
and
decades.
thick
the
the
between
processed
remained
in
the
and
Shell,
and
Sisimiut
connecting
settlements
There
for
to
covered
16,000,
roads
the
is
in
gold
some
isolated
For
had
and
physical
are
on
companies
for
out
become
future
ice
waters
mirrored
Arctic.
turn.
still
Dutch
major
waters
infrastructure
ore,
region
Sea.
itself
is
mining
the
Greenland’s
It
the
mark
to
a
melting
Greenland’s
Greenland
taken
Greenland
iron
and
the
economic
people.
discovery
of
been
of
to
about
found
its
beneath
56,000
was
have
prospectors
is
it
has
parts
agreed
Convention
things
ice
some
largely
transform
just
Arctic
in
though
resources
of
the
have
However,
In
of
tensions
the
a
First
until
asset
World
aluminium
resources
Cryolite
useful
the
for
War.
the
Cryolite
production.
Denmark
1990s.

Pt C.17: Nuuk, the capital of
In
2009,
Nuuk
achieved
full
home
rule,
including
control
of
natural
Greenland
resources,
L TA
This
leaving
resource
in
nationalism,
charge
that
is,
of
security
when
a
and
country
foreign
affairs.
maintains
Communication skills
control
Identify
the
arguments
against
oil
in
the
and
or
cold
both
for
your
through
of
minerals
arguments
discussion
exploitation,
collapsing
debate
by
roles,
indigenous
price
on
an
annual
such
and
conservationist.
of
a
of
crude
country
saw
nancing
oil
has
for
from
the
this
full
as
great
Minister
that
in
springboard
Greenland’s
term.
Denmark,
a
bring
independence.
frustrated
short
to
Prime
to
2013
for
on
is
still
over
to
a
mineral
However,
hopes
Greenland
amounts
benets
of
the
becoming
dependent
$600
million.
oil
price
collapse
and
not
in
2014
has
worthwhile.
made
Three
Arctic
oil
exploration
companies
–
Norway’s
too
Statoil,
as
France’s
GDF
in
Thus
Suez
and
Denmark’s
Dong
Energy
–
returned
their
licences
a
2014.
the
provided
expected
the
Greenland
is
bonanza
not
that
oil
happening
–
and
at
other
least
minerals
in
the
would
short
term.
a
Write
of
other,
non-conventional
sources
of
oil
and
natural
gas
a
may
make
exploration
in
Greenland
less
attractive
than
in
less
extreme
arguments
environments.
draw
of
way
subsidy
Development
and
a
and
expected
elected
corporation,
government
summary
platform,
was
was
or
have
a
resources,
Hammond
adopting
people,
transnational
and
independent
expensive
different
own
an
The
formal
its
Aleqa
pro-independence
and
exploitation
other
over
Greenland.
different
environments.
Present
For
the
Greenland
population,
they
face
conclusion.
dependent
136
Denmark
on
Denmark
to
subsidize
their
development.
a
future
still
3
m A n A g I n g
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S
Cold and high environments: tourism
Clean
air,
heroic
breathtaking
potential
international
increasingly
holidays
the
in
has
biking,
pristine
Tourism
poorest
is
a
means
through
capacity
and
are
The
as
thin
in
sometimes
about
has
in
E,
remote
to
of
as
the
that
of
and
have
the
This
issues
success
low
means
of
that
the
easily.
countries
the
which
such
1970s.
but
are
for
that
steep
benets,
sport
of
carrying
regenerate
since
brings
and
through
because
not
world’s
resources
a
mountainous
social
Indigenous
regional
social
primary
does
tourism
been
mountain
rafting.
reduce
dramatically
and
have
mountain
disparity
impact
therefore
Leisure,
as
some
fragile.
landlocked
grown
environmental
Option
social
human
tourism
for
adventure
skiing
interest.
and
economic
vegetation
many
mountain
also
tourism
and
by
such
environments
referred
damaged
in
the
and
management
Mountain
soil
growth
become
for
many
generate
development
effect
of
white-water
also
generate
However,
Himalayas
of
(See
can
see.
easily
contentious
resolve.
it
careful
to
sites
have
and
and
popular
looking
trekking
activities
and
interest
most
They
tourists
economy
other
multiplier
industry
the
development
some
the
erodible
tourism
those
is
include
cultural
second
coasts.
to
tourist
economic
and
on
come
environment
the
paragliding
effect.
depends
tourists
of
after
the
Whereas
archaeological
trickle-down
tourism
slopes,
to
species,
zones
attractive
landscapes.
diversied
countries,
disparity
the
and
attractions,
and
rare
destination,
snowboarding,
populations
the
tourist
scenery,
mountain
accessible
traditional
areas
make
The
presents
difcult
more
to
details
areas.)
Environmental degradation around Mount Everest
The
Khumbu
region
MountEverest,
peak
tourist
Supplying
can
season
local
mountainous
and
showers
put
is
infrastructure
include
tents
In
2008
a
even
changed
the
far-reaching
unrest
Closing
no
is
about
population
in
longer
down
population
make
effects.
the
Sir
but
mountain
the
ve
A
of
global
as
for
700,000.
hot
and
discarded
glass,
in
water
resource
generation,
cans,
during
as
problematic
Increasing
rubbish
but
many
tourists
Hillary
is
the
from
per
the
on
clothes,
Nations
as
of
of
Everest
papers,
be
a
to
Everest
Norgay
major
have
consider
a
Environment
Mount
Tenzing
likely
the
10-year
a
even
of
far
as
the
local
summit
GNI.
their
of
to
political
issues.
Sherpa
Everest
Trekking
income,
of
more
strategy
era
had
rst
cause
environmental
the
capita
part
to
to
that
reaching
signicant
is
willing
now
solution
Sherpa
and
found
warming
region
no
United
landscape
was
attention
is
the
the
Edmund
times
most
by
that
government
distracting
$1,600,
waste
plastics,
Tourism
Everest
concerned.
with
signs
1953.
The
of
is
and
people,
be
water
pressure.
tonnes
food,
can
demands
sponsored
since
the
there
and
increasing
The
40,000
equipment.
found
problems,
the
Kathmandu
about
valley
further
by
team,
in
hold
electricity
but
under
electronic
trekking
is
with
equipment,
peak
containing
lower
inadequate.
(UNEP),
environmental
manage
this
signicantly
conquered
the
country,
geological
Programme
Nepal,
matched
is
climbing
and
in
people
this
consumption
of
comfortably
will
provides
and
so
this
closing
137
3
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
the
area
say
it
is
around
no
Everest
surprise
back
tourism
in
each
team
seven
Nepalese
of
the
that
would
the
region:
be
devastating
Nepali
even
climbers
to
must
to
authorities
set
pay
foot
a
their
have
on
the
royalty
economy.
no
plans
slopes
of
of
£50,000
to
Critics
scale
Everest,
to
the
government.
Case study
Tourism in Nepal
January
0 –15
Nepal’s
development
has
been
restricted
by
16–39
its
remote
and
landlocked
location,
difcult
31–45
April
terrain
and
shortage
of
natural
resources
for
46–60
industrialization.
Traditionally,
its
economy
has
60
depended
in
world
as
a
on
agriculture,
trade
major
until
industry
with
tourism
in
the
little
began
1980s.
July
participation
to
develop
Tourism’s
October
annual
it
contribution
employs
and
is
5
Nepal’s
unique
increasing
These
per
predicted
world,
cent
to
such
of
the
physical
the
as
GDP
grow
numbers
include
to
of
10
at
is
6
working
4
per
per
have
since
per
It
is
year.
0
attracted
the
also
in
20 000
with
two
major
religions
–
ethnic
–
existing
side
by
side,
culturally
Hinduism
and
12
Maoists,
The
the
in
1950s;
Nepal,
only
Nepal
in
1961
almost
after
has
1990
increased
4,000
all
of
that
erratically
tourists
them
Nepal’s
were
trekkers.
tourism
●
was
benets
until
the
global
ight
from
of
an
to
the
the
decline.
growing
brink.
The
Kathmandu
in
1999
Royal
Maoist
massacre
insurgency
Following
the
of
of
a
to
tourism
Nepal
for
with
Nepal
many
opportunities:
recognition
and
integration
into
economy
a
rise
in
foreign
revenue
to
help
clear
debts
it
and
improvement
employment,
to
especially
peace
to
Kathmandu
)s000(
Namibian
Global
Namibian
independence
terrorism
polio
epidemic
●
improved
in
local
income
generating
big
and
towns
a
and
multiplier
and
cities
effect,
such
as
Pokhara
cultural
understanding
as
a
result
1200
of
the
locals
learning
new
skills.
stsiruot
1000
800
The
costs
of
tourism
in
Nepal
lanoitanretnI
600
Increasing
tourist
demand
for
Nepal
presents
the
400
following
problems:
200
0
●
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Deforestation
and
road
construction
patterns
and
may
cause
excessive

Fir C.27: International tourist arrivals in Nepal by country
run-off
of origin, 1990–2008
disrupt
2008
drainage
138
and
recover.
caused
2001
pushed
signing
government
began
Indian
●
it
the
demand
increased
hijacking
national
Airlines
of
presents
international
the
●
dramatically,
between
since
recorded
It
2006
tourist
major
Tourism
in
in
and
groups.
Tourism
80 000
arrivals for Nepal, 2012
the
Buddhism
60 000
the
agreement
diverse,
40 000

Fir C.28: Age structure and seasonal trends in tourist
1960s.
mountains
Everest.
cent,
population
cent
features
tourists
highest
Mount
now
and
ooding
downstream.
3
m A n A g I n g
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S
Case study (continued)
●
Landslides,
from
on
the
mudslides
and
destabilization
steep
slopes.
torrential
This
monsoon
September,
when
is
rock
of
soil
falls
and
between
slopes
become
Trails
regolith
compounded
rain
●
result
Mountain
and
trekking
wildlife
can
destroy
now
and
unstable.
line
especially
camps.
Inadequately
makeshift
have
toilets
most
tramping
routes,
and
●
litter
mountaineering,
by
June
of
around
a
and
the
trekking
mountain
covered
pollute
become
of
toilet
streams
serious
base
pits
and
health
and
rivers,
issue.
vegetation
habitats.
Tourism and climate change – threats to Mount Everest
Climbing
Mount
the
of
focus
extreme
tourist
●
Everest
trekking
topography
destination.
Sherpa
being
ill-treated.
was
exploitation.
become
and
is
monsoon
are
other
the
Chris
The
warm-clothing
climate
reasons
groups
Porters’
Bonington
IPPG
banks.
helps
in
build
These
to
for
its
as
these
are
as
porter
a
become
as
porters)
paid
Group
Its
a
to
health
reduced
are
and
(IPPG)
response
shelters,
have
has
result.
threats.
badly
Protection
It
a
resilience
(traditional
who
1997
facilities
popular.
suffer
reduce
Sherpas
ethnic
International
by
increasingly
beginning
several
Gradually,
by
The
founded
and
There
threats:
replaced
has
activity
this
posts
Nepali
and
porter
deaths.

Pt C.18: Changing patterns of
●
Increasing
use
of
resources:
In
the
Sherpa
town
of
Namche
Bazaar
tourism on Mount Everest
there
is
a
demand
new
for
showers
over-burden
March
more
●
Pollution:
area
of
the
pipeline
and
local
October,
but
ush
bring
toilets.
stream
the
to
This
during
provision
water
will
the
of
to
avoid
peak
hot
satisfy
sewage
tourist
water
tourist
will
seasons
in
demand
fuel.
buried
●
and
ve-mile
in
Raw
large
with
toxic
Road-building:
in-ow
of
garbage
pits
is
where
taken
down
inevitably
it
to
the
will
lower
settlements
threaten
the
and
surrounding
leachates.
The
tourists
road
and
programme
has
regulations.
Processes
had
network
their
to
be
rapid
such
is
wealth.
as
and
rapidly
increasing
Unfortunately,
little
attention
cut-and-ll
have
led
to
the
is
ensure
given
to
the
road-building
to
erosion
safety
and
landslides.
●
Congestion:
made
the
contributed
destination
$50,000
clothes
of
for
and
planning
Everest
2073,
is
the
Four
ascent.
to
for
people
It
the
tragedy.
exotic
better
now
died
been
extreme
this
no
has
an
one
Everest
tourists
easy
the
infrastructure
supplies
and
the
in
2014
afford
what
trafc
an
to
Technological
make
when
human
become
can
accessible
daring
on
day
that
has
who
experience.
oxygen
longer
on
claimed
mountain
it
once
could

Pt C.19: The queue for Everest –
a two-hour wait
$10,000–
changes,
was
people
jams
overcrowded
pay
adventure.
achievement
150
took
The
in
better
years
ascent
1953.
include
a
of
By
helipad
139
3
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
on
the
South
meantime,
climbers
base
●
Col
they
and
the
2050
change:
and
3°C
the
a
by
region,
source
third
have
of
a
in
risks
The
of
the
the
largest
glaciers
trekkers
increase
century,
regions
as
for
oxygen.
rescuing
heading
predicted
there
and
may
as
by
be
countries
at
an
is
impact
in
in
disasters
Asia
evidence
In
the
both
far
as
1.2°C
by
far-reaching
adjoining
often
of
in
them
cross
threaten
a
recent
turn
and
for
the
almost
glaciers
and
is
This
likely
biodiversity,
give
rise
oods
water
property
the
provide
decades.
outburst
boundaries:
lives
lifeline
regimes
in
lake
outside
they
Himalayan
supplies,
These
glacial
–
ow
drinking-water
agriculture.
glaciers
reserve;
that
rate
freshwater
threat
of
freshwater
systems
clear
on
and
may
a
unprecedented
changes
country
concentration
are
river
There
potential
cooperation
of
outburst
of
such
combination
Himalayas
Everest
of
mountainous
industry
Such
rivers
the
end
major
major
shrinkage
major
bottled
potential
of
to
an
(GLOFS)
from
people
a
in
country.
Regional
term
nine
the
one
another
the
numerous
temperatures
these
dramatic
occurring.
in
breathing
the
meltwaters.
have
melting
hydropower,
increase
for
their
but
for
causes
have
lake
more
the
humanity.
been
trend
to
fed
Himalayas
polar
far
If
by
consequences
The
tourists
transforming
camp.
Climate
and
bringing
are
is
needed
oods
and
Himalayan
as
of
the
formulate
waste-water
glaciers
Indus,
climate
under
to
will
Yellow
change
threat,
but
and
strategy
to
deal
management
severely
River
the
a
and
tourism
stress
is
issues.
reduce
the
is
with
both
Long-
run-off
from
Mekong.
putting
the
concentrated
whole
on
the
region.
Developing tourism in hot, arid areas
Case study
Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico, USA
Zuni
Pueblo
is
the
largest
of
the
19
New
with
more
than
1800
needs
with
maintaining
sense
km
of
land
population
of
over
10,000.
It
is
of
traditional
of
all
the
New
considered
Mexico
a
unique
language,
culture
and
in
a
in
remote
part
from
area
of
populated
regions
Zuni
the
its
one
of
geographic
of
the
the
most
on
in
ways
of
the
stops
in
Indian
itinerary
country.
At
its
heritage
and
its
physical
present
share
Its
Zuni
its
climate.
because
of
Many
the
visitors
attracted
and
140
the
arts
to
and
the
crafts.
Visitors
dramatic
of
sandstone
the
are
of
are
is
a
natural
and
cultural
double-edged
than
to
not
tourism
destroys
what
enhance.
of
of
art.
the
population
There
income
are
from
efforts
derive
to
agriculture
their
increase
Tourism
is
an
attractive
and
option
because
the
relatively
high
low
capital
economic
investment
returns.
and
the
However,
familiar
are
many
long-lasting
negative
impacts
Zuni
also
Zuni
mesas.
and
there,
geography,
reputation
landscape
the
Tourism
out
most
unregulated,
jewellery,
exists
attractions
there
with
currently
conserve
often
set
from
potentially
including
that
as
of
include
that
Zuni.
More
tourism.
one
of
originally
income
tourist
compatible
lifestyle
isolation
sparsely
USA.
south-west
ways
the
history
the
is
in
Pueblos,
it
resulting
tourism
enhancing
the
sword.
with
and
community
resources
most
develop
and
and
a
to
Mexican
2
Pueblos,
Zuni
river
valley
hasty
tourism
development.
of
3
m A n A g I n g
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S
Case study (continued)
Check-in with the Visitor Center before star ting your
•
fragile archaeological structures or adobe walls.
an active community of residents’ daily lives and
Removal of ar tifacts or objects from these areas is a
homes – not a museum or theme park .
Federal oence.
Consider capturing visual memories instead of
•
Exercise common sense by not climbing around
•
visit to Zuni Pueblo. Remember, you are visiting
Respect our community by not using alcohol or
•
photographs! Assume that ALL “cultural” activities
drugs and not bringing weapons.
within the Pueblo are o-limits to photograph,
Hike only in designated areas (check at Visitor
•
video or audio record or sketch unless specically
Center) and not around archaeological ruin sites.
informed otherwise. Always inquire rst and ask
permission before photographing
any activity involving people.
Gallup
N
NO photography is permitted of
images inside the Old Mission.
Ramah
W
E
Sanders
Zuni
Observe with quiet respect any
•
Hanlibinkya
El
Morro
S
Nat’l
traditional dances and events that
Park
ZUNI
Kothluwala
RESERVATION
you may encounter. Applause is
Zuni
as inappropriate as in a church
St
Salt
Zuni
Lake
lands
Towns
Johns
0
25
miles
State
roads
Lakes/reservoirs
State
boundary
Mesas
setting.
0
ARIZONA

20
NEW
40
km
Rivers
MEXICO
Archaeological
sites
Fir C.29: Responsible tourism in Zuni
Sociocultural
particular,
concerns
water
Zuni
needs
to
control
the
development
in
order
to
safeguard
against
the
that
could
affect
the
basic
is
issue
limited.
in
Zuni,
Some
as
its
domestic
developments
social
allowed.
For
example,
big-game
hunting
negative
by
consequences
a
of
are
tourism
is
supply
non-Indians
is
allowed
as
long
as
there
is
a
and
Zuniguide.
cultural
limited
the
life
there.
external
demands
have
and
been
golf
to
As
a
result
involvement
develop
proposals
courses,
for
none
there
and
tourism.
motel
have
has
been
inuence
Although
complexes,
been
very
in
there
casinos
implemented.
Overall,
largely
in
Zuni
and
the
has
and
culture
social
within
continues
traditions
the
USA.
For
in
to
retain
spite
of
example,
its
its
or
video
recordings,
documentation
of
Zuni
of
has
evolved
will
in
to
almost
tourism
been
a
has
been
controlled.
way
survive.
certainly
that
allows
become
a
Zuni
society,
been
careful
drawings
religious
or
and
to
in
the
consider
early
the
stages
social,
Zuni
soil
events
is
environmental
Look
costs.
at
http://www.nmlegis.gov/lcs/handouts/
and
easily
to
see
concerns
biodiversity
are
affected
by
the
Zuni
council
wants
to
develop
tourism
resources
and
be
has
economic
other
how
air,
of
existence
Tourism%20at%20Zuni%20Pueblo.pdf
can
part
ERDT%20101315%20Item%207%20
Environmental
that
culture
Nevertheless,
photographic,
prohibited.
Water,
limited
Tourism
integrity
and
audio
it
environment
tourism
Zuni
impact
because
tourism.
Water,
the
also
the
issues
they
have
over
a
gravel
pit
in
(dated
2015).
141
3
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
L TA
Activity 19
1.
Research skills
Using Figure C.27, explain the changes in the origins of international
Use
tourists arriving in Nepal.
images
a
search
of
physical
2.
engine
Zuni
to
nd
Pueblo,
setting
and
its
its
culture,
Describe the trend shown by Figure C.28. (Remember to quantify your
for
example
traditional
dress
answer by referring to the data given.)
and
3.
art.
The
following
websites
Using the information given in both graphs, describe and explain the
may
be
of
interest:
characteristics of tourists visiting Nepal.
http://www.ashiwi.org/
4.
and
Suggest how the characteristics of international tourists to Nepal may
http://www.zunitourism.com/
change in the future.
the
homepage
of
Zuni
tourism.
L TA
Research skills
Research
pro-poor
uk/16_stats.pdf,
tourism
and
here
http://www.propoortourism.org.
summarize
one
case
study
in
an
extreme
environment.
Concepts in contex t
In
this
some
section,
extreme
managed.
of
have
the
these
use
whereas
TNCs
extreme
and
others
are
some
not,
to
communities.
why
attempts
be
such
as
shareholders,
interests
are
and
TNCs,
conservationists,
and
different
of
how
need
stakeholders,
stakeholders
example
seen
communities,
governments
example,
about
have
Different
indigenous
national
we
environments
and
environments.
very
Some
powerful,
national
for
for
concerns
governments,
example
There
develop
sustainably.
Not
all
are
many
extreme
users
sustainable
development
power
it
that
pressures
increase
as
for
to
to
in
can
the
population
climate
offer.
develop
future
and
are
interested
but
is
want
likely
extreme
due
growth,
change
It
challenges
to
rising
resource
in
environments
the
that
in
wealth/
the
environments
varied
forces,
standards
of
will
such
living,
depletion.
indigenous
Check your understanding
1.
Distinguish
between
aridity
and
6.
infertility.
Outline
the
2.
Explain
why
essential
oils
may
be
a
better
the
3.
semi-arid
State
a
areas
named
development
than
and
in
a
livestock
located
hot,
Outline
the
arid
5.
the
main
development
environment.
7.
Explain
8.
Describe
associated
mineral
resources
State
a
in
hot,
9.
Briey
hot,
named
and
in
a
located
mineral
periglacial
with
in
areas
the
term
“resource
nationalism”.
the
in
problems
cold
associated
with
environments.
with
areas.
development
142
problems
of
resources
resource
tourism
4.
associated
mineral
farming.
mineral
arid
problems
of
use
periglacial
of
main
development
resource
environment.
10.
explain
arid
Suggest
the
advantages
of
tourism
to
areas.
how
tourism
environments
can
be
in
hot,
made
arid
more
sustainable.
4
Extreme environments’ futures
Conceptual understanding
K qsti
What
are
the
future
environments
and
possibilities
their
for
managing
extreme
communities?
K ctt
TOK
●
The
causes,
acceleration,
consequences
and
management
of
How does classication
desertication,
including
land
use,
conict
and
climate
change
help our understanding in
●
Increasing
international
competition
for
access
to
resources
in
Geography?
extreme
civil
environments,
society
militia
including
organizations,
the
role
transnational
of
indigenous
corporations
groups,
(TNCs)
and
Figure C.30 categorizes the
causes of deser tication into
groups
natural processes and human
●
New
technology
and
sustainable
development
in
extreme
activities. There are many ways
environments,
including
greater
use
of
solar
power
and
of classifying the causes of
desalination
deser tication, and you might
●
The
impacts
and
management
of
global
climate
change
on
think of alternatives. Do we
extreme
environments,
including
adaptation
by
local
populations
need to classify at all?
DESERTIFICATION
initiated
by
NATURAL
HUMAN
PROCESSES
ACTIVITIES
Dryland
Energy
agriculture
demands
Drought
Urbanization
Reduced
vegetation
Pastoral
Fuelwood
Population
cutting
concentration
Irrigation
Arable
cover
Soil
Carrying
capacity
Removal
of
Poor
irrigation
Stress
on
Deforestation
erosion
of
land
exceeded
natural
vegetation
practices
land
Sedimentation
Deterioration
Poor
agricultural
Soil
Degradation
of
Salinization
of
pasture
practices
erosion
vegetation
cover
Waterlogging
Soil
erosion
Soil
organic
matter
Soil
Reduced
lost
soil
aggregate
Soil
fertility
erosion
Soil
breakdown
erosion
Soil
erosion
ADVANCE
OF
OF
DESERT/CREATION
DESERT-LIKE

Fir C.30: The causes and development
CONDITIONS
of deser tication
143
4
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
The causes, acceleration, consequences and
management of desertication
Desertication
areas
of
–
that
is,
biological
variability
activities.
colour
heat,
rain
and
and
absorbs
economic
less,
and
if
its
–
it
natural
there
will
not
where
removed
and
changes.
It
convectional
general
like
semi-arid
involves
unsustainable
is
Desertication
the
events
less
and
It
occurs
(albedo)
be
humid
areas.
it
with
cover
reectivity
is
and
coincides
surface
in
(arid)
productivity
drought.
occurs
extension
prolonged
surface
reects
more
less
discontinuous
deserts
droughts,
loss
human
the
heating,
in
of
the
climatic
as
in
as
a
China
in
2000s.
Desertication
leads
to
soil
wind
and
erosion
affected.
world
16
degradation
non-desert
the
so
more
patches
of
land
rainfall)
lighter,
possibly
isolated
as
including
example,
becomes
and
dened
(especially
For
consequence
the
is
not
by
Desertication
today.
per
a
cent
At
of
water,
is
present,
the
reduction
one
25
world’s
in
vegetation
lowering
of
per
the
cent
the
major
of
population
carrying
and
global
land
threatened
accelerated
capacity
environmental
the
are
cover
of
territory
by
the
issues
in
and
area
the
nearly
desertication.
Causes of deser tication
Desertication
All
the
highly
areas
variable
desertied
Natural
high
causes
believe
of
that
when
land;
nutrients;
after
●
use
as
and
Vegetation
large
to
Fencing,
is
is
act
as
major
both
of
the
as
water
points
Boreholes
while
and
and
itself
trees
of
to
wells
the
soils
have
to
of
to
graze
being
then
arid
by
on
a
exhausts
standing
erosion.
trampled
become
reduces
more
inltration,
wind
and
severe
the
in
worldwide.
locations,
led
human
become
crops
left
of
Many
caused
soil
increases
lower
periods
land
are
in
lands
specic
also
by
rainforest
and
to
be
prevent
and
trampling
wells
can
animals
to
Overgrazed
animals
fragile
growing
few
or
animal
desertication
compaction
run-off,
connes
the
too
the
aridity.
drought
overuse
many
grazing
livestock.
erosion
of
of
already
windbreaks
cause
in
too
of
drought
towards
increasing
where
activities.
characterized
techniques.
effects
This
when
parts
temporary
when
allow
the
change
of
the
is
human
and
erosion.
the
localized
water
table,
causing
salinization.
decreases
leads
season
cultivated
by
simply
to
Reducing
also
maintain
used
to
salinization.
and
to
diminishing
season,
investment.
degradation
144
the
greater
of
occurs
deforestation,
Overcultivation
be
causes
over-exploited.
to
this
include
by
marginal
farming
combination
pastoralists
lost
to
overgrazing.
●
is
intensied
are
to
climate
overcultivation,
which
provision
soil
a
which
numbers
vulnerable
leading
is
rewood
Overgrazing
by
exception
long-term
it
areas
xed
soil
An
desertication
and
overgrazing,
of
process
desertication
Desertication
semi-arid
area
natural
inappropriate
numbers,
severe.
a
by
following
population
more
be
rainfall.
magnitude
people
and
can
affected
maintain
fallow
by
the
but
an
all
lowering
and
return
the
of
on
contribute
fertility
and
yield
the
the
introducing
these
soil
where
expansion
same
periods
output,
erosion
returns,
requiring
areas
irrigation
to
to
agricultural
further
are
soil
promoting
4
●
Deforestation
the
area
where
trees
increases
easy
Other
●
are
removal
mobility
the
the
soil
of
some
for
their
concentration
by
in
and
the
wind
has
of
The
the
of
of
cleared
urban
to
extend
areas
vegetation
root
F u T u R e S
cover
systems
allows
following:
limited
and
by
crossed
permanent
population
of
e n v I R o n m e n T S ’
water.
routes
provide
been
loss
absence
been
migratory
has
surrounds
and
including
to
land
the
rewood.
people
Attempts
where
and
erosion
involved,
where
boundaries.
obvious
stripped
of
are
especially
to
most
cultivation
rainsplash
factors
The
is
under
e x T R e m e
governments,
international
settlements
animals,
with
have
led
undesirable
consequences.
●
Weak
or
non-existent
protection
●
Irrational
for
●
of
of
International
encouraging
and
marginal
use
salinization
created
water
have
land
by
failed
to
provide
preventing
resources
has
or
caused
environmental
controlling
water
its
shortages
use.
or
soil.
trade
cash
a
laws
Activity 20
has
promoted
crops
shortage
for
of
short-term
export.
staple
This
has
exploitation
disrupted
of
local
land
by
1.
markets
term “deser tication”.
foods.
2.
●
Civil
strife
and
war
diverts
Suggest a denition for the
resources
away
from
environmental
Outline the main natural
causes of deser tication.
issues.
3.
●
Ignorance
of
of
the
inappropriate
consequences
techniques
of
and
some
human
equipment,
actions,
have
and
the
contributed
to
Briey explain two
examples of deser tication
use
caused by people.
the
problem.
4.
Comment on the eects of
deser tication.
5.
Consequences of deser tication
To what extent is it possible
to manage deser tication?
There

are
some
serious
consequences
of
desertication
(Table
C.8).
Tab C.8: Consequences of deser tication
Environmental
Economic
Social and cultural
Loss of soil nutrients through wind
Reduced income from traditional
Loss of traditional knowledge and
and water erosion
economy (pastoralism and cultivation
skills
of food crops)
Changes in composition of vegetation
Forced migration due to food scarcity
and loss of biodiversity as vegetation
Decreased availability of fuelwood,
is removed
necessitating purchase of oil/
Social tensions in reception areas for
migrants
kerosene
Reduction in land available for
cropping and pasture
Increased dependence on food aid
Increased sedimentation of streams
Increased rural pover ty
because of soil erosion and sediment
accumulations in reservoirs
Expansion of area under sand dunes
Combating deser tication
There
are
perceived
many
ways
causes
of
(Table
combating
desertication,
which
depend
on
the
C.9).
145
4
OPTION

C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Tab C.9: The strategies for preventing deser tication, and their disadvantages
Cause of
desertication
Overgrazing
Strategies for prevention
Problems and drawbacks
Improved stock quality: through vaccination
Vaccination programmes improve survival rates,
programmes and the introduction of better breeds,
leading to bigger herds.
yields of meat, wool and milk can be increased
Population pressure often prevents these
without increasing the herd size.
measures.
Better management: reducing herd sizes and grazing
over wider areas would both reduce soil damage.
Overcultivation
Use of fertilizers: these can double yields of grain crops,
Cost to farmers.
reducing the need to open up new land for farming.
Ar ticial fer tilizers may damage the soil.
New or improved crops: many new crops or new
Some crops need expensive fer tilizer.
varieties of traditional crops with high-yielding and
Risk of crop failure.
drought-resistant qualities could be introduced.
Some methods require expensive technology
Improved farming methods: use of crop rotation,
and special skills.
irrigation and grain storage can all increase and
reduce pressure on land.
Deforestation
Agroforestry: combines agriculture with forestry,
Long growth time before benets of trees are
allowing the farmer to continue cropping while
realized.
using trees for fodder, fuel and building timber. Trees
Expensive irrigation and maintenance may be
protect, shade and fer tilize the soil.
needed.
Social forestry: village-based tree-planting schemes
Expensive. Special equipment may be needed.
involve all members of a community.
Alternative fuels: oil, gas and kerosene can be
substituted for wood as sources of fuel.
Increasing international competition for access
to resources in extreme environments
The
North
Pole
Approximately
15
per
the
cent
estimated
remain
As
ice
USA
caps
are
The
Council:
the
Russia’s
Russian
in
melting,
are
are
of
the
the
barrels
of
by
40
world’s
Arctic.
is
a
military
competing
is
opening
worth
erce,
But
oil
and
race
for
up
trillions
per
cent
since
undiscovered
the
47
majority,
trillion
is
also
extremely
two
of
especially
Denmark,
president
has
naval
bases
major
dollars.
among
Norway,
to
of
for
Arctic
the
oil
the
strategy.
full
2017
would
Russian
accelerate
for
from
that
specically
protection
its
called
development”
attempting
146
lie
decreased
1979.
natural
84
per
cubic
gas
cent,
metres
and
of
of
gas
shipping
The
the
building
in
valuable
lanes,
potential
eight
Iceland,
the
and
for
members
Finland,
region.
resources
in
oil
The
the
and
economic
of
the
Sweden,
Arctic
Russia
USA.
allocated
in
has
cent
billion
Canada,
economic
part
oil
region
competition
the
90
Russia
reserves
and
its
cap
per
offshore.
and
Arctic.
gas
of
ice
30
be
government
to
home
defence
and
2020,
gas
of
to
ships
national
facilities
construction
of
funding
including
in
and
a
more
“socio-
of
submarines
interests
the
for
system
that
Arctic.
involve
Russia
icebreakers
to
is
also
take
4
The
Russian
Federation
has
staked
a
claim
in
the
e x T R e m e
Sea
of
e n v I R o n m e n T S ’
Okhotsk
for
2
52,000
km
Russian
are
2
,
oil
and
decline
–
Arctic
region.
In
Kara
rights
Fleet,
the
the
Arctic,
provided
part
Russian
of
is
in
oil
water
claim
signicantly
companies
energy
large
a
giants,
hydrocarbon
to
to
for
the
1.32millionkm
country’s
actively
Gazprom
deposits
in
revenue,
explore
and
the
Rosneft,
the
.
were
Pechora
and
military
there
the
once
of
Arctic
the
warships
airborne
is
a
only
and
its
a
from
troop
part
lanes,
albeit
of
of
Russia’s
Northern
exercises.
its
Russia’s
increasing
strong
a
will
to
host
harsh
to
USA
behind
military
wants
that
in
the
–
Canada
budget
falling
region
stability,
claims
Russia,
while
is
Russia
region
hands-off
and
resources
defence
Circle
a
more
cooperation
USA
region.
the
Arctic
holds
environment
on
and
has
in
the
as
activity
rst
world
the
the
by
the
Canada
that
a
that
subject
USA.
ships
planned
in
the
evidenced
Arctic
economic
of
now
and
presence
be
is
armed
environment
must
be
for
and
Russian
but
this
a
must
international
longest
be
lanes
shelf
continues
will
strategy
is
patrol
of
its
preparations.
a
potentially
established
competition
that
by
to
makes
of
have
with
the
and
in
a
the
dominant
and
it
primary
difcult
to
support
is
are
Oceans
part
and
resources.)
shipping
and
signicant
would
the
produce
claims
B,
be
presence
cooperation
elements,
to
security
has
it
security
it
vital
provide
deposits,
Federation
that
ocean
up
Russia
international
providing
gas
difcult
Option
over
Arctic,
wide
and
Russian
open
to
Since
it
areas
also
conicts
melt
oil
make
(See
cooperation
coastline
coupled
and
world’s
this,
area.
shipping.
to
the
location
hydrocarbon
discussion
Federation
of
Despite
disputed
commercial
the
the
shipping
efciently.
for
region
mass
remote
continental
margins,
elements
a
and
developing
Arctic
claims
and
region
presence
part
country’s
the
patrols,
sovereignty
quickly
focused
coastal
powerful
resources.
extreme
the
was
new
Although
energy
seen
Arctic
developing
shipping
extract
the
which
competitive
force
has
bomber
However,
Russia
If
contribute
develop
in
allocating
own.
of
Arctic
globe.
for
increasing
its
an
Russian
international
race
now
2013
Arctic
strategic
around
a
which
forcing
to
militarization
of
prepared
seas.
Already
The
has
elds,
in
granted
F u T u R e S
such
lanes,
rescue
territorial
natural
in
the
in
as
for
region,
commercial
search
and
rescue.
The
USA
future
Ocean.
the
It
has
Sweden
NATO
According
the
our
the
to
Arctic
ability
to
announced
which
was
be
of
it
of
in
leader
via
a
relations
and
to
“a
join
by
in
the
a
ofcial,
constant
on
It
has
our
the
called
keen
to
stewardship.
lack
of
in
US
2013
presence
of
the
through
also
sovereignty
fall
in
Arctic
establishing
been
contrast,
the
force
NATO,
has
to
and
the
armed
after
and
view
USA
In
driving
militarize
NATO.
protection
attack
military
the
to
Canada
with
economy”.
a
as
keen
with
NATO
stunning
the
is
However,
strong
of
itself
Denmark
government
resumption
abandoned
sees
USA
conservation,
Alaskan
develop
The
Arctic.
for
represents
the
its
Finland
the
and
Arctic.
Norway
need
one
a
the
do
and
agenda
emphasize
in
to
to
participation
upon
a
wants
planning
the
in
activity
and
Russia
the
Arctic,
USSR.
147
4
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Case study
the
The Yamal megaproject and the Nenets
tundra’s
leading
to
a
freshwater
decline
in
lakes
sh
to
drain,
which
is
supplies.
of Siberia
The
Nenets
herders
over
is
a
who
1,000
from
are
have
years.
Northern
remote,
Yamal
during
residing
The
The
in
the
to
Nenets
the
winter.
towns
nomadic
Yamal
Yamal
Siberia
during
the
used
Peninsula
Kara
region
graze
summer
and
for
Russia’s
move
future
by
reindeer
are
semi-nomadic,
to
during
the
winter.
cross,
Some
Nenets
abandoned
traditional
Following
of
energy
oil
Gazprom
and
gas
the
adapt
for
history
for
a
the
risk.
reindeer
threatening
The
developing
in
puts
considerable
freshwater.
is
gas
(tcm).
the
project
the
Russian
region’s
known
as
of
life.
collapse
many
left
large
have
to
is
largest
the
metres
in
difcult
reserves
K a r a
Rusanovskoye
Many
and
at
of
their
way
adults
villages
herding
are
world’s)
cubic
project
pollution
pasture
the
estimate
have
communism,
young
(and
An
trillion
pipelines
and
of
oil
55
nomadic
corporation
huge
is
largest
and
quality
Russia’s
reserves.
here
of
Roads
in
south
Some
gas
reserves
Yamal
underlain
holds
natural
extends
Sea.
their
Yamal
reindeer
Peninsula
the
wind-blasted
permafrost.
the
indigenous
cities.
failed
life
S e a
their
to
away
from
Leningradskoye
nomadism,
have
been
and
Malyginskoye
there
reports
of
high
Tasiyskoye
Severo-
levels
of
unemployment,
Tambeyskoye
Syadorskoye
alcoholism
and
mental
Zapadno-
Tambeyskoye
health
problems.
For
the
Yuzhno-
Kharasaveyskoye
Nenets
who
traditional
retained
ways,
Gydan
Bay
Tambeyskoye
their
their
Verhne-
Tiuteyskoye
lands
and
their
herds
are
Kruzenshternovskoe
Zapadno-
Seyakhinskoye
Bovanenkovskoye
vital
to
their
existence.
Vostochno-
Bovanenkovskoye
The
Nenets
are
now
Nerstinskoye
facing
threats
from
Neytinskoye
climate
also
change
from
oil
and
and
Arcticheskoye
gas
Tota-Yakhinskoye
exploration.
The
Arctic
YAMAL
PENINSULA
Baidarata
is
changing
fast.
As
Semakovskoye
Bay
Antipayutinskoye
Sredneyamalskoye
Tchugoriakhinskoye
temperatures
rise
and
Severo-
Nurminskoye
the
tundra’s
Kamennomysskoye
permafrost
Khambateyskoye
thaws,
and
it
releases
carbon
Taz
methane
dioxide
Bay
Parusovoye
into
Kamennomysskoye
Yamburgskoye
the
ice
atmosphere.
melting
With
earlier
in
more
Obskoye
the
Novoportovskoye
YAMBURG
spring
and
not
Severo-Urengoyskoye
freezing
Ob
Operating
gas
Comprehensive
until
much
later,
the
processing
Projected
herders
are
being
forced
and
gas
under
to
change
gas
old
Melting
Wells,
well
unit
clusters
construction
centuries
migration
Shelf
fields
fields
patterns.
permafrost
is

Fir C.31: Yamal oil and gas elds
also
148
causing
some
of
gas
pipelines
pipelines
Continental
Bay
pipelines
TAZOVSKIY
4
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S ’
F u T u R e S
Case study (continued)
According
Built
to
a
pipeline
spokesperson
Proposed
pipeline
Bovanenkovskoye
from
Barents
Survival
Sea
Novy
International,
Urengoy
“Gazprom’s
website
calls
the
Nadym
NORWAY
Teriberka
Yamal
Peninsula
NADYM-PUR-TAZ
Murmansk
a
strategic
oil
REGION
SWEDEN
and
Peregrebnoye
gas
bearing
Surgut
UKHTA
region
of
Russia.
Yugorsk
This
sums
they
R
U
S
S
I
up
view
how
the
A
FINLAND
Nenets’
ancestral
homeland”.
Helsinki
NORD
Tyumen
Vyborg
The
statement
STREAM
Tallinn
Saint-Petersburg
concludes,
Perm
Gryazovets
“The
ESTONIA
Nenets
Riga
TORZHOK
have
Kazan
people
lived
on
Ufa
LATVIA
Astana
Moscow
and
POCHINKI
LITHUANIA
stewarded
Voskresensk
KAZAKHSTAN
Vilnius
the
tundra’s
Tula
Minsk
fragile
ecology
hundreds
BELORUSSIA
No
of
for
years.
developments

Fir C.32: Yamal Peninsula – a region of “strategic impor tance” for Gazprom and Russia
should
on
the
in
Yamal
the
from
Megaproject.
1990s,
the
and
the
The
rst
Bovanenkovo
project
of
its
eld
gas
was
was
initiated
supplies
produced
without
fair
A
570
km
railway
line
from
Obskaya
(the
world’s
most
northerly
was
opened
in
and
a
in
of
the
Oil
Yamal
will
22
gas
they
need
damages
to
receive
caused”.
on
Russia
have,
suspension
of
in
the
past,
economic
led
to
activity
the
Yamal.
In
1998,
exploration
on
the
2011.
tcm
tcm
of
of
will
proven
expected
be
built
infrastructure
Peninsula,
require
aviation
and
16
pipelines
Transport
region
and
over
further
2,500
gas.
has
attacks
temporary
Yamal
Yamal
and
any
rail
in
line)
for
to
the
Bovanenkovo
consent,
place
land
in
Militia
2012.
their
compensation
take
their
so
is
to
gas
reserves
reserves.
to
were
as
Russia’s
consuming
too
war
many
efforts
in
resources.
the
developed
development
developments
Chechnya
abandoned
Over
transport
poorly
was
the
of
the
railway
networks.
operations
in
the
Yamal
Peninsula
2
destroyed
over
64,000
10years
of
Ob
decreased,
have
been
catch;
Ob
exploration.
polluted.
60per
cent
routes
of
nearly
have
The
the
30
been
have
reindeer
km
Fish
River
yields
Ob
Former
sheries
used
Soviet
on
in
on
to
River
have
provide
Union’s
tributaries
by
just
the
grounds
Reindeer’s
bisected
been
tundra
spawning
destroyed.
been
have
sh
of
sh
of
the
migratory
railroads,
and

Pt C.20: Traditional Nenet tent (choom or mya)
some
shot.
149
4
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Oil conicts in the Middle East
There
for
are
many
example,
South
which
gas
China.
have
assets.
valuable
the
over
The
lack
for
Such
leads
has
Sudanese
is
and
a
on
a
become
and
on
of
War
oil-rening
some
access
countries.
to
the
and
and
countries,
export
The
many
group
It
that
is
a
caliphate
ISIS
in
for
income
stage.
in
natural
of
other
world
Iraq.
Islamic
facilities
and
and
ability
factor
extremist
an
oil
important
energy,
struggle
recent
Gulf
War
of
1983–2005.
northern
expensive.
for
and
disputes,
energy-centric,
for
East;
East
production
1980–1988,
of
the
historic
their
the
the
Middle
valuable
power
and
the
Ukraine,
source
control
recurring
War
Sunni
and
in
most
vulnerability
Civil
creating
is
has
to
major
that
inuence
been
Syria
a
control
world’s
reserves,
Iran/Iraq
(ISIS)
to
the
strength
energy
them
Sudan,
in
controls
Iraq.
This,
controls
well-armed
the
key
in
areas
it
oil-producing
part,
allows
it
to
military.
conicts
oil.
reduced
constitute
the
intent
all,
world
of
long-standing
desire
and
Nation-building
its
the
of
after
resources
western
Syria
Eastern
into
all
South
are,
surplus
State
of
organization
of
result
provides
the
not
corporations
resources
and
Islamic
parts
the
economic
including
1990–1991
areas
and
oil,
Nigeria,
disproportionate
energy
controls.
of
with
have
conicts,
large
gas
resources
Countries
often
are
commodities
whereas
pay
and
over
Syria,
developed
governments
energy
The
conicts
Iraq,
Many
Oil
distribution.
to
in
make
Losses
it
difcult
from
investment
is
Libya,
for
countries
Iraq
threatening
and
that
Syria
future
depend
have
on
reduced
Middle
supply,
while
supplies.
0
200
km
Mediterranean
Sea
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e
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o
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E
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station
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crossing
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Mislah
L
I
B
Y
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pipeline/field
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pipeline/field
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refineries
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storage
Ghat

Fir C.33: Major oil reser ves and infrastructure in Libya
150
4
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S ’
F u T u R e S
Oil in Libya
Activity 2
1
Oil
reserves
in
Libya
are
the
largest
in
Africa
and
among
the
10
largest
Study Figure C.34.
globally.
Libya
is
Libya
1.5
2011.
over
considered
production
over
has
and
2016
years
highly
proximity
million
In
a
70
barrels
production
reserves
attractive
to
per
of
oil
European
day
was
at
area
current
due
markets.
(MMbpd)
360,000
to
Oil
before
MMbpd.
production
its
low
cost
production
the
Oil
Arab
rates.
of
1.
oil
Outline two reasons for the
decline in oil production in
was
Spring
Libya.
of
infrastructure
has
2.
been
sabotaged.
Groups
claiming
to
be
afliated
with
ISIS
also
Suggest why this would
damaged
have a major impact on
pipelines
and
vital
equipment.
In
2015
attacks
by
gunmen
on
oil
elds
European countries.
prompted
oil
the
National
Oil
Corporation
to
shut
down
operations
at
11
elds.
L TA
Resource security in the Middle East
There
has
conicts
ghting
both
is
Red
with
have
Sea
in
included
a
and
major
and
the
Al-Qaeda
Egypt
oil
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as
of
by
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became
producer,
and
East
triggered
such
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Eritrea
the
those
countries
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not
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2002,
conict
within
Saudi
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been
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Djibouti
it
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the
millennia.
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involved
is
Spring
in
the
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a
transit
narrow
and
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analysis_includes/countries_
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for
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gov/beta/international/
Recent
Yemen’s
strategically
create
Research skills
of
to
Libya’s
the
oil
to
importance
industry.
Along
point.
In
attacked
1.8
a
French
super-tanker
off
In
mid-2013,
widespread
protests
and
1.6
Civil
the
south-east
coast
war
begins
strikes
of
(February
2011)
led
to
a
sharp
security
environment
loading
ports,
deterioration
and
the
of
closure
the
of
1.4
yad
Yemen.
an
Yemen
opportunity
and
other
for
terrorist
gain
stronger
in
the
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level,
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to
there
to
but
affected
its
it
by
power
problems
ports
and
situation
pre-war
and
close
oil
fields
continue
sporadically,
remains
and
to
the
precarious.
was
sporadic
labour-related
and
open
protests
supply
at
oil
fields.
area.
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has
so
2004,
the
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oil
pipelines.
-t
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facilities.
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the
the
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Saudi
the
and
took
strikes
that
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it
on
government
expanded
and
presidential
refuge
against
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and
attacks
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government
president
mission
aid
and
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attacked
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humanitarian
western
violence
the
launched
later,
completed
to
2011
Houtis
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2013
Jan
palace
changing
dialogue.
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and
Saudi
Houtis
government
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buildings
inuence,
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in
the
their
war
to
key
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and
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actions
Houtis
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In
news/middleeast/2014/08/
their
announced
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supporters.
that
to
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control
and
on
much
yemen-houthis-hadi-protests-
201482132719818986.html
had
of
http://www.bbc.co.uk/
news/world-middle-east-
29319423
break
out
in
the
region,
oil
supply
could
be
reduced
in
a
number
of
countries
around
the
world
could
to
nd
out
conict
in
more
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its
implications
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the
also
wider
be
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and
security
2015
supporters.
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were
energy
Jan
and
resulting
about
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2014

Fir C.34: Crude oil production in Libya, 2010 to 2015
minority.
attacks
Arabia
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2011
L TA
Since
Jan
many
escalating
facilities.
Saudi
Shia
been
2010
and
Middle
East
region
reduced.
and
oil
security.
151
4
OPTION
C
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E N V IR O N M E N TS
L TA
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http://www.
Gazprom
megaproject
http://www.
gazprom.com/about/production/projects/mega-yamal/.
needs of the Nenets people”.
New technology and sustainable development in
extreme environments
Sustainable
of
living
development
without
technologies
have
the
such
ability
communities.
beyond
the
is
development
compromising
as
to
desalinization,
increase
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of
levels
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power
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leading
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152
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yield
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seawater
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water
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seawater
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fresh
water
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countries.
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technology
world.
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rain;
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for
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per
cent
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technology
per
entirely
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per
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desalinated
produced
seawater
ofIsrael’s
will
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of
Intelligence,
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over
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and
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water
salt
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popular,
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of
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process
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deal
pores
ions
of
small
back.
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down.
seawater
especially
countries
in
in
the
among
the
wealthy
Persian
Gulf
153
4
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
L TA
are
already
heavy
users
of
seawater
desalination,
and
California
is
also
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to
embrace
desalination.
https://www.youtube.
A
major
desalination
plant
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planned
for
San
Diego
in
the
USA.
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com/watch?v=
Carlsbad
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to
short
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on
the
desalination
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conservation
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county’s
water
stress,
will
region’s
water
drought-plagued
contain
freshwater
desalination
energy
supplies
is
offers
an
a
chance
to
emissions.
Arabia
plant.
polycrystalline
California,
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of
that
energy-sucking
desalination
storage
argue
increasing
costs
2015
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cent
that
in
reservoirs
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to
per
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expensive,
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other
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solar
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Case study
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A
plan
to
use
the
Sahara
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to
with
solar
energy
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of
been
several
North
African
a
protable
solar
are
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going
ahead
despite
from
a
their
Germany,
small
to
sustainability.
amount
produce
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data
how
was
the
Germany
of
the
enough
much
power
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of
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world,
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In
May,
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for
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power
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map
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only
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suggesting
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and
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C.35).
article
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of
part,
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than
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it
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Desertec
new
have
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the
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businesses
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as
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deserts.
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and
to
154
Industrial
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was
and
also
in
reduce
Europe,
dependence
response
2009,
crisis
targeted
to
fundamental
to
the
issues
Russian–Ukrainian
fears
of
the
of
2009.
address
technology
addressing
these
peak
However,
crises,
structural
overcome
change,
gas
oil,
causes.
these
critics
if
arguably
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problems
issues
of
argued,
was
inequality.
energy
a
year”.
Moreover,
they
argued
that
large-scale
“solutions”
like
Desertec
established.
to
present
climate
change
as
a
shared
and
problem
with
context.
Such
no
political
or
socio-economic
energy
2009,
a
view
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the
historical
the
actions
Desertec
was
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six
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climate
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diversify
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without
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researcher
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a
suggested
Sahara
solar
to
2005
with
concept
concerns
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over
initiative
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power
promote
projects
sector
the
abandoned,
attempting
although
private
transforming
power
into
Europe
German-led
aim
formed,
as
a
of
western
countries
and
energy
TNCs,
4
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S ’
F u T u R e S
Case study (continued)
the
problems
the
differences
and
the
of
the
capitalist
between
periphery.
The
energy
countries
spread
of
model,
in
the
solar
and
initiatives
core
energy
energy
this
is
utilizes
just
detracts
to
scarce
provide
from
water
for
resources.
rich
sustainable
it
If
the
consumers,
development.
happened,
fall
in
solar
wind
EU
the
of
and
turbines
led
in
Desertec
conclude
that
price
panels
As
the
in
the
to
2013
Europe
could
World
produce
most
of
its
EU
G
renewable
from
energy
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own
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0
250
500
750
1,000
km
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Fir C.35: The amount of the Sahara Deser t needed to power the world, the European Union
and Germany
Solar
in
energy
Tunisia,
in
the
Northern
Morocco
and
Sahara
Algeria.
is
The
still
Tu
going
Nur
ahead,
project
in
with
projects
Tunisia
will
Activity 22
send
1.
power
to
Europe
in
2018.
This
seems
inappropriate
as
Tunisia
Explain one advantage
depends
and one disadvantage of
on
neighbouring
Algeria
for
some
of
its
own
energy.
The
Moroccan
desalination in extreme
government
has
attracted
funding
from
overseas
lenders
to
develop
environments.
the
world’s
Originally
it
promoted
However,
argue
was
as
a
the
that
in
project
of
to
Morocco
and
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solar
export
increase
is
in
the
control
a
Morocco’s
exerted
threat
to
on
(CSP)
project
company
sustainable,
focused
power
by
projects
for
Spain,
supply
has
of
on
at
but
Ourzazate.
it
is
Explain one advantage and
one disadvantage of the
energy.
criticism.
electrical
2.
now
renewable
attracted
TNCs
national
providing
to
plant
Deser tec plans for solar
Critics
power in the Sahara Deser t.
energy
sovereignty.
must
the
be
grounded
energy
needs
of
in
local
L TA
to
as
TNCs
increasing
development
communities
concentrating
planned
role
the
production
For
largest
Research skills
local
Visit
communities.
In
the
context
of
the
recent
upheavals
in
the
MENA
http://www.
region
nurenergie.com/tunur/
(the
“Arab
Spring”)
and
the
demands
for
national
sovereignty,
social
to
justice,
freedom
and
improved
access
to
food,
projects
involving
nd
solar
which
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top-down
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risk
of
and
guarantee
that
pollution.
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schemes
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community
reduce
involvement,
poverty
Tu
Nur
projects
there
is
prospects
and
for
the
and
UK
no
from
such
about
energy
displacement,
the
alienation
out
TNCs
unemployment
Tunisia
http://www.
or
bbc.co.uk/news/science-
preserve
the
natural
environment.
environment-29551063.
Find
out
about
the
world’s
The impacts and management of global climate
largest
change in extreme environments
solar
Ourzazate,
energy
plant
Morocco
at
here:
http://www.theguardian.
Climate change and food security
com/environment/2016/
The
predicted
1.0–2.75°C,
rise
and
precipitation
is
in
arid
likely
temperature
conditions
to
for
will
increase.
the
Sahel
probably
Higher
area
is
worsen
likely
even
temperatures
will
to
be
where
raise
feb/04/morocco-to-switch-
on-rst-phase-of-worlds-
largest-solar-plant.
155
4
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
evaporation
hazards
Sahel,
likely
levels
such
as
causing
to
climate
reduce
and
disruption
reduce
insecurity
and
oods
and
food
in
to
will
Poverty
and
will
effectiveness.
become
agricultural
production
hunger.
change
precipitation
droughts
more
systems.
availability
therefore
These
and
Environmental
common
hazards
increase
exacerbate
the
in
the
are
prices,
food
impacts
of
Sahel.
Coping strategies adopted in Senegal
Activity 23
Senegal
has
a
projected
20
per
cent
reduction
in
rainfall
and
a
4°C
increase
Study Figure C.37 Rainfall in
in
temperature
from
a
baseline
of
1961–1990.
Climate
change
will
reduce
the Sahel region.
food
1.
Describe the trends in
leading
rainfall variability shown.
by
to
2050.
soil
2.
yields
by
up
approximately
to
an
additional
Overgrazing,
erosion
are
25
4
per
cent
million
over-population
leading
to
in
relation
people
of
desertication.
at
to
risk
marginal
Senegal
current
of
food
lands
is
yields,
insecurity
and
natural
investigating
various
The rainfall as an average
coping
strategies
that
can
be
applied
at
the
household
or
local
level.
for the period is shown as
Theseinclude:
0 on the graph. Describe
the value of using an index
●
improving
soil
fertility
●
improving
the
efciency
●
adopting
by
the
careful
use
of
fertilizers
in this way.
3.
of
irrigation
systems
and
pest
control
“ The extent to which
water
and
soil
conservation
techniques
using
diguettes
countries accommodate
(stone
rows)
to
reduce
run-off
on
slopes
climate change depends
●
developing
the
Great
Green
Wall
of
the
Sahara
and
the
Sahel
Initiative
more upon human factors
(GGWSSI),
that
is,
a
massive
line
of
trees
across
the
southern
Sahara
than physical factors.”
and
Sahel
to
combat
the
combined
effect
of
resource
degradation
Discuss this view.
(deforestation
and
soil
erosion)
and
drought/desertication.
Case study
more
Coping in semi-arid regions –
are
common
bartered
in
with
the
drier
periods.
sedentary
Their
farmers
for
animals
grain.
the African Sahel
The
indigenous
region,
the
located
humid
adapted
by
a
to
make
Sahel,
areas
of
water
later.
seasonal
that
livestock
income
herds
in
and
the
diversication
use
of
a
for
doing
for
market,
also
–
allows
variety
of
of
so,
they
will
to
tend
need
utilize
are
and
pastoralists
to
available
because
the
animals
have
and
sometimes,
rainfall
it
to
kept
patterns.
varies
The
with
diet
of
the
conditions.
for
for
Herd
make
156
in
wetter
periods,
as
the
the
both
implications
and
far-reaching,
international
of
in
the
can
bring
in
climate
enhanced
climate
projections
that
are
likely
socio-economic
Sahel
climate
they
global
the
and
1970s,
frequent,
changes
temperature
and
and
of
Current
in
the
1980s,
normal
However,
more
These
result
environmental
individuals
since
specically
effect.
The
of
in
are
Sahel.
become
famine.
increases
have
and
change
threaten
households,
and
beyond.
are
the
serious
lives
also
security.
vegetation
primary
environmental
effects
of
climate
different
include:
indigenous
More
milk
reduced
with
meat
agricultural
is
food
consumed
more
consequences,
●
people
be
drought
of
changed
have
and
may
change,
change
grazing
has
droughts
The
resources
pattern
and
climate
and
predict
The
consumption.
the
greenhouse
arid
goats
the
rainfall
of
devastation
the
migration
cattle
sheep
the
have
conditions
cultivation.
diversied
and
Africa,
permanent
they
patterns
features
pastoralists,
by
more
subsistence
also
desert
resources
when
suitable
are
greater
In
around
meat
meat
As
Unreliable
Sahel
environmental
limited
times
not
Sahara
over-grazing
migration
are
the
semi-arid
sub-Saharan
growth.
for
the
strategies.
the
vegetation
Such
areas
of
of
combat
sources
of
extreme
use
and
leave
milk
the
of
between
subtropics
combination
they
to
people
being
insecurity
production
and
increased
4
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S ’
F u T u R e S
Case study (continued)
N
0
2,000
LIBYA
EGYPT
km
ALGERIA
SAHARA
DESERT
ETHIOPIA
SUDAN
SENEGAL
Darfur
Hyper-arid
Arid
NIGERIA
Semi-arid
Dry
sub-humid
GAMBIA
Moist
sub-humid
Niger
Delta
KENYA
UGANDA
Humid
Mt
BURKINO
Areas
most
at
FASO
from
climate
Kenya
Rwenzori
risk
Mountains
change
Gulf
of
Guinea
Mt
Kilmanjaro

Fir C.36: Areas of Sahel at risk of deser tication
4
3
2
xedni
1
llafniar
0
lehaS
–1
–2
–3
–4
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year

Fir C.37: Rainfall in the Sahel region, 1900–2010
●
additional
pressure
accessibility
and
on
water
water
availability,
water
●
demand
loss
to
of
territory
transborder
resources,
●
ooding
●
changes
of
low-lying
humidity
likely
to
encourage
of
disease
by
example
disputes
and
the
due
pressure
conict
on
between
mosquitoes
and
tribes
in
Sudan
the
●
spread
border
areas
Darfuri
in
for
and
migration
environmentally
induced
migration,
often
other
resulting
in
urban
overcrowding
vectors.
●
The
secondary
change
may
sociopolitical
effects
of
conict
over
energy
supplies
resulting
from
deforestation
and
competition
international
political
for
charcoal
include:
●
●
tension
climate
over
resources
such
as
water
tension
which
cannot
be
and
resolved
without
global
arbitration.
pasture
Study Figure C.37 Rainfall in the Sahel region.
L TA
TOK
Research skills
Research
case
•
How reliable is statistical data?
•
How can we draw conclusions from a limited sample?
and
Who collected the data and how reliable was their method?
•
Can we draw conclusions from such a small timescale?
for
the
change
population
hot,
develop
management
climate
•
and
study
arid
in
of
on
one
a
impact
a
local
named
environment.
157
4
OPTION
C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Coping with water shor tages in dry areas
Some
solutions
environment.
are
“natural”
Adaptations
●
increased
●
management
●
exchange
of
●
increased
use
●
utilization
●
windbreaks
●
irrigating
●
dune
●
land
mobility
of
of
species
wind
silt-laden
stabilization
enclosure
to
using
to
the
natural
include:
of
herds
species
tree
crops
erosion
of
water
straw
bales
wind
adapt
products
river
reduce
to
way)
livestock
and
farmers
shortages
composition
and
reduce
with
water
drought-tolerant
wild
to
require
traditional
and
livestock
of
to
(the
size
and
bare
to
soil
restore
and
soil
xerophytic
plants
erosion.
The impacts of climate change on cold environments
Any
increase
where
Very
the
cold
below
mean
L TA
Until
annual
areas
even
changes
temperature
risk
temperature
glacial
freezing
greatest
at
in
of
is
just
recently,
they
likely
below
degradation
as
in
to
is
occur
the
paid
have
only
central
experience
to
0°C.
and
Canada
likely
temperature
(such
if
are
is
Up
in
to
a
a
greater
little
major
rise
periglacial
40
per
attention
to
will
in
of
areas
freezing
remain
where
point.
well
the
permafrost
thermokarst
its
in
temperature.
areas
cent
of
impact
below
Antarctica)
development
little
a
northern
The
mean
areas
are
(subsidence).
region.
Only
Research skills
about
Visit
http://www.psi.org.
100,000
factors
are
of
now
the
country’s
forcing
them
33
to
million
pay
people
attention
to
live
the
north
of
60°N.
Two
north:
uk/ehb/projectskeenan.
●
html
on
for
the
effects
of
Tuareg
change
climate
has
–
just
and
tourism
people
of
made
when
prices
accessible
of
minerals
minerals
that
are
were
high,
once
the
warming
locked
in
the
ice
climate
●
change
climate
information
on
the
the
the
a
Sahel.
There
have
people
say
is
in
who
their
no
live
question
increased
in
the
north
are
demanding
and
getting
more
of
future.
at
that
almost
the
Arctic
twice
the
is
warming.
global
Arctic
average
rate
temperatures
in
the
last
2
100
are
years.
to
disappearing
village
of
Chukchi
be
Up
Sea.
The
completely
climate
change
rise
in
level
and
warming
sea
rising
ice
can
It
on
Army
sea
is
sea
not
a
by
of
area
news.
and
a
about
The
narrow
Engineers
2025,
The
(an
good
remote
Corps
levels.
ice
victim
villagers
the
of
of
Ireland)
north-western
strip
of
predicts
may
size
sand
that
melting
become
to
Kivalina
ice,
the
Alaskan
next
the
will
coastal
USA
’s
rst
refugees.
Melting
sea
built
US
settlements
bridges
A
is
of
uninhabitable
and
islands.
km
annually.
Kivalina
erosion
Many
70,000
are
located
permafrost,
due
to
at
river
coastal
climate
mouths,
erosion,
change
will
river
conuences
increased
take
a
toll
ooding
on
or
and
buildings,
a
ports,
roads.
climate
be
fatal.
brings
Life
is
many
problems
becoming
more
for
the
Inuit.
expensive:
Unpredictable
snowmobiles
must

Pt C.21: Kivalina village,
take
longer
routes,
buildings
are
weakened
by
melting
permafrost
and,
nor th-west Alaska, at risk of
coastal erosion and ooding due
to global climate change
158
ironically,
the
conditioners
local
in
council
2006
after
in
Kunjuaq,
temperatures
Quebec
(Canada)
reached
31°C!
bought
For
many,
10
air
the
4
the
hunter-gatherer
environment
make
existence
their
is
proving
traditional
way
difcult
of
life
as
e n v I R o n m e n T S ’
changes
F u T u R e S
L TA
traditional
e x T R e m e
in
Research skills
harder.
Use
Rising
temperatures
may
have
impacts
on
economic
activities.
or
may
become
more
productive
as
net
primary
productivity
a
search
increases
and
other
source
of
the
growing
season
increases.
In
some
places,
forestry,
forestry,
may
be
possible.
As
ocean
temperatures
change,
been
what
extent
migration
of
sh
species.
People
relying
on
shing
will
in
to
go
further
to
catch
the
same
sh,
or
alter
their
shing
to
take
changes
in
species
composition.
For
those
that
rely
on
seals
may
also
nearly
The
changes
be
of
exploration
traditional
economy
Alberta.
were
zinc,
climate
–
may
life,
by
of
mine.
looking
nickel,
visit
change
on
6
iron
and
cent,
and
example,
mining,
and
shing.
second
from
Others
ore
For
the
In
only
to
opening
seeking
in
it
Greenland
of
the
gold,
and
Conduct a class debate. The
gas
motion is: “Local populations
can and should do something
to manage and adapt to climate
oil-rich
in
change.
TOK
Inuit’s
territory’s
Nunavut
to
global
had
2014.
Nunavut’s
that
of
oil
the
adapt
the
There
during
and
with
2006,
operating
were
effects.
accommodation
shipping,
companies
uranium.
copper,
paid
far-reaching
environment
came
130
have
tourism.
in
more
the
per
boost
the
–
may
for
stay
hunting
nearly
the
Of
for
and
threaten
based
grew
distribution
possibilities
tourists
Much
diamond
their
increased
80,000
effect
in
manage
and
climate
whales,
can
into
and/or
account
local
extreme
either
environments
have
research
there
populations
has
to
especially
to
coniferous
of
the
information
length
engine
Farming
rst
2009,
diamonds,
32
silver,
change”. The alternative view
is that “Local populations are
unable to manage or adapt to
climate change”.
sapphires.
The impact of climate change in the Himalayas
If
temperatures
century,
regions
The
there
and
region.
headwaters
of
been
melting
major
industry
glacial
in
turn
of
people
Regional
both
in
in
to
an
Experts
have
lake
risk
of
rate
in
ow
by
for
their
of
Asia
that
the
a
outside
they
recent
the
lifeline
is
for
This
likely
biodiversity,
the
almost
glaciers
decades.
and
the
provide
Himalayan
regimes
of
meltwaters.
glaciers
–
end
mountainous
reserve;
supplies,
has
been
impounded
in
occurring.
in
one
an
increase
behind
the
Such
in
the
terminal
potential
country
water
a
needed
of
a
have
trend
to
have
a
hydropower,
threat
disasters
threatens
often
the
number
moraines.
of
glacial
cross
lives
and
size
These
lake
boundaries:
and
properties
such
to
formulate
oods
Himalayan
as
the
and
glaciers
Indus,
a
with
strategy
water
may
Yellow
to
severely
River
deal
effectively
management
and
reduce
Mekong,
issues.
run-
with
supplies.
identied
25
worst-case
system
management
is
outburst
Punakha-Wangdi
warning
in
evidence
water
increase
(glofs)
a
rivers
on
the
3°C
by
freshwater
freshwater
retreat
shrinkage
predict
fed
systems
clear
drinking
or
concentration
a
river
is
and
another.
impacts
and
on
in
forming,
rise
the
major
are
2050
consequences
them
unprecedented
cooperation
with
largest
major
glacial
from
Long-term
off
of
oods
water
by
agriculture.
lakes
give
outburst
the
and
the
There
an
1.2°C
adjoining
changes
impact
result
of
at
by
far-reaching
glaciers
nine
humanity.
dramatic
One
have
These
for
third
causes
be
countries
Himalayas
polar
increase
may
for
plans,
potentially
scenario
valley.
glacier
and
of
UNDP
lake
dangerous
massive
is
working
outburst
improve
the
glacier
ooding
to
oods,
at
lakes
any
establish
an
strengthen
preparedness
of
local
in
Bhutan,
time
down
early
disaster
risk-
communities.
159
4
OPTION

C
E X T R E M E
E N V IR O N M E N TS
Tab C.10: Factors enabling adaptation to
There
climate change
change
Factr
Communications
Dtais
The presence of
diversied media
and accessibility of
information about
weather in general
and hazards in
In
number
Table
of
level
dangerous
detailed
of
in
will
problems,
an
plan
effort,
as
a
will
project
Such
training
valuable
China,
a
a
evacuation
and
provide
such
that
Thorthormi,
country.
surveys,
engineering
project
Lake
the
factors
enable
adaptation
to
climate
C.10).
has
glacial
been
lake
controlled
plan
and
in
case
to
Pakistan,
as
drainage
the
evaluation.
experiences
Nepal,
launched
ranked
lake
Once
lower
effort
of
and
most
requires
collapses,
with
the
the
a
completed,
countries
India
to
one
sound
the
similar
Chile.
L TA
Research skills
A system which
functions even
during extreme
events
Finance
a
(see
unprecedented
water
par ticular
Transpor t
an
are
Access to
Use
a
search
climate
engine
change
thefactors
climate
in
in
or
one
Table
other
source,
named
C.10
to
extreme
help
to
plan
investigate
management
environment.
for
and
How
manage
the
far
of
can
impacts
of
change?
banking, credit
and insurance
The impact of climate change on the alpine ski industry
products which
Up
to
half
of
Switzerland’s
ski
resorts
face
economic
hardship
or
spread risk before,
bankruptcy
because
of
global
climate
change.
Low
altitude
resorts
in
during and after
Italy,
Germany
and
Austria
may
also
have
to
move
uphill
in
the
future.
extreme events
Others
Economic
have
diversication
may
have
to
rely
on
snow-making
machines.
Climate
scientists
Access to a range
repeatedly
warned
that
due
to
emissions
of
greenhouse
gases,
of economic and
temperatures
could
rise
by
over
5°C
by
2100.
The
European
ski
industry
livelihood options
is
Education
a
multi-billion
dollar
industry.
Basic language
Climate
change
will
have
the
effect
of
pushing
more
and
more
winter
and other skills
sports
higher
up
mountains,
concentrating
impacts
in
an
ever-decreasing
necessary to
number
of
high-altitude
areas.
Since
2000,
some
patches
of
permafrost
understand risks
that
have
existed
for
tens
of
thousands
of
years
have
disappeared.
and shift livelihood
strategies as
Switzerland
necessary
now
Organization and
Right to organize
snowline
representation
and to have
become
access to and
reliable”
voice concerns
could
through diverse
$1.4billion
has
classied
is
around
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above
rise
to
at
m.
m,
drop
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and
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below
to
which
compared
resorts.
Over
altitudes
would
1,800
ski
reliable”
1,200
unreliable
resorts
230
“snow
63
next
m.
to
In
a
per
in
30–50
cent.
lead
85
are
1,500
per
could
the
Only
these
cent
areas
years,
The
one
of
these
where
snow
could
proportion
scenario,
tourism
loss
of
are
the
of
the
“snow-
snowline
nearly
present.
public, private
and civil society
Knowledge
The social and
generation,
scientic basis
L TA
organizations
Research skills
Muir
Glacier,
Muir,
planning and
to learn from
learning
experience,
has
Glacier,
visible
is
named
retreated
retreating
from
its
after
by
at
visitor
the
about
a
pioneering
5
rate
miles
of
centre.
50
Visit
environmentalist
since
metres
these
1970.
a
Another,
year
websites
and
to
is
no
nd
John
Portage
longer
out
about
the
proactively
most
recent
changes
to
Alaska’s
environment:
identify hazards,
analyse risk and
develop response
University
of
Alaska:
Arctic
Climate
Impact
Assessment
at
www.acia.
uaf.edu.
strategies that are
Kenai
Fjords
National
Park
at
www.nps.gov.kefj/index.htm.
tailored to local
Glacier
conditions
160
Bay
National
park
at
www.nps.gov/glba.
4
e x T R e m e
e n v I R o n m e n T S ’
F u T u R e S
Concepts in contex t
There
the
is
are
the
races
change
of
some
change
is
to
5°C
open
opportunities
example
or
to
2°C
more.
possibilities
tourism,
be
for
limited
extreme
will
possibilities
or
transport
positive,
for
such
farming
as
and
and
whether
vary
of
have
at
of
change.
much
their
an
The
–
more
Some
impact
indigenous
but
be
negative
TNCs
possibilities
than
may
the
and
some
not
way,
traditional
as
erosion
will
governments
sustainable
on
such
coastal
economic
command
environmentally
have
will
desertication,
stakeholders
populations.
the
increased
tourism,
impacts
risk
with
power
farming
Some
the
sea-level
TNCs
climate
mineral
and
environments.
of
increased
One
whether
Such
for
some
regarding
environments.
change,
ahead
may
of
extreme
change
extraction,
in
number
of
scale
climate
it
a
future
also
and
political
indigenous
operate
and
in
this
lifestyles
an
may
of
populations.
Check your understanding
1.
State
the
Arctic
2.
Identify
exist
3.
name
of
the
eight
members
of
the
6.
State
the
7.
Outline
in
Which
the
the
two
main
Arctic
resources
identied
as
the
mineral
resources
the
group
name
who
Yamal
5.
of
the
Yamal
Megaproject.
in
hot,
most
of
live
environmental
in
the
Yamal
impact
of
oil
region.
Ocean.
arid
likely
areas
to
have
lead
to
8.
Dene
the
for
indigenous
part
of
the
the
9.
Outline
10.
Outline
term
“desertication”.
been
the
main
the
likely
causes
of
desertication.
future
change
State
the
exploration
that
conicts?
4.
purpose
Council.
on
impact
Europe’s
ski
of
global
climate
industry.
population
year
in
the
Peninsula.
Identify
group
the
resources
makes
use
that
this
indigenous
of.
Synthesis and evaluation
●
People
in
and
economic,
●
The
scale
pressure
role
●
places
isolation,
of
There
but
of
the
processes
exerted,
indigenous
Glacial
by
inputs
means
of
a
and
of
perspectives
managed
and
are
political)
with
challenges
the
on
the
civil
TNCs,
other
in
exist
(social,
places.
terms
environment
of
the
and
the
societies.
ways
these
not
varies,
extreme
TNCs,
do
interactions
in
which
include
economic
the
extreme
views
migrants,
governments.
best
and
spatial
and
communities,
systems
showing
and
resilience
are
conservationists,
●
environments
by
governments,
many
environments
of
extreme
affected
environmental
national
are
in
are
represented
outputs.
climate
graph
by
Climatic
(bar
a
systems
data
chart
and
are
diagram
best
line
represented
graph).
161
3
e x Am
PRACTICe
E C I T C A R P
Study
the
1:50,000
map
extract
of
Zermat
and
the
Gorner
Glacier.
97
96
M A X E
95
94
93
92
91
621
622
623
(a)
624
(i)
Locate
(2
and
this
(c)
the
area.
Explain
an
identify
626
two
features
627
resulting
from
628
glacial
erosion.
marks)
(ii) Identify
(b)
625
(2
three
extreme
map
evidence
that
suggests
tourism
is
important
reasons
why
environment.
the
(2
+
area
2
+
in
2
the
map
can
be
considered
marks)
Either
“Mineral
to
those
resources
who
live
in
extreme
there.”
environments
Discuss
this
rarely
statement.
bring
(10
benets
marks)
Or
“Agricultural
leads
162
in
marks)
to
development
desertication.”
in
hot,
Discuss
arid
this
environments
statement.
(10
inevitably
marks)
O P T I O N
D
G E O P H Y S I C A L
H A Z A R D S
This
Key terms
optional
hazard
Haard
The occurrence (realization) of a
v
hazard, the eects of which change
demographic, economic and/or
environmental conditions.
events.
internal
and
as
ows.
Geophysical
activity,
theme
and
focuses
processes,
landslides,
The
impacts
Dsasr
earth
volcanic
such
theme
on
hazards
such
and
as
mass
rockslides,
also
It
include
earthquakes
movements
debris
includes
responses.
geophysical
the
considers
or
mud
human
the
A major hazard event that causes
concepts
of
risk
and
vulnerability,
resilience
widespread disruption to a
and
adaptation.
community or region, with signicant
demographic, economic and/or
environmental losses, and which the
aected community is unable to deal
with adequately without outside help.
You
will
read
geophysical
be
or
case
studies
hazard
interpreted
locations
as
severity
with
about
events
of
different
contrasting
(contrasting
impacts
can
and/
socio-economic
realities):
Rsk
The probability of a hazard event
causing harmful consequences
●
(expected losses in terms of death,
two
earthquake
magnitudes
injuries, proper ty damage, economy
human
but
hazard
with
events
very
of
similar
contrasting
impacts
and environment).
●
Vra
two
volcanic
hazard
events
in
contrasting
The geographic conditions that increase
plate
boundary
locations
the susceptibility of a community to
●
two
mass
movement
hazard
events
with
a hazard or to the impacts of a hazard
contrasting
physical
characteristics
(fast/
event.
slow;
Haard
The degree to which a hazard is
r
considered to be a threat by dierent
solid/loose).
people.
Key questions
Sdar
Indirect eects or secondary eects
haards
of a natural hazard occurring after the
1.
How
do
geophysical
geophysical
events
processes
of
differing
give
types
rise
to
and
initial primary hazards.
magnitudes?
Haard
A threat (whether natural or human)
2.
How
do
geophysical
systems
generate
that has the potential to cause loss
hazard
risks
for
different
places?
of life, injury, proper ty damage,
socio-economic disruption or
3.
environmental degradation.
Rs
How
does
the
geophysical
different
The ability to protect lives, livelihoods
varying
hazards
local
power
affect
of
people
in
contexts?
and infrastructure from destruction,
4.
What
are
the
future
possibilities
and to the ability to recover after a
for
lessening
human
vulnerability
to
hazard has occurred.
geophysical
Adaa
hazards?
Ways in which human activities/
actions are altered to take into
account the increasing risk of
hazards.
163
1
Geophysical systems
Conceptual understanding
Key question
How
do
geophysical
differing
types
and
processes
give
rise
to
geophysical
events
of
magnitudes?
Key content
●
Mechanics
of
convection
plate
movement
currents,
plumes,
including
internal
subduction
and
heating,
rifting
at
plate
margins
●
Characteristics
●
volcanoes
varying
secondary
hazards
Characteristics
wavetypes)
and
human
associated
and
of
(shield,
earthquakes
caused
by
lahars,
(depth
types
building,
hazards
eruption,
ows,
varying
(dam
composite
volcanic
(pyroclastic
triggers
of
of
cinder)
associated
landslides)
focus,
plate
resource
(tsunami,
and
and
epicentre
margin
movement
extraction)
landslides,
and
and
liquefaction,
faults)
Classication
(physical
of
types
secondary
transverse
●
of
formedby
and
of
mass
movement
human),
liquidity,
types
speed
according
of
onset,
to
cause
duration,
extent
frequency
Mechanisms of plate movement
The
theory
number
of
of
plate
layers
tectonics
(Figure
states
D.1).
On
that
the
the
Earth
outside
is
made
there
is
a
up
of
very
a
thin
rigid

Figure D.1: The internal structure
crust,
that
is
composed
of
thicker
continental
crust
and
thinner
oceanic
of the Ear th
crust.
Underneath
is
a
owing
but
solid
mantle
that
Atmosphere
Continental
12–40
(20–60
miles
(0–5
makes
up
82percent
of
the
volume
of
the
Earth.
miles
Seawater
0–3
crust
km)
Deeper
still
is
a
very
dense
and
very
hot
core,
the
km)
outer
core
being
liquid
and
the
inner
core
solid.
In
Lithosphere
Oceanic
crust
30–125
3
miles
(5
miles
these
concentric
layers
become
increasingly
km)
(50–200
Uppermost
general
km)
more
dense
towards
these
layers
is
the
centre.
The
density
of
mantle
Asthenosphere
Upper
controlled
by
temperature
and
mantle
pressure.
250
miles
(400
km)
310
Transition
zone
miles
(500
The
ow
of
heat
from
the
Earth’s
interior
to
the
km)
surface
(that
comes
is,
from
radioactive
two
main
decay
of
sources
–
materials
radiogenic
in
the
Lower
mantle
1800
mantle
and
crust)
and
primordial
heat
(that
is,
miles
(2900
the
km)
Outer
heat
lost
by
the
Earth
as
it
continues
to
cool
core
from
3200
its
original
formation).
Earth
heat
transport
miles
(5100
occurs
km)
Inner
by
convection,
due
3963
conduction
and
volcanic
core
advection.
to
Most
mantle
of
the
Earth’s
convection,
internal
with
the
heat
ow
remaining
is
heat
miles
(6378
164
the
km)
mainly
originating
in
the
Earth’s
crust.
Only
about
1
1percent
is
due
earthquakes
Almost
all
to
and
of
volcanic
mountain
the
Earth’s
activity,
internal
l
a
t
o
T
heat
t
at
the
through
surface
the
Large-scale
is
by
e
in
r
r
i
o
w
o
n
conduction
fl
e
a
t
h
crust.
convection
currents
)
r
e
p
p
U
occur
S y S t e M S
building.
i
loss
G e o p H y S i c A l
the
Earth’s
interior.
Hot
(
2
2
%
e
l
t
n
a
m
magma
to
the
rises
through
surface
and
the
then
core
spreads
)
r
e
out
at
mid-ocean
ridges.
w
o
L
The
(
3
2
%
e
l
t
n
a
m
Heat
cold
solidied
crust
sinks
transport
back
mechanism
into
the
Earth’s
interior
because
h
t
r
a
l
a
t
o
t
)
.
’s
x
h
o
t
r
r
p
a
p
E
a
,
E
f
t
o
it
is
heavier
and
denser
than
i
v
i
s
surrounding
material.
The
cause
of
i
o
f
o
w
o
fl
%
(
of
movement
uranium
is
and
radioactive
potassium
(
decay
in
Advection
Convection
)
t
a
e
h
the
r
O
n
D
e
u
s
the
2
2
%
e
r
o
C
I
the
e
n
n
r
Conduction
mantle.
Subduction
of
one
plate
refers
to
beneath
the
plunging

Fgr D.2: Global internal heat ow
another.
Source: Percentages based on review in Dye, ST. 2012. “Geoneutrinos and the radioactive power of the
Subduction
zones
form
where
an
Ear th”. Reviews of Geophysics, 50(3); and Arevalo Jr, R, McDonough, WF and Luong, M. 2009. “The K/U
oceanic
lithospheric
plate
collides
ratio of the silicate Ear th: Insights into mantle composition, structure and thermal evolution”. Earth
with
another
continental
plate
or
–
and Planetary Science Letters, 278(3). Pp 36
1–69.
whether
oceanic.
The
density
(a)
of
the
that
oceanic
of
the
plate
is
similar
aesthenosphere ,
Upwelling
a
to
so
convection
in
mantle
easily
(lithospheric)
and
therefore
into
upper
crust
than
the
melt
mantle.
remains
surrounding
Asthenosphere
mantle,
for
millions
subduction
carries
of
years;
on,
so
driven,
once
the
subducting
crust.
The
in
part,
by
subducting
the
weight
plate
(b)
Lateral
tension
pulls
at
A
the
the
plume
ow.
is,
rest
refers
Plumes
the
of
mid-ocean
to
or
outward
the
plate
ridge
a
but
small
hotspots
ow
of
behind
cool
area
can
as
of
Plates
are
move
unusually
cause
viscous
it.
they
to
move.
and
the
of
create
drag
Most
they
may
crust.
lava,
a
force
plumes
be
are
the
high
movement,
rock
from
the
Hawaiian
plates
found
responsible
However,
the
on
for
world’s
Hotspot,
and
the
near
the
is
on
the
block;
rift
faulting
magma
and
intrudes
downward
along
surface
faults,
lava
hot
heat
centre
them
rifting
abundant
not
causing
Lateral
movement
original
rift
continues
with
further
intrusions
parallel
to
faults
margins
original
most
central
that
cause
plate
develops,
the
away.
(c)
may
of
drags
giving
or
Asthenosphere
initiated,
movement
of
form
Lithosphere
the
oceanic
denser
to
reppU
cooler,
down
crust
eltnam
Subducted
pushed
oceanic
tsurC
be
the
it
Partial
can
causes
ridge
of
source
plate
margin.
(d)
Rifting
occurs
example
the
Thingvellir,
and
the
other.
be
East
each
of
Africa
Iceland,
main
consist
constructive
Eurasian
In
the
at
Plate
case,
cause
rock
are
is
Valley
the
boundaries,
or
North
moving
hotspot
of
that
Rift
where
plate
hotter
The
and
is
rift
rift
from
less
dense
rifting
colder
plate.
Hot
material
wells
up
to
ll
the
gaps
created
by
the
repeated
periodically
as
upwelling
to
created
than
the
Key
Movement
beneath
spreading
of
rising
Movement
of
lithosphere
Dykes
material
Solid
gabbro-like
Solid
peridotite
crust
Basalt
lava
the
Solidifying
ridges
is
Plate
mantle
older,
sequence
continues
each
believed
valleys
Main
at
American
away
activity
rifting.
the
for
gabbro
mantle
plates.

Fgr D.3: Rifting
165
1
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
Vas
Activity 1
1.
HAZ ARDS
There
are
Three
of
many
types
of
volcano
formed
by
various
kinds
of
eruption.
Describe the main internal
the
most
common
are
shield,
composite
and
cinder
volcanoes.
heat ows within the Ear th.
2.
Explain how convection
Shield volcanoes
currents may lead
Shield
to rifting.
no
volcanoes
ejected
basaltic
builds
crater
This
Loa
lava.
up
Because
shield
and
type
a
of
which
110
km
height
oor
lava

ph D.1: Mount Etna showing
at
from
is
500
ows
a
of
hot,
is
so
be
the
which
no
are
lava
have
The
Loa
16
is
explosive
formed
can
activity,
from
ow
gently
the
sea
20th
is
oor
is
Hawaii,
side
km
summit
volcano
the
in
and
The
on
found
crater
Mauna
during
is
it
can
level.
base
km.
there
volcanoes
shallow
sea
its
when
very
great
sloping
therefore
hot,
runny
distances.
sides,
a
It
shallow
circumference.
volcano
has
up
Shield
volcanoes,
large
circumference
is
build
fragments.
still
for
with
a
whereas
4,171
is
m
9,750
active
the
of
Mauna
just
6°.
diameter
above
m,
and
example
slope
and
sea
its
there
The
of
level,
the
but
diameter
were
many
volcano
the
on
total
the
sea
large-scale
century.
Composite volcanoes
many craters and a restaurant
Composite
and
by
lava
the
of
are
(or
by
outows.
summit
this
strato)
formed
and
type,
for
The
main
blow
a
secondary
very
as
for
off
violently
the
cone
and
cooled
a
of
a
may
explosion,
base.
Mount
layers
crater.
cone
are
most
of
common
fragmental
characterized
The
Etna
and
highest
and
lava,
for
large
a
type
by
in
of
volcano
material
slopes
volcanoes
Vesuvius
of
a
a
fed
in
followed
of
the
Italy,
period
of
of
larger
3°
near
world
are
Chimborazo
crater
builds
79.
ad
blown
main
cones
The
up
and
The
which
grow
can
pipe
pipe,
may
within
volcano
inactivity.
in
was
a
the
explosion
crater
parasitic
gas
Vesuvius
from
large
Sometimes
pressure
the
lava,
cases,
much
Etna.
example
part
and
Frequently,
long
the
ash
some
form
Mount
after
of
In
develop.
on
eruption
with
violent
in
example
violent
plugged
a
top
the
the
Mexico.
consists
accumulates
the
sides,
near
in
are
eruptions
volcanoes
example
Popacatepetl
cone
These
5°
and
which
volcanoes
alternating
on
the
suffer
a
becomes
the
result
volcano
is
erupted
away.
Cinder volcanoes
Cinder
volcanoes
accumulate
L TA
shape
a
depends
are
formed
steep
on
the
by
conical
nature
fragments
hill
of
around
the
of
the
material.
solid
vent
It
is
material
to
form
usually
which
a
cone.
concave
The
as
Research skills
the
Use
to
a
search
nd
the
engine
images
volcanoes
text.
of
Describe
of
the
at
usually
in
main
cones
contrasting
in
spreads
on
very
Guatemala
the
high
which
the
out
size
(up
is
of
to
near
the
300
3,350
western
USA
m
the
base
material.
m)
with
and
such
all
as
and
the
ash.
Big
has
Cinder
a
steep
and
ash
exception
There
Cinder
are
Butte
angle
cones
Volcano
many
and
of
30°–40°
are
Du
ash
not
Fuego
and
Inferno
eruptions
are
violent
–
lava
is
ejected
into
the
volcanoes.
breaks
up
into
cinders,
ash
and
other
fragments.
atmosphere
in
cinder
Cone.
least
The
two
material
depending
the
mentioned
characteristics
166
as
and
1
G e o p H y S i c A l
S y S t e M S
Icelandic
Volcanic eruptions
Lava eruptions
The
amount
between
of
the
continuously)
are
and
infrequent
continents
more
them
Icelandic
(Figure
and
the
a
but
and
lava
in
in
Japan
violent).
Lava
silica-rich
block
eruption
Iceland
the
is
what
and
Hawaii
and
the
vents
until
the
where
This
the
causes
enough
difference
Hawaiian
erupt
Philippines
released
sediments.
makes
(which
(where
oceans
the
meet
lava
pressure
eruptions
has
to
the
become
built
up
to
Strombolian
open.
lava
D.4).
horizontal
in
those
absorbs
viscous
break
silica
volcanoes
eruptions
Large
plains.
On
Columbia
are
characterized
quantities
a
large
of
basaltic
scale
these
by
persistent
lava
may
have
ssure
build
formed
up
the
eruption
vast
Deccan
Plateau
Plateau.
Vulcanian
Unlike
vent.
than
the
Icelandic
Occasional
the
volcano
lava
and
lava
eruptions,
pyroclastic
eruption.
gases
activity
Runny
escape
Hawaiian
occurs,
basaltic
eruptions
but
lava
this
ows
is
involve
less
down
a
central
important
the
sides
of
the
easily.
Pyroclastic eruptions
Vesuvian
Strombolian
rock.
from
into
eruptions
Eruptions
the
the
air,
Vulcanian
gases
in
crust
of
spews
are
crater.
and
when
eruptions
explosions
are
lava.
quantities
blast
out
gas
these
magma
solidied
explosive
commonly
Frequent
viscous
large
are
marked
settle
violent
Often
of
and
and
a
cool
occur
the
eruption
ash
sticky
or
that
white
blast
of
steam
of
runny
the
cooled
the
blow
clears
into
form
a
the
the
lava
of
trapped
overlying
blocked
vent
atmosphere.
lava.
emitted
cone.
pressure
off
(Sub-Plinian)
pyroclastic
cloud
they
to
produce
quantities
when
sufcient
volcanic
plugs
by
explosions
becomes
of
eruptions
and
Violent
Fragments
gas
build
up
Plinian
the
cone
of
Vesuvian
push
ash
cover
clouds
and
eruptions
clouds
the
Plinian
ash
are
high
are
pulverized
characterized
into
surrounding
eruptions
of
pumice.
the
sky.
by
Lava
very
powerful
ows
also
blasts
occur.
of
Ash
gas
falls
that
to
area.
extremely
rock
and
violent
ash
that
eruptions
are
characterized
kilometres
thick.
Gas
by
huge
rushes

Fgr D.4: Volcanic eruptions
up
through
the
sticky
lava
and
blasts
ash
and
fragments
into
the
sky
in
and their eect on relief
huge
of
explosions.
the
Large
volcano
of
after
viscous
with
may
quantities
Named
Gas
the
of
be
lava
away
magma
Mount
forming
ows,
and
blasted
viscous
1902
magma,
pyroclastic
clouds
also
during
are
Pelee
glowing
which
can
the
erupted
eruption,
ash
produce
rush
the
slopes.
Part
eruption.
in
Pelean
these
(“nuee
down
are
eruptions.
violent
ardentes”)
steep-sided
conical
eruptions
associated
volcanoes.
Volcanic hazards
There
are
volcanic
a
number
eruptions.
eruption,
for
of
primary
The
example
and
primary
lava
secondary
hazards
ows,
ash
are
fallout,
hazards
the
associated
direct
impacts
pyroclastic
ows
with
of
and
the
gas

ph D.2: A pyroclastic ow,
Soufrière Hills, Montserrat
167
1
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
emissions.
material
Secondary
reacts
rainwater
to
snow
ice
Ash
is
and
and
as
especially
to
cause
–
The
to
the
–
trees
up
the
are
occur
–
occur
around
on
debris
eruption
Mt
people
trail
can
are
risk
and
the
at
the
join
the
air
and
be
ejected
with
volcano
may
melt
particles
powerful
Some
of
large
away
lungs.
thick
are
also
ash
is
enough
havoc
to
are
with
knock
extremely
km/hour.
vary
spatially.
of
debris,
ows
have
ground
Also
be
them
fragments
may
the
enough
500
pyroclastic
ows
can
cause
of
over
to
dangerous,
people’s
eruption
from
fallen
very
ne
speeds
debris
that
may
from
can
destruction.
Further
mudows
and
volcanic
at
gases.
of
way
ash
centimetres
ows
travel
with
heat
damage
few
Dust
the
may
an
Close
ash
prove
impact
on
more
settlements.
Landslides
the
a
and
or
These
can
a
Pyroclastic
associated
and
only
collapse.
leave
–
particles
to
(jokulhlaup).
through
deposits.
layer
due
example,
ood
travelled
ash
to
poisonous
hazardous,
distant
to
700°C
volcano
and
ne
be
For
(lahars),
glacial
fall
patterns.
and
to
has
small
building
hazards
falls
a
climate
down
hot
as
a
that
a
may
form.
mudows
trigger
pyroclastic
heavy
global
to
hazards
changes
form
debris
known
fairly
or
St
also
associated
avalanches
the
to
same
occur.
Helens
in
time
One
1980
with
and
as
of
volcanic
lahars.
an
the
which
activity.
Debris
eruption,
most
was
Two
avalanches
and
famous
triggered
they
is
the
by
an
main
types
commonly
may
also
massive
help
landslide
earthquake.
The
3
landslide
ank
blast
of
contained
Mt
from
Lahars
heavy
the
are
rain
serious
towns
of
just
swept
The
at
gases
debris
are
of
3,000
cattle
however,
heavier
animals
dioxide
over
of
70
(mass
the
and
released
responsible
over
2,000
a
as
of
in
for
pressure
the
on
the
horizontal
per
all
than
so
of
it
on
One
Casita
owed
It
of
particularly
Volcano
from
down
in
50
magma,
m
the
in
Hurricane
towards
the
of
and
was
number
tectonic
the
to
were
source
and
km.
travelling
suffocated,
Because
beneath
lake
25
killed.
deprived
The
deep
up
thick
dioxide.
Cameroon
large
from
of
area
cloud
a
result
people
carbon
m
a
escaped
1,700
50
as
distance
to
hazard.
contains
gas
asphyxiated.
of
combination
primary
a
up
life
was
the
or
for
were
gas
were
A
lahars.
rainwater
formed
Some
animal
chamber
as
Africa.
volume
oxygen,
they
direct
valleys
The
with
Nyos,
gas
other
unaffected.
basaltic
of
of
deposits
people
a
hour.
risk
Rodriguez.
West
Lake
huge
clouds
km
the
saturated
Rolando
such
movement).
volcanic
example
and
denser
a
on
1986
oxygen,
was
partially
neighbouring
died,
were
and
material,
increases
equator
lakes,
into
ash
and
an
the
August
of
of
was
became
killed
ground-hugging
speeds
km
landslide
Porvenir
north
In
of
unstable
lahar
down
and
occurred
The
El
1
volcano.
form
deep-crater
activity.
Helens
and
The
of
Volcanic
lies
a
lahar
Nicaragua.
Mitch.
St
over
Plants,
it
people
of
is
and
carbon
Cameroon.
ear hqaks
An
earthquake
originate
tension
168
from
or
is
a
the
series
focus
compression
the
point
the
earthquake.
on
the
of
–
seismic
the
suddenly
surface
of
the
vibrations
point
at
which
(Figure
Earth
or
shock
the
D.5).
The
immediately
waves
plates
epicentre
above
which
release
the
their
marks
focus
of
1
Shallow-focus
earthquakes
occur
relatively
close
to
the
G e o p H y S i c A l
ground
S y S t e M S
surface,
Fold
whereas
deep-focus
earthquakes
occur
at
considerable
depth
Sea
the
ground.
damage
as
Shallow-focus
less
of
the
earthquakes
energy
released
have
by
the
greater
potential
earthquake
is
mountain
under
to
level
Epicentre
do
absorbed
by
0
overlying
A
large
material.
earthquake
can
be
preceded
by
smaller
tremors
known
100
as
Shallow-focus
foreshocks
and
followed
by
numerous
aftershocks.
Aftershocks
earthquake
can
200
be
particularly
been
travel
weakened
along
the
by
surface
the
of
rst
the
they
damage
main
Earth
shock.
and
also
buildings
Seismic
through
that
have
waves
the
are
body
able
300
Oceanic
of
crust
htpeD
to
because
)mk(
already
devastating
400
the
Earth.
500
Wave types
Deep-focus
earthquakes
600
When
Two
an
earthquake
main
types
(FigureD.6).
of
occurs
waves
Body
it
creates
occur:
waves
are
body
different
waves
transmitted
types
and
of
shock
surface
upwards
waves.
waves
towards
the
surface

Fgr D.5: Shallow- and deep-focus
from
the
●
the
focus
of
the
earthquake.
Shock
waves
inside
the
Earth
include
ear thquakes, and the epicentre
following.
Primary
(P)
through
waves
solids
and
or
pressure
liquids
–
waves
they
are
shake
the
the
fastest
earth
and
can
backwards
move
and
forwards.
●
Secondary
and
are
move
When
(S)
waves
unable
to
horizontally,
P-waves
transformed
and
into
Body
or
move
shear
causing
S-waves
surface
waves
through
much
reach
move
liquids
–
with
they
a
sideways
make
the
motion
ground
damage.
the
surface,
some
of
them
are
waves:
waves
P-wave

ph D.3: Lahars, Montserrat
S-wave
Surface
waves
Love
wave
Rayleigh
wave

Fgr D.6: Body waves and surface waves
169
1
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
●
Love
●
Rayleigh
Love
they
waves
waves
cause
P-waves
surface.
waves
and
the
and
By
cause
P-waves
felt
is
faster
in
it
the
are
1.
are
some
fastest
By
semi-liquid
a
rock
transmitted
(up
to
The
core.
waves
body
vertically.
(It
explosion
when
6.1
move
liquid
the
in
the
up
and
down.
through
that
they
the
crust,
the
it
air,
in
but
which
the
rst
can
and
the
refracted
because
compressing
which
ground
create
the
the
movement
mantle,
S-waves
in
the
to
by
surface.
the
waves,
direction
makes
focus
ground
down
than
sound
the
the
is
slowed
faster
like
in
reach
wave
are
travel
same
earthquake
hence,
the
waves
the
the
produced
once
surface,
compresses
from
km/sec);
P-waves
reaches
also
sideways.
slowly
are
waves
deeper
contrast,
and
P-wave
to
travel
condensational/compressional,
When
move
ground
waves
surface
P-wave.
travels.
expanding
Activity 2
a
of
to
damage.
S-waves
travel
the
Rayleigh
contrast,
from
ground
cause
most
transformation
the
they
move.
move,
the
they
and
mostly
sound
of
an
Describe the main
an
earthquake
occurs.)
dierences between
P-waves and S-waves.
S-waves,
shearing
2.
by
contrast,
motion,
are
distortional.
making
them
They
slower
move
(they
with
travel
at
a
side-to-side
4.1
km/sec)
and
Outline the dierences
are
unable
to
travel
through
liquids.
They
make
the
ground
move
both
between Love waves and
vertically
and
horizontally.
Since
buildings
cannot
withstand
much
Rayleigh waves.
horizontal
stress,
S-waves
do
far
more
damage
than
P-waves.
Ear thquakes and plate boundaries
The
of
movement
the
deepest
When
to
the
warm
creates
time
into
In
oceanic
up.
the
the
crust
can
of
namely
into
descends,
However,
a
it
mid-ocean
the
up
the
it
subduction
to
700
hotter
distorts
subduction
has
small
slid
km
uid
and
is
several
way
rate
of
a
and
brittle
The
are
zone
creates
below
mantle
cracks
relatively
hundred
size
brittle
1.5
However,
metres,
the
it
and
fast,
some
ground.
takes
time
eventually
so
by
kilometres
caused
by
the
down
the
the
and
occur
as
and
of
rate
magma
from
cannot
7.5
the
cm
occur
few
pressure
the
of
a
extend
every
created
rocks
release
of
and
energy,
upon
the
Along
solidies
and
Earthquakes
more
by
deform
depends
cools,
a
centimetres
movement.
below.
of
earthquake
earthquake
could
earthquake
the
magma
is
chances
last
large
rocks,
snapping
of
cm
a
which
on
the
the
movements
stress
faults
activity
since
between
The
slab
faults
time
than
the
snap.
upwelling
the
of
of
few
rather
descending
to
earthquake
growth).
increases
earthquake.
due
a
of
length
earthquakes
because
kilometres.
at
years
This
the
lot
ngernail
ridges
cracks
a
the
movement
give
of
is
as
move
Many
the
thickness
there
grow
of
plates.
eventually
then
slab
into
recorded,
slides
cracked
hundred
year.
moving
170
has
Plates
rate
involve
each
crust
the
where
(the
couple
crust
mantle.
increases.
are
As
earthquake
year
oceanic
earthquakes.
areas
an
of
earthquakes
than
a
here
few
1
A.
Human triggers
Earthquake
G e o p H y S i c A l
S y S t e M S
frequency
90
Nevertheless,
many
earthquakes
80
a
long
boundary.
as
the
to
of
human
nuclear
fracking
are
activity,
of
and
plate
such
large
the
dams,
testing
of
weapons.
example,
waste
any
these
construction
mining,
For
Some
from
water
during
from
the
the
70
60
rep/sekauqhtraE
related
way
htnom
occur
50
40
30
20
1960s
10
Rocky
0
J
Mountain
Arsenal
Colorado,
was
underlying
The
contaminated
warfare
agents,
were
off
for
site
decided
March
deep.
1962,
chemical
the
costly
dispose
well
to
of
it
transport
soon
it
was
down
was
Disposal
and
toxic
Thus
that
M A M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M A M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
over
began
Contaminated
waste
was
a
series
of
in
an
of
in
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M A M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M A M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
6
5
4
3
2
1
afterwards
fluid
injected
0
minor
area
earthquake
J
7
F
M A M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M A M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
J
F
M A M
J
J
previously
1962
free
M A M
8
J
earthquakes
F
injected
No
there
J
9
had
snoilliM
3,500 m
too
disposal.
to
disposal
by
and
B.
into
water
rep/snollag
wastes
a
injected
rocks.
F
Denver,
h t no m
been
in
activity.
1963
1964
1965
None

Fgr D.7: Ear thquake frequency and underground liquid waste disposal
of
the
earthquakes
damage,
but
Between
the
injection
reactivated
a
the
long
larger
was
a
of
time.
the
of
Man-made
least
1755,
According
study
over
sea)
liquid
of
The
700
more
of
disposal
minor
the
article
in
8,000
between
earthquakes
waste
minor
have
in
the
earthquakes
linked
the
to
and
The
events
been
lead
UK
that
were
monitored
known
Guardian
2012
well
in
(9
year
(Figure
was
in
activities
in
the
about
in
a
result
under
that
in
were
in
UK
1991
the
at
human
UK
in
link
the
at
ground.
least
three
activity.
(excluding
more
recorded
well,
the
sharply.
since
2015),
the
and
fell
shook
of
inactive
the
When
1966
area
the
and
been
down
D.7).
lled
September
as
had
pumped
Derbyshire
recorded
found
lubricated
which
was
detected
mines
every
human
bedrock
faults
earthquakes
earthquakes
1970
the
water
stopped.
collapsing
occur
into
underground
earthquake
earthquakes
an
waste
deep
number
when
to
of
the
minor
earthquakes
the
real
alarm.
1965
series
discovered,
number
A
caused
and
any
area.
The
for
they
1962
caused
than
the
40
UK.
Activity 3
But
Study Figure D.7 which shows
with
the
gradual
closure
of
the
deep
coal
mines,
the
number
of
tremors
the relationship between
has
fallen
by
95
per
cent.
ear thquake frequency and
Since
1970,
at
least
one
in
ve
earthquakes
under
the
UK
have
been
underground liquid waste
disposal. Describe the
man-made.
relationship between the two
Fracking
(also
known
as
hydraulic
fracturing)
is
a
process
in
which
variables. Suggest reasons to
water,
containing
certain
chemicals,
is
injected
at
very
high
pressure
explain the relationship.
into
rocks
in
order
to
open
up
their
pore
spaces
and
release
natural
171
1
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
gas
contained
triggering
2.3
To
of
within
magnitude
date,
the
biggest
magnitude
the
man-made
be
greater
under
In
Nevada
device
people
km
Earthquakes
large
land
tests
been
associated
fracking
a
led
by
with
to
the
a
of
a
any
is
believe
rocks
are
that
unlikely
damage.
earthquakes
in
carried
In
cause
series
Polynesian
island.
earthquake
Experts
Tremors
people.
earthquakes
producing
2014.
shale-bearing
triggered
has
fracking
in
rarely
felt
testing
the
the
of
UK’s
which
has
France
on
on
of
the
out
1966
a
area
over
island
of
a
over
80
number
tonne
fallout
of
bombs
the
in
following
underground
Moruroa.
120,000
radioactive
in
1,200
tonne
which
More
than
nuclear
was
measured
downwind.
can
be
caused
surfaces.
by
the
3,
minor
1966,
live
reservoirs
dammed
30
has
2011,
occurred
usually
testing
detonated,
3,000
stable
over
Since
was
in
underground
explosion
120,000
over
off
days.
nuclear
nuclear
not
In
example
which
magnitude
are
UK.
Lancashire.
published
2
Fracking
the
in
earthquakes
1968
set
in
Canada,
than
Underground
three
in
magnitude
places.
rocks.
earthquake
4.4
to
the
earthquakes
can
the
For
by
adding
example,
trigger
Hoover
increased
the
weight
earthquakes.
Dam
to
form
In
Lake
loads
of
on
water
1935
the
Mead.
previously
behind
Colorado
As
the
lake
river
was
lled,
and
3
the
of
underlying
water,
than
strong
adjusted
long-dormant
6,000
events
rocks
minor
were
to
in
earthquakes
recorded
enough
faults
to
be
up
felt
to
the
the
over
1973,
by
new
area
the
were
next
about
residents.
increased
10
of
over
reactivated,
10
per
None
load
years.
cent
caused
km
causing
Over
of
40
more
10,000
which
were
damage.
Resultant hazards of ear thquakes
Most
earthquakes
occur
with
little
if
any
advance
warning.
Some
places,
such
L TA
Research and
as
California
and
T
okyo
which
have
considerable
experience
of
earthquakes,
communication skills
have
developed
increase
Use
the
“How
New
Scientist
fracking
earthquakes
in
Most
UK”
(https://www.newscientist.
com/article/dn21120-
article
full
Guardian
discussed
transport
many
that
earthquakes-in-the-uk/)
the
problems
In
action
about
structures.
above
the
associated
(Table
and
some
follow
frequent
are
systems
injuries
services.
how-fracking-caused-
and
“earthquake
awareness
plans”
what
to
and
do
in
information
an
programmes
to
earthquake.
article
caused
the
public
cases,
earthquake
the
may
more
are
main
be
The
and
it
damage
collapse
also
more
tremor.
completely
as
to
of
affects
damage
earthquake,
Aftershocks
than
D.1).
deaths,
main
with
is
buildings,
building
the
caused
they
by
shake
subdued
but
Buildings
destroyed
work
the
structures
of
the
and
causes
emergency
aftershocks
already
longer
partly
by
the
the
structures
lasting
damaged
weakened
and
more
during
the
aftershocks.
(http://www.theguardian.
Some
earthquakes
involve
large-scale
earth
movement,
generally
along
com/environment/2015/
fault
lines.
This
may
lead
to
the
fracture
of
gas
pipes
as
well
as
causing
sep/09/uk-experiences-
damage
to
transport
routes
and
lines
of
communication.
The
cost
of
three-earthquakes-a-year-
repairing
such
fractures
is
considerable.
due-to-human-activity-
study-says)
short
class
172
and
make
presentation
called
to
“Outline
of
the
evidence
for
causes
earthquakes”.
of
the
a
your
human
Transverse
the
faults
fracture
TheSan
North
is
occur
vertical,
Andreas
American
intermittently
Fault
and
where
and
in
movement
are
California
Pacic
following
the
they
the
plates.
the
is
It
build-up
a
horizontal
of
transverse
does
of
is
product
not
fault
move
pressure.
but
earthquakes.
between
smoothly
the
but
1
Earthquakes
landslides,
may
cause
other
liquefaction
and
geomorphological
tsunamis.
For
hazards
example,
such
the
G e o p H y S i c A l
S y S t e M S

ta D.1: Ear thquake hazards and impacts
as
Good
prmar
Friday
earthquake
(magnitude
8.5)
that
shook
Anchorage,
Alaska,
haard
March
1964
released
twice
as
much
energy
as
the
1906
San
and
was
felt
over
an
area
of
nearly
1.3
million
Loss of life
Francisco
Ground
2
earthquake,
imas
in
km
.
More
Loss of livelihood
shaking
than
130
caused.
people
It
were
triggered
amount
of
as
California,
killed,
large
damage.
It
and
over
avalanches
also
caused
a
$500
and
million
landslides
series
of
of
damage
which
tsunamis
was
caused
through
Total or par tial
a
the
huge
Pacic
Sdar
destruction of buildings
haard
Interruption of water
far
as
Hawaii
and
Japan.
Ground
supplies
failure
The
relative
importance
of
factors
affecting
earthquakes
varies
a
Breakage of sewage
and soil
great
deal.
For
example,
the
Kobe
earthquake
of
January
1995
had
a
disposal systems
liquefaction
magnitude
7.2
and
caused
over
5,000
deaths.
By
contrast,
the
Northridge
Loss of public utilities
earthquake
that
affected
parts
of
Los
Angeles
in
January
1994
was
6.6
Landslides
such as electricity
on
the
Richter
scale
but
caused
only
57
deaths.
On
the
other
hand,
an
and rockfalls
and gas
earthquake
of
force
6.6
at
Maharashtra
in
India,
in
September
1993,
Debris ow
Floods due to collapsed
killed
over
22,000
people.
and mudow
dams
Why
did
these
three
earthquakes
have
such
differing
effects?
Kobe
and
Tsunamis
Release of hazardous
Los
Angeles
are
in
known
earthquake
zones,
and
buildings
are
built
to
material
withstand
earthquakes.
In
addition,
local
people
have
been
prepared
Fires
for
earthquake
events.
By
contrast
Maharashtra
has
little
experience
of
Spread of chronic
earthquakes.
Houses
were
unstable
and
quickly
destroyed,
and
people
illness due to lack of
had
little
idea
about
how
to
manage
the
situation.
sanitary conditions
Another
that
earthquake
damage
withstand
many
poor
killed
same
or
often
time
in
their
blocks
planning
not
serious
villages
wealthy
concrete
without
area
ground
when
many
an
most
or
people
injured
high-rise
built
is
shaking
in
noted
where
and
people
the
In
inner
the
city
mud-walled
were
collapsed
–
seismic
buildings
movement.
old,
for
killed
some
of
are
1992
not
of
had
to
earthquake,
Cairo
collapsed.
injured
these
shows
designed
Cairo
slums
homes
or
activity
when
were
At
the
modern
actually
been
permission.
Mass mvms
Mass
movements
surface
glacier
that
or
are
include
not
ocean
any
large-scale
accompanied
wave.
They
by
a
moving
very
●
fast
movement,
such
as
avalanches
●
dry
movement,
such
as
rockfalls
●
very
A
range
occur,
are
of
large
be
and
and
processes
vary
in
occur
more
classied
type
●
speed
of
●
water
content
●
material.
such
(for
terms
of
as
as
number
movement:
ows,
movement
agent
the
such
Earth’s
as
a
river,
creep
mudows.
example,
infrequently,
a
soil
overland
magnitude,
continuous,
in
●
of
such
movements,
slope
which
smaller
can
uid
movements,
of
include:
●
slow
movement
notably
such
of
as
slides,
(Figure
rockfalls,
soil
different
ow
frequency
creep.
and
and
mudows)
scale.
whereas
The
types
Some
others
of
are
processes
ways:
slumps
(Figure
D.8)
D.9)

ph D.4: Mass movement–
landslide
173
1
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Flow
Wet
River
Percolation
baseflow
Throughflow
Mudflow
Surface
run-off
Creep
Earthflow
Streams
Solifluction
Landslide
Earthflow
or
mudflow
Debris
Solifluction
cm/sec
avalanche
1
ry/mm
ry/mm
1.0
1
Extremely
slow
Causes of mass movements
likelihood
of
a
slope
failing
can
be
expressed
by
its
safety
factor.
Estimate the speed of a)
This
is
the
relative
strength
or
resistance
to
it.
The
of
the
slope
compared
with
the
ear thows and mudows,
force
that
is
trying
move
most
important
factors
that
determine
and ) soliuction.
movement
2.
are
gravity,
slope
angle
and
pore
pressure.
Classify the following mass
Gravity
has
two
effects.
First
it
acts
to
move
the
material
downslope
(a
movements: soil creep,
slide
component).
Second
it
acts
to
stick
the
particles
to
the
slope
(a
stick
soliuction and rockslides.
component).
of
the
cases
The
particle
lls
pressure.
the
downslope
and
slope
spaces
Pore
movement
angle.
between
pressure
will
Water
the
is
particles.
greatly
proportional
lubricates
This
increase
to
particles
forces
the
the
and
them
ability
of
weight
in
some
apart
the
under
material
Activity 5
to
1.
Explain how shear strength
move.
material
This
on
factor
is
low-angle
of
particular
importance
in
movements
of
wet
slopes.
and shear stress aect a
Slope
failure
is
caused
by
two
factors:
slope’s potential to fail.
2.
●
a
●
an
reduction
in
the
internal
resistance,
or
shear
strength,
of
the
slope
Outline the main
primary and secondary
hazards associated with
increase
mass
in
shear
stress
–
that
is,
the
forces
attempting
to
pull
downslope.
ear thquakes.
Both
can
occur
at
the
same
time.

ta D.2: Increasing stress and decreasing resistance
Far
exams
Factors contributing to increased shear stress
Removal of lateral suppor t through
Erosion by rivers and glaciers, wave action, faulting, previous rockfalls
undercutting or slope steepening
or slides
Removal of underlying suppor t
Undercutting by rivers and waves, subsurface solution, loss of strength by
exposure of sediments
174
Loading of slope
Weight of water, vegetation, accumulation of debris
Lateral pressure
Water in cracks, freezing in cracks, swelling, pressure release
Transient stresses
Ear thquakes, movement of trees in wind
a
0
1
0
1
slow
0
ry/mc
Very
–
–
–
1
1
0
1
1
yad/mm
yad/mc
Slow
1
9
8
–
1
0
1
0
Moderate
7
–
–
1
0
1
1
yad/m
ces/m
Rapid
6
5
–
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
rapid
4
–
–
–
ces/mc
Very
3
2
1
1
rapid

Fgr D.9: A classication of mass movements by speed
The
1.
1
1
Extremely

Fgr D.8: Types of mass movement
0
ces/m
063
Fast
Activity 4
1
Slide
0
Rockslide
Slow
1
rh/mk
creep
0
1
creep
Talus
0
1
0
Dry
soil
Heave
2
3
5
Seasonal
0
Landslide
1
Far
G e o p H y S i c A l
S y S t e M S
exams
Factors contributing to reduced shear strength
Weathering eects
Disintegration of granular rocks; hydration of clay minerals; chemical
solution of minerals (that is, the weathering of cer tain chemicals, notably
calcium carbonate), in rock or soil
Changes in pore water
Saturation, softening of material pressure
Changes of structure
Creation of ssures in clays, remoulding of sands and clays
Organic eects
Burrowing of animals, decay of roots
Case study
Nepal landslides, 2015
Landslides
are
common
in
Nepal.
The
and
ice,
The
vertical
shearing
its
young
geology,
seismic
activity,
and
intense
cloudbursts,
has
a
earth-moving
events.
Factors
that
include
seasonal
rainfall,
on
its
descent.
m
over
distance
of
2–3
km.
The
valley
a
below
severely
like
obstructed
the
threat
of
and
covered
landslides
by
will
debris.
It
continue
trigger
to
landslides
rock
700–800
history
looks
of
was
steep
was
slopes
more
region,
horizontal
with
off
distance
exist
in
this
impoverished
and
vulnerable
road
country.
construction
slides.
and
slopes
Unfortunately,
contributed
to
huge
weakened
all
of
landslides
Nepal
during
the
Gorkha
2015.
One
the
largest
of
avalanche
loss
of
at
life
landslide
Langtang.
as
entire
consisted
these
in
This
an
a
ice
caused
large
previous
some
earthquake
was
settlements
of
by
factors
of
and
of
April
of
buried.
freefall
contrast
people
on
The
the
to
live
managed
rock
substantial
were
mass
In
parts
up
that
or
to
North
slow-moving
ensure
Nepal,
on
a
in
near
many
point.
Island,
The
New
earthow.
the
town
parts
landslides
of
that
town
of
Zealand,
world
be
Taihape
is
Monitoring
remains
the
can
built
is
on
used
a
to
safe.
rock
Concepts in contex t
There
are
many
geophysical
term,
core,
such
as
helping
Others
are
although
processes
hazards.
the
operating
Some
of
radioactive
these
decay
to
drive
convection
very
short
term,
their
impact
may
such
be
to
are
in
produce
very
the
long
Earth’s
currents.
as
long
extremely
whereas
and
Some
the
powerful,
others
soliuction
Human
earthquakes,
term.
are
are
(types
activities
frequency
including
not,
of
can
landslides
of
be
many
such
such
as
as
mass
seen
a
supervolcano,
soil
to
be
geophysical
and
creep
movement).
increasing
hazards,
earthquakes.
Check your understanding
1.
Identify
the
three
main
layers
within
6.
theEarth.
2.
Outline
within
3.
Describe
4.
Outline
the
main
internal
heat
ow
is
7.
main
an
of
subduction.
differences
composite
between
between
shield
between
the
focus
and
epicentre
earthquake.
Compare
(S)
process
and
Distinguish
volcanic
the
Earth.
the
volcanoes
5.
of
what
the
Distinguish
primary
(P)
waves
and
secondary
waves.
8.
Dene
the
term
“mass
movement”.
9.
Briey
explain
the
term
“shear
strength”.
10.
Briey
explain
the
term
“shear
stress”.
volcanoes.
primary
and
secondary
hazards.
175
2
Geophysical hazard risks
Saa dsr f ghsa haard vs
Conceptual
understanding
Ear thquakes
Tectonic
hazards
include
seismic
activity
(earthquakes),
volcanoes
and
K qs
tsunamis.
How
do
geophysical
hazard
of
the
world’s
earthquakes
occur
in
clearly
dened
systems
linear
generate
Most
risks
for
patterns
(Figure
D.10).
These
linear
chains
generally
follow
different
plate
boundaries.
For
example,
there
is
a
clear
line
of
earthquakes
places?
along
the
Atlantic
centre
Ridge
of
(a
the
Atlantic
constructive
Ocean
plate
in
association
boundary).
with
Similarly,
the
Mid-
there
are
K 
distinct
●
The
spatial
distribution
geophysical
hazard
(earthquakes,
of
cases
events
volcanoes,
mass
movements)
these
The
eastern
of
the
belts
earthquakes
linear
chains
along
Pacic
beneath
relevance
of
earthquakes
Broad
●
lines
is
the
are
west
associated
South
of
around
quite
coast
with
American
earthquakes
Pacic
broad.
of
For
South
the
Plate,
are
the
Ocean.
example,
America
subduction
a
of
destructive
associated
In
with
the
and
the
plate
some
line
of
around
Nazca
the
Plate
boundary.
subduction
zones
hazard
(where
magnitude
and
recurrence
intervals
a
dense
ocean
plate
plunges
beneath
a
less-dense
continental
frequency/
plate),
for
whereas
narrower
belts
of
earthquakes
are
associated
with
risk
constructive
plate
margins,
where
new
material
apart.
Collision
boundaries,
is
formed
and
plates
management
are
●
Geophysical
hazard
risk
as
moving
of
economic
associated
of
technology),
(education,
demographic
boundaries,
and
factors
broad
belts
of
earthquakes,
whereas
are
conservative
such
belt
as
of
California’s
earthquakes
San
Andreas
(although
fault
this
can
line,
still
give
be
a
over
km
wide).
In
addition,
These
may
there
be
appear
due
to
to
be
human
isolated
occurrences
activities
or
to
although
there
isolated
(population
structure)
factors
narrow
earthquakes.
plumes
political
with
gender),
of
density
Himalayas,
social
100
factors
the
development
relatively
and
in
factors
plate
(levels
as
a
also
product
such
of
rising
magma
known
as
hotspots.
and
(governance)
Volcanoes
●
Geographical
geophysical
impacts,
hazard
including
location,
degree
factors
of
time
of
affecting
event
rural/urban
day
and
isolation

Fgr D.10: Spatial
distribution of ear thquakes
176
Most
some
volcanoes
are
exceptions,
hotspots.
About
found
such
as
at
the
plate
boundaries
volcanoes
three-quarters
of
the
of
Hawaii,
Earth’s
550
which
are
occur
historically
over
active
2
volcanoes
lie
along
the
Pacic
Ring
of
Fire
(Figure
G e o p H y S i c A l
D.11).
This
H A z A R D
R i S K S
includes
Activity 6
many
of
the
world’s
Philippines),
Mt
St
Mt
Helens
active
Unzen
(USA)
vulcanicity
Nyiragongo
most
in
recent
(Japan),
and
Mt
Nevado
include
the
volcanoes,
Iceland,
Democratic
Agung
del
Ruiz
such
(Java),
Mt
Mt
of
in
the
Congo.
Pinatubo
Chichon
(Colombia).
Montserrat
Republic
as
Other
1.
(Mexico),
areas
Caribbean
Most
(the
and
volcanoes
ear thquakes.
Mt
that
2.
are
studied
are
above
ground,
but
some
submarine
volcanoes,
Describe the spatial
distribution of
of
such
Identify and locate:
as
a.
Kick
’em
Jenny
off
Grenada
in
the
Caribbean,
are
also
monitored
a constructive plate
closely.
margin
Volcanoes
are
found
along
the
boundaries
of
the
Earth’s
major
plates.
.
Although
the
deeper
levels
of
the
Earth
are
much
hotter
than
a destructive plate
the
margin
surface,
the
However,
which
rocks
along
feeds
are
the
the
usually
plate
not
molten
boundaries
because
there
is
the
molten
pressure
rock
is
so
high.
.
(magma),
volcanoes.
3.
a collision zone.
Distinguish between
continental and oceanic
The
volcanoes
in
the
Pacic
Rim
or
Ring
of
Fire
are
caused
by
the
crust.
subduction
in
the
such
oceans
as
the
beneath
crust
Plate
provides
the
North
The
Andes,
are
are
of
chains
Islands
the
for
beneath
volcanoes
example,
the
are
found
of
Plate.
example,
the
the
South
at
or
volcanic
by
islands
the
crust,
have
the
of
as
fold
formed
Subduction
island
arcs,
subducting
subduction
of
an
oceanic
mountains
where
the
are
Nazca
Plate.
boundaries.
the
Plate
young
been
crust.
known
Pacic
American
plate
middle
continental
Where
continental
formed
in
oceanic
formed
American
beneath
subducts
all
either
Aleutian
occurs
formed.
Not
beneath
ocean.
Those
The
in
Hawaii,
Hawaiian
for
Islands

Fgr D.11: The Pacic Ring of Fire
a
line
islands
west
that
have
the
These
been
volcanic
stretch
across
Ocean.
older
north-
Pacic
volcanoes
caused
by
ASIA
the
movement
of
plates
Kamchatka
above
a
hot
part
of
Katmi
the
Peninsula
(Novarupta)
uid
mantle.
A
hotspot
Kurile
Mt
or
mantle
plume
–
a
Mt
jet
of
hot
material
Rainier
Islands
rising
St
Helens
Mt
Japan
Shasta
Lassen
Peak
Fuji
from
the
deep
within
the
Popocatepétl
mantle
–
is
responsible
for
Taiwan
El
Chichón
Hawaii
the
volcanoes.
There
are
Philippines
Fuego
Paricutin
a
number
of
hotspots
Santa
in
Nevado
Atlantic
and
they
are
Pelée
del
Ruiz
Irazu
Equator
the
Mt
Maria
Celebes
New
New
Galapagos
Cotopaxi
Islands
Guinea
associated
with
Hebrides
volcanicity
Chimborozo
Indonesia
Samoa
El
in
the
Canary
Islands,
Tonga-
Kermadec
Azores
and
Iceland
Misti
(Figure
San
AUSTRALIA
Pedro
Chain
Ojos
D.12).
Hotspots
can
also
Easter
Taupo
found
beneath
del
be
Salado
Island
continents,
Ruapehue
Osorno
as
in
the
case
of
the
East
PACIFIC
African
Rift
Valley,
and
OCEAN
these
can
produce
Mt
isolated
Burney
South
volcanoes.
These
hotspots
Sandwich
Deception
can
play
a
part
in
the
Buckle
up
of
continents
and
Island
Islands
breakIsland
Graham
Land
the
Peninsula
ANTARCTICA
formation
of
new
oceans.
ANTARCTICA
Mt
Erebus
177
2
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Landslides
Jan
GREENLAND
Mayen
Landslides
are
phenomena
on
Earth,
naturally
in
every
including
occurring
environment
the
tropics,
the
Iceland
temperate
and
also
regions,
the
the
ocean.
high
latitudes
However,
fatal
Heimaey
Surtsey
Submarine
reported
landslides
tend
areas
have:
●
eruption
that
active
to
be
tectonic
more
common
processes
that
in
lead
to
1884
high
rates
seismic
of
uplift
and
occasional
events
Azores
●
Canary
high
levels
including
high
Cape
precipitation,
high
annual
short-term
totals
and
intensities
Verde
AFRICA
Islands
●
Equator
of
Islands
St
Peter
St
Paul
a
high
population
density.
and
Rocks
East
Rift
African
Where
absent,
Ascension
one
or
two
of
these
factors
are
Valley
the
risk
of
fatal
landslides
is
Island
reduced.
St
The
Helena
map
of
fatal
landslides
(Figure
Trinidade
Tristan
Gough
da
D.13)
shows
occur
in
Island
in
●
place.
the
schemes
Those
●
central
fatal
landslides
countries
are
less
locations
southern
mountain

Fgr D.12: Volcanicity in the
most
low-income
mitigation
Cunha
that
edge
of
where
likely
to
the
Himalayan
chain
China
Atlantic and the East African
●
south-west
●
along
India
Rift Valley
the
Japan,

Fgr D.13: The distribution of
fatal landslides, 2006–2007
178
western
Taiwan
●
central
●
the
Caribbean
●
the
western
boundary
and
Indonesia,
and
edge
the
in
the
Philippine
sea
plate
through
Philippines
particular
central
of
of
South
the
island
of
Java
Mexico
America,
especially
be
include:
Colombia.
2
There
has
Europe,
also
been
tropical
a
scattering
parts
of
Africa
of
fatal
and
landslides
North
G e o p H y S i c A l
elsewhere,
H A z A R D
R i S K S

ph D.5: St John’s Cathedral,
through
Antigua – rebuilt after a
America.
devastating ear thquake in 1843
th rva f haard magd ad
frq/rrr r vas fr rsk
maagm
The
of
recurrence
occurrence
events
have
have
a
very
interval
in
a
years
high
low
for
an
return
event
destructive
Figure
D.14).
events
versus
earthquakes
These
are
events
a
is
period
period.
many
into
the
most
expected
size.
In
there
ones
frequency
general,
whereas
Thus
minor
large
are
(Table
small
events
fewer
D.3
and
high-frequency/low-magnitude
high-magnitude
cause
the
particular
return
return
but
generalized
low-frequency
high-magnitude
period
of
frequency/short
frequency/high
highly
greatest
or
events.
destruction
Low-frequency
and
require
the
management.

ta D.3: Annual frequency of occurrence of ear thquakes of dierent magnitude based
on obser vations since 1900
Aa
Dsrr
Magd
avrag
Haard a
Great
≥ 8
1
Total destruction, high loss of life
Major
7–7.9
18
Serious building damage, major loss of life
Strong
6–6.9
120
Large losses, especially in urban areas
Moderate
5–5.9
800
Signicant losses in populated areas
Light
4–4.9
6,200
Usually felt, some structural damage
Minor
3–3.9
49,000
Typically felt but usually little damage
Left
side
of
the
required
to
produce
chart
shows
the
the
energy
magnitude
released
of
by
the
the
earthquake
earthquake.
and
The
right
middle
side
of
represents
the
chart
the
shows
amount
the
of
high
relative
explosive
frequencies.
Energy
Magnitude
(equivalent
release
of
explosive)
123
trillion
lb.
10
Chile
Alaska
(1960)
(56
4
(1964)
trillion
trillion
kg)
lb.
9
Japan
Great
earthquake;
near
(2011)
(1.8
Krakatoa
destruction,
massive
loss
of
life
New
Madrid,
Mo.
impact,
large
loss
severe
of
kg)
Francisco
eruption
123
World’s
3
San
earthquake;
volcanic
(1812)
8
Major
trillion
total
largest
nuclear
test
billion
(56
Mount
St
Helens
lb.
(USSR)
(1906)
economic
billion
kg)
eruption
life
Loma
Prieta,
Calif.
(1989)
4
7
billion
lb.
20
Kobe,
Strong
earthquake;
Japan
Northridge,
($
billions),
loss
of
(1995)
(1.8
billion
123
million
kg)
damage
Calif.
(1994)
life
Hiroshima
6
atomic
bomb
lb.
200
(56
Moderate
Long
property
million
kg)
earthquake;
Island,
N.Y
.
(1884)
damage
4
million
lb.
2,000
5
Light
earthquake;
some
property
Average
(1.8
tornado
million
kg)
damage
12,300
4
lb.
12,000
(56,000
Minor
felt
by
kg)
earthquake;
Large
humans
lightning
bolt
4,000
3
lb.
100,000
(1,800
Moderate
lightning
123
2
kg)
bolt
lb.
1,000,000
(56
Number
of
earthquakes
per
year
kg)
(worldwide)

Fgr D.14: Ear thquake frequency and destructive power
179
2
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Ear thquake frequency and magnitude
In
1935
Charles
developed
The
scale
scale
is
more
the
is
10
Richter
Richter
logarithmic,
times
powerful
more
than
For
and
every
increases
energy
produces
increase
by
over
of
to
an
California
measure
of
3.0.
Scale
on
one
which
that
the
Every
than
M
are
of
5.0
4.0
are
the
of
on
0.2
Technology
of
the
and
earthquakes.
Richter
100
times
increasingly
measures
similar
scale
increase
of
magnitude
of
Scientists
(M)
gures
Institute
the
earthquake
powerful
1
30.
the
so
one
MomentMagnitude
released
of
scale
to
the
the
amount
using
amount
Richter
of
a
of
energy
scale.
energy
represents
the
released
doubling
of
the
released.
Measuring volcanoes
The
strength
(VEI)
(Table
explosion,
caused.
of
the
Any
a
volcano
D.4).
This
height
is
of
explosion
is
measured
based
the
on
cloud
above
by
the
it
level
the
creates
5
Volcanic
amount
is
of
and
Explosive
material
the
considered
amount
to
be
Index
ejected
of
very
in
the
damage
large
3
and
violent.
material,
about
10
A
VEI
times
74,000
8,
or
supervolcano,
more
years
than
a
VEI
7.
ejects
The
more
last
than
eruption
1,000
of
a
km
VEI
8
of
was
ago.

ta D.4: Magnitude and frequency of volcanic eruptions
Vei
cassa
Dsr
Hgh f
Vm f
Frq
r
maras
f r
m
rd
<100 m
<10, 000 m
100–
10,000 m
exam
orrs
 as
10,0 0 0 ars
3
0
Hawaiian
Non-
Daily
Kilauea
Many
Hekla, Iceland
Many
explosive
3
1
Hawaiian/
Gentle
Strombolian
Daily
(2000)
1,000 m
3
2
Strombolian/
Explosive
1–5 km
Weekly
1,000,000 m
Unzen, Japan
3,477
(1990)
Vulcanian
3
3
Vulcanian/
Severe
3–15 km
10,000,000 m
Yearly
Nevado del
868
Ruiz (1985)
Pelean
3
4
Pelean/Plinian
Cataclysmic
10–25 km
≥10 years
0.1 km
Soufrière Hills
278
(1995)
3
5
Plinian
Paroxysmal
25 km
≥50 years
1 km
Mt St Helens
84
(1980)
3
6
Plinian/Ultra-
Colossal
25 km
≥100 years
10 km
Krakatoa
39
(1883)
Plinian
3
7
Plinian/Ultra-
Super-
Plinian
colossal
Plinian/Ultra-
Mega-
Plinian
colossal
25 km
≥1,000
>100 km
Tambora
4
≥10,000
Toba (73,000
None
years
BP)
years
3
8
180
25 km
>1,000 km
2
G e o p H y S i c A l
H A z A R D
R i S K S

t
a D.5: Selected catastrophic landslides of the 20th and 2
1st centuries and their impacts
yar
la
ladsd
trggr
imas
cmms
3
vm (m
)
9
1933
Diexi, Sichuan
150 × 10
M7.5 ear thquake
2,400 killed; Min river
Draining of the lake by
dammed for 45 days
over-spilling
Heavy
2,000 killed; rockslide
A 100 m wave of
precipitation and
led to a catastrophic
water over topped the
high lake levels
ood
hydroelectric dam;
Province, China
6
1963
Vaoint Dam, Italy
270 × 10
possible reactivation of a
relict landslide
6
1970
Nevado
M7.7 ear thquake
305 × 10
Huascaran rock
18,000 killed; city of
Average velocity 280 km/
Yungay destroyed
hr; same peak aected
by similar failure in 1962
debris/avalanche
(4,000–5,000 killed)
(Peru)
9
1980
Mt St Helens
Volcanic eruption
2.8 × 10
5–10 killed; most people
Rotational rock slide;
evacuated; destruction
average speed 125 km/hr
of infrastructure; Spirit
Lake dammed
6
1985
Catastrophic lahar,
90 × 10
Nevado del Ruiz
Snowmelt lahar
23,000 killed; city of
Peak velocity 50–80 km/
triggered by
Armero buried (40 km
hr; economic losses $1
volcanic eruption
away)
billion
27 killed; losses of $400
Velocity over 300 km/hr
6
1987
Val Pola landslide
Severe rainfall
40 × 10
million
(Italy)
6
1999
Malpa rockfall and
1 × 10
debris ow (India)
High-intensity
221 killed; Malpa river
Former landslides at the
rainfall
dammed; followed by
same site
outburst ood
9
2007
1,000 casualties;
Failure of 450 m high,
rockslide/debris
Guinsaugon village
forested rock slope
avalanche, Leyte
buried under 4–7 m
Island, Philippines
deep debris
Guinsaugon
Heavy rainfall
15 × 10
6
2014
Nepal
Heavy rainfall
5.5 × 10
156
Creation of many
temporary lakes
6
2015
Guatemala
Heavy rainfall
220 × 10
220
Some villages were covered
by over 15 m of earth
L TA
Ghsa haard rsk as a rd f m,
Research skills
sa, dmgrah ad a fars
Use
Environmental
Although
is
only
areas
The
that
the
of
cause
the
for
are
the
of
school
people
by
Poor
people
live
of
living
structuralist
poor
the
occur.
result
example,
occur
when
hazard
explanation.
hazards
behavioural
hazards
by,
the
part
hazards
in
of
why
or
of
at
they
foot
social
–
people
live
on
risk.
biological,
in
this
hazardous
themselves
By
out
a
search
about
landslides
their
engine
the
in
impact
to
nd
Ashcroft
Canada
on
and
transport
routes.
system
of
slopes
at
risk
contrast,
constraints
steep
at
places?
slopes.
political
as
are
environmental
put
the
or
live
such
that
steep
stresses
and
such
in
People
of
property
geophysical
considers
events.
the
areas
be
and
because
do
thought
prevailing
unsafe
may
is
thought
natural
on
school
the
So
It
people
placed
the
or
on
country.
oodplains
181
2
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
–
because
of
they
thought
are
prevented
provides
underdevelopment
countries.
may
be
more
Katrina
than
The
Even
at
were
on
of
hazard
number
in
a
risk
but
of
especially
hazardous
factors
●
of
housing
afford
in
City.
of
classes
class
Construction
Sichuan
●
poorly
Access
are
to
to
areas.
of
many
USA,
This
hazards
populations
impacts
population
of
the
developing
certain
the
school
and
the
of
Hurricane
affected
region
of
not
people
events.
in,
of
This
and
people’s
Aside
depends
their
the
physical
property
in
a
the
large
effects
the
vulnerability
from
on
the
this
car
to
simple
of
a
affected
natural
fact
number
were
earthquake
poor
people
in
located.
inuences
ownership
world’s
20,000
fatalities
was
only
of
of
living
factors.
following:
1976,
the
ravines
Most
was
have
were
of
the
the
and
no
but
to
to
live
Guatemala
gorges
middle
widely
in
of
ability
option
killed
and
quality
their
where
and
recognized
upper
as
having
a
impact.
and
building
that
schools
codes:
whereas
were
there
was
government
destroyed
criticism
buildings
(suggesting
that
during
the
remained
the
schools
built).
technology:
issued
black
development:
Many
styles
many
the
example,
increase
the
live
earthquake
standing
were
and
housing
survived.
markedly
as
includes
status
can
include
the
For
vulnerability
In
better
society.
the
people
in
environmental
dependency
poor,
catastrophic
towns.
Most
the
of
also
insurance.
low-quality
●
on
living
such
others.
factors
wealth
that
shanty
economic
countries
than
area,
Economic
Levels
from
between
vulnerability
area.
hazards,
and
sections
natural
A
link
rich
greater
other
concept
in
a
people
communications
in
via
are
Japan,
earthquake
smartphones;
better
able
to
and
people
keep
up
tsunami
with
to
date
warnings
greater
with
access
to
warnings

Fgr D.15: The process of
and
forecasts.
vulnerability
1
ROOT
2
CAUSES
3
DYNAMIC
UNSAFE
PRESSURES
DISASTER
HAZARDS
CONDITIONS
Fragile
physical
environment
Lack

of

Dangerous

Unprotected
Local
locations
institutions
Earthquake

Training

Appropriate

Local
buildings
and
High
skills
Limited
access


(cyclone/
investments
Fragile
to
local
hurricane/

Local
markets

Press
freedom
economy
Power
typhoon)
Structures


winds
infrastructure
Ethical
Livelihoods

Low
at
public
=
risk
standards
Resources
in
RISK

Hazard
income
+
Flooding
levels
life
Vulnerability
Volcanic
Vulnerable
Ideologies
Macro-forces

R
=
H
+
V
eruption
society
Political

Rapid
population
systems

Special

Lack
groups
Landslide
growth

at
Economic

Rapid

Arms

Debt
risk
urbanization
systems
Drought
of
local
expenditure
institutions
Virus
repayment
Public
actions

of
schedules

Deforestation

Decline
Lack
disaster
preparedness
in
soil

Prevalence
productivity
of
endemic
disease
182
pests
and
2
●
Insurance
cover:
cover
they
their
Social
●
and
housing
factors
also
have
natural
●
Public
a
can
the
to
poor
be
who
affected
have
in
a
no
insurance
natural
hazard
as
a
better
education
better-quality
understanding
generally
housing
of
the
and
nature
have
a
higher
vehicles.
and
the
They
may
potential
of
events
education:
the
is
R i S K S
poor.
with
greater
it
likely
H A z A R D
following:
afford
hazard
reduce
is
the
people
and
most
quality
include
Education:
income
generally
are
G e o p H y S i c A l
educational
number
of
deaths
programmes
as
a
result
of
in
Japan
have
helped
to
earthquakes.

ph D.6: Vulnerability to
●
Awareness
of
hazards:
the
2004
tsunami
in
South
Asia
alerted
many
hazards is increased by proximity
people
to
the
dangers
that
tsunamis
present.
to features such as volcanoes;
●
Gender:
parents
In
many
and
some
even
if
they
Population
especially
Age:
65
were
●
Migrants:
●
2011
was
Cultural
scientists
or
networks;
may
the
not
for
have
children
them
the
and/or
following
means
to
their
an
leave
pictured here is the former church
event.
an
at Plymouth, Montserrat
area
following.
number
urban
to
areas
natural
those
who
move
hazards
mortality
that
some
warnings
has;
responsible
large
people
twice
other
the
their
of
rapidly
such
as
growing
cities
Port-au-Prince
are
in
in
Haiti
are
hazards.
died
in
the
Japanese
tsunami
in
2011
of
the
of
an
area
the
in
cultural
extent
gures;
control
perceived
they
that
disabled
normal
the
authority
the
of
the
are:
amount
and
rate
of
to
present
or
may
in
the
unaware
of
Japanese
tsunami
population.
factors
of
trust
the
that
in
extent
autonomy
hazard
be
environment.
inuence
public
government,
and
that
success
a
of
social
L TA
to
it
of
factors:
response
feels
a
large
natural
the
for
60.
when
the
Disability:
of
●
of
cent
feel
include
vulnerable
over
carers
to.
density:
per
are
women
want
areas;
aged
some
may
factors
hazardous
●
they
societies,
Demographic
●
women
Research skills
community
level.
To
nd
out
more,
visit
http://webra.cas.sc.edu/
Political
factors
include
the
following.
hvri/,
●
The
nature
of
society:
the
failure
of
the
Burmese
government
the
Hazards
Vulnerability
allow
aid
to
the
victims
of
Cyclone
Nargis
in
2008
increased
of
deaths
from
disease
and
from
Effectiveness
(China)
which
the
in
of
lines
2008
of
communication:
brought
mobilized
a
100,000
swift
troops
the
response
and
earthquake
from
allowed
the
in
Sichuan
overseas
aid
Carolina.
the
government,
into
Availability
few
deaths
successful
Survey)
and
readiness
from
the
prediction
who
had
of
emergency
eruption
of
the
of
Mt
eruption
monitored
the
personnel:
Pinatubo
by
the
volcano
in
there
1991
USGS
site
Type
search
the
includes
Vulnerability
box
SOVI
at
the
webpage.
were
due
(US
South
(SOVI).
the
of
of
The
Social
Index
into
country.
top
●
the
malnutrition.
University
●
Research
the
Institute
number
and
to
to
the
Geological
Activity 7
closely.
Describe the distribution of
Many
of
these
much
more
factors
help
vulnerable
to
to
explain
natural
why
hazards
less-developed
than
countries
industrialized
are
countries.
social vulnerability to natural
hazards in the USA.
183
2
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Ggrah fars ag h mas f
ghsa vs
The
impacts
of
geophysical
events
depend
on
a
number
of
interrelated
factors.
●
The
magnitude
stronger
of
6.0
4.0;
!
the
the
frequency
earthquake,
the
Richter
more
the
scale
aftershocks
is
of
more
100
there
events:
damage
times
are
for
it
can
more
the
example,
do.
An
powerful
greater
the
the
earthquake
than
damage
one
that
of
is
Common mistake
done.
✗
the
on
and
Some
that
students
the
most
geophysical
and
those
greatest
are
destructive
events,
causing
loss
those
think
of
of
Earthquakes
underground
(deep-focus
more
eruptions
life,
occur
are
absorb
the
that
earthquakes)
greater
of
of
potentially
the
VEI
impacts
6
than
7
of
the
(such
VEI
to
the
0
as
(for
surface
damaging
earthquakes)
energy
or
close
more
since
deep-focus
Krakatoa
example,
(shallow-focus
than
earthquakes
overlying
rocks
earthquakes.
and
Tambora)
deep
will
Volcanic
will
have
Kilauea).
largest
●
Population
density:
population
density,
a
geophysical
event
that
hits
an
urban
area
of
high
magnitude.
✓ The
impact
of
a
far
geophysical
event
depends
many
such
as
on
factors
occurred
quality
buildings,
Type
the
the
event
of
buildings:
buildings
2010
despite
hits
deaths
the
a
area
rural
in
the
focus
underground,
as
well
as
of
Japan,
area
1985
being
of
low
200
inict
population
Mexico
over
could
City
km
and
earthquake
away.
have
countries
been
built
to
generally
be
have
earthquake
better-
resistant.
of
the
New
earthquake
Zealand
destroyed
earthquakes
more
although
buildings
they
were
than
of
close/
magnitude.
People
in
high-income
countries
are
also
the
more
magnitude
high-income
that
Port-au-Prince
2010–2011
comparable
likely
to
have
insurance
cover
than
those
in
low-income
event.
countries,
●
Time
of
cause
Activity 8
so
day:
more
industrial
1.
that
the
Tokyo
(submarine/
the
distant)
city,
one
of
the
location
The
deep
in
than
Most
in
of
quality
ofthe
damage
density.
as
population
●
density,
more
building
such
recovery
an
earthquake
deaths
and
after
than
the
during
one
commercial
event
at
a
areas
a
easier.
busy
quiet
on
is
time,
time.
such
There
Sundays;
at
as
are
night
rush
hour,
fewer
more
may
people
people
in
are
Work out the total number of
at
home.
Time
of
day
is
less
of
a
factor
in
the
case
of
volcanic
eruptions,
global deaths for each hazard
and
these
do
not
generally
have
such
a
sudden
onset.
over the 10-year period shown
in Table D.6.
2.
●
Distance
from
decrease
with
the
geophysical
distance
from
event:
the
the
volcano,
impact
of
whereas
a
volcano
the
effect
may
of
an
Work out the total number of
earthquake
may
be
greater
further
away
from
the
epicentre.
Most
deaths from geophysical events
damage
will
occur
where
there
are
the
most
buildings
and
people,
in each of the years. Comment
particularly
if
structures
have
not
been
built
to
strict
construction
on the trend in deaths as a
standards.
result of geophysical events.
●
3.
Types
of
rocks
and
sediments:
loose
materials
may
act
like
liquid
Work out the average number of
when
shaken,
much
safer,
a
process
known
as
liquefaction.
Solid
rock
is
deaths for each hazard per year.
4.
and
buildings
built
on
at
areas
of
rock
are
more
sediments
solid
are
at
Identify the natural hazard that
earthquake
resistant.
Unconsolidated
volcanic
high
caused the greatest number
risk
of
landslide
compared
with
solid
geology,
for
example
the
Casita
of deaths.
volcano
5.
in
Nicaragua
following
Hurricane
Mitch.
State the natural hazard that
●
Secondary
hazards:
these
may
cause
more
fatalities
than
the
original
caused the least loss of life.
event.
6.
Compare the number of deaths
by main cause of death in 2004
and 2012.
184
the
For
example,
Pinatubo
volcanic
more
eruption
eruption.
contaminated
and
Other
water,
people
died
Nevado
secondary
disease,
del
due
to
Ruiz
hazards
hunger
and
lahars
than
following
during
include
the
tsunamis,
hypothermia.
res,
2
●
Economic
better
services,
will
development:
level
be
of
better
more
responses
effective
to
high-income
preparedness
access
funds
the
than
to
to
and
technology
cover
the
Christchurch
the
responses
countries
more
cost
effective
and
of
better
coping
earthquakes
to
the
in
will
G e o p H y S i c A l
generally
emergency
health
with
New
Port-au-Prince
have
H A z A R D
R i S K S
a
response
services.
disasters.
Zealand
There
The
were
earthquake
in
more
Haiti.

ta D.6: Number of deaths attributed to geophysical hazards, 2004–2014 (worldwide)
20 04
20 05
20 0 6
227,290
76,240
6,690
Mass movements
610
650
Volcanic eruptions
2
3
Ear thquakes and
20 07
20 08
20 09
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
780
87,920
1,890
226,740
20,950
710
1,120
662
1650
270
620
690
3,400
310
520
280
N/A
5
10
20
N/A
320
3
N/A
N/A
55
tsunamis
N/A indicates that no data is available
L TA
Research skills
Visit
Activity 9
http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/chrr/research/proles/
natural
disaster
subnational
weighted
product
areas
by
at
risk
for
risk
mortality
(GDP)
combined
proles
from
and
impacted.
from
key
13
countries,
natural
others
by
hazards.
the
Multi-hazard
hazard
showing
Some
proportion
disaster
maps
of
maps
1.
for
information
With the use of examples,
examine the risk posed by
on
natural hazards and their
are
gross
show
likely impacts in rich and
domestic
poor countries.
the
groups.
2.
Visit
http://www.cred.be,
Epidemiology
of
the
Disasters
Centre
for
Research
on
Comment on the impact of
hazards on mor tality and
the
economic loss.
(CRED).
Concepts in contex t
Some
geophysical
distinct
locations,
earthquakes
others
for
powerful
whereas
are
along
appear
location,
hazards
such
to
as
plate
be
example
powerful
common.
in
are
whereas
geophysical
hazards
is
that
it
geophysical
affects.
example
Very
rare,
hazards
interval
very
of
characteristics
their
quite
recurrence
impact
in
and
movements.
hazards
The
geophysical
varied
mass
low-magnitude
more
occur
boundaries,
more
geophysical
mainly
volcanoes
long.
of
The
are
of
Some
parts
the
vulnerable
and
geophysical
place
the
of
varies
the
elderly,
to
and
geophysical
may
affect
vary
in
with
the
places
population,
inrm
rescue/relief
hazards
to
hazards
population
development
buildings
from
the
women,
more
level
of
and
hazards.
the
quality
operations.
power
for
young,
and
The
of
Hence,
impact
place.
Check your understanding
1.
Describe
the
distribution
of
the
world’s
main
7.
earthquakes.
2.
Briey
describe
“Pacic
Ring
of
the
meaning
of
the
On
average,
have
a
scale
or
Explain
how
Fire’.
4.
Describe
hotspots
8.
cause
chains
of
the
distribution
of
of
Moment
earthquakes
over
8.0
on
Magnitude
the
per
year
Richter
Scale?
State
the
range
of
annual
deaths
attributed
to
deaths
attributed
to
2004–2014.
volcanoes.
9.
the
many
term
volcanoes,
3.
how
magnitude
landslide
State
the
mass
movements,
range
of
annual
fatalities,
2004–2014.
2006–2007.
10.
5.
Explain
the
term
“recurrence
Identify
had
6.
Explain
the
term
the
geophysical
events
that
have
interval”.
“supervolcano”.
greatest
impact
in
terms
of
loss
of
life,
2004–2014.
185
3
Hazard risk and vulnerability
Vra
Conceptual
Vulnerability
understanding
of
a
has
community,
effects
of
a
Risk
Hazard
been
dened
system
or
as
asset
the
characteristics
that
make
it
and
circumstances
susceptible
to
the
damaging
hazard.
K qs
How
does
the
geophysical
in
different
varying
hazards
local
power
affect
=
people
Vulnerability
of
contexts?
the
range
of
psychological
they
K 
●
Geophysical
proles,
hazard
including
secondary
live
The
generally
a
hazards.
varied
impacts
of
cause
hazards
aspects
of
Vulnerability
is
the
human
economic,
factors
dimension
social,
that
shape
of
cultural,
people’s
disasters
and
institutional,
lives
and
the
is
the
result
political
and
environment
that
is
the
and
complex.
poor
who
It
consequence
people
to
live
in
is
tend
of
not
to
simply
suffer
disaster
unsafe
about
most
risk
locations
poverty,
from
because
and
although
disasters.
economic
conditions.
it
Poverty
is
is
both
pressures
multidimensional
factors
and
drivers
that
create
Poverty
and
the
vulnerability
mean
on
that
different
×
these
other
geophysical
Exposure
in.
Vulnerability
event
any
force
●
×
of
susceptibility
to
the
impacts
of
hazards
is
often,
but
not
always,
human
associated
with
certain
groups,
including
women,
children,
the
elderly,
well-being.
the
●
Reasons
why
levels
disabled,
migrants
vary
within
including
hazard
communities,
spatial
variations
perception ,
and
relates
physical
factors,
buildings,
in
others.
to
a
number
of
factors,
including:
for
example
unregulated
land
poor
design
and
construction
of
use
social
factors,
social
exclusion
for
example
poverty
and
inequality,
marginalization,
preparedness.
and
●
age
economic
that
are
factors,
as
a
result
environmental
addition,
vulnerability
and
environmental
Many
Disaster
of
urban
in
risk
and
not
people
or
of
people
and
the
example
is
resource
that
and
depends
economic
assets
exposure)
it
to
the
is
to
and
resources,
a
that
resulting
the
or
explain
supply
of
so
chains
cultural,
the
social
existing
including
in
of
on.
political,
shape
themselves
poorly
vulnerability
world.
hazard
reection
loss
areas
economic
decline
and
vulnerability,
severity
also
suffer
help
nd
of
disability
on
uninsured,
facing
change,
historical,
increasing,
regions
on
but
of
so
environmental
natural
people
the
business
processes
drivers
are
of
status,
and
communities;
workers
poor
by
in
rural
climate
determined
countries
exposed,
of
services,
underlying
only
(and
industry;
social
factors,
working
globalization
for
natural
gender,
vulnerable
single
conditions
the
assets
vulnerability
a
development,
many
of
people
sector;
ecosystem
institutional
increasing
of
factors,
and
managed
example
on
by
psychological
over-consumption
risk-regulating
within.
for
factors)
(unregulated)
management,
In
discrimination
other
dependent
pressure
●
and
(among
informal
186
among
personal
●
knowledge
populations,
between
●
and
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impacts
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empowering
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actions
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levels.
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able
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degradation
2030.
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recover
example:
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sector,
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that
buildings
are
built
according
to
and
urban
takes
level,
management
of
a
and
account
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and
risk
community,
recover
the
(DRM)
disaster
from
sectors,
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so
on
that
likelihood
understanding
decisions
procedures
of
planning
into
of
the
of
can
be
(DRR)
organization
or
events
including
of
new
event
can
life-saving
facilities.
thought
reduction
disasters
of
location
hazard
hazard
preparedness,
location
a
of
as
and
society
through
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risk
capacity
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as
development
inuence
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the
risk
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Disaster
likelihood
codes
land-use
inform
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disaster
characteristics
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construction
developments
●
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losses
building
●
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patterns
disaster
disaster
as
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recognized
and
average
risk
expressed
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global
is
damage
widely
and
inequality,
grow,
is
hazard
vulnerable
If
risk
and
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includes
to
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activities
Research skills
building
related
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to:
Visit
org/
the
●
prevention:
generally
●
●
the
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mitigation:
example
respond
costly
the
preparedness:
avoidance
than
reduction
the
and
adverse
disaster
of
the
knowledge
governments,
to
of
recover
relief
and
adverse
and
the
of
and
impacts
hazards
of
of
out
about
Nations
(UN)
is
hazards
interested
individuals
of
(which
nd
United
Plan
of
Risk
Reduction
Action
on
Disaster
response)
impacts
capacities
communities
from
impacts
http://www.unisdr.
and
hazard
to
parties,
for
Resilience.
for
anticipate,
events
or
conditions.
187
3
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Ear thquakes
Case study
shacks
Haiti’s ear thquake, 2010
a
On
12
January
2010
an
earthquake
on
the
Richter
scale
occurred
just
25
of
Port-au-Prince,
at
a
depth
unstable,
in
the
steep
suburb
ravines.
of
After
Pétionville
of
the
capital’s
mayor
said
that
60
per
in
cent
km
of
west
on
collapsed
measuring
2008,
7.0
perched
school
its
buildings
were
unsafe
even
under
normal
only
conditions.
13
km
were
below
A
below
as
the
third
surface.
as
5.9,
surface,
of
230,000
injured
the
strong
the
and
56
km
population
people
were
around
Further
and
just
south-west
was
killed,
a
aftershocks
occurred
affected:
250,000
million
people
9
of
km
the
The
city.
about
more
were
aid.
were
made
homeless.
Red
athird
people.
sniffer
island
of
Hispaniola
(shared
by
Haiti
days
had
dogs,
Dominican
Republic)
sits
on
the
a
small
between
strip
the
of
the
North
tectonic
plates.
Earth’s
to
Dominican
in
1946.
Fault,
side
But
which
of
during
the
of
its
makes
city
shanty
a
so
2
earthquakes.
a
serious
plates
been
century
of
the
the
Red
of
the
densely
Bank
Haitian
inactivity.
buildings,
a
million
around
it
are
overcrowded,
hopelessly
shaking.
stress
What
position
populated
residents
0
lived
mainly
of
in
doctors,
blankets
countries,
United
and
trained
food
including
–
was
Mexico,
Britain,
Crews
France,
of
Germany,
Dominicans,
engineers,
were
telecoms
among
technicians
the
rst
to
and
join
the
effort.
led
Port-au-
assistance
with
pending
the
released
$10
and
Yet
most
of
thousands
this
capital,
UN
200
aid
institutions
the
(which
0
of
its
from
were
Because
the
pledged
too
their
government,
has
been
trying
3
The
UN
$13.7
late
in
for
fund,
million.
the
rubble
even
quake
organizations
World
or
injuries.
weak
the
The
emergency
trapped
for
in.
commitment,
board.
its
arrived
were
treatment
disaster.
poured
million
countries
who
the
also
$100
million
governmental
tin-roofed
a
approval
European
Haiti’s
badly
ill-suited
Many
Cuba.
Cross,
awaiting
region
China,
and
Financial
Garden
the
was
the
200,000
The
quake
accumulating
power
to
on
tents,
other
of
only
it
shallow.
withstanding
Prince’s
the
close
settlements
constructed
to
had
destructive
so
and
violent
suffered
Enriquillo-Plantain
than
its
and
but
separates
epicentre,
capital
The
the
border,
more
magnied
rare
Republic
form
to
–
and
relief
vulnerable
the
earthquake,
food
people
emergency
crust
American
This
in
million
needed
and
the
Caribbean
the
3
–
Gonave
including
squeezed
after
and
from
Canada
microplate,
–
that
population
delivered
Help
Venezuela,
the
estimated
Haiti’s
Seven
Nations
pledged
The
Cross
of
before
devastated
many
non-
(NGOs)
to
create
Toussaint
and
a
the
viable
Louverture
Roads
International
km
ATLANTIC
Airport
km
Port-au-
OCEAN
Prince
Bay
CUBA
Cap
Haïtien
N
ISRAELI
Seaport
Gonaïves
SPANISH
DOMINICAN
Port-au-Prince
HAITI
REPUBLIC
Delmas
Champs
Santo
du
Port-au-Prince
Mars
Pétion
Jimani
Domingo
San
Isidro
Ville
Jacmel
Club
Barahona
Pétionville
WFP
Field
EPICENTRE
Caribbean
12
Sea
hospitals
January

Fgr D.16: The location of Haiti and the 2010 ear thquake
188
distribution
hubs
Urban
areas
RUSSIAN
3
H A z A R D
R i S K
A n D
V u l n e R A b i l i t y
Case study (continued)
government
losing
Haiti
and
in
Haiti
buildings
is
it
one
was
of
and
the
since
2004)
essential
world’s
were
poorest
overpopulated
destroyed,
and
plastic
more
staff.
Months
countries,
vulnerable
tarpaulins,
durable
after
even
crowded,
two
the
so
suspended
on
poles,
were
a
option.
the
disaster
many
the
families
camps
could
were
not
still
claim
2
before
re
the
disaster.
stations
was
and
abolished
do
anything
an
already
many
no
in
for
country
army
1995
itself.
feeble
hospitals
The
–
The
health
and
–
the
and
had
only
Haitian
it
was
clinics,
Tens
powerless
earthquake
service
army
by
to
degraded
destroying
centres
run
by
including
Médecins
sans
all
m
of
that
and
NGO.
Crowded
and
Haiti
has
corruption,
people
ecological
long
suffered
extreme
month
working
Food
the
again,
had
streets
in
in
the
disaster
though
died
Programme
people
1989
of
their
(WFP)
capital
hospitals
not
before
aid
to
rescue
changed
to
withstand
normally
and
rice
nearby
were
Around
and
relief
providing
the
begin
hurricanes
rains
in
that
were
The
to
was
cleared
of
it
killed
phase,
(and
million
Most
of
the
shock.
63
There
robust
May,
from
and
June
gathered
almost
aftershocks
to
recycled
as
in
many
never
enforced
so
of
these
that
and
had
But
San
are
Francisco
mainly
designed
venture
into
their
survived.
relief
Some
workers
were
of
illegal
But
Haiti’s
onwards.
effective.
to
in
Haiti’s,
because
to
of
is
ideas
withstand
to
t
for
concrete
Haitian
codes,
cheap
rubber
pads
blocks
as
government
and
can
has
hardly
do
in
will
Many
Haiti
schools,
take
roads
between
Dominicans
into
their
unless
fear
country
and
$8
a
due
reconstruction
is
billion
ood
to
the
swift
and
of
long-term
strategy
for
rebuilding
Haiti
is
vital.
sleeping
many
before
the
earthquake
Haiti
was
poor,
were
houses
that
the
homes,
migrants
poverty
issued
reckoned
one
building
billion.
the
hundreds
continuing,
back
plenty
between
infrastructure
$14
degraded,
aid
dependent
and
even
few
basic
services.
“Building
back
better”
with
must
tents.
For
away.
now.
other
enough
were
tyres
absorbers.
had
if
electricity.
years
magnitude
people,
are
environmentally
scared
near
similar
there
shock
Even
too
on
riverbeds,
rubble.
focus
landslides)
in
follow
people
camps;
With
just
buildings
from
A
rough.
of
earthquake-proong:
World
2.5
areas.
shelter
earnest
may
550,000
makeshift
is
or
from
thousands
injuries.
gave
Port-au-Prince
the
without
housing
earthquake
Rebuilding
After
still
squatting
slopes
stress.
after
survivors
were
proper
were
steep
inequality
the
A
people
necessary.
three
most
and
of
deemed
Frontières,
but
squabbling
workers
dangerous
thousands
most
California
an
aid
thousands
potentially
The
aid
12
be
more
than
just
a
slogan.
simple
Case study
The Christchurch, New Zealand, ear thquakes, 2010–2012
Christchurch
urban
The
area
2010
is
New
with
a
Zealand’s
population
Christchurch
magnitude
earthquake
second-largest
of
earthquake
which
was
struck
a
the
earthquake
which
386,000.
7.1
of
New
Zealand
at
4.35
am
(local
4
September
2010.
Aftershocks
2012.
The
strongest
2010
2010
aftershock
was
a
earthquake,
2011.
On
which
account
of
occurred
this
Christchurch,
on
being
so
was
185
just
people
it
was
one
being
much
killed.
more
conrmed
In
fatality
epicentre
was
40
km
west
from
the
at
a
depth
of
earthquake
10
km.
Insurance
were
conrmed
being
between
NZD2.75
billion
and
NZD3.5
close
(New
Zealand
dollars).
Private
insurance
destructive,
contrast,
of
attack
the
22
and
with
heart
with
earthquake
earthquake’s
Christchurch,
billion
to
a
6.3
at
February
to
continued
claims
magnitude
due
associated
time)
of
into
another
been
earthquake).
The
on
(and
have
South
The
Island
may
the
individual
costs
were
up
to
NZD4
billion.
there
2010
189
3
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Case study
the
Fault
earthquake
Kermadec
a
Saturday
morning,
in
when
the
early
most
hours
people
of
were
Trough
movement
asleep,
per
happened
N
line
Relative
many
of
them
in
timber-framed
homes.
year
Kermadec
Moreover,
building
standards
in
New
Zealand
Trough
Auckland
are
high.
and
NORTH
47
ISLAND
Following
1855
the
Wairarapa
1848
Marlborough
earthquakes,
which
mm
both
seriously
affected
Wellington,
building
Hikurangi
standards
NEW
were
introduced.
These
were
further
ZEALAND
Trough
strengthened
following
the
1931
Hawke’s
Bay
PACIFIC
Magnitude
of
PLATE
earthquake.
In
contrast,
Haiti
had
much
lower
earthquake
Wellington
building
6.3
41
standards,
which
were
poorly
enforced
mm
and
many
buildings
were
made
of
hand-made,
AUSTRALIAN
Christchurch
non-reinforced
PLATE
vulnerable
populated
less
to
concrete,
seismic
areas
strong
than
of
which
damage.
Canterbury
for
the
Haiti
is
extremely
Ground
was
shaking
also
in
generally
earthquake.
SOUTH
ISLAND
37
Sewers
mm
0
were
damaged
and
water
pipes
were
300
broken.
The
water
supply
at
Rolleston,
south-
km
west
of
Christchurch,
was
contaminated.
Power

Fgr D.17: Plate movement and the Christchurch
to
up
to
75
per
cent
of
the
city
was
disrupted.
ear thquake
Christchurch
International
Airport
was
closed
Source: Guinness, P and Nagle, G. 2014. London, UK. Hodder Education
Earthquakes
property
capable
damage
of
and
causing
loss
of
signicant
life
can
occur
in
following
the
of
cancelled.
it
were
area
on
average
every
55
100
fault
lines
have
been
identied
region,
some
as
close
as
20
km
from
stages
However,
the
2010
quake
a
previously
unknown
fault.
The
response
of
the
Pacic
was
located
about
current
surface
location
boundary
(Figure
80–90
of
km
August
magnitude
including
2012,
2.0
26
over
or
over
5.0
efforts
of
emergency
the
services
response.
Over
managed
40
search
the
and
personnel
from
and
three
sniffer
the
North
Island
the
earthquake
to
dogs
were
Christchurch
the
the
day
of
Australia–
The
2011
earthquake
D.17).
11,000
more
relief
south-east
The
By
and
earthquake
on
epicentre
out
occurred
brought
on
and
central
rescue
Christchurch.
in
in
early
the
ights
years.
Christchurch’s
Around
and
the
Emergency
Christchurch
earthquake
had
aftershocks
been
magnitude
a
of
the
recorded,
and
2
over
6.0
February
powerful
city,
killing
earthquake
local
magnitude.
2011
natural
time
on
earthquake
185
struck
Christchurch
event
people.
the
Tuesday
was
that
The
region
22
centred
earthquake
severely
at
6.3
km
magnitude
12.51pm
February
2
was
damaged
west
2011.
of
The
the
port
Impacts
town
There
was
a
relative
lack
of
casualties
of
the
2010
Haiti
earthquake.
The
also
occurred
in
similar
10
km
south-east
of
the
of
Christchurch.
The
earthquake
was
Haiti
probably
earthquake
and
compared
centre
with
Lyttleton
an
aftershock
of
the
September
2010
proximity
earthquake.
to
an
urban
area,
also
at
shallow
depth
and
of
The
very
similar
strength.
The
lack
of
casualties
earthquake
across
New
190
Zealand
was
partly
due
to
the
fact
caused
widespread
damage
in
that
Christchurch,
especially
in
the
central
city
3
H A z A R D
R i S K
A n D
V u l n e R A b i l i t y
Case study (continued)
and
on
eastern
account
suburbs.
of
aftershocks.
the
eastern
the
The
2010
Signicant
suburbs,
damage
was
earthquake
liquefaction
producing
intensied
and
its
of
foundations
the
in
from
victims.
the
the
more
Over
six-storey
building,
which
treated
than
half
20
of
deaths
Canterbury
Between
for
countries
the
collapsed
earthquake.
were
to
minor
were
Television
and
caught
6,600
among
occurred
80
per
and
Soil
(CTV)
re
destroying
cent
of
the
people
injuries.
to
total
cost
to
insurers
of
rebuilding
severely
occurred
liquefaction
occurred.
during
6,800
was
damage
be
signicant
many
infrastructure.
water
and
and
Around
that
not
rebuilt
be
some
sewerage
Road
hampered
surface
10,000
and
of
rescue
houses
efforts.
would
in
building
bridge
also
need
damage
Christchurch
Nevertheless,
stringent
and
ooding
liquefaction
parts
on.
Zealand’s
damaged.
and
demolished,
meant
New
The
and
caused
undermining
silt.
system
People
liquefaction
movement,
400,000
Up
tonnes
increased
ground
affected
around
The
could
Christchurch,
codes
limited
was
thedisaster.
originally
by
April
escalated
have
estimated
2013
to
the
NZD40
estimated
economy
50
to
it
at
NZD15
total
billion.
will
100
billion.
estimated
take
years
Some
the
to
cost
However,
had
Infrastructure
New
quake,
deadly
smaller
the
for
in
completely
magnitude
earthquake
a
number
was
of
than
more
At
5
80
per
pm
local
cent
●
The
The
epicentre
earthquake
underground,
quake
●
The
was
was
the
2010
damaging
was
whereas
on
2011
a
the
at
10
within
two
within
weeks.
had
district
(CBD)
at
5
km
September
km
2010
deep.
when
was
Many
by
buildings
previous
had
throughout
were
brought
toilets
occurred
the
from
at
Emergency
the
was
2010
full
of
already
been
weakened
than
earthquake,
over
ve
80
days,
per
However,
and
severely
establish
cent
to
95
and
of
per
cent
sewerage
damaged
that
emergency
and
New
5,000
latrines.
Zealand
with
20,000
order
from
chemical
and
more
the
toilets
overseas
chemical
manufacturers.
management
greater
causing
400,000
within
response
a
signicantly
earthquake,
more
in,
on
emergency
place
was
National
management
two
hours.
immediate
Emergency
Fire
Service
The
programme
was
and
was
government
signicant
declared.
coordinated
and
The
search
New
and
than
Rescue
efforts
continued
for
over
a
week,
the
then
upwelling
the
busy.
rescue.
during
of
power.
central
earthquakes.
Liquefaction
no
Waste-water
portaloos
placed
Zealand
●
day
had
to
so
to
2,000
in
●
been
had
Over
A
business
the
Christchurch.
earthquake
weekday
on
city
restored
households
and
systems
shallower
measured
February
lunchtime
was
to
the
recover.
reasons.
closer
time
of
households
●
support
Zealand
power
Although
and
economists
tonnes
of
shifted
to
recovery
mode.
silt.
191
3
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Va rs
Case study
Soufrière Hills, Montserrat
Montserrat
and
it
The
cause
has
is
a
small
been
of
island
affected
the
by
volcano
in
a
is
the
Caribbean,
volcano
the
since
plunging
1995.
of
ofces
the
American
Plate
and
North
American
market,
of
the
the
Caribbean
plate
volcanic
melt
Plate.
and
the
Rocks
rising
at
the
magma
hazard
July
being
1995
Part
the
dormant
in
caused
of
of
risk
Hills
1996
Soufrière
for
the
nearly
gave
the
dome
off
and
Hills
400
steam
For
example,
up
of
ash
nally
nally
collapsed,
it
At
rst
and
boiling
risk
ows.
out
and
a
new
dome
was
and
Sewage
often
of
the
and
rocks
inhabitants
agricultural
on
were
50
people
was
just
one
Montserrat.
other
had
were
hurled
out,
to
leave
the
part
Plymouth,
of
the
with
For
hazards.
to
share
a
was
covered
in
ash
This
has
Plymouth
had
a
severe
contained
all
The
the
on
people
weeks
water
is
and
greatly
live
in
shelters
end.
the
The
spread
increased
of
when
overcrowded,
conditions.
ash
southern
third
(Figure
of
the
D.19).
island
All
to
the
health
north
and
of
had
public
to
be
services
education)
the
island.
of
had
to
be
Montserrat’s
fell
from
11,000
to
4,500.
Most
ed
just
nearby
Antigua.
Some
“refugees”
(Photo
living
in
tents.
Montserrat
government

Fgr D.18: 1:25,000 map of Soufrière
and Plymouth
on
largest
abandoned
impact
of
in
cholera
of
temporary
for
the
population
and
the
forcing
south,
island.
a
in

ph D.7: Destruction of Plymouth
192
as
created.
Montserrat
as
such
cinema.
volcano
there
emptied
as
numbers
unhygienic
to
D.7).
to
tanks
not
such
population
settlement,
4,000,
the
contamination
diseases
large
It
lava
rocks
the
steam.
erupted.
emitted
were
after
moved
main
services,
forms
erupted
years.
clouds
volcano
mudows
thrown
of
by
people
(government,
all
and
and
experienced
displaced
evacuated
Ash,
posed
the
the
The
were
ofce
shops
islands.
Soufrière
Then
post
the
edge
toilet.
In
of
Plate
aspect
under
most
the
The
South
and

ph D.8: Hazards in Plymouth
stayed
on
in
3
H A z A R D
R i S K
A n D
V u l n e R A b i l i t y
Case study (continued)
The
northern
new
homes,
part
of
the
hospitals,
island
has
crèches,
been
redeveloped
upgraded
roads,
with
N
football
Davy
pitches
and
expansion
of
the
island’s
port.
The
population
Hill
has
Northern
Zone
risen
again
to
over
5,000.
0
St
The
risk
of
eruptions
continues
–
scientists
do
St
Peter’s
km
Central
know
when
the
Montserratians
current
are
activity
learning
to
will
live
cease.
with
For
the
Zone
now,
Salem
volcano.
Exclusion
The
volcano
has
Nevertheless,
was,
it
however,
been
relatively
continues
an
event
to
in
quiet
emit
May
since
sulphur
2006
Zone
2005.
and
that
4
John’s
not
ash.
was
There
relatively
Soufriére
Hills
Plymouth
volcano
(abandoned)
unreported.
that
The
affected
Harbour
Soufrière
some
and
Jolly
coastal
dome
areas
Harbour
in
collapsed
of
causing
Guadeloupe
Antigua.
The
a
and
tsunami
English
Guadeloupe
No
Exclusion
tsunami
was
1
m
high
whereas
the
one
in
Antigua
was
Zone
admittance
scientific
and
30
cm.
No
one
was
injured
in
the
tsunami
but
ights
were
between
Venezuela
and
Miami,
and
to
and
from
Central
Zone
state
means
All
Aruba
due
to
the
large
amount
of
ash
in
the
national
Residential
in
cancelled
except
for
monitoring
20–
of
of
security
area
only.
alert.
exit
residents
matters.
All
24
All
have
hours
must
a
have
residents
rapid
day.
hard
hats
atmosphere.
and
dust
masks.
Significantly
lower-risk,
Northern
suitable
for
residential
Zone
and

commercial
occupation.
Fgr D.19: Volcanic hazard risk in Montserrat
Case study
Mount Sinabung
Mount
Sinabung
Sumatra,
the
on
Lake
the
active
the
2010
by
the
active
and
the
it
was
of
Eurasian
is
Fire
is
the
volcano
40
km
has
currently
there.
It
is
some
due
has
area
to
located
one
erupted
until
volcano
The
from
120
2010.
was
Indo-Australian
Plate.
The
northern
Indonesia
and
The
populated
the
in
about
dormant
active.
subduction
that
of
volcanoes
been
volcano
volcano
located
Sinabung
then
has
the
plateau
a
supervolcano.
Ring
volcanos.
it
under
Toba
Pacic
most
1600,
is
Indonesia,
of
the
The
medicines
National
in
food
blankets,
by
Plate
was
fertile
to
homes.
created
face
that
doctors
masks.
crops
a
and
person
problems.
had
and
failed
In
the
and
Agency
were
the
ash
up;
provided
One
was
the
provided
set
were
suffered
it
Over
their
provided
Agency.
2013
to
2010.
evacuees,
tents
who
due
in
from
Health
the
Kitchens
mats
government
–
of
to
Management
sleeping
reported
began
evacuated
Department
and
respiratory
activity
were
Disaster
and
the
volcanic
villagers
Since
surrounding
helped
recent
30,000
fatality
from
reported
fall.
form.
In
of
February
at
least
occurred
5
km
their
just
from
was
increased
2016
people.
in
the
eruptions
people.
after
in
One
that
the
The
were
positive
tourism
living
aspect
deaths
eruption
more
allowed
and
the
this
of
to
than
return
the
to
volcanic
sightseeing
had
area.
Sinabung
erupted
victims
western
caused
Ironically,
residents
Sinabung
homes.
activity
In
2014
16
were
province
again,
from
of
killing
Gembar,
North
seven
a
village
Sumatra.

ph D.9: The eruption of Mount Sinabung
193
3
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
L TA
L TA
Research skills
Visit
http://savethehills.
blogspot.co.uk/
more
the
Visit
for
landslides
the
following
sites
to
watch
close-ups
of
volcanic
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0-shWVW1UBc
information
about
Research skills
used
in
to
lm
a
volcano
erupting
eruptions
and
drones
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=zFIWWM0Iv-U.
Darjeeling-Sikkim
Find
Himalaya
out
about
recent
volcanic
activity
on
Mount
Merapi
–
see
http://
region.
volcano.oregonstate.edu/merapi.
Mass mvms
Case study
Managing urban landslides
Kalimpong
Bengal,
is
a
India.
overlooking
hill
It
is
the
station
located
located
Teesta
at
a
river
in
and
The
West
height
of
1,250
overlooked
m
summit
of
Khangchendzonga.
Dumsi
shows
an
area
of
comparatively
low
wealth
main
town.
This
area
shows
how
people
in
steep
terrains
of
for
the
residents.
number
steep
problems,
of
with
Dumsi
can
lead
small
houses
catastrophic
Pakha
has
sitting
on
a
But
large
the
like
but
problems
the
are
disruption.
above
town,
into
The
water
gullies
and
extensive
This
is
is
is
side
this
the
monsoon.
while
in
run
dry
of
in
is
being
Small
the
anks.
slip
into
channel,
the
a
anks
to
of
the
is
These
have
briey
catastrophic
are
the
the
ow
channel.
large
during
the
houses,
potential
it
and
the
retaining
elsewhere
more
local.
terrace
a
mini-terrace
There
been
by
the
are
the
Some
a
behind
in
settlement
houses
excavating
to
build
terrace,
also
reactivated
as
on,
and
cases
of
a
are
into
that
old
built
the
a
the
on
then
steeper
rst
of
not
risk
wall
that
hazard,
to
so
close
–
to
is
not
cases
for
passive
they
example,
try
to
they
stabilize
particularly
human
problems
in
exceptional
huge.
such
management
are
very
or
a
hazardous.
of
Landslide
settings
the
unless
slopes.
unusual
–
Dumsi
these
types
commonplace.
blast
the
the
lack
only
during
buildings,
enlarged
now
In
the
ow
elds
to
have
have
sliding
is
into
the
them
Large
into
causing
impact
natural
problems
on
eroded
unable
Erosion
landslips.
the
not
noted.
drains.
been
slopes
the
problem,
been
ows.
extensive
are
the
is
monitor
storm
rainfall,
It
reduce
unregulated
storm
there
to
serious
and
gullies
triggering
–
a
is
to
instability
addition
increased
gullies
is
heavy
paddy
as
slopes
option
when
approaches,
hazardous.
steep
sewers
water
downstream.
the
the
road
of
of
channels
is
monsoon
extremely
management
a
volumes
to
that
carry
gullies
Adjacent
are
channel
in
and
to
–
actively
which
will
are
creating
is
made
instability.
that
the
south-west
cause
further
Close
to
have
activity.
waste
the
of
in
the
an
erosion.
town,
an
active
stability
the
dumping
uncontrolled
problem.
Adding
landslide
problem
prevented.
194
are
many
creating
By
slope
increases
landslides
result
problems
by
the
inevitable
become
greatly
to
develop.
slope.
of
are
deforming
But
slope
better
possible
with
is
the
As
Water
dry
many
to
a
the
problems
and
developing
blocking
debris
manage
scale
is
slopes
control
the
by
threaten
slope
slopes
There
transport
slips
and
Pakha.
of
exacerbated
has
larger
channel
end
Pakha
In
the
Kalimpong
any
garbage.
the
landslides
cases
In
Dumsi
Dumsi
many
cause
the
factor.
the
with
on
on
without
towards
the
allowing
key
through
channel
some
a
discharged
instability
that
is
that
management
management
choked
instability
ows
elements
water
Pakha
that
channel
key
poor
Water
Dumsi
season,
two
of
accidents
of
ways,
in
problems.
to
built
Pakha
communities
in
outcomes
hill.
affect
completed
to
there
Landslides
living
these
trying
section
landslide
was
urban
have
mismanagement
which
movement.
below
are
the
of
Pakha
victims
is
centre,
signs
by
The
the
community
2002,
extra
will
worse.
of
manner
weight
construction
is
inevitably
Such
adding
to
the
make
practices
to
top
the
should
be
3
H A z A R D
R i S K
A n D
V u l n e R A b i l i t y
L TA

ta D.7: A range of costs commonly
Research and communication skills
associated with landslide problems
Use
a
search
engine
to
update
the
statistics
for
Sri
Lanka’s
landslides.
prsa ss
Find
out
about
the
villages
of
Aranayake
and
Bulathkohupitiya.
Fatal accidents
Why
were
these
vulnerable?
Make
a
Has
two
villages
there
presentation
been
on
affected
any
why
by
landslides?
Why
were
they
Injuries
reconstruction?
Sri
Lanka
is
vulnerable
to
Psychiatric problems
landslides.
immda ss
Concepts in contex t
Evacuation and provision of
In
of
this
section,
power
and
we
have
impact.
seen
how
geophysical
Geophysical
hazard
hazards
events
can
vary
be
in
terms
temporary or replacement housing
divided
Mobilization of relief workers and
into
high-magnitude
low-frequency
events
(the
ones
that
cause
emergency services
most
loss
events
life).
of
(the
We
life
and
damage)
common
have
also
events
seen
and
that
that
the
low-magnitude
do
not
cause
hazards
high-frequency
much
with
the
damage/loss
greatest
of
Transpor t delays
impact
Costs of investigation
are
not
necessarily
the
most
powerful
–
the
Haiti
earthquake
was
Cost of repair
not
especially
For
many
low,
in
powerful,
geophysical
particular
for
but
it
hazard
affected
events
volcanoes.
a
very
the
vulnerable
annual
Earthquakes
loss
and
of
population.
life
tsunamis
is
quite
idr ss
have
Compensation
the
greatest
impact
Nevertheless,
mortality,
even
there
in
terms
for
are
of
loss
geophysical
“hotspot”
of
life
and
hazard
areas
damage
events
where
the
to
with
risk
is
buildings.
relatively
low
Increased insurance premiums
greater.
Depreciated proper ty or land values
Costs of legal actions
Check your understanding
Costs of public inquiries into causes
and responsibilities
1.
Identify
2.
State
the
main
plates
that
inuence
Haiti.
cs f rv
the
following
number
the
of
2010
people
in
Haiti
that
needed
emergency
aid
earthquakes.
Research into the nature and extent
of landslide problems at universities
3.
State
the
magnitude
Christchurch
and
number
earthquake
and
(b)
of
fatalities
the
2011
of
(a)
the
2010
Formation of planning policies related
Christchurch
to development on unstable land
earthquake.
4.
Identify
the
year
in
which
the
Soufrière
Hills
volcano
started
Coastal protection schemes
erupting.
Design and construction of
5.
Outline
the
range
of
hazards
associated
with
the
Soufrière
Hills
6.
Briey
explain
why
Kalinpong,
West
Bengal,
Costs of monitoring potentially
experiences
unstable slopes
landslides.
7.
Outline
8.
(a)
the
State
main
the
Identify
State
is
10.
the
of
one
Sinabung
9.
factors
number
eruptions
(b)
preventative measures including
drainage and regrading
volcano.
time
Mt
people
Sinabung
positive
since
of
of
responsible
who
since
aspect
of
for
landslides
have
been
in
Sri
killed
Lanka.
in
2010.
the
ongoing
eruption
of
Mt
2010
year
when
the
landslide
problem
in
Kalimpong
greatest.
Identify
the
type
of
plate
boundary
on
which
Mt
Sinabung
is
found.
195
4
Future resilience and adaptation
Ga ghsa haard ad dsasr rds
Conceptual
ad fr rds, dg v frq
understanding
ad a grwh smas
K qs
The
What
are
the
future
frequency
1994
for
lessening
human
and
geophysical
2013.
geophysical
In
contrast,
disasters
remained
population
growth
broadly
and
constant
economic
between
development
vulnerability
have
to
of
possibilities
varied
considerably.
Earthquakes
(including
tsunamis)
have
killed
hazards?
more
the
people
most
than
deadly
all
other
natural
natural
disaster.
disasters
Asia
bore
put
the
together.
brunt
of
Tsunamis
natural
were
disasters,
K 
notably
●
Global
and
geophysical
disaster
frequency
hazard
trends
predictions,
and
including
and
burden
future
Geophysical
through
hazard
increased
planning
and
measures
Research
on
personal
adaptation
1994
natural
this
zoning)
preparedness,
countries
huge
require
of
bear
disparity
signicant
Disasters
a
disproportionate
in
death
rates.
improvement
(CRED),
(Centre
2015).
and
2013
an
period,
an
and
Pre-event
strategies
use
average
for
adoption
mass
slope
megadisaster
of
of
include
average
Some
218
of
1.35
million
almost
million
people
68,000
people
were
died
affected
during
deaths.
and
is
an
event
that
kills
more
than
100,000
people.
Three
occurred
during
the
period
1994–2013:
new
●
the
●
Cyclone
●
the
Asian
tsunami,
Nargis
in
which
2008,
killed
which
over
225,000
people
killed
138,000
in
in
12
countries
Myanmar
movement
2010
earthquake
in
Haiti,
which
was
responsible
for
the
loss
of
stabilization),
over
earthquakes
annual
year.
of
management
include
every
Megadisasters
technology).
design,
LICs
Epidemiology
disasters
megadisasters
insurance
(to
within
a
resilience
A
(to
the
including
government
(land-use
(increased
●
Low-income
hazards,
estimates.
by
●
China.
population
Between
growth
and
natural
Migration
for
event
India
of
220,000
lives.
tsunami
building
tsunami
defences),
450
volcanoes
(to
include
GPS
World
crater
monitoring
and
lava
400
Africa
diversions).
Americas
350
●
Post-event
strategies
Asia
management
Europe
rehabilitation,
Oceania
300
(rescue,
reconstruction)
250
to
include
use
of
the
enhanced
200
communications
technologies
to
map
hazard/
150
disasters,
promote
locate
survivors
continuing
and
human
100
development.
50
●
Impacts
of
hazards/disasters
0
2
0
1
3
2
0
1
2
2
0
1

Fgr D.20: The number of disasters worldwide and by continent, 1994–2013
1
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
9
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
1
9
9
9
1
9
9
8
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
6
of
1
events.
9
196
show
9
geophysical
to
importance
5
included
1
been
relative
ones
9
the
geophysical
9
have
than
4
other
4
F u t u R e
R e S i l i e n c e
A n D

ta D.8: Number of people aected and number of deaths by disaster type, 1994–2013
A D A p t A t i o n

ta D.9: Propor tion of occurrence
of natural disaster by disaster type,
p ad – rag
nmr f dahs –
f a (as mr)
rag f a
1994–2013
Dsasr 
(as mr)
prr  f
rr,
Floods
55% (2.4 billion)
12% (160,000)
Drought
25% (1.1 billion)
2% (22,000)
Storms
15% (660 million)
18% (250,000)
Ear thquakes
3% (121 million)
55% (750,000)
1994–2013 (%)
Floods
Extreme temperatures
2% (93 million)
12% (160,000)
Other (mass movement,
<0.3% (13 million)
1% (20,000)
43
Storms
28
Ear thquakes
8
Extreme
6
temperature
volcanoes, wildres)
Earthquakes
high
and
numbers
Asian
tsunami
earthquakes
1994
of
and
are
casualties
and
and
the
in
rarer
a
Haitian
tsunamis
than
short
oods
period
earthquake.
were
the
of
It
deadliest
but
time,
is
they
for
clear
can
example
from
natural
cause
Table
disaster
5
Drought
5
Wildres
4
Volcanic
1
very
the
South
D.10
that
between
activity
2013.
Urbanization
recent
tsunamis
Landslides
within
decades.
highly
Slums
and
seismic
zones
squatter
has
increased
settlements
signicantly
frequently
expand
over
TOK
onto
Discuss the limitations of the data
high-risk
areas
such
as
slopes
and
embankments.
used in Table D.9. (Hint: length of a
drought/ood versus a landslide;

ta D.10: Propor tion, mor tality and people aected by geophysical disasters and their
magnitude/strength.)
relative percentage of the global total, 1994–2013
prr 
ta dahs
ta ad
orr (%)
ta dahs (%)
ta ad (%)
Ash fall
105
721
2,099,075
16.0
0.1
1.7
Ground
525
497,097
118,328,863
80.2
66.5
95.9
25
250,125
2,898,178
3.8
33.4
2.4
655
747,943
123,326,116
100
100
100
movement
Tsunami
Total
People
are
becoming
susceptible
largely
as
to
a
more
natural
result
of

ta D.11: Number of disasters and number of deaths per income group, 1994–2013
disasters,
Dsasrs (%)
nmr f dsasrs
Dahs (%)
nmr
High income
26%
1,700
13%
182,000
Upper middle-
30%
1,992
19%
252,000
27%
1,751
35%
474,000
17%
1,119
33%
441,000
population
f dahs
growth
and
Disastrous
to
outcomes
increase
ways
and
of
globalization.
unless
preparedness
are
beyond
to
and
input
Lower middle-
income
resilience
Low income
disasters
and
cultural,
from
forecasting
Solutions
natural
scientic
political,
income
community
developed.
related
likely
improved
mitigation,
warning,
are
go
technological
sociological
international
and
agencies,
approaches,
psychological
national
and
include
approaches.
governments,
economic,
That
NGOs
includes
and
local
communities.
Some
natural
although
events
some
may
be
geophysical
increasing
events
in
might
frequency
not
be.
A
and
more
intensity,
likely
197
1
4
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
explanation
for
the
increasing
impact
of
geophysical
events
is
that
there
L TA
Research and
are
increasingly
more
people
in
high-risk
areas.
In
addition,
human
communication skills
activities
Use
or
a
search
use
impacts
engine
tsunamis
http://www.
unisdr.org/les/8720_
summaryHFP20052015.
pdf
to
nd
Hyogo
Action
out
about
Framework
and
the
Framework
for
the
for
Sendai
operate
Reduction
and
is
evidence
be
changing
landslides
over
features
that
long
are
increase
to
climate
The
largely
timescales.
intensity.
due
the
example.
unchanged
the
and
decreasing
for
volcanoes
very
largely
frequency
in
on
in
by
frequency
long-term,
the
use,
of
leading
occurrences
inuenced
impacts
Indeed,
land
major
The
a
improvements
and
tectonic
and
global
impact
of
is
and
forces
which
of
There
due
volcanoes
forecasting
greater
earthquakes,
intensity
scale.
earthquakes
to
of
to
these
is
no
greater
may
even
be
management.
Disaster
In
Risk
may
of
addition,
the
concentration
of
people
in
large
urban
areas,
combined
2015–
with
environmental
degradation,
makes
communities
more
vulnerable
2030.
to
In
what
help
to
ways
deal
geophysical
do
these
with
hazards?
natural
hazards.
development
are
built
more
on
of
active
vulnerable
Environmental
of
mangrove
been
the
made
to
the
to
the
shanty
of
large
2004
have
also
increase
tsunami.
been
most
of
Tehran
population
increased
In
built
undercutting.
landslides,
urbanization
earthquake
Lanka
Asian
towns
by
of
can
Sri
Iran
including
Increased
impacts
in
in
cities,
lines.
degradation
unstable
number
example,
fault
swamps
communities
Cameroon,
For
several
which
led
to
the
megacity),
size
makes
that
Tehran
activity.
vulnerability.
the
the
in
has
in
of
coastal
south-west
base
result
occur
Destruction
vulnerability
Limbe
at
The
has
(a
of
slopes
been
the
an
rainy
that
have
increase
in
season.
Impacts of extreme events
The
potential
crises,
consequences
thousands
environmental
food
supplies,
and
pollution.
and
collapse
Africa
they
It
is
only
events
of
not
there
world
has
–
also
been
problems,
by
the
(HFA)
progress
of
national,
2010
in
Los
the
the
potential
Angeles,
international,
this
of
risk
a
global
East
stress
unrest
and
already,
North
although
to
global
the
is
there
Action
in
that
the
promoting
Earth,
or
a
Tokyo
volcanic
to
signicant
this
agendas.
the
the
exposing
(Amended
for
that
Likewise,
Istanbul
and
around
communities
and
role
national
A
–
2004
environmental
and
fact
the
causes
people
Protocol
nations
slim.
the
refugees
reduction,
signicance.
of
Framework
impact
are
of
geophysical
before
Nevertheless,
decisive
and
Tehran,
or
Kyoto
highlights
regional
ows
some
the
Hyogo
played
of
this
extreme
events.
tackle
disaster
chances
Middle
of
of
climate
political
example,
migrants
resilience
has
from
For
increasing
Review
in
2005
have
The
under
not
by
to
disruption
understanding
Protocol,
and
the
international,
eruptions
if
2015)
Mid-Term
HFA
eruption.
earthquake
198
made
the
action
Building
public
geophysical
Montreal
the
economic
events.
economic
of
of
threat
The
global
megacities,
disease,
glimpses
interest.
little
of
communications,
parts
been
the
events.
threat
the
HFA
across
Volcanic
8
The
that
public
tourists,
Agreement,
was
adoption
VEI
as
2005–2015:
progress
the
include
degradation,
and
famine,
some
have
relatively
as
the
In
fuel
geophysical
international
such
Paris
disasters.
a
to
may
recently
tsunami
whether
people
by
events
destruction
transport
there
into
was
of
of
order.
caused
extreme
possible
environmental
turn
region
moved
management
in
social
relatively
has
tsunami,
more
refugees,
This
of
deaths,
disruption
(MENA)
were
of
especially
large
could
eruption
have
of
4
Vesuvius
extreme
cope
could
devastate
events
better
frequency
is
with
that
Naples.
they
are,
high-frequency
high-magnitude
One
by
problem
denition,
F u t u R e
with
rare.
low-magnitude
R e S i l i e n c e
trying
to
A D A p t A t i o n
manage
Communities
events
A n D
than
can
low-
events.
Identifying areas at risk
Although
known
the
to
suggested
Peruvian
risk
was
coast),
not
areas,
of
it
behind
scientic
powerful
Although
impact
science
the
tsunamis
the
not
possible
earthquakes,
and
mitigate
formation
the
to
tsunamis
off
had
the
predict
to
the
it
when
those
exact
is
an
the
who
to
well
predictions
coast
science
needed
timing,
possible
was
been
Sumatra
communicate
example,
impacts
of
there
occur
sufciently
to
for
and
would
mechanisms
communicated
is
the
community,
the
the
know.
magnitude
identify
earthquake
and
to
that
(and
and
high-risk
occurs.
Population growth and urban growth
The
in
world
2050
2015
population
and
and
11.2
2050
concentrated
Republic
USA,
The
of
half
in
the
nine
and
concentration
poverty
its
own
and
of
of
set
2015
inequality,
by
●
UN
DESA
’s
54per
By
●
which
Today,
with
Asia
of
this
the
2.5
nearly
●
Close
eight
UN
by
2030,
report.
growth
is
9.7
billion
Between
expected
Pakistan,
Republic
the
the
it
to
be
Democratic
of
poorest
more
and
systems,
cent
Tanzania,
the
countries
difcult
to
malnutrition,
and
success
to
of
provide
the
half
and
In
new
eradicate
to
expand
adequate
sustainable
in
the
less
the
the
28
the
24th
have
round
been
of
prepared
following.
in
in
rural
areas,
urban
and
urban
and
other
areas
with
in
2014.
Asia
urban
have
are
in
reside
in
more
by
to
2050,
and
with
Africa.
small
around
10
to
2050.
relatively
than
and
projected
by
only
rural,
Africa
projected
Asia
while
and
mostly
are
population
inhabitants,
that
and
respectively,
concentrated
dwellers
cent)
remain
urbanized.
regions
urban,
America
(80per
urbanization
world’s
increase
North
respectively,
cent
megacities
than
Caribbean
Africa
the
500,000
the
residing
include
the
cent,
than
world’s
than
and
growth
the
areas
was
that
cent.
regions
64per
to
reported
urban
contrast,
and
of
It
66per
48per
people
of
to
faster
cent
cent
of
in
Prospects
projections
population
America
population
billion
live
live
rise
cent).
and
Division.
urbanized
Latin
56per
settlements
in
could
90per
to
hunger
Population
world’s
urbanizing
Continuing
add
in
making
to
estimates
people
most
40per
are
a
Nigeria,
United
growth
health
World
the
(73per
become
●
of
more
(82percent),
Europe
billion
to
population
the
combat
crucial
Population
cent
2050,
to
and
are
population
Globally,
8.5
agenda.
Revision
UN
reach
India,
Ethiopia,
challenges,
of
ofcial
to
according
world’s
population
of
housing,
The
2100
Uganda.
enrolment
all
by
countries:
educational
development
expected
the
Congo,
Indonesia
presents
is
billion
one
million
inhabitants.
199
4
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Predictions, forecasts and warnings
Scientic
time,
predictions
place
statements
and
about
probabilities.
well
as
are
of
a
future
Effective
forecast,
remain
although
main
ways
of
●
better
●
improved
●
establishing
used
They
most
that
and
and
are
for
“at
statements
are
more
commonly
on
science
people’s
difcult
are
precise
Forecasts
depends
systems
preparing
building
provide
event.
events.
the
areas
forecasting
to
future
warning
communications
Earthquakes
The
size
natural
risk”
are
earthquakes
to
hazards
well
the
expressed
and
ability
on
general
as
technology,
interpret
to
predict
as
them.
and
known.
include:
warning
design
emergency
and
building
location
procedures.

ta D.12: Monitoring for ear thquake prediction
There
are
a
number
monitoring
isrm
prs
Seismometers
To record micro-ear thquakes
Magnetometer
To record changes in the
of
ways
earthquakes,
measurement
of
predicting
which
involve
and
the
of:
●
small-scale
ground
●
small-scale
uplift
●
ground
●
changes
●
micro-earthquake
surface
changes
Ear th’s magnetic eld
Near-surface
or
subsidence
To record larger shocks
tilt
seismometer
Vibroseis truck
To create shear waves to
in
rock
stress
probe the ear thquake zone
Strain meters
activity
(clusters
of
small
To monitor surface
earthquakes)
deformation
Sensors in wells
groundwater levels
Satellite relays
●
anomalies
●
changes
in
radon
●
changes
in
electrical
in
the
Earth’s
magnetic
eld
To monitor changes in
To relay data to the US
gas
concentration
resistivity
of
rocks.
Geological Survey
One
Laser survey
on
equipment
intensively
the
fewer
capital
following
Andreas
site
Fault.
is
Parkeld
Parkeld,
in
with
California,
a
●
strain
●
two-colour
●
meters
caused
That
all
was
laser
by
of
stress
the
and
The
gap
seismic
one
part
a
part
that
plate
of
the
has
at the Montserrat Volcano
successfully
Obser vatory
segment
of
measure
people,
world.
It
is
claims
to
heavily
be
the
population
earthquake
monitored
by
the
that
the
detect
changes
with
but
the
on
not
theory
in
plate
at
a
measure
moved
a
single
the
point
slightest
movement
all
is
of
an
that
the
that
over
has
to
can
Earth’s
magnetic
occur
without
earthquake,
scientists
a
by
did
not
prolonged
almost
moved
move
The
was
Loma
the
and
next.
earthquake
Fault.
the
eld
not
warning.
which
know
was
not
existed.
time.
move
likely
Andreas
in
crust.
Northridge
fault
must
that
the
earthquakes
boundary
suggest
San
that
alterations
1994
states
boundary
not
to
deformation
plates
occurred
helps,
of
the
monitoring,
case
Technology
parts
of
50
geodimeters
tectonic
the
predicted
D.10: Use of seismographs
that
magnetometers
Despite
than
instruments:
between
200
San
movement
of

ph
studied
To measure surface
period
same
others
This
in
time
have,
theory
likely
Prieta
of
amount.
the
has
all
Thus
then
been
Loma
earthquake
if
the
used
Prieta
occurred
4
in
1989.
seismic
Two
Following
gap
the
earthquakes
November
False
at
in
2006
alarms
the
uncertainty
signicant
led
before
it
South
Kuril
a
major
to
the
and
and
2007
problem
8.2
for
evacuation
place.
warn
of
of
the
on
is
a
R e S i l i e n c e
geologists
Richter
Central
scale
Kuril
geophysicists.
good
70,000
people
systems
approaching
for
for
a
trench.
occurred
1976
Unrest
three
in
crisis
and
months.
tsunamis
wave
A D A p t A t i o n
segment.
The
example.
A n D
identied
Kuril-Kamchatka
the
the
many
Warning
an
tsunami
of
within
Guadeloupe,
took
can
Asian
segment
8.3
January
Volcano,
eruption
sophisticated
2004
measuring
and
are
Soufrière
the
Central
F u t u R e
minutes
are
if
No
quite
not
hours
arrives.
Ear thquake prediction – using animal behaviour
In
Japanese
are
its
folklore,
messengers.
earthquakes.
the
Tohoku
In
sick
major
and
When
cause
an
large
to
This
could
the
the
kill
the
could
sh
of
leak
to
be
or
the
on
The
beaches
the
of
the
peroxide,
them
the
most
into
area
gas
that
to
builds
the
which
is
leave
a
can
is
up
affect
that
make
occur
the
This
toxic
sh
electricity.
which
water.
the
where
damage.
possibility
rocks
to
in
oarsh
impending
emissions
the
Another
in
and
is
monoxide
small
enough
sea,
oarsh
caused
released
force
of
dead
carbon
dying.
hydrogen
the
up
later
pressure
ions
god
by
oarsh.
before
occurs,
of
washed
quantities
charged
formation
either
dragon
brought
tsunami
like
themselves
earthquake
the
oarsh
and
earthquakes
electrically
to
20
creatures
beach
lead
rise
release
deep-sea
before
2011
is
message
earthquake
Earthquakes
large
Ryujin
The
can
can
compound.
deep
ocean
and
surface.
Animals sensing ear thquakes
In
A
1975,
day
reports
the
In
of
area
the
a
7.3
before
snakes
in
In
April
the
5.8
in
Italy
2009,
quake
toads
the
of
breeding
the
before
National
or
made
struck
city
city
of
based
hibernating
months
hiding,
together
suddenly
Chinese
example,
shelter
out
huddled
studied
the
For
Smithsonian’s
came
the
evacuated
hideouts
sought
magnitude
amingos
struck
ofcials
winter
animals
copperheads
and
Scientists
a
at
city
behaviour.
their
2010,
DC,
before
like
treetops
animal
abandoned
USA,
earthquake
happened,
strange
Washington,
minutes
magnitude
it
the
part
snakes
on
in
normal.
Zoological
distress
moved
Park
calls
region.
apes
Haicheng.
in
in
in
the
Nocturnal
into
the
tightly.
behaviour
abandoned
the
of
the
common
shallow
pools
toad.
in
which

ph D.11 : Oar sh coming to the
they
bred.
Five
days
later
a
strong
earthquake
struck
the
region.
Tectonic
surface is taken as an indication of
stresses
ions
in
into
the
the
they
oxidize
may
irritate
Earth’s
lower
water
or
be
crust
send
atmosphere.
to
form
toxic
to
huge
amounts
When
hydrogen
certain
these
ions
peroxide.
species
of
of
primarily
reach
The
a
positive
body
resulting
of
air
a for thcoming ear thquake
water,
compounds
animals.
Predicting volcanoes
Volcanic
certain
●
eruptions
signs.
seismometers,
magma
●
The
are
easier
main
to
ways
record
to
of
predict
than
predicting
swarms
of
earthquakes
volcanic
tiny
since
eruptions
earthquakes
that
there
are
include:
occur
as
the
rises
chemical
sensors,
to
measure
increased
sulphur
levels
201
4
OPTION
!
✗
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
●
lasers/GPS,
●
ultrasound,
Some
people
think
possible
to
the
the
size,
the
physical
swelling
of
the
volcano/crater
of
a
However,
eruption
there
suggest
are
it
not
predict
large
VEI
it
will
will
or
eruption
for.
Most
when
in
the
magma
happened
at
resulting
Pinatubo,
St
El
Helens
such
as
at
Gunung
Agung
(Java).
not
always
happen.
possible
The
USGS
to
state
exactly
successfully
when
predicted
a
volcanic
the
Pinatubo
in
1991,
and
evacuated
the
area.
However,
eruption
they
of
wrongly
a
volcanic
in
USA,
eruption
and
the
at
Mammoth
prediction
Mountain
reduced
visitor
Ski
Area
numbers
in
to
the
resort
on
how
will
the
long
go
terms
on
of
and
caused
It
also
economic
distress
to
local
business
people.
a
how
predictions
stated
as
to
erupt,
be
the
are
waves
rock,
volcanic
exactly
scale,
molten
imminent,
possible
volcano
low-frequency
and
signs
California,
is
is
will
predicted
are
and
observations,
Mt
events
gas
volcanic
event.
that
of
and
●
✓ Although
monitor
predict
duration
magnitude
to
surge
Chichon
it
detect
it
from
is
to
Common mistake
is
may
difcult
erupt
for
predict
few
while
erupted
for
erupted
continuously
small
a
to
days,
quantities.
hundreds
of
weeks,
Mt
the
timescale
others
while
between
Etna
in
go
the
on
an
Soufrière
1997
Sicily
of
and
has
eruption.
erupting
Hills
2005,
been
for
Some
years.
Mt
volcano
and
still
erupting
volcanoes
Pinatubo
on
Montserrat
vents
ash
in
intermittently
for
years.
probabilities.
In
general,
volcanoes
more-explosive
produce
more
at
destructive
volcanoes,
frequent
plate
whereas
but
boundaries
those
at
less-explosive
tend
hotspots,
to
such
produce
as
Hawaii,
eruptions.
Ghsa haard adaa
Preparedness
Land-use
zoning
Different
is
land
known
to
buildings,
line
are
or
in
be
at
evacuated,
codes
be
can
to
for
insurance
events
are
not
to
much
occur.
New
It
inform
in
is
far
to
from
One
the
be
about
of
case
used
of
events.
a
built
Mt
of
close
an
to
the
fault
residents
Sinabung,
of
that
populated
and
Montserrat.
are
adaptation.
zone
areas,
even
if
an
Building
adequate
to
industry
it
is
as
is
an
of
with
of
out
God”,
LIC
has
that
so
it
is
might
happened.
volcanoes
GPS
and
residents
addition,
event
event
swelling
phones
take
most
In
an
well
to
geophysical
“acts
that
on
not
is
some
available.
after
the
mobile
geophysical
factor
money
money
record
generally
However,
spending
and
are
preparedness
Another
spend
chemistry,
be
volcanic
buildings
insurance
justify
to
that
the
hazard
in
densely
not
some
slopes
in
method
insurance,
easier
should
community
available.
to
locations
event.
hazard
by
geophysical
example,
In
the
as
ensure
hazard
not
can
water
agencies
services
of
from
For
landslides.
formed,
against
afford
is
re
events.
harder
technology
changes
a
considered
unable
always
hazard.
example
be
aspect
prevented
international
rare
cover
a
of
enforced
cover
are
insurance
and
may
the
be
of
risk
survive
and
prepared
at
important
may
risk
for
zone
Nations
an
hospitals
areas
exclusion
standard
is
uses
can
be
and
used
to
changes.
Tackling volcanoes: the result of lack of preparation
in Indonesia
In
2014,
poor
202
Indonesia
preparedness
was
left
affected
by
two
communities
volcanic
near
Mt
eruptions.
Sinabung
In
more
February,
vulnerable
4
than
those
Nearly
weeks
More
20
later,
than
experts
with
2014
the
Kelud
130,000
to
the
to
level
of
eruptions
contrast,
volcano
in
in
from
including
despite
Sinabung,
because
it
the
is
is
and
many
of
dormant
for
eruptions,
to
cope
there.
that
oods.
live
are
In
saved
East
in
there.
behaviour
hundreds
two
board
were
the
A D A p t A t i o n
seven.
found
places
who
with
A n D
month.
than
prepared
are
and
lives
people
unfamiliar
mostly
in
the
two
management
living
earthquakes
number
were
that
in
Less
killing
the
adequately
volcanoes
good,
later
Following
people
R e S i l i e n c e
erupted.
ruptured,
disaster
million
large
been
of
volcanoes,
people
had
country
national
preparedness
eruption
Sinabung
province
dozens
100
Kelud
Mt
displaced.
the
the
around
Java
were
whether
Mt
when
East
Indonesian
are
disasters,
the
larger
killed
people
events
there
much
were
questioned
(BNPB),
prone
by
Mt
similar
According
Java
hit
people
F u t u R e
of
the
In
of
the
years.
Volcanic eruption without warning
In
September
ash
2014
and
Japan’s
rocks.
Mt
The
Ontake
bodies
of
erupted
more
without
than
50
warning,
hikers
were
L TA
spewing
found
Research and
communication skills
near
the
west
of
top
of
Tokyo.
popular
the
volcano.
About
beauty
spot,
250
but
The
volcano
people
most
were
got
is
around
trapped
down
on
200
the
km
(125
slopes
of
miles)
the
Visit
safely.
http://www.emdat.
be/disaster_trends/index.
html
Japan
is
one
of
the
world’s
most
seismically
active
nations
–
but
for
website
have
been
no
fatalities
from
volcanic
eruptions
since
1991,
people
died
at
Mt
Unzen
in
the
on
interactive
disaster
trends,
when
and
43
an
there
http://www.emdat.
south-west.
be/country_prole/index.
html
pr-v maagm srags
to
proles
create
by
hazard
country.
Managing landslides
There
are
a
landslides.
number
These
●
the
●
drainage
terracing
them
●
●
erosion
forces
Other
over
steep
methods,
at
the
reduce
the
risks
associated
with
and
build-up
such
as
as
rock
base
as
form
slopes
of
making
water
them
in
more
slopes
and
secure
thereby
makes
gabions
and
stone
walls
keep
the
failed
structure
such
the
such
the
to
fail
structures
control
in
the
to
behind
acting
them
of
likely
restraining
ways
include:
reduces
less
material
of
the
of
of
armour
and
revetments
minimizes
the
cliffs.
diversion
bridges
are
of
roads
also
away
important
from
active
(Table
areas,
or
D.13).

ta D.13: Principal methods of slope stabilization
Arah
Mhds
Excavation and lling
Remove and replace slipped material
Excavate to unload the slope
Fill to load the slope
Drainage
Lead away surface water
Prevent build-up of water in tension cracks
Blanket the slope with free-draining material
203
4
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
Arah
HAZ ARDS
Mhds
Installation of narrow trench drains aligned directly downslope, often supplemented by
shallow drains laid in a herringbone pattern
Installation of interceptor drains above the crest of the side slope to intercept groundwater
Drilling of horizontal drains into a slope, on a slightly inclined gradient
Construction of drainage galleries or adits, from which supplementary borings can be made
Installation of ver tical drains which drain by gravity through horizontal drains and adits, by
siphoning or pumping
Restraining structures
Retaining walls located under unstable ground
Installation of continuous or closely spaced piles, anchored sheet or bored pile walls
Soil and rock anchors, generally pre-stressed
Erosion control
Control of toe erosion by crib walls, very large boulders, rock armour, revetments, groynes
Control of surface erosion
Control of seepage erosion by placing inver ted lters over the area of discharge or
intercepting the seepage
Miscellaneous methods
Grouting to reduce ingress of groundwater into a slide
Chemical stabilization by liming at the shear surface, by means of lime wells
Blasting to disrupt the shear surface and improve drainage
Bridging to carry a road over an active site
Rock traps to protect against falling debris
Managing the risk of ear thquakes
Most
places
enable
with
people
earthquakes
reducing
design,
More
It
is
in
a
to
stop
involves
controlling
of
of
lives,
impact
an
minimizing
in
is
the
and
developed
reduce
the
money.
earthquake
largest
plans
effect
The
that
of
ways
prediction,
the
of
building
and
fastest-growing
cities
are
risk.
from
happening,
prospect
high-risk
to
information.
earthquake
earthquake
building
have
aim
buildings
public
world’s
high
The
include
and
the
earthquakes
them.
save
prevention
third
of
with
thus
regions
difcult
(Figure
history
earthquake
normally
by
a
deal
and
ood
than
located
to
areas,
of
so
death,
and
using
prevention
injury
or
aseismic
damage
designs
D.21).
Building design
Buildings
in
an
can
be
storey
structures
buildings
are
raised
pillars.
sink
on
down
mounting
the
the
to
areas.
underlying
withstand
with
a
“soft
collapses
and
this
move
under
isolates
strategies
bedrock,
and
for
in
an
a
the
the
the
at
the
building
building
use
is
on
–
is
from
bottom,
so
widely
the
such
that
used
in
a
occurs
multi-
tall
car
park
upper
oors
isolation
which
–
allow
earthquake-
Building
foundations
steel-constructed
as
the
mounts
tremors.
that
than
Some
Basement
rubber
on
suitable
reduced.
impact.
building
of
the
more
earthquake,
building
include
ground-shaking
are
swaying
storey”
cushions
of
the
buildings
potential
foundations
This
reinforcement
the
This
it
to
Single-storey
as
built
onto
ground
prone
204
designed
earthquake.
built
frames
deep
that
into
can
4
withstand
way
of
shaking.
reducing
Land-use
earthquake
planning
is
F u t u R e
another
R e S i l i e n c e
A n D
A D A p t A t i o n
Earthquake-vulnerable
important
Structure
risk.
with
vertical
structures
steel
Vertical
A
reinforcing
Upper
rods
only
deck
collapsed
on
lower
deck
Safe houses
In
wealthy
making
cities
in
buildings
life.
Concrete
and
some
fault
zones,
earthquake
walls
are
buildings
the
reinforced
even
added
resistant
rest
on
expense
has
with
of
become
steel,
elaborate
for
a
fact
of
instance,
shock
absorbers.
Collapse
Bay
B
Bridge
roadway
Strict
of
building
lives
when
codes
a
were
credited
magnitude
8.8
with
saving
earthquake
hit
thousands
Chile
of
upper
(cantilever)
lower
onto
roadway
in
February2010.
150
But
in
less-developed
countries,
earthquake
engineering
is
earthquake
in
a
like
often
Haiti,
unaffordable.
The
C
Haiti
was
reminder
that
m
conventional
billions
of
Inexible
joints
people
Pipe
live
in
houses
houses
and
can
old
that
be
tyres,
cannot
built
for
withstand
cheaply
example
–
–
using
by
shaking.
straw,
applying
Yet
safer
reinforced
a
few
adobe
general
Earthquake-resistant
principles
(Figure
structures
D.22).
Structure
with
spiral
reinforcing
rods
In
Peru
many
of
them.
dried
in
1970
whom
Heavy,
brick
buckle.
–
an
earthquake
died
brittle
cracked
Subsequent
Existing
when
walls
adobe
their
of
can
houses
when
brought
be
around
traditional
instantly
shakes
walls
killed
collapsed
adobe
the
–
people,
around
cheap,
ground
roofs
reinforced
70,000
thundering
with
a
sun-
started
strong
to
down.
plastic
Golden
Gate
Bridge
(suspension)
mesh
installed
crack
but
to
do
escape.
for
not
mesh
walls
engineers
plaster
collapse
Plastic
concrete
Other
under
in
are
–
in
an
earthquake
immediately,
could
Haiti
also
and
working
allowing
work
as
a
these
walls
occupants
reinforcement
elsewhere.
on
1300
methods
that
use
local
Flexible
materials.
concrete
Researchers
house
Indonesia
with
bags
strong
but
it
as
rests
of
would
India
reinforced
on
sand.
one
in
also
Such
on
cost
in
of
stone
and
mud,
resilient
and
also
with
a
house
more
much
Indonesia.
In
but
A
be
sophisticated
less
and
straw,
be
is
–
old
only
a
shock
more
Pakistan,
which
tested
model
dampers
might
northern
warmer
successfully
bamboo.
ground-motion
built
adopted
have
third
joints
a
house
tyres
for
lled
as

Fgr D.21: Aseismic design
absorbers,
likely
to
be
traditional
readily
m
houses
available,
is
far
are
built
more
inwinter.
Controlling ear thquakes
In
of
theory,
by
greatest
earthquake
would
of
it
altering
stress
in
events
otherwise
controlled
reaches
the
the
may
build
uid
fault
be
up
a
create
nuclear
deep
series
triggered.
to
underground
critical
pressure
line,
This
a
of
underground
small
could
major
and
release
event.
explosions
at
the
the
energy
Additionally,
might
point
less-damaging
relieve
a
stress
that
series
before
levels.
Controlling volcanoes
It
is
possible
successful
of
dry
to
on
manage
Mt
channels,
Etna.
lava
ows
by
Lava
ows
can
explosives
to
divert
diverting
be
the
them
diverted
ow
near
–
this
either
its
has
by
been
the
source,
or
use
by
205
4
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Pakistan
Most
destructive
quake
Location
Magnitude
Fatalities
8
Haiti
October
Northern
2005
Pakistan/Kashmir
12
Peru
January
2010
Port-au-Prince
31
area
Indonesia
May
1970
26
December
Chimbote
Sumatra
7.6
7.0
7.9
9.1
75,000
222,500
70,000
227,900
2004
(including
tsumami
Light
In
the
global
deaths)
roofs
Haiti
heavy
Crown
concrete
roofs
on
homes;
many
sheet-metal
roofs
on
Corner
wooden
more
beam
collapsed
trusses
column
Bamboo
are
resistant.
Mesh
Light
walls
and
Lightweight
gables
structures
Reinforced
are
subject
to
and
are
less
when
the
reinforcing
need
likely
to
fall
of
ground
walls
smaller
The
forces
not
metal.
be
rods
made
Natural
shakes.
materials
such
as
eucalyptus
Shock
or
bamboo
absorbers
Quake-resistant
houses
are
being
work
built
in
Pakistan
–
well
too.
Tyres
filled
stones
straw.
The
compressed
Small
windows
In
Peru
the
walls
of
Confined
or
are
held
together
Small,
regularly
spaced
some
adobe
houses
In
Indonesia
nylon
netting
and
openings
create
fewer
have
been
reinforced
elsewhere,
brick
weak
spots
in
walls.
with
a
plastic
mesh
can
be
framed
and
foundation
walls
can
between
and
between
and
floor
by
sandwiched
sand
masonry
fastened
bales
with
of
serve
as
cheap
and
ground-motion
layers
of
plaster.
But
the
bigger
problem
to
prevent
collapse.
connected
to
the
roof
absorbers
in
Haiti
was
that
walls
by
corner
not
properly
and
reinforced.
a
crown
beam
concrete.
In
the
quake
moves
as
a
of
many
building.
of
reinforced
a
for
columns
types
were
structure
unit.
Since 2007 some 22,500 houses in Peru have been strengthened with plastic mesh or other reinforcements.

Fgr D.22: Safe houses
pumping
carried
water
out
in
six-month
from
Mt
onto
period.
pyroclastic
Pinatubo
the
Heimaey,
There
ows
and
the
lava
front
Iceland,
is
little
other
in
that
than
Soufrière
to
cool
1973,
to
Hills
can
it.
This
but
be
it
done
evacuate
was
successfully
required
to
pumping
reduce
the
area,
use
of
as
the
was
over
a
impacts
done
with
volcano.
Tsunamis
Tsunamis
warning
of
the
are
generally
systems.
wall
protection
that
and
managed
However,
can
will
cost
be
built.
not
stop
through
the
constraints
Walls
bigger
can
only
usually
provide
sea
walls
dictate
a
and
the
certain
early-
height
amount
of
waves.
ps-v maagm srags
Shor t-term, mid-term and long-term responses after
an event
In
the
immediate
people.
dogs.
This
Thermal
wreckage.
after
72
The
hours.
surviving
206
may
for
aftermath
involve
sensors
may
number
of
Although
nearly
20
of
the
a
disaster
use
be
of
used
survivors
there
days,
to
nd
main
and
reports
number
is
to
teams
alive
very
from
was
priority
rescue
people
decreases
were
the
the
search
among
quickly.
Sichuan
extremely
rescue
and
Few
of
low.
sniffer
the
survive
people
4
Rehabilitation
live
in
them
unable
to
return
thousands
Desmond
of
of
This
the
after
can
major
be
a
of
human
also
the
recovery
well
plan
to
Asian
was
and
of
to
over
a
of
their
rainfall
to
The
recovery
process,
timescales
(Figure
During
many
parts
of
taking
up
The
and
to
the
2015
north
was
decade
aim
promote
not
necessary.
shown
overall
to
and
storms
was
a
are
A D A p t A t i o n
were
December
rehabilitation
involved
level,
homes
people
when
(rebuilding)
D.23).
pre-disaster
their
some
homes
Orleans,
reconstruction
safe
2007,
year.
from
New
drawn-out
their
make
A n D
is
for
in
to
get
continuing
study
as
looks
dealing
of
place
at
the
the
in
Soufrière
event,
Hills
the
and
Before
Indian
region
It
to
the
aftermath
future
is
just
the
volcano,
impacts
improve
of
and
the
safety
a
and
in
disaster,
This
event,
Ocean.
developed
part
of
events.
rehabilitation
the
tsunamis.
the
of
2004.
in
rescue,
agencies
hazards
with
impacts
tsunami
in
on
Montserrat
the
(pages
post-disaster
reconstruction.
reduce
not
future
case
which
emergency
aid
back
so
in
to
oods
R e S i l i e n c e
development.
192–193),
As
and
projects.
disaster
for
record
residents
long,
able
UK
evacuated
brought
very
being
the
homes
were
some
construction
model
people
their
Katrina,
communities
See
to
Eva
For
to
Following
people
and
England.
possible
refers
again.
F u t u R e
a
was
governments
seen
tsunami
Following
the
system
progress
to
the
try
event,
system
well
as
governments
reduce
needed
as
to
the
to
South
early-warning
reconstruction,
a
after
and
impacts
reduce
the
of
impact
theregion.
Rescue, rehabilitation and reconstruction in practice
Following
the
produced
a
dened
and
government
for
the
reconstruction
affected
rescue,
plan
by
Maximal
Asian
the
gnipoC
It
region
South
Indonesian
master
rehabilitation
the
2004
ytivitca
tsunami,
the
of
tsunami.
rehabilitation
and
Minimal
reconstruction
in
the
following
ways:
0.5
Disaster
1
2
3
4
rescue
can
–
saving
survive
people
despite
so
life
in
10
weeks
20
30
following
40
50
100
200
300 400 500
disaster
they
having
only
Sample
Completion
indicators
minimum
5
event
Time
●
and
of
search
Restoration
rescue
urban
of
major
Attain
services
pre-disaster
levels
of
capital
stock
End
of
emergency
Return
of
of
and
rehabilitation
–
restoring
process
of
that
public
needs
services,
one
or
feeding
Rubble
projects
cleared
the
Clearing
functions
major
construction
refugees
activities
shelter
●
Completion
necessities
or
a
main
rubble
from
arteries
two

Fgr D.23: A model of disaster recovery for urban areas
years
reconstruction
infrastructure
ve
–
rebuilding
and
the
governance
public
system,
functions,
economic
predicted
to
system,
take
two
L TA
●
Research skills
to
years.
Visit
http://www.usindo.
org/publications/Blue_Plan_
In
practice,
the
Indonesian
government
provided
the
following
rescue
Aceh.pdf
and
research,
services:
in
●
immediately
helping
the
disaster
detail,
the
immediately
burying
the
victims’
immediately
enhancing
basic
dead
for
bodies
facilities
and
infrastructure
to
be
able
the
rehabilitation
adequate
services
for
the
of
and
areas
affected
to
by
provide
the
government
reconstruction
●
of
survivors
Indonesian
●
plans
the
tsunami.
victims.
207
4
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Case study
Reconstructing Haiti
Following
were
the
earthquake
discussed
for
reconstruction
challenge
to
has
over
of
failed
poverty,
of
the
the
(see
rescue,
Haiti.
188),
Reconstructing
international
decades
corruption
page
to
lift
and
plans
rehabilitation
Haiti
community,
the
island
violence.
and
is
a
which
state
out
this
emergency
Expectations
living
after
in
a
they
and
2010,
more
than
$4
billion
has
to
rebuild
communities
and
4:
by
hurricanes,
oods
as
and
mismanagement,
lack
of
the
by
global
coordination
institutions
to
testbed
efforts.
A
are
foreign
believed
debt
of
use
to
Haiti
have
$1.5
as
down
the
be
1:
rst
government
was
and
clear
sanitation
of
to
self-help
and
youth
1–10
2:
teams
communities
rubble,
and
prevent
to
groups,
restore
disease.
NGOs,
that
working
rescue
water
Haiti
recovery
UN,
and
charities
with
to
government
little
5:
needed
Ports,
were
6–10
donors,
to
a
piped
area
a
faith
the
been
severely
been
lost,
or
extent
of
understood
as
well
Stage
The
had
been
aid
at
a
for
pause,
was
Bank
and
beyond
injured
since
and
of
was
on
the
the
that
race
institutions
deep
is
one
of
the
Hampering
corruption,
between
government.
bypassed
the
a
poor
donor
Aid
agencies
government,
adding
chaos.
and
Realistically,
it
will
the
It
is
country.
and
1–40
years
aid
groups
already
programmes
in
have
Haiti.
take
likely
decades
that
the
to
rebuild
international
up
a
to
and
of
2004
or
to
to
help.
was
a
duplicate
in,
the
example
The
and
be
of
The
the
fund
to
set
reconstruction;
coordinate
aid
up
it
set
efforts.
are
affected
by
a
number
of
factors.
include:
the
magnitude
the
of
the
greater
hazard
the
–
the
greater
the
reaction
the
predictability
are
annual
of
also
There
●
needed
but
●
damaged,
of
was
their
random
the
level
the
in
the
event
whereas
–
hurricanes
earthquakes
are
time
●
the
perceived
the
needed
is
–
●
the
to
of
risk
be
of
of
can
raise
whether
a
not,
its
and
provided
event,
level
index)
size
in
of
the
event,
taken
hazard
codes,
–
or
the
government
explosivity
information
to
much
national
erupt
(volcanic
of
degree
building
how
organizations
probability
measures
that
–
level
likely
VEI
level
media
wasting
wealth
household,
international
volcano
on
was
of
individual
other
risk
key,
events,
fully
was
danger
impose
manage
was
killed.
weeks
real
to
multi-donor
agency
records
begin.
Coordination
efforts.
follow
the
communities.
1–10
level.
rush
were
tsunami
there
NGO
could
rural
now
government
pipes
Port-au-Prince,
Jacmel
a
engineers
planning
capital,
and
will
where
exclusively
event
land-use
preparation
zoning,
–
drills
own
●
even
personal
factors
–
awareness
of
alternatives,
at
ability
208
the
reconstruction
and
Coordination,
and
it
states.
there
government
needed
3:
national
ideas,
of
the
capability
doctors,
recovery
hundreds
the
and
mistrust
countries
reaction.
Carrefour
lesson
in
order
as
disasters
of
record
schools
state,
Pumps
teachers,
devastation
in
be
than
like
been
and
major
more
cities
Haiti’s
groups,
World
what
electricity
capital.
damaged,
and
professionals
Attention
poor,
Many
●
rather
people
weeks
houses,
dreadful
water
in
had
to
million
number
mobilize
the
know
hospitals,
in
had
needed
rebuilt.
Reconstruction,
event,
The
3
infrastructure
trapped
●
and
be
is
administrative
These
business
the
aid-dependent
increasingly
Responses
was
suggested,
effort.
The
roads
to
have
service,
Aceh,
and
weeks
and
has
unions,
helped
Assessment,
remained.
Cross
money
most
community
Stage
1–52
weeks
emergency
brigades
emergency
home.
problems.
has
Stage
people,
their
to
people
palaces
economy.
Rescue,
step
lead
get
frustrated
billion
have
The
destroyed
can
rehoused,
had
community
Stage
to
an
civil
weighed
has
this
term.
and
its
all
Red
country
world’s
economic
not,
expect
Rehabilitation,
to
handling
attempts
event
do
long
managed:
landslides,
the
but
sometimes
think
be
infrastructure
needed
devastated
to
to
been
If,
spent
was
needed
Between
Stage
2000
slums
hazard
When
stage,
also
to
afford
such
alternatives,
and
so
on.
4
F u t u R e
R e S i l i e n c e
A n D
L TA
Using phones to track missing children
RapidFTR
is
the
brainchild
of
a
New
York
A D A p t A t i o n
student.
It
is
an
Research skills
open-source
Visit
app
designed
to
reunite
children
with
their
families
in
rapidly
http://www.
developing
rapidftr.com/
disaster
situations,
and
it
is
being
actively
developed
by
UNICEF
.
The
at
processes
information
about
missing
children
in
disaster
situations,
the
helped
to
reunite
homepage
family
tracing
android
phones
and
laptops,
the
app
enables
to
register
information
about
missing
children,
which
is
about
to
a
database
accessible
by
those
responsible
for
child
mapping
quicker
children
are
found,
the
less
vulnerable
they
are
to
to
reduce
welfare.
disaster
The
UNICEF’s
then
digital
uploaded
and
app.
humanitarian
Read
workers
the
families.
reunication
Using
look
of
and
rapid
has
and
app
risks
at
http://
violence,
www.unicefstories.
exploitation
and
trafcking.
org/2014/05/20/digital-
One
of
used
the
and
central
advantages
adapted
data
children,
over
main
by
system
time.
It
could
different
means
vulnerable
of
be
app
teams
that
families
even
the
a
or
being
on
range
in
range
of
women
used
a
of
cases,
at
place
open
risk
of
source
is
different
such
from
as
that
those
birth
can
platforms.
violence,
traditional
it
be
mapping-technology-
The
involving
can
be
to-reduce-disaster-risks/
and
tracked
registration.
http://i1.wp.com/
unicefstories.les.
wordpress.com/2013/11/
urp-1.jpg
of
to
see
a
environmental
map
issues
Using phones for hazard mapping
identied
The
use
scale
of
and
location
mapping.
young
are
In
a
people
very
able
communication
to
of
to
problems
in
the
in
map
competent
alert
the
project
technologies
hazard
Rio
social
with
home
to
be
UNICEF
environmental
phones,
such
region,
information
distributed,
Janeiro,
and
their
authorities,
their
de
allows
as
UNICEF
UNICEF
,
and
so
and
has
risk.
a
aid
been
As
with
young
people.
the
hazard
training
many
believes
about
initiate
so
about
by
that
natural
teenagers
they
will
hazards
be
and
response.
Concepts in contex t
Geophysical
people
more
by
in
the
people
choice
or
preparations
change
with
of
depend
is
on
offered,
(for
to
cope
lack
with
aspects
of
the
and
example,
will
is
areas
level
the
of
continue
due
at
of
to
risk
choice.
lifestyle
cooperation
population).
community
The
a
hazards
where
are
and
hazards,
and
will
organizations
leaders/local
vary
to
whether
need
they
number
the
due
of
will
to
make
have
to
live/work/interact
of
possibilities.
will
aid/assistance
different
will
number
reconstruction
country,
possibilities
large
growth
they
a
and
between
multi-government
NGOs,
–
a
Communities
There
of
affect
geophysical
rehabilitation
wealth
to
population
of
geophysical
environment.
post-event
governments,
resident
This
in
through
natural
the
events
future.
living
certain
the
Much
hazard
that
stakeholders
(MGOs),
national
government
from
place
and
to
the
place.
209
4
OPTION
D
G E O P H YS I C A L
HAZ ARDS
Check your understanding
1.
State
and
2.
the
proportion
2013
State
the
that
proportion
low–middle
3.
Suggest
income
two
impact
4.
What
is
5.
Identify
6.
Identify
an
predicted
Identify
largely
Outline
9.
Identify
10.
the
the
the
the
one
that
of
a
false
main
main
How
GPS
hazards
between
1994
for.
natural
income
hazards
that
occur
in
groups.
growth
may
increase
the
hazards.
“safe
are
house”?
said
volcanic
to
predict
eruption
earthquakes.
that
was
successfully
alarm.
volcano
for
that
hundreds
methods
of
differences
natural
from
population
term
dominant
to
can
by
Indonesian
responses
low
why
natural
accounted
geophysical
example
and
world’s
deaths
and
animals
been
8.
of
meant
two
the
of
reasons
likely
7.
of
earthquakes
slope
erupted
of
in
2014
having
years.
stabilization.
between
short-term
and
long-term
hazards.
systems
help
to
manage
the
impacts
of
natural
hazards?
Synthesis and evaluation
Hazard
risk
human
and
for
at
is
physical
example
risk
a
result
processes
than
distribution
women,
other
–
in
low-magnitude
how
accept
of
210
risk
the
simple
risk
interactions
such
the
as
tectonic
young,
groups.
addition,
or
managed
adapt
graphs,
–
can
processes
and
of
be
People
example,
it.
of
Risk
shown
is
by
generation)
Some
the
vary
produce
events.
different
wealth
processes.
elderly
events
for
because
but
in
scale/magnitude
low-frequency
be
the
Physical
the
between
inequalities
high-frequency
can
line
spatial
example,
processes,
high-magnitude
on
of
(for
in
their
events
more
have
are
varies,
damage
they
shown
proportional
more
spatial
different
whether
often
people,
poor,
and
than
views
should
by
the
use
symbols.
The
map
shows
global
ows
of
heat
from
the
Earth’s
interior
to
surface.
1
E C I T C A R P
the
pRActice
M A X E
e X AM
–2
mWm
23–45
45–55
75–85

55–65
85–95
65–75
95–150
150–450
-2
Global map of the ow of heat, in mWm
, from the Ear th’s interior to the surface
(a)
(i)
Describe
Earth’s
(ii)
Explain
(2
the
one
(3
variations
in
the
ow
of
heat
from
the
marks)
impact
of
rising
heat
in
some
parts
of
the
Earth.
marks)
(iii) Using
examples,
magnitude
(b)
global
interior.
and
explain
the
frequency.
relationship
(5
between
hazard
marks)
Either
“The
impact
hazard
and
of
geophysical
more
on
hazards
human
depends
factors.”
less
Discuss
on
this
the
natural
statement.
(10
marks)
Or
“Geophysical
managed.”
hazards
Discuss
cannot
this
be
controlled
statement.
(10
–
they
can
only
be
marks)
211
O P T I O N
E
L E I S U R E ,
TO U R I S M
A N D
This
optional
S P O RT
theme
focuses
on
ways
in
which
Key terms
people
Lesre
a
Any freely chosen activity or
make
experience that takes place in
join
non-work time. It includes spor t,
disposable
recreation and tourism.
in
use
the
growing
of
their
“global
number
leisure
middle
incomes
tourism,
and
Recretn
in
different
types
time.
class”,
allowing
including
of
global
As
more
they
sport.
people
have
participation
international
of
contexts
Sport
travel
can
be
an
A leisure-time activity under taken
important
use
of
leisure
time
for
people
on
low
voluntarily and for enjoyment.
incomes
who
cannot
afford
to
participate
in
It includes individual pursuits,
tourism.
organized outings and events, and
non-paid (non-professional) spor ts.
While
areas
Spr t
tourism
provide
often
has
another
an
urban
important
focus,
rural
geographical
A physical activity involving events
setting
for
touristic
activities
including
walking,
and competitions at the national
enjoying
the
wilderness,
doing
extreme
sports
and international scale with
or
visiting
heritage
sites.
The
uses
made
of
professional par ticipants.
places
Trs
Travel away from home for at least
one night for the purpose of leisure.
vary
greatly
depending
geography,
history
and
the
on
level
physical
of
economic
development.
This denition excludes day trips –
Through
study
of
this
optional
theme,
you
some of which may be international
will
develop
your
understanding
of
processes,
trips. There are many possible
places,
power
and
geographical
possibilities.
subdivisions of tourism. Subgroups
You
will
also
gain
an
understanding
of
more
include ectrs – tourism
specialized
concepts
including
consumption
focusing on the natural environment
(of
landscape),
(in
relation
carrying
capacity
and
threshold
and local communities.
Sstnble
Tourism that conserves primary
trs
tourist resources and suppor ts the
to
environmental
sustainability
(in
management
of
relation
touristic
to
stress)
and
long-term
resources).
livelihoods and culture of local people.
Glbl
Resources that are outside the
Cns
reach of any one nation, for
example oceans, the atmosphere
Key questions
and Antarctica. Global commons
1.
How
have
human
development
processes
may be exploited or degraded and
given
rise
to
the
concept
of
leisure
and
so need to be managed carefully.
leisure
Nce
Special interest tourism catering for
trs
small numbers of people who are
2.
How
activities?
do
places
physical
into
sites
and
of
human
factors
shape
leisure?
crowd intolerant. It is usually more
concerned with sustainability than
3.
mass tourism.
Ectrs
do
the
variations
different
countries
in
tourism
global
in
affect
and
power
their
of
participation
sport?
A “green” and “alternative” form
of tourism that aims to preserve
the environment by managing it
responsibly and sustainably.
212
How
4.
What
are
the
management
tourism
and
future
possibilities
of
participation
and
sport
at
varying
for
in
scales?
1
Changing leisure patterns
The growth and changing purpose of leisure
Conceptual
time for societies in dierent geographic and
understanding
developmental contexts
Key qestn
Leisure
may
In
of
terms
dened
more
list
sports
time,
be
as
or
dened
can
denition
exercise,
as
terms
activities
leisure
dened
in
leisure
specic
thorough
would
can
as
be
may
activities,
state
of
time,
seen
as
activities,
free
time.
conventionally
reading,
a
be
of
be
based
such
as
watching
mind,
or
Leisure
thought
on
what
watching
movies,
meaning
states
of
the
TV
,
and
of
can
as
mind.
also
majority
of
participating
so
engaging
on.
in
How
be
“leisurely”.
A
people
of
human
leisure
given
and
Finally,
leisure
Leisure
are
undertaken
entertainment,
is
enjoyable
The
growth
associated
outside
improvement
with
the
time
work
of
that
is
for
the
purpose
knowledge,
free
from
and
work
societies
of
relaxation.
and
care
activities
(eating,
washing,
sleeping
and
so
on).
of
and
groups,
than
such
they
as
the
would
unemployed
perhaps
and
the
retired,
have
and
developmental
The
categorization
eating
is
a
biological
going
out
for
a
meal
more
(cost,
range
from
informal
subset
of
leisure
is
hobbies
necessity,
it
can
also
be
a
leisure
activity,
and
or
cooking
as
a
form
of
entertaining.
(cost,
generate
satisfaction
and
short-lasting
which
and
to
formal
and
are
undertaken
for
often
result
in
the
The
link
between
may
be
indoor
or
outdoor
activities
and
may
involve
of
leisure
new
activities.
Factors
affecting
with
and
observation.
the
development
The
of
range
of
societies
leisure
to
and
development,
For
some
lling,
fullling
may
people
such
as
Figure
activities
E.1
their
includes
the
share
of
comparatively
Canada,
category,
use,
time
personal
“Leisure”
18
care,
for
as
nd
OECD
visits
in
is
expanding
stage
and
includes
a
per
is
care
a
43
sports,
of
games,
cycle,
place
of
residence.
personal
and
participate
There
are
spend
“Personal
time-
in
also
these
per
on
of
next
of
per
total
television
and
Variation
is
in
inFrance.
time
across
the
viewing,
friends
largest
time
cent
largest
average
with
etc.).
countries
cent
49
the
care”
medical
hairdresser
the
socializing
to
informal
to
household,
high
time
lead
people
across
of
typically
cent
hobbies,
gardening,
other
doctor,
to
that
gym.
activities.
low
Norway
leisure
22
and
life
partner.
countries
the
personal
the
in
activities.
choose
life
and
afuence,
enthusiasts.
passive,
to
a
care
to
from
are
going
to
drinking,
ranging
Mexico
accounting
recreational
and
spent
small,
such
those
leisure
Others
personal
(hygiene,
Sweden,
Following
regions.
eating
services
in
serious
activities
people
across
time
particularly
as
television.
help
that
their
sleep,
personal
in
of
leisure
pursuits,
that
shows
proportion
hobbies,
considered
watching
health-enhancing
leisure
be
sports
including
personality,
Substantial
in
collection,
activities
support
personal
skills.
gender,
rapidly
participation
interest.
tourism
competition
economic
and
long-lasting.
personal
acquisition
site).
Leisure
participation
They
sporting
popularity,
for
●
They
touristic
free
in
A
of
duration,
like.
development
pursuits
contexts.
However,
●
example
for
geographic
other
activities
Although
time
different
destination)
time
changing
leisure
in
activities
some
concept
or
●
personal
the
activities?
activities.
activities
pleasure,
to
leisure
Key cntent
purpose
Leisure
development
rise
in
●
pleasurable
have
processes
and
18
computer
family,

Pt E.1: Magic Kingdom, Walt
attending
events,
and
so
on.
Leisure
time
is
greatest
in
Norway
Disney World, Florida, USA
213
1
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M

Fgre E.1: Share of time
AND
24-hour
in
18
SPOR T
breakdown
OECD
of
time
spent
in
main
activities
for
all
respondents
aged
15
and
over
countries
taken by leisure and
Key:
other activities across
Leisure
Personal
care
Paid
work
or
study
Unpaid
work
Unspecified
an average day
0.7
2. 2
2. 5
0.7
1. 5
5.4
0. 8
0. 5
1. 5
1.7
0. 3
0.6
14. 9
14.7
0.9
1.0
1.1
1. 3
15. 2
14. 5
13 .6
15. 4
2.4
1. 4
0. 3
10 0
Source: OECD. 2009.
10. 2
13 .0
90
"Measuring leisure in OECD
16 .1
16 .7
14. 9
2 0.6
14. 8
17. 4
13 . 8
14. 4
15. 8
14. 4
17.6
15. 3
16 .0
countries". Society at a Glance
80
21.6
2009, OECD Social Indicators
14. 9
2 0.7
15. 2
15.6
16 .6
18 . 3
17.0
15. 3
12 . 8
17. 4
15. 9
16 .6
16 . 5
15.7
13 .1
70
2 0. 3
60
%
50
4 5.1
4 5.7
4 9. 2
4 8.3
18 . 4
18 .7
4 6.8
4 5. 4
4 4. 8
4 5.0
2 1.1
2 1. 4
21.6
2 1.7
4 6.4
4 4.0
4 3. 3
42.8
4 3.8
4 3.4
4 5. 3
4 5.6
4 6 .7
4 6 .1
40
4 2 .7
30
20
10
18 .0
19.6
18 .7
2 6. 5
2 5.0
2 5.0
24.7
2 3 .7
2 3.4
2 3 .1
2 1.7
21.6
15. 8
0
1
l
r
C
w
D
a
a
E
O
N
F
B
G
i
o
n
e
e
e
K
S
i
C
n
w
l
r
g
e
g
a
S
n
m
n
a
i
d
d
a
u
e
o
d
y
8
y
n
m
n
m
a
d
p
d
i
d
t
w
A
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u
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o
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t
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a
a
t
i
e
r
l
I
a
t
s
J
F
T
t
u
l
r
a
r
r
a
e
n
n
s
a
l
d
y
l
k
i
e
a
y
a
a
p
n
n
c
d
e
a
i
n
c
e
n
t
i
U
N
n
U
(27
of
per
and
a
cent
leisure
Mexico
higher
more
is
equal
“Paid
work,
time
household
family
The
in
than
paid
work”
in
paid
work
and
in
(chores,
growth
of
leisure
where
15
cent
the
On
paid
average
full-time
and
part-time
and
home.
workplace,
commuting
In
members,
been
the
contrast,
cleaning,
to
volunteering,
facilitated
by
a
the
length
of
the
working
day
●
a
reduction
in
the
length
of
the
working
week
●
an
increase
in
wages
●
an
increase
in
disposable
●
the
●
more
●
an
●
developments
early
Similarly,
an
and
the
looking
school,
and
includes
children
of
margin
in
and
and
so
all
other
on).
factors:
activities
technology
enable
leisure
people
greater
in
in
to
for
machinery
and
disposable
is
as
less
such
as
machines
time
on
TVs
and
freed
up
time
for
necessarily
emerging
income
washing
and
chores,
the
and
Internet,
leisure.
has
not
exitime
spend
technology,
activity
HICs
and
(such
people
opportunities
agricultural
many
time
in
which
in
breaks
income
self-employment
provide
increase
For
in
developments
which
OECD18,
the
retirement
increase
other
the
work”
number
in
leisure
but
from
for
Japan
report
spent
shopping,
reduction
leisure
time
and
a
of
jobs,
“unpaid
caring
and
across
leisure,
●
growth
work
than
Amounts
represents
countries
less
from
time).
Finland.
work
other
in
of
and
paid
while
of
time.
cooking,
has
per
slightly
and
at
(16
Germany
leisure,
All
work
is
school
work
non-family
countries
than
work
to
Mexico
Belgium,
Korea.
includes
spent
paid
in
in
two
time
commuting
freezers)
214
only
of
least
high
shares
in
time
spent
and
also
the
time
spent
workplace,
for
are
leisure
time
ne.
time)
are
proportion
represent
the
of
time
a
economies,
allows
them
some
farmers,
but
result.
to
having
take
more
part
in
leisure
more
1
C h a N G i N G
L E i S u R E
P a T T E R N S
Activity 1
Tourism
1.
Dene the terms “niche
tourism” and “mass
tourism”.
Niche
Mass
Tourism
Tourism
2.
Find an example of each of
the types of tourism shown
in Figure E.2.
3.
Suggest why most
geographers prefer niche
Ecotourism

Heritage
Medical
Adventure
Silver
tourism to mass tourism.
Fgre E.2: Types of tourism
leisure
activities.
However,
in
poorer
countries,
and
in
countries
where
TOK
there
is
political
turmoil,
there
is
less
opportunity
for
leisure
activities,
1.
and
not
the
“state
of
mind”
of
being
“at
leisure”.
For
some
Explain how gender
indigenous
inuences leisure time in
populations,
leisure
activities
others,
quality
may
include
story-telling
and
music.
For
societies at dierent stages
their
of
life
and
standard
of
living
is
so
low
that
it
limits
of development.
the
amount
of
leisure
time
and
leisure
activities.
2.
Gender
differences
can
also
be
observed.
Men
generally
have
Present an argument
more
that suppor ts the idea
leisure
time
than
women
(in
Europe
and
the
USA
adult
men
normally
that technology does not
have
between
one
and
nine
hours
more
leisure
time
than
women
each
increase leisure time.
week).
This
difference
responsibilities,
households
closely
Undoubtedly,
of
in
engaging
expensive
various
As
life
to
the
there
LICs
leisure
in
is
leisure
equipment.
of
industry
a
link
less
between
income
are
make
universally,
and
of
the
progressive
in
society
and
leisure
therefore
this
involves
pursuing
the
in
can
needs
of
in
chance
culture
and
activities
benet
aspects
population
less
purchasing
the
difcult.
leisure
adults
spiritual
is
activities.
and
if
parenting
have.
differences
Older
and
more
status
comparisons
accommodate
cent
some
they
income
there
that
cultural
to
time
particularly
important.
per
In
household
Women’s
leisure
However,
25
their
changing.
of
leisure
had
to
disposable
emotional,
has
due
shared.
pursuits,
more
comprise
is
are
increases
becomes
social,
who
this
amount
have
expectancy
physical,
group
although
perceptions
retirement
usually
responsibilities
linked
Societies
is
of
the
leisure.
over-65
many
in
from
the
The
age
HICs.
The categorization of tourist activities and
sporting activities
For
much
of
history,
uncomfortable
strong.
people
not
Nowadays
and
more
more
and
Tourism
the
and
local
many
often.
more
makes
scale
tourism
travel
is
people
As
travel
people
use
(for
and
dangerous,
of
so
travel
the
considered
expect
to
becomes
travel
and
primary
example,
a
and
local
a
less
a
difcult,
to
travel
natural
travel
for
was
desire
at
part
least
difcult
greater
secondary
on
and
expensive,
had
of
an
of
resources,
attraction)
to
the
be
for
very
some
annual
more
variety
to
life
basis
if
affordable,
reasons.
ranging
global
scale
from
(for
215
1
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
example,
the
a
hotel
pre-existing
built
specically
indigenous
from
chain).
for
people,
secondary
accommodation,
There
vary
are
example,
needed.
and
Pt E.2: Water park in Florida

the
drink
cost.
and
contrast,
L TA
for
Research and
communication skills
a
days.
a
holiday
for
example
and
Choose
two
two
be
very
purpose),
of
of
and
or
tourism
mainly
to
are
cater
tourists
tourism
of
tourism
Costa
form
of
del
is
Sol,
tourism.
expensive,
be
tourism
such
as
for
for
most
to
In
often
are
not
wildlife,
include
to
the
much
tourism
For
equipment
of
imported,
week
it
last
the
food
increasing
(although
can
for
found
achieve
between
in
coastal
ecotourism
some
watching,
of
periods).
contrast,
Nevertheless,
gorilla
be
one
frequently
Spain.
due
because
holidays
those
distinguished
types
areas,
shorter
cheaper
are
destination.
expensive
skiing
go
is,
scenery,
which
These
and
has
resources
(that
shopping.
E.2).
tourists
go
may
may
Mass
and
mountainous
the
generally
residents
scale.
type
for
in
These
resources ,
duration
generally
climate,
sites.
(Figure
cost,
occur
recreation
including
heritage
entertainment
their
holidays
local
the
tourist/recreational
tourism
forms
since
it
of
is
7
and
areas,
largely
ecotourism
costs
a
great
two
deal
adults
This
low-impact
can
Plan
types
mass
of
for
tourist/recreational
terms
they
Most
the
cultural
catering,
needed
economies
14
in
skiing
As
nationals
In
many
greatly
Primary
attractions
to
get
to
the
remote
locations
in
which
they
occur.
children.
contrasting
Categorization of spor ting activities
types
of
tourism,
and
q
research
would
how
cost
much
for
two
Tble E.1: Groupings of spor ts
it
adults
Group 1 Athletics and rugby
and
two
children,
American football; archery; curling; Gaelic
possible
spor ts; gymnastics; lacrosse; orienteering;
destinations
and
length
rugby league; rugby union; track and eld
of
holiday.
(If
you
choose
athletics; triathlon
grey
(silver)
tourism
there
Group 2 Dancing and yoga
will
be
no
children.)
Keep t; aerobics; dance exercise; pilates;
Make
trampolining; yoga
a
two-minute
to
your
your
class,
presentation
outlining
Group 3 Outdoor spor ts
ndings.
Angling or shing; BMX; cyclo-cross; mountain
biking; climbing/mountaineering; cycling
for health, recreation, training; cycling to get
to places (e.g. work , shops); hill trekking or
backpacking; motor spor ts; rambling/walking
for pleasure; shooting
Group 4 Swimming, cycling
Health, tness or conditioning activities;
and gym
swimming or diving (indoor or outdoor); cycling
for tness or pleasure
Group 5 Racquet spor ts and
Badminton; horse riding; ice-skating; jogging;
running
cross-country; road running; squash; table
tennis; tennis
Group 6 Bowling
Bowls – lawn/outdoor; bowls – indoor
Group 7 Cricket, football, pub
Cricket; croquet; dar ts; football (indoors and
spor ts and tenpin bowling
outdoors); golf; pitch and putt; putting; skittles;
snooker; pool; billiards (excluding bar billiards);
tenpin bowling

Pt E.3: Tourists at Geisir,
Iceland, waiting for an eruption
216
1
C h a N G i N G
L E i S u R E
Group 8 Boxing, mar tial ar ts
Boxing; judo; karate; other mar tial ar ts
and weightlifting
(including self-defence); taekwondo; weight
P a T T E R N S
training (including body building);
weightlifting
Group 9 Minor team spor ts
Baseball/softball; basketball; hockey; netball;
rounders; volleyball
Group 10 Water spor ts
Any other water spor t; canoeing; rowing;
waterskiing; windsurng or boardsailing;
yachting or dingy sailing
Table
E.1
shows
a
categorization
of
sporting
activities.
Some
sports
are
Activity 2
very
popular
–
such
as
football,
shing
and
jogging.
Some
are
very
Choose any two activities
expensive
such
as
horse-riding
and
yachting,
whereas
others
are
cheap,
from two dierent groups, and
such
as
running
or
football.
Some
take
place
in
a
particular
place
such
comment on their likely cost,
as
a
swimming
pool
or
a
golf
course,
whereas
others
can
be
played
in
popularity and site.
almost
any
space
available,
such
as
jogging.
The link between economic development and
participation in leisure activities
The
level
and
range
of
economic
of
leisure
leisure
facilities
groups
catered
and
leisure
domestic
means
As
countries
of
to
the
able
enjoy
poor
rst
to
the
to
afford
money
in
home.
so
the
leisure
In
that
time
listening
In
to
addition,
stage
E.2
can
in
the
in
they
afford
to
to
a
radio
that
life
in
have
It
it.
investment
than
investment
will
to
quality
and
all
age
survival
expenditure
in
tourism
is
on
a
in
range
to
also
be
will
long
limited
number
televisions
and
it
as
be
so
is
not
many
large
to
spend
particular
of
newly
leisure
activities,
to
long
and
free
sending
time
more
and
of
potential
due
For
income
time
numbers
their
trade.
more
about
the
Their
only
as
become
just
having
hours.
of
such
watching
not
accommodation,
choose
of
a
appliances
about
example,
there
work
a
afford
However,
is
activities
for
improve,
share
may
leisure
occurs
purchase,
it
For
may
countries,
participate.
may
combination
see
the
widespread
important
the
able
develop,
watching
people
in
activity.
qualify
cycle,
affect
have
Government
This
activity;
some
greater
or
be
they
having
the
limited.
incomes
whom
to
less
although
not
activities
can
wealthy
family
assumes
(NICs)
of
is
change
leisure
addition,
leads
the
that
can
HICs
LICs.
people’s
also
countries/communities
leisure
may
partake
many
but
a
country
The
government
residents.
leisure
countries
hours,
studying,
as
small
is
their
or
of
a
it.
leisure
some
people
activity
participate
working
for
important
workers,
is
there
of
deal
extremely
appliances
an
industrialized
migrant
most
However,
becomes
being
are
of
within
LICs
provision
develop,
by
Very
televisions.
TV
great
the
development
undertaken
one
a
In
facilities
leisure
of
reasons.
with
for.
development
activities
wealthy
more
other
than
TV
.
leisure
Table
activities
E.2).
The
the
time
available
shows
how
the
type
vary
model
for
of
with
age
shown
leisure
leisure
(and
in
Table
activities,
activity
and
varies

with
Fgre E.3: The four ages of
age.
spor ting life
Source: Jane Upton
217
1
OPTION
q
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Tble E.2: A traditional family life cycle and its impact on leisure and tourism
Stge n lfe cycle
Byng r bevr ptterns
1 Bachelor stage: young, single
Few nancial burdens; fashion opinion leaders; recreation-oriented; buy basic
people not living at home
kitchen equipment, basic furniture, cars, equipment for the mating game, holidays.
2 Newly married couples: young,
Better o nancially than they will be in near future; highest purchase rate and
no children
highest average purchase of durables; buy cars, refrigerators, cookers, sensible
and durable furniture, holidays.
3 Full nest I: youngest child
Home purchasing at peak; liquid assets low; dissatised with nancial position
under six
and amount of money saved; interested in new products; buy washers, dryers, TV,
baby food, sleds, skates.
4 Full nest II: youngest child six or
Financial position better; some wives work; less inuenced by adver tising; buy
over
larger-sized packages, multiple-unit deals; buy many foods, cleaning materials,
bicycles, music lessons, pianos.
5 Full nest III: older couples with
Financial position still better; more wives work; some children get jobs; hard to
dependent children
inuence with adver tising; high average purchase of durables; buy new, more
tasteful furniture; go on motoring holidays; buy non-necessary appliances, boats,
dental services, magazines.
6 Empty nest I: older couples, no
Home ownership at peak; most satised with nancial position and money saved;
children living with them, head in
interested in travel, recreation, self-education; make gifts and contributions; not
labour force
interested in new products; buy holidays, luxuries, home improvements.
7 Empty nest II: older married
Drastic cut in income; keep home; buy medical-care products that improve
couples, no children living at
health, sleep and digestion.
home, head retired
8 Solitary survivor, in labour-force
Income still good but likely to sell home.
9 Solitary survivor, retired
Same medical and product needs as other retired group; drastic cut in income;
special need for attention, aection and security.
Source: Page, S. 1995. Urban tourism. London, UK . Routledge
Children combining work and leisure in Sudan
Activity 3
Cindi
1.
Katz’s
study
of
children
living
in
the
village
of
Howa
(a
Study Table E.2 which shows
pseudonym)
demonstrates
Children
expected
how
work
and
play
are
inseparable.
a traditional family life cycle
are
to
work
from
an
early
age.
This
may
involve
tasks
and their buying or behaviour
such
as:
pattern. Describe and explain
what types of holidays are
●
collecting
●
running
●
weeding
●
herding
water
likely to be taken at each of
errands
to
she
shop
these stages.
2.
plots
Comment on the likely
usefulness of the family life
sheep
and
goats.
cycle model for leisure in (a)
When
doing
these
things,
children
introduce
elements
of
play
into
an HIC (b) an NIC and (c) a LIC.
their
activities.
For
example,
when
boys
are
out
herding,
games
such
as
Suggest reasons to suppor t
shedduck
are
played
which
is
play
ghting
where
participants
have
to
your answer.
hop
3.
Comment on the dierences
between the leisure time
the
with
one
herds,
more
leg
boys
behind
can
them.
make
the
By
combining
work
more
games
enjoyable
with
and
overseeing
the
time
passes
quickly.
activities for mothers and
Children
use
scrap
metal
to
make
dolls,
tractors,
houses
and
models
and
agricultural
of
fathers in Figure E.4.
local
218
shops.
They
then
use
these
to
act
out
domestic
life
1
cycles.
An
awareness
exemplied
out
of
in
broken
their
of
how
acting
trade
out
of
and
wage
payment
labour
for
C h a N G i N G
operate
crops
using
L E i S u R E
is
P a T T E R N S
Average
money
made
number
different
leisure
of
hours
per
week
on
activities
china.
17.5
Society
despite
in
much
this
of
sub-Saharan
pressure
on
their
Africa
time
depends
children
are
upon
still
child
able
to
labour,
14.7
but
combine
work
8.3
7.4
and
play.
2.6
1.4
TV
Leisure in BRICs
Growth
of
the
and
other
Social
Sports
media
leisure
industry
in
the
BRIC
countries
(Brazil,
Note: based on adults aged 18–64 with own child(ren)
Russia,
under 18 living in the household (N = 4,822). Other media
India
and
China)
has
been
accelerating
due
to
economic
and
social
includes computer, games, radio, etc.
changes.
These
include:

●
rising
●
a
disposable
Fgre E.4: How mothers and fathers spend
their leisure time
income
Source: Pew Research Center analysis of 2010
surging
middle
class
American Time Use Survey
●
rapid
●
greater
●
an
BRIC
urbanizaton
aging
on
such
and
as
Across
India,
2.9
the
in
Russia
particularly
resorts,
India
They
anything
is
have
services
theatres,
in
a
gaming
seen
that
cater
halls,
and
rising
rapidly;
a
15
for
the
cent
the
percent
spent
recreation
to
gardens
holidays.
pastime.
world
with
attendances
online
have
entertainment,
attendance.
of
for
them
the
elderly
exhibitions
132
package
cinema
cinema
per
and
other
market
for
favourite
led
Although
substantial
concert
is
by
services
stationery
cinema
grow
household
durables
cultural
Bollywood,
2013.
TV
,
all
aging
up
the
for
to
BRIC
from
and
books,
visiting
appetite
to
expected
average
recreational
relative
make
are
the
magazines,
China
those
spas,
2013
attendances
population
2013.
to
countries,
and
services
In
recreation,
TVs
insatiable
cinema
BRIC
in
and
and
BRIC
beenfalling
65
2030.
newspapers,
withits
Brazil,
recreation
and
leisure
radios
billion
The
and
2014
pets,
connectivity
population.
leisure
between
$287
online
such
and
were
leisure
as
over
industry,
health
cruises.
Changes in leisure in the USA
Since
time
the
that
week.
been
that
1960s
most
This
has
especially
many
work
alone.
or
More
is
households
grown
has
of
be
the
accounted
to
over
20
for
per
The
10
wage
the
of
their
and
amount
extra
working
commuting,
the
free
low
4–9
weeks.
time
up
to
leisure
per
has
has
away
25
of
hours
This
Research
–
in
of
of
1960,
cent
wage/more
time
low-wage
per
cent
in
an
earners.
much
proportion
USA
some
shorter
between
higher
increase
for
shown
from
per
cent
of
person.
wage/less
meals.
in
to
low
spent
single
made
a
large
have,
spending
is
high
spend
rising
a
a
due
among
are
time
the
been
adults
largely
case
takeaway
Inequality
has
can
and
may
buying
the
consist
distinction
population
workers
been
Americans
households
A
there
American
of
wealth.
workers.
their
group
the
free
The
income
is
less
but
in
on
1
to
per
the
wage
eating
likely
wealthiest
wealth,
time
high
out
eat
cent
2010s
out.
of
that

Pt E.4: What does this suggest
about young children’s use of
leisure time?
219
1
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
There
SPOR T
has
games,
Leisure
use
been
but
is
an
about
5
There
is
(for
hours
of
some
size
the
TV
the
within
the
home
to
of
the
spent
leisure
media
of
15
related
by
TV
with
was
a
has
was
clubs.
people
while
watching
they
TV
,
was
13.7
The
of
and
and
theatres
inches
the
sports
towards
–
now
of
Even
In
1968
there
prevalence
of
are
DVD
theatre”.
in
the
sought
matches.
more
71per
are
theatres.
home
Americans
at
cent
dramatically.
“home
in
per
online
by
wealth.
and
increased
the
56
and
and
Going
reported
and
increased
more
trend
many
ethnicity.
cinemas
provided
restaurants
team
health
alone
week
education
Cinemas
inches.
century
is
a
games)
multiplex
development
there
example,
in
to
activities.
to
screen
going
essentially
hours
play
changing.
leisure
For
are
playing
and
African-Americans
be
100
people
activities
or
televisions
20th
at
and
organized
cent
over
century,
the
in
colour
much
theatres,
21st
in
also
size
are
during
cinemas,
is
allowed
while
century,
of
that
has
Overall,
the
players
replaced
Trinitron
screens
players
per
of
jogging
individualized.
social
likely
being
home,
Sony
is
facilities
increasingly
the
use
number
number
average,
week
60
This
of
on
the
the
MP3
variation
to
whites,
Hispanics.
The
per
in
in
more
and
Students,
example,
cent
decline
becoming
headphones
exercise.
in
a
increase
In
leisure
19th
leisure
the
in
early
being
part
provided
environment.
Factors aecting participation in sports
and tourism
The
decision
range
age,
of
sex,
in
time
live
and
are
to
of
a
and
and
tourism
available
spatial
sporting
affected
ethnicity,
as
a
health,
Other
child
stage
location
a
wide
including
in
inuences
and
by
factors,
life
cycle,
include
(that
is,
peer
where
facilities).
variations
success.
population
is
socio-economic
responsibilities.
participation
signicant
proportion
sport
circumstances,
other
relative
international
in
demographic
involvement,
people
There
participate
economic
available
group
to
physical,
that
The
takes
in
the
participation
participation
part
in
a
rate
specic
in
sport
refers
sporting
to
and
the
activity.
Physical factors
A
number
and
of
tourist
physical
activities.
factors
For
have
an
impact
on
participation
in
sport
example:
Activity 4
●
1.
skiing
the
Comment on the gures
and
Alps,
winter
that
sports
have
are
regular
associated
and
with
reliable
mountain
snow
in
areas,
such
as
winter
shown in Table E.3.
●
2.
size for each country, and
coastal
for
Find out the population
areas
surng,
●
hilly
●
rivers
●
it
areas
with
such
can
large
as
in
plunging
Hawaii
promote
breakers
and
mountain
produce
ideal
conditions
California
biking,
as
in
the
case
of
Wales
work out the average tourist
and
lakes
promote
shing
expenditure per person for
each of the countries.
at
3.
has
been
high
suggested
altitude
that
favours
the
increase
long-distance
in
red
blood
runners
in
cell
the
concentration
high-altitude
Comment on the variation in
regions
of
Kenya
and
Ethiopia
average tourist expenditure
between countries.
●
areas
(that
with
is,
Miami
220
wide
hot
and
Beach,
sandy
dry)
beaches,
will
Florida.
and
favour
a
reliable
climate
coastal/beach
in
tourism,
summer
for
example
1
C h a N G i N G
L E i S u R E
P a T T E R N S
Case study
be
Changes in China’s leisure activities
in
In
2015
the
consulting
rm
Daxue
too
that
among
China’s
adult
–
physically
activities.
or
mentally
Moreover,
they
–
to
do
engage
not
have
they
have
Consulting
much
reported
tired
leisure
and
disposable
income,
especially
if
elderly
to
send
some
of
it
to
their
family.
population:
Leisure
●
22
per
cent
of
people
spent
1–2
hours
a
activities
changing.
on
leisure
16
per
Surveys
Chinese
of
children
students
show
are
that
also
the
activities
most
●
for
day
cent
spent
3–4
hours
on
popular
activities
were
doing
homework,
leisure
doing
extra
reading,
taking
part
in
academic
activities
training
●
12
per
spent
cent
more
spent
than
4–5
5
hours,
and
the
and
rest
that
hours.
programmes,
watching
students
Saturday
About
one-third
of
people
spend
their
reading
and
one-sixth
watching
TV
.
in
has
developed
and
people
become
more
people
are
spending
About
one-third
of
Chinese
or
on
the
laptop.
include
table
up,
and
adults
in
tai
public
Chinese
especially
China
have
are
chi,
free
also
by
mobile
women,
and
tables
courts.
to
summer
all
common
parks.
eastern
camps
are
signs
China
are
in
Western
the
largest
part
the
in
Chinese
sports
and
middle
leisure
that
swimming,
camping
classes
rock
grown
(that
theme
park
such
time
to
for
many
engage
workers
work
in
Chinese
these
they
activities.
extremely
long
do
of
the
in
the
country,
by
schools
or
In
property
Wanda
2016,
in
that
Chinese)
China’s
is
a
to
the
Wanda
City
indoor
an
home-
Disney,
Wanda
an
eastern
Nanchang,
it
rival
in
activities
developer,
Shanghai.
park,
activities
leisure
City
complex
is,
in
with
and
a
includes
shopping
a
mall
cinemas,
largest
restaurants
ocean
and
park.
hotels,
Also
in
and
2016,
the
Disney
climbing.
not
Many
hours,
part
as
opened
However,
highly
are
activities
and
Leisure
be
especially
leisure
world.
opened
world’s
cycling,
to
organized
converging
private
Group,
with
taking
tend
children,
Chinese-themed
Increasingly,
operate.
time
when
organizations.
entertainment
playing
are
vacation
developed
There
and
badminton
jogging
1995,
phone
parks
table-tennis
mahjong,
to
after
spend
activities
Numerous
free
chess,
dancing
their
leisure-time
badminton.
there
Kite-ying,
cards,
and
through
popular
shopping,
tennis
throughout
set
Internet
Other
the
Most
community
time
ceased
friends
leisure
time
go
online.
increased
of
richer,
more
increasingly
with
amount
As
organized.
China
have
school
playing
The
leisure
activities
time
TV
.
have
the
migrant
and
may
its
own
Disneyland
Resort
the
in
resort
the
(“Mickey
world’s
most
in
Shanghai,
world.
Mao”)
The
is
visited
Shanghai
expected
theme
up
a
to
year.
330
less
car
19.3
in
Disney
attracting
in
guests
Some
people
three
the
Walt
Florida
million
2014.
million
than
Disney
contrast,
World
from
largest
become
million
In
attracted
visitors
to
park,
50
Disney
t
the
live
hours
by
Shanghai
Resort.
Pt E.5: Par t of Wanda
City: China’s new theme park
revolution
221
1
OPTION
q
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
Tble E.3: Biggest tourist
AND
SPOR T
Human factors
spenders, 2014 ($m)
Human
1
China
factors
relate
to
economic,
social
and
people
2
USA
145.7
3
Germany
106.6
who
home,
Many
that
4
UK
79.9
5
France
59.4
6
Russia
55.4
There
7
Canada
33.8
8
Australia
31.9
is
a
on
they
take
visit
place
physical
strong
most
to
a
travel
place
in
golf
as
that
they
the
between
as
are
large
the
found
number
in
of
HICs
golf
Italy
28.9
11
Japan
28.6
12
Belgium
26.4
Political, social and cultural factors
13
South Korea
25.9
There
14
Saudi Arabia
25.1
15
Singapore
23.9
for
Vietnam
is
tourism
the
Hong Kong
22.0
17
Netherlands
21.4
is
a
also
Social
the
Most
Switzerland
20.2
19
Norway
19.3
expensive.
18.5
have
the
are
in
Paris
tennis
their
experience.
courts,
might
of
not
wealth
sports
and
football
be
as
development
An
that
of
and
the
facilities.
NICs.
courses
is
a
and
origin
For
obvious
may
golf
clubs).
Brussels
with
be
located
courses
in
Polo
is
in
Some
people
sports.
and
in
include
instability
cannot
Golf
associated
University
another
2015
participation
Examples
in
the
region.
certain
generally
Oxford
inuence
infrastructure.
(MENA)
important.
sport
factors
sporting
Africa
also
(although
boxing
The
political
of
associated
Boxing
population
that
North
fees
as
from
example.
attacks
factors
tourists.
provision
and
membership
18
of
evidence
and
East
benet
good
terrorist
Middle
16
the
normally
economic
provision
10
Sweden
issues.
distance
factors
Brazil
LICs
not
such
human
9
in
large
do
venues
Thus,
well
courses
is
relatively
factors.
E.3)
this
a
sporting
pools.
correlation
(Table
exception
holiday
swimming
as
tourists
example,
30.0
is,
and
important
of
go
sports
pitches
20
political
164.9
and
sport
afford
clubs
with
a
is
largely
the
often
working-class
Cambridge
that
are
University
the
each
preserve
of
wealthy.
Source: The Economist. 2015. Pocket World in
Figures. London, UK . Prole Books.
Cultural
as
Activity 5
factors
Lourdes
affects
and
can
Mecca
participation
Muslim
women
women
to
in
also
inuence
attract
in
sport.
athletics
many
A
good
and
tourist
destinations.
pilgrims
each
example
swimming.
is
year.
the
The
Places
Culture
low
such
also
participation
convention
for
of
Muslim
Using information in this section,
remain
robed
means
that
successful
Muslim
athletes,
such
describe how par ticipation in
as
the
Moroccan
middle-distance
runner
Hasna
Benhassi,
receive
much
spor ts varies with (a) gender, (b)
criticism
at
home.
age, (c) ethnicity and (d) socio-
economic conditions.
Socio-economic factors that aect par ticipation in spor t
Suggest reasons to explain
Participation
in
sport
employment
status
varies
according
to
socio-economic
conditions,
these variations.
own
their
living
in
sporting
house
rented
housing
is
housing
more
tenure.
likely
to
accommodation.
activity
swimming
and
are
the
for
people
most
living
popular
For
example,
participate
Going
in
sport
to
the
rented
for
in
people
sport
gym
is
than
the
most
accommodation.
people
in
all
who
those
other
In
popular
contrast,
forms
of
tenure.
Access to a car
People
those
walk
222
with
access
without
more
to
access
regularly.
a
to
car
a
have
car.
In
higher
rates
contrast,
of
those
sports
participation
without
access
to
a
than
car
1
C h a N G i N G
L E i S u R E
P a T T E R N S
Case study
activities
Spor t par ticipation in the UK
ethnic
While
men
and
women
are
equally
likely
for
health
and
recreational
aged
are
more
likely
to
cycle
or
to
take
sport.
Participation
in
sport
is
people
also
younger
and
people,
those
in
those
higher
with
a
in
managerial
positions
sport
more
frequently
than
tend
to
take
time
to
groups,
employment
cycle
people.
Three
for
The
of
are
health
most
the
top
more
and
those
ve
are
cycling.
However,
than
sports
sports
swimming,
in
people
in
for
health
female
in
as
and
as
likely
and
by
sex.
men
of
and
tness,
health
while
male
participation
is
more
analysis
play
temporarily
who
who
likely
shows
sport
is
sports
However,
those
just
and
also
over
in
keep
have
while,
who
Women
heavily
in
who
are
on
sick,
disabled
relatively
or
low
participated
to
in
participate
sport
as
an
as
a
adult.
that
the
majority
of
adults
played
sport
as
children.
5
take
per
are
t
for
more
own
example,
part
cent
and
their
of
in
weight
men
likely
and
proles.
85
per
training
actually
than
aerobics,
gender
nearly
men
over
weight
to
75
take
per
cent
are
male,
train.
part
cent
of
and
q
tness,
or
people
People
are
Specic
retired
vary
both
and
those
people
full-
participation
swimming
qualications;
occupations;
other
twice
recreation
popular
women
concentrated
and
no
routine
part
who
socio-economic
minority
authority
bands.
The
in
and
local
car,
income
child
People
with
or
permanently
incomes.
students
black
greater
injured;
among
over;
part
are
in
and
pensioners;
purposes,
semi-routine
men
75
lone
to
tenants;
walk
are
(BME);
more
Fgre E.5: Spor ts par ticipation in the UK by gender
widely
Source: Depar tment for media, culture and spor t. 2011. “Adult par ticipation in
spread
across
a
range
of
different
activities.
Time,
spor t”. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
expense
and
commonly
health
cited
problems
reasons
for
are
not
the
most
data/le/137986/tp-adult-par ticipation-spor t-analysis.pdf
participating
Football
in
sport.
Participation
in
sport
also
Golf,
according
to
personality
–
some
people
pitch
and
putt,
sports
such
as
mountaineering
climbing,
whereas
others
may
training
sedate
sports
such
as
non-participation
pool,
billiards
77.9
sex,
it
does
by
other
does
not
demographic
to
factors.
participate
in
any
Those
most
cultural
tennis
71.0
for
or
to
health
get
and
to
places
68.9
recreation
31.1
68.3
31.7
likely
trekking
or
backpacking
62.7
37.3
sporting
Climbing/mountaineering
q
29.0
and
Hill
not
23.2
vary
Cycling
socio-economic
22.1
76.8
bowls.
Cycling
by
15.7
prefer
Table
While
14.0
84.3
Darts
more
9.2
86.0
and
Snooker,
rock
putting
prefer
Weight
high-risk
90.8
varies
61.7
Tennis
Pt E.6: Tennis is a spor t that is enjoyed
by both genders
Badminton
Jogging,
cross-country,
Bowls
road
(lawn)
running
[outdoor]
Martials
arts
(incl
self
Bowls
Health,
Swimming
or
Swimming
or
53.7
46.3
52.9
47.1
52.5
47.5
gym
51.0
[outdoors]
diving
aerobics,
40.2
45.9
chi)
fitness,
diving
39.1
39.8
[indoors]
Ice
Keepfit,
tai
60.9
60.2
54.1
bowling
defence,
39.1
59.8
Skiing
Tenpin
38.3
60.9
48.9
skating
exercise
Yoga
51.1
47.7
[indoors]
dance
49.0
52.3
42.7
57.3
24.1
75.9
17.5
82.5
Percentage
Male
Female
223
1
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Case study (continued)
participants
more
and
are
likely
over
those
likely
in
activities
women
two-thirds
more
reected
in
than
of
than
the
to
are
take
cyclists
men
to
proportions
female.
part
are
go
of
in
Men
are
The
cycling,
male.
Women
swimming,
as
most
For
play
also
football
football
participants.
popular
example,
age
is
outdoors
the
group.
the
sports
also
vary
16–24-year-olds
most
Health
gym)
is
(over
20
popular
and
a
10
by
age
most
per
sport
tness
top
are
cent),
among
(that
activity
group.
likely
is,
this
going
for
to
and
all
to
age
90
groups
80
and
highest
for
those
aged
16–24
73.9
73.6 73.7
(over
20
per
cent)
and
25–44-year-olds
70.0
70
(18
63.7
per
cent).
The
16–44-year-olds
are
the
62.1
most
60
egatnecreP
75
48.3
likely
and
to
over
swim,
are
the
while
least
people
likely
aged
to.
Golf
is
Walking
50
Sport
a
top
10
activity
for
all
age
groups
except
37.5
36.4
40
Cycling
16–24-year-olds.
30
t
Fgre E.6: Spor t and active recreation, by age
16.7
20
14.4
12.1
Source: Depar tment for media, culture and spor t. 2011. “Adult
9.3
10
par ticipation in spor t”. https://www.gov.uk/government/
5.2
uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/le/137986/tp0
adult-par ticipation-spor t-analysis.pdf
16–24
25–44
45–64
65–74
75+
Employment
Concepts in contex t
q
Tble E.4: Spor ts par ticipation by socio-economic status (%)
The
Sc-ecnc stts
Wlk
Cycle
Spr t n
is
demand
affected
ctve
people
recretn
time
Managerial and professional
74.3
13.2
62.7
Intermediate occupations
67.4
10.0
51.7
with
are
lacking
Small employers and self-
64.2
9.6
a
able
leisure,
many
recreation
processes.
disposable
to
either
activity
in
for
by
afford
factor
options.
participation
income
such
have
There
in
In
and
are
major
sport
tourism
free
activities.
reduced
leisure,
and
short,
People
leisure
differences
and
tourism.
55.9
However,
it
free
There
is
not
just
based
on
wealth
and
employed
Lower supervisory and
66.7
9.9
time.
are
major
differences
based
49.4
on
gender,
ethnicity,
marital
status,
age
and
technical occupations
composition
Semi-routine and routine
62.0
10.3
53.6
Never worked and long-term
67.0
10.3
53.6
Leisure
leisure
the
to
household
activities
wealthier.
unemployed
of
There
activities.
Internet,
follow
change
has
is
enabling
similar
as
been
This
(family
life
countries
some
interests
become
convergence
illustrated
people
status).
by
around
wherever
the
use
the
they
of
of
world
are.
Check your understanding
1.
Distinguish
2.
Briey
between
leisure,
sport
tourism. 7.
and
Suggest
how
participation
has
explain
inreased
three
reasons
why
leisure
Explain
4.
Briey
how
8.
inHICs.
leisure
time
is
affected
by
in
sport
in
family
and
life
cycle
affect
tourism.
time
Identify
are
3.
changes
the
social
excluded
characteristics
from
participating
of
in
people
sport
in
who
the
gender.
UK.
explain
how
a
country’s
level
of
9.
economic
development
affects
participation
Outline
the
differences
in
the
number
of
hours
in
that
mothers
and
fathers
spend
watching
TV
sport.
a
5.
Briey
explain
the
variations
in
demand
activity.
for
10.
tourist
leisure
Distinguish
between
tourist/recreational
6.
224
primary
and
destinations.
Explain
the
concept
of
the
“family
life
cycle”.
resources.
secondary
as
2
Tourism and spor t at the local and
national scale
Rural and urban tourism hotspots
Conceptual understanding
Hotspots
above
are
areas
average
of
intense
numbers
of
sporting
or
leisure
activity
that
attract
visitors.
Key qestn
Tourists
are
attracted
to
these
hotspots
because
they
have
primary
How
and
secondary
resources
and
are
accessible.
They
are
also
do
shape
to
be
will
●
free
put
of
off
tourist
deterrents
visitors.
natural
Such
hazards,
which
deterrents
such
as
the
may
not
would
be
long-lasting
in
places
political
unrest
and
terrorism,
such
as
the
human
sites
of
factors
leisure?
Key cntent
Haiti
2010
●
Human
and
explaining
●
and
into
but
include:
earthquake
physical
perceived
events
in
physical
the
factors
growth
of
rural
and
Paris
urban
tourism
hotspots
including
in2015
the
●
disease,
In
order
both
the
to
become
include
historic
festivals.
include
as
the
a
To
for
scenic
buildings,
cater
ebola
for
outbreak
“successful”
infrastructure
attractions
and
such
accommodation,
and
landscapes,
tourists,
West
hotspot,
tourists
different
in
an
the
and
2015.
needs
resorts,
to
have
●
Tourist
arts,
utilities.
city
include
external
linkages
(ports,
to
linkages
(roads,
allow
tourists
airports,
to
parks,
gain
access
services).
to
the
location,
Accommodation
reect
the
demand,
whether
it
is
low–cost
sphere
kinds
touristic
stadiums
Factors
of
of
facility,
and
inuence
sporting
including
parks
affecting
and
national
and
national
gyms,
parks.
sports
the
geography
league,
of
including
local
location
of
its
hierarchy
of
development
teams
will
in
rail
the
car
secondary
Transport
a
termini)
and
resources.
neighbourhood
●
developments
primary
different
and
and
of
Variations
for
developments
public
role
touristic
heritage
performing
infrastructural
transport
area
in
attractions.
coastal
cultures,
Africa
and
the
distribution
of
accommodation
supporters.
or
exclusive
means
public
that
accommodation.
local
utilities
Finally,
national
investment,
governments
destinations,
training.
By
as
typically
in
of
water
labour
play
supply,
and
an
private
tourist
expectations
governments
infrastructural
contrast
development
q
or
such
The
will
important
is
is
accommodation
role
more
and
and
to
in
the
and
tourists
provide
●
electricity.
important.
improvements
initiative
many
have
sanitation
promotion
of
cultural
National
promotion
Large-scale
of
or
temporary
associated
sporting,
religious
sites
costs
of
musical,
festivals
leisure,
and
as
and
their
benets.
employment
prominent
in
the
attractions.
Tble E.5: Some factors aecting the growth of a tourist or leisure hotspot
Natural landscape
Mountains (Nepal); biodiversity (Monteverde cloud forest, Costa Rica); coasts
(Mediterranean); forests (Amazon rainforest); deser ts (Tunisia); polar areas (Iceland); rivers
(Grand Canyon).
Climate
Hot, sunny, dry areas are very attractive to most tourists; seasonality of climate leads to
seasonality of tourism.
Culture
Language, customs, clothing, food, architecture, and theme parks. Examples include
recreation (Paris); religion (Mecca); education (Oxford).
Spor ting events
Events such as the World Cup (Brazil, 2014) and the Olympic Games (London, 2012;
Rio de Janeiro, 2016) lead to a shor t-term boom in tourism.
Government investment
The creation of new resor ts, improved infrastructure and new attractions, for example
and planning
theme parks.
225
2
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
45,000,000
Activity 6
40,000,000
Figure E.7 shows the 20 most
35,000,000
srotisiv
popular tourist attractions in
the world by the number of
launnA
annual visitors.
1.
Describe the global
30,000,000
25,000,000
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
concentration of these
5,000,000
hotspots.
0
U
,
e
n
e
h
m
r
e
l
u
d
S
G
'
i
P
o
k
l
a
d
e
s
T
l
P
a
S
i
u
a
c
c
G
w
r
t
a
é
M
C
r
a
k
o
r
f
r
e
e
o
u
,
t
e
r
,
t
n
B
S
e
a
H
s
l
t
t
a
l
i
o
t
o
i
,
c
g
a
F
E
a
n
d
a
s
i
D
t
n
e
l
y
a
T
r
o
k
e
e
s
H
m
N
a
a
i
a
w
i
s
T
o
n
y
F
e
n
s
i
D
and
Tourism in an urban hotspot: Oxford
the
visited
Oxford
as
a
Although
Oxford
is
the
three
most
Nearly
the
half
of
university
popular
Church,
Magdalene
Tourism
generates
a
tourist
a
number
the
is
it
large
and
choices
New
is
around
tourist
multiplier
the
visitors
colleges,
were
Christ
College.
at
economically
£300
directly
about
active
travel-to-work
£200
sector,
effects
nearly
estimated
the
million,
and
value
million.
and
7,300
with
to
The
indirectly
or
3–4
population
in
spent
linkages
the
city’s
number
by
of
tourism
per
cent
of
the
Oxford
the
area.
of
of
the
groups
both
visiting
from
the
sustained
Most
tourists
into
economy
jobs
destination,
attracts
directly
and
heavily
promoted
within
and
Oxford
the
were
UK
of
historic
city.
as
Tower.
more
famous
university
not
or
is
and
world
Carfax
one
adult
only
from
(85
abroad.
per
cent),
Outside
and
a
very
high
London,
Pt E.7: Oxford at dawn

proportion
Oxford
is
from
of
the
most
important
visitor
destinations
the
UK,
attracting
over
5
million
visitors
groups.
each
Eighty
year.
Tourism
a
large
Oxford,
providing
Most
the
one
of
or
visit.
a
of
attractions
Old
of
most
5,000
Oxford’s
the
Oxford
included
Bodleian
source
surveyed
popular
Gardens,
number
over
people
more
The
Botanic
226
is
of
intended
attractions
attractions
Ashmolean
colleges.
A
Blackwell’s
Library,
employment
full-time
the
per
cent
in
of
visitors
in
social
were
jobs.
to
visit
during
their
included
Museum
number
of
Bookshop,
Sheldonian
highest
in
social
the
were
one
the
and
other
the
Theatre
ABC1
and
groups
(managerial
professional)
compared
national
about
for
45
that
to
a
average
per
of
cent
group.

Pt E.8: Tourist information
board, Oxford
S
,
K
o
P
l
p
c
r
a
,
k
P
,
k
y
o
S
P
m
e
n
g
l
l
r
G
a
n
d
Fgre E.7: The 20 most popular tourist hotspots in the world

Case study
A
r
n
i
g
s
i
a
d
a
a
r
F
F
s
i
D
r
n
a
e
y
c
n
a
C
t
a
h
e
n
r
d
a
D
a
i
l
r
t
o
e
T
c
a
o
k
y
o
r
G
a
n
d
s
i
D
n
e
l
y
a
z
a
,
r
a
n
,
d
,
l
a
r
o
i
S
s
n
c
e
c
e
a
o
s
i
r
a
o
P
k
y
o
T
a
n
b
l
u
t
s
I
B
d
B
e
n
r
k
F
i
k
n
e
m
r
t
n
l
a
e
C
U
i
n
o
n
r
o
i
b
d
s
i
D
t
g
p
d
l
o
a
n
c
,
n
e
e
O
,
l
y
r
t
i
C
,
y
d
l
B
a
a
o
n
t
n
o
d
P
o
n
r
a
,
,
s
N
e
w
i
j
i
e
n
g
S
U
S
.
.
.
,
k
A
A
U
r
o
k
F
Y
s
l
l
a
i
m
n
,
l
a
a
g
r
a
a
T
r
e
t
S
i
t
a
o
,
n
i
N
,
k
W
s
a
i
h
N
e
w
n
t
g
o
Y
r
o
w
P
r
a
these tourist hotspots.
n
k
Y
N
e
C
e
r
t
n
S
l
a
q
u
r
a
,
e
V
e
i
T
m
secondary resources at
s
e
attraction of primary and
g
L
Comment on the relative
s
a
3.
r
o
i
r
t
s
s
a
shown.
k
Explain the distribution
p
2.
2
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
a T
T h E
L o C a L
a N d
N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
Case study (continued)
A
survey
of
(30
per
the
colleges
and
visitors
cent),
the
(14
general
revealed
history
per
cent),
atmosphere
attractions
for
the
particular
city,
buses,
in
the
and
value
viewed
most
(22
for
as
(9per
money
said
cent),
cent),
and
too
as
the
architecture
(17
the
of
the
nightlife
City
Council
terms
there
city
of
was
was
who
levels
of
range,
in
and
toilets,
standard
were
not
improvements,
too
much
trafc
overcrowded
expensive
(5
per
also
could
coaches
cleanliness
are
that
biggest
trafc
There
percent),
accommodation
In
the
well
number
and
of
that
that
as
the
city
However,
and
favourably.
that
the
were
the
signposting,
visitors
per
tourists.
availability
pedestrian
of
to
stay
the
a
is
and
upon
the
to
visitors
Avon,
city.
the
are
free
university
ideal
and
of
time
example
or
Council
is
visitors,
business
and
use
for
or
Stratford
also
that
in
trying
is,
The
students
in
with
money
visitors.
this
the
visitors
money
compared
Woodstock
university
to
more
jobs,
day
vacation
opportunity
bring
little
the
independent
journeys,
to
spend
Oxford
high-spending
more
route
benets
example,
catering,
Nevertheless,
attract
coach
and
on
economic
These
create
who
of
For
targeting
overnight.
city
coach
number
increased.
accommodation
colleges
cent).
be
not
on
Oxford
during
provides
an
accommodation
for
The Oxford Tourism Strategy
conference
The
Oxford
Tourism
Strategy
aims
to
ensure
Planning
visitor
satisfaction,
encourage
an
increase
spending
within
the
city,
and
environmental
is
problems
which
just
result
fall
In
particular,
the
strategy
provide
street
a
larger
parking
coach
park
and
increase
the
and
as
enforce
on-
regulations
up
of
to
use
as
part
City
of
public
means
the
Council
show
the
major
●
of
a
encourage
buses
and
publicity
sends
transport
of
routes
walking
getting
into
material
out
locations
coach
of
there
the
and
and
the
tours,
the
that
are
park
to
provide
most
for
encourage
main
which
rides,
bus
registered
to
places
of
the
liaise
with
visitor
is
able
increase
routes
sightseeing
improvement
In
addition,
present
to
reinvest
fabric,
to
and
lesser-known
language
conict
number
spread
the
schools
their
of
annually,
attractions
Centre
For
making
in
that
it
Oxford!
the
attracts
one
It
is
Information
meet
demand
and
provide
the
also
in
provided
boards
the
the
is
need
famous
and
on-
there
signposting
attractions
churches
on
and
to
of
be
for
been
more
its
colleges.
has
attractions.
varied.
university
been
attracted
through
TV
Many
and
visitors
lms
made
attractions
about
students
visitors
tourist
money
generated
infrastructure
support
to
Oxford
Oxford,
include
of
Oxford
Inspector
Morse/Lewis
and
long-term
and
in
lming
scenes
from
the
the
Harry
the
lms.
cause
off-season
groups
of
people,
notably
the
in
are
increasingly
cared
for.
This
includes
load
interpretive
●
experience.
information
disabled,
order
will
Strategy
interest
foreign
the
visitor
satisfaction
information
Particular
●
people
visited
is
street
Potter
congestion
tourism
Tourist
Information
Information
use
●
money,
Oxford
the
Oxford
required.
in
and
the
information
At
visits
the
park
have
to
If
Oxford
maps
and
on-street
visitors.
city;
cycles
comprehensive
their
enhance
the
buildings,
●
take
Thus,
500,000
the
Centre
ride
the
to:
vital
●
include
from
intends
example,
●
to
off.
attempts
tourism.
also
minimize
soon
the
must
in
aim
tourist
delegates.
by
tourism
facilities
of
into
the
the
hearing,
facilities,
and
ramps
loop
for
systems
people
in
for
the
hard
of
wheelchairs.
city,
sustainability
Activity 7
1.
Using examples, explain why tourism is impor tant to Oxford.
2.
Outline the main characteristics of (a) visitors to Oxford and (b) the attractions they visit.
3.
What are the main issues related to tourism that need to be addressed in Oxford?
Evaluate the ways in which these methods are being tackled.
227
2
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Managing tourism in Killarney National Park , Ireland
Killarney
in
an
heavily
Park
renowned
on
amount
has
National
area
of
tourism
paid
increased,
dramatically.
intensied
illustrates
as
a
the
excellent
scenic
source
of
of
the
way
managed:
in
by
income
visiting
policy
which
placing
in
the
transport
Killarney
and
and
emphasis
management
region
revenue
has
the
risen
have
conservation
on
as
infrastructure
National
rmly
relies
and
economy
Killarney
tourism
the
land-use
and
and
environment
management
of
However,
employment
tourists
between
example
beauty.
disposable
number
Conicts
clearly
an
its
holidays,
although
successfully
is
for
Park
can
be
conservation.
Pt E.9: The Gap of Dunloe,

The
scenery
of
the
Killarney
area,
including
the
National
Park,
is
world
Killarney
renowned.
tourist
!
is
venues
a
major
in
attraction
Ireland.
Over
a
and
the
million
area
is
visitors
one
of
travel
the
to
most
Kerry
visited
each
year
Common mistake
bringing
✗
It
Many
that
are
students
all
believe
national
managed
in
parks
parks
different
rules
regulations
in
including
some
(Photo
the
USA,
are
owned
In
other
as
the
E.9)
national
by
the
parks
state.
countries,
shores,
oak
Under
tourism
quality
rapidly
and
of
grasslands;
religious
resident
the
includes
low
owing
historic
in
need
Killarney
bare
last
to
the
is
Ireland,
for
over
rivers;
herd
buildings
up
three
rugged
native
and
these
14,000
where
of
a
the
majority
over
arises
visit
4,000
between
protection
rocks
deer
of
physical
Killarney;
and
sandstone
bridges,
and
conict
variety
of
glacially
red
the
of
the
considerations.
lakes
cliffs;
surfaces;
of
of
other
made
the
Of
conservation,
limestone
rock
area.
population
precedence
with
the
million
legislation
It
some
woodlands;
a
and
takes
sometimes
and
£160
with
landscapes.
moorland
and
town
for
scenic
tarns
In
countries,
a
heritage
human
different
estimated
rooms!
need
The
have
and
countries.
Ireland
tourist
natural
sameway.
✓ National
Killarney,
the
the
an
islands;
mountains
eroded
in
cottages,
and
lake
waterfalls,
with
valleys;
Ireland;
and
secluded
native
landscaped
monastic
and
ruins.
such
The National Park
have
UK,
national
many
Killarney
owners,
including
private
residents,
the
Commission,
Parks
parks
the
Defence,
and
and
of
of
makes
the
of
been
Park
are
national
managed
a
areas
communities
to
is
designated
Ireland
purpose,
and
Biosphere
that
the
“exist
scenic
importance
enable
by
to
Ofce
Reserve
to
under
visit
of
by
conserve
landscapes
and,
public
the
Works
UNESCO.
natural
which
conditions
and
Public
are
National
plant
both
and
extensive
compatible
appreciate
(OPW)
with
that
them”.
farmers.
The
This
in
animal
local
Ministry
has
Parks
National
Authority,
councils,
and
Forestry
National
basic
ve
objectives
for
the
National
Park
are
to:
management
parks
very
●
conserve
nature
●
conserve
other
difcult.
●
encourage
signicant
public
features
appreciation
of
and
the
qualities
heritage
and
the
need
for
conservation
●
develop
a
harmonious
relationship
between
the
park
and
the
community
●
enable
the
park
monitoring
Of
these,
any
and
nature
conict
to
contribute
to
science
through
environmental
research.
conservation
takes
precedence
over
the
others
should
arise.
Management strategy

228
Pt E.10: Congested Killarney
Nevertheless,
street
does
not
Killarney
comprise
a
National
Park
self-contained
is
not
without
ecological
unit,
its
problems.
consequently
It
it
is
2
inuenced
place
in
by
the
changes
and
surrounding
T o u R i S m
a N d
developments
area.
To
S P o R T
that
a T
T h E
L o C a L
a N d
N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
take
successfully
manage
0
the
interests
National
of
Park
conservation
has
and
developed
a
tourism
5
Killarney
management
plan,
km
in
Killarney
which
land
use
is
controlled
and
potential
conicts
Lough
Leane
N
reduced.
The
Killarney
identies
National
four
main
Park
zones
Management
(Figure
Plan
E.8):
Key
●
Natural
zone:
where
nature
conservation
is
the
Middle
Lake
primary
objective.
Cultural
zone:
Natural
zone
(land)
Natural
zone
N71
(water)
●
where
the
primary
objective
is
the
Upper
conservation
of
noteworthy
features
resulting
from
Areas
Lake
of
particular
significance
human
activities
including
demesne
natural
archaeological
and
historic
sites,
in
landscapes,
buildings
zone
and
Cultural
zone
structures.
Intensive
management
●
Intensive
management
other
than
where
conservation
basic
are
park
1
7
N
objectives
zone:
emphasized,
zone
Resource
restoration
provided
park
resources
are
not
adversely
affected.
zone
●
Resource
restoration
plantations
mainly
zone:
in
the
comprising
Muckross
conifer
area.
Fgre E.8: Zoning in Killarney National Park

In
addition,
buffer
and
the
zone
around
change
developed
Management
will
in
be
the
park
Plan
within
inuenced
consultation
identies
in
with
a
which
potential
development
positive
Kerry
a
manner.
County
This
Council,
has
Activity 8
been
Killarney
Urban
Study Figure E.8 which shows
District
Council
and
other
relevant
bodies.
land-use zoning in Killarney
Within
the
National
authorities
have
have
been
National
are
is
to
is
maintain
replace
to
the
the
most
of
of
in
also
been
Demesne,
a
and
in
ha
and
of
75
areas.
park’s
per
cent
Another
the
and
of
have
of
priority
other
natural
zones
the
ha
facing
native
cleared
infested
is
the
zone.
the
park
this help conservation?
the
woodland
and
removal
Here
park,
National Park . Describe the
pattern of zoning. How does
plans
the
woodland
vegetation,
of
the
Rhododendron
of
been
the
which
development
challenge
restoration
with
priorities
11,200
hectares
plantations
of
eradication
resource
into
number
conservation
the
240
of
a
Conservation
biggest
the
areas
plans
and
have
folk-life
with
road
development
of
complex.
of
in
this
the
car
Ross
a
and
of
the
aim
and
forestry
aim
and
is
to
ultimately
principally
craft
entrance
has
been
area.
former
of
parking
Castle
The
Killarney,
areas,
been
to
had
the
the
A
folk
It
farm
redesigned
the
Kenmare
has
plans
of
adjacent
to
restoration
which
internal
landscaping
undertaken,
built
mansion.
widen
restoration
features
has
of
workshops.
plans
town
also
much
19th-century
Council’s
formal
has
for
late
programme,
many
programme
park
County
planting
development
restoration
to
is
exhibits
N71)
close
tree
established
House
The
Kerry
(the
situated
farmyard
been
Muckross
developed.
major
pathways,
area
900
these
displays,
access
include
the
cleared
park.
conjunction
main
Control
clearance
these
the
contains
has
tackling.
are
zone.
Development
fabric
to
situated
integrate
natural
Up
there
Approximately
achieve
plantations
up.
perhaps
Park.
infested.
to
been
drawn
population
Park,
of
the
the
house
work.
A
improving
car
229
2
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
parking,
service
toilet
for
footpaths
in
allocated
and
to
the
National
managed
in
an
the
other
congestion,
of
scenic
National
time
they
of
has
Kerry
roads
and
cause
the
Way.
way
in
In
that
conservation
the
such
area,
as
be
they
bring
whereas
trafc
vegetation
and
ruining
amenities.
The
Killarney
reconciles
of
can
hand
in
was
Park.
tourists
one
problems
of
€250,000
National
the
tourist
information
long-distance
2016,
the
employment
of
an
the
which
On
destruction
plan
and
develop
within
serious
provision
a
to
area.
generate
footpaths,
the
the
sensitive
developed
to
the
as
can
through
priority
plans
illustrates
money
landscaping
also
improve
Park
erosion
Park
gives
such
and
hand
views
facilities,
are
ecologically
much-needed
on
There
area,
repair
Killarney
in
boating
visitors.
these
yet
at
the
same
nature.
Variations in the sphere of inuence
The
an
sphere
of
attraction
threshold
sphere
of
It
sports
will
have
The
purpose
main
facilities
the
are
number
in
sports
catchment
area,
are
threshold
An
of
a
facility
–
a
UK,
hole
golf
elds
pool,
has
a
and
be
In
and
correlation
Salt
A
For
a
simple
a
is
which
its
their
the
the
order
facilities
a
a
a
small
stadium
much
of
about
between
for
for
the
range
and
many
of
The
the
sports
greater
sports
have
a
small
Higher-order
and
have
place.
sports
larger
is
of
a
and
to
10
higher
courts
a
km.
it
team
million
the
top
greater
about
In
3
the
possible
becomes
fan
visits
a
of
a
the
distance.
for
ha
of
an
In
18-
playing
baseball
population
to
suggest
viable.
per
be
sports
stadium/
USA,
threshold
is
a
may
–
end
athletics
a
be
there
activities
population
that
a
could
providing
level,
and
people.
addition,
one
At
from
have
sports
km,
outdoor
and
1,000
scale
1
threshold
people,
In
the
complex
the
every
which
At
of
about
population
that
tennis
of
In
season
the
is
franchise.
it
has
been
shown
population
New
1
up
sports
larger
York
Pittsburgh
hierarchy
of
respectively.
USA,
with
indoor
30,000
and
bottom
children.
of
population
example,
City
a
the
with
with
million
size
a
2.4
people
outlined
of
that
a
region
population
million
had
below.
there
had
one
of
is
and
a
clear
the
over
three
a
wider
opportunity
that
spaced,
or
low
have
larger
areas.
population.
widely
will
from
Hence,
market
higher
it
facility
have
sports
much
provide
people.
sporting
the
support
a
a
may
hence
contrast,
to
inuence
range
provided
the
at
suggested
baseball
franchises,
Lake
the
more
top-level
serving
1,000
for
nine
a
populations
necessary
clubs.
within
of
young
for
be
threshold
France
is
of
threshold
place
variety
(“diamonds”)
6,000
range,
In
inuence,
facility
provide
small
sphere
a
been
course
threshold
USA,
may
should
pitches
of
it
of
from
playground
derive
number
number,
for
with
providing
there
swimming
the
to
provided,
sports
with
facilities/activities
scale,
in
a
area
small
area).
sphere
sports
the
small
very
located
a
to
A
populations.
example
centre
a
likely
for
places
and
fewer
playground,
sports
a
sports
Low-order
facilities
of
sports
centrally
of
is
greater
population.
participate
and
team
a
refers
support.
(catchment
threshold
to
230
its
population
inuence
top-league
area.
inuence
draws
17
positive
number
million
franchises,
franchise.
of
had
while
2
q
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
a T
T h E
L o C a L
a N d
N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
Tble E.6: A hierarchy of spor ting facilities in dierent settlements
Cnty sze
Recene fcltes
Village 500–1,500
Community hall
actvtes ere
Badminton, keep t, yoga, football, cricket
Community open space
Mobile library
Small country
As above plus tennis, netball, gym, hockey
As above plus:
town 2,500–6,000
Tennis cour ts
Spor ts hall
Swimming pool
Town
As above plus bowling, golf, skateboarding, judo,
As above plus:
karate
Specialist spor ts venues
Golf courses, skateboard parks, bowling green
City
Spor ts stadia
As above plus home grounds of spor ts clubs
(football, rugby, hockey, athletics grounds)
Athletics grounds
Capital city
National spor ts centre for selected spor ts
As above, but for national teams
Urban–rural
Central
Cinema;
theatre;
area
library;
Transition
historic
Tenpin
leisure
pool;
zone
bowling;
centre;
local
houses;
bingo
School
hall;
social
community
combined
swimming
leisure
allotment;
park;
bookmakers;
parade
guest
clubs;
fringe
Suburbs
etc.
local
with
centres
centre;
library;
video/DVD
local
bookmaker;
with
play
local
clubs,
area
and
fields;
centres;
shop
centre;
sports
and
park
pitches;
park;
sports
garden
shopping
district
and
Specialist
craft
country
hotels
with
leisure
complexes;
nature
reserves
Catchment
e.g.
over-60s
and
served
public
house;
etc.
with
farm
nature
shop
riding
Serving
the
town
surrounding
trail,
and
centres
and
rural
population
Serving
largely
the
neighbourhood
Serving
the
suburban
population
town
and
surrounding
particularly
for
population,
weekend
recreation
Airport
Railway
F
Main
station
roads
C
A–F
Hotel
sites:
C
B
C
Central
B
B
A
City
B
Railway
C
Main
centre
B
business
B
locations
district
A
E
A
F
roads
E
C
C
C
A
D
Historic
F
Medium-sized
hotels
city
in
pleasant
locations
D
D
D
D
E
D
Large
in
modern
transition
hotels
zone
of
CBD
t
F
Large
on
modern
edge
of
transport
Fgre E.9: Distribution of facilities
hotels
town,
in an urban area
intersections
231
2
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Intra-urban spatial patterns
Figure
E.9
small
or
there
is
the
shows
a
numbers
area
of
The
cinemas,
Finally,
distribution
town.
concentration
central
parks.
the
medium-sized
of
the
sports
some
community
leisure
centres
while
leisure
area
and
leisure
facilities
on
the
the
facilities
be
such
and
garden
do
parks,
dispersed
around
into
a
typical
medium-sized
tourist
there
centres
not
cities
attractions
are
and
concentration
that
as
and
periphery
main
facilities
facilities
small
centres,
contains
other
may
of
most
leisure
city,
and
central
theatres
of
In
recreation
country
of
require
in
increasing
restaurants,
much
space.
grounds
and
neighbourhoods.
Tourism facilities in urban areas
Urban
areas
are
●
destinations
●
gateways
●
centres
●
bases
for
of
for
important
in
their
tourist
for
own
tourism
because
they
are:
right
entry
accommodation
excursions.
Factors aecting the geography of a national
sports league
Most
teams
in
the
top
league
of
their
national
sports
derive
support
from
L TA
Research and
a
wide
area.
This
is
true
for
football
teams
such
as
Manchester
United
communication skills
and
For
(or
your
home
another
you
are
interested
research
clubs
in
the
a
to
your
about
Make
telling
and
Tottenham
in
results.
Red
the
base
may
Sox.
They
Some
league
do
many
fans
become
have
Hence,
are
and
Premier
their
teams
not
there
Hotspur
teams
clubs
follow
interest.
cities
English
However,
baseball
only
lower
national)
towns
them
and
can
inuence.
even
a
fans
contrast,
of
of
Boston
the
In
in),
presentation
class,
your
of
that
hierarchy
league.
two-minute
the
country
country
Barcelona
a
have
tend
the
to
a
to
of
on
much
or
more
such
as
their
fan
university
or
for
a
sphere
international
Chelsea,
base
many
Internet.
localized.
London,
and
although
the
narrower
generate
is
in
Yankees
following,
a
to
clubs,
of
York
television
have
United
to
New
global
support
Some
go
the
success
their
Ham
League.
as
“team”
number
West
move
such
all
is
of
(or
some
Arsenal,
whom
very
job,
In
play
localized.
and
so
the
fan
broader.
Case study
National spor ts league
Currie
Rugby
The
in
South
Africa
Cup
Currie
Cup
competition
Rugby
is
one
of
South
Africa’s
big
three
soccer
and
cricket.
The
traditionally
fared
extremely
the
premier
Africa,
provincial
and
was
rugby
rst
in
1892.
The
format
of
the
Currie
Cup
country
varied
has
is
South
sports,
contested
alongside
in
well
on
from
year
to
year,
and
nals
were
held
the
intermittently
until
1968,
after
which
the
nal
worldstage.
became
For
the
disadvantaged
people
of
the
South
Africa,
rugby
was
the
game,
and
even
more
so
to
and
the
game
Afrikaner.
Traditionally,
most
black
communities
played
soccer
while,
communities,
rugby
was
the
winter
of
the
the
most
successful
Currie
(Western
Cape)
Cup
with
was
33
followed
by
the
Northern
titles
Transvaal/
Bulls
with
23
titles
(four
shared).
Since
rugby
sport
a
professional
sport
in
the
early
1990s,
choice.
single
232
Province
shared),
became
of
2015,
history
for
Blue
white
the
and
(four
coloured
including
in
of
Western
the
event.
white
province
person’s
annual
old
Up
apartheid
an
team
has
dominated
the
Currie
Cup.
no
2
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
a T
T h E
L o C a L
a N d
N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
Case study (continued)
For
many
African
and
the
1990s
years
rugby
Blue
this
the
was
biggest
Bulls.
was
rivalry
between
During
superseded
in
Western
the
by
early
a
and
South
Province
the
to
of
mid-
three-way
South
Natal,
the
Lions
and
Western
Currie
July
into
and
Cup
takes
October.
eight
place
The
Premier
roughly
format
Division
and
six
14
North
and
First
and
Cup
Vodacom
State
KZN
Cup
has
become
an
on
the
South
It
Super
competition
and
a
14
takes
nishing
platform
in
for
place
at
–
–
in
and
time
late
thus
advancing
place
in
the
to
matches
nal.
of
the
The
Pumas,
Golden
South’s
are
teams
Cavaliers,
Cheetahs,
province,
Falcons,
Lions,
Eagles,
are
largely
the
Border
drawn
of
Mighty
Province,
Natal).
from
some
Bulls
Bulldogs,
Western
(KwaZulu
although
Blue
within
the
fan
base
as
have
moved
work
away
or
for
from
their
home
for
marriage.
the
February
creates
talented
20°
22°
young
teams
cross-section
rugby
same
starting
mid-May
two
important
African
the
a
up
Wildebeests
university,
calendar.
made
Boland
Supporters
may
competition
is
Griquas.
Free
Division
the
The
for
Leopards,
Elephants,
teams
teams.
Vodacom
top
playing
Province.
between
divides
the
and
one-versus-two
Griffons,
The
with
rivalry
The
between
–
semi-nals
players
who
E
40°
Z I M B A B W E
E
S
might
B O T S W A N A
otherwise
not
get
a
chance
M O Z A M B I Q U E
Northern
to
It
make
has
their
also
Province
mark.
been
a
fertile
g
n
for
strong
g
n
t
ground
a
e
Pretoria
breeding
u
l
from
r
t
h
W
e
previously
s
m
G
players
o
t
u
p
Soweto
M
disadvantaged
a
a
a
N
S WA Z I L A N D
backgrounds,
N A M I B I A
F
thanks
to
the
r
e
e
S
t
a
t
e
enforcement
N
Kwazulu-Natal
of
quotas.
Quotas,
Northern
Cape
L E S O T H O
successfully
Durban
implemented
S O U T H
A F R I C A
Indian
lower
down,
through
the
now
higher
levels
Atlantic
Eastern
Ocean
Cape
0
of
South
African
Ocean
extend
450
rugby,
km
including
the
Super
14.
Western
Cape
Over
The
Vodacom
Cup
is
Port
divided
1,000,000
into
two
sections
–
Country
people
boundaries
Elizabeth
50,000–1,000,000
35°
Province
people
boundaries
S
North
Fgre E.10: South Africa and its provinces

Case study
L TA
Gaelic Games in Ireland
In
Ireland,
are
(26
the
arranged
counties)
national
merit,
Gaelic
at
whereas
Games
county
and
league
knock-out
a
Northern
and
the
within
from
their
each
county
Ireland
knock-out
semi-nals
from
(there
and
county,
of
Teams
knock-out
competition
All-Ireland
(hurling,
level.
Gaelic
from
(6
competition
nal.
four
some
birth/residence
The
league
based
for
for
the
may
work,
camogie)
of
compete
provinces),
Support
although
is
and
Republic
counties)
competition.
are
football
the
on
a
Ireland
in
is
on
provincial
counties
is
moved
university
by
the
largely
away
and
Research
base
for
your
based
followed
have
a
Research skills
so
sport
the
a
home
that
may
How
base
different
sport
country
you
elsewhere).
support
support
named
clubs
in
a
know
does
vary
in
(or
the
between
different
areas?
on.
233
2
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Going
down
leagues
This
not
a
is
are
partly
want
lower
travel
the
the
to
for
large
into
far
to
distance
two
fans
to
of
the
and
reasons
see
whereas
national
many
regions
practical
travel
league,
a
top
hierarchy,
divided
–
fans
teams
are
support
lower
counties.
will
play
prepared
a
club
in
to
that
is
in
league.
Costs and benets of large-scale
sporting, musical, cultural or
religious festivals as temporary
leisure sites
Large-scale
religious

sporting,
festivals
musical,
may
be
cultural
temporary
or
sites
of
Pt E.11: Competitors at the
leisure,
but
they
provide
many
costs
and
benets.
Some
events
may
star t of the Blenheim Triathlon
take
of
L TA
Research skills
the
leagues
may
in
there
is
location
be
as
the
that
as
not
normally
Glastonbury
temporary
such
is
the
events
in
Triathlon
Music
areas
at
used
for
Festival
that
are
Blenheim
leisure
in
the
for
UK,
associated
Palace,
the
rest
whereas
with
leisure
Woodstock,
the
only
countries
a
a
such
tourism,
second
form
in
year,
others
and
Sports
place
certain
largest
triathlon
in
the
UK.
where
level
of
The Glastonbury Festival
development,
and
people
certain
of
with
wealth
Find
out
leagues
South
free
about
in
Republic
a
and
the
of
level
time.
sports
Congo,
and
Mali,
example.
The
Glastonbury
and
is
globally
tourism
Democratic
the
Sudan
among
sites,
ne
for
is
which
and
gaining
the
embraces
exploring
arts
drama
and
listen
to
to
to
to
the
It
across
see
be
a
activities
The
the
of
the
with
open-air
under
religious
world.
music
including
festival
and
Europe
heritage
festivals
are
This
maintain
in
cultural
attending
performance
culture.
and
of
visiting
and
concerts
of
festival
heading
Festivalgoers
type
friends
the
buildings
music
particular
part
socialize
largest
comes
and
festivals.
popularity
opportunity
is
many
historical
opportunity
performer
Festival
recognized.
music,
industry
attracted
or
will
a
by
particular
present
friendships
as
an
well
as
music.
Development
Glastonbury
began
exception
2001,
of
The
festival
800
acres.
is
held
This
site
as
it
in
the
has
a
Pilton
been
huge
now
Pop
held
open
Festival
every
air
arena
accommodates
in
year
up
1970,
since
which
to
and
its
covers
250,000
with
the
inauguration.
approximately
people.
The impacts of the Glastonbury Festival
Economic
Mendip
Mallet,
Street
hinterland,
west
region
nancially
nancial

Pt E.12: Glastonbury Festival, one of the world’s largest
annual music events
234
impacts
local
services
authority
and
Bristol
Wells
and
and
Bath,
and
the
UK
from
the
festival,
support
is
area,
in
essential.
the
all
Shepton
their
the
rural
south-
benet
but
their
provision
of
2
Each
visitor
income
to
from
the
the
festival
festival
T o u R i S m
spends
makes
on
a N d
S P o R T
average
substantial
a T
£293.
T h E
L o C a L
a N d
N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
200
The
contributions
150
to
charities
such
as
Water
Aid,
Greenpeace
and
Oxfam
Number
and
may
also
be
used
to
support
local
projects
such
as
hand,
with
and
of
school
and
Glastonbury
huge
crime
has
numbers
such
of
sporting
negative
tourists,
facilities.
impacts
drug
On
the
other
including
and
Ticket
dealing
substance
visitors
(thousands)
100
provision
of
the
price
£
50
abuse
0
astheft.
1970
1990
2000
2010
Fgre E.11: The growth of visitor numbers and the increase

The growth of Glastonbury
1980
in the price of attending the Glastonbury Festival
q
Tble E.7: The growth of visitors and increase in price of attending the
Glastonbury Festival
1970
1980
1990
20 0 0
2010
Number of visitors (thousands)
1.5
18
70
100
135
Ticket price (£)
1
8
38
87
185
The
it
is
of
festival
is
not
associated
June,
festival
from
the
is
a
wholly
with
rebellion
activities
burden
hosting
a
welcomed
of
for
global
and
local
them.
event.
by
the
the
local
hippie
residents
are
also
offers
culture.
severely
Nevertheless,
It
community
some
local
During
because
the
restricted
civic
people
pride
an
weeks
and
is
the
derived
employment

Pt E.13: Glastonbury Festival
opportunity.
continues late into the night,
sometimes to the anger of local
Environmental impacts
residents
Air
pollution
CO
emissions
2
festival
is
exibility,
public
have
increase
running.
but
Waste
dramatically
transport
attempts
transport.
been
Car
Green
have
is
been
coaches
during
still
made
using
June
most
to
when
popular
the
three-day
because
encourage
of
its
supporters
environmentally
to
acceptable
use
fuels
encouraged.
disposal
Activity 9
The
creation
consists
The
mainly
tents
them
behind
for
In
the
tents
waste
of
present
enough
2011
of
were
at
is
human
an
the
charity
of
the
waste,
enormous
end
of
the
greatest
empty
problem
festival
problems
plastic
water
because
and
their
at
the
site.
bottles
many
of
condition
and
the
is
This
tents.
fans
not
1.
Referring to Table E.7,
describe and explain the
leave
trends in ticket price and
good
number of visitors.
use.
Association
left
one
of
Independent
Festivals
found
that
one
in
six
2.
Outline the potential conicts
between visitors and
behind.
residents that result from the
Noise
pollution
Glastonbury festival.
Many
of
the
disturbance
Provision
Energy,
performances
to
of
water
disposed
local
continue
through
the
night,
which
causes
residents.
resources
and
food
need
to
be
supplied
and
residue
has
to
be
of.
235
2
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Concepts in contex t
There
are
leisure
human
and
so
factors
on.
develop
how
as
the
greater
be
are
for
is
the
include
sphere
able
a
size,
case
in
wealth,
Venice)
There
tourism
physical
visitors
congestion
of
for
of
investment,
more
draw
to
people
range
are
and
or
it
many
facilities
and
but
and
and
will
they
also
pollution.
may
be
short
possibilities
as
on
to
likely
watching
of
a
country
afford
the
to
sports.
inuence
to
than
or
Larger
smaller
provincial
participate
pressure
on
in
urban
clubs
generally
clubs.
Some
level.
leisure
and
and
rural
areas
to
increase.
Check your understanding
1.
Explain
the
interdependence
of
primary
and
secondary
tourist
resources.
2.
Explain
why
sporting
3.
Briey
and
how
facilities
explain
the
sphere
of
inuence
of
different
varies.
the
term
“range”
in
the
context
of
sporting
activities.
4.
Why
do
tourist
5.
Describe
6.
Explain
why
7.
Explain
the
purpose
8.
Outline
the
main
the
distribution
Management
9.
Compare
a
10.
city
Comment
Strategy.
236
the
with
hotspots
Oxford
on
has
of
a
develop?
of
hotels
become
buffer
objectives
of
in
a
model
tourist
zone
the
a
urban
area.
hotspot.
around
Killarney
a
national
National
park.
Park
Plan.
leisure
those
the
to
managed.
activities,
them
may
relation
in
by
many
Glastonbury.
be
arranged
people
in
(as
attract
access,
attract
Hotspots
activities
tourism-related
provide
of
may
that
inuenced
climate,
will
term
case
areas
may
places
are
problems
long
much
more
areas
hotspots.
leisure
a
leagues
As
in
these
Some
have
be
of
These
including
many
may
term,
types
Some
into
generate
This
many
activities.
facilities
likely
main
to
be
likely
found
methods
to
be
on
used
found
the
by
edge
the
in
the
of
a
Oxford
centre
city.
Tourism
of
3
Tourism and spor t at the
international scale
Conceptual understanding
Key qestn
How
do
the
variations
participation
in
in
global
power
tourism
of
different
and
countries
affect
their
sport?
Key cntent
●
Niche
national
inuence,
●
tourism
including
and
heritage
The
role
of
strategies
adventure
with
a
global
tourism,
sphere
movie
of
location
tourism
tourism.
TNCs
in
expanding
international
tourism

destinations,
for
different
including
the
costs
and
benets
of
TNC
Pt E.14: Mass tourism
involvement
stakeholders.
Activity 10
●
Costs
and
including
benets
of
economic
tourism
and
as
a
national
social/cultural
development
strategy,
1.
effects.
Suggest examples of mass
tourism and explain why
●
Political,
economic
and
cultural
factors
affecting
the
hosting
of
it is likely to have adverse
international
sporting
events
including
the
Olympics
and
football
environmental impacts.
World
Cup
events.
2.
Discuss the ways in which
cultural tourism might be
benecial to an indigenous
Niche national tourism strategies
community.
Niche
tourism
refers
to
special-interest
tourism
catering
for
relatively
3.
small
numbers
of
tourists.
There
are
many
types
of
niche
Discuss the benets of
tourism,
mass tourism.
including
heritage-tourism,
medical,
adventure,
tourism.
In
which
decisions
novelty
are
at
travelling
wilderness,
contrast,
itineraries
a
mass
are
made
by
the
large
grey
tourism
xed,
minimum,
in
ecotourism,
stops
is
are
safety
(or
“silver”),
typied
by
planned
organizer.
and
agro-tourism,
and
tribal,
the
and
Familiarity
business,
and
package
guided,
is
at
a
companionship
dark
tour
and
all
gained
Identify the conicts
arising from pressure on
major
maximum
is
4.
in
tourist resources.
and
from
crowds.
Adventure tourism
Adventure
to
a
remote
Adventure
Adventure
Mount
tourism
area
tourism
Everest
environments,
all
adventure
$3,000
for
economies
an
the
level
is
eight-day
so
of
for
a
suggests
that
case
sector
person
study
but
66
remains
For
per
the
real)
in
will
also
C,
to
climb
Extreme
Nepal).
pay
local
Tourism
revenue
destination.
Not
around
supports
Adventure
of
risk.
example,
Option
people
cent
travel
decades.
tourism
tourism
The
in
involves
recent
(see
on
many
tourism.
about
in
customers.
per
Adventure
mass
that
(sometimes
popularity
expensive,
than
tourism
perceived
in
$50,000
holiday.
tourism
niche
high-value
138–139
more
of
increased
around
tourism
adventure
form
attracts
pages
(ATTA)
a
some
has
costs
much
Association
in
and
tourism
is
Trade
spent
Adventure

tourism
also
encourages
sustainable
practices
–
it
involves
Pt E.15: Hiking among the f jords
local
of Greenland
237
3
oPTioN
E
LEiSuRE,
To u R i S m
aNd
SPoR T
communities,
supports
protection
for
future
According
to
local
businesses,
and
promotes
environmental
Activity 11
1.
use
(and
ongoing
economic
benets).
Suggest another term for
the
UNWTO,
in
2014
over
half
of
all
adventure
tourists
“other ” in Table E.8.
were
2.
Identify the type of
women,
education,
over
and
one-third
over
10
per
had
cent
spent
had
a
four
or
more
professional
years
in
higher
qualication.
adventure tourism in Photo
Adventure tourism in Greenland
E.15. Outline the reasons
why the environment
Greenland
in Photo E.15 attracts
Adventure
adventure tourists.
other
has
recently
tourism
(Table
can
begun
be
to
develop
divided
into
its
adventure
three
tourism
categories:
soft,
sector.
hard
and
E.8).
q
Tble E.8: Types of adventure tourism
actvty
Type
actvty
Type
Archaeological expedition
Soft
Hunting
Soft
Attending local festivals/fairs
Other
Kayaking – sea, white water
Soft
Backpacking
Soft
Learning a new language
Other
Birdwatching
Soft
Orienteering
Soft
Camping
Soft
Rafting
Soft
Canoeing
Soft
Research expeditions
Soft
Caving
Hard
Safaris
Soft
Climbing (rock , mountain, ice)
Hard
Sailing
Soft
Cruise
Soft
Scuba diving
Soft
Cultural activities
Other
Snorkelling
Soft
Ecotourism
Soft
Skiing/snowboarding
Soft
Educational programmes
Soft
Surng
Soft
Environmentally sustainable programmes
Soft
Trekking
Hard
Fishing
Soft
Walking tours
Other
Getting to know locals
Other
Visiting family/friends
Soft
Hiking
Soft
Visiting historical sites
Soft
Horseback-riding
Soft
Volunteer tourism
Other
Greenland
accounts
and
2014,
offers
Sightseer
Nature
a
targeted
25
per
adventure
range
of
the
cent
of
North
American
visitors
tourism
attractions
grew
for
to
the
by
market.
country.
195
adventure
per
This
Between
cent.
tourists.
2010
Greenland
These
can
Culture
broadly
For
Nature
has
for
appreciator
Culture
be
put
into
three
categories
(Figure
E.12).
example:
appreciator
Globetrotter
●
Wilderness
ethnophiles
visit
to
gain
a
greater
understanding
of
indigenous
seeker
Ethnophile
Nature
lover
Authenticity
Special
people
seeker
and
their
culture
interest
Culture
Extreme
lover
●
adventurer
cultural
tourists
Economusee
●
nature
may
be
attracted
by
museums,
Viking
tourists
are
attracted
by
whale
watching
and
Physical
activity
watching
t
in
the
238
Sermermiut
Fgre E.12: Types of adventure
tourism in Greenland
ruins,
workshops
Valley
and
Disko
Bay
bird
3
wilderness
tourists
wilderness
areas
are
attracted
(Photo
by
the
a N d
S P o R T
opportunity
a T
to
T h E
trek
i N T E R N a T i o N a L
L TA
●
T o u R i S m
in
S C a L E
Research skills
E.15)
For
●
extreme
adventure
tourists
are
able
to
cross
the
Greenland
an
choice,
climb
ice
cliffs
and
go
sightseers
may
do
so
of
your
choose
one
form
heli-skiing
of
●
area
icesheet,
from
the
luxury
of
a
cruise
ship.
adventure
outlined
nd
out
in
tourism
Table
about
E.8,
its
and
impacts.
Movie location tourism
There
are
a
number
their
attraction
have
attracted
the
lms.
in
a
visitors.
to
Manchester,
The
detective
the
series.
increase
in
to
(see
lm.
(and
in
New
popular
number
of
E.16)
had
Lewis
tourists
the
TV
and
and
to
series
in
point
Game
Northern
out
of
sites
used
large
many
are
it
numbers
tour.
said
locations
Thrones,
in
after
visitors
Street
Endeavour)
and
Hobbit
visitors
attract
attracts
lm
The
visit
surge
Coronation
tours
include
to
a
Street
a
in
Rings
keen
saw
and
Morse
series
used
of
television
Coronation
and
TV
Lord
Zealand,
Studios
latterly
Oxford,
places
as
Photo
Some
Granada
Morse
the
such
programme
and
Other
between
Films
tourists
Wars
UK
tourism
links
Michael
Star
of
boosted
of
fans.
many
Skellig
appeared
TV
for
The
to
have
used
leading
in
to
an
Ireland.
Pt E.16: Skellig Michael being

transformed into a set for a
On
a
different
scale,
locations
have
been
created
to
cater
for
people’s
Star Wars lm
desire
and
to
the
theme
experience
Wizarding
parks
lm/TV
World
based
locations.
of
around
Harry
a
Disneyland,
Potter
(Photo
Universal
E.17)
have
Studios
created
lm/concept.
Heritage
historic
tourism
sites
and
L TA
Heritage tourism
relates
to
indigenous
travel
to
people
experience
of
an
area.
It
the
is
place,
communication skills
artefacts,
sometimes
Research and
referred
For
to
as
cultural
a
lm
or
programme
have
Machu Picchu: heritage tourism costs and benets
Machu
the
Picchu
valley
of
civilization.
along
the
It
with
River
was
a
Cuzco
and
Urubamba
centre
of
other
bear
worship
archaeological
testimony
as
well
as
to
a
the
sites
unique
private
family
of
Inca
ruler
Pachacutec.
It
is
split
into
two
enjoyed,
the
impact
the
tourism
it
the
relevant
urban
World
the
of
Taj
Standing
forest,
at
its
it
noted
As
the
for
the
is
It
above
covers
in
terracing
temples,
2007
it
with
sites
sea
one
was
the
on
the
diversity
of
Latin
adopt
ancestors.
For
a
the
and
food
squares
as
Wall
royal
one
of
of
and
tombs.
the
China,
where
was
set.
Make
a
short
the
to
yourclass.
is
a
seven
Coliseum
in
the
the
hectares
ora
Machu
America.
example,
of
its
of
a
tropical
creations
giant
the
mountain
of
walls,
Andes,
superb
Picchu
is
one
culturally
lifestyle
their
of
the
empire
terraces
which
is
and
also
fauna.
and
Also
traditional
with
slopes
and
Incas
midst
amazing
diet
is
that
architectural
of
the
most
signicant
closely
based
on
is
and
attractive
that
resembles
potatoes,
the
that
maize
local
of
and

llama
area
the
It
new
the
on
in
for
areas:
storehouses,
and
selected
Great
most
eastern
of
importance,
in
level
of
32,500
stronghold
communities
their
m
rich
archaeological
cultural
of
along
probably
situated
its
last
up
sacred
and
world
2,430
was
It
Site
as
had
Mahal.
height.
ramps.
made
featured
Heritage
wonders
and
zone,
zone
has
industry
presentation
agricultural
you
investigate
Inca
retreat
major
that
of
it
the
TV
tourism.
meat.
Pt E.17: The Wizarding World of
Harry Potter
239
3
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Benets
Csts
Social benets
Social costs
•
Encourages civic pride.
•
•
Provides cultural exchange between visitors and locals.
•
Benets also spread to the country as a whole.
•
Encourages the celebration of par ticular customs and
Cultural conicts and abandonment of
traditional customs ad moral values.
•
Increase in local crime.
cultural events.
•
Encourages the learning of new languages and foreign
customs.
•
Improvement of infrastructure (electricity, water supply,
sewerage and communications) benets local people.
Economic benets
Economic costs
•
It attracts auent tourists.
•
It inates local prices of goods and services.
•
It provides valuable foreign exchange, which can be invested
•
Jobs in tourism are mainly seasonal.
•
Tourism is volatile and subject to downturns
in local services and projects, connected to development.
•
Extra tax revenue for the government derives from
as a result of external inuences such as
accommodation, restaurants, airpor ts, sales, Inca Trail and
world economic recession or terrorism. High
Machu Picchu entrance fees at $20 per ticket.
dependence upon tourism either locally or
nationally can be risky.
•
It provides direct employment (accommodation, guides and
visitor transpor t) and indirect employment (food production
•
“Leakage” can easily occur. This means that
and housing construction). Tourism is a labour-intensive
money generated to tourism does not stay
industry.
in the country but returns home. This occurs
when local tour operators are not used.
•
Tourism can produce a “multiplier eect” whereby money
generated in one sector of the economy benets another
sector, and the amount of money circulating in the economy
increases.
Environmental benets
Environmental costs
•
•
Tourism has conserved natural and cultural resources that
would have become derelict otherwise.
Visitor numbers are increasing by 6 per cent
per year leading to footpath erosion because
numbers are beyond crryng cpcty.
•
Heavy rainfall, steep slopes, deforestation and
trampling of vegetation can lead to landslides.
•
The local infrastructure cannot cope with
recent urbanization, in par ticular hotel-
building, e.g. Aguas Callentes. The Urubamba
river is overloaded with untreated sewage and
its banks are covered with garbage.
•
Helicopter ights introduce noise and
disturbance.
The
number
discovery
its
240
in
of
visitors
1911.
development
to
There
and
Machu
are
tourist
Picchu
both
has
positive
attraction.
increased
and
massively
negative
since
consequences
its
of
3
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
a T
T h E
i N T E R N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
Managing tourist pressure at Machu Picchu
Problems
UNESCO
authorities
landslides,
sanctuary.
but
so
far
the
day
Machu
people
of
foot.
has
are
But
day
new
enter
trafc
“The
for
to
been
entrance
build
a
only
of
to
by
the
is
at
risk
each
of
point.
gates.
and
this
endangered
checkpoints
Picchu
of
to
thinking
entrance
follow
be
accessed
from
Machu
to
The
get
Only
there
list
limiting
is
into
400
a
limit
one
of
to
railway
and
a
or
cable
on
car
Picchu
of
hire
three
limits
by
Picchu.
Ministry
have
time
Cuzco
Machu
the
Picchu
face
the
Huayna
road
top
visitors
and
time
the
access
Trail.
could
the
Machu
will
Citadel
Time
for
in
clearly
be
and
or
at
Culture
an
in
ofcial
Cusco,
guide
predetermined
specic
points
routes
to
keep
the
of
and
Inca
city
and
of
be
people”,
will
adopt
public
Machu
based
the
require
a
on
Picchu
to
plan.
will
previously
regulations
them
use
state.
wear
uniforms
credentials.
three
clients
tourist
20
guides
to
the
manner
most
for
limited
of
most
Intihuatana,
Temple
at
nalize
into
orderly
visible
their
to
will
group
established
be
to
routes
“expressly
join
through
prohibited”
another
and/or
the
from
divert
to
Inca
“leaving
a
different
person”.
limits
Picchu’s
Peru
visitors
an
groups
organized
guide
urging
procedures
have
They
to
to
to
Citadel,
conducted
and
●
plans
valley
climb
Inca
Picchu
complex,
has
Stricter
an
to
the
to
Culture
the
at
illegal
site
alternative
congestion
promulgated
Inca
organized
●
offering
the
of
limiting
and
owing.
UNESCO
be
rules
the
for
deforestation,
adding
Ministry
and
allowed
are
the
visitors
the
through
The
hours
Machu
there
so.
alleviate
are
about
development
considered
considering
permits
from
allforeign
●
done
regulations
Under
concerned
urban
has
three
to
recently,
New
●
to
also
daily
running
to
not
Picchu
per
500
Until
UNESCO
pass
ofcials
are
uncontrolled
of
prevent
3–5
signicant
the
the
minutes
Temple
Sun.
The
bottleneck
to
and
of
stop
sacred
the
appreciate
points
Condor,
purpose
trafc
and
of
the
some
interest,
Water
of
Machu
including
Mirrors
and
the
the
is
jams,
600,000
the
●
regulations
“Keep
Moving”
guards
blow
tourists
signs
shrill
stray
increasingly
say.
and
park
whistles
unintentionally
restricted
500,000
when
into
400,000
territory.
Foreigners
300,000
Peruvians
Supporters
believe
of
that
the
poor
overcrowding
at
new
rules
management
Machu
Picchu
and
200,000
is
100,000
taking
site.
an
Tour
undue
toll
operators
on
are
the
iconic
rmly
against
0
the
new
restrictions.
1980

1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2014
Fgre E.13: Visitors to Machu Picchu, 1980–2014
241
3
OPTION
q
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Fgre E.14: New restrictions for visitors to Machu Picchu
ar tcle 19 – Prbte Cnct
For all persons, national and foreign, who visit the Inca city of Machu Picchu, the following conduct is expressly PROHIBITED:
19.1
Carrying and consuming food and alcoholic beverages.
19.2
Climbing and touching the walls and other structures of
the Inca citadel.
19.3
Leaning against or rubbing your hands or body against
the walls and stone elements.
19.4
Igniting ames or building camp res.
19.5
Carrying canes of any kind, except as needed for age,
physical disability or injury.
19.6
Smoking tobacco, cigarettes or any other substance.
19.7
Disturbing the ora, fauna and biodiversity.
19.8
Polluting water sources.
19.9
Writing on the ground, walls, stones, as well as the

Pt E.18: Machu Picchu: Lost city of the Incas
elements of natural heritage under penalty of legal
sanction.
19.10
Practicing nudity and obscene acts contrary to morals and good customs.
19.11
Disposing of solid and liquid waste.
19.12
Carrying backpacks with a capacity greater than 20 liters (5 gallons) or 6 kilos (13 pounds).
19.13
Oering and selling products within the Inca citadel and the immediate surroundings, including the receiving areas for
visitors and vehicle access.
19.14
Conducting fashion shows, exhibitions of swimsuit or dancing and exotic musical instruments, which distor t the
sacredness of the Inca citadel.
19.15
Convening social events.
19.16
Bringing in pets.
19.17
Flying over the ruins in para-gliders, helicopters or any type of aircraft.
19.18
Launching drones or any type of aircraft to take photographs, videos or movies from the air, with the only exception to this
prohibition being ights solely for scientic and cultural diusion with prior express authorization of the Decentralized
Directorate of Culture of Cusco.
19.19
Using aerosol sprays that release repellents, colognes, sunblocks, or anything else.
19.20
Changing attire, clothing and garments within the Inca citadel.
19.21
Bringing in or using large umbrellas during the rainy season.
19.22
Conducting explanations in spaces or sites not determined for that purpose.
19.23
Leaving an organized tourist group to join another and/or diver ting to a dierent guide or person.
19.24
Going beyond the physical limits of the tour of the Inca citadel.
19.25
Filming footage for the purpose of marketing consumer products.
19.26
Any heavy lming equipment.
19.27
Any act that harms the conservation of the Inca citadel and its lithic elements will incur an administrative penalty and in
addition may be the subject of criminal and judicial charges.
Since
2011,
exceeded
number
rst
242
of
time
the
the
average
daily
visitors
ever
in
limit
to
daily
of
Machu
2012.
number
2,500
of
agreed
Picchu
visitors
to
by
surpassed
at
Peru
1
Machu
and
million
Picchu
UNESCO.
tourists
has
far
The
for
the
3
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
a T
T h E
i N T E R N a T i o N a L
The role of transnational corporations (TNCs) in
Activity 12
expanding international tourism destinations
In
many
and
LICs
tourism
development.
13percent
of
It
has
the
potential
generates
consumer
over
spending.
6
to
stimulate
economic
per
cent
of
Many
LICs
possess
global
GNP
1.
urban sites.
and
resources
2.
(such
as
beaches,
warm
climates,
forests,
mountains,
wildlife,
Dene “heritage tourism”
and give two rural and two
growth
primary
S C a L E
Describe the tourist
heritage
attractions of a site such as
features,
indigenous
people)
and
secondary
resources
such
as
hotels
Machu Picchu.
which
tourists
wish
to
access.
It
would
be
difcult
for
the
individual
3.
tourist
to
arrange
their
transport
and
accommodation
To what extent do the
independently.
economic benets of
Moreover,
LICs
may
not
have
all
of
the
infrastructure
in
place
to
develop
tourism outweigh the
their
own
tourist
industry.
So
they
have
been
forced
to
rely
upon
the
environmental costs at this
transnational
corporations
(TNCs)
concerned
with
tourism
to
organize
site?
and
in
all
market
HICs.
these
For
example,
US-based
been
the
companies.
independent,
has
resources
the
and
eight
products.
largest
Although
exploitation
of
hotel
the
their
The
LICs
TNCs
chains
have
resources
are
in
usually
the
become
by
the
based
world
4.
are
the terms “multiplier eect”
politically
tourists
of
Explain what is meant by
and “leakage”.
HICs
unsustainable.
5.
Identify those in favour of
regulating tourism at Machu
Hilton
Worldwide
is
an
example
of
a
TNC
involved
in
tourism.
It
was
Picchu and those against.
founded
hotels
in
rooms
the
in
1919
100
and
is
countries.
brands
and
in
Waldorf
as
been
the
with
1949.
including
the
such
has
credited
Francisco
Conrad
It
international
company
Hilton
by
Hilton
the
of
has
the
over
US
of
such
and
as
chain
now
in
the
on
rst
and
world,
rooms.
airport
4,600
by
Since
6.
2005,
It
has
a
in
San
number
and
service
over
Evaluate the recent
restrictions for visitors to
Machu Picchu (E.14).
hotel,
Hotels
full
Itemploys
over
Team.
hotels.
Conrad
has
the
750,000
the
Resorts,
Resorts.
and
Olympic
concentrated
hotels,
and
USA
hotel
with
development
Hotels
Hotels
in
largest
sponsor
the
luxury
the
presence,
a
Astoria
Hilton
is
Hilton
of
Resorts
Describe and explain
principal types of regulation
that might be introduced to
control the tourist impact at
hotels,
160,000
7
.
people
a heritage site.
worldwide.
In
contrast,
Thomas
the
cities
rst
of
tours
place
in
the
Cook
Thomas
was
Leicester,
to
Europe
1855
and
Cook
originally
to
Derby,
Group
is
founded
a
in
tourism
1841
Birmingham
to
and
TNC
take
that
has
diversied.
passengers
Nottingham,
in
between
the
UK.
Its
took
the
National
USA
in
1865.
In
1974,
business
Thomas
Cook
introduced
chains
“circular
were
notes”
later
traveller’s
company
to
which
Competitors
Tourists
become
cheques.
was
also
The
involved
Activist
in
military
transport
and
Employees
groups
the
was
postal
a
late
package
In
the
service.
arrival
holiday
UK,
became
a
In
fact,
into
it
the
market.
Thomas
Cook
Tourism
“vertically
Government
integrated”
providing
hotels,
lines
air
transport,
resorts,
and
a
Residents
Planners
company
cruise
tour
operator.

Fgre E.15: The stakeholders in tourism planning
243
3
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Thomas
stores,
Cook
Cook
97
was
a
appointed
with
a
planners,
the
over
20
20,000
million
London
“affordable
2012
and
people,
has
customers
Olympic
accessible
nearly
per
year.
Games,
3,000
Thomas
and
was
accommodation”
Games.
in
business
around
of
provide
the
Stakeholders
employs
and
sponsor
to
throughout
TOK
Group
aircraft
tourism
can
interest.
leaders
and
include
Examples
local
individuals,
include
residents
who
groups
agencies,
are
and
private
impacted
by
organizations
consultants,
decision-making.
TNC involvement in tourism
is an impor tant feature of
There
globalization, and also has
are
airlines,
many impacts associated
been
with globalization, notably
the
of tourist activities and
destinations.
travel
around
related
the
services
cheques
and
of
lines,
TNC
tour
integrating
Express
companies
largest
city
areas
cruise
American
nancing
this idea referring to a range
main
increasingly
1960s
inequalities in wealth. Discuss
ve
hotels,
agency
globe.
of
the
tourism
travel
business.
agents.
For
cheques,
computerizing
ticketing.
American
the
USA
hotel,
and
Express
airline
computer
has
ofces
now
and
cruise
services,
in
in
the
shares,
Express
is
important
many
other
reservations,
guidebooks
–
have
buying
every
handles
industry
All
example,
travellers
in
cards,
terms
in
and
beyond
American
including
credit
their
moved
and
involvement
operators
and
travel-
travellers
passports.
The costs and benets of tourism as a national
development strategy
Tourism
as
a
development
option
has
many
attractions.
Tourism
is
TOK
apositive
route
especially
when
towards
economic
development
for
poor
countries,
There are many formal and
they
lack
the
raw
materials
for
manufacturing.
Tourism
informal activities that are
can
be
regarded
as
an
export,
but
goods
and
services
are
notsubject
to
benecial for others in the
the
price
uctuation
of
commodities
sold
on
the
world
market.
Tourism
tourism sector. Even though
can
be
an
effective
way
for
a
country
to
overcome
its
problems
of
TNCs may control some tourist
balance
of
payments.
activities, there are many
From
the
perspective
of
the
host
country
and
its
population,
tourism
is
advantages for independent,
labour
intensive
and
can
overcome
the
problem
of
unemployment
both
in
local workers. Discuss this idea
rural
and
urban
environments.
The
tourist
economy
provides
jobs
directly
referring to specic activities
(tourist
welfare,
catering,
transport,
guiding
and
accommodation)
or
and tourist destinations.
indirectly
provides
catering
(construction,
opportunities
and
engineering
to
acquire
and
new
food
skills,
production).
for
&
repair
in
also
languages,
entertainment.
Tourism
maintenance
example
Tourism
can
create
a
multiplier
services
effect,
which
means
that
income
accommodation
gained
travel
agency
by
through
duty
free
local
the
economy
is
circulated
by
their
food/catering
shop
entertainment
purchasing
banking
people
of
products
within
the
services
tour
guides
host
Travel
e.g.
area.
Tourism
can
redistribute
airline
wealth
globally,
nationally
and
rail
medical
service
regional
Origin
Destination
locally
ship
airline/rail/road
provided
that
leakage
is
not
travel
bus
allowed
insurance
banking
services
when
the
economy
foreign-owned
manage
suppliers
drain
(as
car
services
luggage
to
the
business,
companies
reap
the
shops
taxi/bus/hire
car
taxi/bus/hire
prots
to
departure
car
from
and
repatriate
them).
arrival
laundry/cleaning
Tourism
food/catering

Fgre E.16: Tourist links
export
thereby
foreign
244
adds
base
diversity
of
helps
the
to
to
stabilize
exchange
the
country
and
its
earnings.
3
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
a T
T h E
i N T E R N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
Tourism in Small Island Developing States (SIDS)
Online case study
Small
islands
have
relied
on
tourism
as
a
means
of
economic
South
development,
of
the
Caribbean
high-density
gradual
many
and
resort
Since
authentic
Caribbean,
Polynesia
islands,
in
the
in
the
of
1990s,
South
brings
and
As
been
a
successful.
characterized
short
islands
in
visitor
with
preference
remote
Seychelles
Pacic.
both
are
attractions
tourist
on
have
relatively
articial
Maldives
tourism
they
Mediterranean
experience
the
cases
complexes,
replacement
amenities.
more
and
has
and
as
theIndian
and
and
shifted
such
St
Africa
islands
large-scale,
stays
natural
development
benets
by
The
the
cultural
towards
Lucia
Ocean,
strategy
for
in
a
the
and
French
these
risks.
The benets of tourism for SIDS
●
A
small
land
unlikely
●
Tropical
such
as
islands
coasts,
indigenous
●
As
●
Both
an
jobs
area
are
direct
narrow
resource
base
makes
manufacturing
an
strategy.
well
endowed
mountains,
with
ecosystems,
many
natural
heritage
sites
attractions
and
tribes.
exporting
for
and
development
and
local
industry,
indirect
people,
tourism
is
not
employment
many
of
whom
in
are
restricted
the
by
tourist
quotas
industry
or
tariffs.
provides
untrained.
The risks of tourism for SIDS
After
the
decades
major
core
of
mass
tourist
economies
tourism,
attractions,
of
Europe,
isolation
but
North
and
transport
America
remoteness
costs
and
are
are
high
Japan
is
two
and
of
access
usually
to
the
limited.
Case study
The Maldives – a Small Island
12,000
Developing State
10,000
8,000
International
tourists
6,000
PPP
000s
US$
4,000
2,000
0
2001

2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
Fgre E.18: International tourist arrivals and GDP in the
Maldives, 2001–13
Background
The
tiny
N
its
0
Maldives
islands,
consist
only
population
of
of
200
an
of
archipelago
which
300,000.
are
Located
of
1,190
inhabited
at
by
latitude
1000
3degrees
north,
monsoon
climate
the
islands
experience
a
tropical
km

Fgre E.17: The location of the Maldives
conditions
from
most
October
to
with
of
the
April.
hot
(26–31 °C)
year,
For
and
the
adry
and
humid
season
majority
of
the
245
3
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Case study (continued)
400,000
the
tourists
who
sun-sea-sand
ideal
holiday
visit
the
islands
combination
makes
annually,
Sea-level
this
where
an
above
destination.
sea
planet.
Economic
accounts
GDP
for
and
28
per
more
cent
than
of
60
by
foreign
cent
exchange
government
receipts.
Over
90
per
The
overall
that
tax
revenue
development
comes
of
from
tourism
has
growth
created
income
the
of
the
country’s
direct
and
generation
industries,
indirect
was
once
the
the
in
recently
so-called
multiplier
industry
tourism
has
Agriculture
assumed
and
play
a
constrained
by
cultivatable
land
lesser
the
4.6
the
Most
staple
much
in
the
of
which
consists
boat
must
be
mainly
building
for
only
about
and
7
cent
the
GDP
in
to
Tourist
and
of
but
the
average
2
and
the
per
Maldives,
external
of
or
per
external
revenue
2009,
rate
cent
like
shocks,
human
badly
are
in
affected
December
12,000
2004,
and
which
caused
As
a
result
of
$300
the
fell,
and
GDP
contracted
in
2005.
Although
numbers
reconstruction
recovered,
as
a
result
of
high
oil
the
prices
of
construction
materials
required
world
economic
been
recession
stagnating
for
all
of
2008,
sectors.
economy
has
a
narrow
base
that
The
relies
garment
cent
of
on
tourism,
70
per
with
cent
of
a
limited
source
all
tourists.
Any
area
from
changes
in
threats
the
this
limited
will
market
be
the
world
at
has
grew
an
and
2010
SIDS,
are
whether
activity,
from
and
to
internal
limitations
rapidly
annual
fallen
between
many
serious.
shocks
rate
is
of
resources
of
average
tourist
consumes
more
water
and
predicted
and
than
the
average
Maldivian,
and
both
2020.
expensive
to
produce.
Almost
all
water
is
vulnerable
by
desalination.
Groundwater
supplies
natural
are
causes
islands
were
resorts.
has
provided
to
These
and
handicrafts,
are
The
2100.
imported.
energy
to
by
of
The
cent,
59 cm
domestic
Depletion
1990
of
demand
grew
Vulnerability
5per
risen
2009.
Vulnerability
demand
further
damage.
tourist
import
rebuild
economy
between
has
estimates
greater
to
Maldives’
a
threat.
displaced
and
supplying
accounted
by
zone
tsunami
property
decit
heavily
production,
active
tourist
national
Industry,
current
economy,
availability
shortage
foods
rise
another
dead,
per
growth
labour.
will
are
rapid
Since
and
and
manufacturing
role
limited
20 cm,
but
to
to
level
the
effect.
here,
and
importance.
continue
sea
m
on
other
trade
more
1.5
country
employment
opportunities
prime
it
Asian
100
was
Fishing
1900s
Maldives,
only
economy.
by
related
lowest
is
fostered
tsunami
and
the
import
has
million
It
the
early
about
tectonically
left
the
the
is
to
level
cent
by
duties.
it
threat
ground
of
a
of
real
the
per
Tsunamis
its
a
level;
Since
suggest
Maldives’
is
average
importance
globally
Tourism
rise
the
both
are
running
short
and
are
often
contaminated
beyond
by
sewage
or
saltwater
incursion.
All
energy
theircontrol.
is
produced
Hulhulé
by
generator
Islands.
minerals
and
The
except
Maldives
agricultural
on
Male
have
potential
no
is
and
economic
very
low.
Pollution
Solid
EXTERNAL SHOCKS
Pandemics
Terrorism
and
liquid
waste
production
by
tourists
NATIONAL OUTCOMES
is
also
high,
and
matches
their
consumption.
Flooding
Erosion
Solid
waste
is
either
dumped
in
poorly
managed
Economic recession
Degradation
landll
sites,
incinerated
or
dumped
at
sea.
All
Tsunamis
Loss of resources
Sea-level rise
three
processes
How
the
are
unsustainable.
Loss of tourist revenue
El Niño
Unemployment
The
Maldives
is
responding
to
threats
environment
The Maldives are exposed to a range of external and unpredictable
threats or shocks. Their lack of economic diversity and high
All
new
tourism
development
sites
must
undergo
dependence on tourism increases their vulnerability.
an

246
Fgre E.19: The vulnerability of the Maldives
environmental
potential
impact
construction
assessment
carrying
to
measure
capacity
for
3
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
a T
T h E
i N T E R N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
Case study (continued)
the
area.
plan
setback
of
Developers
against
20
from
per
building
must
be
there
is
the
cent
must
such
imported,
for
by
to
as
mainly
a
from
all
a
40
the
m
of
and
climate
but
neutral
encouraging
wind
energy.
cabinet
commitment
aggregates
India,
and
Nasheed
carbon
means
solar
underwater
level.
demolition
Mohamed
Maldives
which
maximum
buildings,
and
President
mitigation
tree-top
sand
recycling
a
include
mark,
coverage
restriction
materials
scope
produce
This
high-water
land
height
Building
must
ooding.
to
change
the
In
a
to
make
decade,
development
2009
meeting
addressing
and
pledged
within
to
the
he
held
an
emphasize
problem
consequent
his
of
sea-level
rise.
and
The
economy
buildingwaste.
The
The
problem
through
the
all
pits
bottle
resorts.
into
resort
the
desalination
reduced
plants
tourist
the
must
for
on
now
the
of
The
sectors
soak-
all
their
nance
own
the
of
desalinated
natural
aquifer.
as
market
attracting
The
goal
to
problematic
the
aims
development
is
of
by
given
a
number
of
political,
economic
and
cultural
or
be
a
the
hosting
World
in
a
Cup.
position
of
an
Most
international
countries
where
they
that
can
event
bid
to
guarantee
such
host
that
as
the
such
they
in
resorts,
broadening
the
domestic
China
hence
the
Olympic
Games
tend
to
be
event
run
hosted
and
employment,
limited
tourism,
India.
which
resource
is
base
of
Research skills
out
in
about
the
Games
have
the
controversy
around
awarding
the
the
to
of
2022
event
Football
successfully,
public
that
Olympic
can
reforming
and
Maldives.
factors
an
and
other
investment
Find
affect
and
foreign
from
L TA
are
the
diversify
shing,
manufacturing
promoting
visitors
to
and
tourism
include
new
increase
Hosting international sporting events
There
between
encouraging
and
aims
tourism
construction,
Other
and
tourism
substantially
government
beyond
linkage
such
transport.
new
installation
of
Maldivian
economy
encourage
and
have
also
the
compactors
provision
has
addressed
through
plants.
the
resorts
stress
and
discouraged,
treatment
is
installation
disposal
is
developments
in
management
crushers
Sewage
aquifer
waste-water
water
waste
compulsory
incinerators,
in
of
HICs
World
Cup
to
and
Qatar.
NICs/emerging
China
(Beijing
Olympic
economies.
Olympic
Games)
and
NICs
Games,
South
that
have
2008),
Africa
hosted
Brazil
(Football
the
(2014
World
events
World
Cup
in
include
Cup
and
2016
2010).
Activity 13
Hosting
such
an
event
requires
stadia,
transport
infrastructure,
hotels
and
Study Figure E.18.
other
facilities
for
tourists/fans,
and
training
facilities
for
the
athletes/
1.
players
taking
part.
Cultural
factors
may
include
the
provision
of
Describe and explain the
sporting
relationship between PPP
facilities
–
the
Winter
Olympic
Games
generally
occurs
in
a
country
where
and international tourist
winter
sports
is
a
tradition.
Political
factors
involved
in
the
allocation
of
arrivals.
the
Games/World
alleged
Cup
corruption
of
include
lobbying
organizations
such
by
as
national
the
IOC
governments
and
and
FIFA.
2.
Suggest reasons for the
main uctuations in the
q
Tble E.10: The advantages and disadvantages of hosting the Olympic Games and World Cup
number of tourist arrivals in
the Maldives.
a vntges
ds vntges
Prestige – it is considered an honour
There may be nancial problems –
to host the event and if the games
Montreal made a loss of over $1 billion
are a success the host city gains in
in 1976 and the debt took years to
reputation.
pay o.
Economic spin-os – trade and
A large number of visitors puts a strain
tourism in par ticular.
on hotels, transpor t, water supplies etc.
247
3
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
L TA
Research skills
Use
out
the
Internet
about
the
to
AND
SPOR T
a vntges
ds vntges
It unites the country and gives a
Large events are security risks – due
sense of pride.
to the international television coverage
nd
issues
they are now prime terrorist targets.
surrounding
Janeiro
the
Rio
Olympic
de
Games
in
2016.
For
example,
what
was
It gives a boost to spor ts facilities and
If an event does not do well, the host
other facilities. Cities build or improve
country’s image suers. The host will
their facilities to host events.
have diculty attracting other events –
the
if, indeed, it wants to.
Occupy
and
Golf
why
movement
was
it
formed?
The event may make a prot through
sales of radio and TV rights, tickets
and merchandise, as well as spending
in hotels, restaurants etc.
Activity 14
1.
Consider the paragraphs above.
.
List the positive and negative outcomes of the Olympic Games, ranking
them in order from most positive to most negative.
2.
b.
Were the London Games of 2012 a nancial success?
c.
Are there any other outcomes that are dicult to measure?
Compare the outcomes and nancial costs and benets of two Olympic
Games events held in countries at dierent levels of economic development.
Case study
project
The costs and benets of hosting an
funded
Agency
and
by
the
London
construction
Development
schools
recruited
and
international event: the London 2012
placed
266
women
directly
with
Olympic
Park
Olympic Games and Paralympic Games
contractors.
The
London
2012
Olympic
Games
and
The
Paralympic
Games
were
considered
to
be
a
UK
government
transform
success
for
various
reasons.
The
Games
worldwide
audience
and
helped
to
of
London’s
poorest
areas.
The
some
12,000
new
jobs,
up
to
spent
on
upgrading
homes
sports
in
a
were
1.2
per
built.
cent
infrastructure
The
Games
reduction
and
46,000
people
Olympic
were
rate
in
worked
Village,
previously
more
early
at
were
in
2012.
the
than
registered
per
Games
encouraged
a
East
End
of
More
of
and
whom
unemployed.
such
from
the
games,
ethnic
in
End.
women
(BAME)
construction
Games.
248
East
The
employing
as
In
and
the
black,
people
jobs
the
Asian
“Women
into
converting
than
2,800
neighbourhoods
ats
containing
a
third
of
which
will
be
housing.
Transport
in
for
transport
the
2012
London
invested
infrastructure
games.
now
Ten
connect
in
railway
London
£6.5
million
preparation
lines
and
for
30
new
communities.
There
in
been
a
£10
million
investment
to
upgrade
Westeld
to
the
and
minority
employment
connected
more
cycling
routes.
unemployed
run-up
found
housing,
space
than
Park
cent
developments
London,
centre
involves
into
new
residences,
pedestrian
shopping
includes
business
major
has
the
which
centres,
This
Village
additional
bridges
The
to
“Queen
London’s
Olympic
10
million
the
2,800
affordable
unemployment
Park”
health
venues.
Olympic
11,000
factor
Olympic
schools,
with
new
£30
into
£17billion
the
was
site
Games
and
created
Olympic
regenerate
new
one
the
attracted
Elizabeth
a
invested
great
with
the
Construction”
Sustainable
by
an
global
effort
90per
and
efforts
independent
62
cent
per
as
of
“a
in
this
great
of
waste
operational
were
that
success”.
demolition
cent
project
commission
monitored
rated
More
was
waste
the
than
recycled
was
reused,
3
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
a T
T h E
i N T E R N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
Case study (continued)
•
to
regenerate
poorest
•
to
create
a
Games
for
diversity
•
to
inspire
young
•
to
create
There
a
for
beyond
many
about
the
people
legacy
last
were
brought
one
of
London’s
into
east
reecting
taking
London
part
in
sport
which
2012.
changes
and
world,
that
continue
the
to
Games
bring
about.
A
Pt E.19: Crowds at the Olympic Park
new
recycled
300,000
Park’s
trees
or
composted.
plants
were
wetlands
were
encourage
planted
area.
planted
To
in
In
in
the
addition,
East
biodiversity
Nevertheless,
there
were
1,000
new
from
people
not
happy
with
the
Games.
Some
the
They
April
£11
billion
(plus
the
cost
of
and
received
million,
which
could
lottery
have
as
people
and
businesses
funding
gone
did
but
were
forcibly
not
relocated.
a
development
impacts
too
South
East
received
the
bulk
of
inequalities
between
rest
of
the
moved
per
for
cent
local
into
Lea
created
of
people.
East
2013
the
Copper
Village
Box
the
those
Aquatic
leisure
Centre
facility.
opened
pool.
Transport
as
a
infrastructure
at
to
be
improved
Stratford
ready
–
for
in
2017
the
Crossrail
World
will
Athletics
were
London
Another
7,000
ats
may
be
built
and
2035.
In
2016
the
football
club
West
Ham
funds,
areas
moved
into
the
Olympic
Stadium,
and
in
and
2017
the
housing
community
the
swimming
United
increasing
50
the
to
by
the
and
were
elsewhere.
want
There
–
July
local
Championships.
regional
along
units
Park,
of
open
move
In
2014
continues
Some
Village
Elizabeth
2013
housing
residents
2013.
spring
local
£675
January
affordable
new
Queen
infrastructure
In
developments)
1
the
cost
opened
around
on
2,800
Athletes
were
rst
Park,
who
in
were
opened
these
London.
many
Olympic
river.
Olympic
over
was
The
the
media
centre
reopened
as
“Here
East”,
country.
a
q
transform
London’s
would

and
areas
tech
start-up
hub.
Tble E.10: Financial costs and benets of the London
Assessing
the
legacy
Olympic Games, 2012
The
Csts
main
aims
of
hosting
the
Games
were
to
Benets
build
Running the Games:
iNComE
host
£1.5 bn
new
a
sporting
successful
available
for
use
facilities
Games
after
and
and
the
to
infrastructure,
make
games.
the
to
facilities
Another
aim
Lottery £1.5 bn
was
to
get
more
young
people
involved
in
sport.
Olympic stadium: £560 m
TV and marketing £560 m
Athletes’ village and park:
Sponsorship and ocial
£650 m
suppliers: £450 m
Security: £200 m
Ticket revenues: £300 m
Redevelopment: £800 m
Licensing: £50 m
Transpor t and
London Development
infrastructure: £7 bn
Agency: £250 m
Council tax levy: £625 m
Total £10.710 billion
The
London
main
aims
2012
for
the
Total £3.735 billion
Olympic
Committee
had
four
Games:

Pt E.20: Restored River Lea and Athletes’ Village
249
3
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Case study (continued)
a
e
L
2015
2012
r
e
v
i
R
GREATER
LONDON
Wheelchair
training
Waltham
Hockey
tennis
&
&
tennis
Forest
pools
20
km
Hackney
Hackney
VeloPark
Velodrome
Waltham
Basketball
Chobham
Forest
Hockey
Manor
Broadcast
&
Olympic
Warm-up
(2015)
East
East
Village
venue
media
Here
Village
(2016)
centres
East
Stratford
Int’l
Wick
(2017)
Station
Stratford
Int’l
Station
Handball
Copper
Westfield
Stratford
Hackney
Wick
Hackney
Westfield
Wick
Sweetwater
Water
Station
Box
City
Station
O
(2018)
l
y
m
p
i
polo
OLYMPIC
Aquatics
Centre
Stratford
Olympic
Olympic
Station
Stadium
Stratford
o
l
i
PARK
BORDER
Station
Stadium
Fgre E.20: During and after:
t
Orbit
Orbit
sculpture
sculpture
London’s 2012 legacy
Running
Warm-up
track
Source: The Economist. 2015. “ What
(2017)
Tower
Tower
venue
have the Olympics done for east
Hamlets
Hamlets
Newham
Newham
London?”
400
m
400
m
http://www.economist.com/news/
Major
roads
Major
railway
lines
britain/21659766-what-haveSports
Sports
venues
Non-sports
sites
Other
venues
Housing
Business
Olympic
olympics-done-east-london-goingSource:
Source:
Queen
Elizabeth
Olympic
Park
facilities
ODA
bronze
This
aim
Sport
has
not
England,
themselves
between
at
once
and
cuts
achieved:
number
least
2012
government
been
the
a
2014.
to
of
week
Partly
sports
according
Britons
fell
this
centres
by
is
and
to
exerting
200,000
down
the
to
like.
London
relative
for
22,000.
the
2012
Olympic
Games
the
London
stated
that
from
they
British
wanted
Athletes
an
in
even
the
Games,
towards
of
elite
and
the
so
the
British
of
sports,
in
focus
not
on
rent).
Games.
elite
than
translate
of
the
sports
into
and
The
athletes
might
local
participation.
The
industrial
sectors
are
continue
coming
East
250
tourism
expected
to
grow
years.
London
compared
and
to
in
to
the
However,
area,
the
the
when
rich
West

London.
28
Much
to
The
Hamlets
housing
more
change
waiting
is
the
list
around
developments
percent
(dened
as
80
are
per
Although
and
the
Tower
earmarked
cent
of
to
the
unemployment
Hamlets,
government
facilities
Olympic
needed
Tower
the
only
Newham
participation
particular
the
Parlaympic
sports
of
in
in
deprived.
is
better
billion
upgrading
new
in
to
–
development
increased
related
£1
infrastructure,
creation
in
extra
sports,
existing
and
an
very
rate
2016
higher
provided
Many
“affordable”
fell
Olympic
housing
private
market
performance
still
2012
be
organizers
is
development
inequalities
social
are
After
area,
long-term
Pt E.21: Par t of the Olympic Park
London’s
average.
it
is
still
3
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
a T
T h E
i N T E R N a T i o N a L
S C a L E
Concepts in contex t
Tourism
can
and
create
economic
develop
very
and
have
to
World
However,
of
earn
Cup
the
very
and
the
potential
and
can
Many
have
in
the
Events
sporting
such
potential
benets
has
to
that
been
as
and
a
to
can
be
tourism.
They
tourism
also
many
development
Games
important
events
much
as
Olympic
redevelop
such
this
Nevertheless,
events
the
–
develop
locations.
social,
attempt
heritage
to
Both
major
countries
ability
many
sectors.
cause
resources
movie
infrastructure.
major
there
economic
both
particular
adventure,
transport
income.
–
their
developments
and
but
problems.
around
power,
the
have
important
benets
include
tourism
materialize
sporting
can
sporting
use
two
based
immense
much
strategy
not
and
support
countries
are
economic
environmental
tourism
manage
the
and
varied
TNCs
sport
major
may
bring
corruption
and
cities.
might
linked
to
large
bodies.
Check your understanding
1.
Dene
adventure
2.
Dene
heritage
3.
Outline
and
the
role
tourism.
tourism.
of
TNCs
in
the
provision
of
tourist
facilities
transport.
4.
Suggest
why
5.
Outline
the
tourists
are
advantages
attracted
and
to
South
disadvantages
Africa.
of
tourism
for
the
Maldives.
6.
Comment
sporting
7.
Explain
on
the
costs
and
benets
of
holding
large-scale
events.
why
many
Small
Island
Developing
States
rely
on
tourism.
8.
Dene
9.
Explain
10.
Examine
or
as
“mass
an
the
tourism”
and
disadvantages
the
role
urban
of
outline
of
tourism
regeneration
its
heritage
as
a
limitations.
tourism.
national
development
strategy
strategy.
251
4
Managing tourism and spor t for
the future
Unsustainable touristic growth
Conceptual understanding
The
of
concept
carrying
of
sustainable
capacity.
tourism
Carrying
has
capacity
often
can
be
used
the
thought
of
concept
in
three
Key qestn
main
What
are
the
future
possibilities
of
participation
for
●
management
and
ways:
physical
space,
tourism
and
sport
on
varying
●
The
for
of
in
rural
the
capacity
before
and
is
the
measure
of
absolute
number
of
spaces
within
a
car
park
–
the
level
of
environmental
use
that
damage
an
environment
can
occurs
perceptual
tourism
hotspots
concept
of
including
possible
management
capacity
–
the
level
of
crowding
that
a
tourist
will
urban
tolerate
carrying
which
unsustainable
●
growth
example
ecological
sustain
consequences
touristic
capacity,
scales?
Key cntent
●
carrying
in
before
deciding
the
location
is
toofull.
the
capacity
and
Tourism in Venice – an urban “hotspot”
increase
site
options
to
The
resilience.
historic
protected
●
The
concept
of
sustainable
the
growth
of
a
conict
Factors
inuencing
tourism,
media,
including
future
greater
international
diaspora
international
use
security
of
those
social
keep
and
for
The
growth.
growing
importance
and
cultural
sport
the
inuences
changing
growing
in
numbers
is
trippers
9,780
on
a
to
those
increase
the
tourist
down).
tourists
staying
people.
with
buildings
employed
There
in
the
in
daily
The
who
number
industry
(and
optimum
use
non-hotel
basis.
the
of
tourists)
tourist
This
hotel
who
carrying
and
to
capacity
accommodation,
accommodation
gives
wish
an
annual
and
total
10,857
This
is
25
per
cent
greater
than
the
of
over
number
in
tourists
is
actually
not
arriving
even.
There
in
Venice.
are
clear
However,
seasonal
the
pattern
variations
of
with
agreements,
gender
increase
importance
in
visitor
numbers
in
summer
and
at
weekends.
roles
Research
and
ha
legislation.
participation,
international
via
700
government
between
seek
employed
million
an
inclusion
interest
who
tourists
tourism
including
comprises
by
of
of
international
not
visitor
1,460
8
political
of
(and
Venice
day
●
Venice
ecotourism.
industry
●
of
alterations
tourism,
is
including
centre
from
of
has
estimated
that
an
average
of
37,500
day
trippers
the
visit
Venice
every
day
in
August.
A
ceiling
of
25,000
visitors
a
day
Paralympics.
has
been
There
its
long-term
are
the
In
2000
days
The
large
social
and
less
on
of
economic
and
in
the
St
Mark’s
days
visitors
carrying
carrying
of
There
for
the
the
other
capacity
for
environment
capacity
capacity
visitor
who
is
with
different
economic
Venice.
and
exceeded.
have
for
have
scarce
been
the
local
The
values
gain),
The
creates
negative
economy
and
Day
residential
for
but
from
of
and
a
range
is
people
rides,
even
tourism
are
over
of
externalities
society
tripping
local
on
100,000.
tourism
night-time
grafti,
benets
exceeded
exceeded
Venice
complaints
with
was
resources.
while
gondolas
churches
Thus
to
planners.
centre’s
important,
visitors
numbers
travel
for
the
stealing
covering
25,000
the
problems
competition
Square.
the
capacity
stagnate
bridges,
canals,
implications
carrying
benchmark.
increasingly
on
maximum
preservation,
seven
volume
important.
sleeping
252
with
useful
over-population
becoming
Pt E.22: Plastic pollution
a
if
the
economic
carrying
and
congestion

is
the
200
of
and
concerned
25,000
as
important
preservation
environmental
(one
suggested
through
is
becoming
of
tourists
swimming
cooking
in
declining.
4
The
of
negative
decline
resident
to
stay
in
the
of
coach
tourism
replace
city.
A
the
day
to
the
on
Venice
of
by
less
visitors
measures
trippers
city
has
contribute
resident
number
by
access
who
such
T o u R i S m
resulted
to
as
have
the
it
in
a N d
a
local
vicious
less
taken
to
F o R
T h E
gates
Nevertheless,
alienating
around
the
the
city
local
120,000
than
attractive
control
the
as:
unauthorized
tour
coaches
via
the
main
in
the
city
continues
population.
the
1960s
to
and
to
charging
market
Indeed,
55,000
in
the
the
visitors
to
enter.
destination,
local
thereby
population
has
fallen
2015.

Since
and
2.2
2000,
million
their
The
2015,
by
do
not
an
more
Over
€300
increasing
than
the
large
650
same
million.
eat
number
quality
especially
seen
boats
period,
Cruise
meals
number
of
docked,
the
Venice,
do
and
of
often
over
tourism
not
stay
they
Pt E.23: St Mark’s Square,
Venice
liners
bringing
value
passengers
in
cruise
in
in
hotels,
have
guide.
excessive
highlights
has
passengers.
they
own
the
In
declined
generally
in
Venice
passengers.
Venice
F u T u R E
circle
economy
becomes
been
S P o R T
terminal
building
from
of
trippers,
Venice
denying
●
impact
day
visitors,
ooding
●
as
m a N a G i N G
of
the
problems
those
in
of
day
tourist
trippers
has
experience.
affecting
many
also
This
historic
is
led
to
a
deterioration
signicant
cities
in
around
that
the
it
world,
Europe.
Tourism in a rural area – the Brecon Beacons, Wales
The
is
Brecon
one
of
Beacons
the
closest
National
national
Park
parks
is
located
to
people
in
the
living
south
in
of
cities
Wales
such
and
as

London,
The
Birmingham
Llanthony
They
bring
irritation
and
by
is
Valley
little
and
large
or
about
the
passed
a
and
to
Farmers
nd
drive
the
of
nd
it
they
landscape
that
but
bad
slowly.
at
the
or
and
the
no
heritage
tourists.
disruption,
times
For
little
about
cause
blocked,
gain
or
is
they
difcult
gates
driving
and
all
area
their
sightseers
community,
an
to
move
are
animals
disrupted
tourist,
the
trip
understanding
that
they
have
through.
attempt
SPARC
routes
microcosm
they
pleasurable
it
to
Pembrokeshire
One
a
Pt E.24: Murano, Italy
Bristol.
benet
problems.
Nevertheless,
One
is
no
machinery,
pony-trekkers
merely
and
that
local
●
the
possible
to
the
Partnership
action
linked
developments
●
is
involve
in
is
of
for
Action
sites.
local
communities
community
improved
tourist
many
produce
majority
plan
integrate
local
with
in
tourism
Rural
infrastructure,
Residents
become
into
is
the
tourism.
South
Communities
footpaths
involved
(SPARC).
and
in
tourism
ways:
used
wherever
visitors
stay
in
possible
locally
owned
and
managed
accommodation
●
the
●
local
manufacturers
gifts,
souvenirs,
service
sector
is
locally
are
crafts
owned
encouraged
and
other
to
tap
the
tourist
market
for
projects.
253
1
4
OPTION
q
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Tble E.11: Environmental impacts of tourism
Stressr ctvtes
Stress
Permanent environmental restructuring
Prry envrnentl respnse
Restructuring of local
Change in habitat
environments
1
Major construction activity:
Change in population of species
Expansion of built
•
urban expansion
Change in health and welfare of humans
environments
•
transpor t network
•
tourist facilities
•
marinas, ski lifts
Changes in visual quality
Land taken out of primary
production
2
Changes in land use:
•
expansion of recreational lands
Generation of waste:
Pollution loadings:
•
tourism, recreation and leisure activities
•
emissions
•
transpor t
•
euent discharge
•
solid waste disposal
•
noise (trac, aircraft)
Change in quality of environmental
media:
•
air
•
water
•
soil
Health of organisms
Health of humans
Tourist activities:
Trampling of vegetation
Change in habitat
and soils
•
skiing
Change in population of species
Destruction of species
•
walking
•
hunting
•
trail-bike riding
Eect on population dynamics:
Population density
Congestion
(seasonal)
•
population growth
Demand for natural resources:
•
land and water
•
energy
Sustainable tourism
Sustainable
needs
to
●
of
meet
development
the
present
their
ensure
faster
own
that
than
●
maintain
●
recognize
●
respect
●
involve
●
promote
has
without
needs.
rate
biological
and
local
local
of
the
cultures,
people
equity
in
sources
natural
diversity
value
dened
Sustainable
renewable
the
been
the
are
not
development
the
tourism
ability
of
therefore
consumed
that
future
needs
at
a
meets
the
generations
to:
rate
that
is
replacement
(biodiversity)
aesthetic
livelihoods
in
as
compromising
appeal
and
development
distribution
of
of
environments
customs
processes
the
costs
and
benets
of
tourism.
Principles of sustainable tourism
Sustainable
●
operates
tourism
within
productivity
254
of
is
that
which:
natural
natural
capacities
resources
for
the
regeneration
and
future
4
●
recognizes
and
●
accepts
that
benets
This
●
the
lifestyles
of
contribution
linked
people
to
the
must
of
m a N a G i N G
people
tourism
have
an
in
the
T o u R i S m
a N d
communities,
S P o R T
F o R
T h E
F u T u R E
customs
experience
equitable
share
in
the
economic
tourism.
entails:
using
resources
social
and
sustainably
cultural
–
resources
the
is
sustainable
crucial
and
use
of
makes
natural,
long-term
businesssense
●
reducing
over-consumption
restoring
long-term
quality
●
of
and
waste
environmental
–
this
damage
avoids
and
the
cost
of
contributes
to
the

maintains
biodiversity
cultural
and
creates
–
diversities
a
resilient
maintaining
is
essential
base
for
and
for
promoting
long-term
natural,
sustainable
social
tourism
L TA
and
Pt E.25: Well-watered golf
course in a dry area
tourism
Research skills
industry
“Urban
●
supporting
local
economies
–
tourism
that
supports
a
wide
areas
resilient
of
local
economic
activities
and
which
takes
environmental
values
into
account
both
protects
these
economies
and
to
the
more
impacts
of
costs
tourism
and
are
range
than
rural
areas.”
avoids
Discuss.
environmental
damage
Either:
●
involving
local
communities
communities
in
the
environment
in
general
–
tourism
but
the
full
sector
also
involvement
not
only
improves
of
benets
the
local
them
quality
of
and
the
the
tourism
experience
●
training
work
Present
in
staff
–
practices
staff
training
along
with
that
integrates
recruitment
of
sustainable
local
tourism
personnel
of
all
into
a
the
quality
of
the
tourism
marketing
sites
tourism
during
ecosystems
full
and
social
are
and
to
local
Or:
an
bring
as
reduce
visitor
marketing
information,
encouraging
of
numbers
provides
increases
tourists
tourists
respect
destination
and
for
areas
the
visit
rural
tourism
in
a
area.
when
with
and
to
the
natural
enhances
–
ongoing
collection
benets
to
analysis
monitoring
is
essential
destinations,
the
by
to
the
help
industry,
industry
solve
using
problems
tourists
and
the
community
policies,
impact
tourism
and
are
planning
viability
information
about
tourist
plans
projects,
of
–
integrated
management
better
visitor
into
which
assessments,
long-term
key
to
argument
product
such
environments
research
data
integrating
The
robust;
–
tourism
city.
satisfaction
development
●
periods
most
cultural
undertaking
effective
●
off-peak
responsible
and
customer
●
responsibly
urban
levels
supporting
●
argument
named
Present
improves
an
supporting
this
into
that
plans
entails
tourism
national
undertake
and
policies
and
and
local
planning
environmental
to
increase
the
tourism
provision
destinations
in
–
providing
advance
tourists
and
in
situ,
with
such
information
as
through
centres.
objectives
●
quality
●
maximizing
of
the
for
sustainable
tourism
are:
environment
the
economic
benet.
255
1
4
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Ecotourism
Ecotourism
It
is
generally
operates
related
at
to
reserves,
a
occurs
a
ecology
of
planning
●
being
●
a
However,
between
in
of
ecotourists
has
are
include
aims
and
density
includes
to
to
of
game
show
tourists.
tourism
give
that
parks,
people
them
tourism.
a
the
It
is
nature
rsthand
importance
of
include:
tourist
are
developments,
local
which
must
t
in
with
by
local
or
regional
communities
area
and
ecotourism
access
and
Another
for
control
conservation
desire,
their
also
to
development,
occurs
visitors
with
there
and
between
arises
benet
is
often
providing
conserving
conict
own
been
more
to
mass
but
to
closer
be
want
track
described
get
damage
thought
beaten
contrast,
and
the
where
trying
economy
the
low
sustainable
economics.
total
area.
much
example,
off
It
of
the
conict
landscape,
when
rather
a
them
local
than
for
with
people
the
all
plants
and
wish
benet
to
of
conservation.
Ecotourism
local
they
resource
causing
and
areas
the
or
to
between
allowing
facilities
animals
of
a
These
parks.
environments
involvement
appropriate
balance
the
forest
control
environment
use
ecosystems.
and
with
Ecotourism
characteristics
and
increasing
animals
areas,
level.
form
conditions
●
the
“alternative”
remote
and
reefs
Its
or
basic
natural
conservation.
local
in
fairly
coral
experience
●
“green”
to
they
tourists
than
the
go
the
egotourism.
the
mass
to
all
threat.
the
more
best
of
prepared
Critics
environment
tourism.
greatest
destroy
use
as
to
put
As
natural
routes
are
Backpackers,
They
places.
the
argue
and
such
that
perhaps
for
little
into
the
backpackers
go
environment.
as
the
ones
By
bus
toursfollow.
Future international tourism
International
3.3per
2030.
at
q
cent
By
twice
tourist
a
year
2030,
the
arrivals
over
arrivals
rate
of
the
in
those
worldwide
period
emerging
in
are
2010
to
expected
2030
destinations
advanced
to
are
economies.
to
increase
reach
1.8
expected
The
by
billion
market
to
by
increase
share
of
Fgre E.21: Trends and predicted growth
emerging
economies
increased
from
for global tourism by region, 1950–2030
30
per
cent
in
1980
to
45
per
cent
)snoillim(
Forecasts
Actual
in
1,800
1.8
Africa
2014,
is
expected
to
reach
57
bn
per
Middle
and
cent
by
2030,
equivalent
to
over
East
1,600
deviecer
1
billion
international
tourist
arrivals.
Americas
1.4
1,400
Asia
and
the
bn
Pacific
slavirrA
1,200
Europe
Forecasts
1,000
940
mn
tsiruo
T
International
tourist
arrivals
in
the
800
emerging
lanoitan retnI
600
Latin
America,
Europe,
400
the
economy
Central
Eastern
Middle
destinations
East
and
Mediterranean
and
Africa
of
Asia,
Eastern
will
Europe,
grow
at
200
double
the
rate
of
growth
in
advanced
0
economy
1950
256
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
destinations.
Consequently,
4
arrivals
in
emerging
economies
are
expected
to
T o u R i S m
exceed
a N d
those
S P o R T
in
F o R
T h E
F u T u R E
advanced
before2020.
The
strongest
The
global
growth
market
22percent
decline
economies
m a N a G i N G
in
from
2010
51
by
region
shares
to
per
of
30
cent
will
Asia
per
cent
to41
be
and
per
in
seen
the
in
Asia
Pacic
2030,
and
will
whereas
the
Pacic.
increase
from
Europe’s
share
will
cent.
Case study
area’s
The Monteverde cloud forest, Costa Rica
471
of
rich
biodiversity.
visitors.
tourists
70,000
a
to
At
specialists.

Pt E.26: Monteverde zip wire
per
cent
growth
a
time
in
agriculture
Rica
attracts
about
1
million
visitors
and
Well-organized
a
reputation
Central
as
America
and
tourism
unusual
to
its
dispersed
sustainable
safest
a
European
special-interest
and
the
attract
American
is
government
in
large
that
a
groups,
Costa
large
small-scale
as
part
of
cloud
1,700
of
it
is
Rica
New
relates
bird-watchers,
nature
Costa
The
is
situated
a
at
Monteverde
was
established
covered
328
ha
form
of
in
now
1972.
covers
bars,
are
over
100
species
of
of
birds,
a
1,200
and
Initially,
around
of
The
Santa
established
Elena
in
reptiles
thousand
Cloud
1989
and
in
the
country
to
be
the
of
local
to
community.
spider
It
monkeys.
is
310
spectacular
views
of
the
ha
Arenal
Volcano
and
the
of
the
are
often
generally
part
of
receive
a
in
size,
observation
Arenal
combined
of
tourists
were
mostly
scientists
from
the
USA
of
gardens
140
20
been
was
the
small-
hotels
in
rooms.
created
hotels,
craft
private
bed
stalls,
in
and
supermarkets,
reserves,
galleries,
a
frog
garden.
hiking
ponds
The
biodiversity
four
and
and
Buttery
centre,
a
climate-controlled
a
leafcutter-ant
are
locally
part-time
there
are
effects.
the
colony.
owned.
jobs
have
Over
400
been
created.
full-
indirect
There
are
employment
also
canopy
and
walks
bridges.
food
Local
consumed
farmers
by
provide
tourists
and
markets
every
Saturday
to
the
also
is
tourists.
The
Monteverde
Coffee
Tour
tower
a
guided
tour
of
the
production
of
coffee
the
eld
to
the
cup.
All
of
the
proceeds
go
Cloud
supporting
local
farmers
and
families
itinerary,
visitors
a
in
the
production
of
coffee.
year.
many
rural
areas
in
developing
countries,
and
Monteverde
conservationists
have
garden,
Farmers’
Unlike
Early
of
Volcano.
tour
70,000
cent
controlled
Monteverde
around
than
botanical
suspension
involved
and
per
rst
towards
Forest
and
addition
from
The
development
70
less
stables,
these
provides
offers
the
own
Reserve
one
directly
The
of
their
time,
of
attract
home
same
some
in
came
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area.
by
absorb
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and
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reserves
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the
about
400
species
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for
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and
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trails,
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numbers
in
number
such
and
was
of
entertainment,
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when
have
were
the
promotions
country
visitors.
of
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1990s
each
villages.
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1974
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of
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ecotourism
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early
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interest
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changed.
more
Since
studying
is
not
experiencing
out
migration.
the
Indeed,
it
has
been
quite
the
opposite.
Because
257
4
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Case study (continued)
of
the
developments
increased
has
attracted
growth
has
in
placed
many
the
a
collection,
such
as
price
of
there
people.
and
strain
electricity
the
tourism
opportunities
young
resident
great
infrastructure
addition,
in
employment
tourist
on
the
water
and
have
and
on
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have
been
and
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income
other
to
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cloud
and
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only
are
Information
http://www.
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sport
health
in
order
to
regenerate
National
Park
Volcano
at
http://
costa-rica-guide.com/
has
governments
and
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and
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are
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have
businesses
evenly
education
strengthened,
even
more
and
aware
of
the
the
of
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they
natural
were
resources
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education
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villagers
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from
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is
tourists
just
jobs
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the
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villagers.
sport participation
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should
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in
impact
crafts
Political and cultural inuences on international
Research skills
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in
visitor
and
locals
as
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have
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arts
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than
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forest,
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community
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and
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nations
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part
areas
to
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may
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world’s
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economy,
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participation
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to
reasons.
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a
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attention
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in
factor
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mega
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tourism,
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the
or
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event.
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evidence
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for
report
tourism
and
events
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involvement
in
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increase
term.
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occurs
are
has
hard
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to
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is
England
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or
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actively
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rise
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likely
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between
participation
for
seasonal
summer
playing
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success
participation
there
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quantify,
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sports
UK,
during
people
Qatar
in
the
Wimbledon
in
to
in
in
sporting
tennis
is
events
following
championship.
correlate
government
sport,
with
The
a
unclear.
is
fact
time
short
the
that
when
this
more
anyway.
improving
its
position
in
the
international
sports
Online case study
scene.
The
promotion
International
participation
of
sports
it
In
signed
years.
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2010
a
deal
the
in
to
Middle
National
shown
success
that
own
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258
to
has
of
and
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than
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affect
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and
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and
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sport.
Sudan
after
the
players
and
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feel
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analysis
Tunisia
Spring.
they
are
all
had
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has
greater
explanation
playing
for
their
dictator.
by
match
identied
countries,
club,
Tour
World
Africa.
forward
be
2022
Barcelona,
football
Libya,
been
the
Investment
Football
football
rather
continues
Match
the
North
put
FC
sponsor
might
in
been
nation
French
Algeria,
rates
has
Sport
and
awarded
Qatar
newspaper
pride
that
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the
broadcast
East
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4
m a N a G i N G
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
F o R
T h E
F u T u R E
The impact of social media
Social
has
media
has
changed
their
made
how
experiences.
Facebook
huge
Social
(800
impact
research
Tourism
recommendations.
and
a
people
relies
on
media
million)
on
trips,
such
as
customers
and
travel.
decisions
favourable
sites
allow
tourism
make
and
opinions
and
TripAdvisor
to
easily
It
share
(50
share
million)
tips
Activity 15
and
Visit http://visual.ly/impactsuggestions.
In
one
survey
92
per
cent
of
consumers
said
that
they
social-media-travel-andtrusted
social
media
more
than
any
other
form
of
advertising.
hospitality-industry. Study the
TripAdvisor,
890,000
not
for
hotels
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competitors.
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top
45
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if
a
2015
hotel
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ability
it
listed
impor tance of social media for
business
to
infographic which shows the
did
damage
to
the travel and tourism industry.
small
Outline how and why social
businesses
with
limited
resources.
Many
travellers
trust
the
comments
media has inuenced the
that
are
posted
since
they
are
generally
written
by
fellow
travellers.
growth of the travel and tourism
Another
plans
study
after
travellers
said
that
showed
using
use
social
their
their
that
over
media
to
choice
of
respondents
research
smartphones
vacation
half
abroad,
was
their
and
trip.
over
inuenced
by
changed
Some
half
of
85
their
per
cent
Facebook
friends’
travel
holiday
sectors.
of
users
photos.
International security
The
impact
long-term
Any
of
terrorist
many
terrorism
economic
threats
governments
industries
on
in
the
and
including
the
decline
travel
and
industry
TNCs.
airlines,
and
tourism
associated
The
are
a
effect
hotels,
social
cause
may
of
be
restaurants
industry
and
major
felt
and
can
lead
economic
in
to
impacts.
concern
for
associated
shops
that
cater
for
tourists.
The
success
terrorism.
of
The
highlighted
and
immediately
of
legitimacy
Games,
1980s
the
is
The
shield
reected
it
terrorist
attacks
travel.
The
from
the
attacks
had
an
initial
widespread
tourists
to
achieve
government
attacks
are
was
a
Army
not
sharp
(IRA)
people
and
may
values,
countries.
consumption
of
may
in
impact
the
of
USA
immediate
drop
concern
in
arrivals
about
lead
to
in
an
look
the
during
very
differ
in
views
to
and
Islamic
Munich
and
political
the
to
mid-
the
Irish
Similarly,
many
years
due
terrorism.
economic
are
patterns
cultural
tourist
for
by
enjoying
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due
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hardship
country,
to
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During
London
caused
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in
social
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ideological
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people
political
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gunmen
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in
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9/11
not
(9/11)
government,
characteristics.
co-exist
safe
on
following
country’s
Tourists
for
does
2001
the
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to
tourism
supporting
there
tourism
need
impact
target
for
Terrorist
and
September
travel.
Terrorists
people
11
the
important
safety
travel
values
forced
may
of
behaviours,
drinking
to
luxuries,
friction
reect
tourists
such
alcohol,
as
and
the
gambling
259
4
OPTION
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
and
SPOR T
Western
dress
styles
can
be
at
odds
with
local
values.
This
theory
L TA
Research and
may
help
explain
Egyptian
frustration
with
tourism
in
1997
when
communication skills
gunmen
Evaluate
and
discuss
methods
used
The
to
killed
impact
of
rapid
growth
of
the
tourist
to
the
World
Tourism
at
Egyptian
resort
of
Luxor.
the
worldwide
factors
tourism
including
industry
economic
is
due
to
growth,
a
a
rise
income,
increased
leisure
time
and
promotion
of
in
tourism
as
well
as
development
by
strategy.
Travel
the
national
level,
governments
can
also
do
much
to
implement
Council
tighter
website
the
industry.
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and
of
interrelated
governments,
Refer
outside
terrorism
disposable
upon
tourists
reduce
number
the
71
the
security.
Despite
tourism’s
economic
strength,
terrorism
and
http://www.
political
turmoil
present
major
challenges
to
the
industry.
Many
experts
wttc.org/.
believe
that
certain
sub-Saharan
terrorism,
Africa
and
so
parts
are
limit
of
the
Middle
turning
the
out
to
potential
East,
be
for
Pakistan,
the
main
tourism
Afghanistan
power
centres
and
for
there.
L TA
Research skills
Diaspora tourism
Use
some
of
the
following
Diaspora
websites
(or
nd
and
for
a
country
that
you
in)
to
it
is
one
the
that
often
increasingly
important
form
of
niche
tourism,
has
distinctive
require
different
features
forms
of
and
potential
value.
accommodation
and
Diaspora
activities
with
other
travellers,
and
they
may
well
spend
their
money
in
tourism.
different
Tourism
an
investigate
compared
diaspora
is
are
tourists
interested
tourism
some
Ireland,
world
over
ways.
Diaspora
tourism
is
an
important
sub
set
of
VFR
tourism
Irish
at
(visiting
friends
they
visiting
and
relatives).
Diaspora
tourists
are
“back
home”
when
https://
are
their
country
of
origin,
and
so
may
not
need
the
same
www.tourismireland.
facilities
that
make
foreign
tourists
comfortable.
com/Press-Releases/2016/
Diaspora
tourists
are
more
likely
than
most
international
tourists
to
May/Tourism-Ireland-
have
or
make
connections
with
the
local
economy.
They
are
more
likely
launches-new-online-lm-
to
stay
with
relatives,
or
in
locally
owned
businesses
(for
example,
bed
Tracing-M.
and
Caribbean
diaspora
breakfast
to
eat
in
local
restaurants,
go
to
local
tourism
pubs
at
accommodation),
and
so
on.
Although
they
might
not
spend
as
much
money
as
https://www.idrc.ca/
international
tourists,
it
is
more
likely
to
go
directly
to
local
businesses.
en/article/familiar-facesThus,
diaspora
tourism
can
have
a
positive
development
potential.
abroad-diaspora-tourismMoreover,
diaspora
tourism
is
not
as
seasonal
as
international
tourism,
caribbean.
and
Visit
Scotland,
may
be
Scottish
start
tourism
within
ancestral
the
year.
a
may
lead
country.
to
the
The
development
Africa
Diaspora
or
expansion
Heritage
Trail
of
tourist
conference
public
Scotland”,
and
private
investment
in
diaspora
tourism,
as
well
as
journey
educational,
to
throughout
planning
encourages
your
evenly
roots
facilities
and
more
“Discover
Diaspora
your
spread
sustainable
and
ecotourism.
www.
Diaspora
holiday
visits
to
see
family
may
well
combine
visits
to
family
ancestralscotland.com.
and
UNESCO’s
portal
to
friends
Diaspora
to
other
tourist
attractions
or
leisure
activities.
tourism
campaigns
have
targeted
diaspora
populations.
For
Heritage
example,
Trail
visits
the
Some
Africa
with
the
Philippines,
India,
Taiwan
and
Cuba
all
have
important
http://portal.unesco.
medical
tourism
campaigns
that
have
reached
out
to
diaspora
org/culture/en/ev.phppopulations.
In
addition,
business
tourism
by
a
diaspora
population
also
URL_ID=32295&URL_
has
development
potential.
DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_
Some
forms
of
tourism
deliberately
target
dispora
populations.
SECTION=201.html.
Genealogy
Migration
Museum
tourism
(or
“cemetery
tourism”!)
focuses
upon
researching
Project
an
individual’s
family
tree.
Increasingly,
information
is
being
made
http://migrationmuseum.
available
on
the
Internet
allowing
org/
history
260
before
making
a
trip.
people
to
do
research
into
their
family
4
Governments
by
providing
such
as
may
kasbahs
diaspora
attract
loans
in
and
diaspora
grants.
Morocco
investment
The
and
m a N a G i N G
into
restoration
paradors
in
T o u R i S m
of
the
tourist
historic
Spain,
has
a N d
S P o R T
F o R
T h E
F u T u R E
industry
buildings,
involved
some
investment.
Diaspora
tourism
recession,
and
has
there
environmental
been
are
shown
less
to
be
less
disadvantages
disturbances)
than
with
affected
(for
other
by
economic
example,
forms
of
leakage,
tourism.
Gender and tourism/leisure
Gender

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2013
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actively
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were
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strong growth is forecast for the
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women
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in
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per
cent
compared
with
50
per
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with
number
of
regularly
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per
cent
compared
with
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per
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of
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single
increasing
increasing
to
of
regularly
the
rapidly
women
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participate
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of
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impact
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demands
for
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patterns
leisure,
and
women
lifestyles
retailing
and
aged
will
25
to
have
44
an
housing.
Inclusion via changing gender roles
The
world
of
considerable
Muslim
Islam
women
promotes
cannot
which
UK,
only
12.5
contrast,
Middle
East,
Saudi
and
per
are
health
sports
cent
health,
Arabia,
that
are
of
Asian
Muslim
to
there
in
has
available
been
for
However,
also
and
need
women
to
do
18.8
in
face
sport.
exercise
Muslim
the
be
For
for
women
environment
considered.
enough
per
countries,
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often
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sports,
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than
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tness.
dress
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more
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of
among
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example
In
week
women.
countries
Muslim
in
the
in
women
to
In
the
are
UK.
an
increase
women
only.
in
the
For
number
example,
of
the
sporting
L TA
In
in
male
good
play
their
is
there
participate
they
benet
much
sport
challenges,
Research skills
Luthan
Watch
Hotel
and
Spa
is
a
women-only
establishment
in
Riyadh.
In
the
like
there
or
are
a
sessions
Louis
Park,
number
to
serve
of
swimming
both
Minnesota
Jewish
and
pools
and
that
offer
Muslim
Williamsburg,
women-only
women;
for
the
movie
Bend
it
USA
Beckham.
Discuss
the
sessions,
example,
in
issues
raised
about
female
in
this
lm
St
participation
Brooklyn.
in
sport
due
to
ethnicity.
261
1
4
OPTION
q
E
LEISURE,
TO U R I S M
AND
SPOR T
Tble E.12: Barriers to par ticipation in spor t for Muslim women in the UK
Dress code
Spor t facilities/teams and clubs do not always appreciate the need for modest dress.
Facilities
Facilities need to be clean and water available to thoroughly wash after using the toilet.
Provision of a prayer room or quiet area is required as most Muslim women will observe prayer
during specied times in the day.
Lack of role models
The visibility of British BAME will help to break barriers and make the environment more
inclusive.
Parental approval
This is especially impor tant for young women whose parents need to understand the benets
of spor t to allow them to encourage out-of-school activities and feel comfor table that the
environment will be safe.
Transpor t
It is often more appropriate for women to access services locally as most will not have access
to transpor t and will be reluctant to use public transpor t in the evening if they are on their own.
Social side
The traditional social side of spor t does not link in with the religious requirements of Muslim
women who do not drink alcohol and will not par take in activity that may be considered
inappropriate and incompatible with their beliefs.
Communication
Language is often a barrier as being unable to communicate causes anxiety and uncer tainty
around how to approach and access services.
Lack of women-only
Most Muslim women will only play in a female-only environment.
sessions
Childcare
Traditionally this is the sole responsibility of women. Although attitudes are changing, provision
of crèche facilities will allow greater access for women with children.
Socio-economic
Statistically BAME people earn less than their white counterpar ts which limits access,
dierence
par ticularly for women who often give nancial priority to their families.
Time
Other commitments such as childcare and running the home take priority and spor ts organizers
should consult with the community regarding the timetabling of events.
Employment
More needs to be done to encourage young women to access employment within the sector to
help break down barriers and act as a resource to equip other sta with knowledge about the
communities they serve. This includes the admin side of spor t.
Environment
Safety, lighting and security are impor tant to prevent racially motivated incidents.
Information
Information should be made available in other languages and services marketed in appropriate
places, such as mosques and schools, to ensure women become aware of what is on oer.
L TA
Paralympic Games
Research and communication skills
The
Use
the
Internet
to
nd
out
for
the
Invictus
Games.
When
Paralympic
athletes
with
initiated?
What
does
the
mean?
How
many
Olympic
in
the
Games?
Who
takes
the
Make
Games?
a
brief
ndings.
262
presentation
international
physical
of
after
the
Olympic
Stadium
and
competition
disabilities.
Games
other
your
rst
took
place
in
1948,
part
Second
in
an
of
and
It
takes
occurs
place
stadia.
The
in
Paralympic
countries
Games
compete
is
range
word
the
“invictus”
a
were
immediately
they
Games
about
World
War
veterans.
and
consisted
of
British
4
m a N a G i N G
T o u R i S m
a N d
S P o R T
F o R
T h E
F u T u R E
Concepts in contex t
Tourism
to
the
can
bring
managed
carefully.
ecotourism.
features
by
in
greater
growth
more
many
environment,
of
One
Ecotourism
HICs.
use
It
of
is
inclusive,
as
and
and
the
possibility
is
being
likely
social
diaspora.
benets,
society
Tourism
evident
is
in
in
rise
cause
are
of
needs
tourism,
many
LICs
will
security
be
to
Paralympic
harm
to
be
such
but
as
also
inuenced
issues
attempting
the
serious
Tourism
future
Internet,
sport
the
also
sustainable
tourism
the
and
in
can
developed
that
media,
it
economy.
and
the
become
Games.
Check your understanding
1.
Explain
what
2.
Describe
the
hotspot’s
is
is
meant
conditions
carrying
3.
Why
4.
Compare
by
that
capacity
ecotourism
past
perceptual
and
might
has
future
exist
been
sometimes
carrying
capacity.
when
an
urban
tourist
exceeded.
referred
international
to
as
“egotourism”?
tourism
trends
for
theworld.
5.
Examine
world
the
different
rates
of
international
tourism
growth
by
region.
6.
Dene
diaspora
7.
Explain
how
8.
Explain
what
9.
On
10.
Explain
what
tourism
social
is
the
media
meant
grounds
referring
have
growing
by
can
the
to
at
least
inuence
two
tourist
“demonstration
women
been
importance
of
excluded
the
examples.
behaviour.
effect”.
fromsport?
Paralympics.
Synthesis and evaluation
●
The
leisure
with
other
example,
tourist
●
scale.
There
places
and
are
are
and
multiple
place
by
its
include
used
for
views,
mayors,
national
delivery
of
ability
is
inuenced
activities
in
promotion
to
inuences
wealth,
different
individuals’
●
one
inuenced
freedom
to
These
gender
●
are
of
Ecotourism
by
its
interactions
Monteverde,
in
rich
for
countries
as
a
destination.
People’s
subject
activities
places.
patterns
for
of
perspectives
leisure
those
sport
Changes
in
tourism,
especially
visitor
the
work,
in
local
the
leisure
scale
growth
to
of
activities
the
ICT,
is
global
age,
example.
of
TNC
and
numbers
from
on
the
activities
governments
leisure,
participate
from
–
–
CEOs
all
costs
these
of
and
and
benets
perspectives
their
whom
of
how
include
shareholders,
are
engaged
in
city
the
tourism.
suggest
among
an
exponential
increase
in
NICs.
263
1
E X am
PRaCTiCE
E C I T C A R P
M A X E
(a)
(i)
Suggest
two
ways
environment
(ii)
Comment
capacity
(b)
Explain
(3
(c)
+
3
on
of
two
due
the
the
ways
in
to
which
their
impact
beach.
in
(2
which
these
tourists
methods
of
these
of
may
be
transport.
tourists
on
affecting
(2
the
the
marks)
carrying
marks)
tourism
on
this
beach
could
be
managed.
marks)
Either
“Participation
development
in
sport
issue”.
is
as
much
Discuss
this
a
gender
issue
statement.
(10
as
it
is
a
marks)
Or
Examine
means
264
of
the
view
that
economic
the
potential
development
is
for
tourism
extremely
and/or
limited.
sport
(10
as
a
marks)
O P T I O N
T H E
F
G EO G R A P H Y
A N D
O F
F O O D
H E A LT H
This
Key terms
of
Chc
optional
food
and
theme
health.
at
the
geography
development
by
change
is
Long-term hunger caused by a
often
he
lack of food over a long timescale.
Pec
Temporary hunger that is caused by
he
a short-term decline in food intake.
accompanied
epidemiological
of
poverty
of
afuence
transition
Maltt
looks
Economic
transition,
become
more
does
dietary
less
in
common.
not
which
common
apply
and
diseases
and
diseases
However,
equally
to
an
this
all
sectors
Having a diet that lacks proper
of
society.
nutrition, caused by not having
enough to eat or not enough good-
quality food.
Neither
so
are
Epeml
The study of diseases.
Eemc
(Of a disease) prevalent in an area.
Epemc
A fast-spreading outbreak of a
food
nor
alternative
considered.
between,
health.
and
The
is
There
shared
role
governments
health
is
indicators
in
considered.
of
easy
of
are
food
topic
on,
TNCs
and
health
interactions
inuences
both
“measure”,
and
many
gender,
This
to
food
food
and
health
considers
and
national
provision
alternative
disease.
ways
Paemc
of
assessing
alongside
HALE
agricultural
sustainability
A global epidemic.
Health-adjusted life expectancy
supplies
possibilities
and
global
for
improving
health
over
the
food
long
term.
– the length of time that an
Through
study
of
this
optional
theme,
you
individual can expect to live based
will
develop
your
understanding
of
processes,
on adjustments made for years of
places,
power
and
geographical
possibilities.
ill health.
You
F ect
Food security for a population exists
when all its people, at all times,
have access to sucient, safe and
nutritious food to meet their dietary
needs and food preferences for an
will
also
specialized
barriers,
gain
concepts
which
production
are
systems
Sustainability
long-term
an
food
is
understanding
such
as
applicable
and
the
of
diffusion
to
both
spread
considered
in
of
more
and
food
diseases.
relation
to
production.
active and healthy life.
Food security for a household
means access by all its members
Key questions
at all times to enough food for an
1.
What
are
the
ways
of
measuring
disparities
active, healthy life. (UN Food and
of
food
and
health
between
places?
Agriculture Organization)
2.
How
do
physical
and
human
processes
Food security includes, at a
lead
to
changes
in
food
production
and
minimum: (i) the ready availability
consumption,
and
incidence
and
spread
of
of nutritionally adequate and safe
disease?
foods; and (ii) an assured ability
to acquire acceptable foods in
3.
socially acceptable ways (that is,
What
have
power
to
do
different
inuence
diets
stakeholders
and
health?
without resor ting to emergency
4.
What
are
the
future
possibilities
for
food supplies, scavenging, stealing,
sustainable
agriculture
and
improved
health?
or other coping strategies). (US
Depar tment of Agriculture)
265
1
Measuring food and health
Conceptual understanding
Key question
What
are
between
the
ways
of
measuring
disparities
in
food/nutrition
in
food
and
health
places?
Key content
●
Global
Food
patterns
Security
Index,
person/capita,
●
The
nutrition
food
●
life
patterns
expectancy
access
●
transition,
consumption
Global
to
in
and
sanitation,
The
epidemiological
poverty
to
and
associated
the
of
calories
including
Global
per
variations
in
the
diseases
and
health-adjusted
maternal
between
afuence),
disease
regional
mortality,
ratio
transition,
for
Index,
the
choices.
indicators,
infant
and
diseases
population
Hunger
including
malnutrition.
nutrition
health
people.
global
Global
of
(HALE),
and
of
the
indicators
indicators,
mortality,
doctors/physicians
continuum
the
(diseases
implications
of
a
burden.
Global patterns in food and nutrition indicators
The Global Food Security Index

Tale F
.1: The components of food security
The
Global
Index
Aalt
Food consumption as a share of household expenditure
Propor tion of population under the global pover ty line
Gross domestic product per person (PPP)
Agricultural impor t taris
Presence of food safety net programme
Access to nancing for farmers
Avalalt
Food
considers
affordability,
quality
of
on
28
food
availability,
food
countries.
The
across
Index
indicators
security
middle-
and
Suciency of supply
countries.
Public expenditure on agricultural research and development (R & D)
beyond
Agricultural infrastructure
underlying
Volatility of agricultural production
food
Security
the
in
that
and
113
is
based
measure
high-,
low-income
The
Index
hunger
to
factors
security
looks
study
the
affecting
(Table
F
.1).
Political stability risk
Corruption
Urban absorption capacity
Food loss
In
2015,
region
of
income
Qalt a
Diet diversication
afet
Micronutrient availability
food
improved
in
security
almost
the
world.
countries
dominate
rankings,
the
but
top
every
High-
still
of
the
lower-middle-
Protein quality
income
Food safety
266
countries
made
1
Score
0
M E A s u r i n g
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
100,100=best
environment
Score
74.2
to
89.0
Score
58.5
to
74.1
Score
41.5
to
58.4
Score
25.1
to
41.4
Fe F
.1: Global Food Security Index scores, by country

the
biggest
the
largest
gains.
The
strides
in
Middle
food
East
and
security.
North
Europe
is
Africa
the
(MENA)
only
region
made
TOK
where
How useful is the national
food
security
worsened,
as
the
scores
of
85
per
cent
of
countries
fell.
scale in the investigation of
Diet
diversication
and
access
to
high-quality
protein
are
increasing
food security? For example, the
rapidly
in
low-income
countries.
Nutritional
standards
have
improved
map in Figure F.1 suggests that
substantially
in
almost
every
region.
all people in the USA , Canada,
western Europe and Australia,
The Global Hunger Index
to name four areas, have food
The
Global
Hunger
Index
(GHI)
ranks
countries
on
a
100-point
scale,
security. Which groups of
with
0
being
the
best
score
(no
hunger)
and
100
being
the
worst,
people in these areas do you
although
neither
of
these
extremes
is
reached
in
practice.
Values
think lack food security? Give
reasons for your answer.
Overall
North
America
index
scores
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Outer
Central
&
South
America
Asia
&
circle
Country
population
Pacic
Inner
circle
Index
score
as
%
of
Europe
population
Middle
East
&
North
Africa
100
80
)001–0(
60
EROCS
XEDNI
40
20
0
0%
10%
FOOD
20%
30%
CONSUMPTION
Household
AS
40%
A
expenditure
SHARE
for
food
50%
OF
60%
HOUSEHOLD
plotted
against
its
index
70%
80%
EXPENDITURE
score

Fe F
.2: The relationship between food consumption as a share of household
income and food security (index score)

Pht F
.1: Food aid is a feature of many
low-income countries
Source: http://foodsecurityindex.eiu.com/Index
267
1
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
L TA
lower
AND
than
H E A LT H
10.0
reect
“low
hunger”,
10.0
to
19.9
is
described
as
Research skills
“moderate
Use
the
link
49.9
http://
foodsecurityindex.eiu.com/
Index
to
access
in
the
“Visual
on
the
Figure
variations
in
availability,
to
Click
1.
a
GHI
a
is
percentage
countries.
computer
Child
Hover
mouse
proportional
access
the
from
the
out
on
of
a
and
data
tool
they
(click
to
to
in
of
the
caloric
–
the
proportion
population
(the
of
undernourished
share
of
the
people
population
as
with
intake).
–
the
proportion
wasting
(that
is,
of
low
children
weight
under
for
their
the
age
height,
of
5
who
reecting
Child
stunting
from
–
the
stunting
proportion
(that
is,
of
low
children
height
for
under
their
the
age,
age
of
5
who
reecting
undernutrition).
Child
mortality
–
the
reecting
mortality
the
fatal
rate
of
synergy
children
of
under
inadequate
the
age
nutrition
of
ve
and
in
nd
The
data
and
2010–16,
terms
environments).
of
projections
reecting
component
the
used
most
for
the
recent
2015
GHI
available
are
data
for
for
the
the
period
four
indicators.
affordability,
quality
on
nd
refer
indicators:
to
strengths
security,
charts
“extremely
choice.
country
its
availability,
safety
as
on
security
your
challenges
food
described
countries.
food
about
component
undernutrition).
unhealthy
Click
is
to
circles
interactive
countries
four
acute
(partially
explore
more
35.0
the
4.
Use
or
hunger”,
over
chronic
individual
on
wasting
suffer
to
50.0
“serious
range
3.
the
and
indicates
and
suffer
of
based
insufcient
affordability,
Choose
hunger”,
34.9
hunger”.
Undernourishment
2.
safety.
to
(see
show
quality
20.0
data
F
.2
analysis”).
options
“alarming
alarming
The
shown
is
hunger”,
the
out
to).
and
pie
the
See
factors
also
http://foodsecurityindex.
eiu.com/Country
on
global
food
for
details
security
by
country.
Activity 1
Study Figure F.2.
1.
Describe the relationship
between food consumption
Extremely
alarming
≥
50
Alarming
as a share of household
Serious
35.0-49.9
20.0-34.9
Moderate
Low
10.0-19.9
≤9.9
income and food security
Insuficient
Insufficient
data
significant
data,
concern
(index score).
Induztrialized
2.
country
Use the website in the

Fe F
.3: The Global Hunger Index
Research skills box to
Source: http://ghi.ifpri.org/
identify contrasting
countries in Figure F.2. State
Activity 2
their food security score
and their food consumption
as a percentage of
Study Figure F.4.
1.
Which region has made the greatest progress in reducing hunger since 1990?
2.
Identify the regions that had the highest Hunger Index score in (a) 1990 and
household income.
3.
Outline t w or more
reasons for the
(b) 2015.
countries’
3.
Describe how the composition of the Global Hunger Index score in the world
position on the graph.
changed between 1990 and 2015.
268
1
M E A s u r i n g
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H

Tale F
.2: The components of the Global Hunger Index
Thee me
F cat
Weht
iaeqate f
Undernourishment
rea f cl
1/3
ppl
FAO
Chl
Wasting
1/6
●
Measures insucient food supply, an impor tant indicator of hunger
●
Refers to the entire population, both children and adults
●
Used as a lead indicator for international hunger targets
●
Goes beyond calorie availability, considers aspects of diet quality
ett
and utilization
●
Children are par ticularly vulnerable to nutritional deciencies
●
Is sensitive to the uneven distribution of food within the household
World Bank
●
Stunting and wasting are the suggested nutrition indicators for the
Chl m talt
●
UNICEF
WHO
Stunting
1/6
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Under-ve
1/3
Death is the most serious consequence of hunger, and children are
most vulnerable
mor tality rate
IGME
●
Improves the GHI’s ability to reect micronutrient deciencies
●
Wasting and stunting only par tially capture the mor tality risk of
undernutrition
Source: Global Hunger Index, 2015
60
Under-five
7.74
mortality

rate
Prevalence
of
wasting
in
Prevalence
of
stunting
Proportion
of
undernourished
in
children
Fe F
.4:
Developing world,
children
and developing
6.73
world regions Global
Hunger Index scores,
6.02
with components,
9.01
7.31
0.71
0.91
1990, 1995, 2000,
2005 and 2015
0 .8
3 .8
2.01
1.41
1.51
5.11
6.41
9.51
7.81
5.81
20
2.31
1.81
IHG
7.12
8.62
6.82
4.92
2.23
30
2.83
34
8.93
9.72
9.92
erocs
6.33
4.53
40
6.44
3.74
4.74
50
10
0
’90
’95
’00
’05
’15
’90
World
’95
’00
Africa
the
’05
South
’15
’90
of
’95
’00
South
’05
’15
’90
Asia
’95
East
&
Sahara
’00
’05
South
’15
East
’90
’95
Near
’00
East
Asia
’05
&
’15
’90
North
Africa
’95
’00
Eastern
’05
’15
Europe
Commonwealth
’90
&
’95
Latin
of
’00
’05
’15
America
&
Caribbean
Independent
States
60

Fe F
.5:
The Global
Hunger Index
50
Cambodia
score 2015
Rwanda
0002
Myanmar
and the
Benin
Angola
ecnis
Togo
40
Ethiopia
Cameroon
Lao
Nepal
reduction in
PDR
Malawi
erocs
Senegal
score since
Niger
Kenya
Burkina
Guinea
IHG
Tanzania
Mauritania
Faso
Liberia
2000
Mali
Afghanistan
Djibouti
Botswana
ni
Congo,
30
Rep.
Uganda
Guinea-Bissau
noitcuder
Lesotho
North
Korea
Slerra
Bangladesh
Guatemala
Leone
Zimbabwe
Phillippines
The
Gambla
India
20
tnec
Zambia
Madagascar
Côte
d'Ivoire
reP
Swaziland
Haiti
Indonesia
Iraq
Chad
Pakistan
10
Central
Sri
African
Republic
Lanka
Namibia
0
15
20
25
30
2015
Note:
The
countries
countries
where
included
data
were
are
those
available
to
with
2015
calculate
GHI
GHI
35
Global
scores
equal
to
scores.
Some
likely
or
Hunger
greater
poor
than
Index
20,
performers
40
reflecting
may
45
50
score
not
either
appear,
serious
due
to
or
alarming
missing
hunger
levels.
This
figure
features
data.
269
1
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
L TA
According
to
H E A LT H
the
2015
GHI,
among
regions,
hunger
is
highest
in
Africa
Research skills
south
Use
the
Index
Global
website
Hunger
http://ghi.
ifpri.org/trends/
the
of
data
on
the
to
access
proportion
undernourished
population,
of
wasting
the
in
in
GHI
of
of
the
Sahara
32.2,
“serious
while
hunger”.
(Central
African
Madagascar
and
South
South
The
food
Republic,
and
Asia.
Asia’s
is
and
is
of
the
regions’
situation
Zambia,
still
south
Both
hunger
Chad,
Afghanistan)
Africa
29.4.
in
has
scores
several
Timor-Leste,
“alarming”
Sahara
GHI
countries
Sierra
according
a
reect
to
Leone,
the
Haiti,
2015
GHI.
a
prevalence
Activity 3
children
Study Figure F.5.
under
ve
years,
the
1.
prevalence
of
in
under
Describe the relationship between the GHI score 2015 and the reduction in
stunting
score since 2000.
children
years
and
the
ve
under-ve
mortality
rate.
Choose
range
2.
Identify two countries with a high GHI score and a low reduction score.
3.
Suggest two or more reasons why some countries have made more progress
at reducing their GHI score than others.
a
countries
the
in
GHI
and
has
see
over
how
4.
Using Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coecient, calculate the correlation
changed
composition
total,
of
and
time,
for
between the GHI 2015 and percentage reduction in GHI since 2000.
in
a.
Assign a number, star ting with 1, to all the countries.
.
Select 12 countries at random by using a random number generator on
those
countries.
your phone, Internet or book of statistical tables.
•
!
✗
Test a null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the Z
variables.
Common mistake
Many
that
people
malnutrition
refers
to
c.
Calculate the correlation between the two data sets.
.
Test the level of signicance of your n values.
believe
hunger
only
and
•
Accept or reject the hypothesis.
•
Explain what is meant by statistical signicance.
starvation.
✓ Malnutrition
is
any
diet
e.
that
has
amount
an
of
quality
or
Since
quantity
of
Outline your conclusions about the relationship between the two variables.
inadequate
food,
2000,
absolute
well
as
those
consume
too
Rwanda,
Angola
and
Ethiopia
have
experienced
the
biggest
as
diets
reductions
in
hunger,
with
GHI
scores
down
by
between
25
that
much
and
28
points
and
only
in
each
country.
The
combination
of
high
rates
of
hunger
food.
African
a
small
reduction
Republic,
Chad
in
and
the
GHI
Zambia
score
is
a
since
cause
for
2000
for
the
Central
concern.
TOK
Are all forms of malnutrition
Calorie intake
equally serious? Which ones
Calorie
intake
is
the
amount
of
food
(measured
in
calories)
a
person
are self-inicted and which
consumes.
Figure
F
.6
shows
average
daily
calorie
intake
per
person
ones do people have little
by
country.
The
world
average
is
about
2,780
kcal/person/day,
and
control over? How long does
the
minimum
recommended
amount
is
around
1,800
kcal/person/
temporary hunger last?
day.
However,
physical
include
Austria
respectively.
3,400
an
it
is
the
just
intakes
270
In
varies
and
and
of
the
general,
around
intake
1,820
are
as
is
with
climate.
kcal/person/day.
intake
Africa
this
activity
USA,
age,
with
In
contrast,
2,600
down
as
type
with
3,800
high-income
and
people
in
to
2,240
1,680
and
In
of
the
1,590
kcal,
amount
daily
an
intake
low-income
However,
and
of
intake
kcal/person/day,
have
kcal/person/day
Burundi
work,
highest
3,750
countries
kcal/person/day.
kcal/person/day.
low
gender,
Countries
in
and
Eritrea,
respectively.
of
around
countries
have
sub-Saharan
in
Central
daily
Africa
calorie
1
Daily
Per
Calorie
M E A s u r i n g
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
Intake
Capita
Less
than
1,890
1,890–2,170
2,170–2,390
2,390–2,620
2,620–2,850
2,850–3,050
3,050–3,270
3,270–3,480
3,480–3,770
No
in
data
kcal/person/day

Fe F
.6: Daily calorie intake per person by country
(Source: http://cdn3.char tsbin.com/char timages/l_1150_b831d4f831204d4d2416d625e3064607
Indicators of malnutrition
Malnutrition
with
●
too
means
many)
Deciency
vitamins
diseases
or
Kwashiorkor
●
Marasmus
●
Obesity
●
Starvation
●
Temporary
●
a
is
is
a
a
food
in
results
lack
of
from
refers
to
hunger
occurs
a
There
such
lack
population
Famine
nourishment,
as
are
and
many
pellagra
refers
types
result
to
of
from
a
diet
lacking
(or
malnutrition:
a
lack
of
specic
minerals.
●
to
poor
nutrients.
in
of
protein
is
an
when
the
diet.
calories/energy.
eating
a
in
too
limited
a
many
or
energy/protein
non-existent
short-term
decline
in
intake
the
foods.
of
food.
availability
of
food
area.
there
is
a
long-term
decline
in
the
availability
of
region.
Stunted growth/stunting
Stunted
is
growth
usually
high
rates
Burundi
number
term
5
per
of
stunting
of
Eritrea.
tend
cent)
to
are
and
prevalence
a
be
of
(over
In
found
50
parts
height
cent)
for
found
in
rates
Asian
rates
Middle
also
their
Timor-Leste,
of
stunting
Latin
in
Rates
or
stunting
which
and
Very
(chronic
of
East,
Fiji,
in
age.
countries.
wasting
lowest
the
malnutrition
for
high
South
than
the
and
are
very
and
of
long-term
in
also
higher
Europe,
per
per
are
contrast,
in
to
small
African
much
eastern
3.7
refers
child
There
sub-Saharan
malnutrition).
southern
in
stunting
and
stunting
or
identied
a
for
short-
(below
America
has
a
and
stunting
cent.
Wasting
Wasting
in
a
is
child
(over
20
Lanka.
dened
with
per
are
as
low
cent)
There
throughout
a
acute
are
also
South
short-term
weight
found
high
Asia
for
in
their
South
rates
and
of
malnutrition
age.
Very
Sudan,
wasting
sub-Saharan
in
high
and
Djibouti
a
Africa.
identied
of
and
number
The
is
rates
of
wasting
Sri
countries
lowest
rates
of
271
1
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
%
40–over
20–39.9
10–19.9
5–9.9
0–4.9
Data
not
available

Fe F
.7: Global variations in
wasting
(<
2
per
cent)
are
generally
found
in
high-income
countries
under 5s stunting
such
as
Australia
Pakistan
(2per
and
and
also
Mongolia
much
(both
of
less
Latin
than
1
America.
per
cent)
Anomalies
and
include
Swaziland
cent).
Undernourished
According
of
to
the
undernourished
the
Central
per
cent
where
of
Africa
their
between
%
20+
11–20
5–10
2.5–4.9
0–2.4
data

Fe F
.8: Global variations in wasting in under-5s
272
Hunger
people
of
Republic,
population
30
undernourished
No
Global
and
were
40
in
Index,
any
country,
Namibia
and
classied
per
Haiti
cent
of
sub-Saharan
as
had
with
the
over
North
highest
50
Korea
per
their
population
Africa
(except
cent.
each
undernourished.
proportion
had
All
were
Zambia,
over
the
classied
Tajikistan).
40
countries
The
as
same
1
M E A s u r i n g
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
%
>40
>20–40
>10
–20
>5–10
<5
No
data

Fe F
.9: Global variations in the undernourished population, 2016
pattern
occurs
for
undernourished
the
lowest
South
and
proportion
American
Egypt,
with
or
Egypt
22.3
of
per
This
per
with
Iran,
is
to
and
Eastern.
cent
cent
20
Iraq
30
and
of
people
per
cent
because
under-5
cent
Anomalies
1.9
surprising
per
of
Afghanistan).
undernourished
Middle
1.7
undernourished.
and
countries
(except
year
were
population
countries
generally
include
South
respectively
South
olds
their
The
Africa
classied
Africa
classied
had
as
with
European,
22.9
as
per
cent
stunted.
The nutrition transition
As
income
increase
generally
the
increases
and
a
derive
their
contribution
Bangladesh,
with
the
in
change
for
lowest
of
low-income
in
food
food
fats
is
GDP
in
energy
small
example,
the
the
countries
consumption
mainly
and
that
(LICs),
patterns.
from
of
there
is
People
an
in
carbohydrates,
meat
and
dairy
LICs
while
negligible.
In
country
analysis,

Fe F
.10: The relationship between GDP/head and energy consumption
people
derive
80
per
cent
of
their
(kcal/person/day)
nutritional
energy
and
cent
11
per
high-income
most
carbohydrates
average
per
taking
shifting
their
human
place,
a
in
towards
40
nutrition
more
France
energy
cent
nutrition
The
derives
food
which
substantial
dairy.
US,
per
from
from
from
have
fats.
shown
transition
people
afuent
are
food
l ano i t i r tuN
of
the
instance,
and
worldwide
a
and
Increasing auence and the use of natural resources”. Appetite
generally
energy
with
Source: Gerbens-Leenes, P W, et al. 2010, “Food consumption patterns and economic growth.
in
yg ren e
Studies
of
fat,
in
for
cent
(HICs)
food
meat
consumer
carbohydrates
is
and
from
Denmark,
45–50
that
their
People
y lp p u s
and
fats.
countries
of
contribution
from
carbohydrates
) y a d /p a c / l a c k (
derive
from
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
0
consumption
patterns.
The
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
nutrition
Annual
per
capita
GDP
$
273
1
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
transition
H E A LT H
began
in
developed
countries
300
years
ago.
It
coincided
with
Activity 4
great
Study Figure F.10.
a
large
not
1.
increase
lead
Food
GDP and nutritional energy
to
an
in
For
calorie
increase
consumption
period
supply.
1961–73
consistently
still
Suggest reasons for the
by
relationship between the
much
higher
cultural
two variables.
per
(both
higher
lower
in
than
income
per
preferences,
concerns
3.
growth.
in
LICs,
a
small
intake,
while
calorie
intake
increase
for
HICs
(see
in
income
increases
Figure
may
in
lead
income
to
may
F
.10).
Describe the relationship
between annual per capita
2.
economic
also
play
a
capita
in
LICs,
in
has
energy
but
HICs.
capita
the
–
increased
and
their
The
but
substantially
protein
content).
consumption
transition
food
development
in
prices,
of
the
since
levels
diet
is
per
and
chain”,
rates
capita
mainly
individual
“cold
the
Growth
are
are
inuenced
socio-
and
other
role.
Suggest two other
nutritional indicators
In
that would have a similar
reduction
HICs,
the
relationship to GDP
.
meat
intake
stabilizing:
in
main
in
dietary
cereals,
increased
an
reducing/replacing
and
it
since
mainly
(Figure
increasing
environmental
changes
while
part
for
F
.12).
of
the
1970s
vegetable
the
various
oil
Animal
protein
population
reasons
have
and,
to
been
a
intake
seems
(ethical,
the
smaller
to
has
be
extent,
been
interested
health-related,
economic).
Activity 5
In
LICs
the
diet
has
diversied
since
the
1970s.
Cereals,
including
rice,
as
Study Figures F.12 and F.13.
well
1.
Describe what each graph
to
shows.
2.
is
of health.
Describe the progress
made in protein
oil,
a
sugar,
although
declining.
strong
consumption
consumption as indicators
3.
even
There
consumption and protein
vegetable
1961–73,
and
Evaluate calorie
as
with
staple
total
protein
of
in
positive
foods.
In
seem
direction
of
to
the
HICs,
of
dairy
per
capita.
that
with
sh
the
the
F
.13)
and
in
a
is
is
of
compared
is
the
stagnating
share
income
negative
are
intake
of
intake
level
and
LICs
exception
higher
exceeds
pulses
Sugar
diet
are
cereal
also
between
(Figure
dairy,
intake
periods
cereals
relationship
LICs,
suggest
and
recent
share
protein
availability
numbers
more
Their
animal
meat
driving
also
in
and
relationship
increases
stabilizing.
slowly
HICs.
evolving
in
These
in
the
sugar.
consumption in the
Global patterns in health indicators
developed and developing
countries since 1961–73.
Health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE)
Health-adjusted
life
expectancy
450
(HALE)
400
Wheat
(developed)
Wheat
(developing)
Milk
(developed)
Milk
(developing)
overall
is
and
300
indicator
health
combines
350
an
of
and
sennot
data,
of
a
single
the
both
health
sex-specic
into
of
population.
measures
sex-specic
age-
a
It
age-
data,
and
mortality
statistic.
250
noilliM
HALE
200
indicates
expected
to
years
years
lived
the
of
in
number
life
full
of
equivalent
health,
150
based
in
100
a
a
on
the
average
population.
measure
not
experience
Thus,
only
of
HALE
is
quantity
50
of
life
also
0
but
Unit
of
1
quality
for
a
of
life.
discussion
(See
of
life
1102
6002
1002
6991
1991
6891
1891
6791
1791
6691
1691
expectancy.)
Compared
with
conventisonal

Fe F
.11: Changes in consumption of wheat and milk in high-income and
low-income countries
Source: EU Agricultural briefs, 2015, No. 6, “ World food consumption patterns – trends and drivers”
274
life
all
expectancy,
years
as
which
equal,
to
considers
calculate
1
M E A s u r i n g
3500
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
120
3000
100
2500
80
yad/atipac/g
yad/atipac/lack
2000
1500
60
40
1000
20
500
0
0
1961–1973
1961–1973
Developed
countries
Developing
countries
Developed
Cereals
Vegetable
oils
Sugar,
countries
Developing
countries
sweeteners
Meat
Dairy
Fish
Other
Fish

Fe F
.13: Changes in per capita protein availability in

Fe F
.12: Changes in per capita calorie availability in
high-income and low-income countries
high-income and low-income countries
Source: EU Agricultural briefs, 2015, No. 6, “ World food consumption
Source: EU Agricultural briefs, 2015, No. 6, “ World food consumption
patterns – trends and drivers”
patterns – trends and drivers”
HALE,
a
years
Health
Health
Survey
expectancy
ill
of
life
Utility
are
Index
data
and
weighted
obtained
was
HALE
used
to
gures
by
health
from
measure
were
status.
1994–5
In
a
survey
National
health
compared
status.
to
in
Canada,
Population
Traditional
estimate
the
life
burden
of
health.
The
results
showed
●
The
social
●
It
highest
is
a
number
burden
of
among
ill
of
ndings:
health
those
in
is
higher
“early”
for
old
women
age,
not
than
among
for
the
men.
very
elderly.
●
Sensory
of
●
ill
problems
and
pain
are
the
largest
components
of
the
burden
health.
Higher
socio-economic
expectancy
and
a
status
lower
confers
burden
of
ill
a
dual
advantage
–
longer
life
health.
Calculating HALE
The
World
Sullivan’s
that
an
HALE
Health
individual
for
assigned
each
data
registration
such
on
data,
child
major
and
number
expect
The
type
for
data
of
to
of
live
disability
calculation
of
in
and
mortality
are
a
life
life
the
census
and
to
a
the
from
disability.
death
countries
to
the
weight
of
containing
used
and
age,
compute
severity
For
tables
particular
obtained
WHO.
sources
analysed
a
includes
the
are
at
state)
also
for
tables
to
expectancy
years,
healthy
method
adjusted
annually
survey
uses
remaining
calculation
reported
adult
(WHO)
without
information
estimate
life-
tables.
challenge
mortality
and
problems
with
reported
can
available
expectancy
A
(the
countries.
to
Mortality
Organization
Method
data
with
the
morbidity,
the
from
HALE
indicator
especially
indicator
health
from
include
the
is
the
lack
low-income
lack
of
of
reliable
countries.
comparability
of
data
on
Other
self-
interviews.
275
1
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Case study
HALE in Canada
According
Canada,
to
indicator
of
individual
It
is
a
the
Public
Health
health-adjusted
the
is
summary
quantity
and
combines
average
expected
life
number
to
live
measure
quality
mortality
of
Agency
that
life.
and
in
of
a
is
years
other
morbidity
group,
an
group
state.
women
it
a
single
measure
of
used
injury
to
in
measure
the
population
performance
A
of
report
life
cancer)
and
by
public
by
provides
expectancy
without
and
the
health.
of
and
provided
Public
disease
of
It
socio-economic
status
Health
in
health-adjusted
life
4.7
diseases
with
women
and
with
income
group
had
a
loss
of
birth
years,
income
income
health-
of
3.2
years
for
men.
conditions
signicant
expectancy.
expectancy
status
this
blood
and
also
loss
The
by
period.
with
in
the
top
In
and/or
for
and
in
are
health-
estimates
chronic
of
health-
disease
5.3
cohort
life
high
the
to
at
the
age
for
blood
on
the
people
mortality
with
results
had
of
pressure
of
a
5.8
The
for
this
in
years
cohort
at
age
and
the
loss
of
2002–5
study,
the
health-
for
of
and
(high
period
cancer
55
men.
of
2004–6
expectancy
years
based
hypertension
without
According
adjusted
and
and
associated
with
were
experience
diabetes
diabetes
males
report
pressure)
people
and
(hypertension),
and
in
morbidity
women
people
55
had
a
females
and
males,
loss
of
a
years
and
2.7
years
for
2001,
The
cancer
cohort
at
age
65
had
a
oneloss
third
and
a
life
without
(income).
expectancy.
men
for
life
respectively.
Canadian
years
70.5
one-third
a
at
adjusted
2.0
loss
expectancy
adjusted
and
Agency
(diabetes
females
is
with
and
highest
the
ages.
status
bottom
the
and
and
with
Low
the
years
with
can
health-adjusted
diseases
for
72.3
efforts.
conditions
different
of
factors,
Canadians
chronic
chronic
are
risk
estimates
socio-economic
people
burden
health
among
selected
Estimates
for
of
published
Canada
the
population,
in
associated
life
associated
be
of
experience
Chronic
into
birth
Compared
being
was
adjusted
both
words,
at
respectively.
an
that
healthy
combines
In
expectancy
of
expectancy
health-adjusted
in
health-adjusted
life
expectancy
of
10.3
life
years
for
women
and
9.2
years
for
men.
Child and infant mor tality rates
The
per
child
1,000
subject
It
is
to
mortality
births
rate
a
age-specic
calculated
The
that
number
or
child
under-5
will
mortality
die
mortality
before
rates
of
rate
reaching
the
is
the
the
specied
probability
age
of
It
is
are
an
of
deaths
Unit

Pht F
.2: Child graves, Eastern
1
older,
number
of
age-specic
not
as
readily
for
a
their
if
from:
in
children
under
the
age
of
5
years
×
The
5,
year.
children
rate,
so
available
discussion
chance
of
of
under
it
the
age
compares
as
they
crude
survival
are
death
of
like
for
so
1,000
(‰)
years
with
the
rates.)
increases,
5
like.
crude
However,
death
Generally,
that,
if
they
as
rate.
the
data
(See
children
survive
also
grow
until
Cape, South Africa
their
rst
birthday,
Extremely
Chad
child
of
the
two
contrast,
cent)
have
276
high
are
at
rates
Somalia.
mortality
all
only
and
of
All
rates
countries
–
their
mainly
least
one
in
child
of
are
with
Afghanistan
countries
chances
with
the
in
a
mortality
are
countries
with
child
Sri
very
southern
country
survival
sub-Saharan
and
a
of
low
and
with
a
–
older
in
(see
of
not
Europe,
child
per
Figure
over
in
age
Angola,
10.1
7.5
increase.
Sierra
cent
per
rate
(that
although
mortality
rate;
all
for
In
cent
is,
Leone,
(101‰)
F
.14).
sub-Saharan
mortality
eastern
low
over
rate
are
child
an
found
Africa
mortality
Lanka
to
fact,
(75‰),
Africa.
0–1
per
regions
example,
In
1
M E A s u r i n g
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
‰
>10
>7.5–10
>5–7.5
>2.5–5
>1–2.5
0–1
Data
not
available

Fe F
.14: Child mor tality rates of under-5s, 2016
and
Middle
Costa
East,
Rica
and
in
Latin
Malaysia
America,
in
Qatar,
Lebanon
and
Kuwait
in
the
L TA
Cuba
Research skills
Asia.
Use
The
infant
mortality
rate
(IMR)
is
the
number
of
deaths
in
the
website
under
the
age
of
Infant
mortality
1
per
1,000
live
World
Bank
children
http://data.
births.
worldbank.org/indicator/
rate
(IMR)
=
SH.DYN.MORT
the
Total
no.
of
deaths
of
changes
1
year
old
×
1,000
per
year
of
live
is
an
age-specic
mortality
rate,
that
is,
it
is
comparing
the
death
the
same
ages,
and
so
is
more
useful
than
the
crude
death
per
thousand
chosen
the
timeline
mortality
rates
vary
from
a
low
of
under
2
and
2‰
in
Iceland,
Japan
and
Singapore
to
over
100
the
in
Afghanistan
the
24
next
and
highest
Mali
IMRs
(Figure
are
all
F
.15).
from
After
of
child
per
has
changed
Afghanistan
since
(115‰),
describe
pattern
mortality
thousand
to
in
how
Monaco
map
rate.
sequence
Infant
in
countries.
rates
Use
among
1960–2015
births
your
It
describe
(‰)
mortality
no.
to
child
children
<
Total
in
sub-Saharan
Africa.
1960,
see
http://
There
data.worldbank.org/
is
a
very
strong
correlation
between
types
of
country
and
IMR.
Countries
low
IMR,
and
indicator/SH.DYN.MORT/
with
a
high
with
a
low
human
development
index
(HDI)
have
a
those
countries?display=map.
Central
HDI
Africa,
contrast,
the
have
with
world
a
high
on
IMR.
average
average
was
The
an
region
IMR
37
per
of
with
96
per
the
highest
thousand
in
IMRs
is
2015.
In
thousand.
Maternal mor tality rates
The
maternal
deaths
by
per
pregnancy
considerable
Sudan
mortality
100,000
had
or
its
live
followed
by
found
sub-Saharan
In
in
contrast,
Europe,
MMRs
the
≤3
per
the
MMR
(1,100)
lowest
Australia
of
in
highest
Chad
(MMR)
births
from
management.
variation
the
rate
and
As
with
and
MMRs
parts
are
F
.16
deaths
(1,000).
South
found
in
Estonia,
number
related
mortality
2,054
of
annual
cause
Figure
Somalia
Singapore.
live
the
maternal
Africa,
100,000
is
any
to
shows,
rate.
per
The
Asia,
In
there
2016,
highest
Haiti
and
female
aggravated
100,000
and
high-income
Greece
of
or
is
South
live
births,
MMRs
are
Guyana.
countries
Singapore
of
all
have
births.
277
1
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
‰
80
and
over
40–79.9
20–39.9
10–19.9
5–9.99
0–4.9

Fe F
.15: Global variations in the infant mor tality rate, 2016
L TA
The
Millennium
Development
Goals
(MDGs)
2000–2015
included
Research skills
the
Use
the
CIA
Factbook
Figure
World
https://www.cia.
gov/library/publications/
to
discover
and
lowest
ve
top
ve
infant
high
and
rates
reducing
shows,
mortality
and
in
maternal
although
Eastern
Asia
the
and
has
Africa
in
by
three-quarters
been
and
much
by
progress,
moderate
2015.
there
mortality
in
As
is
still
South-
Oceania.
Research skills
for
the
CIA
World
Factbook
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/
your
to
update
the
statistics
for
maternal
mortality.
countries.
Use
Use
there
sub-Saharan
the-world-factbook/
chosen
mortality
mortality
Use
rates,
of
F
.17
eastern
L TA
the-world-factbook/
the
goal
the
United
Nations
MDG
and
more
about
Sustainable
Development
Goals
Population
(SDGs)
Reference
Bureau
sites
to
nd
out
reducing
regional
http://www.
to
un.org/millenniumgoals/maternal.shtml
discover
MMR:
and
variations
http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/health/.
in
the
IMR:
http://www.
prb.org/pdf15/2015-world-
Research
population-data-sheet_eng.
sheet
pdf.
eng.pdf.

Fe F
.16:
Global variations
in the maternal
mor tality rate
(deaths/100,000
live bir ths), 2016
>1000
500–999
250–499
125–249
60–124
30–59
15–29
0–14
278
changes
in
maternal
deaths
1900–2013,
using
the
PRB
data
http://www.prb.org/pdf15/2015-world-population-data-sheet_
Select
at
least
ve
contrasting
countries.
1
M E A s u r i n g
Africa
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
A sia
L atin
Ame rica
and
G oals
and
Tar gets
GOA L
Reduce
by
|
Improve
maternal
three
T he
5
N or the rn
materna l
mor talit y
quar ters
progress
Target
G ood
Fair
char t
met
or
operates
excellent
on
t wo
Sub -Saharan
E aste rn
South - E aste rn
Southe rn
Weste rn
Oceania
the
Caucasus
Caribbean
Ce ntral
and
A sia
hea lth
low
high
low
moderate
moderate
low
moderate
low
low
mor talit y
mor talit y
mor talit y
mor talit y
mor talit y
mor talit y
mor talit y
mor talit y
mor talit y
levels .
T he
tex t
in
each
box
indicates
the
present
level
of
development.
progress .
Poor
progress .
T he
colours
progress
Missing
or
or
show
progress
made
towards
the
target
according
to
the
legend
below:
deterioration .
insuf f icient
data .
progress .

Fe F
.17: MDG progress for maternal health
Access to sanitation
L TA
Activity 6
1.
Identify the regions of the world with the best and worst access to sanitation.
Research skills
Make
le
2.
Explain the meaning of “improved sanitation”.
3.
Suggest two physical factors and two human factors that make good
a
sanitation
using
fact
http://www.
un.org/millenniumgoals/
endopendefecation.shtml
sanitation dicult to achieve.
and
http://www.un.org/
sustainabledevelopment/
According
to
the
World
Health
Organization,
68
per
cent
of
the
world’s
water-and-sanitation/.
population
points
now
below
people
Some
the
globally
946million
Saharan
there
the
urban
per
cent
no
in
in
F
.19
sanitation
the
done
and
Asia,
In
to
better
and
areas.
region,
than
to
it
was
facility,
9
percentage
estimated
sanitation
others.
access
The
progress
the
to
Due
has
disparities:
improved
population
Africa,
that
a
of
that
2.4
facilities.
billion
Of
them,
in
since
over
sanitation
80
made
and
the
towards
of
sub-
1990.
per
facilities,
sanitation
America
been
combination
people
increased
while
without
Latin
has
to
number
sanitation
urban
sub-Saharan
the
2015
improved
progress,
access
has
sanitation
open.
slow
rural
rural
shows
by
access
without
are
improved
target.
in
population
do
primarily
Figure
have
growth
Africa
addition,
an
MDG
had
defecate
regions
population
uses
In
cent
only
access
of
51
lives
Caribbean.
improved
2000–2015.

Fe F
.18: Global variations in
access to sanitation
91–100%
76–90%
50–75%
<50%
Insufcient
not
data
or
applicable
279
1
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Africa
A sia
L atin
Ame rica
and
G oals
Halt
the
and
and
Tar gets
begin
spread
T he
of
G ood
Fair
reverse
HIV/AIDS
progress
Target
to
N or the rn
char t
met
or
operates
excellent
on
t wo
Sub -Saharan
E aste rn
South - E aste rn
Southe rn
Weste rn
Oceania
the
Caucasus
Caribbean
Ce ntral
and
A sia
low
high
low
low
low
low
low
low
low
incidence
incidence
incidence
incidence
incidence
incidence
incidence
incidence
incidence
levels .
T he
tex t
in
each
box
indicates
the
present
level
of
development.
progress .
Poor
progress .
T he
colours
progress
Missing
or
or
show
progress
made
towards
the
target
according
to
the
legend
below:
deterioration .
insuf f icient
data .
progress .

Fe F
.19: Progress towards halving the propor tion of population without sanitation, 2000–2015
Access to health services
Access
to
health
measured
doctor
or
services
per
in
50,000
global
(per
1,000
people)
the
L TA
Research skills
it
capita,
World
Factbook
people
in
Figure
the
F
.20
610
it
in
merely
is
shows
number
in
to
Hungary
are
India
people
inequalities
not
in
there
and
in
per
doctor
Mozambique
China
1,000
are
but
available
while
CIA
280
In
doctor
number
person
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0934558.html
the
per
in
per
health
of
2011.
health
a
question
of
7

Fe F
.20: Global variations in doctors per 1,000 people, 2011
Use
people
per
services
0
one
doctor.
However,
Physicians
doctor
variations
doctors
to
and
doctor
per
people
Access
one
Iceland.
1,960
hospital.
usually
of
from
and
per
is
number
Burundi
one
people
services
the
varies
100,000
per
in
would
it
is
be
wrong
impossible
to
to
consider
assess
their
in
merely
of
doctors
also
hospitals
the
or
concern
beds
the
and
quantity
per
facilities
clinics.
of
And
resources
per
quality.
to
The epidemiological transition
nd
per
on
1,000
bed
for
data
people
density
ve
or
physician
per
and
1,000
more
density
hospital
people
contrasting
countries.
One
of
the
infectious
main
or
communicable
of
an
diseases
individual
epidemiological
development
TOK
illnesses
changes
contagious
from
a
country’s
that
cause
(degenerative
transition.
would
be
For
and
gradual
example,
diseases
(diarrhoea
a
health
to
a
have
such
prole
diseases
diseases).
expected
infectious
gastroenteritis
in
communicable
a
as
worsening
This
is
country
large
By
the
in
shift
the
known
in
an
as
of
we
from
non-
health
the
stage
deaths
diseases,
contrast,
to
early
number
respiratory
vomiting).
is
( epidemics)
of
and
measles
would
and
expect
There is a theory known as Har t’s
an
HIC
to
have
more
deaths
and
illnesses
from
heart
attack,
stroke
and
Inverse Care Law that states that
cancers
–
diseases
that
are
not
infectious
or
communicable.
The
exception
those who need health care the
to
this
is
the
rise
in
cases
of
AIDS,
and
with
it
TB,
in
HICs
since
the
1980s.
most – the poor, the homeless and
other vulnerable groups – have least
access to it. Those who need health
The Global Burden of Disease, 2013
care the least – the well o – have
The
2013
Global
Burden
of
Disease
study
looked
at
240
disease
types
most access to health care. To what
for
72
countries.
Its
key
ndings
were
that
life
expectancy
for
both
extent do you think this is true or
sexes
increased
from
65.3
years
in
1990
to
71.5
years
in
2013,
while
fair? How does the data in Figure F.20
the
number
the
same
of
deaths
increased
from
47.5
million
to
54.9
million
over
suppor t this view?
280
period.
There
was
a
noticeable
reduction
in
age-standardized
1
death
rates
for
cardiovascular
M E A s u r i n g
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
diseases
15.0
and
cancers
in
high-income
regions,
GBD
and
super
region
Sub-Saharan
reductions
in
child
deaths
from
12.5
lower
respiratory
in
reduced
life
Saharan
expectancy
Africa.
of
For
death,
most
in
most
both
age-standardized
for
regions.
HIV/AIDS
southern
rates
shifts
of
decreased
have
of
fell,
non-communicable
demographic
sub-
communicable
numbers
death
neonatal
deaths
and
whereas,
South
East
South
Asia
North
Africa
Latin
10.0
2013
Asia,
east
and
America
Asia,
Middle
and
and
Oceania
East
Caribbean
High-income
Central
Europe,
eastern
Europe,
and
central
Asia
7.5
shtaeD
causes
low-income
and
)snoillim(
causes
infections
1990
Africa
diarrhoea,
5.0
causes,
increased
numbers
2.5
deaths
death
but
rates.
Diarrhoeal
age-standardized
diseases,
lower
0
0
8
≥
7
5
–
7
9
7
0
–
7
4
6
5
–
6
9
6
0
–
6
4
5
5
–
5
9
0
–
5
4
4
5
5
–
4
years.
9
ve
0
than
–
younger
4
children
4
4
3
5
–
3
death
Age
in
9
0
–
3
4
2
3
5
–
2
9
0
–
2
4
1
2
of
5
causes
–
five
1
top
9
1
the
0
still
–
are
1
5
0
malaria
4
and
–
causes
9
neonatal
–
infections,
4
respiratory
group
(years)
The

Fe F
.21: Global deaths by age and world region, 1990 and 2013
most
for
important
diarrhoea
and
rotavirus
pneumococcus
infections.
substantially
are
between
for
lower
Country-specific
and
within
probabilities
of
death
L TA
respiratory
pathogens
varied
Research skills
regions.
For
For
most
countries,
the
general
pattern
of
reductions
in
of
mortality
has
been
associated
with
a
progressive
shift
towards
a
this
of
the
remaining
deaths
caused
by
non-communicable
disease
50
Assessing
epidemiological
convergence
across
version
showing
countries
causes
of
the
death,
and
1990
injuries.
interactive
gure,
larger
top
share
an
age-sex-specific
and
2013,
visit
depends
http://vizhub.healthdata.
on
whether
an
absolute
or
relative
measure
of
inequality
is
used.
org/gbd-compare/.
1990
1
mean
Lower
rank
(95%
respiratory
2
Diarrhoeal
3
Preterm
UI)
2013
infections
1
2
diseases
birth
4
Ischaemic
5
Cerebrovascular
heart
disease
disease
mean
rank
Ischaemic
Lower
Cerebrovascular
4
Diarrhoeal
5
Road
Neonatal
6
HIV/AIDS
Tuberculosis
7
Preterm
8
Malaria
8
Malaria
9
Congenital
9
Neonatal
anomalies
diseases
birth
encephalopathy
10
Congenital
COPD
11
Tuberculosis
12
Measles
12
COPD
13
Drowning
13
Cirrhosis
14
Protein-energy
15
Road
11
injuries
infections
disease
injuries
7
10
UI)
disease
respiratory
3
6
encephalopathy
(95%
heart
anomalies
14
Self-harm
Meningitis
15
Lung
16
Self-harm
16
Neonatal
17
Neonatal
17
Diabetes
18
Cirrhosis
18
Protein-energy
malnutrition
19
Tetanus
19
Chronic
disease
20
Lung
20
Drowning
26
Diabetes
23
Meningitis
27
HIV/AIDS
43
Measles
36
Chronic
69
Tetanus
malnutrition
sepsis
cancer
kidney
disease
Communicable,
infectious
sepsis
kidney
diseases

Degenerative,
cancer
non-communicable
Fe F
.22: Changes in the top 20 causes of death
diseases
between 1990 and 2013
Injuries
Source: www.thelancet.com, Vol. 385, Jan 10 2015, Fig. 10, p. 144
COPD
=
Chronic
obstructive
pulmonary
disease
281
1
OPTION
F
THE
Communicable,
GE O GR A P H Y
maternal,
Non-communicable
neonatal,
and
OF
FO OD
nutritional
AND
H E A LT H
disease
Comparing changes
disease
in the USA, China and
Injuries
1990
Ischemic
heart
ranking
disease
Lung
cancer
2013
ranking
1
1
Ischemic
2
2
Lung
%
heart
Afghanistan
1990–2013
35%
cancer
In
terms
in
the
3
3
Alzheimer's
disease
4
4
COPD
Self-harm
5
5
Cerebrovascular
COPD
6
6
Road
HIV/AIDS
7
7
Self-harm
disease
violence
8
8
disease
disease,
Alzheimer’s
26%
injuries
39%
Alzheimer's
disease
infect
Diabetes
9
9
10
10
use
cancer
use
cancer
11
11
Lower
Diabetes
15
14
Interpersonal
disorders
46
30
were
and
causes
the
The
in
2013
highest
poor
diet,
risk
high
11%
disorders
mass
respiratory
index
and
tobacco
425%
infect
28%
violence
in
The
greatest
mortality
rate
reduction
from
all
causes
49%
was
Drug
F
.23).
were
smoke.
Colorectal
cancer
11%
Colorectal
Drug
lung
disease
highest-ranking
body
respiratory
death
ischaemic
12%
factors
Lower
States,
11%
(Figure
Interpersonal
premature
United
27%
heart
Cerebrovascular
of
8%
injuries
Road
change
disease
HIV/AIDS
in
males
aged
5–9
years
76%
(49.2
per
cent).
In
contrast,

Fe F
.23: Leading causes of premature death in the USA, 1990 and 2013
females
aged
70+
years
saw
the
Source: http://www.healthdata.org/united-states
largest
increase
in
mortality
rate
(0.9percent).
1990
Lower
respiratory
ranking
infect
2013
1
1
ranking
%
change
Cerebrovascular
1990–2013
disease
By
contrast,
causes
2
2
Ischemic
birth
3
3
Road
COPD
4
4
COPD
disease
5
5
Lung
anomalies
6
6
Liver
Drowning
7
7
Stomach
Cerebrovascular
disease
heart
disease
Ischemic
preterm
heart
Congenital
injuries
cancer
injuries
46%
cancer
2%
cancer
injuries
8
8
Congenital
9
9
Lower
10
10
diseases
high
cancer
12
12
cancer
14
14
anomalies
respiratory
systolic
cancer
15
66
factors
aged
65%
Drowning
were
pressure
the
and
leading
in
2013.
Females
28–36
years
(84
experienced
per
the
greatest
79%
preterm
Diarrheal
road
diet,
87%
birth
in
mortality
rate
from
89%
all
Lung
blood
and
Poor
70%
infect
Self-harm
Neonata
disease,
disease
(FigureF
.24).
reduction
Stomach
heart
pollution
cent)
Liver
main
20%
risk
Diarrheal
the
death
cerebrovascular
ischaemic
40%
Self-harm
China
premature
13%
air
Road
of
22%
were
Neonatal
in
1%
diseases
causes.
97%
In
2013,
the
main
causes
of

Fe F
.24: Leading causes of premature death in China, 1990 and 2013
premature
Source: http://www.healthdata.org/china
were
neonatal
Activity 7
1.
preterm
and
maternal
risk
factors.
birth,
and
malnutrition,
Females
aged
congenital
air
1–4
years
lower
anomalies
pollution,
and
(61.2
death
per
in
respiratory
(Figure
poor
cent)
Afghanistan
diet
infection,
F
.25).
were
Child
the
experienced
leading
the
Name three causes of
greatest
reduction
in
mortality
rate
from
all
causes.
Females
aged
70+
death with the highest
years
saw
(10.6
per
the
largest
increase
in
mortality
rate
increase and three with the
cent).
highest decrease between
1990 and 2013.
2.
Explain the changes in road
injuries and protein/energy
The implications of an aging population on the global
disease burden
malnutrition between 1990
Of
the
total
global
burden
of
disease,
23
per
cent
is
older.
This
accounts
attributable
to
and 2013.
disorders
3.
Evaluate this graphical
technique in terms of
displaying the data
eectively.
282
50
per
cent
of
in
cent
the
people
of
the
to
(over
cent
30
per
60
health
burden
contributors
aged
in
of
burden
low-
disease
years
and
burden
the
total
and
in
high-income
middle-income
in
older
burden
in
people
people
countries
countries.
are
for
about
and
The
20
cardiovascular
aged
60
years
per
leading
and
diseases
older),
1
Communicable,
maternal,
Non-communicable
neonatal,
and
nutritional
M E A s u r i n g
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H

Fe F
.25: Leading causes of
disease
disease
premature death in Afghanistan,
Injuries
1990 and 2013
1990
ranking
2013
ranking
%
change
1990–2013
Source: http://www.healthdata.org/
Lower
infect
1
1
Lower
diseases
2
2
Neonatal
respiratory
Diarrheal
Neonatal
respiratory
preterm
birth
3
3
Congenital
Measles
4
4
Ischemic
anomalies
5
5
Diarrheal
neonatal
6
6
Road
Meningitis
preterm
infect
58%
birth
46%
anomalies
afghanistan
45%
Activity 8
Congenital
heart
disease
17%
diseases
76%
1.
Other
injuries
Identify the three most
26%
common causes of death
7
7
Cerebrovascular
cough
8
8
Other
Tuberculosis
9
9
Meningitis
58%
10
10
Tuberculosis
59%
disease
22%
in the USA and Afghanistan.
Whooping
neonatal
61%
2.
Tetanus
Classify the conditions/
diseases identied in (1).
Ischemic
heart
disease
11
Road
injuries
12
17
Whooping
cough
83%
Measles
92%
Tetanus
88%
3.
Suggest reasons for the
dominance of these causes
Cerebrovascular
22
disease
of death in each country.
per
cent),
mental
neoplasms
disorders
morbidity
Although
chronic
and
stroke,
per
per
important
chronic
from
for
for
the
which
The
A
to
is
and
per
chronic
driving
most
of
and
occurs
of
disease
long-term
these
in
is
at
the
costs
data
the
disability
health
enormous.
worldwide
population
fertility
epidemic
aging.
middle-income
century
The
and
just
–
took
26
46
years
are
As
all
mortality.
of
“delayed
disease
and
the
middle-income
than
a
and
68
in
of
a
65
years
years
in
the
with
from
USA,
with
7
but
pressure),
heart
study
trends
2015
tool.
using
health
from
the
Comment
trends
out
the
about
levels
1990
to
interactive
on
that
the
you
have
about.
of
as
many
the
20th
population.
to
14
will
per
take
prevention
epidemiological
and
heart
disease
countries
disease
the
improves
age-adjusted
heart
–
persists
For
much
ageing
disease
to
aging
slowly.
over
rapidly
prevalent
blood
better
high-income
to
nutrition
diseases”,
population
increases
and
world’s
main
linked
of
the
Brazil.
high-income
result
strongly
decreased
over
more
(high
countries,
in
aged
common,
as
has
leading
years
become
degenerative
ages
UK
21
is
is
countries,
expectancy
decreases,
more
However,
diseases
mortality
hypertension
as
life
fertility
and
diseases
decreases
younger
in
China
become
to
and
population
mortality
controlled,
strokes
the
years
in
Cardiovascular
transition.
fall
countries,
of
chronic
high-income
to
decreasing
doubling
cent
In
continues
of
burden
visualization
found
The
about
http://www.healthdata.
and
outweigh
more
org/gbd
is
vision
from
Learn
global
of
(dementia,
and
more
of
people.
modify
Research skills
and
objective
disorders
care
disorders
older
to
This
diabetes
arises
(9
proportion
epidemic
exists
health.
disease,
diseases
neurological
increased
age-dependent
which
cost
and
worldwide
potential
age
burden
for
and
disease
the
untapped
respiratory
cent),
substantial
pulmonary
the
societal
chronic
(7
chronological
obstructive
mortality,
expenditure.
due
ageing
substantial
between
cent),
diseases
cent).
mortality
diseases,
impairment),
than
(6
population
relationship
especially
(15
musculoskeletal
L TA
malignant
infections
disease
contributing
advance
into
mortality
and
episodes
and
due
the
to
treatment.
are
most
age
heart
In
occurring
low-
at
countries.
283
1
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Concepts in contex t
The
availability
place
to
pattern
access
each
and
to
of
place.
of
food
take
or
which
for
food
disease
has
in
its
access
account
indicators,
access
to
but
pattern.
that
health
care
changes
There
covers
food
also
are
to
variations
for
to
develop,
all
is
no
services
occur
single
aspects
of
in
vary
their
indicator
each
–
but
from
dietary
for
many,
strengths.
isolation,
reasons
and
countries
health
consumed
into
suggest
their
food
Indicators
of
As
related
its
in
access
provides
inequalities
not
quality.
a
in
to
just
to
the
Indicators
health
complete
of
care.
picture
quantity
health
None
of
may
of
access
these
but
may
access.
Check your understanding
1.
Distinguish
2.
Referring
nutrition
3.
Suggest
Dene
value
5.
of
an
or
6.
Explain
7.
Dene
why
indicator
to
the
the
ratio
term
of
a
of
per
life
explain
what
is
meant
by
the
day
may
not
be
a
reliable
9.
Describe
how
changed
between
the
reference
in
to
assessing
doctors
level
diseases
leading
1990
and
an
mortality
country’s
between
expectancy
(HALE)
and
explain
its
health.
between
“infant
Distinguish
transition.
of
difference
indicator
With
malnutrition.
examples,
calories
limitations
the
8.
10.
more
and
nutrition.
three
referring
284
two
health-adjusted
as
Explain
an
to
hunger
transition.
reasons
indicator
4.
between
nation’s
epidemic
rate”
of
health
by
and
and
a
pandemic.
explain
its
value
as
development.
afuence
causes
and
named
of
a
people.
of
and
premature
diseases
death
of
in
poverty.
China
2013.
examples,
explain
the
epidemiological
2
Food systems and the spread
of disease
Key terms
Conceptual understanding
These are not exclusive categories but
Key question
indicate a scale, along which all farming
How
do
physical
production
and
and
human
processes
consumption,
and
to
lead
the
to
changes
incidence
and
in
food
types can be placed.
spread
Aale
of
The cultivation of crops
disease?
such as wheat farming
in the Great Plains of the
Key content
USA.
●
A
systems
energy
approach
efciency
relative
(inputs,
and
sustainability
water
in
stores,
transfers,
footprints
different
in
outputs)
food
comparing
production,
and
Patal
places.
Rearing animals, for
example sheep farming
in New Zealand.
●
Physical
and
human
processes
that
lead
to
variations
in
food
Cmmecal
consumption.
Products sold to make
a prot such as market
●
Diffusion
(including
adoption/acquisition,
expansion,
relocation)
gardening in the
and
its
importance
also
in
the
in
the
spread
of
agricultural
innovations
and
Netherlands.
(including
spread
of
physical,
diseases,
and
economic
the
and
role
of
political
geographic
barriers)
in
factors
the
rate
of
diffusion.
stece
Products consumed by
( peaat)
the cultivators, as in the
case of shifting cultivation
●
How
geographic
factors
contribute
to
the
incidence,
diffusion
and
by Kayapo in the
impacts
(demographic
and
socio-economic)
of
vector-borne
and
Amazonian rainforest.
waterborne
diseases.
iteve
High inputs or yields per
unit area, such as battery
A systems approach to food production
There
are
many
factors
many
types
of
farming
(see
the
list
of
key
hen production.
denitions)
and
Ex teve
that
inuence
farming
(Table
Low inputs or yields per
F
.3).
unit area, as in free-range
chicken production.
Activity 9
nmac
1.
2.
Farmers moving
Referring to the key terms classifying types of farming activity, suggest
seasonally with their
the opposite type of activity to these three types: intensive, commercial,
herds, such as the Pokot,
pastoral.
pastoralists in Kenya.
Identify three physical and three human factors aecting farming (listed
seeta
Farmers remaining in the
below). Rank them in order of impor tance and explain how they aect
same place throughout
farming.
the year, for example
dairy farmers in Devon
3.
To what extent are physical controls on farming less impor tant now than they
and Cornwall.
were in the past?
As
a
result
farming
types,
a
of
the
systems
systems
This
allows
us
F
.26
shows
a
Mexico
and
many
are
approach
to
compare
systems
for
factors
complex
is
used
pig
for
aspects
shifting
farming
in
farming
In
showing
different
approach
intensive
inuencing
operations.
order
inputs,
of
the
and
to
types
simplify
processes
farming
cultivation
in
of
farming,
farming
and
types.
Santa
outputs.
Figure
Rosa,
Denmark.
285
2
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H

Tale F
.3: Factors aecting farming activities
Phcal
Hma
Clmate:
Pltcal:
Precipitation
Land tenure/ownership
• type
• frequency
• intensity
• amount
Temperature
• growing season (>6°C)
• ground frozen (0°C)
• range of temperatures
sl:
Fer tility
• pH
• cation exchange capacity
• nutrient status
Structure
Texture
Depth
Pet:
vermin, locusts, disease, etc.
• ownership, rental, share-cropping, state-control
Organization
• collective, cooperative agribusiness, family farm
Government policies
• subsidies, guaranteed prices, ESAs, quotas, set-aside
War
•disease, famine
Ecmc:
Farm size
• eld size and shape
Demand
• size and type of market
Capital
• equipment, machinery, seeds, money, ‘inputs’
Technology
• high-yielding varieties (HYVs), fer tilizers, irrigation
Infrastructure
• roads, communications, storage
slpe:
Adver tising
Gradient
scal:
relef:
Cultural and traditional inuences
Altitude
Education and training
Apect
Ubac (shady) or adret (sunny)
Behavioural inuences
Chance
Another
is
to
way
consider
(Table
F
.4).
compared
of
to
energy
as
agricultural
modied
Agricultural
with
productivity,
and
analyse
them
natural
ecosystems
ecosystems
biomass,
efciency.
nutrient
Average
systems
ecosystems
can
in
be
terms
cycling
productivity
2
from
agricultural
comparable
prairies.
of
and
solar
of
humans
that
as
is
650
temperate
However,
incoming
crops,
by
with
systems
only
about
is
less
1
0.25
per
utilized
per
food.

Pht F
.3: Terracing on steep slopes
286
/year,
grasslands
radiation
than
g/m
cent
or
cent
by
is
used
2
F o o d
s y s T E M s
A n d
T H E
s P r E A d
o F
d i s E A s E

Pht F
.4: Rice cultivation can suppor t

Pht F
.5: Irrigation to increase food production in a dry area
high population densities
INTENSIVE
Shifting
SUBSISTENCE
cultivation:
Popoluca
Indians,
Mexico
Natural
vegetation
allowed
to
Inputs
the
Clearning
family–men
cutting,
hunting,
the
itself
Seed
Labour
Whole
seed
do
burning,
and
women
trees.
and
e.g.
do
and
yams,
grown
turtles
plots
by
vegetation
coffee,
Maize
farming
small
Most
by
are
burning
is
left
oregano,
women.
hunted
used,
250
types
of
different
crops
used
SUSTAINABLE
squash.
Game,
by
Over
and
sh,
Some
men
trading
surplus
Fruit
of
and
gathered
AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT
game.
insects
from
Capital
forest
Maize
seeds
Trade
for
maize
Land
seed
3–4
ha
INTENSIVE
Pig
farming
COMMERCIAL
in
Denmark
Labour
Farmer
and
farmhand
Intensive
cereal
February
to
cultivation,
September.
Dairying
all
year
Stall-fed
pigs
round
Commercial
9
million

43%

75%
pigs
of
produced
Danish
annually
agricultural
output
Prot
Capital
Large
food
of
bacon
exported
inputs–expensive
concentrates
machinery
dairying,
for
for

breeding

rearing

selling
pigs,
cereals/
transport
Subsistence
services
Cereals
Dairy
milk
Land
used
as
fodder.
products–skimmed
fed
to
pigs
Fodder
10–30
ha
average

Fe F
.26: A systems approach to two farming types
287
2
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H

Tale F
.4: A comparison of natural and agricultural ecosystems
Ectem
natal
Acltal
Food web
Complex – several layers
Simple – mostly one or two layers
Biomass
Large – mixed plant and animal
Small – mostly plant
Biodiversity
High
Low – often monoculture
Gene pool
High
Low, e.g. three species of cotton amount to 53 per cent of crop
Nutrient cycling
Slow; self-contained; unaected
Largely suppor ted by external supplies
by external supplies
Productivity
High
Modication
Limited
Lower
Extensive – inputs of feed, seed, water, fer tilizers, energy fuel;
outputs of products, waste, etc.
Photosynthetic eciency
Activity 10
Agriculture
1.
seeks
to
improve
the
productivity
of
ecosystems
by
applying
Dene the terms
energy
subsidies
(to
remove
competitors,
apply
nutrients,
add
or
take
(a) productivity, (b)
away
water,
and
so
on).
However,
these
produce
sustainable
systems
monoculture, and (c)
only
when
they
are
sympathetic
to
the
local
ecology.
There
is
evidence
energy subsidy.
that
2.
Compare the inputs and
only
in
comparable
exceptional
to
cases
temperate
do
crop
efciencies
exceed
2
per
cent
–
forests.
outputs of intensive
subsistence farming with
intensive commercial
farming.
3.
selected crops
Cp  ectem
Lcat
gwth pe
(a)
Dene the term
“ecosystem”.
4.

Tale F
.5: A comparison of photosynthetic eciency for types of vegetation and
Using examples, suggest
how farming modies
Phtthetc
ecec (%)
Natural ecosystem
Tropical rainforest
Ivory Coast
365
0.32
Pine forest
UK
365
1.95
Deciduous forest
UK
180
1.07
Hawaii
365
1.95
the functioning and
productivity of an
Crops
ecosystem.
Sugar cane
Elephant grass
Puer to Rico
365
2.66
Maize (two crops)
Uganda
135 + 135
2.35
Maize (one crop)
Kenya (uplands)
240
1.37
Soya beans (two crops)
Uganda
135 + 135
0.95
Perennial ryegrass
UK
365
1.43
Rice
Japan
180
1.93
Winter wheat
The Netherlands
319
1.30
Spring barley
UK
152
1.49
Energy eciency ratio (EER)
The
energy
inputs
into
forestry
and
intensive
288
the
system
system
hunting
but
efciency
a
the
ratio
inputs
gathering
pastoral
returns
be
are
may
farming
may
(EER)
compared
very
be
or
quite
is
a
with
measure
the
low.
quite
the
In
However,
high.
greenhouse
low.
of
outputs.
In
amount
a
the
contrast,
cultivation
of
energy
traditional
outputs
the
may
inputs
be
agro-
from
into
very
great
2
F o o d
s y s T E M s
A n d
T H E
s P r E A d
o F
d i s E A s E

Tale F
.6: Energy eciency ratios for selected farming systems
Activity 11
(per unit of human/fossil fuel energy input)
1.
Agro-forestry
65
Hunter-gatherers
7.8
UK cereal farm
1.9
UK allotment
1.3
UK dairy farm
0.38
Broiler hens
0.1
Greenhouse lettuces
0.002
Dene “energy eciency
ratio”.
2.
Explain the energy
eciency ratios listed in
Table F.6.
3.
Estimate the energy ratios
of activities such as prawn
shing and sheep farming.
4.
Explain the protein outputs
in F.7.

Tale F
.7: Energy input and protein yields of four major agricultural systems
Acltal tem
Ttal ee
Pte tpt
pt
(/ha)
6
(10
J/ha)
Hill farming (sheep)
0.6
1–1.5
Mixed farming
12–15
500
Intensive crop production
15–20
2,000
Intensive animal production
40
300
Fe F
.27: Nutrient cycling in a

Nutrient
cycling
is
often
shown
by
the
use
of
Gersmehl
diagrams.
Figure
temperate deciduous woodland and a
F
.27
shows
the
differences
between
the
nutrient
cycling
on
a
mixed
farm
mixed farm
and
in
temperate
deciduous
woodland
with
the
same
climate.
A
Ecosystems
also
have
energy
ows,
in
which
sunlight
energy
model
Input
converted
F
.28
to
shows
food
the
energy
energy
and
ow
of
passed
a
along
the
food
chain.
of
nutrient
cycling
is
Figure
in
dissolved
rain
Fall-out
farm.
tissues
as
BIOMASS
die
Activity 12
LITTER
Uptake
Release
1.
as
by
litter
Outline is the dierence between intensive and extensive farming?
plants
decomposes
a.
What conditions are likely to cause intensive farming?
.
How do these dier from the conditions that cause extensive
Loss
in
run-off
SOIL
Loss
farming?
by
leaching
2.
Dene the term “agricultural system”. Comment on the usefulness of
Input
using agricultural systems as a way of studying farming.
weathered
from
3.
rock
Compare the nutrient cycling in a natural ecosystem with that of a
mixed farming system.
Temperate
Mixed
Input
farming
dissolved
in
Input
dissolved
in
rain
fall,
B
crops,
tissue
B
livestock
woodland
rain
Leaf
Harvesting
deciduous
manure
decay
L
Run-off
Uptake
by
plants
L
Legumes
Mineralization,
S
humification,
Fertilizers
B
and
S
degradation
Biomass
L
Litter
S
Soil
Weathering
of
rocks
289
2
OPTION
F
THE
Land
use
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
(ha)
Market
(GJ
AND
H E A LT H
transactions
food
Farm
population
Inputs
(GJ )
energy)
Total
work
20 400
hours
Farmer's
125
household
Domestic
Wheat
food
2.5
hours/week
total
–
workers
138
supply
25
Cash
–
persons
Farmer worker ’s
crops
50
13
household
6
hours / week/worker
–
workers
Total
Barley
10 044
GJ
177
2493
Fer tiliser
Fodder
4135
17
Cattle,
Ley
Fuels
sheep,
poultr y,
etc.
856
grass
Electricity
51
1099
Machiner y
Cereals
Permanent
Cattle
202
18 700
56
Woodland
roads,
etc.
8
Sheep
60
Milk
55
Eggs
Cash
Purchased
crops
food
1 600
110
971
sesahcruP
grass
31
Feeds
490
Seeds
Key
Markets
energy
Food
energy

Fe F
.28: The energy ow of a farm
Water footprints
Water
footprints
activities,
such
embedded
in
are
as
a
for
food
measure
producing
and
of
how
food.
manufactured
much
(See
water
also
Unit
is
used
3
for
in
human
water
goods.)
Activity 13
1.
Identify the farming products that require (a) most water and
(b) least water.
2.
Identify (a) the crop that requires most water and (b) the animal that requires
least water.
!
Common mistake
3.
Study Figure F.29. How useful is this infographic as an indicator of the amount
of water needed for dierent farming types?
✗
Many
that
people
the
people
believe
only
go
reason
hungry
is
Physical and human processes that lead to
because
of
a
lack
of
food
variations in food consumption
availability.
Much
✓ There
are
many
on
why
people
can
early
climate
even
is
food
might
on
effect
famine
on
and
food
hunger
supplies,
was
and
on
in
the
the
form
of
problems
reports
of
storage
term
and
food
relief
organizations.
availability
decit
Such
studies
(FAD) ,
often
which
used
implied
the
that
available.
food
They
its
when
umbrella
there
and
go
transport,
hungry
literature
reasons
not
deciencies
were
caused
by
local
shortages
as
a
result
of
physical
be
factors.
able
to
afford
it
unemployment
wages,
they
heavily
could
290
in
be
due
or
may
debt,
paying
low
be
for
fees
and
so
back
purchasing
More
and
they
medical
on
to
caused
food
cut
food.
recently,
economic
hunger,
the
and
only
literature
and
production
Ethiopia
be
the
factors.
that
was,
Sudan.
cause
of
Sen
in
A
has
been
(1981)
increased
fact,
heavily
observed
hunger
increasing.
shortage
of
malnutrition,
nor
not
occurred
This
available
and
inuenced
that
has
food
could
all
in
been
by
food
areas
seen
could
not
hunger
be
political
shortages
where
in
India,
therefore
related
2
F o o d
s y s T E M s
A n d
T H E
s P r E A d
o F
d i s E A s E
WATER
FOOTPRINT
(Virtual
water
embedded
in
product)
Barley
650
liters
of
for
one
pound
for
one
package
650
(500 g)
liters
liters
of
of
water
Cane
T
oast
650
Sorghum
Wheat
water
water
750
(500 g)
liters
of
for
one
pound
1400
(500 g)
Sugar
water
for
one
liters
of
water
for
Millet
one
pound
(500 g)
2500
T
ea
package
90
(500 g)
liters
of
water
for
one
pot
(750 ml)
840
liters
Burger
liters
of
Milk
Beef
water
for
one
burger
(150 g
4650
beef)
liters
of
water
for
one
steak
1000
(300 g)
liters
of
water
water
for
one
pound
(500 g)
Coffee
liters
2500
of
of
water
for
one
pot
(750 ml)
Cheese
for
one
litre
2500
liters
of
water
for
one
big
piece
(500 g)

Fe F
.29: Water footprints for selected agricultural products
Source: http://vir tualwater.eu/pics/poster_products_ani_600.gif
only
the
to
the
distribution
population
important
food
the
is
to
the
factors
(FED) .
important
also
In
a
study
of
that
political
and
about
but
also
access,
physical
a
that
is,
such
trigger
in
in
access
food
as
analysis
that
it
of
was
which
not
to
just
food
entitlement
accepted,
factors,
that,
the
included
people’s
consumption
noted
In
clear
system
This
been
potential
food
(1990)
poverty.
became
economic
generally
as
affecting
Musaiger
their
has
degradation,
and
to
it
consumed.
yield,
alter
work
think
factors
Abdulrahman
the
and
malnutrition,
affecting
Sen’s
to
environmental
resources
of
distributed
conditions
decit
of
risk”
consider
produced,
physical
and
“at
although
it
precipitation
is
and
offamines.
Bahrain,
despite
the
problems
of

Pht F
.6: Food display – food
climate,
soil
and
land
availability,
Bahrain
was
self-sufcient
in
fruit
and
availability in an HIC supermarket
vegetable
1930s.
production
Many
labourers
diving.
This
and
increased
of
an
wealth,
more
lead
and
and
protein
comes
the
fat,
in
role
an
less
in
and
new
working
imported
appliances
women
shaping
of
the
oil
and
industry
shing
sheries
foods.
With
fridges
proportion
of
their
He
also
Bahrain
Iranian
led
food
to
In
noted
shish
and
impact
consumption
He
found
of
for
poorer
of
of
from
their
migrants
samosas,
also
to
levels
needs
more
Indian
demand
was
pearl
freezers,
energy
kebab).
increased
products
the
as
and
the
production
addition,
(such
in
increased
as
in
food
the
agriculture,
carbohydrates.
and
of
such
sources.
advertising
in
on
dishes
keema,
in
agricultural
increasing
from
animal
of
development
employment
decline
electrical
get
from
Television
important
left
the
dependence
and
nashif
increase
foods.
a
more
availability
chapattis,
the
to
households
protein
on
before
noted
that
convenience
have
an
Bahraini
households.
291
2
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Factors aecting food consumption
The
social
“Food
the
psychologist
gets
on
garden
which
and
ows
The
Income
refers
to
level
availability
For
a
the
a
“food
them
to
the
food
under
role
of
education
a
will
stores
to
the
women
on
may
in
1940s,
food
the
ow
more
healthy,
larger
The
inuence
of
choice
role
diet,
taste
food
and
status.
resources
depending
taste
foods
some
The
the
nutrient-rich
of
and
store,
the
into
the
vary
than
variety
and
food
via
may
that
grocery
gatekeeper.”
health,
Diet
a
stated
the
channels
of
the
as
food.
purchased.
also
of
expense,
purchase
plays
the
such
control
inuence
price
be
in
selection
higher-quality
family,
food
is
writing
‘channels’
The
depended
income
low-income
whether
Lewin,
through
refrigerator.
of
of
neighbourhood
in
of
Kurt
table
purchase
the
in
the
type
and
available
the
through
“gatekeeper”
home.
to
and
on
food.
quality
carried
people
in
may
live
desert”.
Case study
Food consumption in Khayelitsha, Cape Town, South Africa
Since
1994
South
number
such
is
(the
Africa),
as
of
black
associated
diet
with
a
and
high
This
urban
in
changes
is
in
and
to
a
of
of
foods,
enjoy
the
as
as
Cape
found
according
women’s
on
that
to
scarce,
the
the
as
and
about
feel
of
about
age.
family’s
food
they
University
increase
in
quality
They
food
needs.
providers,
responsible
food
even
for
The
varied
all
family
members
have
readily
older
of
when
making
vegetables
economic
see
food
associated
something
men
for
saw
themselves
supporting
the
as
family.
eat.
young
women
seemed
to
be
is
weight
and
therefore
very
the
whereas
could
eat
many
of
without
the
conscious
selective
younger
inability
in
variety
cheap
and
or
to
do
have
socio-
to
to
urban
afford
unhealthy
pig’s
feet,
Khayelitsha.
with
men
is
of
meat
status,
associated
Eating
is
associated
while
large
with
consumption
with
low
portions
of
socio-
food
is
affordability.
for
celebrations,
guests.
Food
is
rituals
also
used
and
for
during
occasions
when
people
get
together
and
of
socially.
Sweets,
ice
cream
and
cakes
are
about
on
happy
occasions.
Fatty
meat
is
a
about
felt
of
generosity;
lean
meat
and
black
tea
are
that
often
they
improved
to
a
necessary
they
a
person
Some
sign
food,
it
skins
accessible
only
status.
used
consumed
body
resort
eat
migration
an
chicken
to
as
People
In
meet
the
and
seen
geographic
when
their
is
sure
to
social
responsible
eat
some,
consumption
welcoming
contrast,
can
may
tripe,
consider
For
debt
They
as
political,
show
socio-economic
Food
that
are
daily
high
that
centred
Women
so,
food.
such
to
food
friendship.
Western
found
were
they
to
body,
and
opportunities
to
factors,
as
lead
of
due
standing.
may
food,
the
deprived
much
the
acceptance
opportunity,
areas
diabetes.
perceptions
gender
perceptions
satisfying
themselves
is
from
nourishing
whether
economic
typical
which
Researchers
to
warmth,
socio-economic
diet.
low
an
addition
sign
previously
areas,
largely
favour
fat
the
Urbanization
leads
II
In
in
consequently,
they
type
in
food
and,
city,
content.
obesity
by
era
increase
Town.
traditional
the
an
living
Cape
poverty
to
carbohydrate
of
apartheid
been
Africans
of
with
move
westernized
the
accompanied
Consumption
levels
of
has
Khayelitsha,
commonly
people
end
there
eaten
during
mourning
periods.
restriction.
Activity 14
1.
Distinguish between the food availability decit (FAD) and food entitlement
decit (FED).
292
2.
Explain how people can starve even when their food supply is adequate.
3.
Dene obesity.
4.
Distinguish between being overweight and obese.
2
F o o d
s y s T E M s
A n d
T H E
s P r E A d
o F
d i s E A s E
Case study
Food consumption in the Middle East
A
number
of
factors
in
consumption
patterns
some
in
Arab
income
adversely
States
rice,
by
as
from
oil
affected
our
Percentage
of
adults
are
inuenced
world.
a
result
revenues.
eating
and
the
in
intake
meat.
beliefs,
of
changed
the
Food
habits
in
of
inuence
food
on
region.
Mass
had
factors
a
Arab
preferences,
big
those
impact
education
had
a
play
on
the
an
food
in
televised
important
Migration
the
women’s
patterns
especially
habits.
during
and
noticeable
consumption
media,
dietary
particularly
sugar,
also
advertisements,
modifying
Gulf
fat,
have
food
subsidies
the
discrimination,
employment
this
increase
Sociocultural
food
gender
food
Food
dramatically
as
encouraging
religion,
who
Arab
countries
wheat
such
the
have
consumption
1970s,
role
in
movements,
have
practices
in
also
many
countries.
obese
>24
18–24
12–17
6–11
0–5
No
data

Fe F
.30: Global obesity prevalence
Boseley, S. “Obesity exper ts call for stricter rules on junk food ads targeted at children”. The Guardian. 15 February 2015
Targeting obesity
Some
be
of
the
unhealthy
their
No
foods
country
many
4–5
The
yet
have
poorer
In
obesity
to
stop
drinks
that
5
families
olds
kg
more
more
–
of
are
than
so
per
child,
age
children
or
a
in
experts
say
commercial
make
its
that
controls
companies
children
where
third
levels
of
should
marketing
overweight
child
or
the
In
years
1970s
and
high.
have
olds
obese.
Some
US
very
will
year
30
the
still
children
children
from
epidemic.
like
are
10–11
overweight
than
obesity
countries
overweight
a
heavier
per
average
experts
reversed
slowed
England,
year
average
day
and
thousands
adults.
kcal
has
rates
among
a
leading
worldwide
and
stunt
growth.
obesity
of
world’s
introduced
and
the
would
health
but
means
not
that
problems
than
children
and
have
UK,
This
more
US,
ago,
childhood
the
a
are
consume
done
–
or
as
fth
on
200
kcal
73,000
year.
cost
200
of
more
in
food
kcal
a
than
the
US,
energy
day
is
implies
$400
their
a
about
56
cents
spending
year.
excess
With
food
an
per
extra
about
50
100
kcal,
$1.12
million
consumption
each
a
say
day
school-
year
293
2
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
approaches
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
continue
70
for
the
$20
billion.
A
high
over-consuming
US
food
and
proportion
through
beverage
of
these
adulthood,
industry
worth
children
creating
more
a
will
market
than
$60
billion
US
annually.
With
such
high
sums
at
stake,
the
food
industry
is
likely
Kuwait
to
Scotland
Qatar
resist
controls
industries
have.
Children’s
poor
to
stunting
as
in
the
same
nutrition
well
as
way
that
worldwide
obesity.
It
is
–
not
the
tobacco
including
only
in
in
poor
and
the
alcohol
UK
–
countries
leads
that
Croatia
stunting
–
caused
by
poor
nutrition
–
exists
side
by
side
with
obesity.
England
The
Australia
national
children
shorter
Germany
obesity
Czech
poor
than
Obesity
Mexico
in
school
measurement
households
children
needs
to
be
epidemic.
from
are
not
afuent
reassessed
While
programme
if
only
in
likely
England
to
be
shows
fatter
but
that
also
families.
we
individuals
are
to
bear
halt
some
and
reverse
the
responsibility
global
for
Republic
their
health,
we
must
also
recognize
that
today’s
food
environments
Poland
exploit
people’s
preference
Portugal
(for
for
example,
biological
sweetened
marketing
vulnerability
foods),
(for
example,
psychological
techniques),
and
innate
vulnerability
social
and
economic
Sweden
vulnerability
(for
example,
convenience
and
cost),
making
it
more
Slovakia
likely
for
possible
France
with
them
to
to
break
“smart
eat
the
food
unhealthy
cycle
policies”
of
foods.
supply
by
It
is
and
therefore
demand
governments,
potentially
for
unhealthy
alongside
efforts
foods
from
Bulgaria
industry
and
civil
society
to
create
healthier
food
systems.
Russia
(Adapted
from
The
Guardian,
19
February
2015)
Singapore
L TA
Morocco
South
Research and communication skills
Africa
Visit
Indonesia
the
resources
website,
Find
at
out
section
of
the
World
Obesity
Federation’s
http://www.worldobesity.org/resources/.
about
regional
variations
and
trends
in
obesity.
Choose

Fe F
.31: Obesity world rankings
one
topic
and
give
a
two-minute
talk
to
your
class,
or
make
a
of men (%)
presentation
about
time,
or
one
way
in
which
obesity
varies
by
place,
Boseley, S. “Obesity exper ts call for stricter
rules on junk food ads targeted at children”.
gender
education.
The Guardian. 15 February 2015
Diusion
Hägerstrand’s diusion curve
The
the
Swedish
and
security,
of
(Figure
are
food have been linked to rising
obesity
294
that
to
other
ever
As
do,
to
He
including
adopters.
change
so
of
of
Initially,
more
and
a
new
information
make-up
information
and
Hägerstrand
incorporated
introduction
increasingly
reluctant
they
the
psychological
F
.32).
reduced,
Torsten
innovations.
factors,
the
proximity

Pht F
.7: Large por tions of fast
of
showed
number
is
geographer
diffusion
people
take
inequalities
a
technique
adopter,
few
more
adopt
long
may
chance
regarding
the
very
becomes
(1916–2004)
a
time
innovations,
and
people
to
develop
interested
in
depended
the
idea.
an
and
accept
a
in
model
upon
a
nancial
new
F
.33).
innovation
often
However,
(Figure
his
physical
adopt
widespread,
the
was
element
the
some
cost
people
technique,
if
2
F o o d
s y s T E M s
A n d
T H E
s P r E A d
affected
by
it,
and
disease
effect
closer
of
to
sooner,
into
spread
new
out
distance ,
the
than
source
areas
or
are
further
50
sretpoda
be
areas
a
disease
ta
to
the
frictional
that
of
a
rebmuN
from
The
suggests
of
yna
likely
away
spread
fo
more
the
fo
source.
decay,
to
incidences
emit
initial
distance
refers
when
evitalumuC
an
occurs
sretpoda
from
It
egatnecrep
diffusion
locations.
d i s E A s E
100
Disease diusion
Disease
o F
source.
0
0
Time
Hägerstrand
of
is
known
innovation”.
geographers,
main
Some
and
a
physical
water
In
The
“wave”
disease
diffusion
features
bodies,
there
of
as
a
for
have
is
from
barrier
political
been
to
diffusion,
and
disease.
namely
diffusion
network
and
diffusion
for
central
boundaries
of
identied,
disease,
a

Fe F
.32: A diusion cur ve
medical
diffusion
hierarchal
also
and
example,
tends
to
source.
including
also
limit
the
spread
of
disease.
The
economic
diffusion
of
Rich-poor
Large
Small
boundaries
disease
can
as
an
S-shaped
curve
to
show
four
phases:
Time
Rapid
adoption
infusion
(25th
used
as
land
inection
(50th
percentile),
saturation
(75th
percentile),
to
the
upper
limits.
are
several
types
of
disease
to
pumps,
etc.
cannot
2
There
a.
diffusion:
hence
benefit
Adoption
by
Expansion
diffusion
occurs
when
the
expanding
disease
with
has
money.
buy
Land
is
seeds,
fertilizers,
government
new
seeds
small
at
pesticides,
farmers
first.
smaller
farmers
backed
development
b.
●
farmers
and
HYVs,
waning
by
and/or
security
irrigation
percentile),
farmers
be
plentiful
identied
gap
farmers
mountains
1
may
Time
“waves
many
spatial
infectious
spreading
act
while
the
diffusion,
addition,
fashion,
basis
diffusion
contagious
diffusion.
diffusion.
in
of
the
map
on
noitpodA
occur
patterns
to
work
fo
mixed
formed
attempted
diffusion,
relocation
pioneering
sVYH
expansion
has
his
)%(
Four
This
who
for
caused
by:
agricultural
projects
targeted
for
more
a
environments
source
and
diffuses
outwards
into
new
areas.
c.
continued
creating
●
Relocation
diffusion
occurs
when
the
spreading
disease
moves
3
Diffusion
farmers.
into
new
areas,
leaving
behind
its
origin
or
source
of
the
population
extra
of
new
pressure
demand
for
techniques
Widespread
more
to
food.
most
adoption.
disease.

Fe F
.33: The green revolution,
An
example
could
be
a
person
infected
with
AIDS
moving
to
a
new
diusion and changing inequality
location.
over time
●
Contagious
the
●
direct
contact
Hierarchical
through
cities
●
diffusion
to
an
urban
Southern
and
Africa
spread
occurs
sequence
areas
diffusion
transportation
the
individuals
diffusion
ordered
large
Network
of
is
to
occurs
social
along
with
an
a
classes
small
when
a
through
infected.
places,
for
spreads
example
from
areas.
disease
Again,
routes
disease
phenomenon
or
urban
networks.
infectious
those
when
of
transport
of
is
spreads
the
an
via
spread
of
AIDS
in
example.
The Zika virus
Zika,
a
mosquito-borne
contact,
arrived
countries
about
from
areas
thought
usually
the
in
400
to
the
m),
be
evidence
in
people
the
much
just
is
virus
Brazil
Americas.
but
with
with
in
that
The
are
disease
of
mild
it
a
that
May
can
also
2014.
mosquito
threat:
causes
only
rash,
birth
a
joint
be
has
is
transporting
(relocation
fever,
It
a
transmitted
since
poor
the
of
aches
defects
in
ier
virus
diffusion).
fth
spread
by
to
(and
red
children
21
can
Zika
people
eyes.
and
sexual
other
y
travelling
Initially,
infected
and
through
only
to
and
was
fall
not
ill,
However,
neurological
295
2
OPTION
Zika
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
problems
in
Salvador,
Colombia
adults.
In
2015
El
virus
UNITED
STATES
and
Ecuador
2,767,337
recommended
pregnancy
that
until
women
delay
2018.
FRANCE
In
404,525
UNITED
October
2015,
doctors
in
north-
STATES
eastern
babies
New
Brazil
born
saw
with
a
huge
increase
microcephaly
–
in
an
York
abnormally
small
head
–
often
consequent
brain
damage.
with
PORTUGAL
Orlando
Over
the
411,407
next
four
months
more
than
3,500
Miami
MEXICO
cases
Cancun
in
of
microcephaly
Brazil.
than
That
200
a
were
compared
year
in
the
reported
with
ve
fewer
previous
ITAL
Y
419,955
years.
CHINA
Figure
84,332
F
.34
become
shows
endemic.
air-conditioning,
PERU
and
PERNAMBUCO
mosquito
where
But
Zika
places
screened
control
are
could
where
windows
the
norm
B R A Z I L
Lima
ANGOLA
are
unlikely
up.
With
to
see
Brazil
outbreaks
hosting
the
are
Olympic
82,838
Games
in
2016,
the
increase
in
the
CHILE
Rio
de
Janeiro
614,687
São
Risk
of
number
of
brought
a
the
country
Paulo
greater
spreading
Zika
to
risk
of
the
disease
local
transmission
of
tourists
to
more
countries.
Buenos
Santiago
virus
Aires
Montevideo
Seasonal
CHILE
ARGENTINA
Year-round
1,314,694
Malaria
Travellers
ARGENTINA
from
By
Brazil
country,
Malaria
Sep
2014–Aug
Cities
>1,000
from
is
a
life-threatening
2015
with
disease
for
humans
plasmodium
Sep
caused
by
the
travellers
Brazil,
2014–Aug
parasite
and
transmitted
2015
to

Fe F
.34: The spread of the Zika virus
people
via
Anopheles
the
bite
mosquito.
of
the
Here
female
are
some
Source: Dr K Khan, St Michael’s Hospital, Toronto
key
L TA
●
In
2015,
95
countries
and
facts
territories
about
had
malaria:
ongoing
malaria
Research skills
transmission.
Find
the
latest
information
●
on
the
Zika
whether
increase
of
the
the
virus
there
in
the
disease
Rio
de
to
was
3.2
risk
malaria.
of
billion
people
–
almost
half
the
world’s
population
–
are
at
any
prevalence
●
Malaria
is
preventable
dramatically
following
Janeiro
About
see
reducing
and
the
curable
malaria
and
increased
burden
in
efforts
many
are
places.
Olympic
●
Between
2000
and
2015,
malaria
incidence
among
populations
at
Games.
risk
To
show
virus
how
spread
March
2015,
2014
use
the
time,
Ebola
between
and
under
the
March
BBC
maps
website
rate
malaria
globally
of
new
death
among
all
cases)
rates
age
fell
in
by
37
per
populations
groups
and
by
65
cent
at
globally.
risk
per
fell
cent
60
among
the
per
same
cent
children
ve.
Sub-Saharan
Africa
carries
a
disproportionately
high
share
of
the
http://
global
malaria
burden.
In
2015
the
region
suffered
www.bbc.co.uk/news/
malaria
world-africa-28755033.
296
by
At
from
●
the
(the
cases
and
90
per
cent
of
malaria
deaths.
88
per
cent
of
2
Malaria
s y s T E M s
A n d
T H E
s P r E A d
o F
d i s E A s E
endemic
Endemic
no
F o o d
in
longer
2000,
endemic
Non-endemic
ongoing
or
no
malaria
transmision
Not
applicable

Fe F
.35: The distribution of malaria
L TA
Source: WHO, World Malaria Repor t, 2015
Environmental preferences
The
a
malarial
minimum
parasite
Using
(plasmodium)
temperature
of
Research skills
20°C
thrives
allows
it
in
the
humid
complete
its
tropics
life
cycle.
the
WHO
information
this
chapter,
is
a
primary
host
and
the
human
is
secondary.
The
environment
These
is
are
stagnant
usually
water,
found
in
estuaries,
densely
deltas
and
populated
in
an
The
sheet
for
use
in
a
clinic.
Do
not
assume
irrigation
that
channels.
produce
mosquito’s
village
ideal
given
where
information
mosquito
website
and
the
readership
has
more
agricultural
than
very
basic
reading
skills.
regions.
The
disease
ooding
They
are
sewers),
or
is
often
by
triggered
human
likely
which
to
live
are
by
conicts
in
ideal
natural
such
temporary
breeding
as
events
war,
camps
grounds
such
which
with
for
as
cyclones
often
results
inadequate
the
and
in
refugees.
drainage
(open
mosquito.
Plasmodium
sporozoites
1st
Vector
Initial
Next
human
human
host
host
Liver
2nd
infection
Vector
Blood
infection
In
utero
transmission

Fe F
.36: The life cycle of the plasmodium parasite
297
2
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
The cost of treating malaria
Global
nancing
million
health
2001
of
in
2005
service
and
and
to
to
$2.5
owing
preventative
incomes
in
$900
to
the
2014.
such
as
the
from
Malaria
in
reduced
individuals
during
increased
million
households
measures
Infected
control
billion
of
individual
transmission.
family
malaria
savings
2014,
malaria
for
number
bed
estimated
interventions
sub-Saharan
includes
are
an
of
Africa
cases.
The
medication,
nets,
which
unable
to
help
work,
$960
led
to
between
direct
doctors’
to
cost
fees
reduce
which
can
reduce
attacks.
The symptoms of malaria
The
rst
days
to
symptoms
after
recognize
progress
to
Children
–
fever,
mosquito
as
If
and
not
illness,
severe
headache,
bite,
malaria.
severe
with
following

the
malaria
symptoms:
treated
often
severe
chills
they
may
and
be
within
leading
to
frequently
anaemia,
vomiting
mild
24
at
–
rst
hours,
appear
and
seven
difcult
malaria
can
death.
develop
one
respiratory
or
more
distress
in
of
the
relation
Pht F
.8: A microscopic image of the
malaria-carrying Anapheles mosquito
to
metabolic
acidosis,
involvement
L TA
develop
is
also
partial
or
cerebral
frequent.
immunity,
In
malaria.
In
adults,
malaria-endemic
allowing
multi-organ
areas,
asymptomatic
people
infections
may
to
occur.
Communication skills
Who is at risk?
Comment
of
Photo
eradicate
on
F
.8
as
as
a
in
the
images
effective
deterrent
eradicate
effectiveness
malaria.
alternative
be
the
or
in
drive
that
more
the
malaria.
to
Suggest
could
effective
drive
to
Some
population
malaria
and
infants,
children
with
and
HIV/AIDS,
travellers.
measures
taking
to
into
groups
developing
under
as
ve
well
National
protect
are
at
considerably
severe
as
disease
years
consideration
age,
non-immune
malaria
these
of
than
control
population
their
higher
pregnant
of
These
contracting
include
women
migrants,
mobile
programmes
groups
specic
risk
others.
from
and
patients
populations
need
to
malaria
take
special
infection,
circumstances.
Transmission
In
most
cases,
malaria
Anopheles
mosquitoes.
Anopheles
mosquito;
All
the
important
intensity
vector,
of
the
is
around
vector
transmission
human
transmitted
There
host
are
30
are
species
the
than
malaria
bite
depends
and
through
more
the
400
vectors
between
on
bites
factors
of
female
different
of
dusk
and
related
species
major
to
dawn.
the
of
importance.
The
parasite,
the
environment.
Prevention
Vector
control
transmission,
–
is
as
the
insecticide-treated
effective
in
a
wide
interventions
protection
be
of
most
LLINs
free
behaviour
298
The
of
a
to
WHO
charge,
the
and
area
across
nets
is
ensure
are
residual
coverage
enough,
the
for
LLIN
way
equal
communication
If
malaria
forms
of
vector
spraying
of
vector
then
a
control
–
are
control
measure
of
community.
(ITNs)
recommends
reduce
Two
indoor
high
the
(LLINs)
nets
cost-effective
to
and
WHO.
circumstances.
mosquito
most
change
of
prevent
by
nets
specic
insecticidal
settings,
malaria.
range
conferred
insecticide-treated
In
way
mosquito
within
will
Long-lasting
main
recommended
to
preferred
public
coverage
achieve
access
for
strategies
all.
are
form
health
for
this
In
all
is
of
programmes.
people
by
parallel,
required
to
at
risk
providing
effective
ensure
that
2
all
people
the
net
Indoor
residual
way
realized
sprayed.
the
risk
when
In
travellers,
at
suppresses
for
least
the
80
an
LLIN
every
can
blood
per
can
be
insecticides,
malaria
cent
multiple
entire
medicines
the
under
with
reduce
settings,
malaria
sleep
(IRS)
rapidly
some
Antimalarial
malaria
s y s T E M s
A n d
night,
T H E
and
s P r E A d
o F
d i s E A s E
that
maintained.
spraying
to
population
malarial
of
properly
powerful
is
at
is
F o o d
of
also
be
of
in
Its
targeted
rounds
are
DDT,
full
areas
needed
is
a
potential
to
are
protect
season.
used
prevented
stage
houses
spray
malaria
including
transmission.
to
prevent
through
malaria
malaria.
For
chemoprophylaxis,
infections,
thereby
which
preventing
disease.
Insecticide resistance
Vector
class
control
of
recent
years,
countries.
for
to
been
of
to
ensure
a
has
timely
and
to
the
Plan
(GPIRM)”,
for
of
for
four
pyrethroids,
ITNs
has
efcacy
for
in
IRS
or
this
of
is
of
only
In
in
many
insecticides
resistance
LLINs,
most
the
LLINs.
emerged
classes
Fortunately,
insecticides
WHO
all
protection
which
settings.
has
used
only
continue
Rotational
recommended
as
one
resistance.
coordinated
the
“Global
Vectors
of
insecticide
resistance,
develop
of
use
pyrethroids
decreased
level
the
to
detected.
with
classes
manage
to
resistance
been
substantial
on
recommended
resistance
areas,
insecticide
Malaria
dependent
currently
associated
a
different
approach
To
some
health
provide
use
highly
mosquito
In
public
rarely
is
insecticides
global
worked
Insecticide
which
was
response
with
a
to
wide
Resistance
released
in
the
threat
range
of
of
stakeholders
Management
May
in
2012.
Diagnosis and treatment
Early
diagnosis
deaths.
It
available
based
also
and
treatment
contributes
treatment,
combination
to
of
particularly
therapy
malaria
reducing
for
P
.
reduces
malaria
disease
and
transmission.
falciparum
malaria,
is
prevents
The
best
artemisinin-
(ACT).
Antimalarial drug resistance
Resistance
of
P
.
to
antimalarial
falciparum
to
medicines
previous
and
sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine
and
1980s,
child
The
undermining
is
a
generations
(SP),
malaria
recurring
of
became
control
problem.
medicines,
such
widespread
efforts
and
Resistance
as
chloroquine
in
the
reversing
1970s
gains
in
survival.
WHO
recommends
resistance,
important
and
the
supports
area
of
routine
countries
monitoring
to
strengthen
of
antimalarial
their
efforts
in
drug
this
work.
Sur veillance
Surveillance
data
to
zero
of
the
deliberate
measures
of
entails
received.
are
maximize
no
Once
disease
is
incidence
eradication
longer
transmission,
the
the
eradication
worldwide
efforts.
malaria
tracking
Malaria
reduction
needed.
In
national
of
and
dened
of
as
malaria
has
been
countries
malaria
malaria
taking
cases
the
infection
achieved,
with
control
and
action
based
permanent
high
as
a
on
the
reduction
result
of
intervention
or
moderate
programmes
aim
rates
to
deaths.
299
2
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Vaccines against malaria
!
Common mistake
There
✗
Some
students
are
human
that
malaria
is
parasite.
there
water
is
licensed
vaccines
against
malaria
or
any
other
will
Clinical
be
a
trials
vaccine
are
by
currently
2020.
In
being
October
held,
2015,
and
two
it
is
expected
WHO
disease.
advisory
✓ Although
no
a
that
waterborne
currently
believe
(a
stagnant
important
groups
malaria
recommended
vaccine)
in
a
pilot
limited
implementations
number
of
African
of
RTS,
S/AS01
countries.
for
The WHO strategy
the
laying
of
mosquito
The
eggs,
the
disease
is
by
vector-borne
WHO
Global
the
World
Health
Strategy
Assembly
in
for
May
Malaria
2015
–
2016–30
provides
a
–
adopted
technical
disease,
framework
transmitted
Technical
a
for
all
malaria-endemic
countries.
It
is
intended
to
guide
and
by
support
regional
and
country
programmes
as
they
work
towards
malaria
mosquitoes.
control
global
and
elimination.
targets,
The
strategy
sets
ambitious
but
achievable
including:
Activity 15
1.
●
reducing
malaria
incidence
●
reducing
malaria
mortality
●
eliminating
●
preventing
by
at
least
90
per
cent
by
2030
Describe the distribution
rates
by
at
least
90
per
cent
countries
by
2030
by
2030
ofmalaria, as shown in
Figure F.35.
2.
Suggest reasons to explain
malaria
a
in
at
resurgence
least
of
35
malaria
in
all
countries
that
are
malaria-free.
this distribution.
3.
Describe the life cycle of
Cholera
the plasmodium parasite,
Cholera
is
an
infection
of
the
small
intestine
caused
by
the
bacterium
as shown in Figure F.36.
Vibrio
worse
also
For
1.
cholerae.
There
symptoms
be
than
transmitted
cholera
There
must
be
Fe F
.37: The transmission of
2.
Cholera
must
several
others.
by
to
occur,
signicant
by
be
It
strains
is
a
the
present
must
breaches
in
the
the
bacterium,
disease,
some
causing
although
it
can
food.
there
bacterium
of
waterborne
contaminated
outbreaks
contamination

are
of
be
two
water
Vibrio
conditions:
sanitation
leading
to
cholerae
population.
Vibrio cholerae
This
or
Vibrio
in
infection
causes
about
stream
5
per
Open-air
Water
or
There
abstracted
are
asymptomatic
domestic
of
infected
However,
dehydration
which
can
kill
persons
and
within
28,000–142,000
acute
hours.
deaths
from
for
cholera
sewers
cent
severe
diarrhoea,
leaking
mostly
gastroenteritis.
cholerae
develop
defecation
is
mild
every
year.
Even
those
who
are
use
symptom-free
in
their
faeces
transmitted
if
can
carry
and
the
the
bacteria
disease
sanitation
is
easily
arrangements
are
inadequate.
Contaminated
Vibrio
Risk factors
cholerae
water
in
used
for
Transmission
faeces
washing
easy
in
areas
inadequate
curse
of
are
small
300
cholerae
of
of
poor
housing
displaced
It
is
intestine
is
relatively
populations
camps.
particularly
and
particularly
Children
the
Cholera
symptoms
Vibrio
sanitation.
overcrowded
Infection
of
hands
vulnerable.
living
under
the
in
ve
2
F o o d
s y s T E M s
A n d
T H E
s P r E A d
o F
d i s E A s E
Clinical treatment
●
Prompt
administration
treat
80
per
●
Very
dehydrated
●
Antibiotics
prolonged
problem
●
Oral
cent
are
in
cases
useful
treating
oral
need
while
can
all
vaccine
prevention
of
rehydration
therapy
is
sufcient
to
patients.
treatment
cholera
adopt
of
V
.
cholerae
lead
to
can
control
uids.
is
still
antibiotic
infectious
(OCV)
and
intravenous
being
excreted,
resistance
–
a
but
serious
illness.
be
effective,
measures
as
but
it
is
important
to
well.
Domestic prevention and control measures
1.
2.
Drink
4.
5.
use
safe
a.
Drink
b.
Always
boil
c.
Always
put
Wash
a.
3.
and
safe
your
Wash
water,
or
but
treated
hands
you
ii.
before
feeding
iii.
after
using
iv.
after
taking
Do
b.
Use
c.
Wash
d.
If
e.
Dispose
Handle
b.
Be
Clean
or
hands
do
the
in
a
with
cleaning
teeth
and
for
making
ice.
water.
clean
and
covered
container.
(or
ash
or
sand):
children
latrine
of
soap
seafood
your
care
or
toilet
someone
any
body
chemical
soap
have
faeces
ill
with
diarrhoea.
a
in
of
toilets
and
to
dispose
water
latrine,
plastic
water.
(or
defecate
bags
at
ash
at
of
or
faeces.
sand)
least
collection
30
after
m
points
defecating.
away
or
from
bury
a
body
of
water.
in
the
ground.
all
the
way
hygienically.
food
sure
in
with
not
of
food
Cook
water
prepare
defecate
latrines
a.
for
faeces.
a.
you
it
untreated
often
before
not
use
hands.
your
of
also
disinfect
i.
Dispose
a.
water.
to
well,
cook
eat
it
hot
seafood,
and
peel
especially
fruit
and
vegetables.
shellsh,
until
very
hot
through.
up.
Clean
up
thoroughly
the
places
where
the
family
eat
and
work.
The role of the World Health Organization
The
●
WHO
Global
support
and
Task
Force
implement
on
cholera
global
control
strategies
to
works
to:
prevent
and
control
cholera
●
provide
capacity
a
forum
to
for
prevent
cooperation
and
control
and
to
strengthen
a
country’s
cholera
301
2
OPTION

F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
●
support
●
increase
H E A LT H
research
the
visibility
of
cholera
as
an
important
global
health
problem.
600,000
Fe F
.38: Cholera cases
repor ted to the WHO by year and
Oceania
Americas
Asia
Africa
continent, 1989–2014
500,000
sesac
400,000
fo
rebmuN
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
4
1
0
2
3
1
0
2
2
1
0
2
1
1
0
2
0
1
0
2
9
0
0
2
8
0
0
2
7
0
0
2
6
0
0
2
5
0
0
2
4
0
0
2
3
0
0
2
90(40),
2
0
0
2
1
0
0
2
2015,
0
0
0
2
Record,
9
9
9
1
8
9
9
1
Epidemiological
7
9
9
1
5
9
9
1
4
9
9
1
Weekly
3
9
9
1
2
9
9
1

1
9
9
1
0
9
9
1
9
8
9
1
Source:
517– 44
Fe F
.39:
Areas of cholera
outbreaks,
2010–13
Source: World
Health Organization
Areas
reporting
outbreaks,
Areas
2014
reporting
outbreaks,
0 1,550
6,200
2010–2013
3,100
km
L TA
Research skills
To
extend
your
understanding
of
Activity 16
cholera,
carry
out
an
into
underlying
investigation
Study Figure F.38.
the
sanitation.
Use
“Preventing
better
by
your
diarrhoea
water,
hygiene”
as
problem
source
WHO
1.
through
sanitation
the
of
Describe the trends in the number of cholera cases occurring in the
four regions of the world.
and
2.
Suggest reasons for the trends described above.
3.
Referring to Figure F.39, describe the global pattern of cholera
(http://apps.
who.int/iris/bitstream/10665
outbreaks.
/150112/1/9789241564823_eng.
302
pdf).
Summarize
keep
it
concise.
sections
1–6,
but
4.
Identify the physical and human factors which inuence this
pattern.
2
F o o d
s y s T E M s
A n d
T H E
s P r E A d
o F
d i s E A s E
Concepts in contex t
Farming
stores
which
time.
with
production
and
outputs.
vary
from
Inputs
to
place
such
farming
place
as
types.
place,
can
be
viewed
Farming
to
place
water,
and
energy
Agricultural
although
not
as
systems
all
a
type
have
a
develop
and
of
system
number
with
fertilizers
practices
farmers
may
can
with
of
inputs,
processes,
technology
vary
be
spread
afford
over
considerably
the
from
cost
of
new
innovations.
Similarly,
and
via
such
diseases
disease
rather
may
than
may
barriers
organisms,
other
a
diseases
human
as
spread
be
by
be
may
spread
limit
between
their
mosquitoes
through
possible
treating
by
the
that
poor
Some
spread
water
eliminating
disease
places,
spread.
diseases
malaria,
quality.
the
although
physical
spread
whereas
Thus,
eradicating
vector/unclean
water
itself.
Check your understanding
1.
Dene
2.
Explain
3.
4.
the
term
how
“water
farming
intensive
subsistence
Compare
the
energy
greenhouse
lettuces
Explain
process
the
footprint”.
inputs
and
and
an
efciency
of
outputs
intensive
ratio
diffusion
of
with
differ
between
commercial
agro-forestry
respect
to
an
system.
with
that
of
agricultural
innovations.
5.
Describe
6.
Explain
7.
Describe
8.
Suggest
9.
Give
how
how
the
main
in
(b)
may
as
be
impacts
which
example
contagious,
changes
diseases
ways
one
diet
of
it
is
each
infectious,
of
standards
of
living
increase.
spread.
malaria.
possible
the
(c)
of
to
manage
following
malaria.
disease
degenerative,
and
types:
(d)
(a)
non-
communicative.
10.
Explain
the
different
approaches
to
the
control
and
prevention
of
cholera.
303
3
Stakeholders in food and health
Conceptual understanding
Key question
What
power
do
different
stakeholders
have
to
inuence
diets
and
health?
Key content
●
The
roles
of
international
Programme,
Nations,
NGOs
●
The
and
Food
the
of
Gender
roles
Factors
the
related
affecting
power
of
as
Organization),
insecurity
and
(agribusinesses
to
the
the
(such
the
Organization
World
of
the
Food
United
governments
and
disease.
and
the
media)
in
shaping
habits.
production/acquisition
●
Agriculture
Health
food
TNCs
consumption
organizations
and
World
combating
inuence
food
●
in
the
food
and
and
severity
media
health,
disparities
and
of
famine,
access
to
including
in
food
health.
including
governance,
international
aid.

Tale F
.8: SDG2: “End hunger, achieve
food security and improved nutrition, and
The roles of organizations and governments in
promote sustainable agriculture”
combating food insecurity and disease
2.1 By 2030 end hunger and ensure access
Global
food
security
is
made
difcult
because:
by all people, in par ticular the poor and
●
a
●
the
●
climate
signicant
share
of
the
world’s
population
is
malnourished
people in vulnerable situations including
infants, to safe, nutritious and sucient
global
population
continues
to
grow
food all year round.
change
and
other
environmental
changes
threaten
future
2.2 By 2030 end all forms of malnutrition,
food
production
including achieving by 2025 the
●
the
food
system
itself
is
a
major
contributor
to
climate
change
and
internationally agreed targets on stunting
other
environmental
harms.
and wasting in children under ve years
of age, and address the nutritional needs
of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating
The
UN
(Table
has
set
out
its
goals
for
sustainable
agriculture
for
2030
F
.8).
women, and older persons.
The
main
aims
of
the
United
Nations
Food
and
Agriculture
2.3 By 2030 double the agricultural
Organization
(FAO)
are
the
eradication
of
hunger,
food
insecurity
productivity and the incomes of smalland
malnutrition;
the
elimination
of
poverty
and
the
driving
scale food producers, par ticularly women,
forward
of
economic
and
social
progress
for
all;
and
the
sustainable
indigenous peoples, family farmers,
management
and
utilization
of
natural
resources,
including
land,
pastoralists and shers, including through
water,
air,
climate
and
genetic
resources
for
the
benet
of
present
secure and equal access to land, and
and
future
generations.
In
addition,
it
aims
to
increase
the
resilience
revolutionize the same and its activities,
of
people
to
threats
and
crises.
productive resources and inputs,
For
example,
the
FAO
set
up
a
project
in
rural
Honduras
to
promote
knowledge, nancial services, markets, and
entrepreneurship
among
rural
youth.
Over
2,000
young
people
were
oppor tunities for value addition and non-
trained
farm employment.
304
in
farming
skills,
marketing
and
developing
business
skills.
3
The
result
was
more
than
1,500
successful
s T A k E H o L d E r s
microenterprises.
i n
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
In
2.4 By 2030 ensure sustainable food
Khulna,
Bangladesh,
the
FAO
operated
a
project
to
improve
food
to
minimize
production systems and implement
safety
among
urban
street
vendors.
The
aim
was
food
resilient agricultural practices that
contamination
during
preparation.
Street
foods
are
cheap
and
an
increase productivity and production,
essential
source
of
food
and
nutrition
to
people
on
a
low
income,
that help maintain ecosystems, that
and
also
to
schoolchildren.
As
a
result
of
the
success
of
this
scheme,
strengthen capacity for adaptation
the
project
was
extended
to
the
city
of
Dhaka.
to climate change, extreme weather,
The
World
WFP
Food
focuses
people.
Its
on
Programme
food
planhas
1.
Save
lives
2.
Support
and
(WFP)
assistance
four
for
aims
the
to
end
poorest
global
and
hunger.
most
The
vulnerable
and that progressively improve land and
soil quality.
objectives:
protect
drought , ooding and other disasters,
livelihoods
in
2.5 By 2020 maintain genetic diversity
emergencies.
of seeds, cultivated plants, farmed and
food
security
and
nutrition
and
(re)build
livelihoods
in
domesticated animals and their related
fragile
settings
and
following
emergencies.
wild species, including through soundly
3.
Reduce
meet
risk
their
and
own
enable
food
people,
and
communities
nutrition
and
countries
managed and diversied seed and
to
plant banks at national, regional and
needs.
international levels, and ensure access to
4.
Reduce
undernutrition
and
break
the
intergenerational
cycle
of
and fair and equitable sharing of benets
hunger.
arising from the utilization of genetic
Food
security
analysis
provides
information
to:
resources and associated traditional
knowledge as internationally agreed.
●
identify
the
effective
most
food-insecure
people
to
ensure
the
most
2.a Increase investment, including
targeting
through enhanced international
●
identify
the
most
appropriate
type
and
scale
of
intervention,
cooperation, in rural infrastructure,
whether
food
distributions,
school
feeding
or
more
innovative
agricultural research and extension
interventions
such
as
cash
or
voucher
programmes
services, technology development,
●
ensure
the
allocating
most
efcient
funding
use
according
of
to
humanitarian
resources
by
and plant and livestock gene banks to
needs.
enhance agricultural productive capacity
in developing countries, in par ticular in
The
WFP
undertakes
food
security
analysis
in
close
collaboration
least developed countries.
with
as
partners
the
FAO,
worldwide,
UNHCR,
including
UNICEF
,
the
governments,
WHO
and
local
UN
agencies
and
such
international
2.b Correct and prevent trade restrictions
and distor tions in world agricultural
NGOs.
markets including by the parallel
elimination of all forms of agricultural
National and multi-government organizations
expor t subsidies and all expor t measures
At
the
World
developing
agricultural
subsidies
Trade
nations
–
including
subsidies
were
undermining
developing
Organization’s
in
the
articially
small
Brazil,
US
and
driving
farmers
Doha
and
Round
China
EU.
down
and
They
2001,
India
argued
global
maintaining
in
crop
–
that
in
the mandate of the Doha Development
opposed
the
prices,
poverty
with equivalent eect, in accordance with
many
Round.
high
unfairly
2.c Adopt measures to ensure the proper
many
functioning of food commodity markets
countries.
and their derivatives, and facilitate timely
access to market information, including
Subsidized
agriculture
in
the
developed
world
is
one
of
the
on food reserves, in order to help limit
greatest
obstacles
to
economic
growth
in
the
developing
world.
In
extreme food price volatility.
2002,
industrialized
Cooperation
billion
on
and
crop
countries
in
Development
price
supports,
the
Organization
(OECD)
spent
production
a
for
total
payments
Economic
of
$300
and
See more at:
other
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?
farm
programmes.
These
subsidies
encourage
overproduction.
page=view&nr=164&type=230&menu=2
Markets
are
ooded
with
surplus
crops
that
are
sold
below
the
059#sthash.kXElTngm.dpuf
cost
of
production,
depressing
world
prices.
305
33
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
By
AND
2013
many
agricultural
Indonesia
in
and
$10billion
Global
($19
other
BRIIC
have
had
at
and
doubled
established
countries
increased
estimated
billion)
subsidies
in
in
theirs
$160
EU
just
(Brazil,
the
fastest.
billion
($67
in
years,
own
India,
China’s
2012,
billion)
three
their
Russia,
now
combined.
and
dwarf
Brazil’s
totalled
about
2016.
subsidies
pesticides,
and
China)
US
countries
The
subsidies,
the
agricultural
developing
subsidies.
agricultural
those
H E A LT H
may
which
also
can
negative
lead
result
in
producers
soil
to
overuse
degradation,
environmental
fertilizers
groundwater
or
depletion
impacts.
The European Union Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
There
in
1.
were
three
basic
principles
behind
the
formulation
of
the
CAP
1962:
It
was
to
be
a
single
agricultural
market
within
which
goods
move
freely.
2.
Products
from
3.
EU
The
outside
member
main
increase
●
ensure
●
stabilize
●
ensure
Between
existed
of
farmers
dairy
or
more
CAP
1.
led
fuel
be
bought
in
preference
to
those
CAP
.
were
productivity
of
living
to:
and
for
1968
available
these
from
introduced
1973
and
their
the
EU
poultry
export
self-sufciency
farmers
(or
and
prot
is
the
the
Concentration
products
is
becomes
Specialization
proportion
accounted
of
for
more
specialized
in
a
centre
of
of
a
the
provided
a
CAP
were
to
market
rules
was
This
the
encouraged
guaranteed
self-sufcient
Imports
single
market
production.
introduced
level
of
maintain
The
and
and
in
cereals,
subjected
make
EU
beef,
to
duties
products
inputs
specialization:
inputs
or
butter
process
related
output
to
to
and
increase
included
outputs
their
from
the
standards
fertilizers,
“mountains”
whereby
and
production
particular
areas,
concentration
of
particular
concentrated
it.
set
price.
market.
rising
to
fair
of
animal
“wine
feed,
lakes”
outputs.
the
is
by
were
conned
total
it
concentration
Beef
increased
the
as
a
implemented:
unlimited
vegetables.
margins).
machinery.
At
at
common
practically
world
sought
a
production
was
and
the
for
consumers
were
and
1968.
subsidies
on
farmers
by
to
aims
1962
prices
intensication,
become
the
agriculture
was
maximize
By
typied
306
and
Intensication
living
3.
for
food
was
as
to
markets
that
to
were
nance
standard
competitive
land
2.
fair
products,
levies,
states
guaranteed
to
market.
a
EU
EU.
agriculture
prices
system
the
agricultural
1958
in
in
the
priorities
●
and
grown
a
farm,
product.
in
and
region
France
For
and
of
or
refers
or
to
farms.
the
country
example,
the
particular
regions
UK
as
wheat
has
farmers
have
3
The
By
need
the
for
1990s,
guarantees
wine
cent,
while
and
store
The
EU
Soviet
In
also
lost
the
To
match
3.
To
support
4.
To
stop
5.
To
protect
●
the
years
EU
farm
since
in
●
climate
●
looking
was
at
In
some
proportion
Five
competitive
with
because
of
A n d
H E A LT H
export
EU
the
markets
were
agricultural
by
20
per
increasing
funding
on
thereby
objectives
price
cereals,
technological
further
prices
East,
in
cereals
yields,
subsidized
Middle
reformed.
CAP
surpluses
sectors,
improved
traditional
the
the
created
overproducing
larger
its
out
of
was
world
in
the
reducing
used
market.
former
demand .
identied:
base.
demand.
agriculture.
develop
the
the
potential
formation
of
the
of
the
CAP
,
natural
the
EU
environment.
has
also
to
address
of:
–
at
order
change
after
economy
F o o d
incomes.
drift
and
a
of
Europe’s
reform
dropped.
of
parts
was
security
double
to
storage
surpluses
production
challenges
food
The
had
some
CAP
2.
the
off
and
increase
need
improvements
sell
To
the
a
Consequently,
1.
In
milk.
and
Union
1992
was
intervention
demand
scientic
surpluses.
to
there
and
i n
reform
and
beef,
s T A k E H o L d E r s
the
to
and
the
global
feed
a
the
level,
world
food
sustainable
countryside
production
population
of
9
management
across
the
EU
will
billion
and
of
have
to
people
natural
keeping
in
2050
resources
the
rural
alive.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
A
number
of
NGOs
help
deliver
food
to
those
with
insufcient
access
to
Activity 1
7
food.
such
Many
as
of
these
Operation
income
countries
reasons
why
are
shown
in
Hunger
such
people
in
are
in
Figure
as
low-income
in
South
the
rich
food
and
Africa,
banks
countries
but
in
may
middle-income
others
the
lack
UK.
operate
There
food.
countries,
in
are
Some
of
high-
1.
the
Outline the main reasons
why people in the UK use
many
food banks.
reasons
F
.40.
2.
Suggest possible reasons
L TA
why there may be seasonal
Research and communication skills
variations in the number of
Working
in
providing
to
help
groups,
food
them
for
nd
out
people
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whether
in
more
your
food
there
local
and
are
area.
any
How
distribute
it
organizations
might
to
you
those
in
be
people using food banks.
able
need?
L TA
Research and communication skills
Read
the
Smith,
debate
who
Goodman,
in
says
who
the
Wall
farmers
believes
Street
should
that
Journal
stand
subsidies
on
between
their
are
Vincent
own,
important
and
for
H.
W
.
Robert
food
security:
TOK
http://www.wsj.com/articles/should-washington-end-agriculture-
From what you have learned so
subsidies-1436757020.
far from this chapter, suggest
Arrange
a
class
discussion
of
the
question:
“Should
the
USA
end
why the presence of food
agriculture
subsidies?”
banks in the UK is unexpected.
307
3
OPTION

F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Fe F
.40: Some of the reasons for food banks in the UK
The role of international organizations, governments and
NGOs in tackling disease
Health
right.
has
In
health
is
long
1948,
a
been
the
human
Development
for
The
Health
World
with
health
working
●
in
all
150
Providing
Shaping
L TA
●
Setting
(SDGs)
all
It
has
country
the
where
is
7,000
on
basic
of
are
(WHO)
people
The
action
agenda
standards
is
and
of
part
more
has
the
to
a
in
of
basic
clear
and
Table
of
out
the
about
WHO
the
the
UN
150
number
of
and
promote
that
Articulating
●
Providing
ethical
and
objectives:
engaging
stimulating
about/who_reform/WHO_
technical
sustainable
promoting
evidence-based
support,
institutional
the
generation,
and
monitoring
policy
options.
catalysing
change,
and
building
capacity.
Reform_map_2015.pdf.
●
308
Monitoring
the
health
situation
in
knowledge.
at
http://www.who.int/
deals
countries
reform
●
that
F
.9.
implementation.
Find
human
Sustainable
lives
than
health
a
it
needed.
valuable
and
of
and
made
healthy
the
critical
is
3
shown
from
WHO
need
Rights
Goal
“Ensure
goals
matters
joint
human
Human
need.
called
The
dissemination
and
a
basic
ofces.
research
and
norms
a
ages”.
leadership
translation
Research skills
and
Organization
issues.
partnerships
●
at
as
Declaration
right
Goals
well-being
regarded
UN
and
assessing
health
trends.
their
3
s T A k E H o L d E r s
i n
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H

Tale F
.9: SDG3: “Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages”
3.1
By 2030, reduce the global maternal mor tality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live bir ths
3.2
By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to
reduce neonatal mor tality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live bir ths and under-5 mor tality to at least as low
as 25 per 1,000 live bir ths
3.3
By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat
hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases
3.4
By 2030, reduce by one-third premature mor tality from non-communicable diseases through prevention and
treatment and promote mental health and well-being
3.5
Strengthen the prevention and treatment of substance abuse, including narcotic drug abuse and harmful use
of alcohol
3.6
By 2020, halve the number of global deaths and injuries from road trac accidents
3.7
By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family
planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and
programmes
3.8
Achieve universal health coverage, including nancial risk protection, access to quality essential health-care
services and access to safe, eective, quality and aordable essential medicines and vaccines for all
3.9
By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water
and soil pollution and contamination
3.a
Strengthen the implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in
all countries, as appropriate
3.b
Suppor t the research and development of vaccines and medicines for the communicable and non-
communicable diseases that primarily aect developing countries, provide access to aordable essential
medicines and vaccines, in accordance with the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health,
which arms the right of developing countries to use to the full the provisions in the Agreement on Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Proper ty Rights regarding exibilities to protect public health, and, in par ticular,
provide access to medicines for all
3.c
Substantially increase health nancing and the recruitment, development, training and retention of the health
workforce in developing countries, especially in least developed countries and small island developing states
3.d
Strengthen the capacity of all countries, in par ticular developing countries, for early warning, risk reduction
and management of national and global health risks
There
are
AIDS,
Tuberculosis
extra
LICs
since
other
Overseas
have
HICs
in
2.
3.
The
to
University,
Global
of
to
that
year
in
and
allocate
sector.
order
for
0.1
per
at
Total
to
be
of
gap
the
15
and
Earth
Global
cent
should
health
these
their
for
the
many
diseases
(GA
VI)
a
Colombia
all
by
assistance
health
the
become
at
Fund,
Institute,
health
health
be
of
on
coverage.
primary
of
Fight
Immunizations
through
would
per
basic
to
the
to
Based
control
allow
GNI
of
Fund
2002.
the
the
channelled
spending
ensure
of
could
which
least
in
immunization
cent
nancing
Global
by
in
Vaccines
for
factors
malaria,
should
per
the
provided
Director
10
should
LICs
health
Sachs,
money
AIDS,
the
Aid
the
launched
improvements
TB
ght
was
Alliance
donate
close
example,
nancing
following
should
order
Half
huge
Jeffrey
the
For
Malaria
Development
international
According
1.
and
achieved
2002.
provides
initiatives.
$60
LICs
system.
Fund
Health
domestic
least
for
care
Global
Global
2025:
to
Fund.
revenue
per
to
person
services.
309
3
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
4.
The
world
5.
The
G8
should
should
antiretroviral
6.
The
the
7.
world
world
The
the
Global
neglected
onchocerciasis,
9.
The
Global
10.
The
world
should
treatment)
care,
of
mental
the
malaria
universal
access
control.
to
million
the
Global
Fund
establish
enable
primary
including
sexual
closing
health
for
care
and
partly
seven
and
trachoma.
training
workers
care
and
controllable
trichuriasis,
(mass
including
disease
Fund
(UNFPA).
mass
health
and
obstetrical
Health
lariasis
diseases,
cardiovascular
to
nance
the
community
introduce
TB,
ascariasis,
lymphatic
non-communicable
health,
access
hookworm,
should
Stop
emergency
Population
should
Fund
for
including
through
Nations
to
year.
funding
services,
Fund
one
to
Plan
per
schistosomiasis,
of
comprehensive
Global
billion
diseases:
Health
deployment
for
commitment
partly
United
Health
plan
the
$4
full
health
tropical
the
of
contraception,
through
8.
gap
a
(ARVs).
full
should
reproductive
and
full
drugs
should
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The
adopt
and
for
Africa.
prevention
oral
metabolic
health,
and
eye
disorders.
National governments
There
care
are
in
nature
and
of
number
a
access
Health
of
a
HICs
is
care
health
care
L TA
curative.
Choose
any
two
where
of
has
operations
out
why
and
MSF
what
organization
Have
a
annual
is
the
look
2015):
is
at
to
in
of
development
health
and
to
in
the
care
the
delivery
relate
unequal
of
directly
health
to
the
distribution
of
HICs
clearly
curative
of
many
Primary
this
is
health
aims
of
PHC
are
and
has
based
care
the
market
medicine
system
LICs
reects
and
the
been
on
nature
forces.
use
of
In
of
is
low-cost
run.
preventative
health
care,
in
terms
health
high-technology
privately
low-technology,
(PHC)
society,
general,
By
contrast,
preventative
rather
which
than
promotes
the
an
acronym
for:
nd
●
growth
●
oral
●
breast
●
immunizations
●
food
●
female
●
food
monitoring
there,
rehydration
the
doing
an
review.
link
review
is
many
on
differences
Patterns
MSF
and
work
important
resources.
Much
The
GOBIFFF
,
countries
of
LICs.
developments
based
measures.
its
in
techniques.
Research skills
in
country’s
to
political
care
and
there.
MSF
feeding
Here
the
supplementation
2014
(published
education
in
http://www.msf.
fortication.
org/sites/msf.org/les/
In
theory,
demand
for
health
care
should
increase
with
more
pregnant
msf_international_activity_
women,
elderly
and
very
young
in
a
population,
namely
the
vulnerable.
report_2014_en.pdf.
It
For
a
years
video
of
of
MSF
,
the
visit
early
should
those
also
who
vary
need
it
with
most,
the
but
types
often
of
disease
this
is
found
not
and
be
available
to
so.
http://
Hart’s
inverse
case
law
(1971)
states
that
those
who
can
afford
it
www.msf.org.uk/foundingare
those
who
least
need
it,
whereas
those
who
most
need
it
cannot
msf.
afford
310
health
care,
and
therefore
do
not
get
it.
Moreover,
health
care
3
is
increasingly
insurance
technological
part,
out
health
beyond
schemes
of
equipment
the
care
is
the
reach
abound,
market
often
of
the
medical
continues
to
orientation
inversely
poor
in
salaries
related
rise.
of
to
s T A k E H o L d E r s
many
countries
increase,
Such
health
those
a
bias
care.
in
and
the
has
i n
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
as
cost
arisen,
of
in
Consequently
most
need.
Case study
An NGO: Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders)
Médecins
1971
a
to
new
of
Sans
Frontières
provide
brand
of
Nobel
was
medical
humanitarianism
governments.
the
(MSF)
emergency
Peace
MSF
,
Prize
movement
owned
it
medical
which
in
and
run
by
is
and
in
aid
in
its
over
staff.
70
In
provides
health
the
worldwide
more
than
30,000,
care,
and
other
medical
recent
mostly
local,
professionals,
experts,
water
administrators.
and
Private
well
per
cent
sanitation
donors
of
the
organization’s
donations
provide
the
annual
budget
of
1979,
MSF
funding,
rest,
approximately
humanitarian
2009,
MSF
tackling
such
diseases,
exclusion.
been
assistance
employed
issues
epidemic
has
MSF’s
in
Sudan.
as
armed
health
work
eld
in
to
has
also
been
involved
Afghanistan,
Haiti,
in
Côte
Ukraine,
In
2016
it
Kenya
and,
provided
an
for
the
rst
emergency
programme
were
stranded
in
Europe.
and
in
Thousands
desperate
of
need,
while
giving
Macedonia
and
other
Balkan
countries
MSF
strict
border
controls.
The
vaccinations
$750million.
providing
4,590
surgery
about
were
Since
MSF
Yemen,
(Ebola),
Europe.
imposed
an
and
engineers,
provide
since
corporate
services
as
migrants
90
services
reproductive
Sudan.
years
Sudan,
vaccination
and
support,
counselling
of
interventions.
health-care
doctors,
as
time,
logistical
of
countries
d’Ivoire
nurses
largest
range
nutritional
people
South
through
a
2015
In
provided
organization’s
including
awarded
a
the
MSF
as
independent
was
1999,
founded
aid
medical
In
staff
camp
provided
on
the
at
Idomeni,
a
makeshift
Greece–Macedonia
migrant
border.
March
there,
conicts,
care
and
Sudan
is
social
one
of

Fe F
.41: Countries where MSF operates (shown in orange)
311
3
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H
Case study (continued)
8,250,700
outpatient
consultations
194,400
32,700
women
group
babies,
delivered
including
caesarean
sections
counselling
or
mental
health
sessions
511,800
patients
admitted
46,900
81,700
people
major
treated
surgical
for
cholera
interventions,
including
2,114,900
surgery,
cases
or
of
malaria
obstetric
under
spinal
general
anaesthesia
1,513,700
treated
people
against
vaccinated
measles
response
to
an
in
outbreak
11,200
217,900
patients
severely
malnourished
children
admitted
treated
medically
for
sexual
to
33,700
violence
inpatient
or
outpatient
people
feeding
for
21,500
229,900
HIV
patients
under
of
treated
programmes
care
patients
registered
at
the
end
75,100
people
on
against
tuberculosis
rst-line
measles
treatment
vaccinated
meningitis
response
to
an
in
outbreak
2014
7,400
people
1,800
admitted
218,400
patients
on
MDR
to
patients
on
Ebola
management
centres
rst-line
tuberculosis
in
antiretroviral
treatment
at
2014
treatment,
the
three
end
of
line
of
which
8,100
as
having
2,200
on
second-line
185,700
people
treatment
individual
recovered
from
at
2014
mental
Ebola
discharged
end
(rst-line
of
treatment
failure)

Fe F
.42: MSF’s activities, 2014
312
were
Ebola
antiretroviral
the
African
4,700
drugs
conrmed
patients
West
secondcountries,
the
main
health
consultations
from
and
management
centres
3
s T A k E H o L d E r s
i n
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
The impact of TNCs on food consumption
Case study
Throughout
have
been
human
intrinsic
history,
to
traditional
social,
cultural
food
and
systems
economic
and
dietary
patterns
life,
and
to
policies
and
practices
personal,
Changing dietary patterns
community
and
national
identity.
However,
the
of
in Brazil, an NIC
transnational
companies
(TNCs)
are
steadily
displacing
traditional
food
Traditionally,
systems
around
the
world.
The
term
“big
food”
refers
to
the
food
TNCs
that
increasingly
control
the
production
and
distribution
varied
dietary
food
and
drink
throughout
the
world.
The
products
high
in
“rened”
starches,
sugars,
fats
and
oils,
the
inuence
are
of
generally
native
Amerindian
preservatives
populations,
and
other
additives.
They
are
generally
packaged
as
“fast
foods”
Portuguese,
or
and
“convenience
African
slaves
processed
foods,
such
as
bread,
have
been
part
of
the
diet
in
since
before
industrialization.
Others,
such
as
burgers,
cassava
biscuits,
energy
bars
and
energy
drinks,
have
become
the
1970s.
Since
the
1980s,
the
transnational
manufacture
added
long
shelf-life
snacks
designed
to
replace
meals
–
“big
has
increased
market
share
in
HICs
and,
increasingly,
The
sh
main
market
interest
developed
for
diets
convenience
rising
for
immense.
family
The
life,
HICs.
its
has
and
impact
to
be
such
this
drinks”
as
China
rural
greater
can
to
to
have
and
market
on
money.
TNCs
satisfy
looked
areas
India,
for
have
the
to
where
is
as
Their
now
demand
LICs
urban
share
nutrition,
and
of
meat
depended
availability,
price
and
LICs.
make
and
increasingly
leaving
achieve
that
to
have
is
plateaued,
“healthy
countries
are
shareholders
largely
TNCs
people
TNCs
remains
and
HICs
in
many
food
TNC
water”
in
foods,
and
potential
a
in
“designer
healthier
are
of
penetration
amount
consumed
income.
The
spices
snacks”
on
–
oils,
of
and
packaged,
beans
common,
popular
herbs.
since
were
chips,
with
sweets,
Rice,
many
and
countries
and
foods”.
descendants.
Some
had
pattern,
of
showing
ultra-processed
Brazil
and
a
drink
to
sell
incomes
ones.
The
as
traditionally
meals
TV
Internet
as
and
well
as
for
would
home-
together
–
but
advertising,
changes
(increasing
of
on
eat
cooked
in
lifestyle
urbanization,
example)
increase
therefore
well
Families
in
have
the
led
to
an
consumption
convenience
foods.
seen.
It
would
suggest
be
simplistic
that
Brazilian
the
diet
to
traditional
was
good
Global value chains
whereas
Global
value
chain
(GVC)
analysis
focuses
on
the
role
of
“lead
rms”
and
industries
(in
McDonald’s),
research
has
countries
its
are
this
and
case
how
foundation
located
in
global
they
in
the
agri-food
interact
world-system
core,
companies
with
periphery
like
local-level
theory,
and
Kraft,
which
posits
bad.
economy,
with
their
position
reecting
their
potential
to
used
to
high
salt
theory
focuses
on
nation
states,
its
fundamental
high
rates
intake
that
power
GVC
and
trade
analysis
relations
embodies
are
this
based
core
on
position
principle
but
in
of
stroke.
hypertension
The
diet
powerful
role
of
TNCs,
which
operate
uidly
across
sugar
stage
scale,
in
and
of
these
developed
agri-business
retailers.
global
the
production
connections
countries.
local
segments
levels
are
Within
companies,
These
and
food
food
of
driven
the
connects
by
global
the
–
the
chain
are
countries
chain
to
of
are
fast-food
linked
focus
of
calories
F
.10
gives
some
details
on
lead
the
a
at
three
and
food
TNCs
that
to
marketing
the
have
where
Brazil.
and
they
a
changing
In
NICs
the
rise,
can
huge
still
TNCs
and
for
has
are
products
there
increase
the
and
demand
foods
their
in
as
has
the
a
availability
global
food
are
Brazil.
potential
best
major
TNCs
in
convenience
global
other
diet
LICs,
rms
franchises
each
global
F
.43).
about
in
to
been
Table
high
cheapest
borders.
practices
value
manufacturers,
the
(Figure
system
also
global
the
drink
Each
traditional
is
principle
Nevertheless,
the
a
to
develop.
the
shifts
but
related
the
source
economy.
sh,
is
that
of
in
being
one
commonly
preserve
Brazilian
World-system
was
GVC
and
global
Salt
PepsiCo
companies.
semi-periphery
modern
in
is
global
the
of
snack
foods
impact.
inBrazil.
313
3
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
H E A LT H

Tale F
.10: Selected global food TNCs
Cmpa
glal ale
Emplee
Ma a
n. f cte
Yum!
$13 billion
505,000
KFC, Taco Bell, Pizza Hut
Worldwide
McDonald’s
$25.4 billion
420,000
McDonald’s restaurants
119
PepsiCo
$63 billion
263,000
Pepsi, Frito-Lay, Tropicana
Worldwide
Interaction
Developed
Of
Global
and
Local
Food
Value
For
Chains
Global
Global
each
of
these
international
Countries
TNC
food
Global
over
retailers
40
per
companies,
sales
cent
are
of
close
their
to
total
or
sales.
fast-food
(supermarkets,
agro-
manufacturers
Each
franchises
company
adapts
its
products
discount)
business
(kraft,
nestlé)
(mcdonald’s,
KFC)
foods,
or
wal-mart)
its
For
marketing
example,
introduced
Global
value
wider
chain
and
Local
Local
food
production
2000
of
preferences.
McDonald’s
low-fat
sh
regional
and
desserts,
chicken
dishes
(that
a
dishes,
is,
retailers
system
(supermarkets,
stores,
convenience
street
glocalization
TNC
franchises
(fast-food
Local
–
the
adaptation
of
a
global
vendors)
product
Local
local
salads,
range
more
in
to
Food
chains)
to
a
local
discontinued
the
market).
In
super-size
2004
it
option.
consumption
food
In
2006,
it
began
to
put
nutritional
patterns
farmers
producers
Local
franchises
(healthy
(fast-food
&
and
on
their
packaging
traditional)
unhealthy
Developing
information
diets)
with
Countries
icons
for
fat,
carbohydrates
protein,
and
calories,
salt.

Fe F
.43: The interaction of
global and local food value chains
PepsiCo
has
two
core
brands
–
Pepsi
Cola
Source: http://www.cggc.duke.edu/pdfs/
in
the
soft-drinks
brand
and
Frito-Lay
in
the
packaged
fast-food
industry.
GlobalHealth/Gere_Christian_TradeTNC_
PepsiCo
also
adopted
glocalization.
In
order
to
penetrate
emerging
FoodConsumption_23Feb2009.pdf
markets,
PepsiCo
sells
chips
(potato
sells
crab-
or
appeals
to
2004,
the
promote
a
will
often
and
introduced
local
less
taste
sweet
these
TV
in
2007,
around
popular
13
per
public
biscuits,
a
cent
Ps”
relations.
it
Kraft
using
Mexico
with
Spot”
while
local
in
Mexico
Frito-Lay
in
China
suppliers,
while
and
Frito-Lay
also
PepsiCo
impacting
Yazhou
in
China
regional-sounding
marketing
products”
and
marketing:
For
was
example,
not
a
local
are
names.
campaign,
exercise
an
instant
on
Oreos
events.
Oreo
the
success.
–
In
which
campaigns
When
to
It
most
into
preferred
Kraft
also
an
wheel
extensive
to
covers,
distributed
popular
smaller,
introduced
students
Oreo
also
product,
Foods
research
was
paid
with
the
Kraft
After
There
passers-by.
became
packaging,
Chinese
Kraft
decorated
to
when
cream.
campaign
bicycles
of
price,
success.
that
fruit-avoured
were
market
of
realized
grassroots
Beijing,
of
By
in
“Smart
“healthy
China,
thousands
sporting
tastes:
avours,
PepsiCo
“ve
with
they
and
local
sentiments
Sabritas
by
its
of
the
in
chips.
to
lifestyle.
preferences,
distributing
at
use
Oreos
campaign
cycle
sold
labelling
chilli
nationalist
launched
healthier
promotion
products
with
systems.
brands
PepsiCo
included
TNCs
crisps)
consumers’
popular
its
duck-avoured
food-production
both
adapts
them
biscuit,
with
share.
Gender, food security and nutrition
In
developing
guaranteeing
men
314
grow
countries,
food
mainly
rural
security
eld
in
crops,
women
their
and
men
household
women
are
play
and
usually
different
roles
communities.
responsible
for
in
While
growing
3
and
preparing
provides
which
most
protein.
ensures
marketable
workforce
unpaid
a
of
South
workers
food
and
women
diverse
products.
in
the
Rural
diet,
East
Asia
in
carry
minimizes
Women
involved
rearing
also
represent
and
small
out
livestock,
most
food
losses
and
can
about
half
the
sub-Saharan
subsistence
s T A k E H o L d E r s
Africa,
i n
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
which
processing,
provide
food-producing
but
often
as
farming.
Inequality and discrimination against women
According
world’s
and
to
estimates,
chronically
employment
women
hungry.
and
girls
Women
opportunities
and
face
make
up
60
per
discrimination
within
cent
both
households,
of
in
where
the
education
their

Pht F
.9: Women working in a
bargaining
power
is
lower
than
men’s.
Women
also
face
discrimination
ooded eld
in
access
to
land,
training,
technologies,
nance
and
other
services.
Source: The Guardian
Achieving
gender
malnutrition.
preparation
their
a
child’s
the
is
on
food
of
and
described
dietary
women
within
their
survival
household
security,
is
because
childcare
chances
controls
food
This
and
income
equality
the
increase
tend
by
to
instrumental
be
and
responsible
are
needs.
20
Women
and
being
family
children’s
budget.
diversity
as
per
thus
children’s
more
Research
cent
play
a
when
in
for
ending
food
likely
has
the
decisive
to
spend
shown
that
mother
role
in
future
health.
Gender and food production in the developing world
The
positive
impact
of
closing
the
gender
gap
in
agricultural
production
Activity 18
cannot
be
overstated:
Identify the positive and
1.
Studies
suggest
that
if
women
had
the
same
access
to
productive
negative factors aecting
resources
as
men,
they
would
increase
yields
by
20
to
30
per
cent,
women’s role in food production
raising
overall
agricultural
production
in
developing
countries
by
from the seven points listed
2.5to
4
per
cent.
here.
2.
Women’s
of
access
nutrition.
who
have
education
to
education
Studies
spent
are
from
ve
40
a
Africa
years
per
is
determining
show
that
factor
children
in
of
levels
mothers
in
cent
Energy
more
likely
to
live
beyond
the
diverted
age
of
to
5.
walking
and
Poor
3.
Good
nutrition
and
health
No
depend
of
the
on
the
food
safety
can
lead
to
Time
a
major
cause
No
spent
and
Training
and
sanitation
immediate
in
death
women
household
dietary
children.
hygiene
brings
an
health.
in
results
and
Inadequate
young
from
knowledge
wasting
to
nance
improvement
Malnutrition
children
in
in
access
of
caring
illness
to
markets
consumed.
Contamination
diarrhoea,
access
carrying
education
lack
and
stunted
nutrition
Food
insecurity
Low
family
status
of
leads
to
growth.

Fe F
.44: Factors aecting food insecurity
315
3
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
4.
AND
Access
most
to
for
woman’s
tending
and
to
the
Access
land
time
is
mean
them
per
the
cent
of
women
This
of
is
means
their
and
nancial
water,
and
their
grain
women
time
size
fetching
children
wood,
that
less
most
of
for
world.
very
that
holding
limited
they
is
in
have
only
little
large
farming.
spent
needs
77
ownership
and
subsistence
involving
to
land
developing
their
the
family
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317
3
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term,
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long-term
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place
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peopleandpower/2014/01/
Food
assistance
interventions
must
be
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to
empower
poor
people
ethiopia-landto
build
productive
assets
such
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water-harvesting
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sale-20141289498158575.
irrigation
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html.
crops
for
export
only.
Case study
Famine in Ethiopia
March
with
Ethiopia
has
been
plagued
by
famines
since
the
to
Sept.
century.
In
recent
times,
famine
struck
the
made
in
1973
and
around
and
between
northern
what
in
a
is
(40,000
55,000
1983
Ethiopia
regarded
century.
died
and
and
as
starved
in
the
1985,
Estimates
Ogaden
the
north-east
to
region)
impact
areas
were
country’s
of
the
when
Eritrea
the
in
affected
worst
number
in
famine
of
mitigate
of
harvests,
of
deaths
compared
Normal
as
a
Wetter
provision
35%
country
rainfall
average
government
Drier
16th
2015
1981–2014
5
+5
+25%
the
poor
0
ERITREA
SUDAN
such
establishing
social
net
so
security
Aydora
that
Addis
ranged
from
400,000
to
one
million
poorer
people.
SOMALIA
Ababa
farmers
Dire
Millions
1983–5
and
of
others
famine
received
Band
Aid
were
was
much
and
Live
made
widely
publicity.
Aid
destitute.
reported
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also
can
The
in
the
led
to
media
for
access
public
such
the
as
water
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MILES
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T
H
I
O
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P
I
A
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.47: Famine early warning
The
In
2015,
the
seasonal
rains
that
usually
Ethiopian
fall
system: drought conditions in
government
between
June
and
September
in
north-eastern,
Ethiopia, March–September 2015
pledged
central
and
southern
Ethiopia
did
not
million
According
to
the
UN,
this
was
$192
arrive.
Ethiopia’s
for
diverting
drought
in
30
years.
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90
per
cent
emergency
of
money
is
harvested
in
autumn,
after
long
rainy
season,
and
the
rest
at
the
spring
after
the
end
of
the
short
rainy
days,
early-warning
systems
(Figure
and
the
in
more
government
2015
the
quickly
to
when
famine
government
the
crisis
was
than
in
evidence
that
in
2015–16
the
“international
road
community”
further
that
$163
$600
million.
million
was
Aid
agencies
needed.
was
caused
by
the
El
Niño
weather
and
resulted
in
a
90
per
cent
reduction
threatens,
able
to
in
crop
of
El
yields.
(See
pages
56–58
for
a
discussion
respond
1983–5.
Niño.)
The
famine,
though,
was
brought
There
by
factors
including
poor
governance
and
Ethiopian
state
318
a
drought
about
is
The
F
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system,
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These
other
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production
food
worst
neglect.
The
key
factors
driving
the
famine,
3
s T A k E H o L d E r s
i n
F o o d
A n d
H E A LT H
Case study (continued)
then
and
now,
international
–
that
that
is,
in
than
the
grabs”.
number
a
the
selling
of
food
A
large
on
land
in
was
the
a
the
string
coverage,
1983–5.
hum a ni ta r i an
such
meant
as
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and
so
the
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le s s
in
failure
of
in
the r e
Events
the
failure
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of
world,
than
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by
This
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Ethiopia,
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to
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are
burden
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factor
Ethiopia:
from
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of
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relief
in
off
industrial
further
refugees
and
for
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refugees
Sudan
places
much
military.
650,000
Sudan,
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“land
1983–5
towards
large
include
corporations
wa s
of
the
we re
ra i ns ,
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S outh
much
p ub li ci ty
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rains
di s as te r s
and
less
Su da n .
m e di a
com p a re d
mor e
wi t h
dr a ma t ic
al thoug h
ca us e d
the
mor e
deaths.
land
Nevertheless,
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number
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organizations
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resources.
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rst,
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drought
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itself.
severely
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in
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and
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2015–16
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wors t
the
of
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the
ye t
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to
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assist
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programme
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and
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AM).
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the
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also
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households.
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in
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national
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to
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of
food
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with
very
providers
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household/family.
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through
by
providers
health
to
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gender.
of
food
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and
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are
main
care.
are
associated
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sponsorship
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and
LIC)
members
food
consumption
of
versus
variations
important
Famines
of
(HIC
notable
a
complex
range
of
physical
and
affecting
food
human
marketing.
factors.
There
are
also
production
of
important
food
by
variations
scale
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in
ranging
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from
type
Check your understanding
1.
Outline
the
2.
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subsidies
3.
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4.
State
main
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in
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6.
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7.
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“agribusiness”.
advantages
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of
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term
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the
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national
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factors
how
issue
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ways
in
inuenced
food
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insecurity
consumption.
might
be
linked
gender.
main
in
the
causes
which
of
the
responses
Ethiopia’s
media
to
food
famines.
has
crises?
farmer.
10.
5.
the
the
TNCs
have
inuenced
To
what
the
extent
event
of
a
is
international
aid
helpful
in
famine?
nutrition.
319
4
Future health and food security and
sustainability
Possible solutions to food insecurity
Conceptual understanding
There
are
a
insecurity.
ke qet
long-term
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medium-term
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health?
●
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Food
aid:
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disadvantages
approaches
including
organisms
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vitro
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and
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forced
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hungry
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be
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dependent
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Millions
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year.
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bans
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including
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Medium-term measures
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role
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●
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trade:
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EU’s
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students
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in
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the
the
the
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direct
farm
subsidies
protectionism
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developing
help
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trade
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allows
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over
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price
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farmers
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are
and
that
good
their
more
per
is
cent
of
clearly
hailed
as
a
backlash
American
a
clash
of
an
against
answer
maize
being
to
plant-derived
global
used
to
warming.
make
interests.
are
investment:
up
to
fourfold
experts
with
believe
the
right
yields
help
–
in
Africa
only
4
can
per
be
cent
of
trade
agriculture
is
irrigated,
compared
with
40
per
cent
in
Asia.
given
average
Asian
farmer
uses
110
kg
of
fertilizer
a
year
whereas
farming
for
average
families.
benets
African
uses
just
4
kg.
At
least
a
third
of
the
crops
in
the
average
to
African
season
are
lost
after
the
harvest,
It
farmers
provides
40
Agricultural
an
farmers
triggered
effect
the
conditions
has
originally
Long-term measures
The
fair
crisis
and
African
ensures
food
were
there
increased
on
markets.
countries
is
●
therefore
the
which
ethanol,
other
agriculture
subsidized
western
trade.
fuels,
✓ Free
on
free
●
trade
320
(WFP)
desperate
Common mistake
Many
a
most
conflicts
urgently
is
price
increase
✗
the
fertilizer:
been
the
farmers
!
Programme
the
intervention.
the
global
and
from
million
poor
there
market
●
700
around
rural
have
disease,
marginalization
priorities,
and
of
vertical
●
infection
Food
million
meat.
prevention
social
production.
genetically
(GMOs),
crops
●
World
80
refugees
are
scattered
the
farming
food
insecurity.
●
modied
the
about
mostly
●
more
and
only
attempts
encourage
insecurity,
●
including
prices
LICs.
cannot
get
them
to
markets
on
time.
largely
because
4
●
GM
crops:
agriculture
F u T u r E
experts
at
H E A LT H
the
UN
A n d
and
in
F o o d
s E C u r i T y
developing
A n d
countries
s u s T A i n A b i L i T y
do
Activity 20
not
expect
trouble,
GM
they
developing
crops
argue,
crops
on
is
for
their
that
rich
own
almost
to
all
countries
radically
the
in
improve
research
the
has
northern
yields.
been
The
main
devoted
to
Outline the ways in which the
Bangladesh government has
hemisphere.
attempted to improve food
●
Sustainability:
campaigners
argue
that
the
world
cannot
feed
its
security.
population
like
if
people
China,
in
the
West.
western
and
The
other
only
lifestyles
emerging
long-term
and
economies
solution,
want
they
to
argue,
eat
is
L TA
rethinking
India
expectations.
Research skills
Using
the
Internet
and/or
Case study
other
why
resources,
achieving
suggest
food
Addressing food insecurity in Bangladesh
security
Food
insecurity
in
Bangladesh
is
affected
by
international
scarcity,
the
natural
hazards
issue
national,
at
made
need
and
climate
progress
rice
using
production
change.
and
in
Food
irrigation
and
by
difcult.
an
Bangladesh
security
prove
food,
remains
levels.
food
water
nutritional
security
individual
improving
of
has
increasing
high-yielding
varieties.
L TA
of
increase
household
signicant
production
to
Bangladesh
trade,
may
land
in
Thinking and
communication skills
Increased
other
emphasis
foods.
The
on
rice
has
government
necessitated
has
also
increased
invested
in
imports
storage
of
facilities
Think
for
rice,
and
cold-storage
facilities
for
meat,
sh,
eggs
and
about
which
Transport
infrastructure
has
also
been
upgraded
to
enable
faster
you
distribution
Bangladesh
is
now
meat
and
Food
insecurity
nearly
of
50
whom
rural
sh.
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is
least
declined
to
who
including
be
in
are
said
extremely
are
rice,
in
eggs,
to
food
vulnerable
to
potatoes,
wheat,
considerably
still
in
reduce
food
Discuss
imports.
self-sufcient
people
said
dwellers
food,
self-sufcient
has
million
are
of
can
and
waste.
better
ways
potatoes.
since
be
sugar
the
food
and
1970s,
insecure,
insecure.
the
vegetables,
Many
annual
of
although
for
your
cutting
could
class.
food
include
the
following:
million
these
monsoon
within
Ideas
waste
pulses.
26
ideas
●
planning
●
eating
your
meals
are
oods.
less-than-perfect
looking
fruit
and
vegetables
Food waste
●
In
HICs,
consumerism,
excess
wealth
and
mass
marketing
lead
eating
local,
in-season
to
food
wastage.
each
the
In
LICs,
market/shops.
storage
food
is
Approximately
year.
and
crops
not
of
meet
food
may
ensure
and
retail
and
and
marketing
thrown
wasted
practices
that
a
customer
standards
for
their
the
UK
reaches
●
transport,
of
the
farm
poultry
the
entire
because
physical
they
do
of
as
tonnes
size
of
Overall,
and
food
appearance.
waste
wastage
Globally,
annually
rates
for
in
this
vegetables
retailers
generate
for
grains.
In
the
UK,
a
the
potato
crop,
46
per
is
not
and
one-third
of
half
red
that
planning
shopping
trips
million
and
buying
you
need
only
what
way.
and
recently
cent
dairy
fruit,
dairy
fruit
are
considerably
higher
published
study
has
shown
recycling
delivered
to
the
retail
packaging
that,
and
of
sh
have
and
–
characteristics,
1.6
●
than
on
meat
footprint
meat
●
such
back
red
vegetables,
produce
reject
cutting
and
Major
often
the
it
proportion
behaviour.
at
in
better
However,
expectations,
vegetables
away
before
and
larger
consumers.
consumer
fruit
is
be
farming
markets
edible
exacting
of
cent
efcient
meeting
perfectly
per
facilities
through
in
80
More
reaches
wasted
supermarkets,
one-third
to
processing
produced
often
up
composting
organic
market.
scraps.
The
details
discarded
in
revealed
on
initial
post-storage
similar
survey
that
6
inspection,
in
per
sorting,
India
5
cent
per
and
showed
is
lost
cent
22
per
that
at
is
in
the
lost
cent
least
is
in
eld,
store,
rejected
40
per
12
1
per
per
after
cent
of
cent
cent
is
is
lost
washing.
all
its
fruit
A
and
321
4
OPTION
F
THE
GE O GR A P H Y
OF
FO OD
AND
vegetables
is
H E A LT H
lost
between
refrigerated
transport,
Most
waste
that
$250
the
of
the
the
value
billion
produce
is
food
globally.
In
rodents)
local
vehicles
the
regional
are
80
per
of
cent
of
total
as
further
national
the
loss
and
result,
up
travel
country
the
example,
entire
is
180
and
and
of
tonnes
that
example,
material.
maintained
food-loss
impact.
from
on
roads.
problem
deciencies
range
depending
at
maintained
largest
rice
show
under
food
badly
the
with
the
of
of
poorly
chain,
million
lack
harvesting,
mean
(for
from
over
losses
primarily
stored
pests
spill
having
production,
about
occur
increases,
supply
the
approximately
Inefcient
quantities
simply
of
Estimates
to
infrastructure
large
infrastructure
for
to
chain.
mould
vehicles
a
tends
stage.
amounts
inappropriately
degrade
of
waste
poor
because
weather.
consumer
to
supply
foodstuffs
level
countries,
The
a
least
bruised
moves
and
Asian
stage.
amounts
or
As
at
development
generally
East
or
poor
wastage
the
handled
conditions.
the
goes
transportation
destroy
Substantial
of
consumer
and
at
that
LICs
end
and
roads
generated
frequently
unsuitable
to
is
the
farmer–producer
inadequate
As
of
grower
poor
in
In
37
South
per
cent
development
annually.
Contemporary approaches to food production
Genetically modied food
According
Medicine,
There
is
to
no
UK
protect
of
all
crops
corn
beet
in
the
tolerant.
traits.
crop
and
the
of
make
risk
species,
roughly
per
countries.
ve
corn,
seems
soya
in
the
in
help
Agriculture
a
risk
yields
has
is
to
by
and
consumption.
wildlife.
GM
protecting
since
now
per
cent
of
US
cent
of
all
is
now
tolerance
or
crops
were
cent
the
planted
of
global
the
USA,
be
monarch
in
175
–
one
USA
GM
of
Brazil,
reason
is
does
95
to
not
does
93
per
the
more
and
million
majority
Argentina,
the
weeds
of
in
to
modied
93per
In
per
cent
be
lead
of
sug