I.
Diversity
a) Challenges of social diversity
i. Conflicts
ii. Discomfort
iii. Inaccurate perceptions of performance
iv. Lack of trust
b) Benefits of social diversity
i. Informational diversity – novel experiences, information, opinions, and
perspectives. When people are brought together to solve problems in
groups, they bring different information, opinions, and perspectives
(diversity in background). People who are different from one another in
race, gender and other dimensions bring unique information and
experiences to bear on the task at hand (social diversity).
ii. Increases cognitive and social effort – (i) Being with similar others leads
us to think we all hold the same information and share the same
perspective. This perspective stops groups from effectively processing the
information and hinders creativity and innovation. (ii) Also, when we hear
dissenting opinions from a person who is different from us, it provokes
more thought than when it comes from someone who is like us. (ii) When
disagreement comes from a socially different person, we are prompted
to work harder to convince them. Diversity jolts us into cognitive action in
ways homogeneity simply does not.
iii. Divergent perspectives – Members of a homogeneous group rest
somewhat assured that they will agree with one another; that they will
understand one another's perspectives and beliefs; that they will be able
to easily come to a consensus. But when members of a group notice that
they are socially different from one another, they change their
expectations. They anticipate differences of opinion and perspective.
They assume they will need to work harder to come to a consensus;
people work harder in diverse environments both cognitively and socially.
They might not like it, but the hard work can lead to better outcomes.
iv. More accurate, more innovative outputs
c) Social comparisons – Because of being different from others, people inherently
make social comparisons
i. Upward comparisons for self-improvement
ii. Downward comparisons for self-enhancement (to feel good about
oneself)
iii. Horizontal comparisons for accurate appraisal (to see where they stand in
comparison to people of the same rank)
II.
Meetings
a) Structuring meetings
i. Prepare – Think what the purpose of the meeting is and set a detailed
agenda (important items first, time allotments), rotate ownership of
items
ii. Involve – Think who needs the information and involve the key decision
makers and stakeholders in the meeting. Also think about what setting is
engaging and appropriate (casual dinner/club/conference room)
iii. Facilitate – Ways to engage others:
 Create presence – rituals and rules
 Draw out input, quell dominators
 Actively listen, then clarify and summarize
 Encourage constructive conflicts
 Reinforce good behavior
b) Continuously improve meeting
i. Reflect – What did you observe during the meeting:
 Any distractions or side conversations?
 Positive/negative emotional energy?
 Equal participation?
 Focused discussion?
ii. Feedback – How did others react during the meeting:
 Seek structured feedback: survey on what worked well, what
needs improvement and other suggestions
 Beware of overconfidence
 More on feedback: VII
III.
Structure to influence your boss’s decision-making and action
a) Tailor your pitch –
i. What motivates your boss?
 What are the pressures they’re facing from their bosses (or their
market)?
 What are their goals?
b) Frame the issue –
i. How can your alternate idea (different decision, different action,
different process) be seen as relevant and helpful?
 How does your alternate approach reflect the goals, pressures,
and style of your boss?
 Can you illustrate how it solves something they care about?
c) Manage emotions –
i. Are you feeling stressed about making this suggestion?
 Select a time when you’re calmer and suggest it in a safe space
(private typically better)

d)
e)
f)
g)
IV.
Either be neutral in tone or try to match boss’s preferred style.
Don’t sound like you’re complaining or pointing fingers at
someone
 Don’t offend your audience either
Get the timing right –
i. Identify whether it is a good time for your suggestion to be heard
 Earlier is typically better, before large (and even irreversible)
commitments are made
 Shifts in project stages also typically create openness to influence
Involve others –
i. Are there other people who see the issue similarly and can help?
 Who might be influential (due to unique expertise, unique
relationship with the boss etc)
 Do you have a good relationship with the influential person? If
not, do you know anyone who does?
Adhere to norms –
i. What evidence would your boss find convincing for trying a different
approach or seeing a current approach as not viable
 Quantitative projections and forecasts? Qualitative data from
customers, employees, and other stakeholders
 Is there a preferred format – a memo, an analysis, a (formal or
informal) presentation
Suggest solutions –
i. If you’re suggesting a specific course of action, be ready to own and
implement it
 You may have just volunteered!
Steps to developing solutions to a problem
a) Write down all the issues in play and put them in baskets (eg: leadership
issues, team issues, organizational issues)
b) Prioritize – Prioritize the baskets of issues and the individual issues within each
basket based on what defines success for you
c) Develop a theory of action – Think of why these problems exist and how they’re
interconnected. Identify the underlying causes (is it because of a person or a
situation or person-situation interaction)
d) Action planning – Move beyond your intuition and understand it. Do all the
analysis:
i. Situation analysis
ii. Organization analysis
iii. Individual analysis
iv. Ensure alignment
v. Risks + contingencies
e) Build a plan – Evaluate whether the action you’re suggesting is consistent with
your analysis and whether it is realistic?
V.
Common reactions to setbacks: When one has setbacks, he/she generally will react in
one of the two common ways: (i) Become defensive and blame others or, (ii) Excessively
blame and judge oneself.
Self-compassion checklist: Be kind and understanding to yourself, acknowledge failure
as an experience shared by everyone and keep negative feelings in perspective.
VI.
Dealing with setbacks
a) Have a change mindset – Approach a challenge compassionately (with radical
candor), meaning reframe unexpected/unpleasant changes such as
demotions/expulsions as fresh starts and be willing to change your style. Be a
scientist, meaning come up with a hypothesis, evaluate and redevise a
hypothesis if you must.
Care personally
Ruinous
empathy
Radical
candor
Challenge directly
Manipulative
insincerity
Obnoxious
aggression
b) Use motivational interviewing –
i. Open-ended questions – How did you reach this conclusion, what
assumptions did you use?
ii. Reflective listening – Can I share some information/techniques based on
my experiences? Here are the things that helped me, maybe they’ll help
you!
c) Affirming the person’s desire and ability to change – What’s your first step
going to be? How can you execute it effectively?
VII.
Giving actionable feedback
a) Framework to provide feedback in a form that is actionable –
i. Are you ready to give feedback? Can you be radically candid?
 Have you taken the time to fully understand and know the other
person personally?
o Do you understand their interests, priorities, style
preferences, and values?
o If not, can you discuss and/or learn this before giving
feedback?
 Do you have the right information to challenge directly (i.e., give
potentially difficult to hear feedback?)
o Have you checked to make sure that your conclusions
aren’t based on a flawed inference (your stylistic
preferences that may be unclear, cultural, or other
differences in interaction and working style)?
ii. Once you have the relational and informational foundation, formulate
actionable feedback
 Make sure you have sufficient detail and examples to support
your conclusion
o Provide examples supporting how you arrived at your
conclusion regarding their performance – More specific
and concrete is better
 Detail the conditions under which the behavior occurs
o Is it always? If so, provide examples to illustrate this
o Is it in particular situations? Provide examples of task,
situation or person that seems to trigger the behavior.
 Make clear how the behavior produces specific, undesirable
consequences
 State the behaviors you’d like to see replace the problematic ones
o Provide an example of a prior situation with the new
behavior
o State ways in which you’d like to help foster improvement
iii. Before you deliver feedback, check yourself
 Take the recipient’s perspective – “How would you feel if you
received that feedback delivered in that way?” “Why would it
provoke that reaction?”
o Alternatively, try the feedback with a friend or significant
other to see an “outsider” reaction
 Ask yourself if you could be more specific or provide clearer
examples
 Check how your personal emotions (about the person or the
situation) may affect your evaluation
o Gather more data and outsider perspectives if you feel
your emotions are running high
 Check to make sure that the feedback is substantive and not just a
stylistic preference potentially tied to a misunderstanding rooted
in cultural (or other) differences.
iv. When receiving feedback, model what good feedback looks like to set
the right norms
 Help shape feedback to be actionable
o Could you give me an example of the behavior that
concerns you?
o Can you help me understand how you came to that
conclusion?
o Can you help me understand the situation in which you’ve
seen the behavior and its impact?
o Can you clarify what you would like me to do differently?
VIII.
Theories of motivation
a) Self-determination theory – This theory looks at people’s intrinsic motivation,
i.e., people’s inherent, positive tendency to move towards growth and outlines 3
core needs that facilitate that growth:
i. Competence – To feel like we’ve done a good job
ii. Autonomy – To feel like we have control over what we do
iii. Relatedness – To have meaningful relationships and interactions with
other people
b) Job Characteristics theory – The following are core job characteristics that
motivate people by putting them in a favorable psychological state and the
favorable personal and work outcomes that come out of it:
i. Skill variety - Skill variety occurs when the individual engages in a wide
range of activities that require different skills.
ii. Task identity - Task identity occurs when the employees complete a
whole segment of work from start to end.
iii. Task significance - Task significance occurs when the job has real
meaning through making an impact on people.
Having skill variety, task identity and task significance makes people
experienced and shows them that their work has meaning. This
translates into high work motivation, performance, satisfaction and low
absenteeism and turnover
iv. Autonomy - Autonomy occurs when employees have freedom and
discretion in deciding how to carry out their work.
Having autonomy makes employees experienced and gives them a
feeling that they have responsibilities. This also translates into high work
motivation, performance, satisfaction and low absenteeism and turnover
v. Feedback - Feedback is when employees are given clear feedback on
their performance effectiveness.
Feedback gives employees knowledge of their work results. This again
translates into high work motivation, performance, satisfaction and low
absenteeism and turnover
c) Equity Theory - If an employee feels they’re receiving fair payment for their
efforts, they are more likely to stay motivated and find satisfaction in their
position. This concept is called the equity theory, which can be used to help keep
the team motivated.
i. Perceived fairness relies upon the ration of inputs (investments) to
outputs (outcomes) – Eg: Education – Pay and benefits, Experience –
Recognition, Effort – Promotions
ii. Equity occurs when a person perceives equality between their own ratio
of inputs and outputs with that of the comparison other
iii. When people sense inequity, they restore it by:
 Altering their inputs (eg: working less hard)
 Altering their outcomes (eg: seeking a raise)
 Leaving the situation (eg: quit)
 Cognitively distorting inputs or outcomes (eg: my poor salary
doesn’t matter because I love the work)
 Cognitively distorting inputs or outcomes of the comparison other
(eg: x works harder)
d) Expectancy theory – M = (E -> P) x (P -> R) x V; where M =motivation; E -> P
means efforts lead to performance (expectancy); P -> R means performance
leads to rewards (instrumentality); and V = Valence or value placed on the
reward
i. Example of expectancy theory:
Motivation to study for test = Probability that studying hard will lead to
performing better in the test x Probability that performing well in the test
will lead to an overall SP in the course x Value of getting an SP.
Framework to motivationally engage a team member who is disengaged:
(i)
How are they feeling about their work?
a. Incompetent or ineffective? (competence)
b. Like they lack control? Unable to exercise discretion and expertise
(autonomy)?
c. Disconnected from the team and the organization (relatedness)?
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
If you’re a team leader, can you alter task/job characteristics to help? If
you’re a teammate can you help them see how they might perform their
role in a more motivating way?
a. If it’s an issue of competence:
 Can the work build in more skill development through skill
variety?
 Could more (or better) feedback be provided to grow
competence and sense of mastery?
b. If it’s autonomy, are there ways to expand the decision making in
terms of how they approach and carry out the work?
c. If it’s an issue of disconnection (lack of relatedness):
 Can you illustrate how their work is organizationally
important (task significance)?
 Can they experience greater meaning by setting to see a
piece of work/project from start to finish (task identity)?
Are they feeling unfairly treated?
a. Are they taking actions indicative of trying to restore equity (eg
working less hard)?
b. What is the source of inequity perceptions (is it about their inputs?
Relative outcomes?)?
 Can you clarify inputs that are valued?
 Can you clarify how outcomes are allocated?
c. Who are they comparing themselves to?
 Is there another, better comparison group/person?
Are they disengaged because they aren’t seeing results from their work?
a. They don’t see a clear “line of sight” from their effort to performing
their job well. Are there impediments to them doing so?
b. They don’t feel their performance is getting rewarded.
 Is there assessment, correct? If not, give feedback to clarify
 If there a way to reward or recognize their performance?
c. Do they value the rewards they receive?
 Do you understand what they value and what their personal
goals are?
 Alter rewards accordingly
IX.
5 dimensions of GlobeSmart: Cultural differences
a) Independent vs Interdependent – Some prefer making independent personal
choices while others believe in group harmony and cooperation.
b) Egalitarianism vs Status – Some people treat everyone the same while others
believe in hierarchy
c) Risk vs Certainty - Some follow the principle of acting now and learning later
while others think thoroughly before they act
d) Direct vs Indirect – Some are very blunt to others while others avoid
confrontations
e) Task vs Relationship – Some people are task oriented while other believe in
forming deeper relationships before starting on a task together
X.
Decision-making
a) Types of biases affecting each stage of the decision-making cycle
i. Problem framing bias – A bias where one defines the problem using their
own background/goals or solutions at hand. Affects stage 1 of the
decision-making cycle – “Define the problem”
ii. Normalization of deviance – It’s a gradual process of repeating the action
without catastrophe to minimize problems such that the unacceptable
becomes acceptable. Affects stage 1 of the decision-making cycle –
“Define the problem”
iii. Measurement bias – It’s a bias where measurable criteria are
emphasized rather than the more important, and less measurable,
evidence. Affects stage 2 of the decision-making cycle – “Determine the
decision criteria”
iv. Availability bias – A bias that arises from the usage of readily available
information (or readily available information in memory) instead of
sourcing the more representative information. Affects stage 3 of the
decision-making cycle – “Generate alternatives”
v. Anchoring bias – It’s the tendency to rely heavily on the first available
information to make judgements and not adjusting to newly available
information. Affects stage 3 of the decision-making cycle – “Generate
alternatives”
vi. Confirmation bias – It’s the tendency to look for evidence that confirms a
hypothesis rather than looking for evidence that will prove it false.
Affects stage 4 of the decision-making cycle – “Choose the best
alternative”
vii. Escalation of commitment – Tendency to choose a course of action
because you’ve invested in it, rather than its future benefits. Affects
stage 4 of the decision-making cycle – “Choose the best alternative”.
Escalation of commitment occurs when setbacks are seen as (i)
Temporary (ii) Losses that necessitate recovery and (iii) Threatening one’s
reputation.
viii. Planning fallacy – Tendency to come up with optimistic estimates of time
required and underestimating the complexity and resources required.
Affects stage 5 of the decision-making cycle – “Implement the chosen
solution”
ix. Overconfidence – Tendency to be overconfident about one’s abilities
relative to others and overconfident about one’s accuracy. Affects stage 6
of the decision-making cycle – “Evaluate decision”
b) Framework to recognize and overcome your own decision-making biases
i. How are you approaching the decision?
 Am I thinking about it too narrowly due to problem-framing bias?
 Am I ignoring or normalizing early warning signs of bigger
problems due to normalization of deviance?
ii. Am I using the right criteria to evaluate my decision?
 Am I balancing qualitative and quantitative measures?
 Am I going beyond what’s easy to measure (i.e., measurement
bias?)
iii. Am I generating a broad set of alternatives?
 Or am I focusing on easily recalled, vivid prior experiences to
determine my approach (i.e., availability bias)
 Am I over-relying on my (initial) prior experiences (i.e., anchored
to past approaches?)
iv. Am I making the best choice?
 Am I just gathering evidence that can confirm my prior
assumptions?
 Am I making a choice due to a previous choice (i.e., escalation of
commitment?)
o Am I following a prior course of action that I personally
chose or identify with?
o Do I stick with it even when setbacks occur to protect my
reputation?
v. Do I have a realistic appraisal of what it will take to implement my
choice?
 Have I made overly optimistic and simplistic assumptions?
vi. How do I check whether I have made a good decision or not?
 Do I evaluate it? Or just assume I’m competent and accurate (i.e.,
overconfidence?)
 Do I engage in self-serving explanations for poor performance (eg:
it was a difficult market?)

c) Overcoming biases that may impair effective decision making
i. To change your decision frame:
 Generate multiple estimates
 Use checklists. Checklists reduce errors due to forgetfulness and
other memory distortions by directing our attention to what’s
most relevant.
 Stop avoiding warnings (normalization)
 Take an outside view
 Engage in pre-mortems that work back from a disaster as if it has
already occurred. Imagine you’ve failed/are wrong and ask why?
ii. To make the decision:
 Generate multiple alternatives – low, medium, high
 Use hard data on typical trends
 Use algorithms
 Use joint evaluation to keep opportunity cost salient, i.e.,
compare your options side by side (2 software engineers, one
with higher GPA but lesser coding experience and one with lower
GPA but more coding experience example)
 Use vanishing options (what would you do if these options
weren’t available to you?)
iii. To choose the best alternative:
 Consider alternative approaches and step away from prior history
 Imagine justifying your argument to audience with divergent
views
 Check for any motivated bias. Ask if any psychological (selfesteem) or social needs (drive for status) is biasing your decisionmaking
 Set trip wires (a goal in advance; specify behavior and time) - to
avoid escalation of commitment (i.e., if by this time, “x” does not
happen, quit and move to plan B)
 Seek outside advice (to overcome escalation) and diverse advice
(to overcome confirmation, problem-framing)
iv. To implement the chosen solution
 Stop overestimating capabilities and seek outside advice while
planning execution. Take the opinion of other experts into
consideration while planning.
 Come up with multiple estimates – low, medium, high and plan
for contingencies.
XI.
Psychological safety – The shared belief that the team is a safe space for inter-personal
risk taking. A place where one will not be punished or humiliated for speaking up with
ideas, questions, concerns or making mistakes. Where there is a belief that you’ll be
given the benefit of doubt.
a) Psychologically unsafe environment and resulting behaviors: (i) No one wants
to look ignorant – Don’t ask questions (ii) No one wants to look incompetent –
Don’t admit weaknesses or mistakes (iii) No one wants to look intrusive – Don’t
offer ideas (iv) No one wants to look negative – Don’t challenge the status quo
b) Behaviors when you have and when you don’t have psychological safety – (i)
See mistakes as opportunity to learn – See mistakes as a threat to career (ii)
Willing to take risks and fail – Unwilling to rock the boat (iii) Speaking your mind
in meetings – Keeping ideas to yourself (iv) Openly sharing your struggles – Only
touting your strengths (v) Trust in teammates and leaders – Fear of teammates
and leaders (vi) Sticking your neck out – Having your head chopped off
c) Advantages of having psychological safety - (i) Improves work attitudes
(commitment, engagement, satisfaction) (ii) Increases collaborative behaviors
(information sharing, learning behaviors, voice) (iii) High task performance
d) How to build psychological safety –
i. Positive leader actions:
 Inclusion – Words and deeds that invite and appreciate others’
contributions
 Role model vulnerability – Share a time when they benefitted
from constructive criticism, identify areas that they’re working to
improve on
ii. Leader-initiated practices:
 Ask me anything coffee chats
 Opening one-on-one meetings to give constructive criticism
 Team sessions where everyone shares development goals and
progress
XII.
Common information effect: This effect causes people to discuss information that they
have in common than unique information. People trust information more when they
can accept it personally. Information that is broadly shared often gets the most weight
in group adjustments.
When groups have no information in common, all unique information is discussed but
discussions are difficult. When groups have some overlapping information, only the
overlapping information is discussed, and they make decisions based on the common
information that is acceptable to all. When the whole team has full information, all
information is discussed, and all information is used to make decisions.
a) How to overcome common information effect: Inquire and not advocate
i. Advocate: Team members make individual decisions and then gettogether to make a decision. In this case, the decision-making process is
more of a contest where people try to persuade others to go with their
own decision (made solely based on the information each person has
alone), defend their positions and downplay contrary evidence. Minority
views are ignored, and the result is some team members win while
others lose
ii. Inquiry: A team with different information gets together to
collaboratively make a decision. The team members share their unique
information, present balanced arguments, accept/process contrary
information and evaluate all alternatives. Minority views are cultivated as
well. The result is a superior decision where there is collective ownership
iii. Individual’s actions to avoid common information effect:
 Engage in perspective seeking – What do they know that I don’t?
 Interrogate information instead of consuming it – What lead to
that conclusion? What are the uncertainties in the analysis?
Understand the advantages of the other person’s choice but also
ask for the disadvantages
 Reject rank and popularity as a proxy for reliability
iv. Leader’s actions to avoid common information effect:
 Reframe the task as a collaborative problem to solve to optimize a
shared goal rather than a contest
 Focus on unshared information and unique expertise. Model
asking a lot of questions, listening, and perspective taking
 Minimize status differences. The goal is to make the best decision
and not to be right. So quell the ego and make the best decision!
 Rank the alternatives, don’t choose
 Have a “last chance” meeting after the meeting where you solicit
dissent and alternative perspectives and support thoughtful
agreement and curiosity.
XIII.
Helping at work:
a) Asking for SMART help at work changes the perception of competence as:
i. It signals confidence
ii. It conveys wisdom (you are aware of what you don’t know and when to
ask for help)
iii. It signals that you’re willing to take risks
b) SMART requests:
i. Specific
ii. Meaningful – why the request is important to you (how it might link to
the goals of others like boss/ organization)
iii. Action-oriented
iv. Realistic
v. Time-bound – has a due date
c) Examples of SMART help:
i. I am currently working on….and I could use help to…
ii. One of my urgent tasks is to…and I need to…
iii. I am struggling to…and I would benefit from…
iv. One of the biggest challenges in my life is to….and I need advice on…
v. My biggest hope is to…and I need …
d) How to create “Givers” or a helping environment at your workplace?
i. Norms: Show a little vulnerability (ask for help yourself so that others feel
encouraged to ask for help when they need it, thereby normalizing asking
for help), “make others successful” by helping them, make yourself
accessible for others to seek help from you, celebrate helpers
organizationally (eg promotions) and individually (show gratitude)
ii. Formal roles: Design community leaders, who are experts that can work
across disciplines
iii. Slack: Give yourself time to offer help. Ideal helper is talented, trusted,
and accessible.
iv. Generalized reciprocity: Paying it forward (helping others because you
were helped)
v. Protect givers from burnout; weed out takers.
If the other person does not offer help, as why (might lead to non-obvious
paths to yes)
XIV.
Dimensions of network: Your network should have the following characteristics:
a) Breadth: The amount and diversity of your contacts. Your network’s breadth will
be high when you have access to new information. Breadth will be low when you
only connected with trusted/familiar people. The barrier to overcome while
trying to increase the breadth of your network is the tendency to connect to
those most similar to us.
b) Depth: Quality of your contacts. Depth is high when you can activate your
contacts easily and low when you are unable to activate them. The barrier to
overcome while trying to increase the depth of your network is time because
deep relationships take time and energy to form. In order to have depth of
network, capitalize on existing ties: (i) Reactivate dormant ties. These networks
can give you novel and thorough advice due to prior trust. Contacts are often
happy to hear from you, especially if you’re a giver. Maintenance strategies:
Send an article, TED talk, or other resources that might be of use. Send
congratulations on accomplishments, new jobs etc. Reach out to one person
whom you haven’t spoken to in years every month and find out what they’re
doing and if you can be helpful. (ii) Identify networks with belonging, example
alumni networks, community service groups, virtual learning groups with
common interests or values.
c) Structural configuration: How you ties connect to each other. Structural
configuration is dense when all your contacts know each other and sparse when
they don’t.
d) Substance: What your network does. Your networks could be challenging and
point out your blind spots and help you overcome your weaknesses and activate
rethinking. Your network could also be supportive and offer encouragement and
help with emotional needs.
XV.
Fundamental state of leadership: Under everyday circumstances, leaders can remain in
their normal state of being and do what they need to do. But some challenges require a
heightened perspective—what can be called the fundamental state of leadership. Here’s
how the two states differ:
Normal state
Comfort centered: You stick with what you
know
Externally directed: You comply with
others’ wishes to keep peace
Self-focused: You place your interests
above that of the group
Internally closed: You block out external
stimuli to stay on task and avoid risk
Fundamental state
Results centered: You venture beyond
familiar territories to pursue ambitious new
outcomes
Internally directed: You behave according
to your values
Other focused: You put the collective good
first
Externally open: You learn from the
environment and recognize when there’s a
need for change.
How to attain fundamental state of leadership:
FSL Question
What result do I
want to create?
Am I internally
directed?
Am I other
focused?
Am I externally
open?
XVI.
Elevated
Consciousness
Clarifies a desired
future
Clarifies personal
values
Clarifies purpose
higher than self
Clarifies need for
feedback
Consequences
Opens a new path
of action
Structures ethical
boundaries
Ignites trust
Ensures learning
Positive selfvariations
Acts of increased
conviction
Acts of increased
authenticity
Acts of increased
collaboration
Acts of increased
co-creation.
Team structure and process
a) Real team: A real team is a group of people with a shared goal (aim to achieve
an identifiable collective outcome), that is interdependent (depend on one
another for information, resources and expertise etc), that is bounded and has
stable membership (can clearly identify who is a member and who is not) and
where members have authority to manage their work processes.
b) Modes of interdependence:
i. Pooled interdependence: Sum of individual contributions makes the final
product
ii. Sequential interdependence: Something like an assembly line or a relay
race. Person one finishes one tasks and passes on the unfinished product
to the next person in line till the last person completes the process to
give the final product
iii. Reciprocal interdependence: It is like a relay race except that person 2
can go back to person 1 with feedback on their work.
c) When will a team work best: A team works best when:
i. There is compelling direction, a productive output as defined by the
client/manager and NOT by the team
ii. There is enabling structure, a social process that enhances members’
ability to work together in the future
iii. There is a supportive context, a personal experience that contributes to
learning and personal well-being of individual team members.
d) How to BECOME a team: There are 4 stages in becoming a team:
i. Forming: This is the first stage when the team is introduced. During this
stage, the team establishes their shared purpose, discusses the members’
skills, backgrounds and interests, disagrees constructively, monitors
members’ performance and gives constructive feedback, gives credit to
each other and appoints leadership.
ii. Storming: This is the second stage when the team has gotten
comfortable with one another and is over the initial polite phase. The
team begins to have conflicts which are managed by re-establishing team
purpose and goal.
iii. Norming: Now that the team members know each other better, there us
trust, psychological safety, collective efficacy and cohesion in the team,
thus the team can establish and enforce informal rules.
iv. Performing: The team experiences success/failure, keeps commitments
to each other and the team, and adapts real time to each other’s needs.
XVII.
Conflict
a) Types of conflicts: There are 3 types of conflicts:
i. Task conflict – Disagreement about the tasks being performed (priorities,
goals, strategies etc)
ii. Relationship conflict – Interpersonal incompatibilities (values or
personalities)
iii. Status conflict - Disagreement over rank in the group’s respect and
influence hierarchy (level of contribution, worthiness of respect etc)
b) How to handle a conflict that is getting out of control?
i. Have you diagnosed the nature of the conflict?
 Task conflict
o Is the conflict regarding the team’s goals, priorities, or the
strategies to achieve the goals and priorities?
o If so, has the conflict persisted for a long time or been
recurring?

Relationship conflict
o Is the conflict a result of incompatible personalities or
values on the team?
o If not, is it a function of disagreement regarding who is
worthy of influence and respect?
ii. Why is the conflict escalating?
 Is it a task conflict that both parties are now taking personally?
 Is it a disagreement over status that has led to interpersonal
antipathy?
 Or is it just because the team lacks conflict resolution norms, and
no one is intervening to establish them?
iii. If you’re part of the conflict, act to address the conflict:
 Does the other person know that there’s a conflict? Or do they
think of it as the normal way of working?
o If no, provide actionable feedback. More on giving
actionable feedback here: VII
 What assumptions are you making about the other person? What
assumptions are they making about you?
 What might be the interests that are underlying the behavior
expressed?
o Are your interests shared (even partially)?
o If not, is there anything you can do to address their
interests that also de-escalates the conflict?
 Think through alternatives
o Are there people you could involve that might help them
work with you? Or at least stop the dysfunctional conflict?
 Use information on alternatives, assumptions, and interests to try
to negotiate a resolution
o Address the shared interests
o Identify options for resolving unshared interest
iv. If you’re the team leader, how do you manage escalating conflict?
 Ideally, establish the following to avoid escalating conflict
o A shared, meaningful goal
o Norms for collaboration and interaction (eg: role model
effective communication/inquiry)
i. Set expectations by encouraging and sharing “user
manuals”
ii. Set a culture of respect
 Convey owed respect through everyday
interactions with all team members (eg:
active listening, careful attention, openness
to other perspectives)

Clarify earned respect: What is earned
(executive attention, opportunities, praise,
projects); When it is earned (deliverables,
objectives, and standards)
iii. Cultivate psychological safety
 A climate in which team members feel safe
to take on interpersonal risk
 Take an interpersonal risk yourself (show
vulnerability)
 Encourage others to do so and act on it
when they do (eg: when a constructive
criticism or a call for help is made, like
creating forums (one-on-one and collective)
that create conditions for taking these risks.
v. If you’re the source of conflict, what should you do?
 Explain why you’re doing what you’re doing (eg: being a
disagreeable giver that’s trying to raise performance)
 Reframe the conflict as actionable feedback. More on giving
actionable feedback here: VII
 Reset the relationship by clarifying your style more holistically
(ideally this would happen before a conflict arises). For example,
style (communication and work), values, and what people might
misunderstand (based on what prior colleagues/supervisors have
said).
XVIII.
Managing a disruptive employee
a) Give actionable feedback: VII
b) Identify yours and their assumptions
c) Diagnose interests: Interests are underlying needs and desires reflected in
positions. Why are they behaving this way? Do you share any of the interests?
d) Map your and their alternatives: Who has more leverage? How can you increase
yours?
e) Negotiate: Engage in negotiations only when you don’t have better alternatives.
Negotiate by establishing shared interests, discussing assumptions (Are they
different? Can you bring data to bear on the issue?), identifying options that
meet both parties’ interests, and highlighting and shaping their alternatives.
f) Consider the cost of incivility:
i. Damage to victims and witnesses: Reduced psychological safety, loss of
motivation, illness/absenteeism, lower performance
ii. Legal and HR costs: Settlement for victimized employee, difficult
employee (wrongful termination), costs of consultants, coaches and
therapists
iii. Costs for management: Counselling difficult employee and/or victimized
employees/customers. Reorganizing departments, getting new
employees.
XIX.
Organizational Culture: A system of shared values that define what is important and
norms that define appropriate attitudes and behaviors for organizational members
a) Levels of organizational culture: There are 3 levels of organizational culture:
i. Artifacts: These are the overt and obvious elements of the organization’s
culture. These are easy to observe but difficult to understand.
ii. Espoused values: These are the values, missions, and visions that the
company publicly declares
iii. Basic underlying assumptions: These are the unconscious, taken for
granted beliefs, perceptions, and feelings which form the ultimate source
of values and actions. When the basic underlying assumptions do not
align with the espoused values, there’s a mismatch.
b) How to create a safety culture:
i. Enabling: The leaders’ actions should direct attention to safety and the
leader should create contexts that are safe for people to speak up in and
take actions that improve safety.
ii. Enacting: Take actions that surface hidden threats to safety and mobilize
resources to reduce them.
iii. Elaborating: Develop comprehensive representations of safety and
provide feedback that improve enabling and enacting.
c) Steps in making a cultural change happen:
i. Setting the climate for change:
 Increasing urgency: Have conversations of the need for change,
show people the need for change in a way that they can see, feel
and touch the need and provide evidence for the need for change
 Create a guiding coalition: Empower and equip a team to guide
the change; model and cascade enthusiasm and teamwork.
 Get the right vision: Create a clear vision and strategy (1min rule);
create a picture of the possible future and share it; pay attention
to the speed of introducing change.
ii. Engage the organization:
 Communicate for buy-in: Communicate the need for change and
get the buy-in of the organizational members; keep
communications clear and heartfelt
 Empower action: Deal with obstacles to action; Give nay-sayers a
role that shows need to change; and leverage past successes as
advocates for change.
 Create short term wins: Build momentum by energizing
supporters, enlighten nay-sayers and critics; Focus early actions
on quick, visible wins so that people can stay motivated;
acknowledge changes made by key stakeholders
iii. Implement and sustain change:
 Don’t let up: Publicize the wins across the organization; keep up
the urgency till the vision is reality; monitor fatigue and delegate
work
 Make it stick: Tell vivid success stories and share what the new
world looks like; recognize supporters; monitor and reinforce
changed behavior and results.
XX.
Ethics:
a) Designing an ethical organization:
i. Keep in mind the values that guide your organization. These should be
reflected in your hiring, firing, promotions and operations
ii. Are ethical values salient in the decision-making process? What principles
are you acting on and are they right?
iii. Descriptive norms drive behavior: Focus on ethical beacons and not on
cautionary tales
iv. Prosocial incentives can be effective: People care about doing meaningful
work, being respected and having an impact.
v. Remember that de-emphasizing ethics has consequences: Unethical
behavior is usually self-defeating in the long term; causes reputation
degradation. Unethical behavior has hidden costs.
b) How to make more ethical decisions?
i. Do I have a clear sense of what is important to me? If not, revisit the
fundamental state of leadership:
 What is the result that I am trying to create? This helps clarify
your desired future and path of action
 Am I internally directed? This helps clarify values and ethical
concepts and enact it authentically.
 Am I other-focused? This helps clarify higher purpose and broader
effects of your actions and decisions
 Am I externally open: Am I using others to provide feedback on
whether I am making decisions congruent with my ethics and
values? If I am closed from feedback, am I embarrassed to explain
the decision?
ii. When making a decision, think through different ethical perspectives on
it:
 Utilitarianism: Which option will do the most good and least
harm?
 Moral rights: Which option respects the rights of all the
stakeholders involved?

Justice: How do we fairly distribute benefits and burdens? What
kind of rules do we need in a just and fair organization?
 Virtue: Which action leads me to being the person I want to be?
Which action leads us to being the organization we want to be?
iii. How can I approach an ethical decision?
 Recognize it as an ethical issue: Beware of “ethical fading” that
leads to engaging in or condoning behavior you would condemn if
you were aware of it. Ethical fading describes how we fail to
notice potential unethical impact of our choices.
 Get the facts
 Apply (multiple) ethical perspectives: More on ethical
perspectives here: XX.b)ii
 Make a decision
 Explain it to others
iv. How can I ensure that ethics are clear and part of decision-making in my
organization or team?
 Clarify the explicit values that guide your organization/team
 Make sure the values are present in hiring, firing, promoting and
operations. Hold each other accountable on specific, explicitly
stated values
 Make ethical values salient in the decision-making process. What
principles are you acting on and are they right? Prime the value
before the decision.